TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 WITH SPECIAL CONSIDERATION OF ANTEMORTEM 
 AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION OF FOOD- 
 PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 BY 
 
 RICHAKD EDELMANN, PH.D. 
 
 MEDICAL COUNSELLOR; ROYAL STATE VETERINARIAN OF SAXONY; PROFESSOR AT THE 
 ROYAL VETERINARY HIGH SCHOOL IN DRESDEN 
 
 AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION REVISED FOR AMERICA 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN R. MOHLER, A.M., V.M.D. 
 
 CHIEF OF PATHOLOGICAL DIVISION, UNITED STATES BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY 
 
 AND 
 
 ADOLPH EICHHORN, D.V.S. 
 
 SENIOR BACTERIOLOGIST, PATHOLOGICAL DIVISION, UNITED STATES BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY 
 
 TKHttb 152 Ullustrattons ano 5 ColoreD HMates 
 
 LEA & FEBIGEE 
 
 PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 
 1911 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1911, by 
 
 LEA & FEBIGER 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 OF the various classes of foods, meat is one of the most important, 
 and it is certainly the one most subject to conditions rendering it 
 unwholesome or even dangerous. The necessity of controlling the 
 sale of meat and insuring its purity is therefore recognized by all 
 enlightened governments. Second to none in this regard, the United 
 States possesses in the Act of 1906 a comprehensive and satisfactory 
 law, assuring a wholesome and hygienic meat supply to the people. 
 For its efficient and continuous enforcement a permanent yearly 
 appropriation of three million dollars is made, a sum sufficient to cover 
 the country with a corps of thoroughly trained inspectors, armed with 
 ample powers. 
 
 The enforcement of this law created a widespread demand for a 
 concise, comprehensive, and authoritative text-book and practical 
 guide on meat inspection. At this juncture attention was fortunately 
 called to Edelmann's work by the appearance of the second edition in 
 Germany. Its acceptance there was sufficient evidence of its funda- 
 mental thoroughness. As the subject is necessarily identical in all 
 countries, differing only as to the laws and regulations, it was felt to be 
 a duty to translate a work of such paramount importance and value 
 and to adapt it to American requirements. The distinguished author 
 cordially gave his consent. In the first American edition such changes 
 were made as were necessary to cover all the information desirable in 
 this country. Accordingly, the regulations of the Department of 
 Agriculture were inserted, and in the sections relating to the judgment 
 of carcasses special references were made to the particular regulations 
 applying to various conditions. The practical needs of the inspector 
 of meats were always borne in mind by the translators. 
 
 The demand for a second American edition has proved that this 
 work is as highly valued in this country as in Germany. It has met 
 with a most appreciative reception by the Veterinary and Medical 
 professions, and a large number of veterinary colleges in the United 
 States and Canada have recommended it to their students. The 
 
 254532 
 
iv PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 
 
 subject is one in which every veterinarian should be thoroughly qualified. 
 In this new edition the work has been carefully revised and brought to 
 date, and certain sections have been amplified. Anything obsolete 
 has been omitted, and it may be reasonably anticipated that the work 
 will continue to serve as a convenient and authoritative guide to 
 inspectors as well as an admirable text-book and work of reference for 
 students and veterinarians. 
 
 JOHN R. MOHLER, 
 
 ADOLPH EICHHORN. 
 WASHINGTON, D. C., 1911. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 17 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 19 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 MORPHOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY OF THE PRINCIPAL TISSUES AND ORGANS OF 
 
 FOOD ANIMALS 52 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT .... 86 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPART- 
 MENT OF AGRICULTURE . 109 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE . . 143 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 DECISIONS OF THE VETERINARY INSPECTORS AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONDEMNED 
 
 MEAT . 169 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 ABNORMAL CONDITIONS AND DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS . . . 192 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 264 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 POSTMORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT . 323 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 EXAMINATION AND JUDGMENT OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS, 
 
 CHICKENS, GAME, FISH, AMPHIBIA, AND CRUSTACEANS 333 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 MEAT POISONINGS 351 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE ... 359 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 ABATTOIRS AND STOCKYARDS . 369 
 
MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 REGULATION of the diet or hygiene has for its purpose the retaining 
 and strengthening of the health of the human or animal organism, by 
 increasing its internal resistance, and by preventing any noxious 
 effects. In doing this it is necessary, in the first place, to consider 
 the nourishment of the organism. Inasmuch as meat constitutes the 
 principal foodstuff for the human body, the regulation of the diet of 
 man must also extend to meat products. And since recently there has 
 been considerable attention paid to the latter from a hygienic stand- 
 point, justification is had for the use of the words "meat hygiene," 
 by which is understood that part of the regimen which concerns the 
 procurement of wholesome meat foods for man, their value to public 
 health, as well, as the dangers which threaten the consumers of diseased 
 or unsound meats. 
 
 For the prevention of these dangers there should be, in the first 
 place, an expert supervision of the meat-food products of man. Every- 
 thing which constitutes such a supervision may be comprised in the 
 term of meat inspection or meat examination. By this should be 
 understood the examination of meat and the products made of the 
 same, relative to their proper origin and desirability as food for man. 
 
 Inasmuch as these food substances are the products of animals, 
 the examination can only be complete when it extends not alone to 
 all parts of the slaughtered animals, but also to the food-producing 
 animals in life. Accordingly it is more correct to speak of the examina- 
 tion as an antemortem and postmortem inspection. 
 
 When in the sense of this inspection the term meat is mentioned 
 it should not be applied exclusively to the striated muscles of the body 
 and the tissues in connection therewith (fat, connective tissue, nerves, 
 blood, lymph glands, bones, and cartilages), but rather to all parts 
 of the animal which are suitable for human consumption. 
 
 And while the objects and duties of meat inspection are in the first 
 place the prevention of the dangers which threaten human health 
 from noxious meat products, yet at the same time a well-organized 
 meat inspection also undertakes the task of protecting the meat con- 
 sumers in an economic relation from frauds and deceptions, by causing 
 the meat which is not altogether unobjectionable regarding its origin 
 and consistence to be sold under a compulsory declaration. 
 2 
 
18 INTRODUCTION 
 
 In the execution of these main objects, meat inspection may also 
 render important services in veterinary police work by detecting animal 
 plagues, and also by extending a beneficial influence from a general 
 hygienic standpoint to animal and man, by the complete harmless 
 disposition of all products of diseases and their specific causes. In 
 relation to the latter, meat inspection should not be underestimated 
 in its value and importance to general stock raising. It not only 
 discloses to the intelligent owner of stock obscure diseases of food 
 animals, but shows to him also the means and ways by which such 
 diseases may be eradicated and prevented. 
 
 So far as the extension of jurisdiction of meat inspection is con- 
 cerned, it reaches all the food animals which are customarily found 
 in the respective countries (p. 19), and which produce the principal 
 mass of meat food. And while, in the question of inspection, only 
 those food animals are concerned the meat of which is to be utilized 
 commercially, yet it is of no less importance to the public interest 
 that those animals should be subject to inspection which are slaughtered 
 for private purposes. The reasons for this absolute generalization of 
 meat inspection for all animals coming for slaughter can only be indi- 
 cated at this time. They lay above all in the importance of meat 
 inspection to general hygiene, which cannot be ignored even though 
 private property be condemned. 
 
 Furthermore, it is not feasible to control the possibility that meat 
 of animals supposed to be slaughtered for private uses might not serve 
 exclusively for these purposes, but might be brought, in spite of assur- 
 ances, into the public traffic. There also belongs to a thorough meat 
 inspection the control of meat products (prepared meat) which are 
 prepared from food animals, as well as the inspection of all other animals 
 which are marketed and served for human food, such as game, poultry, 
 fish, crustaceans, mollusks, reptiles, and amphibians. 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 MAN takes his meat-food diet from almost all classes of animal life, 
 and, therefore, the bromatologic fauna extends from the coelenterates 
 to the vertebrates. In general, animals which live on plant food or 
 on the lower animals are furnishing the civilized nations with pala- 
 table meat, while the meat of animals which consume higher animals 
 (fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds) is less adapted for human food. The 
 principal meat foods are obtained from the class of mammals, and 
 among this class the first place is taken by herbivorous and certain 
 omnivorous animals, while those mammals which are solely carniv- 
 orous serve only rarely for human food. Next to mammals, birds, 
 and then fish supply most of the meat for man. Other foods which 
 are derived from the other classes of animal life play only the part 
 of delicacies, or are consumed only occasionally. 
 
 FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 Although the animals which are slaughtered, and all those which 
 are killed through the abstraction of blood may be designated as food 
 animals, yet only the slaughterable domesticated mammals are popu- 
 larly regarded as such, while domestic poultry which serve as human 
 food are in general not considered in the narrow sense under the con- 
 ception of food animals. 
 
 The domesticated mammals which are slaughtered are divided into 
 large stock, hogs, and small stock, while in Austria the latter two 
 classes are classified as "stock foT sticking." Depending upon the 
 nutritive condition, they may be distinguished as lean stock and fat 
 stock. Besides these designations there is also the pasture stock, which 
 is composed of lean as well as of fattened animals. 
 
 To "large stock" belong cattle and horses, also the ass and mule. 
 Buffaloes are only occasionally slaughtered in Germany, when im- 
 ported from foreign countries, but they play a more important part 
 as food animals in southern and southeast Europe, as do reindeer 
 in northern countries. 
 
 Cattle are slaughtered as male animals (bulls, bullocks) ; as castrated 
 males (oxen, steers); and as female animals (cows, heifers). 
 
 The designation steer has not the same meaning everywhere. While in 
 some places it is understood that steers are young male animals, in other parts 
 that designation applies to castrated, not full-grown, male cattle, and in Saxony 
 
20' ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 the word steer represents only a conception of the state slaughter tax applied 
 to certain animals. For this tax those cattle are designated as steers which 
 have not yet shed the outside middle and the corner teeth. 
 
 In the imperial regulations for ante- and postmortem inspection the follow- 
 ing designations are made: 
 
 " Steers, " cattle of the male sex which are castrated and have reached two 
 years of age. 
 
 " Bulls, " cattle of the male sex which have reached the age of two years. 
 
 "Cows, " cattle of the female sex which have already calved. 
 
 "Young stock," cattle after reaching the age of three months, when they 
 are: (a) Females and have not yet calved; (6) males, or castrated males, 
 which have not yet exceeded the age of two years. 
 
 "Calves," cattle up to the age of three months, either males, females, or 
 castrated animals. 
 
 In horses the different sexes are known as stallions (male), mares 
 (female), geldings (castrated male horses); young horses are called 
 foals, or fillies. 
 
 Hogs, which furnish a large proportion of the meat and which are 
 of the greatest importance from the standpoint of general mainte- 
 nance, are principally slaughtered as castrated males (barrows; also 
 stags when they are castrated after being used for breeding purposes) 
 and female animals. Besides these, boars (wild boars) and cryptorchids, 
 as well as sucking and breeding sows, and occasionally very young pigs 
 as roasters and suckling pigs, are also slaughtered. 
 
 The term "small stock" embraces calves, sheep, and goats. Certain 
 types of calves are distinguished by marked development of the muscles, 
 especially on the chest and legs. Sheep and goats when young are 
 called lambs and kids respectively; the male animals are designated 
 as bucks and rams; when castrated they are known as wethers. In 
 the language of the butcher, however, the meat of all sheep, without 
 consideration of the sex, is called mutton or lamb. 
 
 Of the other domesticated animals the following may also be slaught- 
 ered and consumed: In Germany dogs are principally slaughtered 
 in large- cities or in localities densely populated with the laboring 
 class, and, as a rule, secretly only and for home use. The govern- 
 ment meat-inspection laws subject dogs to compulsory inspection. 
 They have been slaughtered and used for food in noteworthy number, 
 especially in Saxony. Cats are also occasionally slaughtered, and 
 have been known to be substituted for rabbits. 
 
 Rabbits are slaughtered in Germany mostly for household use, 
 but in France and England they constitute a considerable commercial 
 product. According to Bentel, the daily consumption of rabbits in 
 Paris amounts to 10,000, and in London to 75,000. According to 
 Schlieger, rabbits to the value of 80,000,000 to 90,000,000 francs are 
 annually raised in France, and Paris alone annually consumes rabbits 
 valued at 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 francs. In France, England, Belgium, 
 and in some parts of Holland rabbits are not a general food of the 
 people, but rabbit meat may be found daily on the tables of the rich. 
 According to Schlieger's calculation, a breeding farm in France which 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 21 
 
 produces 600 rabbits monthly, weighing 3 kg. each, affords an annual 
 clear profit of $1250. 
 
 In relation to rapid meat production the rabbit stands first among 
 meat-producing animals. A female rabbit may be pregnant eight 
 or ten times annually, giving birth to a litter averaging six young, 
 each of which may within four months reach a weight of 2.5 kg. Such 
 a female may accordingly produce 150 kg. of meat inside of a year. 
 
 Traffic in Food Animals. The need of food animals is preferably 
 supplied through home stock raising, while importation from foreign 
 countries (p. 28) is at present slight, owing to the prohibition or con- 
 siderable restriction of sanitary police regulations. 
 
 Food animals which supply the demand of the butchers in the rural 
 districts and the small cities usually originate locally in the neighbor- 
 hood, at least if there is sufficient stock raising in the vicinity to satisfy 
 the demand. In larger cities and industrial centres the demand for 
 food animals cannot be supplied from the surrounding country, and 
 shipment from stock-raising districts becomes a necessity. These 
 shipments seldom occur directly, but, as a rule, are made from stock- 
 yards, which are the collecting centres for the marketing of food animals 
 (see Chapter XII). These are at present an important and conspicuous 
 factor in the supply of large cities and extensive territories. 
 
 Trading in food animals is principally carried out from a business 
 standpoint, which even applies to the constant small tradings. The 
 purchase of a food animal is either conducted according to live weight 
 or by dressed weight or off-hand (so much for each animal). 
 
 Each deal is made through the judgment of the quality of the indi- 
 vidual food animal. For this purpose, besides the general inspection, 
 the buyer preferably palpates or grasps certain parts of the body which 
 are especially considered on account of the fat deposits at these points. 
 
 As a rule, it is applied in cattle to the shoulder, withers, outside surface of 
 the false ribs, hind border and inner surface of the last rib, haunch, rump, 
 flank, base of the tail, scrotal region in steers, and the front of the udder in 
 cows. 
 
 In sheep the buyer examines the subcutaneous development of fat, especially 
 on the back, the lumbar region, and the base of the tail; he also estimates the 
 weight by lifting the animal from the ground, and by the age. 
 
 Calves are judged by their general condition, age, development of meat 
 on the back and leg, also by lifting the animal off the ground. 
 
 In hogs the chest wall, the back, especially the withers, and the abdomen 
 are preferably examined. 
 
 Besides the nutritive condition, the following examinations are 
 generally made: General conformation of the food animal, size, age, 
 condition of health, intestinal contents, skin, hair, etc. From these 
 conditions the buyer estimates the value of the animal for slaughter, 
 and above all as to its live weight. On the correct estimate of the 
 latter in connection with pertinent judging of other peculiarities of the 
 animal depends entirely the principle of buying off-hand (by the head). 
 
 Buying by live weight is based on an estimate of the value of the 
 
22 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 animal by weight during life and by the advantages and disadvantages 
 which the carcass possesses for its utilization as food. Occasionally 
 a discount is allowed in such trades representing part of the waste 
 from the intestinal content. This is most frequently the case in the 
 marketing of hogs, when a discount of 20 to 22 per cent, is sometimes 
 agreed upon. Naturally the price per kilo of the live weight is arranged 
 accordingly. 
 
 Rieck established that the losses in weight resulting from transportation 
 of 212 cattle from the time they left the place of feeding until they reached 
 the stockyards amounted to 7.97 to 8.95 per cent, of their live weight. 
 
 In buying by dressed weight, which is practically confined to stock- 
 yards, a certain price is agreed upon at the time of the deal to be paid 
 in accordance with the weight of the cooled, dressed carcass. By 
 dressed weight is generally understood, with the exception of certain 
 regional variations: 
 
 (a) For cattle, the weight of a bled and skinned carcass after removal of 
 the head at the atlantooccipital joint, feet at the carpus, the external and 
 internal sexual organs, and other viscera, with the exception of the kidneys; 
 in other words, the weight of the four quarters. 
 
 (6) For calves and sheep, the same conditions as for cattle. 
 
 (c) For hogs, the weight of the bled and eviscerated carcass. Only the kidneys 
 with the leaf fat remain in the animal. The head, however, is weighed with 
 the carcass, but the tongue, which remains on the pluck (haslets, consisting 
 of the larynx, trachea, heart, lungs, and liver), is not included. 
 
 In all species of animals there exists a certain proportion between 
 live and dressed weight, which principally depends on the nutritive 
 condition of the animals. Well-fattened animals naturally produce 
 a higher dressed weight than those which are in poor condition. The 
 proportion of dressed to live weight is given in the following table, 
 expressed in percentage: 
 
 Dressed weight represented in percentage of live weight. 
 
 Quality. 
 
 Steers. 
 
 Bulls. 
 
 Cows. 
 
 Calves. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Hogs. 
 
 Full flesh, fattened, highest dressed 
 value ....... 
 Young, fleshy, but not fattened, 
 older cattle fattened . . . 
 Third class 
 Fourth class 
 
 58 to 61 
 
 53 to 55 
 48 to 52 
 42 to 46 
 
 58 to 62 
 
 50 to 56 
 46 to 50 
 
 55 to 60 
 
 50 to 54 
 48 to 52 
 42 to 46 
 
 62 to 68 
 
 58 to 62 
 50 to 56 
 40 to 45 
 
 48 to 53 
 
 45 to 48 
 38 to 44 
 
 80 to 85 
 
 78 to 82 
 70 to 78 
 76 to 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In specially good animals even a higher dressed weight can be obtained, 
 as, for instance, good, well-developed young bulls may dress over 70 per cent., 
 and the best fattened hogs may even dress out 90 per cent, of their live weight. 
 
 Hengst, at the Leipzig stockyards and abattoirs, established the average 
 weights in a large number of food animals as follows : 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 23 
 
 Animal species. 
 
 Live weight. 
 
 Dressed weight. 
 
 Average 
 dressed 
 weight 
 in per- 
 centage 
 of the live 
 weight. 
 
 Number 
 of the 
 weighed 
 animals. 
 
 Average 
 weight 
 per head. 
 
 Number 
 of the 
 weighed 
 animals. 
 
 Average 
 weight 
 per head. 
 
 jteers . 
 iulls 
 }ows . . 
 leifers . . 
 halves . . 
 5heep 
 
 9,518 
 4,119 
 5,067 
 841 
 14,197 
 5,471 
 6,823 
 
 Kg. 
 695.81 
 647 . 93 
 560.01 
 468 . 55 
 69.58 
 53.58 
 107.30 
 
 90,115 
 20,559 
 62,689 
 8,028 
 6,653 
 25,281 
 146,205 
 
 Kg. 
 374 . 55 
 365 . 96 
 277.79 
 253 . 80 
 44.01 
 29.11 
 89.89 
 
 53.83 
 56.48 
 49.60 
 54.17 
 63.25 
 54.33 
 83.77 
 
 
 For establishing the dressed weight in stockyards, dealers and butchers 
 have, as a rule, agreed upon certain principles, which are usually carried out 
 in slaughtering the animals. 
 
 The amount of foodstuffs in the digestive tract has a marked effect 
 on the relation between* the live and dressed weight in the food animals. 
 This depends on the kind of food, the time of slaughter, and the extent 
 of driving or transportation to which the animal has been subjected 
 after the last feeding. As occasionally this gives rise to deception 
 and fraudulent actions and causes differences between buyer and 
 seller, knowledge of certain average figures of the weight of the gastro- 
 intestinal canal and its contents is of importance. 
 
 With reference to this, Wolff makes the following statement: In fasting 
 animals the weight of the gastro-intestinal canal, including its contents, 
 amounted in fat steers to 16.1 per cent.; in medium fat steers, 19.5 per cent.; 
 in medium fattened steers, 24.5 per cent.; in fat calves, 10.6 per cent.; in fat 
 hogs, 7.9 per cent.; in medium fattened hogs, 12.1 per cent. 
 
 According to Hintzen's examinations, the relative weight of this material 
 averaged in fasting cows 18.2 per cent.; in fasting calves, 9.2 per cent.; in 
 fasting hogs, 7.6 per cent. 
 
 P. Falk ascertained the average weight of the contents of the stomach and 
 intestines in 37 cattle, and found that it represented 16.35 per cent, of the live 
 weight. 
 
 Noack in his investigation on the indigestions of food animals considered 
 only the weight of the stomachs and their contents, and computed the results 
 in relation to the dressed weights. 
 
 The latter are shown in the following comparisons: 
 
 
 
 *| 
 
 
 |li 
 
 M 
 
 "11 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 q 
 
 a d 
 
 M 
 
 .B 
 
 ii i^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,3 
 
 sll 
 
 M 
 
 "3 0)-flM 
 
 Species of animals. 
 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 1 
 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 l|il 
 
 
 | 
 
 ""^ fcfl 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 iff 
 
 S Sy3 
 
 1 
 
 fill 
 
 
 fe 
 
 Q 
 
 <J 
 
 P 
 
 < 
 
 PM 
 
 Steers 
 
 10 
 
 300 to 500 
 
 400.0 
 
 49 to 140 
 
 94.5 
 
 21.1 
 
 Cows 
 
 7 
 
 225 to 375 
 
 300.0 
 
 45 to 120 
 
 82.5 
 
 27.5 
 
 Bulls 
 
 17 
 
 250 to 600 
 
 425.0 
 
 45 to 105 
 
 75.0 
 
 17.6 
 
 Total cattle .... 
 
 34 
 
 225 to 600 
 
 412.5 
 
 45 to 140 
 
 92.5 - 
 
 22.4 
 
 Calves . . 
 
 12 
 
 25. 5 to 55.5 
 
 40.5 
 
 1 . 5 to 8 . 
 
 4.75 
 
 11.7 
 
 Sheep 
 
 17 
 
 11. 5 to 37.0 
 
 24.25 
 
 3 . 5 to 9 . 5 
 
 6.5 
 
 26.8 
 
 Hogs . 
 
 15 
 
 57 to 109 
 
 83 
 
 1 . 5 to 7 . 5 
 
 4.5 
 
 5 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
24 ORIGIN^AND SOVHCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 In contrast to these figures Noack found the weight of stomachs from 11 
 steers with indigestion between 23 and 42 per cent, of the dressed weight. 
 
 With reference to the absolute and relative weights of the principal organs 
 of cattle (heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen), calculated on the live and 
 dressed weights, see Chapter II, p. 68. 
 
 Classification of Food Animals. In the larger stockyards the average 
 prices which prevail are officially published after the close of the market. 
 These prices generally refer to the live and dressed weight of the various 
 food animals, but at some places only one of the two prices is quoted. 
 The market quotations serve not only as a guide to the condition 
 of the markets, but also afford a comparison of the various markets, 
 and above all they disclose to the stock raiser, from time to time, 
 the market values of food animals. 
 
 In order to obtain the greatest benefit from market quotations, 
 representatives of the interested parties (stockyard managers, stock 
 dealers, butchers, stock raisers) established -the following uniform 
 scheme for the classification of food animals, which forms the present 
 basis of market quotations at the larger stockyards: 
 
 Steers: 
 
 1. Steers up to six years in full flesh, finished as regards fattening, and 
 
 of the highest slaughter value. 
 
 2. Young fleshy steers, but not finished in fattening; older fattened steers. 
 
 3. Moderately nourished young steers; well nourished older steers. 
 
 4. Poorly nourished steers of all ages. 
 Bulls: 
 
 1. Bulls in full flesh of the highest slaughter value. 
 
 2. Moderately nourished younger bulls. 
 
 3. Poorly nourished bulls. 
 Heifers and Cows: 
 
 1. Heifers in full flesh, finished in fattening and of the highest slaughter 
 
 value. 
 
 2. Cows up to seven years .in full flesh, finished as regards fattening, 
 
 and of the highest slaughter value. 
 
 3. Older cows finished in fattening and more poorly developed younger 
 
 cows and heifers. 
 
 4. Moderately nourished cows and heifers. 
 
 5. Poorly nourished cows and heifers. 
 Calves: 
 
 1. The finest fattened calves (fattened on milk) and the best suckling 
 
 calves. 
 
 2. Moderately fattened and good suckling calves. 
 
 3. Poor suckling calves. 
 
 4. Older poorly nourished calves (feeders). 
 Sheep: 
 
 1. Fattened lambs. 
 
 2. Young fattened wethers. 
 
 3. Old fattened wethers. 
 
 4. Moderately nourished wethers and ewes. 
 Hogs: 
 
 1. (a) Hogs in full flesh, of fine breeds, and their crossings up to one and 
 
 one-quarter years old (weight 220 to 280 pounds) ; (6) fattened hogs. 
 
 2. Fleshy hogs. 
 
 3. Poorly developed hogs. 
 
 4. Sows and boars. 
 
 5. Foreign hogs. 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 25 
 
 Transportation of Food Animals. The transportation of food animals 
 should also be given consideration in the inspection of meat, since as a 
 result of shipment the condition of the animals, as well as the con- 
 sistency of the flesh, may be more or less affected. Transportation 
 may take place by driving, carting, railroad, or by boat. 
 
 Transportation by driving affects food animals to a degree corre- 
 sponding with their being accustomed to outdoor exercise and the 
 temperature of the season. This transportation is conducted with 
 the least effect on horses, sheep, and such cattle as were raised on 
 pasture; more difficulty is met with stabled cattle, calves, and hogs. 
 At present, driving of cattle is usually only employed for short dis- 
 tances, and for longer distances only when the cattle are well accus- 
 tomed to long drives. As the driving of fattened cattle affects them 
 unfavorably, in proportion to their fleshiness, they are driven only 
 over very short distances. The voice, sticks, and dogs are employed 
 in driving the animals. While dogs can be scarcely spared in driving 
 
 FIG. 1 
 
 Bull with casting apparatus showing method of application. (After Dick.) 
 
 sheep, they frequently cause considerable excitement among animals 
 of other species. Sometimes as a means of compulsion to stubborn 
 cattle the tail of the animal is twisted, which, however, may degenerate 
 into cruelty and produce anatomical lesions in the tail (fractures, 
 bruises, etc.). 
 
 To prevent cattle from running away the so-called "draw back 
 or pulley" harness (Fig. 1) is frequently used. 
 
 All animals transported by driving will get more or less excited 
 and tire to a certain extent. Should such excited and tired animals 
 be slaughtered immediately, they will bleed out incompletely in most 
 instances, and the keeping quality of their meat will frequently be 
 decreased. Accordingly, transported animals, as a rule, are slaughtered 
 after they have been allowed a period of rest, the length of which 
 depends on the temperature of the season and the condition and fatigue 
 of the animal. Some animal and meat inspection regulations prescribe 
 a certain number of hours as a resting period before slaughter of trans- 
 
26 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 ported animals. When this is not the case, the veterinary inspector 
 should, in accordance with his findings of the antemortem inspection, 
 forbid the slaughter of the animals until they have regained a com- 
 fortable state and have entirely recovered from the effects of the 
 transportation. 
 
 In transporting by conveyance the vehicles must be suitably con- 
 structed for the respective species of animals, and must permit a careful 
 loading and unloading. Animals should be fettered only to the extent 
 of preventing them from jumping out of the wagon. Forcible and pain- 
 ful tying of the legs of calves and sheep, especially with thin, cutting 
 strings, is unwarranted. The frequent practice of crowding animals 
 into a too limited space is also to be condemned. The more the animals 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 Stock car for transportation of live animals. 
 
 are fettered the more they struggle, and for this reason the advantages 
 of transporting by wagon are limited. In summer, animals should 
 be protected against the heat of the sun. Hogs are advantageously 
 cooled by occasionally pouring cold water over them, or, still better, 
 by transporting them at night. 
 
 Today transportation by rail plays the most important part, and 
 is generally carried out in accordance with appropriate regulations. 
 For this method of transportation a special type of car is employed, 
 built especially for the transportation of live stock (Fig. 2). It is 
 of prescribed size, and is equipped with appropriate ventilation, as 
 well as with contrivances for feeding and watering. 
 
 A special type of stock car is the so-called double-deck car, or two- 
 story car, which consists of two divisions, one above the other. It 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 27 
 
 is used for the shipment of sheep and hogs. But the common closed 
 box cars are considered preferable by shippers for the transportation 
 of animals by rail. These, however, frequently do not meet the require- 
 ments demanded from a hygienic and humanitarian standpoint. 
 
 For loading and transporting of animals by rail, appropriate regulations 
 are in existence, which, however, require modifications and improvement. 
 Cattle, as a rule, are placed crosswise in a fully loaded car; that is, perpendicu- 
 larly to the long axis of the car. According to Zschokke, adult bulls and steers 
 require for this purpose 66 c.m. and cows 57 c.m. of the car length. For hogs 
 an average of 0.40 sq.m. of floor space should be required; for calves, 0.31 
 sq.m., and for sheep, 0.24 sq.m. per animal. 
 
 For the transportation of hogs and small stock it is advisable to divide the 
 cars with cross partitions into several compartments, and in mixed shipments 
 separate divisions for the different species of animals should be required. Only 
 suckling calves are allowed to be loaded together with their mothers. 
 
 The disadvantages and dangers of railroad transportation of food animals 
 depend on various conditions. It is greater for fat animals than for lean ones. 
 The closer they are loaded, the warmer the temperature, the greater the dis- 
 tance, and the less suitably the cars are arranged, the greater are the dis- 
 advantages. Hogs suffer comparatively the most, and deaths from suffocation 
 and paralysis of the heart are not infrequent. Cattle are often greatly affected 
 by the frequent switching of the cars. They may be thrown down, and are 
 then stepped upon by others, and may die as a result of the injuries, or even 
 from suffocation. 
 
 A peculiar disease, sometimes observed in cattle as a result of railroad trans- 
 portation, is designated as railroad sickness. This affection manifests itself 
 as a severe nervous disorder, which, in a well-developed state, does not appear 
 unlike parturient apoplexy. The termination of the disease is usually unfavor- 
 able, and makes early slaughter of the affected cattle advisable. 
 
 The transportation of food animals by boat comes principally into 
 consideration in importations from across the sea, and for this service 
 specially equipped steamers are employed. The loading and unload- 
 ing of the animals is sometimes accompanied with considerable diffi- 
 culties, while the transportation itself, if the weather is not stormy, 
 is not followed by any more marked disadvantages than railroad trans- 
 portation. In regard to the sheltering of the animals on boats, every- 
 thing said in relation to railroad transportation may be applied here. 
 
 The transportation of horses by boat is described by Horauf in 
 a highly instructive article in the Berl. Thierarzt. Wochensch., No. 40, 
 1906, 
 
 The period of rest before slaughter should be required for animals trans- 
 ported by wagon or boat, and it should be extended in accordance with the 
 condition of the animals. Generally the time will be considerably shorter 
 than in animals transported afoot. 
 
 It is readily understood that food animals lose more or less of their live 
 weight as a result of all kinds of transportation. It is impossible, however, 
 to establish definite figures relative to that loss, on account of the great differ- 
 ences in feeding and the conditions of transportation. 
 
 [In the United States the transportation of animals is governed by 
 a decree (Public No. 340), enacted by Congress of the United States, 
 and approved June 29, 1906.] 
 
28 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 Importation of Food Animals from Foreign Countries. The importa- 
 tion of food animals from foreign countries into the provinces of the 
 German Empire is regulated by decrees from the Imperial Chancellor, 
 as well as by the governments of the allied states. 
 
 On account of the changes in the standing of contagious diseases 
 of animals in the countries from which importations are made, the 
 regulations governing the importation are changed from time to time. 
 At present food animals may be imported : 
 
 1. From Austria-Hungary cattle and sheep which comply with the required 
 conditions may be imported to a large number of public abattoirs. The cattle 
 must be kept separate from the domestic cattle and must be slaughtered within 
 a certain time limit (four days). Besides, permission is granted to import 
 annually 80,000 hogs for immediate slaughter, 50,000 of them to the boundary 
 abattoirs of Bavaria, namely, Passau and Rossenheim, and 30,000 to the 
 abattoirs of Bodenbach, lying on the boundary of Bohemia. The meat of 
 these hogs is permitted to be sold only at certain places. The importation of 
 cattle from Austria-Hungary was fundamentally regulated in the agreement 
 on contagious diseases between the German Empire and Austria-Hungary 
 of January 25, 1905, which went into effect March 1, 1906. Accordingly, 
 the allied states have issued special regulations. 
 
 2. Hogs from Russia may be imported weekly in exactly specified numbers 
 into certain abattoirs at Benthen, Kattowitz, Myslowitz, Tarnowitz. 
 
 3. Cattle from Denmark may be brought to specified quarantine stations, 
 in which they remain ten days for the purpose of a tuberculin test. After 
 this time cattle which did not react to the tuberculin test may be shipped for 
 immediate slaughter to the abattoirs which are open for Austrio-Hungarian 
 cattle. The cattle which reacted, cannot be utilized in Germany, but must 
 be again exported. 
 
 The result of the postmortem inspection of slaughtered cattle must be sub- 
 mitted to the quarantine authorities, and animals found tuberculous must 
 be particularly specified. (Proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor of Feb- 
 ruary 21, 1898, in relation to the procedure of imported cattle by the sea route 
 from Denmark and Sweden-Norway.) 
 
 4. Cattle from Switzerland accompanied by health certificates. 
 
 5. Exceptionally cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs from Luxemburg brought 
 to several public abattoirs of Alsace-Lorraine for immediate slaughter. 
 
 The importation of prepared meat in accordance with the imperial meat 
 inspection law, when there are no restrictions in the meat inspection law and 
 in the laws on infectious diseases of animals, may be permitted from any 
 country. There are no veterinary police prohibitions against the importation 
 of all sorts of fresh meats from Russia, Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria, also 
 of fresh beef from America. The importation of cattle from North America 
 is prohibited. Sheep and hogs are subjected to a quarantine of four weeks. 
 
 [The importation of animals into the United States is governed 
 by the " Regulations for the inspection and quarantine of imported 
 animals into the United States/' contained in "Bureau of Animal 
 Industry, Order 180" and issued by the Secretary of Agriculture by 
 authority of acts of Congress of February 2, 1903, and March 4, 1911. 
 These regulations designate the countries from which animals may 
 be imported into the United States as well as the quarantine period 
 required for the detention and observation of the imported animals. 
 All cattle imported into the United States from any part of the world 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 29 
 
 except North America, Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel 
 Islands are subject to a quarantine of ninety days, counting from the 
 date of shipment, this date of shipment to.be the date of clearance 
 of the vessel bringing the animals to the United States. Sheep and 
 other ruminants and swine from any part of the world except North 
 America shall be subject to a quarantine of fifteen days, counting from 
 the date of arrival at the quarantine station. However, cattle and 
 sheep imported for immediate slaughter at the port of landing may 
 be imported without quarantine, but are subject to such restrictions 
 as the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, after causing an inspec- 
 tion to be made, may consider necessary in each case for guarding the 
 domestic animals of the United States from contagion. Further, 
 the period of quarantine for cattle imported from Great Britain, Ireland, 
 and the Channel Islands is thirty days, counting from the date of arrival 
 at the quarantine station.] 
 
 Insurance of Food Animals. As the insurance of food animals is 
 of great importance to the trade in food animals, as well as to the ante- 
 mortem and postmortem meat inspection, and as the experts on meat 
 inspection have frequently to cooperate in this matter, it seems advis- 
 able that the methods of insurance should be at least superficially 
 treated at this time. 
 
 The insurance of food animals may be carried out in many various 
 forms. These" are distinguished in accordance with their territorial 
 bounds as local, regional, provincial, and continental insurances. 
 Regarding the managements, there are private, cooperative, com- 
 munity, and state insurances. Participation in the insurance may 
 be voluntary or compulsory; in the same way it may be extended to 
 all the food animals or only to a certain species of them. The insurance 
 premium is, as a rule, a certain definite sum, and is paid for every 
 animal at the place where the animals are marketed or slaughtered; 
 and in either instance it is supposed that the animals are examined 
 by an expert and found acceptable of insurance. This is occasionally 
 manifested by a special marking of the live animals, and for this pur- 
 pose branding on the horns or claws (Fig. 3), or the use of ear tags, 
 is considered the most appropriate (Figs. 4 to 7). Such marking may 
 also be applied to small stock. For live hogs the pricking stamps, 
 with or without stains (Fig. 8), are highly satisfactory, or tattooing 
 pincers, with which markings are applied to the ears (Fig. 9). 
 
 The insurance company pays indemnity, as a rule, only when the 
 entire carcass, or a large part of it, is declared unsuitable for human 
 food, or is only conditionally passed by the veterinary inspector. The 
 indemnity is paid, chiefly to the full value of the animal, which is 
 determined either from the declared sales price, or after slaughter 
 by the establishment of the weight and the estimation of the quality 
 of the meat. Besides this many insurance companies remit the expenses 
 which result from the charges for slaughter and other fees in connec- 
 tion with the latter. Other insurance companies allow only a certain 
 proportion of the value of the animal as indemnity. Such insurance 
 
30 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 measures established by the State and supported by the State treasury, 
 are at the present maintained in the following states: 
 
 1. In the Grandduchy of Baden, the townships are authorized by the law 
 of June 26, 1890, and that of 1901, to establish insurance for the cattle stock, 
 
 FIG. 3 
 
 Large benzin apparatus for heating irons (Hauptner, Berlin). The flame passes into a box lined 
 with fire clay, which accommodates two firing irons; they are heated in a few minutes to a red heat. 
 Size of the apparatus, 53 x 22 x 18 cm.; weight, 14.5 kg. 
 
 FIG. 4 
 
 FIG. 5 
 
 Anchor ear tags, according to Schumann. The 
 tags, which are also supplied in white or colored 
 tin, can be easily marked or numbered with a 
 steel needle. The tags are also supplied with any 
 kind of marking which may be desired. 
 
 Showing application of tag. 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 31 
 
 locally or cooperatively, which numbered, at the end of 1899, 185. In case 
 of death /, and in case of emergency slaughter, A of the value is allowed. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 FIG. 7 
 
 Improved ear tags, according to Hink 
 Drawert, of the firm of Hauptner, Berlin. 
 
 FIG. 8 
 
 Nippers for inserting the tags. 
 FIG. 9 
 
 Pricking stamp with hollow 
 probe-like pins, according to 
 Siedamgrotzky. 
 
 Tattooing pincers with two letters and impression. 
 (After Hauptner, Berlin. 
 
 2. In the kingdom of Bavaria the law of May 12, 1896, established a public 
 chamber of State stock insurance which forms the central place for the volunteer 
 and township stock insurances which are united into the State union. The 
 insurance indemnifies for dead or condemned slaughtered cattle at rV to rV 
 
32 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 of their value. Such insurance included in the fall of 1901 about 1551 town- 
 ship insurance associations. 
 
 3. In the kingdom of Saxony, these regulations have been somewhat modified 
 by the law of April 24, 1906, which went into effect January 1, 1907. Simulta- 
 neously with the introduction of the general animal and meat inspection law 
 of June 1, 1900, a State food animal insurance was established in the law of 
 June 2, 1898, -with the provisions for execution of July 24, 1899. All cattle 
 and hogs over three months of age coming for slaughter, which have been a 
 certain time in the territory of that State are subject to this State insurance. 
 As indemnity for the animal condemned on meat inspection or those passed 
 conditionally, TO of the loss is allowed, which is obtained by deducting the 
 actual value of the slaughtered animal from the market value of the dressed 
 weight, and which is officially established at regular intervals for the various 
 species. 
 
 4. In the principality of Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen a State food animal 
 insurance was established October 1, 1900. This applies to cattle, calves, 
 and hogs. Unwholesome meat and that of inferior quality are paid for at their 
 full value. 
 
 5. In the principalities of Reuss a State food animal insurance is maintained, 
 based on the laws of March 10, 1903, and March 12, 1903, with regulations 
 of May 15, 1903, which went into effect on July 1, 1903. All cattle (including 
 calves) and hogs which are slaughtered in the principality, and which are 
 sold for the purpose of slaughter, must be insured. The indemnities of the 
 condemned animals amount to the full value, but no settlement is made for 
 losses less than $1.25. 
 
 6. In the Grandduchy of Hessen the law of April 12, 1905, contemplated 
 a State food animal insurance, but lately it is doubtful whether it will go into 
 effect. Insurance is compulsory for all cattle over three months of age which 
 are slaughtered for commercial purposes, or if the animal had to be slaughtered 
 immediately on account of some injury. The indemnity for carcasses con- 
 demned, conditionally passed, or of inferior value is established by the full 
 value of the carcass, from which deductions are made of the actual value of 
 the utilizable parts. 
 
 It is one of the urgent duties of every veterinarian connected with 
 meat inspection to familiarize himself thoroughly with the insurance 
 of food animals and the regulations in the territory to which his activity 
 extends, in order that he may not commit errors, but act as an expert 
 adviser to the interested parties. 
 
 [There is at present no food animal insurance in the United States, 
 but as such splendid results have been obtained in the different countries 
 of Europe by the above-described methods of insurance, it is quite 
 probable that in the course of time an insurance will be established 
 which will protect the packers and shippers from the great losses 
 sustained from the transportation and condemnation of food-producing 
 animals.] 
 
 Conditions of Obligations (Guarantee). Regarding the guarantee 
 obligations against certain affections in purchased animals, it is neces- 
 sary to refer to the German citizens' law book, which prescribes the 
 obligations of the seller in regard to some affections. According to Sec. 
 482, the seller is responsible only for certain deficiencies (principal 
 deficiencies), and only then when they appear inside of a certain time 
 (guarantee limit) . The principal defects and guarantee limits for trade 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 33 
 
 in food animals are given below in Sec. 2 of the imperial decree, March 
 27, 1899. 
 
 For the sale of animals which are to be slaughtered and are destined as 
 food for human beings (food animals), the following principal defects are to 
 be considered: 
 
 I. In horses, asses, and mules: Glanders (farcy), providing the disease 
 occurs within a time guarantee of fourteen days. 
 
 II. In cattle: Tubercular affections. In cases where the extension of the 
 disease is so great that more than half of the dressed weight is condemned 
 or is only conditionally passed for human food providing such lesions are found 
 within the time guarantee of fourteen days. 
 
 III. In sheep: General dropsy, with a time guarantee of fourteen days; 
 under general dropsy is to be considered a dropsical condition of the meat, 
 brought on by an internal affection or by insufficient nutrition. 
 
 IV. In hogs: 
 
 1. Tubercular affections as mentioned in No. II, with a time guarantee 
 
 of fourteen days. 
 
 2. Trichinosis, with a time guarantee of fourteen days. 
 
 3. Measles (cysticercus cellulosa?), with a time limit of fourteen days. 
 
 [In the purchase of live stock in the United States no guarantee, as 
 a rule, accompanies the transaction, with the possible exception of the 
 custom followed in certain localities whereby the stock is bought 
 subject to postmortem inspection. This method, however, is generally 
 applied only to wagonloads of hogs, and animals which have been 
 tuberculin tested and have reacted to the test. Furthermore, the ani- 
 mals which are condemned or marked as inspected by State inspectors 
 in certain stockyards are also sold subject to the postmortem examina- 
 tion of the Federal inspector. The practice which formerly obtained 
 with reference to the resale to other packers of animals marked as 
 suspected by a Federal antemortem inspector does not obtain under 
 the new law, as at present all antemortem inspections are made by 
 the Government only after the animals have been sold to the packer 
 who wishes the carcasses, and such suspect animals are then killed 
 separately from the regular kill.] 
 
 Age of Food Animals. In the inspection of animals and meats, 
 strictly speaking, only the age of calves plays an important part, 
 while the age of other food animals is of minor value. 
 
 1. The age of calves is of importance, since in the greater part of 
 Germany it is accepted by the public that veal comes on the market 
 in a certain state of development when it has attained the proper 
 maturity for slaughter. (See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulat. 13, Sec. 27.) 
 As in general this fitness for slaughter is only reached after a certain 
 age, the veterinary inspector must decide the age of calves in doubt- 
 ful cases. For establishing the age in calves the following should be 
 considered : 
 
 (a) Calves, according to Pusch, are born with eight milk incisors and 
 
 the premolar teeth. Should the corner incisors at the time of birth 
 
 be covered by the mucous membrane, so that their presence can be 
 
 both seen and felt, they will break through in two to six days. In 
 
 3 
 
34 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 the beginning the highly reddened gum lies closely on the incisors and 
 almost covers them, but after seven to ten days it recedes gradually, 
 so that the shovel form of the incisors becomes more and more apparent. 
 In this way, after two weeks the shovel form appears free in the central 
 and first lateral incisors; soon this is followed on the second lateral 
 incisors, and finally, after three to four weeks, on the corner teeth. 
 At the age of one month all the crowns of the incisors grow entirely out 
 of the gum, which retains its permanent pale pinkish-red color, and 
 lies against the crowns of the incisors in the form of the characteristic 
 pad. 
 
 (&) The stump of the navel cord, which remains on the newly born 
 calf, dries in the first four to six days, and separates from the abdominal 
 wall in the second week of life, leaving a moist, sensitive surface, which 
 is soon covered by a scab. In two to three weeks the cicatrization of 
 the navel wound takes place, from which the scab falls off generally 
 inside of the fourth to fifth week. Exceptions to this rule may occur, 
 and are frequently caused by inflammatory suppurative processes of the 
 navel. 
 
 (c) During the first week of life the lumen of the umbilical vein is 
 found to be still wide open and filled with liquid blood. 
 
 (d) The soft, arched pad on the sole of the claws of the newly born 
 calf becomes hard in the first days after birth and wears off in pro- 
 portion to the amount of moving about that is done by the animal. 
 
 (e) The formation of the horns on the frontal bones appears, accord- 
 ing to Gerlach, from the third week on in the form of a slight thickening 
 of the skin. By the fifth week the hair becomes scanty at these points, 
 and at the end of the second month the horn cap makes its appearance. 
 After three months a movable horn point may be distinguished, which 
 in heifer calves is 2 cm. long, while in bull calves it is 3 cm. long. The 
 fixed condition of the small horns appears in bull calves after four 
 months, and in heifer calves after five to six months. 
 
 (/) The change in the color of the kidneys, described by Villain 
 and Bascou for establishing the age of calves, is not admissible, as it 
 is not typical. 
 
 (g) Morot has also attempted to establish a relationship between 
 the ossification of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones and the age. 
 Up to five to six weeks of age the longitudinal halves of these bones 
 separate if they are cut or strongly boiled. The surfaces of separa- 
 tion are rectilinear, but uneven and wrinkled. Each half of the bone 
 shows its special marrow cavity. 
 
 In deciding whether the calf is old enough for slaughter, these signs 
 to determine the ages of calves may be supplemented by considering 
 the consistence of the meat and fat, which in doubtful cases is the 
 only guide for the inspector. 
 
 Regarding the peculiarities of mature veal, see Chapter II; the 
 signs of immaturity are given in Chapter VII, page 192. 
 
 Although the age of the other animals, as already mentioned, is of 
 minor importance in meat inspection, the following tabulated exhibit 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 35 
 
 should furnish some information in regard to the age of food animals 
 as determined by the teeth (Ellenberger and Baum, Handbuch der 
 Anatomie) . 
 
 As the appearance and change of the teeth is influenced in domestic animals 
 by breed, precocity, and care, it is evident that in determining the age in doubt- 
 ful cases special works on animal breeding and anatomy should be consulted. 
 
 It is a well-known fact to all veterinarians that with the aid of the rings on 
 the horns of the cow, which develop from the influence of pregnancy, an inspector 
 may be able to determine the age up to a certain point. Two added to the 
 number of rings on horns of the cow will generally give the age. This applies to 
 cases in which pregnancy appeared regularly. Irregular distances between 
 the rings are indications of irregular intervals between pregnancies. 
 
 For determining the age of slaughtered cattle, certain points of ossification, 
 and especially the cartilaginous extensions of the first four to five spines of the 
 dorsal vertebrae, may be advantageously utilized. On the split extensions of 
 the vertebral spines the following changes are manifested with the advancement 
 of age : 
 
 One year, cartilaginous extension entirely cartilaginous. 
 
 Two years, cartilaginous extension interwoven with small single bone centres. 
 
 Three years, cartilaginous extension diffused with bony islands. 
 
 Four years, cartilaginous extension more so. 
 
 Five years, the bony structure exceeds the cartilage. 
 
 Six j^ears, the cartilaginous extension almost entirely ossified; however, 
 the cartilaginous border can be plainly distinguished between the bony process 
 and the cartilaginous extension. 
 
 Seven years, the cartilaginous border zone still plainly visible. 
 
 Eight years, the cartilaginous border zone only slightly perceptible. 
 
 Nine years, all cartilage disappeared. 
 
 The ossified cartilaginous extension is, however, of a lighter color and more 
 compact than the bony substance of the vertebra proper, but sometimes a 
 narrow red zone forms in the bony -substance of the former cartilaginous border. 
 If, therefore, the first spinal extensions in their upper third are uniformly 
 compact, the cow is at least ten years old. If the age exceeds twelve years, 
 the spinal extensions gradually change into a grayish-yellow, compact bony 
 substance. 
 
 Slaughtering of Animals. The commercial slaughter of animals 
 begins with the killing, which in Germany is generally carried out 
 by bleeding. The latter must be done as thoroughly as possible, since 
 the content of the blood in the meat influences its keeping qualities. 
 Bleeding is most thorough when the heart and respiratory functions 
 remain in action as long as possible. These functions depend prin- 
 cipally on the intactness of the medulla oblongata with the respiratory, 
 cardiac, and vasomotor centres, and consequently the most satisfactory 
 methods of killing are those in which the medulla oblongata is not 
 injured. From a humane standpoint the withdrawal of blood should 
 always be preceded by stunning the animals, which, as a matter of 
 fact, is carried out in almost all cases with the exception of those 
 slaughtered in accordance with the Jewish rite. As a result of stunning, 
 the excessive struggles of the animals are prevented, and in conse- 
 quence the dangers to the butchers from such struggling are also 
 averted. 
 
36 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 
 
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FOOD ANIMALS 
 
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38 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF 'MEAT FOOD 
 
 The following killing methods are distinguished as a result of the 
 different methods of stunning: 
 
 Killing Methods with Stunning. (a) The blow on the head (forehead 
 blow) is made with a slaughter ax, heavy wooden club, or hammer. 
 It may be employed on all food animals, and causes, when proficiently 
 applied, an immediate insensibility of the animal. 
 
 The action of the blow on the head depends on the position of the brain 
 in the various animals and its greater or lesser protection by the cranium. 
 In the horse, the conditions for stunning with the blow on the head are the 
 most favorable, as the brain is practically only covered by the comparatively 
 thin bone plates formed by the frontal and parietal bones. Therefore, a blow 
 directed at this point will act directly on the brain. Similar conditions obtain 
 in sheep and goats; in these animals, however, it should be remembered that 
 the strong roots of the horn processes of the temporal bone considerably 
 strengthen the cranial roof, and besides the effect of the blow in sheep is also 
 diminished by the woolly covering. The brain in these animals is more easily 
 reached from the base of the head than from the forehead. In cattle, as is 
 well known, the frontal bone also forms the entire brain covering, which, on 
 account of the strong development of the frontal sinuses, is divided into a 
 lateral and median lamella. The effect of the blow is broken by the frontal 
 sinuses, and the farther the blow strikes from the middle point the less effective 
 it will prove. The proper point to strike is situated where the diagonals from 
 the base of the horns to the opposite orbital arches cross. 
 
 These anatomical peculiarities do not interfere in calves, as the undeveloped 
 soft skull does not resist the blow to any marked degree. While the roof of 
 the cranium in hogs is similar in structure to that in cattle, due to the promi- 
 nent development of the frontal sinuses, yet these anatomical relations play 
 
 no special part, as the majority of hogs are 
 FIG 1Q slaughtered at a young age, when the roof of 
 
 the cranium is not very compact. Only in races 
 of hogs with a strongly protruding skull and 
 receding face is the bony development of the 
 skull very marked, and in these the front part 
 of the head is frequently covered with thick, 
 
 ^^^^^^^ woolly hair, which considerably diminishes the 
 
 effect of the blow. 
 
 (b) The frontal blow with a slaughter ax 
 or bolt hammer is executed by the use of a 
 short ax, to which a round, chisel-shaped bolt 
 is fastened, and this is driven into the brain. 
 Head of bull with slaughter mask The application of this apparatus, which in 
 
 general is not to be recommended, requires 
 skill in sure hitting and much strength. 
 
 (c) The frontal blow with the application of the so-called slaughter 
 mask. The construction of this apparatus can be seen in Fig. 10, 
 and is employed exclusively on cattle. 
 
 The bolt is driven into the brain, causing the animal to collapse immediately. 
 Rissling prefers a strong, hollow cylinder to the solid bolt. Other slight changes 
 in the mask have been undertaken occasionally. After the removal of the 
 mask, as a rule, a small piece of cane is introduced in the opening of the cranium 
 in order to destroy further the posterior portion of the brain. This is also 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 39 
 
 usually carried out in the use of the previously described apparatus, which, 
 however, is absolutely unnecessary when the bolt is driven at the right place 
 into the brain. While the convulsive struggling which results from the intro- 
 duction of the small piece of cane into the brain has a repulsive effect, there 
 is total absence of consciousness. The statement of Dembo, in which he 
 expressed his doubt regarding the reliability of the slaughter mask, may be 
 considered as disproved through the statistics compiled by Siedamgrotzky. 
 
 FIG. 11 
 
 FIG. 12 
 
 Vertical section through Klein- 
 schmidt's spring-bolt apparatus: 
 a, iron covering; b, bolt; c, groove; 
 d, spring; e, head piece. 
 
 Vertical section through a bolt apparatus, according to 
 Kogler: a, bolt; b, groove; c, screw for the bolt; d, iron 
 middle cylinder; e, eye for opening the wooden handle. 
 
 FIG. 13 
 
 Head of bull with shooting apparatus attached, according to Staehl-Stoff. 
 
 (d) The blow on the forehead with the spring-bolt apparatus de- 
 signed by Kleinschmidt, or with the bolt apparatus of Kogler, is used 
 for stunning hogs and sheep (Figs. 11 and 12). 
 
 (e) Killing of food animals with bullet-shooting apparatus. The 
 oldest instrument belonging to this class was originated by Siegmund. 
 A similar apparatus without the leather mask has been placed on 
 the market for several years by various firms according to Staehl's 
 patent (Fig. 13). Lately, similar instruments have been made for 
 use on hogs and small stock. 
 
40 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 (/) Shooting with the shooting-bolt apparatus, such as those designed 
 by Flessa, Liebe, Schrader, and further with Behr's bolt pistol (Fig. 
 14), etc., which, by the pressure of the gases from the powder of an 
 
 FIG. 14 
 
 Behr'a bolt pistol in section. (Behr's Industrial Company.) 
 
 inflammable shell, drives a bolt into the brain in a similar way as the 
 blow-bolt apparatus. Flessa's bolt-shooting apparatus is very simple, 
 as the discharge occurs only on the head of the animal to be killed, 
 
 FIG. 15 
 
 Knocking hammer. 
 
 through the ejection of the bolt, which extends for about 1 cm., whereby 
 the other sharpened end of the bolt causes an explosion of the strongly 
 active copper cap. On account of the slight danger from the bolt- 
 
 FIG. 16 
 
 Bolt-shooting apparatus by abattoir director Flessa, longitudinal section. (Hauptner, Berlin ) 
 
 shooting apparatus, they should be preferred to the bullet-shooting 
 apparatuses. 
 
 (g) The blow on the base of the head or on the forehead is carried 
 out with an ax, cleaver, club, or with the end of a heavy hammer 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 41 
 
 (Fig. 15). The stunning results from the contusion of the brain. This 
 method is the simplest for large-horned or aged sheep and goats, and 
 is the principal method adopted in the United States for stunning 
 animals. 
 
 Slaughtering Method without Stunning. (a) In pithing, a strong knife is 
 stuck between the atlas and occipital bone and the medulla oblongata is thereby 
 severed or injured. The animals collapse immediately. They are, however, 
 not stunned, but only helpless, as conscious movement is arrested. Uncon- 
 sciousness only takes place when, after subsequent bleeding, the resulting 
 cerebral anemia has reached a certain degree. The bleeding of such "pithed" 
 animals is sometimes unsatisfactory, owing to the injury of the vasomotor 
 centres, also of the heart and respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata. 
 Pithing, therefore, should be discarded from a humane as well as from a prac- 
 tical standpoint. 
 
 The "blow on the base of the head" has the disadvantage of pithing only 
 when the blow has not been sufficiently strong to produce a contusion of the 
 brain. 
 
 (6) "Schachten" (from the Hebrew verb "schachat," to draw; 
 to draw the knife to and from) is the oldest slaughtering method, and 
 is applied by the Jews and Mohammedans to cattle and small stock. 
 
 For this purpose the animals are secured and thrown, and then follows the 
 cutting of the throat with a very sharp knife with a wide blade. The latter 
 is performed by an especially appointed member of the faith. Death of the 
 animals occurs through the slow loss of blood from the large vessels of the 
 neck. The throwing and securing of large and strong cattle is frequently 
 associated with difficulties and dangers, and accompanied generally by con- 
 siderable cruelty to the animal. Since the middle of the last century there 
 has been much argument regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the 
 Jewish method of slaughter from a humanitarian, physiological, and hygienic 
 standpoint, and also as to its authority from a religious consideration, which 
 will not be further discussed here. It should only be mentioned that this method 
 of slaughter without previously stunning the animal was prohibited in the 
 Kingdom of Saxony and in Switzerland, a regulation which, from the humani- 
 tarian standpoint, should receive the fullest approval. Further information may 
 be obtained in the extensive works and publications on this subject. 
 
 For diminishing the cruelty in throwing animals, various apparatuses have 
 been constructed, which, however, only slightly improve the repulsiveness 
 of the Jewish method. This is also true of the equipment now in use for the 
 stretching of the neck and head by the so-called head holder before "Schachten." 
 
 It should also be mentioned that experiments have been made to kill animals 
 with electricity (Bockelmann) . 
 
 To improve the method of securing hogs for stunning, Renger constructed 
 a slaughtering machine, which can be utilized to only a very limited extent. 
 
 For acquiring steadiness in taking aim on the part of the butcher apprentices, 
 various apparatuses have been constructed. They are even supplied with 
 an indicator registering the force of the blow, and are maintained by the 
 butchers' associations of larger cities. On these machines the apprentices 
 receive their instruction and practice in striking. 
 
 Bleeding. Extraction of the blood is accomplished in large stock 
 and hogs by cutting the bloodvessels at the entrance of the thoracic 
 cavity; in small stock by sticking in the neck or cutting the throat. 
 The latter is also sometimes employed in cattle, especially when 
 
42 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 slaughtering them in accordance with the Jewish rite (Schachten). 
 As the keeping qualities of meat depend considerably on thorough 
 bleeding, this should be as complete as possible. It depends on the 
 following conditions : 
 
 (a) The health of the animal considerably influences thorough bleeding, 
 as all severe affections weaken the vitality, which involves the action of the 
 heart, lungs, and muscles, thus influencing the driving out of the blood. Bleed- 
 ing is retarded especially in febrile conditions, also in cases of severe indiges- 
 tion, acute disturbances of the portal circulation, and severe lung and heart 
 affections. As a rule, animals so affected bleed out very poorly. 
 
 (6) Sufficient rest of the animals before slaughter is also essential to assure 
 a thorough bleeding. Animals that are excited or are thoroughly tired usually 
 bleed out insufficiently. 
 
 (c) Strong and long-continued respiratory and cardiac action, as well as 
 energetic convulsions of the body muscles, favor thorough bleeding for reasons 
 that are self-explanatory. As these functions are regulated by the central 
 nervous system, and especially by the medulla oblongata, thorough bleeding 
 depends to no small degree upon the 
 
 (d) Slaughtering and stunning method, which favorably influences bleeding 
 when the medulla oblongata remains intact. 
 
 (e) The performance of sticking or cutting considerably promotes or retards 
 the bleeding. When thoracic bleeding is performed the heart must not be 
 injured, and also bleeding into the thoracic cavity must be prevented (over- 
 sticking), as compression of the heart and lungs takes place through the quick 
 accumulation of blood in the chest cavity. 
 
 The anemic state of the arteries and large and medium vein trunks 
 is not the only indication of thorough bleeding, but a certain dryness 
 of the parenchymatous organs and especially of the muscles is even 
 more important in this respect. Only a few drops of blood can be 
 obtained on pressure of the cut surfaces, and only in the smallest veins 
 can there be found traces of blood. 
 
 The quantity of blood, which averages T V f the body weight, natu- 
 rally cannot be totally abstracted; however, the larger portion of 
 it may be withdrawn. The quantity of the blood depends on the 
 sex, size, and nutritive state, and on the above-mentioned conditions, 
 which influence the bleeding of the slaughtered animals. The quantity 
 of the withdrawn blood amounts in cattle to 15 to 25 liters; in horses, 
 20 to 30; in hogs, 2 to 3; in small stock, 1^ liters. In hogs the quantity 
 of blood is considerably diminished with the increase of fat on the 
 animal. 
 
 Various experiments have been made regarding the quantity of blood drawn 
 from slaughtered animals. Heissler found the quantity of blood from horses 
 to be 3.93 to 9 per cent, of their body weights; in cows, 4.02 to 5.75 per cent.; 
 in calves, 4.4 to 6.65 per cent.; in sheep, 4.37 to 7.56 per cent.; in hogs, 1.45 
 to 5.74 per cent. According to Goltz the quantity of blood amounted in cattle 
 to 3.1 to 3.3 per cent, of the body weight; in calves, 4.9 to 5 per cent.; in sheep, 
 4.1 to 4.3 per cent. At the same time Goltz established that the method of 
 killing whether the animal was slaughtered in accordance with the Jewish 
 rite or whether the withdrawal of blood is preceded by stunning has no 
 influence on the quantity of blood flowing from the animal. The same results 
 were obtained by Falk, who also believes that cows possess a larger quantity 
 of blood than heifers, or even bulls and steers. Fjelstrup determined the 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 43 
 
 quantity of blood by washing out the bloodvessels with salt-water infusions, 
 according to a special formula. 
 
 The blood from animals slaughtered by cutting the throat is, as a rule, 
 polluted with the vomited contents of the stomach, and, therefore, cannot 
 be utilized for human food. 
 
 Further Dressing of Carcasses. Regarding the further course of 
 commercial slaughter the following brief notations may contain some 
 information. [The extent of the dressing and cutting with considera- 
 tion for the intended postmortem inspection is established by the 
 Federal Regulations.] 
 
 Cattle and horses are partly skinned while on the floor. This is then followed 
 by the removal of the feet in the carpal and tarsal joints, and of the head. 
 (At this time the horns of cattle are chopped off in order to remain on the 
 skin.) The abdomen is cut for a short distance along the median line for the 
 removal of the connected masses of fat of the mesentery. After the penis, 
 scrotum, or udder is cut off, the breastbone and the pelvis sawed, the latter 
 in the symphysis, the animal is hoisted with the aid of a beam which is inserted 
 through an opening made between the tendo-Achillis and the metatarsus 
 bone, or by hooks which are inserted into the same openings. The carcass 
 is then further skinned and finally eviscerated, leaving only the kidneys. In 
 the process of evisceration (gutting) the uterus and bladder are first removed, 
 followed by the intestines and mesentery; then the stomach (or stomachs), 
 with the adherent spleen, then the liver, and finally the heart, lungs, and trachea. 
 In some places the liver and parts of the diaphragm are removed, together 
 with the thoracic viscera (United States) . From the head the brain is removed 
 and the tongue is separated from the connection with the lower jaw, in such 
 a way that the buccal and laryngeal cavities become entirely exposed. With 
 hogs, which are subjected to so-called scalding in water at 60 to 70 C., the 
 hair and epidermis are loosened, which may then be removed by scraping. 
 After washing and hanging by the flexor pedis tendons of the hind legs, the 
 evisceration takes place. Only the kidneys are left in place, provided they 
 do not come out with the removal of the retroperitoneal layer of fat (leaf lard). 
 Stomach and intestines remain in their natural connection; also the liver, 
 with the thoracic viscera, together with the trachea, esophagus, and tongue. 
 In France the bristles of the hog are removed by singeing. [Singeing is followed 
 in the United States for certain export hogs.J At present this custom appears 
 to be declining, and is gradually being replaced by scalding. As singeing makes 
 the examination of the skin difficult, it should be considered in Germany in 
 accordance with the meat-inspection regulation as a procedure to which the 
 hogs should not be subjected without further consideration. 
 
 Small stock are skinned after the removal of the feet, partly while lying 
 on a rack and partly when hung up. They are then eviscerated in the same 
 manner as hogs; the kidneys, sometimes the liver and spleen, as well as the 
 thoracic viscera, are left in place. The inflation of carcasses of calves and sheep 
 by blowing air into the subcutis with the mouth, bellows, or air pump is not 
 as frequently carried out at present as formerly, and this is also true of the 
 inflation of the lungs with air. Meat which shows changes through the blow- 
 ing must be declared as unfit for human consumption. Frequently calves 
 are left with their hides on for reasons of cleanliness in transportation. As 
 a rule, cattle and hogs are split into halves through their vertebral columns 
 immediately after slaughter, while small stock are left intact for the time 
 being. Until the carcasses are cooled no further cutting takes place. At this 
 time each side of the beef is transversely cut and divided into a fore- and hind- 
 quarter, by which procedure the last 3 or 4 ribs are, as a rule, cut off with the 
 hind-quarter. The further cutting of the dressed meat depends on the com- 
 mercial customs, which vary not only in the various species of animals, but 
 
44 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 also in different countries and localities. For further particulars on this sub- 
 ject, as well as the commercial designation of the various parts of the dressed 
 carcass, see page 47. 
 
 In relation to the further manipulations in the slaughter of animals for 
 Jews it should be briefly mentioned that a certain examination of food animals 
 as to health is made. In cattle the "Schachter, " after the abdomen has been 
 opened, and before the breastbone has been divided, places his arm into the 
 thoracic cavity through an opening in the diaphragm and explores the pleura 
 for adhesions, etc. After the removal of the internal organs from the body 
 their further examination is made principally with the eye, but whether the 
 carcass should be considered as pure and proper food for Israelites (kosher) 
 depends especially upon the palpation of the lungs for abnormalities. Besides, 
 certain lesions of the other viscera are also considered. In case the slaughtered 
 animal cannot be passed for food in accordance with the ritual requirements, 
 it is declared as unclean (trepha). The kosher meat is marked for the benefit 
 of the consumers with the Hebrew lettering ItfiO and frequently also it is 
 sealed or stamped with the date of the slaughter. As certain large bloodvessels, 
 certain strips of fat, tendinous parts, etc., should not be consumed, these parts 
 are removed by the " Schachter, " and designated as " Triebern" and " Porschen" 
 of the meat. As this would result in considerable cutting if applied to the 
 hind-quarters, and consequently would diminish the value of the meat, they 
 are not "porsched," and are, therefore, not eaten by religious Jews. Further 
 particulars of the Jewish ritual slaughter can be found in Goltz's History of 
 Meat Food. 
 
 Emergency Slaughter. The form of slaughtering which is every- 
 where designated as emergency slaughter deserves special mention, 
 and, furthermore, requires particular attention from the standpoint 
 of sanitary police. 
 
 Emergency slaughter involves injured and sick animals whose life 
 appears to be more or less threatened, and in order to endeavor to 
 save the meat for human food they are hastily slaughtered. While 
 there are various diseases which occasion an emergency slaughter, 
 they may not affect the meat so as to render it unwholesome. Others 
 again are of a doubtful character, and have endangered the life and 
 health of numerous people. This was proved in a long series of epi- 
 demics which resulted from meat poisoning, and Bellinger rightly 
 claims that at least four-fifths of these outbreaks were in connection 
 with emergency slaughter. 
 
 The principal causes for emergency slaughter in cattle, as shown 
 by experience and also by the tabulated statistics of A. Maier, are 
 affections of the digestive and sexual organs, and infectious diseases. 
 In small stock and hogs the latter diseases play the most important 
 part, while in hogs, swine erysipelas is frequently the cause for emer- 
 gency slaughter. 
 
 According to Lydtin's statistics the danger from meat produced 
 by emergency slaughter, when compared with the meat obtained 
 by commercial killing, is 80 times greater in cattle, 12 times in calves, 
 100 times in sheep, 90 times in goats, 211 times in hogs, and 3 times 
 in horses. 
 
 Although such statistics sufficiently indicate the general sanitary 
 importance of emergency slaughter, this is further increased when it 
 is considered that the emergency killings, as Ostertag rightly remarks, 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 45. 
 
 "include not always the typical affections, but in many instances 
 diseases of unknown origin (cryptogenetic sepsis)." For these reasons 
 the judging of animals slaughtered in emergency is in ' many cases 
 associated with difficulties, which, even for the scientifically trained 
 veterinary inspector, frequently prove a hard test of his knowledge 
 and conscientiousness. Owing to the dangers of emergency slaughter 
 from a sanitary standpoint, all efforts for years were directed toward 
 the subjection of these animals under all conditions to a veterinary 
 inspection. It is to be regretted that the imperial meat-inspection 
 law shows a flaw on this important point, which might easily prove 
 serious. In accordance with this law the inspection may be omitted 
 if the animals are slaughtered for home consumption, and it frequently 
 happens that many instances of emergency slaughter are carried out 
 on just such occasions. In this law the limitation is made that inspec- 
 tion may be omitted only in those animals which before or after slaughter 
 show no signs of disease that would render the meat unwholesome. 
 This regulation has, however, only a limited value, as in some cases 
 an important disease might not show striking appearances in the eyes 
 of a layman; then again unscrupulous stock owners may either dis- 
 regard the requirements of the law altogether, or in case of trouble 
 assert that the symptoms of disease manifested by the animals were 
 not such as to warrant the opinion that the meat was unfit for con- 
 sumption. While the animals slaughtered for home consumption, 
 and, therefore uninspected, cannot be commercially utilized, the 
 probable affections should be considered which might result from par- 
 taking of infected meat by the family and servants. Besides, it is a 
 well-known fact that frequently the meat of home-slaughtered animals 
 is openly or indirectly brought to market, or is worked up for this 
 purpose. 
 
 For these reasons it would be very desirable for the governments 
 of the allied states of Germany to avail themselves of the authority 
 offered them by law, and to provide compulsory inspections even for 
 home slaughtering, as is the case at present in the Kingdom of Saxony 
 and other states. 
 
 By cold slaughtering is understood in butchers' circles thos^e fraudulent 
 manipulations which aim to utilize carcasses of dead unslaughtered animals, 
 as if they had been slaughtered, by performing the sticking or cutting post 
 mortem. The absence of bloodj^ infiltration of the edges of the wound and 
 other manifestations make the detection easy for the expert. 
 
 Official Regulations Concerning Slaughter. For manifold reasons it would 
 be desirable to have the appendix of the imperial meat-inspection law contain 
 uniform regulations for the slaughter of animals. At present the following 
 decrees are in effect: 
 
 In Prussia the ministerial decrees of December 16, 1886, and March 25, 1900, 
 contain detailed specifications regarding the procedure in the slaughter of 
 animals. They also contain the corresponding police regulations which exist 
 in the various parts of the country. In the Government District, Koblentz 
 pithing is prohibited by the police regulations of September 23, 1891. 
 
 In Bavaria the procedure of the slaughtering of food animals was regulated 
 by the order of the State Ministry of the Interior, February 19, 1890. 
 
46 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 In Saxony the decree of the Ministry of the Interior of March 21, 1892, 
 relative to the stunning of food animals prescribes that in the slaughter of 
 all animals, with the exception of fowls, stunning must precede bleeding. 
 
 By the order of May 23, 1891, in the duchy of Saxony-Meiningen only the 
 "Schachten" is exempted from the decree which prescribes that stunning 
 must precede bleeding. 
 
 The following regulations affect the "Schachten," in accordance with the 
 Jewish rite : 
 
 In Prussia an order of the Minister of the Interior, Religion, and Education, 
 of January 14, 1889, forbids all unnecessary cruelty to animals, and prescribes 
 special regulations for a careful throwing of the animals and safe securing of 
 the head, etc. 
 
 In Bavaria a similar decree on this subject was issued by the State Ministry 
 of the Interior, July 12, 1889. 
 
 In the Kingdom of Saxony the Schachten is prohibited in accordance with 
 the above decree for that State, if it is not preceded by stunning. 
 
 In Baden the regulations regarding the Jewish method of slaughter are 
 contained in the Ministerial decree of March 29, 1888. 
 
 In Meiningen a proclamation of May 29, 1891, prescribes the avoidance 
 of unnecessary cruelties to animals in Schachten, based upon the above- 
 mentioned decree of Prussia. 
 
 In Switzerland the prohibition of Schachten was accepted by the State con- 
 stitution after submitting the question to general vote, which resulted 187,000 
 against and 112,000 for the Schachten, and 11| against and 10^ for in the 
 votes by cantons. 
 
 [The slaughtering methods employed for cattle in the United States 
 are preceded, with the exception of those selected for Hebrew consump- 
 tion, by stunning which is carried out with a long-handled hammer. 
 While there is no doubt that the stunning of the animals with the 
 various above-described apparatuses has some advantages, yet such 
 methods could not be satisfactorily carried out in the large slaughtering 
 centres of this country, as a large percentage of the food animals are 
 range cattle which have never been accustomed to being handled, and 
 therefore the attachment of an apparatus to them or even approach- 
 ing them for that purpose would be not only impracticable, but an 
 impossibility in most cases. Besides the construction of the killing 
 pens and the skill of the men employed for this particular work of 
 "knocking/"' render this method perfectly satisfactory and without 
 any unnecessary cruelty, as it occurs only exceptionally that the animal 
 is not completely stunned with a single, well-directed blow.] 
 
 Utilization of Food Animals. As all parts of a slaughtered animal 
 are utilized to the best advantage as human food, it is aimed to effect 
 this utilization to the greatest extent possible. All parts not suitable for 
 food are designated as offal. While in ordinary usage most of the edible 
 parts of food animals are erroneously included in the word meat, yet in 
 commerce and trade the term meat, in a narrow sense, includes only 
 the skeletal muscles with the organically connected parts (bones, fat, 
 tendons, bloodvessels, nerves, lymph glands, etc.), while the fat, the 
 blood, and all viscera utilizable for human food are not considered. All 
 these portions are partly marketed in their fresh state, partly again 
 worked up, and naturally possess great extremes of value, 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 47 
 
 Meat in a Narrow Sense. The principal value of food animals lies 
 in the meat proper, 1 namely, in the striated or skeletal muscles, which, 
 in accordance with their location and their coarse anatomical structure, 
 possess different values as human food. In this valuation the actual 
 nutritive worth of the meat is generally not considered (Chapter II), 
 but more depends on its usefulness and flavor. The latter is principally 
 based upon the firmness and tenderness of the muscle fibers, the arrange- 
 ment and contents of the connective tissue, the deficiency or richness 
 of fat, and the amount of the extractive matter on which the taste 
 of the meat depends. As these relations vary considerably in the 
 different regions of the animal body, the sale value of the meat of certain 
 parts varies likewise. This is also influenced, however, by fondness 
 for certain cuts in different parts of the country. Corresponding with 
 these conditions various meat qualities are distinguished in all animals, 
 and the regional limits, valuations, and designations differ consider- 
 ably in the various countries and territories. 
 
 The following attempted division of the quality limitation of meat of food 
 animals is only considered for the principal portions as they are distinguished 
 by the trade all over Germany, and as they are comprehended regarding their 
 valuations. 
 
 [Meat Cuts in United States. In the United States the different 
 meat cuts from the various food animals are sold in accordance with 
 a certain classification, and a considerable variation exists in the market 
 value of the meat from the different parts of the animal. But, inas- 
 much as there is no distinct ratio as to the market value of these various 
 meat cuts, it will be only necessary to name them, indicating also their 
 location on the carcass in the accompanying illustrations:] 
 
 Beef (Fig. 17). First quality: Tenderloin (M. iliopsoas, invisible 
 on the cut), sirloin (English roast), rump. 
 
 Second quality: Double round (the median part of the round is 
 not visible on the cut), thick flank, best ribs, chuck (only part of the 
 same). 
 
 Third quality: Shoulder, brisket (partly covered by the shoulder), 
 chuck, plate, neck. 
 
 Fourth quality: Short ribs, flank, shank, shin, head, and tail. 
 
 [In the United States the usual beef cuts are: a, shank; 6, round; 
 c, rump; d, sirloin; e, porterhouse; /, rib; o, flank; ra, plate; h, chuck; 
 /, brisket; g, shoulder; i, neck; k, shank.] 
 
 Veal (Fig. 18). First quality: Leg (cutlet), loin roast, chops. 
 
 Second quality: Shoulder, chuck, breast (partly covered by the 
 shoulder). 
 
 Third quality: Neck, flank, shank, shin. 
 
 Fourth quality: Head and feet. 
 
 1 For the morphology and chemistry of meat, also the peculiarities of the meat of various food 
 animals, see Chapter II. 
 
48 
 
 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 [In the United States the veal cuts are: b, leg; d, loin; c, flank 
 e, breast; g, shoulder; i, neck.] 
 
 FIG. 17 
 
 Side of beef allowing th commercial 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 49 
 
 Mutton (Fig. 19). First quality: Leg, loin. 
 
 Second quality: Shoulder. 
 
 Third quality: Ribs, partly covered by shoulder; breast, flank, neck. 
 
 Fourth quality: Head. 
 
 FIQ. 18 
 
 Side of veal showing the com- 
 mercial cuts. 
 
 FIG. 19 
 
 FIG. 20 
 
 Side of mutton showing the Side of hog showing the coin- 
 
 commercial cuts. mercial cuts. 
 
 [In the United States the cuts are: a, leg; b, loin; c, back and rib; 
 d, breast; /, shoulder; h, neck.] 
 
 Pork (Fig. 20). First quality: Leg (ham), loin (chops, cutlet, 
 roast) . 
 
 Second quality: Neck piece, shoulder (shoulder ham). 
 
 Third quality : Short ribs, belly, shanks. 
 
 Fourth quality: Head with jowl (cheek), snout, feet. 
 
 [In the United States the cuts are: c, ham; d, loin; e, belly; g, 
 shoulder; i, head.] 
 4 
 
50 ORIGIN AND SOURCE OF MEAT FOOD 
 
 In the horse and dog no special classes of meat are distinguished 
 as a rule; nevertheless, in horses certain parts (tenderloin and tongue) 
 command a higher price in Germany than others. 
 
 The tongue of all animals and the udder of cattle are sold as meat. 
 When meat is not sold in a raw or pickled state, with or without the 
 bones, etc., it is worked up for the various meat products (see Chapter 
 
 in). 
 
 Fat. The fat which is obtained from food animals in coherent 
 masses is utilized for food purposes either in a raw or rendered state. 
 The term bacon is applied to the deposition of fat in hogs, with or 
 without the skin, which lies between the skin and the muscular meat, 
 especially on the back and on the side of the body; it may also be 
 intermixed with thin muscular layers. In commerce, especially in 
 North America, the following varieties of bacon are distinguished: 
 
 1. Short-clear, a side of the hog between the hind shank and the 
 anterior half of the shoulder, from which the bones have been removed. 
 
 2. Long-clear, that boneless half of a hog which lies between the 
 hind shank and the head, from which the lean portion of the loin has 
 been cut out. 
 
 3. Rib belly, the side of a hog consisting of the hind and lower ribs, 
 which generally are not removed, and of the corresponding lower 
 portion of the belly. 
 
 4. Short fat-backs, the fat which lies on the back and side of the 
 body over the larger muscles and over the ribs; they are generally cut 
 into elongated quadrangular pieces and are very frequently inter- 
 mixed with the muscular layers. 
 
 5. Long fat-backs are short fat-backs, to which the fat lying on the 
 side of the neck is added. 
 
 Those pieces of fat and trimmings which are not suitable for sale 
 in the shop are melted for lard, or are conveyed to soap, grease, and 
 other factories, where they are utilized in the industrial arts. For 
 further information on this subject see Chapter III. 
 
 Blood. It is principally the blood of hogs that is worked up for 
 sausage, while the blood from other animals is used for this purpose 
 only in rare cases. 
 
 Albumen was formerly made from blood offal, but its production is now 
 diminishing. Recently efforts have been directed toward utilizing the dried 
 and ground blood for fertilizing and cattle-feeding purposes, since the high 
 nitrogenous content of the pulverized blood, 12 to 18 per cent., makes it very 
 adaptable. Small concerns usually dispose of the unused blood with the manure 
 and other offal. 
 
 Viscera. The heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, spleen, brain, and thymus 
 gland of calves (sweetbread) are sold in their fresh state or they are 
 worked up for sausage or other meat products. 
 
 The stomach of hogs is used for sausage coverings; the stomachs 
 of cattle are sold after scalding and removal of the epithelium, as the 
 so-called tripe, or are utilized to a limited extent in ordinary kinds 
 
FOOD ANIMALS 51 
 
 of sausage. Stomach and intestines of calves are consumed as "calf- 
 ruffle." The stomachs of sheep are used either for manufacturing 
 sausage or for food purposes. The stomach of calves yields also the 
 rennet ferment for manufacturing cheese. The intestinal canals of 
 cattle and hogs serve as sausage coverings after they have been scraped 
 and thoroughly cleaned. In a similar way, but to a limited extent, 
 the small intestines of sheep are employed; otherwise they are utilized 
 for the manufacture of violin strings. The serous membrane of the 
 cecum of cattle is used as the so-called "goldbeater skins." The 
 bladders of cattle and hogs are utilized for sausage coverings. 
 
 It should be remarked in passing that certain organs, especially 
 the thyroids, ovaries, as well as testicles, bone marrow, and adrenal 
 capsules, are used in the preparation of therapeutic remedies, which 
 are extensively employed in human medicine. 
 
 Offal. The most important constituent of food animals belonging 
 in this class is the skin, which, with the exception of the hog skin, is 
 worked up into leather. 
 
 The latter serves for this purpose only in exceptional cases (boar, 
 old hogs), as it is otherwise sold with the meat, remains on the bacon, 
 or is mixed in the filling of various kinds of sausage. This is also done 
 with the skin of the heads of calves, and exceptionally with the skin 
 of the heads of young cattle. Besides, the skin of the head of cattle, 
 especially of the lips and muzzle, as well as the ears, is worked up 
 for food. The utilization of cattle and calf skin for sausage, with 
 the exception of the parts above mentioned, is only permitted under 
 declaration. From the bones, which are not sold with the meat, and 
 which, in well-fattened cattle amount to 15.1 to 15.4 per cent, of the 
 dressed weight, the marrow is extracted for various purposes, but that 
 from the lower bones of the legs is especially worked up for neat's 
 foot oil. Otherwise the offal bones are converted into glue and bone- 
 meal in factories, while the long bones are also used for industrial 
 purposes. The same applies to the horns of cattle. Tendinous and 
 cartilaginous tissues are utilized in glue factories. 
 
 Brushes are made from the better hog bristles, while the poorer 
 qualities are used for minor purposes. Hoofs and claws, as well as 
 inferior horns, are worked into fertilizer. 
 
 The genital organs serve as dog food, and other appropriate offal 
 is also beneficially used for this purpose. 
 
 The abusive utilization of the sexual organs, especially the testicle 
 and uterus, for food purposes could be remedied by condemning these 
 parts during meat inspection. However, the present meat-inspection 
 regulations give no authority for such action. 
 
 The bile, which is collected at some places, is used in the cleaning 
 of clothes and also for the manufacture of soap. 
 
 The contents of the stomachs of ruminants and hogs are also used 
 mixed with blood or molasses, for the preparation of animal food. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 MORPHOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY OF THE PRINCIPAL TISSUES 
 AND ORGANS OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 THE morphology and chemical properties of meat and its constituents 
 should be mentioned here, since they are of importance in the examina- 
 tion of meat and in determining its significance as human food. 
 
 MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 Muscles. Of the three kinds of muscles the striated, non-striated, 
 and heart muscle only the first, which is bought and consumed as 
 meat proper or muscle meat, comes under consideration here. The 
 tissues which are in natural connection with the muscle proper (fat, 
 connective, elastic, nerve, bone tissues), and organs (blood and lymph 
 vessels, lymph glands, etc.), are also included. According to Friedel 
 the "meat" purchased at the butcher shop contains an average of 
 83 per cent, meat, 8.4 per cent, bone, 8.6 per cent. fat. The quantita- 
 tive proportion between the striated muscle and the other constituents 
 of the body varies between 30 and 50 per cent, of the live weight, and 
 in medium fat animals, this is higher than in lean or very fat ones. 
 
 The structure of the muscle consists of fibrous tissue, which pos- 
 sesses a peculiar luster and a semisolid consistence. The firmness 
 of the fiber is different in the various animals, and has an influence 
 on the tastefulness of the meat. The tenderness or toughness, how- 
 ever, does not entirely depend on this, but is more intimately associated 
 with the race, age, nutritive condition of the animal, and the amount 
 of connective tissue present. Relative to the latter, the experiments 
 of K. B. Lehmann show that the cutaneous muscles are 2.5 times 
 tougher than the tenderloin, the consistency of which is hardly influenced 
 by cooking; but cooking considerably diminishes the toughness of the 
 cutaneous muscles almost to the consistency of the tenderloin. The 
 toughness of meat is diminished at least 25 per cent, in a few days 
 through the ripening process, which is due to the formation of acid 
 in the muscles. 
 
 The experiments performed by Isaak regarding the toughness of 
 meat are not sufficiently extensive for positive conclusions. 
 
 The color of the muscles varies between a pale red, gray red, and 
 dark red. Pale muscles occur in vertebrates, birds, and certain fish. 
 Almost all the food animals show pale meat at certain ages (calves, 
 young pigs), while in rabbits the meat remains pale throughout life. 
 Pale meat may also appear in some animals in certain groups of muscles 
 alongside of dark red muscles (hogs, birds). While the color of the 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 53 
 
 muscles is somewhat influenced by the blood content, yet it is not 
 produced by the blood. The muscular coloring matter, which is identical 
 with the hemoglobin, is rather bound to the myosin and develops in 
 it. Further, the color of the meat is influenced by age, sex, race, work, 
 feeding, etc. Especially in the ripening of meat a specific aroma is 
 developed, which, as a result of the autolytic action, manifests itself 
 both by the odor and taste (M Miiller). 
 
 Rigor mortis, which occurs after death, is probably the result of a 
 coagulation of the myosin through the formation of lactic acid in the 
 muscles. It may possibly be due to a particular "rigor mortis ferment." 
 It first affects the muscles of the head, and then spreads, in accord- 
 ance to Nysten's law, backward over the body. The time of appearanc'e 
 of rigor mortis depends on the muscular activity before death; the 
 stronger the activity of the muscles during life, the sooner rigor mortis 
 sets in. In exhausted animals, rigor mortis, under certain conditions, 
 appears immediately after death, as also in tetanic muscles. According 
 to Ostertag, the administration of certain medicines, such as veratrin, 
 alcohol, ether, etheric oils, favors the early appearance of rigor mortis. 
 In animals which were affected with severe febrile diseases, rigor 
 mortis is either not manifested or only very slightly, being hardly 
 noticeable. High atmospheric temperature favors the appearance 
 of rigor mortis, while cold retards it. The occurrence of rigor mortis 
 is in the same relation to its dissolution; the sooner rigor mortis sets 
 in the quicker the muscles will relax again. Whether the dissolution 
 of rigor mortis results from an increase of acid formation in the muscles, 
 which again affects the solution of the myosin, or whether it is due 
 to other influences, is still the subject of controversy. 
 
 Von Fiirth, in his experiments of extracting the muscle albumenoid bodies 
 and of their supposed relation to rigor mortis, obtained results which appear 
 to exclude that rigor mortis is affected by an acid precipitation from the muscle 
 albumen; but an attempt to deny that the degree of muscular acidity has no 
 influence on the appearance of rigor mortis would be too far reaching. The 
 postmortem acid formation certainly relates to lactic acid, as the setting free 
 of inorganic phosphoric acid does not take place. For the utilization of muscles 
 for manufacturing sausage the fact is noteworthy that muscles which still 
 contain the animal heat and in which rigor mortis has not appeared may absorb 
 up to 70 per cent, of water by volume if they have been previously beaten, 
 or if they were torn in shreds (Ostertag). 
 
 The reaction of living muscles is slightly alkaline or neutral, but 
 under normal conditions is changed to acid within three to six hours 
 after death through the formation of lactic acid, formic acid, and 
 potassium hypophosphate. The latter causes a swelling and loosening 
 of the connective-tissue elements of the meat, and renders the meat 
 tender. By this process the so-called ripening of the meat takes place, 
 the nature and further developments of which are discussed in Chapter 
 IX. The acid reaction of the muscles becomes changed to an alkaline 
 reaction with the advancement of putrefaction. 
 
 An alkaline reaction of completely cooled meat from freshly killed animals 
 always indicates an abnormal condition before slaughter. According to 
 
54 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 Edelmann and Noack this is very frequently met in animals which were 
 slaughtered under manifestations of suffocation or in condition of exhaustion; 
 also in severe febrile diseases, especially septic conditions and pyemia, there 
 may be an alkalinity of the meat. In the latter cases the alkalinity remains 
 permanently, while in the first-mentioned conditions an acid reaction some- 
 times occurs after forty-eight to seventy-two hours. An alkaline reaction of 
 meat is, therefore, an unsatisfactory indication only when it is lasting, result- 
 ing soon in putrefaction of the meat. 
 
 The principal chemical constituents of the muscles are the albu- 
 menoids and the nitrogenous bodies which are present in the proportion 
 of from 16 to 25 per cent. Calculated on the basis of dry substances 
 meat contains, according to Salkowski, 77.4 per cent, soluble albumen, 
 10 per cent, albumen which is soluble in cold water and coagulable 
 through heat, and 12 per cent, albumen soluble in cold water, but 
 uncoagulable (meat bases, lactic acid, albumenose, peptone, salts, 
 especially phosphocarnic acid (Siegfried). Fat which is found between 
 the muscle fibers in the form of globules is present to the extent of 
 1 per cent., while water will average about 75 per cent. The taste of 
 the meat is dependent upon the extractive bodies, principally osmazon 
 (Landois), and the so-called meat bases: karnin, kreatin, kreatinin, 
 xanthin, sarkin, hypoxanthin, and the muscle salts. The most im- 
 portant salts are potassium phosphate, with magnesium and calcium 
 phosphate and the iron compounds, which amount to 1 to H per 
 cent. Of the carbohydrates, glycogen generally occurs in muscles 
 in very small but widely varying quantities, especially in the horse, dog, 
 and fetus. 
 
 Of the gases which are present in the muscle substance, carbonic 
 acid is found in 15 to 18 volume per cent. (Stintzing), while oxygen 
 is absent (Hermann). Besides, it is probable that the volatile sulphur 
 compounds first demonstrated by Eber, especially H 2 S, play an impor- 
 tant part in the changes of the color of the meat after death and in 
 its preservation (Glage). Finally, enzymes (soluble ferments) are also 
 present in the muscle, and these play a principal part in the ripening 
 of meat. 
 
 The composition of the meat in various animals and of some of the important 
 meat-food products is tabulated, according to Konig, in the tables on pages 
 
 55 to 57. As a rule, meat rich in fat is always poorer in water, and its content 
 of albumen stands in an inverse relation to the richness of the fat. Accord- 
 ing to Ignatiew, meat should be valued in accordance with its content of the 
 two albumenoid substances, myosin and myastromin (Danilewsky) . The 
 first is supposed to increase gradually from the muscles of the head toward 
 the tail, while the latter increases in the reverse order. 
 
 The reductive properties of muscles, through which poisons are 
 split into harmless compounds, and coloring matters (bilirubin) are 
 changed into colorless modifications, should also be mentioned among 
 the chemical qualities. 
 
 Connective and Elastic Tissues. The connective tissue containing 
 a fibrous structure occurs in every part of the body in the most varied 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 55 
 
 forms and connections. The color is usually white or bluish white, 
 but if rich in elastic fibers the color is yellowish. The chemical base 
 of connective tissue is formed by the albumenoid collagen containing 
 sulphur, which in cooking is changed into glutin (gelatin). The elastic 
 tissue (ligamentum nuchea, yellow abdominal fascia, etc.), which is 
 distinguished by tough fibers and a yellow color, consists chiefly of 
 sulphur-free albumenoid elastin, which cannot be converted through 
 heat into glutin. 
 
 Fat Tissue. Fat tissue occurs in closest relation to the connective 
 tissue and is characterized by the depositions of fat cells in the loose 
 connective tissue. It occurs almost all over the body in single or in 
 larger connecting masses. The largest fatty deposits are about the 
 kidneys and heart, in the mesentery (ruffle fat), and retroperitoneal 
 region (leaf lard in hogs), while the subcutaneous fat cushion (bacon 
 of hogs) is in some parts of the body particularly bulky. The fat of 
 cattle, sheep, and goats is termed tallow, while that from hogs is called 
 lard. The properties of fat are considerably influenced by the species 
 of animal, age, sex, and nutritive condition. The structure and con- 
 sistency of fat tissues still retaining the animal heat are transparent, 
 homogeneous, or slightly stringy and oily. After fat stiffens, which 
 depends on its melting point and the surrounding temperature, it 
 becomes dull, greasy, and crumbling. 
 
 The color of fat varies between the purest white (hog, sheep) and 
 a dark yellow (horse); also gray and grayish-red color tints may be 
 observed (calf). 
 
 Table comparing the composition and utilization of various meats and food 
 products, according to Konig* 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Raw nutritive substances. 
 
 Utilizable nutri- 
 tive substances. 
 
 Nutritive relation 2 
 of nitrogenous to 
 nitrogen-free sub- 
 stances. 
 
 1 
 
 il 
 
 >" 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 T3 
 
 >> 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 <c 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 si 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 "d 
 >> 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 ) ffat 
 > Beef < medium fat . . . 
 j (Jean 
 Veal first quality 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 56.20 
 71.50 
 75.00 
 71 00 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 18.00 
 20.10 
 20.50 
 19.95 
 20 . 65 
 16.85 
 17.65 
 21.50 
 18.12 
 15.21 
 17.55 
 18.43 
 17.77 
 19.92 
 10.15 
 15.50 
 0.44 
 0.26 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 25.00 
 7.40 
 2.80 
 8.00 
 4.30 
 27.00 
 24.00 
 2.50 
 0.18 
 2.47 
 10.12 
 4.45 
 4.19 
 3.65 
 27.93 
 17.00 
 98.15 
 99.04 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 0.80 
 1.00 
 1.20 
 1.05 
 1.25 
 0.90 
 0.95 
 1.00 
 0.85 
 1.87 
 0.95 
 1.19 
 1.56 
 1.55 
 1.08 
 42 50 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 17.55 
 19.60 
 19.99 
 19.45 
 20.13 
 16.43 
 17.21 
 20.96 
 17.67 
 13.54 
 15.62 
 16.40 
 15.82 
 17.73 
 9.03 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 23.75 
 7.03 
 2.66 
 7.60 
 4.09 
 25.65 
 22.80 
 2.38 
 0.17 
 2.30 
 9.41 
 4.14 
 3.90 
 3.39 
 25.97 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 0.76 
 0.03 
 0.55 
 0.31 
 0.38 
 1.00 
 3.30 
 21.18 
 
 As 1: 
 
 3.4 
 0.9 
 0.3 
 1.0 
 0.5 
 4.5 
 3.3 
 0.3 
 0.03 
 0.5 
 1.5 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 9.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Goat meat 
 Mutton, first quality 
 Pork, first quality .... 
 Horse meat 
 Blood 
 Lung 
 Heart 
 Kidneys 
 (Spleen 
 Liver 
 Udder 
 Bone 
 Cattle tallow .... 
 Lard 
 
 73.80 
 55.25 
 57.40 
 74.20 
 80.82 
 79.89 
 71.07 
 75.55 
 75.47 
 71.55 
 39.45 
 25.00 
 1.33 
 0.70 
 
 
 
 0.80 3 
 0.03 4 
 0.56 4 
 0.31 4 
 0.38< 
 1.01 4 
 3.33 4 
 21.39* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.39 
 0.23 
 
 91.28 
 95.08 
 
 .'..'.'. 
 
 585.1 
 1,033.5 
 
 1 Konig, The Human Foods and Delicacies, etc., fourth edition, 1904, Bd. ii, 
 
 2 For utilizable nutritive substances. * Glycogen. 
 
 1467. 
 4 Carbohydrate. 
 
56 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 Table comparing the composition and utilization of various meats and food 
 products, according to Konig Continued. 
 
 Preserved meats and sausages. 
 
 
 Raw nutritive substances. 
 
 Utilizable nutri- 
 tive substances. 
 
 . 2 & 
 
 Designation. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 lydrate. 
 
 | 
 
 
 enous 
 tances. 
 
 
 ~o3 
 TJ 
 & 
 
 ive relat 
 itrogenoi 
 >gen-free 
 ces. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 1 * 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 | 
 
 'C .3 9 
 
 
 03 
 
 .- w 
 
 1 
 
 3 1 1 
 
 
 g" 
 
 03 
 
 6 
 
 fc' 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per Per 
 
 Per 
 
 As 1: 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 Smoked meat from steer 47 62 
 
 27 10 
 
 15 35 
 
 10 59 
 
 26 42 14 50 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 Ham, pickled or smoked . .28.lli24.74 
 
 36.45' 
 
 
 10.54 
 
 24 12 34 68 
 
 3 7 
 
 Bacon, pickled or smoked . . 10.211 8.95 72.82 
 
 8.02 
 
 8.7369.18 
 
 19.8 
 
 Goose breast 
 
 41.3521.45 
 
 31.49 1.15 
 
 
 4.56 
 
 20.9129.92 1.14 
 
 3.7 
 
 Beef sausage 48.24 
 
 20.39 
 
 26.99 
 
 
 4 43 
 
 19.8325.64 . . 
 
 3 2 
 
 Cervelat sausage 24 18 23 93 
 
 45 93 
 
 
 5 96' 53 33 42 fi2 
 
 4 7 
 
 Frankfurter sausage . . .42. 80! 12. 51 
 
 39.11 2.49 
 
 
 3.09 
 
 12.2037.15 2.47 
 
 7.8 
 
 Blood sausage, best quality . 49.93 11.81 
 
 11.4825.09 
 
 .... 1.69 
 
 10.51 10.4523.84 
 
 4.8 
 
 Liver sausage, medium quality 47.80 12.89 25. 10 12.00 
 
 2.21 
 
 11.47 
 
 22.8411.40 5.9 
 
 Link sausage 
 
 7.07 
 
 16.39 
 
 634.0032.3 
 
 0.80 9.48 
 
 13.82 
 
 31.6030.67 7.2 
 
 Meat of game and fowl. 
 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 Ho 
 30 
 
 Rabbit 
 Deer 
 
 74.16 
 75 76 
 
 23.34 1.13 
 19.11 1.92 
 19.72 1.42 
 18.49 9.34 
 24.70 8.50 
 22.65 3.11 
 15.9145.59 
 22.14 1.00 
 1 
 
 0.19 
 0.42 
 1.27 
 1.20 
 
 Y.33 
 '6:76 
 
 1.18 
 1.13 
 1.37 
 0.91 
 1 . 20 
 1 . 09 
 0.48 
 1 . 00 
 1 
 
 22.76 1.07 0.19 
 19.28 1.82 1.41 
 19.23 1.35 1.26 
 18.03 8.817 1.19 
 24.08 8.07 
 22.08 2.95 2.31 
 15.51 43.3 1 
 21.59 0.95 0.75 
 
 0. 
 0. 
 0. 
 1. 
 0. 
 0. 
 7. 
 0. 
 
 Chicken, lean 
 Chicken, fat 
 Turkey, medium fat 
 Duck, wild ....... 
 Goose, fat 
 Pigeon 
 
 76.22 
 70.06 
 65.60 
 70.82 
 38.02 
 75.10 
 
 Meat of fish. 
 
 37 Salmon 
 
 3S 
 
 39 Sea eel 
 
 River eel . 
 
 . 64.0021 
 
 58.21 
 
 Herring 
 Halibut 
 
 . 72.9017. 
 
 42 Carp 
 
 43 Pike . 
 
 Haddock 
 
 45 Codfish 
 
 46 Haddock, dried and smoked 
 Frog leg 
 
 48 Giant turtle 
 
 49 Sole 
 
 50 Trout 
 
 .75.09 
 . 75.24 
 . 73.47 
 .79.63 
 
 .81.5016 
 
 82.42 
 . 17.21 
 
 .63.6424 
 
 Salmon trout 
 
 52 Tench 
 
 53 Turbot . 
 Caviar 
 
 .[79.78 
 .82.67 
 .77.51 
 . 80.50 
 .80.00 
 .J77.60 
 
 2427.48 
 96 7.82 
 .44 7.63 
 .53 5.16 
 .671 8.73 
 .42 0.53 
 .93! 0.26 . . . 
 .97 0.31 
 .37J 2.47 
 .17 0.91 
 49; 0.53 
 
 0.53! 
 
 2.10! 
 
 0.74J 
 
 0.39 
 
 2.28 
 
 47.8629.34 13.98 
 
 
 
 
 1.22 
 
 20.51 
 11.87 
 17.42 
 14.98 
 17.97 
 16.70 
 17.87 
 16.42 
 15.49 
 70.20 
 22.96 
 17.57 
 14.16 
 18.60 
 16.99 
 16.95 
 17.56 
 28.46 
 
 12.31 
 25.01 
 7.12 
 6.94 
 4.70 
 7.94 
 0.48 
 0.24 
 0.28 
 2.25 
 0.83 
 0.48 
 0.48 
 1.91 
 0.67 
 0.35 
 2.07 
 13.28 
 
 '2^89 
 
 
 
 i\ 
 
 1.5 
 5.2 
 1.0 
 1.2 
 0.6 
 1.2 
 0.7 
 0.04 
 0.04 
 0.1 
 0.3 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.3 
 0.1 
 0.05 
 0.3 
 1.2 
 
 
 
 
 '2!<J8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'i'.so 
 
 
 
 Meat of invertebrate animals. 
 
 55 Oysters, meat juice .... 
 
 87.36 5.95 
 
 1.15 
 
 3.57 
 
 
 2.03 5.77 
 
 1.05 3.53 
 
 1 1 
 
 56 Common mussel .... 
 
 83.61 9.97 
 
 1.17 
 
 3.57 
 
 
 1.61 9.47 
 
 1.06 3.53 
 
 0.6 
 
 57 Lobster, fresh 
 
 81.84 14.49 
 
 1.84 
 
 0.12 
 
 
 1.71 13 77 
 
 1.67, 0.12 
 
 0.3 
 
 58 1 Lobster, preserved .... 
 
 77.75 18.13 
 
 1.07 
 
 0.58 
 
 
 2.47 17.22 
 
 0.97 0.57 
 
 0^2 
 
 59 River crabs, fresh .... 
 
 81.22 16.00 
 
 0.46 
 
 1.01 
 
 
 1.31 15 20 
 
 9.42 1.00 
 
 0. 1 
 
 60 River crabs, preserved . 
 
 72.74 13.63 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.21 
 
 
 13.06 12.95 
 
 0.33 0.21 
 
 01 
 
 61 Crab, fresh 
 
 78.81 15.83 
 
 1.32 
 
 2.42 
 
 
 1.62 15.04 
 
 1 20 2 40 
 
 0.3 
 
 62 Crab, preserved 
 
 70.8025.38 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.24 
 
 
 2.5824.11 
 
 0.91 0.24 
 
 01 
 
 63j Great snail 
 
 80.5016.34 
 
 1.38 
 
 0.45 
 
 
 
 1.3315.52 
 
 1.26 0.45 
 
 0.3 
 
 1 For utilizable nutritive substances. 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 57 
 
 Table comparing the composition and utilization of various meats and food 
 products, according to Konig Continued. 
 
 Meat extracts. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 .1 
 
 Designation. 
 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 | 
 
 PQ 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 f? 
 
 4 
 
 
 g 2 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 S-a 
 
 03 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 $ 
 
 Liebig's Meat Extract . 
 Abil's Fluid Extract . . . 
 
 17.70 9.17 6.37 
 65.80 3.03 6.91 
 
 53.87 
 9.26 
 
 0.59 
 0.35 
 
 0.648 
 0.148 
 
 0.21 
 0.35 
 
 
 21.26 
 17.33 
 
 3.75 
 1.35 
 
 
 Armour's (solid) Extract 
 
 21.00; 9.32 16.12' 42.08 
 
 0.567 
 
 0.58 
 
 
 20.25 
 
 3.70 
 
 Flagg's (solid) Extract . . . 
 
 21.37 
 
 10.01 17.37 
 
 41.18 
 
 0.687 
 
 0.35 
 
 
 19.23 
 
 3.25 
 
 Chemically fats are the richest substances among hydrocarbons. 
 Fresh adipose tissue shows the following composition in one hundred 
 parts, according to E. Schulz and Reinecke: 
 
 Steer 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Hog 
 
 Species. 
 
 Nitrogenous 
 substances. 
 
 1.16 
 1.64 
 1.35 
 
 Fat. 
 
 88.88 
 87.88 
 92.21 
 
 Water. 
 
 9.96 
 
 10.48 
 
 6.44 
 
 The fat itself is a mixture of glycerides (ester, derivative of tri- 
 equivalent alcohol), tripalmitin, tristearin, and triolein, which, depend- 
 ing upon their predominance, influence the consistency of the fat. 
 
 Bones and Bone Marrow. In meat inspection the bones come 
 into consideration, principally in regard to their form, for the purpose 
 of recognizing the origin and derivation of the meat. Structural rela- 
 tions, color, and compactness of bones are only rarely of importance 
 in connection with the other properties. 
 
 The chemical constituents of bones are bone cartilage (ossein) 30 
 per cent., inorganic material, 70 per cent., and a small quantity of 
 fat. The first consists principally of collagen, which is converted 
 through boiling into glutin. The salts in the dry bone consist of an 
 average of 87.7 per cent, calcium phosphate, 9.1 calcium carbonate, 
 2 per cent, calcium fluoride, and 1.2 per cent, magnesium phosphate. 
 Heinze reports the following composition for cattle and sheep bones: 
 
 Calcium carbonate . 
 Magnesium phosphate 
 Calcium phosphate . 
 Calcium fluoride 
 Organic substance . 
 
 The bone marrow appears as a red or reddish-white substance (fat 
 marrow). The latter consists of about 96 per cent, fat, and contains 
 a firmness in the various animals which corresponds to the consistence 
 of fat in the respective species. The red bone marrow is semisolid. 
 
 . 
 
 Cattle bones 
 per cent. 
 
 7.07 
 2 09 
 
 Sheep bones 
 per cent. 
 
 7.00 
 1.59 
 
 
 
 ..... 58.30 
 1.96 
 30.58 
 
 72.70 
 2.17 
 26.54 
 
58 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 FIG. 21 
 
 
 Head of cow with the tongue 
 cut out: a, a', retropharyngeal 
 lymph glands; b, submaxillary 
 lymph glands; c, tonsils; d, pos- 
 terior nares; e, cephalic flexure; 
 /, submaxillary salivary gland; 
 g, styloid processes of the hyoid 
 bone. 
 
 Cartilage. From the standpoint of meat 
 inspection cartilage is of very slight impor- 
 tance. It consists of a collagenous basic 
 substance which by boiling is converted into 
 gelatin. 
 
 Blood and Bloodvessels. The question re- 
 garding the quantity of blood in the body has 
 already been considered on page 41. In thor- 
 oughly bled animals, liquid blood is only found 
 in the small veins of the muscles and organs, 
 while coagulated blood may be seen in the 
 heart and in the large veins. The arteries are 
 always empty of blood. The color, coagulation, 
 and microscopic appearance of the blood of 
 healthy animals should not show a deviation 
 from the normal. There is a peculiar odor of 
 the blood, characteristic to each animal species. 
 It -results from the volatile fatty acids, and 
 appears more pronounced upon the addition 
 of sulphuric acid. 
 
 The chemical composition of the blood con- 
 sists, according to Konig, of 80.82 per cent, 
 water, 18.12 per cent, nitrogenous substances, 
 0.18 per cent, fat, 0.03 per cent, nitrogen free 
 extractive bodies and 0.85 per cent. ash. On 
 account of the richness of the blood in albumen, 
 it is a very nutritive food. 
 
 Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels. The 
 lymph glands, which lately have been designated 
 as lymph nodes, are of special importance in 
 meat inspection. In size they appear relatively 
 larger in young animals than in old ones. This 
 is likewise true of the lymph contents of the 
 glands, and the intestinal glands also are richer 
 in lymph than the body glands. All the lymph 
 vessels of a certain region empty into a certain 
 lymph gland, but the anatomical borders of 
 such a region are not established in the entire 
 body. As far as present knowledge of the 
 lymphatic system permits separation of the 
 regions of the various lymph glands, it may be 
 accepted that these are not connected with 
 each other, and that for every part of the 
 body there are one or more distinct lymph 
 glands (corresponding lymph glands). Their 
 size, number, and location are subject to certain 
 deviations. 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 59 
 
 For the purpose of meat inspection it is best to classify the lymph 
 glands, in accordance with their draining regions, into visceral lymph 
 glands, muscular or body lymph glands, and mixed lymph glands. 
 To the latter class belong all those lymph glands which receive their 
 lymph not alone from the viscera, but also from the muscles (muscles, 
 skeleton, etc.). 
 
 FIG. 22 
 
 Head of cow, the right submaxillary and left styloid of the hyoid bone of which are removed: 1, 
 articular surface of the temporal bone; 2, external auditory meatus; 3, jugular process of the occipital 
 bone; 4, petrous bone; 5, muscular attachment to petrous bone; 6, occipital condyle; 7, medulla oblon- 
 gata; 8, pterygoid bone; 9, tonsils; 10, styloid process of the hyoid bone; 11, thyroid cornua of the 
 hyoid bone; 12, cricoid laryngeal cartilage; 13, ring of the trachea; a, masseter muscle; b, temporal 
 muscle; c, tensor muscle of the palate; d, levator muscle of the palate; e, pterygopharyngeal muscle; 
 /, chondro-, crico-, thyropharyngeus muscle; g, hyoglossal muscle; h, styloglossal muscle; i, M. 
 keratohyoideus brevis; k, M. hyothyroideus; I, and m, M. omohyoideus; n, M. sterno thyroid; o, M. 
 myoglossus; p, M. mylohyoid; q, M. sternohyoideus; r, M. long, capit.; s, M. rect. capit.; t, arcus 
 palatoglossus; S, submaxillary salivary gland; u, submaxillary lymph gland; V, retropharyngeal 
 lymph glands. 
 
 Visceral Lymph Glands. Visceral lymph glands are those which 
 receive their lymph principally from the viscera to which they belong. 
 Those lymph glands which belong functionally to the various organs 
 or viscera of the body, and which are important in meat inspection, 
 are described as follows: 1 
 
 1 L, signifies the location of the lymph gland; A, afferent vessels, and E, efferent vessels. 
 
60 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 (a) LYMPH GLANDS OF THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS, INCLUDING 
 THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC CAVITIES. 1. Submaxillary Lymph 
 Glands: L. Superficially in the submaxillary space; in cattle at the 
 angle of the lower jaw bone, sometimes present as two small nodes; 
 in hogs, adjacent and to the inside of the submaxillary salivary gland. 
 A. Superficial parts of the head, interior nasal passages and buccal cavity. 
 E. Superior cervical lymph glands (Fig. 21 b, Fig. 22 u, Fig. 23 u.) 
 
 FIG. 23 
 
 Right half of a vertical section of a hog's head: 1, cartilaginous nucleus attaching the hyoid to the 
 temporal bone; 2, jugular process of the occipital bone; a, M. longus colli; b, M. sternocleidomaatoid.; 
 c, M. sternocephalic. ; d, M. pterygoid. medial.; e, M. sternohyoid.; /, soft palate; g. post, nares; S, 
 submaxillary salivary gland; u, submaxillary lymph gland; V, retropharyngeal lymph gland. 
 
 2. Parotid Lymph Gland. L. Median surface of the parotid and 
 submaxillary salivary glands. In cattle a special large gland extending 
 over the maxillary border of the parotid, and partly laying on the 
 masseter muscle. In hogs very numerous, large, and red in color. 
 A. Dorsal half of the head, cranial cavity, base of the cranium, tongue, 
 soft palate, esophagus, and larynx. E. Superior cervical lymph glands. 
 
 3. Superior Cervical Lymph Glands. Partly united with portions of 
 the previous gland to the retropharyngeal lymph glands. L. Posterior 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 61 
 
 to the larynx and pharynx near the thyroid gland; in cattle at the 
 base of the cranium, in the superior part of the pharyngeal cavity 
 forming two large bodies. A. Inside of the head, together with the 
 cranial, buccal, and tracheal cavities, and the efferent lymph vessels 
 of 1 and 2. E. Middle and inferior cervical lymph glands (Fig. 21 a, 
 Fig. 22 u, Fig. 23 1>). 
 
 4. Middle Cervical Glands. L. Middle of the neck at the side of 
 the trachea, anterior to the carotid artery. A. Esophagus and trachea, 
 superior cervical glands. E. Inferior cervical lymph glands. 
 
 FIG. 24 
 
 Intestinal 
 
 of cattle spread out: C, colon; Ca, cecum; D, duodenum; j, jejunum; //, ileum; 
 R, rectum; m, mesenteric lymph glands of the small intestines. 
 
 5. Inferior Cervical Glands, Prepectoral Glands. L. At the entrance 
 of the thorax anterior to the trachea and extending into the thoracic 
 cavity. A. Neighboring parts, shoulder, upper arm, and efferent 
 lymph vessels from middle cervical glands (and therefore, also, from 
 1 and 3), and also from the puescapular lymph gland. E. Thoracic 
 duct, i. e., the great right lymph vein (Fig. 29 6). 
 
 6. Gastric Lymph Glands.- L. Small curvature, toward both sur- 
 faces of the stomach. In ruminants in the long groove of the rumen 
 and at the attachment of the small mesentery. A. Wall of the stomach. 
 E. Receptaculum chyli (Fig. 25). 
 
 7. Mesenteric Lymph Glands: L. Between the peritoneal folds of 
 the mesentery along the small curvature of the small intestines, 
 
62 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 between the flexures of the colon and in the mesentery of the same. 
 In hogs also a group at the superior border of the mesentery. In 
 dogs on the jejunum there is a very long mesenteric lymph gland, 
 the so-called pancreas Aselli. A. Wall of large and small intestines. 
 E. Receptaculum chyli (Fig. 24). 
 
 8. Anal Lymph Glands. L. Two or three lymph glands in the 
 periproctal connective tissue in the vicinity of the levator ani muscle. 
 A. Rectum, perineum, and root of the tail. E. Sublumbar lymph 
 glands (Fig. 276). 
 
 FIG. 25 
 
 Stomach and portion of the intestinal canal of a hog: a, pyloric portion of the stomach; 6, duodenum ; 
 c. jejunum; d, cecum; e, colon;/, rectum; h, foramen of Winslow; i, portal vein; k, hepatic lymph glands; 
 I, gastric lymph glands; m, esophagus. 
 
 9. Hepatic Lymph Glands Portal Lymph Glands. L. In the 
 posterior hepatic fissure (Porta hepatis); in hogs on the portal vein 
 around the foramen of Winslow, usually conspicuous by their brown 
 color. A. Liver tissue. E. Receptaculum chyli (Fig. 25 k and Fig. 26 c). 
 
 10. Splenic Lymph Glands. L. Hilus of the spleen, between the 
 layers of the gastrosplenic ligament. A. Spleen, stomach, and omen- 
 turn. E. Receptaculum chyli. 
 
 11. Sublumbar Lymph Glands. L. Side and ventral surface of the 
 lumbar vertebrae, dorsal to the great bloodvessels, partially covered 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 63 
 
 by the lumbar muscles. A. Dorsal abdominal wall, lumbar vertebrae, 
 internal genital organs. Lymph vessels from the external and internal 
 iliacs, deep inguinal, sacral, and popliteal glands. E. Receptaculum 
 chyli (Fig. 27e). 
 
 12. Sacral Lymph Glands. L. Along the ventral border of the 
 sacrum. A. Dorsal pelvic wall, rectum, and internal genital organs. 
 E. Sublumbar glands (Fig. 27 d). 
 
 13. Internal Iliac Lymph Glands. L. At the angle between the 
 external iliac and the hypogastric arteries, i. e., between the former 
 and the abdominal aorta, on the ventral side of the ileum. A. Abdom- 
 inal and pelvic walls, bones of the pelvis, sacrum, muscles of the 
 croup, rectum, internal genital organs, external iliac lymph glands. 
 E. Sublumbar lymph glands and the receptaculum chyli (Fig. 27 c). 
 
 14. External Iliac Lymph Glands. L. Small and detached, in the 
 neighborhood of the angle of the ileum, in the angle between both 
 branches of the circumflex iliac artery. A. Abdominal wall, lateral 
 surface of the upper part of the thigh. E. Sublumbar lymph glands. 
 
 FIG. 20 
 
 Gastric surface of the liver of cattle: a, vena cava; b, entrance of the portal vein; c, portal lymph 
 glands; d, lobus caudatus (Spigelium); e, gall-bladder. 
 
 (6) LYMPH GLANDS OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS, AND THORACIC 
 CAVITY. The lymph glands described under (a) from 1 to 5 belong 
 also to the respiratory apparatus. As previously stated, they receive 
 lymph from regions belonging in part to the digestive as well as to 
 the respiratory apparatus. 
 
 6. Bronchial Lymph Glands. L. Bifurcation of the trachea, in the 
 lung substance at the branching of the bronchi. In cattle they form 
 a continuous chain with the posterior mediastinal lymph glands; 
 there is one large or several small glands to the left of the arch of the 
 aorta; one on the right, at the branching of the bronchus of the cephalic 
 
64 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 lobe, or at the root of the lobule of the right lobe, besides a lymph 
 gland of the size of a hazelnut at the base of the division between 
 the cardiac and diaphragmatic lobe of the right lung. In hogs there 
 
 FIG. 27 
 
 ZP 
 
 Left hind-quarter of a bull, cut very long: A, aorta; V, vena cava; Z, diaphragm; ZP, pillars of the 
 diaphragm; L, external inguinal canal; N, left kidney; Nnr, right adrenal capsule; Nnl, left adrenal 
 capsule; P, pancreas; R, renal artery; /, external iliac artery; a, superficial inguinal lymph gland; 
 b, anal lymph gland; c, internal iliac gland; d, sacral lymph gland, e, lumbar glands; /, renal lymph 
 gland. 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 65 
 
 is generally another lymph gland at the attachment of the media- 
 stinum at the dorsal angle of the bifurcation of the two principal bronchi 
 (middle bronchial lymph gland). A. Lungs and lymph vessels from 
 the posterior mediastinal gland. E. Thoracic duct and partly to the 
 posterior mediastinal glands (Fig. 28 a, b). 
 
 FIG. 25 
 
 Lungs and heart of steer, suspended dorsal view: Aa, aorta ascendens; Ad, aorta descendens cut 
 and flapped over to the left; Ap, art. pulmonalis; Acs, left cordal atrium; L, left, L', right lung; Oe, 
 esophagus; T, trachea; a, right superior bronchial lymph gland; b, left bronchial lymph gland; c, 
 posterior mediastinal lymph glands. 
 
 7. Mediastinal Lymph Glands. (a) Anterior mediastinal glands: 
 L. Numerous in the precardial mediastinal space near the superior 
 vena cava. In cattle several large lymph glands (Fig. 29 a), above 
 the first section of the breastbone, near the entrance of the thorax. 
 A. Heart, pericardium, thymus gland, thoracic wall, diaphragm, 
 mediastinum. E. Thoracic duct or great right lymph vein. 
 
 (b) Posterior mediastinal lymph glands: L. In the post-cardial 
 mediastinum, along the esophagus, and posterior aorta. In cattle, 
 8 to 12 lymph glands are located along the dorsal wall of the esophagus, 
 5 
 
66 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 the posterior node of which is usually strikingly large (Fig. 28 c). In 
 hogs they are very small or absent. A. Esophagus, pericardium, 
 diaphragm, mediastinum, parietal surface of the liver. E. Efferent 
 vessels empty in part into the bronchial glands, in part into the anterior 
 mediastinal glands and in part into the thoracic duct. 
 
 FJG. 29 
 
 Portion of the left thoracic wall of heifer: A, art. thoracic, int.; V, vena thoracic, int.; I, muse, 
 sternocephalic. ; M, muse, transvers. thorac. cut through: PP', muse, pectoral.; R, ribs; Z, diaphragm; 
 o, inferior thoracic lymph glands; a', anterior mediastinal gland; b, inferior cervical or prepectoral 
 lymph glands. 
 
 8. Lymph Glands of the Thoracic Wall. (a) Dorsal lymph glands. 
 L. Small, to the side of the vertebrae, between the consecutive articula- 
 tions of the heads of the ribs, and between the layers of the intercostal 
 muscles. A. Dorsal vertebrae, muscles of the same, pleura, diaphragm, 
 and intercostal muscles. E. Thoracic duct. 
 
 (b) Inferior Thoracic Lymph Glands. L. Dorsal surface of the 
 breastbone along the internal thoracic vein, i. e., between the costal 
 cartilage breastbone articulations. In hogs they are only exceptionally 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 67 
 
 present. A. Straight abdominal, transverse abdominal, thoracic, and 
 intercostal muscles, pleura and diaphragm. E. Receptaculum chyli, 
 inferior cervical glands (Fig. 29 a) . 
 
 (c) LYMPH GLANDS OF THE GENITOURINARY APPARATUS. 1. Renal 
 Lymph Glands. L. Hilus of the kidneys, at the angle between the 
 aorta and renal artery or posterior vena cava, and renal vein. A. 
 Kidneys. E. Receptaculum chyli (Fig. 27 b). 
 
 2 to 4. Lymph glands, which have been described under (a), 11 to 
 13. A. Ureters, bladder, urethra, and genitals inside of the pelvic 
 cavity. E. Receptaculum chyli and sublumbar lymph glands. 
 
 FIG. 30 
 
 
 Left fore-quarter of heifer with exposed prescapular lymph gland: o, a, M. trapezius cervical, 
 and thoracal.; b, b', M. omotransversarius ; c, c', c", d, M. brachiocephalicus (of which d is the M. 
 cleidomastoideus) ; e, jugular vein; /and g, M. sternocephalic. (superficial and deep portion); h, ster- 
 num; i, M. pectoral, superficial.; k, spinal, scapul.; I, prescapular lymph gland; m, pars acromial. 
 and m', pars scapular of the M. deltoideus; n, caput. lateral., and n', caput. long., of the M. triceps 
 brachii; o, M. latissim. dorsi; p, M. serrat. ventral.; q, M. pectoral, profund.; r, M. obliq. ext. abdominal. 
 
 5. Superficial Inguinal Glands. L. In male animals these include 
 several lymph nodes, between the abdominal wall and the prepuce 
 and scrotum. In female animals they are located superficially behind 
 the udder. In cows these are the large lymph glands on each side 
 behind and above the udder (supramammary lymph glands). A. 
 External genitals, udder, ventral abdominal wall and median surface 
 of the thigh. E. Deep inguinal lymph gland (Fig. 27 a). 
 
 Body Lymph Glands. As applied to meat inspection the term muscle 
 or body lymph glands refers to those lymph glands which drain regions 
 in the skeleton and muscles, i. e., those tissues which enclose them as 
 well as the bones and skin, but they do not receive lymph from the 
 viscera. 
 
68 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 The body lymph glands, which are important in meat inspection, 
 are the following: 
 
 1. Prescapular Lymph Glands. L. Anterior border of the shoulder, 
 above the scapulohumeral articulation, and covered principally by 
 the angularis scapulse muscle and sometimes by the dorsal border 
 of the mastoidohumeralis muscle. A. Neck, shoulder, upper and 
 lower leg. E. Inferior cervical lymph glands (Fig. 30 I). 
 
 2. Axillary Lymph Glands. L. Median surface of the shoulder, 
 dorsal border of the pectoralis minor muscle, posteriorly to the shoulder 
 joint, near the entrance of the lateral thoracic vein into the axillary 
 vein. They are usually absent in hogs. A. Shoulder, upper arm, 
 thoracic wall, and elbow lymph gland. E. Inferior cervical lymph 
 glands. 
 
 3. Elbow Lymph Glands. They occur only in the horse. L. Median 
 side of the upper arm near the cubital articulation between the biceps 
 brachii muscle and the median anconeUs muscle on the brachial vein. 
 A. Foot and lower arm. E. Axillary and prescapular lymph glands. 
 
 4. Precrural Lymph Glands. L. In the tendinous portion of the 
 external abdominal muscle on the free border of the fascia lata muscle 
 in the middle, between the patella and the external angle of the ileum. 
 In cattle and hogs this gland is a long single one. A. Abdominal wall 
 and lateral surface of the posterior limb. E. Sublumbar and internal 
 iliac glands (Fig. 31 Z, and Fig. 32/). 
 
 5. Popliteal Lymph Gland. L. On the gastrocnemius muscle, 
 between the biceps femoris muscle and the semitendinosus muscle. 
 It is frequently absent in hogs, but there is always present a superficial 
 gland, the size of a small hazelnut, in the subcutis of the hollow of the 
 hock about a handbreadth from the point of the hock. A. Lower 
 part of leg and foot. E. Deep inguinal, sublumbar, and external ischial 
 lymph glands (Fig. 31 c, and Fig. 33 a). 
 
 6. Deep Inguinal Lymph Glands. L. In the inguinal canal lying 
 above the femoral artery and vein. Only in the horse do they exist 
 as large glands. A. Posterior limb with the exception of the external 
 surface of the thigh and muscle thereof; abdominal wall. E. Sub- 
 lumbar lymph glands and receptaculum chyli. 
 
 7. External Ischial Lymph Gland (Franck). L. In cattle about 
 the size of a walnut on the ventral border of the coccygeus, covered 
 by the broad ligament of the pelvis (Stroh). In hogs it lays usually 
 more superficially. A. Pelvic and rump muscles and popliteal lymph 
 gland. E. Sacral and sublumbar lymph glands. 
 
 8. Flank Lymph Gland (Franck). L. In ruminants under the skin 
 of the triangle in front of the external angle of the ileum. A. Neighbor- 
 ing parts of the skin. E. Precrural lymph gland. 
 
 In the subcutis there are besides small lymph glands at various 
 parts; they are, however, not constant in their position and they also 
 vary in size. 
 
 Comparative Anatomy of the Most Important Viscera. Every 
 veterinary inspector should be thoroughly versed in the anatomical 
 
MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 FIG. 31 
 
 69 
 
 V 
 
 Left hind-quarter of steer with exposed prccrunil and p iplitoal lymph glands: a, M. gluteus super- 
 ficial., which fuse with b and b', the M. biceps femoris; c, popliteal lymph gland; d, M. semitendinos.; 
 e, M. semimembranos. ; /, M. gluteus medius; g, M. tensor fasciae lat.; h, M. cutaneus maxium.; i, 
 M. quadriceps femoris; I, precrural or kneefold lymph gland; 1, lateral angle of the ileum (hip bone). 
 
70 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 characteristics of the normal viscera of the domestic animals, and 
 therefore/ the principal differential signs of certain viscera will be 
 briefly specified below. 
 
 FIG. 32 
 
 FIG 33 
 
 Median view of the right hind-quarter of a hog Lateral view of the right hind-quarter 
 
 with exposed precrural lymph gland: 1, pelvic of a hog with exposed popliteal lymph 
 
 symphysis; 2, first sacral vertebra; a, M. gracilis; gland a. 
 
 b, M. quadriceps femor. ; c, M. tensor fascia lat.; 
 
 d, M. obliquus intern, and transversus abdominal; 
 
 e, M. iliopsoas; /, precrural lymph gland. 
 
 Tongue. Cattle: 1 Round, large body; mucous membrane frequently shows 
 blackish spots; the filiform papilla? are horny, especially strong along the 
 lateral border; numerous fungiform papillae mostly arranged in groups and 
 scattered over the entire dorsum; 28 to 34 circumvallate papillae, which are 
 arranged in two rows in the form of a V; the foliate papillae are absent; the 
 epiglottis is frequently attached and appears oval. Sheep and Goats: Similar 
 to cattle; the centre of the tip is slightly grooved; the papillae of the body are 
 comparatively even larger than in cattle and are grouped into compact masses; 
 filiform and fungiform papillae are also present on the inferior surface; sheep 
 have 18 to 24, while goats have 12 circumvallate papillae. Hogs: Long and 
 narrow; 2 circumvallate papillae and numerous fungiform papillae at the base; 
 long, soft papillae directed backward; foliate papillae have mostly five cross- 
 fissures; epiglottis broad, at the free border flatly rounded. Horses: Flat, 
 even, long point; intense toughness of the mucous membrane in the dorsum; 
 fungiform papillae especially well defined on the lateral surface; 2 circum- 
 vallate and 2 foliate papillae with 3 to 10 cross-furrows; epiglottis leaf -shaped. 
 Dogs: Broad, flat, sharp lateral borders, bright red color; under the mucous 
 membrane on the posterior surface is found the flask-shaped cartilage-like 
 body, the so-called lyssa; long, soft papillae at the base; 4 to 6 circumvallate 
 papillae; foliate papillae indistinct, with 5 to 7 cross-fissures; epiglottis rhom- 
 boidal. 
 
 1 Regarding the weight of the liver, heart, spleen, kidneys, and lungs of cattle, see also page 73. 
 

 MEAT PROPER AND ITS CONSTITUENTS 71 
 
 Stomach. The relation of the stomachs of the ruminants do not require 
 special mention. Hogs: Triangular dilatation on the left dorsal end; cardiac 
 portion funnel-shaped; the portion covered by esophageal mucous membrane 
 is small; at the elongation of the small curvature lies the cone-shaped pylorus, 
 which contains a sphincter muscle. Horses: Left half of the stomach covered 
 by esophageal mucous membrane, which is sharply separated by a jagged 
 border from the glandular mucous membrane; esophageal orifice is slanting, 
 with sphincter muscle; double pyloric sphincter. Dogs: Left half round, 
 pyloric part shaped like intestines; esophageal orifice conical, single pyloric 
 sphincter; esophageal region absent. 
 
 Intestinal Canal. In cattle, swine, and goats the colon is spirally coiled 
 upon itself while externally and ventrally to it lies the jejunum on a short 
 mesentery, hanging in numerous convolutions. In hogs the colon forms a 
 convolution the shape of a nine-pin. Regarding the diameter, the colon of 
 cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs differs only slightly from the small intestines; 
 in horses and hogs the colon is considerably larger than the small intestines. 
 Colon and cecum of the hog and horse have longitudinal muscular bands and 
 are sacculated. 
 
 Liver. Color is generally reddish brown; in fat animals and in those of 
 advanced pregnancy it is yellowish brown. Cattle: Indistinctly three-lobed, 
 Spigelian lobe rounded on the right lobe; falciform ligament absent, and, 
 as a rule, the ligamentum teres; gall-bladder pear-shaped, extending a long 
 distance over the ventral border of the liver; average weight, according to 
 Schmaltz, J* of the dressed weight; in cattle of over 250 kg., dressed weight, 
 5 to 6 kg.; in lighter animals, 3 to 4 kg. Sheep and Goats: Covering of the 
 ventral border at the height of the attachment of the round ligament relatively 
 deeper than in cattle, the lobus Spigelii triangular running into a point; the 
 gall-bladder appears similar to that in cattle; weight TTS of the dressed weight, 
 from 375 to 875 grams. Hogs: Four lobes besides the lobus quadratus and 
 caudatus; prominent esophageal notch, the gall-bladder deep in the right 
 portion of the middle lobe; the head of the gall-bladder does not quite reach 
 the ventral border of the liver; the portal vein is at the dorsal border of the 
 liver, more or less surrounded by the liver parenchyma; lateral ligaments 
 are absent; liver lobules are remarkably distinct, due to the rich develop- 
 ment of the interlobular connective tissue; weight A of the dressed weight, 
 ^ kg. Horses: Three distinct lobes, the lobus and processus caudatus running 
 into a point (lobus Spigelii), deep esophageal notches; gall-bladder absent; 
 average weight, 5 kg., in old horse often only 2.5 to 3.5 kg. Dogs: From the 
 parietal surface four lobes, and from the visceral 6 lobes are noticeable; deep 
 esophageal notch; the cavity for the gall-bladder is formed by the right border 
 of the lobus quadratus and the left border of the right middle lobe; the head 
 of the gall-bladder does not reach the ventral border of the liver. 
 
 Pancreas. Cattle: Light yellow brown to reddish-yellow brown, free of 
 fat. Calves and Sheep: Similar to cattle; in fattened animals it is lighter in 
 color. Hogs: Grayish yellow, extensively intermixed with fat. Horses: Red- 
 dish yellow to reddish gray. Dogs: Pale red. 
 
 Spleen. Cattle: Long and flat, uniformly broad, with rounded edges; 
 in bulls and fattened steers, reddish brown; in cows, grayish blue; consistence 
 in bulls and fattened steers quite dense, in the cow loose; the borders of the 
 first are rounded, in the latter they are sharp. The surfaces in the bulls and 
 steers are arched; in the cow flat; the follicles in the first are larger (up to the 
 size of hempseed) than in the latter; weight in animals dressing over 250 
 kg., 1 kg. ; in those dressing below that weight, 0.5 to 0.75 kg. Calves: Reddish 
 brown to bluish violet; borders and surfaces are rounded; consistence soft. 
 Sheep and Goats: Blunt, angular, of the shape of a palm of the hand; reddish 
 brown; consistence soft to elastic. Hogs: Long tongue-shaped, with the 
 exception of the ends, which are almost uniformly broad; cross-section is tri- 
 angular; pale red; consistence soft, loose. Horses: Flat, elongated, triangular, 
 and slightly bent in the shape of a scythe; bluish red, assuming a shade 
 
72 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 of reddish brown; the curved anterior border is thinner than the rounded pos- 
 terior border; weight, 2'., of the body weight, 0.5 to 1.5 kg. Dogs: Tongue- 
 shaped, broad at the ventral extremity; light red; weight, 5^0 to g^o of the 
 body weight. 
 
 Lungs. Cattle: Left lung has three lobes, cephalic, cardiac, and diaphrag- 
 matic; right lung four to five lobes; the division of lobules is more pronounced 
 than in any other food animal; intralobular connective tissue is well developed. 
 Sheep: Structure of lobules very indistinct; in the goat, however, it is more 
 distinct. Hogs: In the left lung, two to three lobes (the cephalic lobe, which 
 is sometimes divided and the principal lobe), the right lung has four lobes. 
 Horses: The left lung has two lobes (cephalic and principal lobes); the right 
 has three; lobular structure not very distinct; the bronchial tube for the cephalic 
 lobe of right lung, which originates directly from the trachea, and which is 
 present in ruminants and hogs, is absent. Dogs: Left lung has three, right 
 lung has four separate lobes, the notches of which extend up to the principal 
 bronchi; lobular structure is indistinct, frequently anthracosis is seen. 
 
 Thyroid Gland. Cattle: Two flat lobes connected by an isthmus which 
 is 1 to 1.5 cm. broad; structure lobulated, light reddish brown. Calves: Darker, 
 isthmus stronger. Sheep: On each side a thick brownish-red lobe, with the 
 appearance very much like muscle; isthmus very indistinct. Hogs: Connected, 
 flat, not lobulated, dark red. Horses: Each side portion roundish, oval, of the 
 size of a prune, reddish brown, isthmus consists mostly of connective tissue. 
 Dogs: Side lobe large, elongated; isthmus in large dogs very distinct, in smaller 
 dogs only slightly or unobservable. 
 
 Thymus Gland (Sweetbread, German kalbsmilch, bries, broschen). Cattle: 
 Divided, lobulated, whitish yellow, first disappears from the neck portion; 
 in the thorax even after eight to nine years it is plainly noticeable. Calves: 
 Reaches up to the larynx; in the first week of life it weighs 100 to 200 grams, 
 after four to six weeks, 400 to 600 grams. Hogs: Both cervical lobes reach 
 to the throat, color grayish yellow. Horses: Disappears at two to two and 
 one-half years. Dogs: Flat body, which divides anteriorly and also posteriorly 
 into two lobes; pale gray; only traces left after two to three years. 
 
 Heart. In all animals reddish brown; consistence firm. Cattle: In the 
 fibrous ring of the aorta are two heart bones, which in calves are cartilaginous 
 until the fourth week. Hogs: Apex more rounded than in sheep; heart cartilage 
 ossifies in older age, as in the horse. Dogs: Almost round; heart cartilage 
 is absent, or is very small. 
 
 Kidneys. Cattle: Consists of 16 to 26 lobules, which fuse in the deeper 
 portion, and as there are just as many calices and renal papilla, there is no true 
 pelvis of the kidney; reddish brown; average weight, mta of the body weight, 
 952 grams. Sheep and Goats: Bean-shaped; not lobulated, thick, arched; 
 dark brown to brown; mutual renal papillae and pelvis. Hogs: Bean-shaped, 
 not lobulated, flattened; brown to yellow brown; 10 to 12 renal papillae; pelvis 
 with several calices; average w r eight, 1^0 of the body weight, 420 grams. 
 Horses: Left kidney longer than broad (bean-shaped) ; the right is triangular, 
 flat, not lobulated; brown; renal papilla? are fused into a crescent projection; 
 kidney pelvis has two terminal recesses. Dogs: Bean-shaped, thick, only 
 one renal papillae; reddish brown; kidney pelvis has two terminal recesses. 
 
 Urinary Bladder. Cattle: Very large, almost entirely covered by the peri- 
 toneum; the triangular space between the orifices of the ureters and the urethra 
 called the trigone, is very small, hardly perceptible; similar in sheep, goats, 
 hogs, and horses; covered by the peritoneum in the form of a cap; mucous 
 membrane contains noduli lymphatici. Dogs: Roundish, almost entirely 
 covered by peritoneum; ligamentum vesico-umbilicale is present. 
 
 Uterus. Cattle: Two horns; from external appearances a body is apparently 
 present, but actually it is only 1 to 2 cm. long; mucous membrane forms cotyl- 
 edons. Sheep and Goats: Horns longer, at the extremities round-like intes- 
 tines; mucous membrane forms very small cotyledons, which in pregnancy 
 become cup-shaped (uterine cups); screw-shaped folds in the cervix. Hogs: 
 
PECULIARITIES OF THE MEAT FROM VARIOUS ANIMALS 73 
 
 Horns long, having the appearance of small intestines; body short, 5 cm. long; 
 the cervix proper is absent; mucous membrane on the corresponding place 
 in the form of oblique rolls (pads); mucous membrane in thin folds. Horses: 
 Two horns, very long body (13 to 15 cm.), prominent cervix with close folds 
 of the mucous membrane arranged lengthwise. Dogs: Long, straight horns, 
 short body, with a strong muscle wall for a cervix. 
 
 Ovaries. Cattle: Oval, flat, with a large ovulation surface. Sheep and 
 Goats: Roundish, relatively large. Hogs: Roundish, nodular, like a black- 
 berry, more or less enveloped by the ovarian sac. Horses: Almost bean- 
 shaped, dense, entirely covered by peritoneum, up to the notches of the 
 ovulation grooves. Dogs: Elongated, has no notches, enveloped by ovarian 
 sac and fat. 
 
 Mammae. Cattle: Four quarters, with one teat each, which has only one 
 opening; parenchyma gray to whitish red. Sheep: Two halves, each has one 
 small teat with one opening. Goats: Two large, loose-hanging halves, each 
 having a strong teat which is turned forward, and has one opening. Hogs: 
 The mammae extends from the vulva to the sternum, and has 5 to 6 divisions 
 on each side, each having one teat, which contains one or two openings; the 
 parenchyma is richly intermixed with fat. Horses: Two elongated round 
 halves, each having one flat triangular teat, which has two openings; paren- 
 chyma, whitish red. Dogs: As in the hog, on each side there are 4 to 5 divisions, 
 each having one teat, the point of which is pierced by 8 to 12 openings, like 
 a sieve. 
 
 Schneider undertook to investigate the absolute and relative weight 
 of the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen of cattle, the results 
 of which are compiled in the following table : 
 
 
 Absolute average 
 weight in 
 
 ' Relative average weight. 
 
 To the live weight 
 of the animal. 
 
 To the dressed 
 weight of the carcass. 
 
 B 
 
 Kg. 
 
 7.607 
 3.012 
 1.155 
 0.727 
 3.930 
 
 to 
 
 3 
 W 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 Heifers. 
 
 . E 
 
 4) 
 
 -2 
 
 CO 
 
 "3 
 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 Heifers. 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 6 
 
 Heifers. 
 
 Liver ... .... 
 Heart 
 Spleen . . .... 
 Kidneys . . .... 
 Lungs . . .... 
 
 Kg. 
 
 5.947 
 2.592 
 0.878 
 0.613 
 3.330 
 
 Kg. 
 
 5.497 
 2.205 
 0.789 
 0.617 
 2.990 
 
 Kg. 
 
 4.787 
 1.890 
 0.744 
 0.497 
 2.657 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 1.038 
 0.414 
 0.159 
 0.100 
 0.541 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 1.023 
 0.442 
 0.152 
 0.105 
 0.560 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 1.206 
 0.492 
 0.171 
 0.129 
 0.653 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 1.156 
 0.457 
 0.163 
 0.115 
 0.660 
 
 Per Per 
 
 cent. cent. 
 
 1.8251.924 
 0.727 0.835 
 0.278 0.285 
 0.1760.199 
 0.950 1.056 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 2.531 
 0.997 
 0.356 
 0.278 
 1.326 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 2.203 
 0.875 
 0.334 
 0.235 
 1.102 
 
 Accordingly the absolute weight of the 5 organs averages the highest in 
 steers, and gradually diminishes from the steers to the heifers. The relative 
 weight averages the smallest in steers and increases from the steers to the 
 heifers and cows. 
 
 PECULIARITIES OF THE MEAT FROM VARIOUS ANIMALS 
 
 Meat and fat of all animal species possess certain peculiarities which 
 are more or less influenced by breed, sex, age, feeding, and condition 
 of health of the respective animals, and thus they fluctuate within 
 certain limits. 
 
74 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 Beef. Generally beef shows a saturated red color with a slight 
 tint of brown; it has a firm consistency and its cut surface is shiny. 
 The odor is characteristic and the meat is generally intermingled with 
 fat. The connective tissue is white and soft. After chilling, the fat 
 shows quite a firm consistence, a white to yellow color, and a peculiar 
 odor. In old cattle the fat assumes a more yellowish color, and is 
 looser in consistency. Intensive yellow coloration of the fat may 
 also be met in pasture-fed cattle. Rich feeding with slop, oil cake, 
 acorn cake, or cottonseed meal produces a soft, loose, yellow fat. 
 The bone marrow is pure white to reddish yellow, and of a moderately 
 firm consistence. Fattened steers up to six years old have bright, 
 dark brick red meat, which is moderately coarse in fiber, and which 
 as a result of the intermixing with fat has a marbled shiny appearance 
 on its cut surface. The fat is white to whitish yellow and firm. 
 
 The meat and fat of fattened calves and fattened young cows up 
 to the age of seven years appear similar to that of fattened steers. 
 
 The meat of old milch cows shows, as a rule, a lighter coloration 
 and coarser fibers; the connective tissue stands out more prominently 
 and is close in texture or flabby, and contains more moisture. The 
 fat is yellow, even to an intensive lemon yellow color, and appears 
 less firm and intermixed only in small amounts with the meat. It 
 is more abundant in the subcutaneous tissues, mesentery, peritoneum, 
 and kidney capsule. The odor of cow meat sometimes resembles the 
 odor of cow milk (Baranski). 
 
 Young cattle possess a loose, fine-fibered meat of a pale to light 
 brick red color only slightly intermingled with fat. The fat is white 
 and firm. 
 
 In older bulls the meat is dark copper red in color, coarse fibered, 
 tough, poor in fat, and dry. In large masses, and especially where 
 the muscles are covered by a fascia, the meat has a light bluish 
 hue; the fat is white. The dried surface of the meat of older bulls 
 appears very dark and the butchers designate it as "black." The 
 meat of young fattened bulls differs only slightly from that of fattened 
 steers, with the exception of showing coarser fibers. 
 
 The disagreeable odor of bull meat, which was observed by Goltz, and which 
 resembles the effluvium of the live bull, appears relatively rare. The subject 
 of sexual odor of meat is further treated in Chapter VII, p. 194. 
 
 Veal. The meat of calves slaughtered at an age from two to four 
 weeks is generally pale, gray to grayish red, has fine, somewhat tough 
 fibers, and is not intermixed with fat. The consistency is from moder- 
 ately firm to loose. The odor is specific; in calves which have been 
 slaughtered for a long period (old slaughter) it is slightly sour. The 
 fat is reddish yellow to white yellow, or pure white, loose, and greasy. 
 The bone marrow is pink red. Older fattened calves show a darker 
 redder, tougher meat, which in the so-called "double loined calves 
 or sturgeon calves," is poor in fat and dry. Veal in general contains 
 
PECULIARITIES OF THE MEAT FROM VARIOUS ANIMALS 75 
 
 more water and gelatin-forming substances; on the other hand, it is 
 poorer in muscle albumen than beef. 
 
 Concerning the meat of immature calves see Chapter VII. 
 
 Mutton. Mutton (sheep meat) is distinguished by the firm, dense, 
 fine fibers and its dark red color. Its consistence is moderately firm. 
 The odor is specific, slightly ammoniacal, sometimes resembling the 
 odor of a sheep stable. The muscles are not intermixed with fat. 
 In fattened animals, however, there are rich deposits of fat between 
 the groups of muscles, and especially in the subcutis and the kidney 
 capsule. The fat is pure white, hard, firm, brittle, and has no odor. 
 The bone marrow is firm and slightly red. 
 
 Goat Meat. Goat meat is in general paler than sheep meat. The 
 fat and bone marrow simulate that of sheep. The fat is chiefly located 
 in the kidney capsules, while in the subcutis it is only present in small 
 quantities. The muscles also contain only a little fat. The odor of 
 the meat and fat is peculiarly strong, resembling the odor of the living 
 goat; it is especially disagreeable and repulsive (see Chapter VII, p. 194). 
 
 Pork. In hogs, age, nutritive condition, and the particular body 
 region influence the color of the meat considerably, which appears 
 whitish gray, pale red, gray red to dark red. The fibers are fine, the 
 consistence soft to moderately firm, and the odor indefinable. It 
 is considerably intermixed with fat, which also envelops the larger 
 groups of muscles. The fat is pure white, finely granular, and soft. 
 The bone marrow is soft and pink red. 
 
 On boiling pork becomes whitish gray and is then much lighter than 
 the meat of other food animals. 
 
 In animals fattened with corn, the fat assumes a yellowish color, and in those 
 fed on fish, a gray color. Feeding with acorns yields a more oily fat. Feeding 
 fish gives the fat a fishy odor. 
 
 In older sows kept for breeding, and stags (boars castrated after they have 
 matured), the meat is dark red, poor in fat, and firm. 
 
 The odor of the meat from boars and cryptorchids is more or less repulsive, 
 resembling urine. It is frequently perceptible on the fresh meat, but some- 
 times it appears only in cooking or roasting. (See Chapter VII, p. 194.) 
 
 Horse Meat. Horse meat is marked by its dark red or even brown 
 color. When exposed to the air it has a bluish luster, and even becomes 
 blackish red to black. The fibers are very fine, the consistence is 
 firm, and fasciae are very prominent. There is no intermixing of fat 
 in the muscles. The odor is peculiar, sweet, and almost repulsive. 
 The fat is soft, oily, and light gold to dark yellow in color, but in well- 
 nourished horses it is whiter and firmer. The bone marrow is wax 
 yellow, greasy, and soft, but becomes stiffened in the air. 
 
 Dog Meat. Generally the meat of dogs is dark red, firm fibered, 
 and only slightly intermixed with fat, which occurs chiefly between 
 the groups of the muscles and in the subcutis. The consistence of the 
 meat is soft and smeary; the odor is disagreeably repulsive. The 
 color of the fat is white to white gray, and its consistence oily and 
 greasy. 
 
76 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 Rabbit Meat. The meat of rabbits is distinguished by its pale 
 red, gray red, and gray color. The fibers are fine; the fat in the muscles 
 is absent, and the consistence loose. The fat is whitish yellow, and 
 is principally confined to the body cavities. 
 
 Poultry Meat. The muscular tissues of fowls are firm, fine fibered, 
 and without intermixing with fat. The color of the preponderating 
 meat is pale; however, there are also red muscles. Generally the meat 
 of chickens, capons, and turkeys is called white, while that of geese, 
 ducks, and pigeons is considered as dark. The consistence is prin- 
 cipally firm and the alkalinity subsists after slaughter for a long time 
 (Postolka and Toscano). Odor and taste vary in accordance with 
 the species and feeding. The fat content of the muscles proper is 
 very small, except in the case of the fattened fowl. The fat is very 
 variable in its consistence, color, and odor; generally, however, it is 
 soft and oily. In chemical composition (page 55) the meat contains 
 few lime-forming substances, but considerable albumen. 
 
 Meat of Game. The general characteristics of the flesh of fowls 
 may be applied to the meat of game, but the color is always darker, 
 shading from red to brownish red. The odor and taste are peculiar 
 to each kind of game. Meat of animals which were exhausted in the 
 chase before death, or which were injured by shot and had to endure 
 a long agony, is said to be bitter in taste; moreover, the greater content 
 of blood in the meat of game should be considered. This, however, 
 apparently does not influence its keeping qualities to any extent, 
 although it does in the case of the meat of other animals. 
 
 Regarding its chemical composition (page 55), what was said about 
 the meat of fowls applies to the meat of game. 
 
 Fish Meat. The color of fish meat is white; only few fish have 
 red meat (salmon, trout). The structure is peculiar, inasmuch as the 
 entire muscular mass of each side of the fish consists of a single muscle 
 plate (side muscle), which is divided by a long furrow into a dorsal 
 and ventral part. Each side muscle consists of a large number of 
 muscle plates (myomeres), which are separated by thin, connective- 
 tissue membranes, and which easily fall apart, especially in boiling. 
 The odor and taste, which principally depend on the consistence of 
 the fat, have no characteristic features. Taste, however, is principally 
 influenced by the food of the fish. The meat of fish of prey is better 
 in taste than that of those which seek their food in the mud. In the 
 same way the season, especially the spawning period, influences the 
 taste of the meat not inconsiderably. Lichtenfelt, in a study of the 
 periodical changes of the consistence of meat of various kinds of fish, 
 found that during the spawning period the albumen diminishes in the 
 side body muscles in females from 17.5 per cent, to 13.3 per cent., 
 and in males from 17.9 to 19 per cent, to 13 to 14.3 per cent. In 
 a still larger degree the fat contents of the muscles decrease. The 
 fat, when present, is finely distributed in the meat. 
 
 In chemical composition the fish meat contains a larger quantity 
 of water than that of mammals. This, however, is considerably reduced 
 
FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTIONS FOR MEAT 77 
 
 in fish which are rich in fat to the advantage of the fat contents (eel 
 meat 55 to 60 per cent, of water). Of the nitrogenous constituents, 
 the extractive and glue-forming substances amount to one-third. 
 The supposition that fish meat is not as satiating as other meat appears 
 to be contradicted by Rosenfeld's investigations. 
 
 For the poisonous effects of some fish, see Chapter X, page 347. 
 
 Meat of Crustaceans and Mollusks. In these animals the muscles 
 are white or white gray. Consistence, odor, and taste vary greatly 
 There is a remarkably slight amount of fat. For the chemical compo- 
 sition see page 55. 
 
 Meat of Reptiles and Amphibians. The meat of frogs and turtles 
 is always of a pale color, usually white, yellowish gray, yellowish or 
 yellowish red. The fat content is limited and slight. For the chemical 
 composition, see page 55. 
 
 FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTIONS FOR MEAT AND THEIR 
 RECOGNITION 
 
 In the handling of meats and the preparation of meat-food products 
 attempts are sometimes made to substitute meat of a lesser quality 
 for that of higher quality. To detect such frauds frequently causes 
 the expert considerable trouble, and not infrequently, especially in 
 prepared meat-food products, it is altogether impossible. 
 
 If bones are present in the suspected meat, they should be taken 
 for comparison, and all other characteristic peculiarities of the meat 
 and fat, which have been already described for the individual species 
 of animals, should be considered. Relative to the manifold differ- 
 ences in the skeleton, reference should be made to the text-books 
 on comparative anatomy of the domestic animals. 
 
 Differentiation of Meats by Biological Method. For distinguishing 
 the various kinds of meats from a scientific standpoint the biological 
 method deserves the greatest consideration. The method is based 
 on the formation of precipitins in the blood serum of animals (for 
 instance, rabbits), which received for a certain time intraperitoneally 
 blood serum or meat juice of other animals (for instance, horses). 
 If, then, such blood serum of rabbits is added to the blood serum or 
 meat juice of the horse, a cloudiness will develop in the latter which 
 results in a precipitate. This reaction appears only with the blood 
 serum or meat juice of the same species of animal which was employed 
 for the preparatory treatment of the rabbit, and from which the serum 
 which supplies the precipitating serum originated. The reaction is, 
 therefore, a specific precipitation. 
 
 The method was first employed by Uhlenhuth, Wassermann, and 
 Schiitz for the recognition of human blood, and later improvements 
 by Jess, Uhlenhuth, Miessner and Herbst, Notel, v. Rigler, Groning, 
 Borschmann and others made it applicable for use on meats. The 
 biological method can be applied to fresh meat, and also to dried, 
 
78 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 pickled, and salt meat as well as for distinguishing meat mixtures, 
 bones, and viscera. On the other hand, the method does not prove 
 satisfactory for the differentiation of cooked meats. For distinguishing 
 horse meat from beef the biological method is successful, but whether 
 the application of the same will prove unobjectionable on the meat 
 of other animals, which zoologically are in closer relation, is yet to 
 be determined. The production of the sera and meat extracts and the 
 procedure of the reaction are accompanied by various difficulties and 
 require certain precautions. Therefore the application of the bio- 
 logical method presumes great skill, and is accordingly adapted only 
 for scientific institutions and for larger meat-inspection bureaus con- 
 ducted by veterinarians. Owing to the technique and the numerous 
 details to be considered in connection with the test, the reader is 
 referred to the original works for a full description. Whether Neisser- 
 Sachs' so-called " diverting method" may also be utilized in the differ- 
 entiation of the various kinds of meat is yet to be determined. 
 
 Differentiation between Meats from Various Species of Animals. 
 Other differentiating indications between the species which occa- 
 sionally may appear for comparison are described in the following: 
 
 Sheep and Goat. In comparing the whole slaughtered carcass the 
 goat appears to have longer bones, especially in the flank, than the 
 sheep. The latter has a round back and a fleshy, rounded croup, 
 while the goat manifests a sharp back and a sloping croup. Goats 
 usually have a shorter tail (12 caudal vertebrae) than sheep (18 to 24 
 caudal vertebras); however, there are also short-tailed (12 to 16 caudal 
 vertebras) and tailless breeds of sheep (3 caudal vertebras). The thorax 
 of the goat is flat, that of the sheep is barrel-shaped. On the somewhat 
 sticky surface of the slaughtered goat frequently goat hairs are found 
 adhering; the skin muscles of goats are darker than those of sheep. 
 The subcutis of goats contains less fat and the muscles are not 
 enveloped in fat to the extent that they are in sheep. The meat has 
 a characteristic odor, especially pronounced in males. Of the skeletal 
 peculiarities it should be noted that all bones of goats in general are 
 more slender in form than those of sheep. In the skull of the goat 
 the external lacrymal notch is absent while it is present in sheep. 
 The spinal processes of the cervical vertebras are, according to Biitzler, 
 long, pointed, and sharp-edged in the goat, while in the sheep they 
 are broad and dull. There are at least 4 sacral vertebras in the goat, 
 never 3, as occasionally in sheep. The lateral sacral borders of the 
 goat are thin and sharp; in the sheep they are thickened in the form 
 of rolls. The pelvic opening is considerably smaller in the goat than 
 in the sheep. The scapula in the sheep is broad and short; the well- 
 developed spine has in the centre a round thickening which is bent 
 backward in a bow. In goats the scapular spine is flat and straight; 
 the neck of the scapula is distinctly outlined. The tibia in the sheep 
 is strongly turned spirally, and its posterior surface is concave. The 
 bones of the goat are, according to Lohoff, harder and more brittle 
 than the bones of the sheep. 
 
FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTIONS FOR MEAT 79 
 
 Sheep, Goat, and Deer. The conformation of the bones in deer is 
 always more slender and neater than in the sheep or goat. The cervical 
 vertebrae of deer are longer than in sheep and goat compared to the 
 size of the animals. The spinal processes of the dorsal vertebrae of 
 the deer are turned forward, beginning at the third; on the lumbar 
 vertebrae they are elongated forward in the form of a sharp hook, 
 which in sheep is considerably smaller. In the scapula of the deer 
 the acromion is elongated into a sharp point, which is directed ventrally; 
 it is absent in the sheep and goat, or is considerably smaller. The 
 radio-ulnar arch which forms an oval opening in the sheep and goat 
 is very long in the deer. The lacrymal bone in the deer is also deeply 
 grooved, but its surface appears incomplete. In the deer the subcuta- 
 neous layer of fat is not as w^ll developed as in the sheep; the meat 
 is poor in fat and possesses the odor of venison, which is to be dis- 
 tinguished from the odor of sheep. 
 
 Smith pointed out the difference between goat hair and deer hair. In the 
 first the cortical substance in the microscopic picture is as broad as the marrow 
 substance, while deer hair is characterized by the remarkable development 
 of the marrow substance. The cortical layer in deer hair is almost unrecogniz- 
 able, so that the hair appears to be a cylinder entirely made up of polyhedral 
 cells. The hair of elk and chamois has also a similar structure. 
 
 According to Stadies, the kidneys of deer can only be positively distinguished 
 from those of the sheep with the aid of an anatomical fluid injected into the 
 pelvis of the kidneys. The pelvis of the kidney is injected with a solution 
 of celloidin, rosin, and turpentine in alcoholic ether; after the stiffening of 
 the solution the kidney is placed into hydrochloric acid, which in a few days 
 completely destroys the kidney substance. The cast from the pelvis of the 
 deer kidney is small and oval without any bulgings, while that from the pelvis 
 of sheep shows long prolongations. 
 
 Hog and Dog. Besides the manifold differences in the skeleton, 
 which are described in text-books on anatomy, it may be also noted 
 that the color of dog meat is much darker than hog meat, and this 
 difference can be especially observed in the cooked flesh (see page 75). 
 
 The muscles of dog meat are more smeary and the fat is more oily 
 than in the hog; the odor is entirely different. 
 
 Rabbit (Hare) and Cat. The following differences in the skeleton 
 are especially to be noted : The lateral processes of the lumbar vertebrae 
 which are directed forward, terminate in the rabbit (Fig. 34) in two 
 extensions, one of which is directed forward, the other backward; in 
 the cat they terminate in a point. The body of the first three lumbar 
 vertebrae in the rabbit contains thorn-shaped ventral processes (Fig. 
 34 a). The ribs of the rabbit are flat and broad; those of the cat are 
 rounded. On the scapula of the rabbit the acromion turns around 
 posteriorly and terminates in a long point, which is directed back- 
 ward (Fig. 37). The radius and ulna are completely separated in the 
 cat (Fig. 35); in the rabbit they are united (Fig. 36). On the humerus 
 of the cat is an elongated fissure over the median condyle of the distal 
 end (Fig. 39). The femur of the rabbit (Fig. 41) contains below the 
 trochanter major a specially strong smaller trochanter, which is absent 
 
80 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 in the cat (Fig. 42). Fibia and fibula are complete in the cat (Fig. 
 43) ; in the rabbit (Fig. 44) they are only separated in the upper half. 
 The whole carcass of the cat can be immediately recognized by 
 its head, penis bone, and the tail, and for these reasons, if offered for 
 sale, these parts are always removed on the slaughtered animal. 
 Rabbits generally have the shot wounds, but these are naturally absent 
 in the slaughtered domesticated rabbits. The meat of the cat is paler 
 than rabbit meat; the fat of the cat appears whitish in contrast to 
 rabbit fat, which is honey yellow. 
 
 FIG. 35 
 
 FIG. 36 
 
 FIG. 37 
 
 FIG. 38 
 
 Lumbar verte- Right forearm Right fore- Right scapula of 
 brae, with ventral of the cat, inside arm of rabbit, the rabbit, 
 
 spinal processes. view. inside view. 
 
 Right scapula of the 
 cat. 
 
 Hare and Rabbit. The cervical vertebrae in the hare are, according to 
 Lesbre, shorter than those of the rabbit. The spinal processes of the dorsal 
 vertebrae in the rabbit are slightly turned backward, and they do not have 
 the hook-shaped extensions which are present in the hare. The well-marked 
 bifurcations of the ends of the lateral processes of the lumbar vertebras 
 in the hare are only perceptible on the first lumbar vertebra of the rabbit. 
 The sacrum of the hare consists of four united vertebrae; the spinal pro- 
 cesses are all united. In the rabbit the sacrum is narrower than in the 
 hare. The ribs and scapula are longer in the hare than in the rabbit. The 
 
FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTIONS FOR MEAT 
 
 81 
 
 spine of the scapula lays considerably nearer to the anterior border of this 
 bone in the rabbit. The acromion of the hare terminates suddenly at the 
 attachment of the processus hamatus, while in the rabbit it continues for 
 3 to 5 mm. in a long point (Fig. 37). Upper arm is larger in the hare than in 
 the rabbit. The radius is longer in the hare than in the rabbit; the middle 
 part is cylindrical in the latter, while in the former it is considerably flattened. 
 The ulna of the hare becomes gradually thinner at the distal end, and proceeds 
 almost entirely behind the volar surface of the radius; in the rabbit, on the 
 other hand, it is well developed in the entire length, and lays almost com- 
 pletely on the lateral surface of the radius. With the hind legs there is no 
 perceptible difference. 
 
 FIG. 39 
 
 FIG. 40 
 
 FIG. 41 
 
 FIG. 42 
 
 FIG. 43 
 
 FIG. 44 
 
 Right hum- Right hume- Right femur Right femur Right tibia and Right tibia 
 
 erus of cat, rus of rabbit. of rabbit, front of cat. fibula of cat, front and fibula of 
 
 front view. and inside view. view. rabbit. 
 
 Cattle and Horses. In the horse the greater length of the extremities 
 and of the thorax appears in marked contrast to the size of these parts 
 in cattle, while in the latter, on the other hand, the pelvis is longer 
 than that of the horse. The characteristics of the meat were discussed 
 on page 74. The numerous osteological differences must be left uncon- 
 sidered. It is seldom necessary to pass an opinion on large pieces of 
 meat; it is much more frequently necessary to determine the presence 
 of horse meat which has been prepared for food, especially in sausage. 
 Until a few years ago it was impossible to prove this with any degree 
 of positiveness. Niebel's work, however, has developed a scientific 
 method for an accurate test for horse meat. He constantly found in 
 horse meat considerable quantities of glycogen (0.373 to 1.072 per 
 6 
 
82 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 cent.), the smallest amount of which surpasses the quantity found in 
 the meat of other animals. 1 
 
 For the demonstration of glycogen Niebel employed Briicke's method with 
 Kulz's modification, which is also prescribed with some changes by the regula- 
 tions of the imperial meat-inspection law for the horse-meat test. 
 
 It is certain that superior to the Brucke-Kiilz method are those of Pfliiger 
 and Pfliiger-Nerking, by which Martin has proved that the results gave from 
 22 to 25 per cent, higher values than the former. Besides it was found by 
 Frassi, Hefelmann, and Mautz and others that the glycogen content of the 
 muscles of the horse varies considerably in the various parts of the body; 
 the smallest quantity of glycogen was always found in the muscles of mastica- 
 tion (0.047 to 0.24 per cent.), while in the back and thigh muscles it was found 
 as high as 10.8 per cent, in the dry substance free from fat. 
 
 Further, Niebel found that the glycogen in the horse is converted 
 after a certain time into grape sugar. In such cases he established 
 the presence of the sugar in horse meat by a special method with the 
 aid of Fehling's solution. In this connection it must also be remembered 
 that meat, and especially meat products, contain reductive substances, 
 i. e., creatinin; further, that the quantity of carbohydrates is increased 
 in the sausage by the addition of spices, also by starch flour which is 
 sometimes deliberately added to the substance of certain sausages. 
 If no addition of carbohydrates is made, and it is determined by NiebePs 
 comparative test that the meat or sausage contains at least 1 per cent, 
 carbohydrate, calculated on the basis of the fat-free dry substance, 
 then it is evident that the product contains horse meat. 2 In the horse- 
 meat sausages examined the confirmed quantity of carbohydrates 
 exceeded eleven times the maximum content of carbohydrates of 
 ordinary sausage. 
 
 It is known that the meat of dogs, cats, fetuses, and starved calves 
 contains also a large amount of glycogen. The first two species of 
 animals do not come under consideration in connection with falsifica- 
 tion of sausage, etc. When larger quantities of fetal or starved calf 
 meat are added the sausages have not the characteristic brown-red 
 color which is given to them by the presence of horse meat. Niebel 
 attaches so much importance to the brown-red color that he considers 
 the presence of horse meat established if, besides the determination 
 of glycogen, this color is present. While the observations of Niebel 
 have been confirmed by other investigators, nevertheless it has been 
 established by Nerking, Pfliiger, and Rusche that the meat of well- 
 nourished cattle may contain in the fresh state the same quantity of 
 glycogen as horse meat, and Pfliiger also determined that meat from 
 horses in poor nutritive condition may occasionally be free from glycogen 
 or have only traces of it. In consequence of these findings, and also 
 on account of the high content of glycogen in fetuses and immature 
 calves, it is necessary to employ a supplemental method besides the 
 
 1 This statement of Niebel cannot be sustained, according to Rusche. 
 
 2 The quantitative glycogen analysis in connection with Niebel's determining method is exact, 
 according to Rusche. 
 
FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTIONS FOR MEAT 83 
 
 glycogen test for the positive determination of the presence of horse 
 meat, and for these reasons only the biological test can be accepted 
 as positive. 
 
 For the quick determination of horse meat in a meat product, 
 Brautigam and Edelmann successfully tried and adopted a method 
 based on Niebel's investigations. It depends on the characteristic 
 color reaction of glycogen with iodine, which was first described by 
 Claude Bernard. The method is as follows: 
 
 1. A small quantity of the meat (50 grams) to be examined is finely cut 
 and boiled in four times its volume of water for one hour, and the resulting 
 bouillon is treated as described in 4 and 5. 
 
 2. To this mass caustic potash dissolved in the same quantity of water is 
 added (3 per cent, of the original quantity of meat), and this is further heated 
 over a water bath until the muscle fibers fall apart. 
 
 3. The cooked mass is then boiled down to the weight of the original quantity 
 of meat and filtered. 
 
 4. After complete cooling this meat solution is carefully mixed with equal 
 parts of diluted nitric acid, in order to precipitate most of the albumenoids 
 and for decolorization, and it is then again filtered. 
 
 5. This filtrate (or the bouillon, which was obtained under 1, and which 
 was also acidulated with dilute nitric acid and filtered) is then treated with 
 iodine water, which is carefully poured on the side of the test-tube to the filtrate. 
 In this way at the contact of the solutions in the presence of horse meat a 
 burgundy red zone forms, the width and intensity of which depend on the 
 quantity of horse meat in the examined sample that is, on the quantity of 
 glycogen in the meat. 
 
 This method is successful in proving qualitatively the presence 
 of glycogen even in mixtures which contained only 5 per cent, of horse 
 meat. The color reaction must be distinct, and in order to avoid any 
 possible errors it should be carried out by daylight. The principal 
 requirement in the execution of this test is the absence of starch, and 
 for this reason a small quantity of the meat should be first tested by 
 boiling and the addition of iodine or Lugol's solution. Should the 
 sample contain starch, then the following modification is to be applied: 
 
 1. The glycogen which might be present in the meat product is exclusively 
 extracted by boiling the sample of meat to which the necessary quantity of 
 water has been added in a water bath, which requires several hours. 
 
 2. The filtered extract is very carefully reduced on the water bath to one- 
 third of the original quantity of the meat. 
 
 3. To this concentrated juice two or three times its volume of concentrated 
 acetic acid is added, which precipitates the starch (frequently only after a 
 few hours). It has not yet been determined whether the method recommended 
 by Baur and Polenske is suitable for the separation of starch and glycogen 
 through the precipitation with a saturated ammonium sulphate solution. 
 
 4. The liquid containing the precipitate is carefully filtered through a double 
 or three-folded filter, and to a small quantity of the filtrate iodine is added 
 for the starch test. Should some starch still be present, the addition of acetic 
 acid must be repeated and the material again filtered. 
 
 5. To the solution which does not contain any starch, iodine water may 
 be directly but carefully poured for the glycogen test. But as the extract 
 
84 CHEMISTRY OF PRINCIPAL TISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 
 
 becomes diluted two or three times its volume through the addition of acetic 
 acid, it becomes advisable in case of negative results. 
 
 6. To precipitate the presumptive glycogen by the addition of alcohol to 
 ten or twelve times its volume. 
 
 7. The cloudy alcoholic solution is filtered through as small a filter as possible. 
 
 8. The traces of glycogen, which might have been retained in the filter, 
 are dissolved with a few drops of hot water and with water acidified with 
 acetic acid, and the solution which thus passes through is then carefully tested 
 with iodine water for glycogen. 
 
 The entire procedure of this examination of products containing 
 starch must be carefully executed in every part, owing to the danger 
 of the formation of dextrin, which might be mistaken for glycogen. 
 A chemical separation of dextrin from glycogen has not yet been accom- 
 plished. Further information must be obtained from the original 
 works on the subject. 
 
 It should be especially emphasized that the method of Edelmann- 
 Brautigam should be preferably used for diagnostic purposes. In 
 general work this method should be applied for the demonstration of 
 the presence of glycogen in the suspected meat product, and, if necessary, 
 through a quantitative chemical analysis, the quantity of the glycogen 
 in the product should be determined. 
 
 The published modification of Edelmann-Brautigam's method by 
 Courtroy and Coreman cannot be recommended. 
 
 Bastien advises the following simplification of Edelmann-Brautigam's 
 method for determining glycogen in sausages : 
 
 Twenty grams of the sausage to be examined is chopped and boiled for 
 about one hour, until the quantity is reduced to 30 c.c. After cooling, it is 
 filtered and to 10 c.c. of the filtrate 2 to 5 drops of iodine water are added. A 
 red-violet coloration proves the presence of horse meat, even if the sausage 
 contains only 5 per cent, of such meat. The coloration disappears quickly, 
 therefore the reagent must be added carefully in order not to obtain a red- 
 brown coloration. 
 
 Should the sample of sausage contain starch also, the above-mentioned 
 boiled mass is first decanted, and according to the quantity of starch present, 
 1 or 2 volumes of acetic acid is added. After five minutes it is filtered, and 
 10 c.c. of the filtrate are taken for the same iodine test as described above. 
 
 Lebbien also recommends a new method for the quantitative determination 
 of glycogen, which, however, must first be proved satisfactorily in practice. 
 This method is principally adapted for experts in chemistry. 
 
 Hasterlik aimed to utilize the large quantity of iodine which horse fat con- 
 tains as a distinguishing sign. The latter amounts in the intermuscular horse 
 fat to 79.71 to 85.87, compared with 49.74 to 58.45 in beef fat. In mixtures 
 of these fats or with lard the quantity of the iodine changes to such an extent 
 that the method cannot claim an absolute reliability. The method itself is 
 recently said to have given good satisfaction with meats prepared by cooking. 
 
 Bremer does not accept such a high content of iodine in the fat of the horse 
 as Hasterlik, and advises NiebePs method as a supplementary examination. 
 
 Nussberger recommends the Zeiss refractometer for the determination of 
 horse fat (Chapter X) . 
 
 This method is also prescribed by the regulations of the imperial meat- 
 inspection law. 
 
 All these methods should be submitted at first to expert chemists. 
 
FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTIONS FOR MEAT 85 
 
 Cattle and Deer. The muscle fibers of beef are coarser than those of deer, 
 and the bones are also stronger. Deer meat is darker than beef, and is not 
 so mottled with fat. The fat of deer appears much like mutton fat; it is 
 harder and more brittle than beef fat. 
 
 Cattle and Buffalo. Generally fresh buffalo meat is darker (more reddish 
 brown) and the fibers are coarser and looser in structure than beef. The odor 
 of buffalo meat and fat resembles that of musk, and if boiled in strong acidified 
 (sulphuric acid) water it develops a disagreeable odor similar to that of cattle 
 manure (Puntigam and Halusa). The cutaneous shoulder muscle of buffalo 
 is only 3 to 5 fingers broad, while that of cattle is considerably broader. The 
 fat of buffalo is strikingly white, and is drier and less sticky than in cattle. 
 The conformation of the bones of the buffalo is generally finer and the bones 
 are more brittle. The pubic symphysis of the buffalo appears strikingly plain. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF 
 
 MEAT 
 
 IN the utilization of meat for human food it undergoes various 
 processes or preparations, and should it not be consumed within a 
 certain period it must be conserved in order that it may be kept. 
 
 CHOPPED MEAT 
 
 The production of chopped meat by means of cutting the flesh 
 with a knife, cleaver, rocking knife, or meat grinder is the simplest 
 method of preparation. For this purpose beef and pork are principally 
 used, but veal is likewise utilized to a small extent. The short tendi- 
 nous meat of the head, leg, and all other parts of the body, which does 
 not find a ready sale in the butcher shop, is thus worked up into a more 
 salable product. Naturally fat is also added and chopped up with the 
 meat in larger or smaller quantities. 
 
 Chopped meat is consumed either raw, after flavoring with salt, 
 pepper, and onions, especially in northern and middle Germany, or 
 is used for the preparation of meat sausage, meat balls, and various 
 other dishes (German beefsteak, hamburger steak). 
 
 To make the chopped meat retain the red muscular coloring matter, sul- 
 phurous acid and its salt are frequently added, which, however, do not retard 
 all decomposition. 
 
 Meyer examined the bacterial content of chopped meat by sowings on gelatin 
 plates and found 1,695,000 to 12,717,000 bacteria to 1 gram of meat. The 
 number of bacteria was not influenced by the usual additions of preservative 
 salts. 
 
 SAUSAGE 
 
 By sausage is understood a mixture of meat which is placed into 
 a sausage covering. For coverings the intestines are principally em- 
 ployed, the serous membrane being inverted (see page 50); besides, 
 the esophagus of cattle, the stomach of hogs and the urinary bladder 
 of various food animals are also used. The recent so-called artificial 
 parchment is also used as a cover or casing. 
 
 Sausages and their preparation vary considerably in different 
 countries. This applies especially to those varieties to which larger 
 quantities of vegetable ingredients are added. The principal ingredients 
 
SAUSAGE 87 
 
 of sausage are always muscle meat and fat, besides blood, heart, tongue, 
 connective tissue, hog skin, liver, and various other parts of the viscera. 
 In order to make the sausage tasty, spices (salt, saltpeter, sugar, 
 pepper, paprika, caraway, marjoram, garlic, onions, coriander, cinna- 
 mon, clove, truffle, sardelle, etc.) are added to the animal ingredients. 
 Many varieties of sausages are prepared for an early (immediate) 
 consumption; in order to increase the keeping qualities of sausage they 
 are either smoked only or they are at first boiled and then smoked. 
 
 In accordance with the composition of the filling the following 
 varieties of sausages may be distinguished : 
 
 Meat Sausages. Meat saifsages consist chiefly of chopped beef, 
 pork, or veal. For commercial purposes they are divided into: 
 
 1. Fresh sausage and sausage for boiling or scalding, which are 
 sold under various names. 
 
 2. Sausages of keeping qualities, which are known as cervelat, 
 summer sausage, etc. 
 
 Since fresh sausage and sausage for boiling are destined for early 
 consumption, they do not contain any preservatives; at most they 
 might be slightly smoked in order to improve the taste. The sausages 
 with keeping qualities, on the other hand, should keep for a longer 
 period. This is accomplished by the reduction of the content of water 
 in the filling by drying and by smoking. The addition of water to 
 sausage filling of fresh sausage or those for boiling or scalding is usual 
 and positively necessary when the mass is to be filled in the narrow 
 casings. The absorbing power of sausages for water (see page 53) 
 depends on the binding quality of the meat. The higher or lower 
 binding quality of the meat influences the consistence of the sausage 
 mass inside of the covering, and, therefore, the slicing of the sausage 
 as well as the appearance of the cut surface. The quantity of the 
 added water, which amounts to about 24 per cent., according to 
 Hofmann, is of no special importance, since through the hot smoking 
 of boiled sausages and others not only the added water is lost, but 
 frequently even a portion of the natural content of water of the meat. 
 For this reason, and also because the public demands juicy, well- 
 stuffed sausages, the addition of water to the filling of this variety of 
 sausages cannot be considered as an adulteration. 
 
 The addition of flour to sausage filling, which for a time had assumed 
 considerable proportions, was declared by the butchers to be an abso- 
 lute necessity, on account of the meat losing its binding qualities 
 through the fattening used by the hog raisers. This, however, cannot 
 be confirmed, as there are places where the addition of flour is never 
 practised, yet they produce excellent sausage. If the addition of 
 flour is kept within a certain limit (about 2 per cent.) it does not 
 necessarily indicate a deterioration in boiled or scalded sausages, 
 as it thickens the juice and makes the sausage more palatable. How- 
 ever, the addition of flour is only permissible when the consumers 
 are aware of that practice. In sausage with keeping qualities the 
 addition of any quantity of flour means an adulteration. The suppo- 
 
88 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 sition that the addition of flour to the sausage filling makes the 
 absorption of a larger quantity of water possible is erroneous, as starch 
 flour absorbs water only in boiling, and boiling water or prepared 
 paste is not employed in the preparation of sausage. 
 
 With the addition of mixtures of egg albumen and tragacanth, the so-called 
 " albumina, " it is possible to produce a sausage filling consisting of 35 kg. 
 meat and 50 kg. water, with a content of only 3 per cent, of " albumina. " 
 Therefore such an addition must be considered as an adulteration. 
 
 Although the coloring of sausage filling is prohibited in the German Empire 
 (see also B. A. I. Order 150, Regulations 22, Sections 1 and 2) by the imperial 
 decree of February 16, 1902, it should, however, find brief mention here. The 
 coloring, which was frequently employed in the production of sausages of 
 keeping qualities, was principally to prevent the filling from turning gray 
 and especially in order to prevent this occurrence on the cut surfaces. The 
 turning of the color is due to a change of the muscle coloring matter into a 
 colorless modification, which does not necessarily indicate a simultaneous 
 spoiling of the muscle substance. The causes for the sausage turning gray 
 have not yet been satisfactorily established. According to Meyer, this occurs 
 through a loss of salt in the sausage filling, progressing gradually toward the 
 centre by means of osmosis, and naturally may soon affect the cut surface 
 uniformly, thereby turning it gray. It is possible that an insufficient nitrite 
 formation from the saltpeter of the sausage filling might play a part in the 
 change of the color, which, as has been indicated by K. B. Lehmann and 
 Kalbrenner, changes the hemoglobin into a new red blood coloring derivative 
 (the hemorrhodin) . (See also page 90.) Glage attributes the turning gray 
 of the sausage to the action of the volatile sulphur compound in the meat 
 (N 2 S) in combination with oxygen on the muscle coloring matter. 
 
 As coloring matter, cochineal or the carmine which is derived from it, is 
 employed most frequently. Numerous preparations with various names 
 (karnit, albon-karnit, rubro-karnit, etc.) are also used, but coal-tar preparations, 
 as fuchsin, safranin, ponceau, rosalin, and eosin, are seldom used. 
 
 Through coloring, meat of a lesser value and that which contains only a 
 small amount of muscle-coloring matter may be changed into better appear- 
 ing meat, and the fat in the sausage may also be changed to such an extent 
 as to simulate meat. 
 
 The coloring of the casings (sausage cover) is not affected by the above- 
 mentioned prohibition. However, unwholesome stains, as for instance korollin, 
 should not be permitted to be used. 
 
 [The use of coloring matters in the preparation of sausage is pro- 
 hibited in the United States. This, however, applies only to the sausage 
 filling, while for the casings coloring matters which are approved by 
 the Secretary of Agriculture may be used. (See B. A. I. Order 150, 
 Regulation 22, Section 2, Part 1.)] 
 
 Blood Sausages. Blood sausages are prepared from blood (as a 
 rule, hog blood), mixed with small cubes of cooked fats and lean pork 
 meat, heart, tongue, hog skin, lung, and spices. The meat ingredients 
 mixed with blood, are filled into casings and the sausages are boiled 
 for the purpose of coagulating the blood. This must be done care- 
 fully and the larger the dimensions of the sausage and the more vegetable 
 substance they contain the more attention they require. To insure 
 the keeping qualities of the sausage they are smoked and are sold under 
 the names of red sausage, black sausage, tongue sausage. 
 
CULINARY PREPARATION OF MEAT 89 
 
 White Sausages. These varieties of sausages, which are also called 
 soft sausages on account of their consistence, are prepared from boiled 
 and chopped visceral parts, especially from the liver. In these sausages 
 the lungs, stomachs of ruminants, brains, finely cut pork and veal, 
 with the addition of considerable quantities of rendered or cooked 
 fat in cubes, are also utilized. The addition of the various kinds of 
 spices makes these sausages especially tasteful, and they are named 
 accordingly (onion, charlotte, sardell, truffle, and liver sausage, etc.). 
 After cooking they are consumed either in a fresh or smoked state. 
 The light color of the cooked ingredients of the sausage gives the cut 
 surface the gray to whitish color (white sausage) . 
 
 Similar to these varieties of sausage are the preparation and consistence 
 of most of the commercially known meat pastes (goose liver, fowl paste, etc.), 
 in which the liver is the principal constituent. 
 
 Jelly Sausages. These are prepared from parts of the body rich 
 in connective tissue, such as skin and head of hogs, head and feet 
 with the skin of calves, the muzzle of cattle, etc. Fat and lean meat 
 as well as spices are also added. The cooked or scalded meat and 
 other ingredients are cut and filled, as a rule, into a stomach or bladder 
 of a hog, and the voluminous sausages are then thoroughly boiled. 
 In this process jelly forms inside of the sausage, which after cooling 
 coagulates and thereby binds the ingredients of the sausage. In order 
 that the binding should be as uniform as possible, and that the sausage 
 should attain the desired firmness and should slice well, it is pressed 
 until completely cooled. Jelly sausage is mostly consumed in the 
 fresh state, but also may be smoked to increase its keeping qualities. 
 It is known under the names, pressed hogs' head, pressed sack, pressed 
 sausage. 
 
 Sausages with Larger Quantities of Vegetable Matter. The animal 
 basic substances of these sausages are usually blood with fat or lean 
 pork meat, or a white sausage filling. To these are added, besides 
 various spices, larger quantities of vegetable substances, which are 
 rich in carbohydrates, as groats, bread, boiled rice, rolls, boiled potatoes, 
 corinths, raisins, sugar, etc. The filled sausages for which the stomach 
 or bladder of hogs are frequently used as containers, are cooked and 
 consumed when fresh, or they may be preserved by smoking. This 
 kind of sausage is principally prepared for the household, and, there- 
 fore, almost every locality has its own characteristic sausage belonging 
 to this group. 
 
 CULINARY PREPARATION OF MEAT 
 
 Culinary preparation should render meat tasteful and more tender, 
 but it is not necessarily made more digestible. 
 
 Considering the digestibility of culinary prepared meat, Popoff established 
 the following scale of values: 
 
90 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 If of raw beef, 100 parts are digested, then the digestibility of boiled beef 
 is 83.4 parts; smoked beef, 71 parts; smoked and boiled beef, 60 parts. 
 
 Different results were obtained by Lebbin, who found that the nutritive 
 value stands the highest in smoked beef; this is followed in a gradual decline 
 by roasted meat, pickled meat, raw chopped meat, soup meat, and broiled meat. 
 
 A. H. Chittenden and W. Commins found the following results on the diges- 
 tibility of the various kind of meats by artificial gastric juice. If the digestibility 
 of beef is placed at 100, then 
 
 Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Veal = 94.89 Trout = 78.45 
 
 Mutton . . . . = 92.15 Eel = 71.82 
 
 Lamb = 87.93 Haddock . . . . = 82.50 
 
 Fowl (white meat) . =86.72 Herring . . . . = 82.34 
 
 Fowl (dark meat) . = 84.42 Lobster . . . .= 87.81 
 
 Salmon . . . . = 92.29 Crab = 67.13 
 
 If under the same condition 100 per cent, of boiled beef would be digested, 
 that of raw beef would amount to 142.38 per cent. 
 
 The experiments with artificial gastric juice do not disclose the actual utiliza- 
 tion of the meat in the body, especially the nitrogenous substances, as the 
 intestinal digestion completes that of the stomach. 
 
 The tastefulness and tenderness of meat can be best accomplished in the 
 kitchen, provided the meat has attained the required ripeness by which the 
 developing lactic acid swells and loosens the connective-tissue parts of the 
 muscles. Such loosening may be also obtained by placing the meat into vinegar 
 or milk. 
 
 According to Sygoal and Schmidt-Nielson's investigations fish meat also 
 undergoes a ripening process, and salted fish especially should be allowed to 
 go through the process. Fish rich in fat as herring, salmon, trout, mackerel, 
 and others ripen even when in pickle, while in the salting of haddock and other 
 lean fish the ripening does not take place. The fish muscles contain enzymes 
 like those of the mammals, which accomplish the splitting that represents 
 the ripening process. The latter is brought on by autolysis. 
 
 On the other hand, according to the investigation of Haldik, freshly slaugh- 
 tered meat, with a suitable preparation (cooking in small pieces or stewing 
 as gulash in small pieces), is usually just as tasty as ripened meat; however, 
 in roasting it becomes very tough and unpalatable. 
 
 Boiling. To obtain a good meat broth by the boiling of meat the 
 latter must set on the fire with cold water and boil slowly for three 
 to four hours. But if boiled meat which is juicy is desired, the raw 
 meat must be placed in boiling water, and the boiling heat must not 
 be reduced to any great extent. In this way, a coagulated layer soon 
 forms on the surface of the meat, and prevents the juices from escaping. 
 In consequence, only traces of muscle albumen pass into the water, 
 and they are manifested on the surface of the water in the form of 
 a light coagulated scum. The heat enters the inside of the meat slowly, 
 and is indicated by the change of the red muscle coloring matter to 
 the familiar gray color of the meat, the change requiring a tempera- 
 ture of at -least 73 C. 
 
 The reddening of the meat on the surface in boiling is, according to Kisskalt, 
 the result of the presence of anhydride of nitrous acid (N.,0 3 ) in the water in 
 which the boiling takes place. Especially does the superficial reddening of 
 the meat readily occur if fresh meat is boiled in bouillon, which is twelve to 
 twenty-four hours old, as in such bouillon N a 6 reducing bacteria are remark- 
 

 CULINARY PREPARATION OF MEAT 91 
 
 ably propagated. But the N 2 5 enters the bouillon either from the water or 
 from the customary soup vegetables which are used in its preparation. It is 
 natural that meat which has been treated with sulphurous salts will also become 
 carmine red on boiling. 
 
 The unchanged red color of the salted or pickled meat which remains after 
 boiling is produced, according to Haldane, through the presence of nitric 
 oxyhemochromogen, which is formed as a result of heating from nitric oxyhemo- 
 globin, to which also the unboiled pickled meat owes its redness. 
 
 Steaming. In steaming or stewing it is best not to allow the meat 
 to come in contact with water, but only steam heat. For this purpose 
 Mapin's steam boiling pot is well adapted. The stewing may also be 
 accomplished by placing the meat in a boiling hot fat gravy, which 
 is constantly poured over the meat to obtain quickly a superficially 
 coagulated layer, in order to retain the juice in the inside of the meat. 
 As a result of this, well-stewed meat is generally more tasteful than 
 boiled meat. 
 
 Roasting. The aim in roasting meat at a high temperature (boiling 
 fat) is to produce quickly an external coagulated layer in order to 
 retain as much as possible of the juice in the meat, which will be replaced 
 by a gradual infiltration of fat. The latter serves also to increase the 
 juiciness and the tastefulness of the roast, while the other peculiarities 
 may be attributed (Stutzer) to the penetration of burning products 
 and to the decomposition of the meat bases (kreatin, sarkin). If 
 it is desired to prepare a so-called English roast the interior of which 
 remains red, the inside temperature should not rise over 63 to 65 C. 
 
 Penetration of Meat by High Temperature. As meat is a poor 
 conductor of heat, high temperatures penetrate slowly into it. Bones 
 in the meat increase conduction of heat. Concerning the penetra- 
 tion of heat into meat and meat products, the following investigations 
 were made: 
 
 Rupprecht established that in boiling blood sausage the inside temperature 
 of the meat only reached 66 C., in jelly and tongue sausage, 62.5, and in 
 pressed hog's stomach sausage only 58.70 C. The temperature of the inside 
 of boiled ham he established at 65 C., and the same for pork, when prepared 
 in the usual way, cooked with vegetables. In frying meat balls the inside 
 temperature rises to 58.75 C M and in quick frying of sausage only to 28.75 C. 
 
 According to Kuchenmeister, in boiling larger pieces of meat for one-half 
 an hour a temperature of only 55 C. is reached; even after boiling for several 
 hours it reaches only to 77 to 80 C. 
 
 Leuckart states that in fried sausage and cutlets a temperature of 62.5 
 and in roast pork 75 C. is obtained, which, however, does not rise over 65 
 C. if the roast is prepared in the English style. 
 
 Wolfhugel and Huppe in their extensive experiments established the following: 
 
 1. Three thermometers inserted into a calf leg of 14.25 kg. after a roasting 
 of three and one-half hours at a maximal temperature of 103 C. registered 
 71, 76, and 89 C. 
 
 2. A similar experiment with a smoked ham ot 4.5 kg. after four hours boil- 
 ing in salt water with a maximal temperature of 102 C. showed 75, 77, 
 arid 78 C. 
 
 3. The thermometer registered 93.96 and 98 C. in a fresh piece of veal 
 weighing 3 kg. after three hours of roasting, in which the heat in the roasting 
 oven reached 155 C. 
 
92 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 4. A temperature of 91 and 92 C. was obtained in the interior of a piece 
 of beef weighing 3 kg. placed on the fire in boiling water and kept boiling for 
 two and one-half hours by which a temperature of 105 C. was reached in 
 the water. 
 
 5. In the same size piece of beef, but which was placed on a fire in cold water, 
 the temperature registered 95 and 96 C. 
 
 From these experiments it may be observed that the inside temperature 
 of larger pieces of meat (over 3 to 4 kg.) even in boiling or roasting for several 
 hours never reaches a temperature of 100 C. 
 
 In the application of steam under pressure the temperature of the meat rises 
 in a comparatively short time to over 100 C. 
 
 Losses in Meat in its Preparation in the Kitchen. Losses in Weight. 
 In culinary preparation meat loses in the first place water. According to Voit, 
 after boiling 100 grams of fresh meat it gives an average of 57 grams with about 
 40 per cent, dry substance. Forster established the content of dry substance 
 in boiled meat at 40 to 46 per cent.; in roast meat at 30 to 40 per cent. Noth- 
 wang found that 100 grams of fresh meat give after boiling one, one and one-half, 
 and two hours respectively, 68.9, 59, and 54.6 grams; in stewing, 68.2, 48, 
 and 48.2 grams. 
 
 In stewing or steaming the loss in weight is generally smaller; it fluctuates 
 between 20 to 30 per cent. 
 
 According to Peters, fish meat loses about 30.18 per cent, of its weight in 
 stewing through the loss of water; from the dry substances only 2 per cent, 
 is lost. 
 
 In roasting the loss of weight depends on the degree of the roasting; 100 
 grams raw lean meat, according to Konig, produce 62 to 85 grams moderately 
 roasted meat; in thorough roasting, however, only 58 grams. 
 
 According to Grindley and Timothy Mojonnier, in the boiling of beef 3.25 
 to 12.67 per cent, nitrogenous substances, 0.60 to 37.40 per cent, fat, and 20.04 
 to 67.39 per cent, mineral constituents pass into the water from the original 
 meat. In heating the meat with fat, on an average 2.15 per cent, nitrogenous 
 substances and 3.07 per cent, ashes are absorbed by the fat, while the meat 
 contains 2.3 times the quantity of fat as before the frying. 
 
 Losses in Nutritive Substances. Still more important are the losses of 
 extractives and phosphoric acid. Nothwang found that the loss of the first 
 in boiling and stewing was 50 to 60 per cent., while the loss of the latter was 
 about 35 per cent. In the roasting of meat the losses are somewhat slighter. 
 
 In the boiling of pickled meat, which already suffers a loss of extractives 
 and phosphoric acid in the pickling, a further loss of 23.4 per cent, of extractives 
 and 19.05 per cent, of phosphoric acid is sustained; and in stewing these losses 
 amount to 20.6 per cent, and 19.3 per cent. The combined losses of pickled 
 meat in "boiling and stewing amount to 65.6 to 67 per cent, in the extractives 
 and 39.50 to 44.45 per cent, in phosphoric acid. 
 
 METHODS OF CONSERVING MEAT 
 
 All meats contain certain preservative qualities which depend on 
 conditions in the meat itself, and also on external influences. To 
 the first belong especially the blood and juice contents of the meat, 
 and the health or disease as well as the exhaustion or rest of the animal 
 before slaughter. The influence of the external conditions on the 
 meat depends principally on the activity of the putrefactive organisms. 
 They reach the meat from the air or from soiling the meat, and enter 
 from the contaminated portions of the surface, through the blood 
 or lymph vessels, the excretory ducts of the glands, the connective- 
 tissue spaces, etc., into the interior of the meat. 
 
METHODS OF CONSERVING MEAT 93 
 
 While all the requirements which favor the development of putre- 
 factive bacteria (moisture, heat, deficiency in oxygen) reduce the 
 keeping qualities of meat, the latter will be increased if conditions 
 adverse to bacteria are present. Consequently all methods of con- 
 serving meat are directed toward keeping away and diminishing external 
 factors favoring the development of putrefactive bacteria. This is accom- 
 plished by physical or chemical agents and methods, or with the aid of 
 both. 
 
 Deichstetter and Emmerich recommend the use of sterile instruments in 
 the slaughter of animals to as great an extent as is possible, and spraying of 
 the surface of the meat with glacial acetic acid, and for dry keeping, packing 
 it in sterilized sawdust, which has been saturated with sodium chloride. If 
 it is not to be transported, but allowed to hang, it should be wrapped with 
 cloth saturated in glycerinacetic acid. The method, however, is not satisfactory 
 for keeping the meat for a long time in a fresh state. A better method is 
 described by Deichstetter and Emmerich (page 104), which, combined with 
 the previous method, if carefully carried out, enables meat to be kept in a fresh 
 state for weeks. 
 
 Physical Conserving Methods. Conserving by Extraction of Water. 
 Drying of Meat. By this very old and simple method the meat is 
 cut into strips and is dried quickly in the air. In this way the meat 
 becomes so hard and tough that even a later soaking and cooking 
 does not make it perfectly soft. In the meat trade this method is 
 principally employed for the conserving of haddock. 
 
 A meat preparation made in South America in a similar manner 
 (chargue dulce), or by previous salting of the meat (chargue, tasajo, 
 or jerked beef, Knuth), is not brought to Europe. 
 
 The so-called "paprika bacon" may also be correctly included here, 
 as it represents fresh bacon rubbed with paprika and dried in the air. 
 
 Preparation of Meat Flour. The meat flour which is prepared and sold in 
 South America under the name "carne pura, " or meat powder, is prepared 
 from muscle, which is ground to pulp, then dried, milled to a fine powder, 
 and mixed with a small quantity of salt. The preparation contains about 
 70 per cent, digestible nitrogen, but has a burned odor and taste. Because 
 of this and its high price it has not found a general market. . 
 
 Conserving by Excluding the Air. This very old method, especially em- 
 ployed in the household, consists in pouring over the fresh, boiled, or roasted 
 meat, liquid fats which on hardening supply the meat with an air-proof cover- 
 ing. For the wholesale trade in meats this method of preservation is useless. 
 
 Enclosing in Air-tight Containers. Sterilization by Boiling. This 
 method, which was discovered by Appert in 1809, led to the produc- 
 tion of canned meat. In this procedure the meat is freed from bones, 
 tendons, and fat, cut into small pieces, and then packed as fresh, 
 pickled, or boiled meat into tin cans to which the covers are tightly 
 soldered. The cans are boiled for three to four hours under steam 
 pressure; which causes the cans to swell. According to Groning the 
 cans are pricked in one place to permit the pouring off of a possible 
 surplus of fat and extraction of the air from the cans in the vacuum 
 
94 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 apparatus. The drawing in of the walls during this procedure is a 
 positive indication that the cans are tight. After soldering the small 
 opening the cans are again heated for a longer period, and as a result 
 of the heat the meat is sterilized. In cooling the cans must be constantly 
 moved to distribute the liquid ingredients within uniformly, so that 
 when they have coagulated into a jelly the pieces of meat in the con- 
 tainer may be held together firmly. 
 
 Any form of meat food may be preserved in a similar way with or 
 without the addition of vegetables, and such canned preserves are a 
 necessity for army maintenance in the field, ships, etc. 
 
 The North American corned beef is prepared from pickled meat, which is 
 boiled before pressing it into the can; however, the soldered cans are again 
 subjected to boiling heat. Corned mutton and corned pork or corned brawn 
 (pork meat) are prepared in the same way. As the importation of canned 
 meats into Germany has been prohibited since October 1, 1900, the German 
 canning industry has experienced a considerable growth. 
 
 [The canned-meat industry has assumed extensive proportions in 
 the United States, and as the meat-inspection law of 1906 has control 
 of these meat products a knowledge of the process of their preparation 
 is deemed essential in connection with the supervision of the work.] 
 
 The preparation of canned meats differs not alone with the different 
 kinds of meats to be preserved, but also the process may differ con- 
 siderably in the various establishments. The differences, however, 
 affect only some minor details, while the essential points of the process 
 are the same. As the principal canned products are corned beef and 
 potted meats, only the manufacture of these two will be described, 
 all others being more or less similar to the one or the other of the 
 processes. 
 
 In canning potted meats the meat is boiled for about forty minutes, 
 after which it is hashed sufficiently fine, and immediately spread in 
 shallow pans or trays, which are placed in a retort and heated to 82 
 C. (180 F.) for twenty minutes and then emptied into receptacles 
 from which the meat is conveyed into the stuffing machine. In handling 
 the meats all dejays should be avoided, and the cans should be filled 
 as rapidly as possible. The tops of the cans, after they leave the stuffer, 
 are cleaned off and the can is then capped. The caps are soldered 
 immediately by passing the cans through an automatic soldering 
 machine, and the vent in the cap is closed by hand soldering shortly 
 after they pass through the machine. At this time the can receives 
 the first inspection. If the can appears perfectly closed, it is passed 
 directly to the process retort, where it remains for one to one-quarter 
 to one and one-half hours (according to the size of the can), under 
 a pressure of seven pounds at 110 C. (233 F.). If inspection, how- 
 ever, shows that the can is imperfectly closed it is repaired before 
 it is placed into the retort. 
 
 Small cans are not passed through the vacuum machine before 
 
METHODS OF CONSERVING MEAT 95 
 
 going to the process retort, as they are handled so rapidly that sufficient 
 heat is retained in the product after being placed in the can and capped 
 to establish their own vacuum before the vent in the cap is closed. 
 
 By establishing about 22" vacuum on the cans they collapse and 
 distend again from internal pressure, after being placed in the pro- 
 cessing retort, which pressure will develop some leaks and imperfections 
 that were not detected on the first inspection. Therefore, a second 
 inspection is made as soon as the cans are taken from the processing 
 retort, and any defective cans are repaired and once more passed through 
 the retort. The treatment of cans by passing them through this retort 
 for varying periods at various temperatures, according to the size 
 of the can and the material under treatment, is known in the canning 
 business by the term "processing." 
 
 After the cans are sufficiently processed they are passed through 
 a tub of hot lye for the purpose of removing all grease from the outside 
 of the can. From the lye tub the cans pass under a spray of cold water, 
 which causes them to collapse, after which they are removed into the 
 label room. From this time any can showing an imperfect condition 
 is rejected as unfit for food. (B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 23, 
 Section 2.) 
 
 In the canning of corned beef the meat is first boiled for one hour 
 and then placed in the can, which is capped with the vent open. The 
 can is then placed in the vacuum machine, under a 22" vacuum, and 
 the vent soldered, or the vacuum may be also established by leaving 
 the vent open and placing the can in the process retort for forty-five 
 minutes at 104.5 C. (220 F.), then removing the can and closing the 
 vent immediately after it ceases blowing. Another method of establish- 
 ing the vacuum is to seal the can and place it in a vat of boiling water 
 for one hour, then it is removed and punctured with a sharp instrument 
 and sealed as soon as the can stops blowing. If the can contains more 
 than one pound of meat the time in the retort or boiling water is extended 
 according to the size of the can. If the vacuum has been established 
 by the vacuum machine, the meat is then placed in the process retort 
 for one hour and forty-five minutes at eight pounds' pressure (111 C.); 
 if the vacuum has been established in the retort, the can is returned 
 to the retort as soon as the vent is closed and remains in the retort 
 for one and one-half hours at seven pounds' pressure (110 C.). If 
 again the vacuum has been established by the boiling water method 
 the can is processed by returning to the boiling water for two hours, 
 or by placing in the retort at seven pounds' pressure for one and one- 
 half hours. The processing time given above applies to one pound 
 cans. In larger sizes the procedure is the same, only the time is in- 
 creased about fifteen minutes for each additional pound. 
 
 In canning roast meat the meat is parboiled only for thirty minutes, 
 and the water method is not used to establish a vacuum; otherwise 
 the method is the same as that for canning corned beef, but a higher 
 temperature is maintained in the retort. After the processing is 
 
96 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 completed the method is similar to that described above for potted 
 meats. 
 
 The following imperfect conditions may occur in the preparation 
 of canned meats : 
 
 1. Leaker: a can in which air has gained admittance after the can 
 has been supposedly hermetically closed. 
 
 2. Slow leaker: the same as leaker, only it develops in the course 
 of time after the completion of the process. 
 
 3. Sweller: a can in which the product is undergoing some putre- 
 factive or fermentative change, which was unnoticeable at the time 
 of the canning. 
 
 4. Short process can: one which has not had the regular amount 
 of processing for the cooking and sterilizing of the product. 
 
 5. Collapsed can: one which has been collapsed by the application 
 of too much vacuum. The condition occurs principally in cans which 
 have not been properly stuffed. 
 
 6. Overstuffed can: one which has been strained in packing, by 
 forcing too much of the product into it. 
 
 7. Strained can: one which has been overstuffed or strained by 
 over-processing. 
 
 8. Do-over can: one which springs a leak after the processing, but 
 before entering the washing machine containing the lye water. 
 
 Judgment. All the defects of cans which are the result of mechanical 
 imperfections and which are noticed in the course of preparation do 
 not render the meat unwholesome, provided such defects are corrected 
 within six hours of the original sterilization. In all other cases the 
 contents of the cans should be considered as unwholesome, and should 
 be condemned in accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 23, 
 Section 2. 
 
 Replacing the Air with Oil. Of the various methods employed 
 to replace the air in the spaces between pieces of meat in cans, which 
 include pouring meat jelly (gelatin), meat broth, arid liquid fat over 
 the meat, only the use of oil has attained practical importance. The 
 latter is particularly employed with fish, which are cooked in oil, 
 packed into tin boxes, and covered with oil (oil sardines). 
 
 Preservation with Cold. This is the oldest preserving method and 
 at the same time the simplest, and best for wholesale industry. The 
 quality of the meat is only slightly influenced by the loss of a small 
 amount of the tasty substances; otherwise it ripens and becomes deli- 
 cate and tender. The preservative action of cold consists in checking 
 the development of the causes of putrefaction. That numerous bacteria, 
 especially the pathogenic forms, are not destroyed by low tempera- 
 tures, was proved by the experiments of Forster, Pictet and Young, 
 Coleman and Mickendrick, Havemann and others. 
 
 LAYING ON ICE. This is the simplest application of cold, but should be 
 rejected, especially when the meat is placed directly on natural ice, as patho- 
 genic bacteria which the ice might contain may be transmitted to the meat. 
 
METHODS OF CONSERVING MEAT 
 
 97 
 
98 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 Besides, through the melting of the ice, unnecessary moisture is added to the 
 meat, which under certain conditions would put the buyer at a disadvantage 
 regarding the weight of such meat. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF COLD AIR. Cooling of Air by Ice. Through the 
 storing of ice and its gradual melting, the surrounding air is cooled. 
 The preservative properties of ice boxes, ice cellars, ice houses, are 
 based on this principle. The various constructions of these containers 
 cannot be treated here. Their qualities depend on the circulation 01 
 the air in the meat-keeping rooms, and on their thorough insulation 
 against radiating heat. For larger plants these methods are not satis- 
 factory, as they are dependent on numerous contingencies (deficiency 
 of ice, excessive summer heat, failure of the ventilation arrangements, 
 etc.). 
 
 On this principle rests also the transportation of meat in refrigerator cars 
 which are constructed in accordance with various systems (Straschiripka 
 and Tiffany; Anderson, Zimmermann, Acclom, Jaschka, Wickes, Schreiber, 
 Trapp and others). The construction of a refrigeration car. such as is used 
 in the United States, is illustrated under Fig. 45. 
 
 Refrigeration Plant Machines. The modern refrigeration plant 
 with machine power has for its object the continued maintenance 
 of a temperature ranging from 4 to 20 C. in the storage room for 
 meat independent of external influences. At the same time it reduces 
 the content of moisture to at least 70 per cent, of the relative moisture, 
 and provides for a continual renewal of air, which it purifies. For 
 this purpose every refrigeration plant consists of the following three 
 principal parts: The cold generator, the cold transmitter, and the 
 chilling room proper, which in the various systems is differently con- 
 structed and arranged. 
 
 The only refrigeration machines 1 to be considered are the "cold 
 steam" or "compression" machines; the "cold air" or "air expansion" 
 machines cannot be utilized in the meat industry. 
 
 Refrigeration machines act in accordance with the physical law 
 that the evaporation of liquids consumes heat. For this purpose 
 carbonic acid, ammonia, and sulphuric acid are principally used. 
 They pass in a circle through a system of pipes and are compelled 
 to remain in a portion of the pipe system in a liquid state, as a result 
 of low temperature and pressure, while in another part of the system 
 they have an opportunity for evaporation. The principal parts of 
 refrigeration machines are the compressor, condenser, and evaporator. 
 The operation schematically produced according to Fig. 46 is as 
 follows : 
 
 1 For extended descriptions see Lorenz, New Refrigeration Machines, their Construction, Operation, 
 and Industrial Utilization, Munchen-Leipzig, 1901, III edition; Statefeld, The Utilization of Refrigera- 
 tion Machines, Berlin, 1901; Gottsche, The Refrigeration Machines, Hamburg, 1904; also Schwart, 
 Construction, Arrangement, and Operation of Public Abattoirs and Stockyards, Berlin, 1898, second 
 edition, and Schwartz, Machines for the Operation of Abattoirs, Berlin, 1901. 
 
METHODS OF CONSERVING MEAT 
 
 99 
 
 In the engine room is a steam engine, A, directly connected with the com- 
 pressor B. From the latter a pressure pipe connection, D, leads to the condenser 
 K, from which a pipe connection with the regulating valve C leads to the 
 evaporator V. The condenser and evaporator are large cylindrical galvanized- 
 
 FIG. 46 
 
 Schematic sketch of the principal parts of a cold-air refrigerating apparatus. 
 
 iron containers, in which these pipes run in numerous spiral windings, which 
 are rinsed with cold and continually renewed water in the condenser, and in 
 the evaporator by a salt or chloride of calcium solution. These solutions 
 are continually kept moving by a stirring apparatus which is also operated 
 by the engine, and which turns around a perpendicular axis within the spiral 
 
100 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 tubing. The spiral piping of the evaporator returns to the compressor as a 
 suction tube. S. If the pipe system D, C, S, is filled with one of the mentioned 
 gases, it will, as a result of the pressure of the compressor piston and from the 
 cold water running through the spiral piping of the condenser, change into 
 a liquid state with a constant effort to return to a gaseous condition. The 
 latter occurs in the evaporator into which the gas is admitted and is regulated 
 by the valve C, and in which the gas is no longer kept under pressure, but 
 on the contrary suction is applied to it through the pipe S from the compressor. 
 During the evaporation, the gas abstracts heat from the spiral pipes which 
 enclose it, and these again from the salt water (salt + chloride of calcium 
 solution) which surrounds them, by which the latter is cooled down to minus 
 10 to 12 C. But the evaporated gas passes again into the compressor and 
 makes the described circle over again. The cooled salt water acts further 
 as a transmitter of cold and is pumped by the pump P from the evaporator, 
 is then pressed into the piping W, and is conveyed into the air-cooling chamber 
 L and Z/, from which it enters the ice-manufacturing tank Z, and thence 
 returned. 
 
 In the air-cooling chamber, the salt-water pipes are spread in numerous 
 windings in such a way that the connection of each chamber may be detached 
 from the other; therefore, each chamber may be operated separately. The 
 air-cooling chambers are connected by air shafts with the meat cooler proper 
 in such a manner that, for instance, the air shaft T conveys the air from the 
 cooler into the air-cooling chamber and the air shafts U and U' permit the 
 return of the air from the air-cooling chambers into the meat cooler. In the 
 latter the distribution of the cooled air is accomplished by canals supplied with 
 openings which are attached to the ceiling. In a similar way special canals 
 are present for the air to be drawn away by suction. Movement of the air 
 between the rooms is accomplished by a ventilator, M, which is operated either 
 by electricity or by transmission from the steam engine in such a way that 
 by an alternating opening or closing of valves the air in the meat cooler is 
 ventilated while passing around the pipes of the air-cooling chambers L and L'. 
 At the same time the network of pipes which is cooled down to zero, abstract 
 from the moving air heat impurities and moisture so that the air is returned 
 to the cooler cooled, purified, and dried. That moisture is abstracted from the 
 air is manifested by the ice deposits on the pipes, which gradually get thicker, 
 and also enclose the impurities which the air contains. The layer of ice around 
 the pipes, however, retards more and more the radiation of cold from the pipe 
 system, and therefore, considerably diminishes the cooling action. For this 
 reason, after certain intervals the active pipe system of one of the air-cooling 
 chambers is detached and the other placed into operation, which acts like 
 the first. In the meantime, the first thaws out, and may then be again operated 
 when the second has to be detached on account of the thick ice covering. The 
 ice-producing tank Z serves for the production of artificial ice. For this pur- 
 pose galvanized-iron containers are filled with water and hung into the salt 
 water of the tank; the water is permitted to freeze and the containers are then 
 taken out of the salt water. The latter are then dipped into warm water in 
 order to loosen the ice from the sides of the container and the ice is then emptied 
 out. Practical mechanical installations greatly facilitate the necessary work. 
 To supply the meat coolers with fresh air, and to ventilate them when they 
 do not contain anything for cooling, the ventilator M is employed, which 
 transmits the change of air through the air shafts F and F f . 
 
 In place of the salt-water piping, which can also be connected with the 
 meat cooler, although this cannot be recommended, certain arrangements 
 for cooling the air may be used in which artificially moving air is run over the 
 surfaces irrigated by cold salt water or is directed through the salt water. 
 Of the various systems of refrigeration machines those of Linde-Wiesbaden 
 (ammonia), Humbold-Kalk (ammonia), Riedinger-Augsburg (carbonic acid), 
 Borsig-Tegel near Berlin (sulphurous acid) are the best known. 
 
METHODS OF CONSERVING AfE AT 101' 
 
 The meat coolers proper, contain racks constructed of iron railings 
 with arrangements for hanging the meat. In abattoirs usually special 
 chillrooms and cutting rooms are also constructed. The chilling rooms 
 are brought into direct connection with the killing floor, from which 
 the dressed carcass is conveyed without much effort into the cooling 
 rooms the temperature of which is not kept as low as in the coolers 
 proper. For the preservation of fish, game, poultry, etc., special 
 cooling rooms are constructed, the air of which should not be connected 
 with the rooms where fresh meat is kept. 
 
 For controlling the temperature and the moisture of air in the cool- 
 ing room, self-registering thermometers and hygrometers should be 
 installed. In some places they are required by regulation. 
 
 Freezing. The freezing of meat is accomplished for preserving 
 meat an unlimited time, as for transatlantic transportation. The 
 equipment for this purpose is the same as that described for the re- 
 frigeration plants; the air, however, is cooled below C., and is kept 
 constantly under the freezing temperature. 
 
 Chemical Preserving Methods. Preservation with Salt. The pre- 
 servative action of salt forms the basis of the oldest method of preserving 
 meat. This is generally practised in the household, as well as in the 
 wholesale trade, and known as the salting, or pickling of meat. Salting 
 indicates a superficial preservation for a shorter time, while in pickling 
 a complete penetration of the meat with salt is obtained, and there- 
 fore a lasting preservation. This is based principally on the dehy- 
 drating action of the salt and less on its germicidal action. 
 
 While superficial salting may be applied to all kinds of meats, 
 pickling is best adapted for pork, especially bacon, on account of its 
 high fat content; fine-fibered beef intermixed with fat (brisket) also 
 produces a good pickled meat. Lean beef as well as veal and mutton 
 get dry and unpalatable from pickling. 
 
 Regarding the application of the salt, nothing further need be said. The 
 procedure of pickling depends on the time to be consumed and the desire for 
 a certain degree of preservation of the meat products. If a hurried pickling 
 (forced pickling) is desired and abstraction of only a little moisture, it is best 
 to place the meat in a salt solution (brine) or to inject it into the meat along 
 the side of a bone or into the connective tissue with a special brine syringe 
 supplied with a hollow needle. 
 
 In the latter case the salt acts osmotically on the meat, both from the out- 
 side and from the inside. The keeping quality of such pickled meat is not 
 vey high, on account of the large content of water, and, therefore, such meat 
 is usually destined for early consumption, or it is further preserved by smok- 
 ing. In slow pickling the surfaces of the smaller cuts of meat are rubbed with 
 salt, arid the pieces are packed into barrels, each layer of meat being thoroughly 
 covered with a layer of salt. The quantity of salt to be used is about 50 grams 
 to 1 kg. of meat. By this process a brine also forms, the water content of which 
 originates almost entirely from the meat. The latter, therefore, dries put 
 considerably, and in consequence such meat possesses a better keeping quality. 
 The recently recommended "injection pickling" by Fjelstrup, by injecting 
 the bloodvessels with brine immediately after slaughter, has not yet reached 
 a practical importance. 
 
102 PRODUCTION, PR'EPARA TION, AND CONSERVA TION OF ME A T 
 
 Meat undergoes the following changes in pickling: 
 
 (a) The muscles turn gray owing to changes in the muscle coloring 
 matter. To prevent this, saltpeter is added to the salt, as it is readily 
 reduced to nitrous acid, which changes the hemoglobin into a bright 
 red derivative (hemorrhodin, Lehmann). According to Haldame, the 
 action of the nitrates on the hemoglobin, in the presence of oxygen 
 and reducing substances, develops nitric oxide hemoglobin, to which 
 the uncooked pickled meat also owes its red color. Regarding the 
 red color of the pickled meat after cooking, see page 90. The quantity 
 of saltpeter usually added amounts to 1| to 2 grams to each kilo of 
 meat, and no injurious quantities of this cardiac depressant have 
 ever been found in pickled meat. Glage prefers the direct use of small 
 quantities of nitrates in the pickling, or the addition of alkaline phos- 
 phates to the brine to obtain a high red color. The addition of cane 
 sugar to the brine or salt mixture increases their powers of checking 
 putrefaction. 
 
 (b) The previously mentioned loss of water depends on the method 
 of pickling and the original contents of moisture in the meat; it may 
 amount to 10 to 15 per cent. 
 
 (c) The abstraction of nutritive substances, as a result of pickling, 
 is not to be underestimated. 
 
 According to Polenske it amounts to: 
 
 In three weeks' pickling 7.77 per cent. N. and 34.72 per cent, phosphoric 
 acid anhydride. 
 
 In three months' pickling 10.08 per cent. N. and 54.46 per cent, phosphoric 
 acid anhydride. 
 
 In six months' pickling 13.78 per cent. N. and 54.6 per cent, phosphoric 
 acid anhydride. 
 
 Besides a considerable loss of extractive substances (meat bases), 
 potassium salts occurs to such an extent that pickled meat not only 
 possesses a relatively smaller nutritive value than fresh meat, but it is 
 also, as a rule, more difficult to digest (see page 90) . These statements 
 were substantiated by Nothwang, who further established that in boiling 
 and stewing, pickled meat also loses extractive ingredients and phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 (d) The increase of weight of meat in pickling also depends on the 
 method of procedure. In pickling in brine, beef gained 9.4 per cent, 
 after three weeks, and after three months, 13 per cent, of the original 
 weight (Polenske). The absorption of salts after fourteen days' pickling 
 of beef at 4 C. amounted to an average of 8.35 per cent, of saltpeter 
 and 15.69 per cent, of common salt (Kuschel). 
 
 The influence of pickling on the meat of diseased animals has been over- 
 estimated. Although in accordance with Forster's investigations, cultures 
 of anthrax bacilli under the influence of common salt are destroyed in from 
 eighteen to twenty-four hours, cultures containing spores retain their virulence 
 for months. Tubercle bacilli retained their infectivity for eighteen days in 
 pickled pieces of organs, and cultures sprinkled over with common salt remained 
 virulent for two months. Bacillus morbificans bovis and Bacillus enteritidis 
 
METHODS OF CONSERVING MEAT 103 
 
 were, according to Stadler, destroyed in concentrated salt solution only after 
 three and four and one-half weeks. Cultures of the bacillus of swine erysipelas 
 are only slowly killed through salt in substance, but somewhat more quickly 
 by concentrated salt solution; brine exceeds both the former in its bactericidal 
 action. It destroys the erysipelas organisms in about eight days, but never- 
 theless it was possible to demonstrate virulent bacilli in meat which had been 
 soaked in brine for about seven weeks. Pickled meat contains virulent ery- 
 sipelas bacilli even after four months (Stadie) . The cultures of pyogenic staphy- 
 lococci and streptococci acted in the same manner. Animal parasites, if present 
 in the meat (cysticercus, trichinae), are positively killed by thorough pickling. 
 
 Preservation with Boracic Acid. Although the preservative action of boracic 
 acid (B 3 OaH) and its salt is not great, as they act only in checking the develop- 
 ment of bacteria, yet they may prevent infection and decomposition, and 
 keep fresh meat in its natural color. Therefore, preservatives containing 
 boracic acid have been used in the meat industry to a considerable extent. 
 In many meat products boracic acid causes to some extent increase in weight 
 through an increase of their water contents. 
 
 The preservative salts containing borax are on the market under various 
 names. The best known are: Barmenit (common salt and sodium chloro- 
 borate) ; [sodium chloroborate is sodium borate combined with chlorin] ; double 
 and triple preserving salt (boracic acid, saltpeter, common salt, Glauber's 
 salt); boroglyceride (a product containing about 60 per cent, glycerine and 
 about 40 per cent, boracic acid). 
 
 The injurious effect of boracic acid and its salt on the human system has 
 been debated for many years. In the practice of meat inspection the use of 
 boracic acid and its salt in the preservation of meat foods is prohibited in 
 Germany by the Imperial Decree of February 16, 1902, in connection with 
 the publication of the Imperial Chancellor of February 18, 1902. [Their use 
 is also prohibited in the United States (see B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 22, 
 Section 1).] 
 
 Preservation with Sulphurous Acid. The salts of sulphurous acid and espe- 
 cially the sulphites, are brought into trade under the name of preservative 
 salts, the acid or primary calcium sulphite (SO ;! H 2 )Ca, or acid potassium and 
 sodium sulphite (so-called bisulphite) S0 3 HK and SO ;5 HNa, or also neutral 
 sodium sulphite S0 3 NA 2 mixed with common salt, Glauber's salt, sugar, etc. 
 As already indicated, sulphurous acid salts are not so much conserving sub- 
 stances for meat as preservatives of muscle coloring matter. Therefore, they 
 were principally employed for the preservation of the fresh meat color on the 
 surface of pieces of meat, and especially to prevent chopped meat from turning 
 gray. The action of the sulphites in preventing putrefaction is only slight, 
 so that putrefaction may develop in meat containing sulphites. But as the 
 initial putrefaction is hidden by the redness of the muscle coloring matter, 
 the use of these preserving salts in connection with the meat trade leads not 
 only to deceptions regarding the freshness of meat, but also to the consump- 
 tion of meat which may have injurious properties through putrefaction. 
 
 There has been much diversity of opinion regarding the immediate, influence 
 of sulphites on the health of human beings. In the German Empire the decision 
 was against the sulphites, and their addition to meat products was prohibited 
 in accordance with the Imperial Decree of February 16, 1902, in connection 
 with the publication of the Imperial Chancellor of February 18, 1902. [Sul- 
 phites have also been prohibited in the United States in accordance with B. 
 A. I. Order 150, Regulation 22, Section 1.] 
 
 For the test of meat for sulphites, see page 337. 
 
 Other Chemical Conserving Substances.-^-Chemical conserving substances, 
 such as salicylic acid, sodium silicofluoride, ammonium acetate, sodium acetate, 
 formaldehyde, lactic acid, glycerin and others have been tried in an experi- 
 mental way for the conservation of meats, but they have not attained any 
 practical importance. Of these the following are prohibited in connection 
 with the preparation of meat in the German Empire: Formaldehyde, alkalies, 
 
104 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 and alkaline earth, hydroxides and carbonates, fluorhydrogen and its salts, 
 salicylic acid and its combinations, and chlorine acid salts. 
 
 [The use of chemical preservatives in the preparation and preservation of 
 meat and meat-food products with the exception of common salt and saltpeter 
 is prohibited in the United States, and the measures governing the same are 
 contained in B. A. I. Order and Regulations.] 
 
 The bactericidal action of acetic acid is utilized in the Deichstetter-Emmerich 
 method (see page 93) for keeping meat fresh. The animal is slaughtered with 
 the greatest possible cleanliness; then the large bloodvessels are infused with 
 dilute acetic acid, and the surface of the meat is sprayed with acetic acid. 
 The keeping of the meat has to be carried out as described on page 93. This 
 method, which proves an undeniable success if carefully executed, is, however, 
 a failure in large practice, owing to the frequent untrustworthiness of persons 
 having the work in charge. 
 
 Conservation by Smoking. The preparation of meat products for 
 keeping under the preservative influence of smoke (smoked products, 
 ham, bacon, smoked meat, pickled smoked meat), has been known 
 since the oldest times. However, only such meat is adapted for pre- 
 servation with smoke as contains a comparatively small quantity of 
 water (pickled meat), or is of such consistency that the latter is readily 
 diminished in the smoking, making an easy penetration of the smoke 
 possible (sausages). Meat is also subjected to smoking not so much 
 for preservation as for the palatableness secured from the penetration 
 of the burning substances of the smoke. 
 
 The application of smoke consists in the development of proper 
 smoke, and this is best accomplished by a slow burning of wood in 
 the form of sawdust. Hard woods, and especially juniper bush, furnish 
 the best smoke, while the burning of pine wood is useless for smok- 
 ing purposes on account of the large amount of turpentine which 
 it contains. The smoking process may be carried out as slow or as 
 forced smoking. In the slow smoking the meat is kept for days and 
 weeks in a room of 20 to 25 C., the air of which is impregnated 
 with smoke (smoking room), while in the forced or hot smoking the 
 products (fish, sausages) are exposed only a short time to the smoke 
 at 70 to 100 C. There is also a so-called artificial or quick smoking, 
 in which the meat or sausage is dipped into a mixture of pyroligneous 
 acid, water, and juniper oil, or the meat is covered with the same and 
 then dried in an airy place. Decoctions of shining soot which is formed 
 in the burning of wood with or without the addition of salt are also 
 supposed to be applied to meat products. With both methods, how- 
 ever, the air is not to conserve the meat preparations, but to impart 
 to them a smoky taste. 
 
 The conserving effect of smoking on meat depends upon the extrac- 
 tion of water and the penetration of the meat with gases and fumes 
 of the smoke, which are substances preventing putrefaction. Among 
 these are the tar products and hydrocarbons soluble in water; also 
 acetic acid, creosote, phenol, cresol, carbonic acid, ammonia, etc. 
 
 Concerning the action of smoking on microorganisms, the investigations 
 of Beu, Serafini, and Ungaro showed that even pathogenic germs are destroyed 
 in a short time if they are easily reached by the smoke. In the smoking of 
 
FOOD PREPARATIONS DERIVED FROM FOOD ANIMALS 105 
 
 infected meat it must be remembered, however, that a coagulated layer soon 
 forms on the surface making the penetration of the smoke more difficult. 
 Therefore, the germs contained on the inside of large pieces of meat may be 
 destroyed only with difficulty. This is also influenced by the water content 
 of the meat, as the water prevents the penetration of the smoke. The bacilli 
 of hog erysipelas are destroyed in two weeks' continual and intensive smok- 
 ing of pickled meat, provided the pieces do not exceed 2.5 kg. in weight (Stadie). 
 
 VARIOUS FOOD PREPARATIONS DERIVED FROM FOOD 
 
 ANIMALS 
 
 Meat Extract. Although meat extract is not a food but a delicacy of 
 animal origin, still, on account of its extensive consumption, it should be briefly 
 mentioned here. The principal brand of meat extract is that discovered by 
 Pettenkofer, and named in honor of Liebig. It is almost exclusively prepared 
 in America from lean beef, which is chopped by machine, and is boiled with 
 little water under high steam pressure in an apparatus. After the separation 
 of fat, coagulated albumen, and fibrin, the filtered meat broth is concentrated 
 in a vacuum, and is then again boiled down in open kettles which are supplied 
 with stirring apparatuses until a thick pap is formed, which is filled into jars; 
 30 to 32 kg. of lean meat gives about 1 kg. of meat extract. The extracted meat 
 fibers are dried and ground and shipped to Europe as American meat flour, 
 where it is utilized for food purposes, and recently also for the preparation 
 of albumen. 
 
 According to Stutzer, meat extract contains about 60 per cent, of organic 
 substances, 20 per cent, salt, and 20 per cent, of water. The organic substances 
 consist principally of so-called meat bases creatin, creatinin, sarkin, xanthin, 
 inosinacid, karnosin, aminoacid (Baur and Barschall) and others, as well as small 
 quantities of phosphocarnic acid and lactic acid. Glycogen is also generally 
 present. The presence of succinic acid in the meat extract cannot be con- 
 sidered as a positive indication of putrefaction. The salts consist of about 
 two-thirds of potassium phosphate. 
 
 .Owing to this composition, the meat extract appears as a spicy delicacy 
 which stimulates the nerves of taste, smell, and digestion. 
 
 The liquid meat extracts which are brought into trade as CibiFs, Koch's, 
 and Maggi's extracts, contain much less organic substances than Liebig's and 
 Kammerich's meat extract. 
 
 [Meat extract is also prepared in the United States to a large extent from 
 the meat broth obtained from the boiling of meats for canning purposes. This 
 is boiled down and concentrated in a vacuum to a desired consistency, and is 
 then drawn off into various sized containers.] 
 
 Peptones. The effort of chemistry to convert the albumens of meat into 
 soluble preparations which may be absorbed without any further change in 
 the body by the digestive apparatus lead to the preparation of peptones. 
 
 According to Stutzer, pepsin peptones and pancreatic peptones may be 
 distinguished. The preparation of the latter has ceased at the present time. 
 The former are prepared by subjecting meat to the action of a mixture of 
 pepsin (extract of the mucous membrane of the stomach) and hydrochloric 
 acid in the known physiological dilution; the solution is then filtered, is accu- 
 rately neutralized with a small quantity of bicarbonate of soda, and finally 
 steamed in vacuum. The peptone thus prepared, contains albumose as the 
 principal ingredient. 
 
 The opinions regarding the nutritive value of peptones differ widely, and 
 this is readily explainable, as the various trade preparations contain a greatly 
 varying content of true peptones. Thus, Stutzer found in a fluid meat pep- 
 tone preparation, 12 to 15 per cent, peptone equal 1.91 per cent, nitrogen; 
 and in another, dry fibrin peptone, 81 per cent, equal 14.56 per cent, nitrogen. 
 
106 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 Fat and Tallow. The fats of food animals which are not sold in 
 the raw state, or as prepared meat products (bacon, etc.), are rendered 
 to serve for human food, and the connective-tissue constituents of 
 the fat tissue are separated from it in the form of cracklings. The 
 rendered hog fat, under the name of lard, forms an important article 
 of trade, which is principally shipped from America. The freshly 
 rendered beef tallow is also sold directly for food purposes. Larger 
 quantities of it are utilized for the manufacture of oleomargarin (olein), 
 while the superfluous quantities of tallow are chiefly used for industrial 
 purposes. 
 
 Lard forms a fine, milk-white homogeneous mass of oleaceous con- 
 sistence and peculiarly agreeable odor and taste. Its color is sometimes 
 artificially improved by the addition of borax, and its water content 
 may be artificially increased by mixing alum or calcium hydrate with it. 
 
 Such manipulations, as well as adulterations of lard, as a rule, occur 
 only rarely in Germany, but they were formerly carried out in America, 
 with many varieties of fats. The most frequent manipulation is 
 adulteration with cottonseed oil. There are varieties of lard which 
 contain no hog fat whatever, but are prepared from beef fat, mutton 
 fat, cottonseed oil, cottonseed stearin, and other kinds of fats, pignut 
 oil, oil of sesame, palmseed oil, and cocoanut oil. In the trade the 
 adulterated lard is given the most varied names, as Cottolene, Koto- 
 suet, Refined Lard, Pure Refined Lard, Pure Refined Family Lard, 
 Fairbanks' Lard, Frying Lard, Hamburg City Lard, etc. on the other 
 hand, the following American lards are unadulterated Neutral Lard, 
 Leaf Lard, Choice Kettle-rendered Lard (choice lard), and Prime 
 Steam Lard. 
 
 [In accordance with the Regulations of April 1, 1908, governing 
 meat inspection in the United States, all products sold under the 
 trade name of lard must consist of hog fat, as the said regulations 
 provide that the true name must be given to all products, and that 
 false or deceptive names of meat and meat-food products are pro- 
 hibited. Further, it is provided that the meat-food products which 
 contain substances which are added to adulterate the same must bear 
 a label stating that such substances have been added. (See B. A. I. 
 Order 150, Regulation 18, Sections 1 to 14.)] 
 
 According to the German Imperial law of June 15, 1897, regarding 
 the traffic with butter, cheese, lard, and their substitutions, all prepara- 
 tions resembling lard the fat content of which does not consist of 
 hog fat must be declared as artificial food fat. 
 
 The so-called sausage fat, known principally in the retail trade, 
 is obtained from the skimmings of the sausage broth in which the 
 sausages are cooked. It is a mixed fat containing a considerable amount 
 of water of a gray to grayish-green color, with a spicy sausage taste 
 (principally like marjoram), and which contains small meat particles 
 and unmelted pieces of fat. It spoils very easily. 
 
 Under the term margarin, formerly also called artificial butter, 
 sweet cream butterine, Holland butter, Holburko, etc., are included 
 
FOOD PREPARATIONS DERIVED FROM FOOD ANIMALS 107 
 
 in accordance with the German Imperial law of June 15, 1897, all 
 those preparations which resemble cow butter or butter fat, but which 
 do not entirely originate from milk. Margarin was first prepared by 
 the French chemist Mege-Mouries, who, in 1869, made public the 
 process of its preparation. Except for slight changes this was prac- 
 tically identical with the present method. The fresh beef fat is washed, 
 macerated, and after adding water, potash, and stomach mucous mem- 
 brane it is heated to about 50 C., causing the liquid fat to accumulate 
 on the surface. The fat the so-called "Premier jus" is then taken 
 off, is clarified, and solidified at 25, by which the tri stearin separates 
 in crystals, while the triolein and tripalmitin, which together are also 
 called oleomargarin (in the United States, oleo oil), remain fluid and 
 are separated from the first by pressing. To every 50 kg. of oleo- 
 margarin 25 liters of cows' milk and 25 liters of water, with a small 
 quantity of butter coloring, is mixed, and the mass is then churned. 
 The fat mixture so obtained yields, after washing and salting, a fat 
 which tastes like butter. In accordance with the Imperial law, 10 
 per cent, of sesame oil must be added in order that the margarin itself, 
 as well as possible mixtures with butter, may be easily detected 
 chemically. 
 
 If margarin is cleanly prepared from good fat, and is sold under 
 declaration, no objection can be made against it from a hygienic stand- 
 point. According to Jolle's experiments with dogs, margarin is just 
 as profitably utilized in the intestines as butter; and Adolph Mayer, 
 as well as Kienzl, found in the comparative experiments on men only 
 very slight differences in favor of butter. Tubercle bacilli have been 
 found in margarin as also in butter (Morgenroth) . 
 
 [The preparation of oleo oil, which is a product of beef fat, com- 
 prises an important industry in the largest packing houses of the 
 United States. It is the principal ingredient of butterine. The largest 
 part of oleo oil manufactured in the United States is exported to 
 Europe, principally to Holland and Germany, where it is utilized for 
 the manufacture of butterine. There is at the present time only a 
 comparatively small amount of butterine manufactured in the United 
 States, the demand for that product being somewhat limited. 
 
 In accordance with an act of Congress, butterine must be sold in 
 the United States under declaration, and no coloring is permitted 
 to be used in its preparation, except by the payment of a heavy license.] 
 
 Caviar and Smoked Salmon. The preservation of fish and crustaceans, 
 which are conserved by salting, smoking, drying, inclosing in air-tight cans, 
 pickling, etc., is of very little importance for the general purpose of the subject 
 under consideration. Only the caviar, which, on account of its high nutritive 
 value, its easy digestibility, and its palatability, forms a widely distributed 
 food and delicacy, and smoked salmon, on account of its various trade prepara- 
 tions, will be briefly considered here. 
 
 Caviar is the salted spawn of many varieties of sturgeons. According to 
 Niebel, it is obtained principally in Russia, on the lower courses of the Volga, 
 Don, in the Ural, Aral Sea, and Caspian Sea; in Germany, on the Baltic, 
 North Sea, and on the lower course of .the Elb; in America, in the State of 
 
108 PRODUCTION, PREPARATION, AND CONSERVATION OF MEAT 
 
 Oregon, and in the Territory of Alaska. It is distinguished as fluid or granular, 
 and pressed caviar. The first, sprinkled with common salt, is passed through 
 a sieve for the separation of the adhering membranes, and is packed into barrels. 
 The pressed caviar consists of eggs of an inferior quality, which are placed 
 into brine, and then pressed out after sufficient absorption has taken place. 
 
 Relative to the origin and quality, it is distinguished as Russian, American, 
 and Elb caviar. The eggs of the most valuable the Russian caviar are 
 dark gray to black in color, and have an average diameter of 3.55 mm.; besides, 
 they are free of membranes and of added slimy substances. The American 
 and Elb caviar are about the same in quality. The eggs of the former are 
 only 2.5 to 3 mm. in diameter, are blackish gray to blackish yellow, are softer 
 than those of the Russian caviar, and are partly injured, In the Elb caviar, 
 the eggs are still smaller and darker. According to Bischof, a decomposed 
 American caviar which has been specially preserved is also sold under the 
 name Elb caviar. 
 
 So-called red caviar is prepared in Russia from the eggs of various fish, 
 and in Germany from the eggs of the pike, carp, and other species. 
 
 For the chemical composition of caviar, according to Konig, see table, page 
 55. Slightly salted caviar does not contain more than 5 per cent, salt, while 
 strongly salted caviar has up to 10 per cent. salt. 
 
 According to Raebiger, the following varieties of smoked salmon are placed 
 on the market : 
 
 (a) American salmon, which is supposed to originate from the Oncorhynchus 
 quinnat. Back and abdominal lines run forward almost parallel. Scales, 
 golden yellow and shiny. Color of flesh, pink to brick red. The muscles and 
 their surrounding connective tissue ("white veins," in practical language) 
 are stronger developed than in the Rhein salmon. 
 
 (6) The Rhein, Elb, and Weser salmon have a highly arched back and a 
 body compressed on the sides. Back and abdominal lines approach each 
 other considerably toward the head. Scales are silver white; toward the back 
 they are blackish brown and ovally elongated. Color of flesh, pinkish red and 
 with a slight tinge of yellow. They have a heavy cushion of white fat. 
 
 (c) The Baltic, Volga, and Russian salmon have a long, not as much com- 
 pressed body, with small round scales. Meat has a typical salmon color, 
 is very rich in fat, and the intramuscular connective tissue is loose as in the 
 American salmon. 
 
 (d) The fish known in the trade as sea salmon, is the Merluccius vulgaris. 
 Its meat is white and poor in fat. 
 
 (e) The Facon salmon is prepared from trimmings which are pressed into 
 parchment hulls. It may be recognized by the absence of the irregularity 
 in the course of the " veins." 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION OF THE UNITED 
 STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 [B. A. I. ORDER 150.] 
 REGULATION 1. SCOPE OF INSPECTION 
 
 SECTION 1. All slaughtering, packing, meat canning, salting, rendering, 
 or similar establishments, except as hereinafter provided, the meat or meat- 
 food products of which, in whole or in part, enter into interstate or foreign 
 commerce, shall have inspection under these regulations. The Secretary of 
 Agriculture may exempt from inspection establishments operated by farmers, 
 retail butchers, or retail dealers supplying their customers, but in the absence 
 of such exemption inspection is required. 
 
 SECTION 2. Branch houses of official establishments, when such branch 
 houses are engaged in interstate or foreign commerce and slaughter animals 
 or process meat, shall be considered a part of the parent house, and products 
 received into such branch houses or sent from them shall be subject to these 
 regulations, and inspection shall be maintained therein. 
 
 REGULATION 2. ORGANIZATION OF FORCE 
 
 SECTION 1. Paragraph 1. All permanent employees of the Department 
 of Agriculture engaged in the work of meat inspection are appointed upon 
 certification of the Civil Service Commission that they have passed the exami- 
 nation prescribed by that commission. Promotions in all classes are made on 
 the basis of efficiency, deportment, and length of service. Such employees 
 include: 
 
 Paragraph 2. Inspectors in Charge. These are inspectors assigned by the 
 Bureau of Animal Industry to supervise official work at each official station. 
 Such employees report directly to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
 and are chosen by reason of their fitness for responsibility as determined by 
 their records in the service. At stations where slaughtering is conducted, only 
 veterinary inspectors are placed in charge. 
 
 Paragraph 3. Veterinary Inspectors. All applicants examined for these posi- 
 tions must be graduates of recognized veterinary colleges having a course of not 
 less than three years leading to the degree. All final antemortem and postmortem 
 examinations are conducted by veterinarians. At some stations the veterinarians 
 are assisted in making preliminary examinations by trained laymen, known as 
 inspectors' assistants. 
 
 Paragraph 4. Travelling Veterinary Inspectors. To observe the conditions 
 of sanitation of the establishments at the various stations, note the processes 
 of antemortem and postmortem inspection, confer with and instruct inspectors 
 regarding it, with a view to a uniform system throughout the country, and to 
 report these matters to the Washington office, constitute the principal duties 
 of these employees. 
 
 Paragraph 5. Laboratory Inspectors. These employees possess technical 
 training in microscopic and chemical examination of meat-food products, 
 
110 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 and their inspections are conducted in laboratories located at various slaughter- 
 ing centres. Pathological laboratories are also maintained, to which diseased 
 specimens may be sent when necessary for diagnosis. 
 
 Paragraph 6. Meat Inspectors. These employees are laymen experienced 
 in the curing, canning, packing, or otherwise preparing of meat; they supervise 
 that work and the use of permitted preservatives described in Regulation 22. 
 
 Paragraph 7. Travelling Meat Inspectors. These employees perform a service 
 similar to that required of travelling veterinary inspectors, but along the line 
 of the preparation and handling of meat products. 
 
 Paragraph 8. Inspectors' Assistants. These employees are laymen, who are 
 first assigned to routine duties, such as assisting in conducting antemortem and 
 postmortem examinations and in the examination and supervision of marking 
 of products. 
 
 Paragraph 9. Patrolmen. Patrolmen are employed to patrol the establish- 
 ments at night, to oversee the receipts and shipments of meat, and to observe 
 any operations conducted at night. They consist of veterinarians, inspectors' 
 assistants, or meat inspectors, according to the character of the work where 
 assigned. 
 
 Paragraph 10. Skilled Laborers. These employees supervise the marking of 
 meat and meat containers, and perform similar work. They are eligible for 
 promotion only through examination. 
 
 REGULATION 3. INTERPRETATION AND DEFINITION OF WORDS 
 
 AND TERMS 
 
 Wherever in these regulations the following words, names, or terms are 
 used they shall be construed as follows : 
 
 SECTION 1. Official Establishment. This term shall mean any slaughtering, 
 meat-canning, salting, rendering, or similar establishment at which inspec- 
 tion is maintained under the meat-inspection law approved June 30, 1906 
 (34 Stat., 674). 
 
 SECTION 2. Inspectors and Department Employees. These terms shall mean, 
 respectively, inspectors and employees of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 SECTION 3. "Inspected and Passed." -This phrase, or any authorized 
 abbreviation thereof, shall mean that the carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, 
 and meat-food products so marked have been inspected and passed for good 
 under these regulations. 
 
 SECTION 4. Rendered into Lard or Tallow. This phrase shall mean that the 
 carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, and meat-food products so designated are 
 allowed to be made into edible lard or edible tallow. 
 
 SECTION 5. "U. S. Inspected and Condemned." This phrase shall mean 
 that the carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, and meat-food products so marked 
 are unfit for food and shall be destroyed for food purposes. 
 
 SECTION 6. Carcass. This word shall apply to the carcass of an animal 
 that has been killed under these regulations and shall include all parts which 
 are to be used for food. 
 
 SECTION 7. Primal Parts of Carcasses. This phrase shall mean the usual 
 sections or cuts of the dressed carcass commonly known in the trade, such 
 as sides, quarters, shoulders, hams, backs, bellies, etc., and beef tongues, beef 
 livers, and beef tails, before they have been cut, shredded, or otherwise sub- 
 divided preliminary to use in the manufacture of meat-food products. 
 
 SECTION 8. Meat or Meat-food Product. Paragraph 1. A meat-food product, 
 within the meaning of the meat-inspection act and of these regulations, is con- 
 sidered to be any article of food intended for human use which is derived or 
 prepared in whole or in part from any edible portion of the carcass of cattle, 
 sheep, swine, or goats, if the said edible portion so used is a considerable and 
 definite portion of the finished food. 
 
INSPECTION OR EXEMPTION 111 
 
 Paragraph 2. Mixture. A mixture of which meat is an ingredient will not be 
 considered a meat-food product unless the meat contained therein is a definite and 
 considerable portion of the said mixture. But where such mixture is prepared in 
 a part of an official establishment, the sanitation of that part of the establish- 
 ment will be supervised by the department, and the meat or meat-food products 
 will be inspected before it enters the said mixture. The mixture shall not bear 
 the meat-inspection legend or any simulation thereof. If any reference is 
 made to Federal inspection it shall be in the following form: "The meat con- 
 tained herein has been inspected and passed at an establishment where Federal 
 inspection is maintained." Mixtures such as mincemeat, soups, etc., which come 
 under this description and which are not officially labelled, are allowed in inter- 
 state and foreign commerce without further inspection, and without certificates, 
 subject to the provisions and requirements of the food and drugs act of June 30, 
 1906, and the regulations made thereunder. 
 
 SECTION 9. Medical Meat Products. Products such as meat juice, meat 
 extract, etc., which are intended only for medicinal purposes and are advertised 
 only to the medical profession, are not considered meat-food products within 
 the meaning of this order. 
 
 SECTION 10. Vinegar. The word vinegar, as used herein, shall mean cider 
 vinegar, wine vinegar, malt vinegar, sugar vinegar, glucose vinegar, or spirit 
 vinegar. 
 
 REGULATION 4. INSPECTION OR EXEMPTION 
 
 SECTION 1. The proprietor or operator of each slaughtering, packing, meat- 
 canning, rendering, or similar establishment engaged in the slaughtering of cattle, 
 sheep, swine, or goats, or in the packing, canning, or other preparation of any 
 meat-food product, for interstate or foreign commerce, shall make application to 
 the Secretary of Agriculture for inspection or for exemption from inspection, 
 except in cases where inspection or exemption is already in effect. In case of 
 change of ownership, or change of location of an establishment already having 
 inspection, a new application shall be made. Exemptions under the law can be 
 given only to establishments operated by retail butchers and retail dealers. 
 Such application shall be in writing, addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
 Washington, D. C., shall state the location of the establishment, and shall be 
 made on blanks which will be furnished by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal 
 Industry upon request. 
 
 SECTION 2. Inspection shall not be begun if an establishment is not in a 
 sanitary condition, nor unless the establishment provides and guarantees to 
 maintain adequate facilities for conducting such inspection. 
 
 SECTION 3. If in the judgment of the Secretary of Agriculture the retail 
 butcher or retail dealer who is operating an establishment and engaged in 
 supplying his customers through the medium of interstate or foreign commerce 
 is entitled to exemption from Federal inspection, a numbered certificate of 
 exemption will be furnished to the applicant for use with transportation com- 
 panies and other companies and persons in securing the movement of his 
 products. If an establishment, including both market and slaughter house 
 of such retail butcher or dealer, is not in a sanitary condition, a certificate of 
 exemption will not be issued. 
 
 SECTION 4. Exempted establishments shall be open to the inspection of the 
 Bureau of Animal Industry, shall be maintained in a clean condition, and shall 
 conform to the same regulations as govern official establishments in regard to 
 labelling, dyes, chemicals, and preservatives, and unsound, unwholesome, and 
 unfit meat. 
 
112 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 REGULATION 5. OFFICIAL NUMBER 
 
 SECTION 1. Paragraph 1. When inspection is established the Secretary 
 of Agriculture will give the establishment a number, and this number shall 
 be used to mark the meat and meat-food products of the establishment as 
 hereinafter prescribed. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Two or more official establishments under the same owner- 
 ship or control may use the same establishment number, provided a serial 
 letter is added in each case to designate the establishment and to enable its 
 product to be identified. 
 
 Paragraph 3. Persons, firms, or corporations owning subsidiary companies 
 having legal entity may use the names of such companies, provided applica- 
 tion has been made for inspection and it has been granted, the inspection 
 legend in such case to bear the official establishment number of the parent 
 firm or corporation. 
 
 Paragraph 4. Each official establishment must be separate and distinct 
 from any other establishment or department in which animal products are 
 handled at which inspection is not maintained. When two or more companies 
 prepare their products in the same official establishment they must obtain 
 inspection under the same number. The name of the distributor may appear 
 upon the label. 
 
 REGULATION 6. ASSIGNMENT OF INSPECTORS, ETC. 
 
 SECTION 1. The Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry will designate 
 an inspector to take charge of the inspection at each official establishment, and 
 will assign to said inspector such assistants as may be necessary. 
 
 SECTION 2. For the purpose of enforcing the law and regulations all employees 
 of the Bureau of Animal Industry shall have access at all times, by day or 
 night, whether the establishment be operated or not, to every part of the 
 establishment. 
 
 SECTION 3. Each employee of the Bureau of Animal Industry working 
 under these regulations will be furnished with a numbered badge, which he 
 shall wear over the left breast on the outer clothing while in the performance 
 of his official duties, and which shall not be allowed to leave his possession. 
 This official badge shall be sufficient identification to entitle him to admittance 
 at all regular entrances and to all parts of the establishment and premises. 
 
 SECTION 4. Office room, including light and heat, shall be provided by pro- 
 prietors of establishments, rent free, for the exclusive use, for official purposes, 
 of the inspectors and other employees of the Department assigned thereto. 
 The room or rooms set apart for this purpose must be properly ventilated, 
 conveniently located, and provided with lockers suitable for the protection and 
 storage of such supplies as may be required; all to meet the approval of the 
 inspector in charge. 
 
 REGULATION 7. ALL CARCASSES AND PRODUCTS INSPECTED 
 
 SECTION 1. All cattle, sheep, swine, or goats slaughtered at an official estab- 
 lishment, and all meat and meat-food products prepared therein, shall be 
 inspected, handled, prepared, and marked as required by these regulations. 
 
 REGULATION 8. NOTICE OF DAILY OPERATIONS, ETC. 
 
 SECTION 1. The manager of each official establishment shall inform the 
 inspector in charge, or his assistant, when work has been concluded for the 
 day, and of the day and hour when work will be resumed. Under no circurn- 
 

 SANITATION 113 
 
 stances shall any department of an establishment be operated except under 
 the supervision of an employee of the Bureau of Animal Industry. All slaughter- 
 ing of animals and the preparation of meat and meat-food products shall be 
 done within reasonable hours, and with reasonable speed, the facilities of the 
 establishment being considered. 
 
 SECTION 2. Where one inspector is detailed to conduct the work at two 
 or more small establishments where few animals are slaughtered or where 
 but a small quantity of meat or meat-food products is prepared, the inspector 
 in charge may designate the hours for work. 
 
 SECTION 3. No work shall be performed at official establishments during 
 any day on which such work is prohibited by the law of the State or Territory 
 in which the establishment is located. However, the Department will require 
 that it be judicially determined that such work is prohibited by the State law. 
 
 REGULATION 9. BRIBERY 
 
 SECTION 1. It is a felony, punishable by fine and imprisonment, for any 
 person, firm, or corporation to give, pay, or offer, directly or indirectly, to 
 any Department employee authorized to perform any duty under these regula- 
 tions any money or other thing of value with intent to influence said employee 
 in the discharge of his duty under these regulations. It is also a felony, punish- 
 able by fine and imprisonment, for any Department employee engaged in the 
 performance of duty under these regulations to receive or accept from any 
 person, firm, or corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce any 
 gift, money, or other thing of value given with any purpose or intent what- 
 soever. 
 
 REGULATION 10. SANITATION 
 
 SECTION 1. After the receipt of an application for inspection or exemption 
 an examination of the establishment and premises will be made and the require- 
 ments for sanitation and the necessary facilities for inspection will be specified. 
 
 SECTION 2. Plans and specifications, in duplicate, of plants for which applica- 
 tion for inspection is made, also of new plants and plants to be remodeled, 
 should be submitted to the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 SECTION 3. Official establishments and establishments to which certificates 
 of exemption have been issued shall be suitably lighted and ventilated and 
 maintained in a sanitary condition, and shall be provided with efficient drain- 
 age, having properly trapped or other approved sewer connections. Rooms 
 in which inspection is carried on shall, by heating or other means, be kept 
 reasonably free from steam and other vapors, in order that proper inspection 
 can be made. All work in such establishments shall be performed in a cleanly 
 and sanitary manner. 
 
 SECTION 4. Ceilings, walls, pillars, partitions, etc., shall be kept in a sanitary 
 condition, and when necessary they shall be washed, scraped, painted, or other- 
 wise treated as required. Where floors or other parts of a building or tables 
 or other parts of the equipment are so old or in such poor condition that they 
 cannot be readily made sanitary they shall be removed and replaced by suit- 
 able materials. All floors upon which meats are piled during the process of 
 curing shall be so constructed that they can be kept in a clean and sanitary 
 condition, and all meat piled upon floors shall be suitably protected from trucks, 
 etc. Walks and platforms or approaches leading into establishments shall 
 be kept clean to prevent tracking dirt into the same. 
 
 SECTION 5. All trucks, trays, and other receptacles, all chutes, platforms, 
 racks, tables, etc., and all knives, saws, cleavers, and other tools, and all utensils, 
 machinery, and vehicles used in moving, handling, cutting, chopping, mixing, 
 canning, or other processes shall be thoroughly cleaned before using. 
 
114 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 SECTION 6. Managers of establishments must require employees to be 
 cleanly. The aprons, smocks, or other outer clothing worn by employees 
 who handle meat or meat-food products shall be of a material that is readily 
 cleansed and made sanitary, and only clean garments shall be worn. Persons 
 who handle meat or meat-food products shall be required to keep their hands 
 clean, and they shall be required also to pay particular attention to the cleanli- 
 ness of their boots or shoes. 
 
 SECTION 7. Persons affected with tuberculosis or any other communicable 
 disease shall not be employed in any of the departments of establishments 
 where carcasses are dressed, meat is handled, or meat-food products are pre- 
 pared; and any employee of such establishment who may be suspected of 
 being so affected shall be reported by the inspector in charge to the manager 
 of the establishment and to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 SECTION 8. All water closets, toilet rooms, and dressing rooms shall be 
 entirely separated from compartments in which carcasses are dressed or meat 
 or meat-food products are cured, stored, packed, handled, or prepared. Where 
 such rooms open into compartments in which meat or meat-food products are 
 handled they must, when this is considered necessary, be provided with properly 
 ventilated vestibules and with automatically closing doors. They shall be con- 
 veniently located, sufficient in number, ample in size, and fitted with modern 
 lavatory accommodations, including toilet paper, soap, running hot and cold 
 water, towels, etc. They shall be properly lighted, suitably ventilated, and 
 kept in a sanitary condition. Convenient and sanitary urinals shall be pro- 
 vided; and washstands, near at hand, shall also be provided. 
 
 SECTION 9. The rooms or compartments in which meat or meat-food 
 products are prepared, cured, stored, packed, or otherwise handled shall be free 
 from odors from toilet rooms, catch basins, casing departments, tank rooms, 
 hide cellars, etc., and shall be kept free from flies and other vermin by screen- 
 ing, or other methods. All rooms or compartments shall be provided with cus- 
 pidors of such shape as not readily to be upset and of such material and construc- 
 tion as to be readily disinfected, and employees who expectorate shall be required 
 to use them. 
 
 SECTION 10. The feeding of hogs or other animals on the refuse of slaughter 
 houses shall not be permitted on the premises of an exempted establishment 
 or an official establishment, and no use incompatible with proper sanitation 
 shall be made of any part of the premises on which such establishment is located. 
 All yards, fences, pens, chutes, alleys, etc., belonging to the premises of such 
 establishments, whether they are used or not, shall be maintained in a sanitary 
 condition, and no nuisance shall be allowed in the establishment or on its 
 premises. 
 
 SECTION 11. Butchers who dress or handle diseased carcasses or parts shall 
 cleanse their hands of all grease and then immerse them in a prescribed dis- 
 infectant and rinse them in clear water before dressing or handling healthy 
 carcasses. All butchers' implements used in dressing diseased carcasses shall 
 be sterilized either in boiling water or by immersion in a prescribed disinfectant, 
 followed by rinsing in clear water. Facilities for such cleansing and disinfection, 
 approved by the inspector in charge, shall be provided by the establishment. 
 Separate sanitary trucks, etc., which shall be appropriately and distinctively 
 marked, shall be furnished for handling diseased carcasses and parts. Follow- 
 ing the slaughter of any animal affected with an infectious disease, a stop shall 
 be made until the implements have been cleansed and disinfected, unless other 
 clean implements are provided. 
 
 SECTION 12. Inspectors are required to furnish their own implements for 
 use in dissecting, incising, or examining diseased carcasses or unsound parts, 
 and are required to use the same means for disinfecting implements, hands, 
 etc., that are prescribed for employees of the establishment. 
 
 SECTION 13. Due care must be taken to prevent meat and meat-food products 
 from falling on the floor; and in the event of their having so fallen, they must 
 be condemned or the soiled portions removed and condemned. When meat 
 
ANTEMORTEM EXAMINATION AND INSPECTION 115 
 
 or meat-food products are being emptied into tanks, some device, such as a 
 metal funnel, must be used. 
 
 SECTION 14. Carcasses shall not be inflated with air from the mouth, and 
 no inflation of carcasses except by mechanical means shall be allowed. Car- 
 casses shall not be dressed with skewers, knives, etc., that have been held in 
 the mouth. Skewers shall be cleaned before being used again. Spitting on 
 whetstones or steels when sharpening knives shall not be allowed. 
 
 SECTION 15. Only good, clean, and wholesome water and ice shall be used 
 in the preparation of carcasses, parts, meat, or meat-food products. Whenever 
 there is any doubt regarding the sanitary condition of the water supply, notice 
 shall be sent immediately to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 SECTION 16. Wagons or cars in which meat or meat-food products are 
 transported shall be kept in a clean and sanitary condition. The wagons used 
 in transporting loose meat between official establishments shall be so closed 
 and covered that the contents shall be kept clean, and so constructed that they 
 may, when necessary, be locked and sealed with Government seals, which 
 seals shall be affixed and broken only by employees of the Department. 
 
 SECTION 17. Skins and hides from animals condemned for tuberculosis or 
 any other disease infectious to man, but showing no outward appearance of 
 disease, may be removed (except as provided in Regulation 13, Section 2), for 
 tanning or other uses in the arts when disinfected as follows: Each skin and 
 hide must be immersed for not less than five minutes in a 5 per cent, solution 
 of liquor cresolis compositus or a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid, or a 1 
 to 1000 solution of bichloride of mercury. The process of skinning and dipping 
 must be conducted entirely in the retaining room, or other specially prepared 
 place, approved by the inspector in charge, for final inspection. 
 
 REGULATION 11. ANTEMORTEM EXAMINATION AND INSPECTION 
 
 SECTION 1. An antemortem examination and inspection shall be made 
 of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, about to be slaughtered before they shall 
 be allowed to be killed in an official establishment. Satisfactory facilities for 
 conducting said inspection and for separating and holding apart from passed 
 animals those marked "U. S. Suspect" shall be provided. 
 
 SECTION 2. All animals showing symptoms or suspected of being affected 
 with any disease or condition which, under these regulations, would probably 
 cause their condemnation in whole or in part when slaughtered shall be marked 
 by affixing to the animal a metal tag bearing the words "U. S. Suspect?' All 
 such animals, except as hereinafter provided, shall be set apart and slaughtered 
 separately from other animals at an official establishment. 
 
 SECTION 3. Animals which have been tagged for pregnancy or for having 
 recently given birth to young, and which have not been exposed to any infec- 
 tious or contagious disease, and vaccine animals with unhealed lesions accom- 
 panied by fever and which have not been exposed to any other infectious or 
 contagious disease, are not required to be slaughtered, but before any such 
 animal is removed the tag shall be detached by a Department employee and 
 returned with his report t'o the inspector in charge. 
 
 SECTION 4. If any pathological condition is suspected in which the question 
 of temperature is important, such as Texas fever, anthrax, pneumonia, black- 
 leg, or septicemia, the exact temperature should be taken. Due consideration 
 however, must be given to the fact that extremely high temperature may 
 be found in otherwise normal hogs when subjected to exercise or excitement, 
 and a similar condition may obtain to a less degree among other classes of 
 animals. 
 
 SECTION 5. Animals commonly termed "downers," or crippled animals, 
 shall be tagged before slaughter as provided for in Regulation 17, Section 1, 
 for the purpose of identification at the time of slaughter, and shall be passed 
 upon in accordance with these regulations. 
 
116 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 REGULATION 12. POSTMORTEM INSPECTION AT TIME OF 
 
 SLAUGHTER 
 
 SECTION 1. A careful inspection shall be made of all animals at the time of 
 slaughter. The head, tongue, tail, thymus gland, and all viscera, and all parts 
 and blood used in the preparation of meat-food or medical products, shall be 
 retained in such manner as to preserve their identity until after postmortem 
 examination has been completed, in order that they may be identified in case 
 of condemnation of the carcass. 
 
 SECTION 2. Carcasses and parts thereof found to be sound, healthful, whole- 
 some, and fit for human food shall be passed and marked as provided in these 
 regulations. 
 
 SECTION 3. Should any lesion of disease or other condition that would 
 render the meat or any organ unfit for food purposes be found on postmortem 
 examination, the carcass, part, or organ shall be marked immediately with 
 a tag, as provided in Regulation 17, Section 3. Carcasses which have been so 
 marked shall not be washed or trimmed unless such washing or trimming is 
 authorized by the inspector. 
 
 REGULATION 13. DISPOSAL OF DISEASED CARCASSES AND 
 
 ORGANS 
 
 SECTION 1. General Statement. The carcasses or parts of carcasses of all 
 animals slaughtered at an official establishment and found at time of slaughter 
 or at any subsequent inspection to be affected with any of the diseases or con- 
 ditions named below shall be disposed of according to the section of this regu- 
 lation pertaining to the disease or condition. It is to be understood, however, 
 that owing to the fact that it is impracticable to formulate rules covering every 
 case, and to designate at just what stage a process becomes loathsome or a 
 disease noxious, the decision as to the disposal of all carcasses, parts, or organs 
 not specifically covered by these regulations shall be left to the veterinary 
 inspector in charge. 
 
 SECTION 2. Anthrax or Charbon. All carcasses showing lesions of anthrax 
 or charbon, regardless of the extent of the disease, and including the hide, 
 hoofs, horns, viscera, fat, blood, and all other portions of the animal, shall 
 be condemned and immediately incinerated. The killing bed upon which 
 the animal was slaughtered shall be disinfected with a 10 per cent, solution 
 of formalin, and all knives, saws, cleavers, and other instruments which have 
 come in contact with the carcass shall be treated as provided in Regulation 
 10, Section 11, before being used upon another carcass. 
 
 SECTION 3. Blackleg. Carcasses of animals showing lesions of blackleg 
 shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 4. Hemorrhagic Septicemia. Carcasses of animals affected with 
 hemorrhagic septicemia shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 5. Pyemia and Septicemia. Carcasses showing lesions of pyemia 
 or septicemia shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 6. Vaccinia. Carcasses of vaccine animals mentioned under 
 Regulation 11, Section 3, shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 7. Rabies. Carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of 
 rabies before slaughter shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 8. Tetanus. Carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of 
 tetanus before slaughter shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 9. Malignant Epizootic Catarrh. Carcasses of animals affected 
 with malignant epizootic catarrh and showing generalized inflammation of 
 the mucous membranes shall be condemned. 
 
DISPOSAL OF DISEASED CARCASSES AND ORGANS 117 
 
 SECTION 10. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Paragraph 1. Carcasses 
 showing well-marked and progressive lesions of hog cholera or swine plague 
 in more than two of the organs (skin, kidneys, bones, or lymphatic glands) 
 shall be condemned. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Provided they are well nourished, carcasses showing slight 
 and limited lesions of these diseases may be passed. 
 
 Paragraph 3. Carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous or advanced 
 than those for carcasses to be passed, but not so severe as the lesions described 
 for carcasses to be condemned, may be rendered into lard, provided they are 
 ccoked by steam for four hours at a temperature not lower than 220 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, or at a pressure of four pounds. 
 
 Paragraph 4. In inspecting carcasses showing lesions of hog cholera or 
 swine plague in the skin, bones, kidneys, or lymphatic glands, due considera- 
 tion shall be given to the extent and severity of the lesions found in the viscera. 
 
 SECTION 11. Actinomycosis or Lumpy Jaw. Paragraph 1. If a carcass 
 affected with actinomycosis of the head or lumpy jaw is in a well-nourished 
 condition and there is no evidence upon postmortem examination that the 
 disease has extended from a primary area of infection in the head, the carcass 
 may be passed, but the head, including the tongue, shall be condemned. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Carcasses of animals showing uncomplicated localized actino- 
 mycotic lesions other than, or in addition to, those specified in Paragraph 1 
 of this section may be passed after the infected organs and parts have been 
 removed and condemned. 
 
 Paragraph 3. Carcasses of animals showing a generalized actinomycosis 
 shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 12. Caseous Lymphadenitis. When the lesions of caseous lymph- 
 adenitis are limited to the superficial lymphatic glands or to a few nodules in 
 an organ, involving also the adjacent lymphatic glands, and the carcass is well 
 nourished, the meat may be passed after the affected parts are removed and 
 condemned. Extensive lesions of caseous lymphadenitis, with or without 
 pleuritic adhesions, are found in the lungs, or if several of the visceral organs 
 contain caseous nodules and the carcass is emaciated, it shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 13. Tuberculosis. Paragraph 1. The following principles are 
 declared for guidance in passing on carcasses affected with tuberculosis: 
 
 Principle A. Fundamental Thought. The fundamental thought is that 
 meat should not be used for food if it contains tubercle bacilli, if there is a 
 reasonable possibility that it may contain tubercle bacilli, or if it is impreg- 
 nated with toxic substances of tuberculosis or associated septic infections. 
 
 Principle B. Lesions Localized and Not Numerous. On the other hand, 
 if the lesions are localized and not numerous, if there is no evidence of dis- 
 tribution of tubercle bacilli through the blood, or by other means, to the muscles 
 or to parts that may be eaten with the muscles, and if the animal is well nour- 
 ished and in good condition, there is no proof, or even reason to suspect, that 
 the flesh is unwholesome. 
 
 Principle C. Generalized Tuberculosis. Evidences of generalized tuber- 
 culosis are to be sought in such distribution and number of tuberculous lesions 
 as can be explained only upon the supposition of the entrance of tubercle bacilli 
 in considerable number into the systemic circulation. Significant of such 
 generalization are the presence of numerous uniformly distributed tubercles 
 throughout both lungs, also tubercles in the spleen, kidneys, bones, joints, and 
 sexual glands, and in the lymphatic glands connected with these organs and 
 parts, or in the splenic, renal, prescapular, popliteal, and inguinal glands, 
 when several of these organs and parts are coincidentally affected. 
 
 Principle D. Localized Tuberculosis. By localized tuberculosis is under- 
 stood tuberculosis limited to a single or several parts or organs of the body 
 without evidence of recent invasion of numerous bacilli into the systemic 
 circulation. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Rules of Disposal of Tuberculous Meat. Entire Carcass Con- 
 demned. The following rules shall govern the disposal of tuberculous meat: 
 
118 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 Rule A. The entire carcass shall be condemned 
 
 (a) When it was observed before the animal was killed that it was suffering 
 with fever. 
 
 (b) When there is a tuberculous or other cachexia, as shown by anemia 
 and emaciation. 
 
 (c) When the lesions of tuberculosis are generalized, as shown by their pre- 
 sence not only at the usual seats of primary infection, but also in parts of the 
 carcass or the organs that may be reached by the bacilli of tuberculosis only 
 when they are carried in the systemic circulation. Tuberculous lesions in any 
 two of the following-mentioned organs are to be accepted as evidence of generali- 
 zation when they occur in addition to local tuberculous lesions in the digestive 
 or respiratory tracts, including the lymphatic glands connected therewith: 
 Spleen, kidney, uterus, udder, ovary, testicle, adrenal gland, brain, or spinal 
 cord or their membranes. Numerous uniformly distributed tubercles through- 
 out both lungs also afford evidence of generalization. 
 
 (d) When the lesions of tuberculosis are found in the muscles or inter- 
 muscular tissue or bones or joints, or in the body lymphatic glands as a result 
 of draining the muscles, bones, or joints. 
 
 (e) When the lesions are extensive in one or both body cavities. 
 
 (/) When the lesions are multiple, acute, and actively progressive. (Evidence 
 of active progress consists in signs of acute inflammation about the lesions, or 
 liquefaction necrosis, or the presence of young tubercles.) 
 
 Rule B. Part of Carcass Condemned. An organ or a part of a carcass shall 
 be condemned 
 
 (a) When it contains lesions of tuberculosis. 
 
 (6) When the lesion is immediately adjacent to the flesh, as in the case of 
 tuberculosis of the parietal pleura or peritoneum, not only the membrane 
 or part affected, but also the adjacent thoracic or abdominal wall is to be con- 
 demned. 
 
 (c) When it has been contaminated by tuberculous material, through contact 
 with the floor, a soiled knife, or otherwise. 
 
 (d) All heads showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be condemned. 
 
 (e) An organ shall be condemned when the corresponding lymphatic gland 
 is tuberculous. 
 
 Rule C. Carcass Passed. The carcass, if the tuberculous lesions are limited 
 to a single or several parts or organs of the body (except as noted in Rule A), 
 without evidence of recent invasion of tubercle bacilli into the systemic circula- 
 tion shall be passed after the parts containing the localized lesions are removed 
 and condemned in accordance with Rule B. 
 
 Rule D. Carcass Rendered into Lard or Tallow. Carcasses which reveal 
 lesions more numerous than those described or carcasses to be passed (Rule C), 
 but not so severe as the lesions described for carcasses to be condemned 
 (Rule A), may be rendered into lard or tallow if the distribution of the lesions 
 is such that all parts containing tuberculous lesions can be removed. Such 
 carcasses shall be cooked by steam at a temperature not lower than 220 F. for 
 not less than four hours. 
 
 SECTION 14. Texas Fever. Carcasses showing lesions to warrant the diag- 
 nosis of Texas fever shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 15. Parasitic Icterohematuria. Carcasses of sheep affected with 
 parasitic icterohematuria shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 16. Mange or Scab. Carcasses of animals affected with mange, or 
 scab, in advanced stages, or showing emaciation or extension of the inflamma- 
 tion to the flesh, shall be condemned. When the disease is slight the carcass 
 may be passed. 
 
 SECTION 17. Tapeworm Cysts. Paragraph 1. Carcasses of animals affected 
 with tapeworm cysts, known as Cysticercus bovis and Cysticercus cellulosce, shall 
 be rendered into tallow or lard, unless the infestation is excessive, in which case 
 the carcass shall be condemned. 
 
DISPOSAL OF DISEASED CARCASSES AND ORGANS 119 
 
 Paragraph 2. Carcasses of animals found infested with gid bladder worms 
 (Ccenurus cerebralis, Multiceps socialis) may be passed after condemnation of 
 the infected organ (brain, spinal cord). 
 
 Paragraph 3. Carcasses or parts of carcasses found infested with the hydatid 
 cyst (echinococcus) may be passed after condemnation of the infected part 
 or organ. 
 
 SECTION IS. Infections that may Cause Meat Poisoning. -All carcasses of 
 animals so infected that consumption of the meat or meat-food products thereof 
 may give rise to meat poisoning shall be condemned. This section covers all 
 carcasses showing signs of 
 
 (a) Acute inflammation of the lungs, pleura, pericardium, peritoneum, or 
 meninges. 
 
 (6) Septicemia or pyemia, whether puerperal, traumatic, or without any 
 evident cause. 
 
 (c) Severe hemorrhagic or gangrenous enteritis or gastritis. 
 
 (d) Acute diffuse metritis or mammitis. 
 
 (e) Polyarthritis. 
 
 (/) Phlebitis of the umbilical veins. 
 
 (g) Traumatic pericarditis. 
 
 (h) Any other inflammation, abscess, or suppurating sore if associated with 
 acute nephritis, fatty and degenerated liver, swollen soft spleen, marked pul- 
 monary hyperemia, general swelling of lymphatic glands, and diffuse redness 
 of the skin, either singly or in combination. 
 
 Immediately after slaughter of any animal so diseased the premises and 
 implements used must be thoroughly disinfected as prescribed elsewhere in 
 these regulations. The part of any carcass coming into contact with the carcass 
 or any part of the carcass of any animal covered by this section, other than 
 those affected with the diseases mentioned in (a) above, or with the place 
 where such animal was slaughtered, or with the implements used in the slaughter, 
 before thorough disinfection of such place and implements has been accom- 
 plished, or with any other contaminated object, shall be condemned; in case 
 the contaminated part is not removed from the carcass within two hours after 
 such contact the whole carcass shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 19. Icterus. Carcasses affected with icterus and showing an intense 
 yellow or greenish-yellow discoloration after proper cooling shall be condemned. 
 Carcasses which exhibit a yellowish tinge directly after slaughter, but lose 
 this discoloration on chilling, may be passed for food. 
 
 SECTION 20. Uremia and Sexual Odor. Carcasses which give off the odor 
 of urine or a strong sexual odor shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 21. Urticaria, etc. Hogs affected with urticaria (diamond-skin 
 disease), Tinea tonsurans, Demodex folliculorum, or erythema may be passed 
 after detaching and condemning the skin, if the carcass is otherwise fit for 
 food. 
 
 SECTION 22. Melanosis, etc. Carcasses of animals showing any disease, 
 such as generalized melanosis, pseudoleukemia, etc., which affects the system 
 of the animal shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 23. Tumors, Bruises, Abscesses, Liver Flukes, etc. Any organ 
 or part of a carcass which is badly bruised or which is affected by tumors, 
 malignant or benign, abscesses, suppurating sores, or liver flukes shall be 
 condemned ; but when the lesions are so extensive as to affect the whole carcass, 
 the whole carcass shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 24. Emaciation and Anemia. Carcasses of animals too emaciated 
 or anemic to produce wholesome meat, and carcasses which show a slimy 
 degeneration of the fat or a serous infiltration of the muscles shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 25. Milk Fever and Railroad Sickness. Carcasses of animals show- 
 ing symptoms of milk fever or railroad sickness at the time of slaughter shall 
 be condemned, as the flesh of such animals is frequently darker in color and 
 more watery than is natural, and the present view of the pathology of at least 
 the first disease suggests autointoxication. 
 
120 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 SECTION 26. Pregnancy and Parturition. Carcasses of animals in advanced 
 stages of pregnancy (showing signs of parturition), also carcasses of animals 
 which have within ten days given birth to young, and in which there is no 
 evidence of septic infection, may be rendered into lard or tallow, if desired 
 by the manager of the establishment, otherwise they shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 27. Immaturity. Carcasses of animals too immature to produce 
 wholesome meat, all unborn and stillborn animals, also carcasses of calves, 
 pigs, kids, and lambs under three weeks of age, shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 28. Diseased Parts. In all cases where carcasses showing localized 
 lesions of disease are passed or rendered into lard or tallow, the diseased parts 
 must be removed before the "U. S. Retained" tag is taken from the carcass, 
 and such parts shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 29. Suffocation. Hogs which have been allowed to pass into the 
 scalding vat alive or have been suffocated in other ways shall be condemned. 
 
 SECTION 30. Dead Animals. All animals that die in abattoir pens, and 
 those in a dying condition before slaughter, shall be condemned and tagged 
 as provided in Regulation 17, Section 2. In conveying to the tank animals 
 which have died in the pens of the establishment, they shall not be allowed 
 to pass through compartments in which food products are prepared. No dead 
 animals shall be brought into an establishment for rendering from outside the 
 premises of said establishment unless permission is first obtained from the Chief 
 of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 SECTION 31. Bruised Parts. When a portion of a carcass is to be con- 
 demned on account of slight bruises, the bruised portion shall be removed 
 immediately and tanked, and the remainder of the carcass shall be marked 
 " Inspected and Passed." When desired, a retaining room may be provided 
 in one part of the cooler for the retention of such carcasses until after they 
 are chilled, when the bruised portion may be removed. 
 
 SECTION 32. Portions of Intestines. Portions of intestines that show evidence 
 of infestation with esophagostoma or other nodular affections shall be con- 
 demned. 
 
 SECTION 33. Evisceration of Diseased Hogs. Hog carcasses found before 
 evisceration has taken place to be affected with an infectious or contagious 
 disease, including tuberculosis, shall not be eviscerated at the regular killing 
 bed or bench, but shall be taken, separate from other carcasses, to the retain- 
 ing room or other specially prepared place and there opened and examined. 
 
 REGULATION 14. "RETAINING" ROOMS 
 
 SECTION 1. Separate compartments, to be known as "retaining" rooms, 
 or other places for final inspection, shall be set apart at all official establish- 
 ments, and all carcasses and parts marked with a "U. S. Retained" tag shall 
 be held in these rooms pending final inspection. These rooms shall be rat-proof, 
 large enough for carcasses to hang separately, furnished with abundant light, 
 and provided with sanitary tables and other necessary apparatus; the floors 
 shall be of cement, asphalt, metal, or brick laid in cement, and shall have 
 proper sewer connections. They shall be provided with facilities for locking, 
 and locks for this purpose will be furnished by the Department. The keys 
 to such locks shall remain in the custody of the inspector or his assistant. 
 In establishments where it is impracticable or undesirable to have refrigeration 
 in the retaining room, rooms may be constructed in the cooler for the recep- 
 tion and chilling of carcasses not affected with infectious diseases, but which 
 require further inspection. 
 
 SECTION 2. Retained carcasses shall be subjected to a final inspection, 
 and immediately after this is completed those found to be wholesome and 
 fit for human food shall be released by the veterinary inspector conducting 
 the inspection, who shall remove the "U. S. Retained" tags, and the carcasses 
 
TANK ROOMS, TANKS, AND TANKING 121 
 
 shall be removed from the retaining room and marked " Inspected and Passed," 
 as provided in Regulation 17, Section 5. 
 
 SECTION 3. The floors and walls of all retaining rooms shall be washed with 
 hot water and disinfected after diseased animals are removed and before any 
 " retained" carcasses are again placed therein. 
 
 REGULATION 15. "CONDEMNED ROOMS 
 
 SECTION 1. In each establishment at which condemned carcasses or meat- 
 food products are held until the day following their condemnation there shall 
 be provided a room entirely separate from all other rooms in the establishment. 
 This room shall be secure, rat-proof, and shall be provided with a lock, the key 
 of which shall remain in the custody of a Department employee. This room 
 shall be known as the " condemned room," and shall be kept locked at all times 
 except when condemned meat or meat-food products are being taken into or 
 from the said room under the supervision of a Department employee. The 
 condemned room shall be kept clean. 
 
 SECTION 2. Carcasses or parts of carcasses found on final inspection to be 
 unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food shall 
 be marked "U. S. Inspected and Condemned," as provided in Regulation 17, 
 Section 4, and shall be immediately removed from the retaining room to the 
 "condemned room," if such condemned room is provided. In case no con- 
 demned room is provided they shall be locked in the retaining room and shall 
 be tanked at or before the close of the day on which they are condemned. 
 
 SECTION 3. Condemned carcasses shall not be allowed to accumulate, but 
 shall be removed from the " condemned room," denatured as provided in Regu- 
 lation 16, Section 3, or tanked within a reasonable time after condemnation. 
 
 SECTION 4. A truck or trucks cf sufficient capacity, plainly marked, and 
 which can be locked or sealed, shall, when required by the inspector in charge, 
 be provided for handling condemned meat. 
 
 REGULATION 16. TANK ROOMS, TANKS, AND TANKING 
 
 SECTION 1. All tanks and equipment used for rendering and preparing 
 edible products shall be in compartments separate from those used for rendering 
 inedible products, and there shall be no connection by means of pipes or other- 
 wise between the tanks or departments containing inedible products and those 
 containing edible products. This provision must be complied with on or before 
 October 1, 1908. 
 
 SECTION 2. Paragraph 1. All condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, and 
 meat-food products shall be tanked as follows : 
 
 Paragraph 2. After the lower opening and the draw-off valves of the tank 
 have been securely sealed by an employee of the Department and the condemned 
 carcasses, parts, and meat-food products are placed therein in his presence, 
 the upper opening shall be likewise securely sealed by such employee, whose 
 duty it shall be then to see that a sufficient force of steam (not less than forty 
 pounds, producing a temperature of 288 F.) is turned into the tanks and 
 maintained a sufficient time (not less than six hours) effectually to render the 
 contents unfit for any edible product. Wire and lead seals are provided by 
 the Department for sealing tanks. Proprietors of establishments are required 
 to equip all tanks used for condemned products so that they may be securely 
 sealed in the manner above specified. 
 
 Paragraph 3. A sufficient quantity of coloring matter or other substance 
 to be designated by the Department shall be used in connection with the 
 rendering of all condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, or meat-food 
 products to destroy them effectually for food purposes. 
 
122 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 Paragraph 4. The seals of tanks containing condemned meat or the tankage 
 thereof shall be broken only by an employee of the Department, and such 
 employee shall supervise the drawing off of the contents of such tanks and the 
 marking of the tallow and grease as inedible. 
 
 Paragraph 5. If an official establishment fails to permit the treatment 
 and tanking of condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, or meat-food 
 products as required by these regulations, the inspector in charge shall report 
 that fact to the Department, in order that inspection may be withdrawn from 
 such establishment. 
 
 SECTION 3. Any meat or meat-food products condemned at establishments 
 which have no facilities for tanking shall be freely slashed with a knife and then 
 denatured with crude carbolic acid or other prescribed agent, and then removed 
 to an establishment indicated by the inspector in charge and there tanked and 
 rendered under the supervision of an employee of the Department; or such 
 meat or meat-food products may be destroyed by incineration under the super- 
 vision of an employee of the Department. 
 
 REGULATION 17. TAGS, BRANDS, STAMPS 
 
 SECTION 1. To each animal inspected under Regulation 11, which shows 
 symptoms or is suspected of being affected with any disease or condition which 
 under these regulations may cause its condemnation in whole or in part on 
 postmortem inspection there shall be affixed by a Department employee at 
 the time of inspection a numbered metal tag bearing the words "U. S. Suspect/' 
 which shall remain upon the animal until final postmortem inspection, when 
 the carcass shall be marked according to the conditions found, and disposed 
 of as elsewhere provided in these regulations. 
 
 SECTION 2. To the ear of each animal which is found in a d}dng condition 
 or dead on the premises of an establishment there shall be affixed by a Depart- 
 ment employee a numbered tag bearing the words "U. S. Condemned." The 
 ear bearing the tag shall not be removed from the carcass. The number of 
 this tag shall be reported to the inspector in charge by the employee who affixes 
 it. This tag shall accompany the condemned carcass into the tank, and the 
 Department employee who is supervising the tanking shall make a report of 
 the number to the inspector in charge. 
 
 SECTION 3. Upon each carcass, or part or detached organ thereof, inspected 
 under Regulation 12, in which any lesion of disease or other condition is found 
 that might render the meat or any organ unfit for food purposes, and which 
 for that reason would require a subsequent inspection, there shall be placed 
 by a Department employee at the time of inspection a tag, numbered in dupli- 
 cate, bearing the words "U. S. Retained," and such other marks of identification 
 shall be used as shall be approved by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 The inspector who attaches this "U. S. Retained" tag shall detach the numbered 
 stub thereof and forward it with his report to the inspector in charge. The 
 other portion shall accompany the carcass to the retaining room. 
 
 SECTION 4. Each carcass, or part or detached organ thereof, which is found 
 on final inspection to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise 
 unfit for human food shall be marked conspicuously by a Department employee 
 at the time of inspection with the words "U. S. Inspected and Condemned." 
 The "U. S. Retained" tag shall accompany the carcass into the tank, and the 
 number thereof shall be reported by the employee who supervises the tanking. 
 If, however, upon final inspection the carcass or part thereof is passed, the 
 "U. S. Retained" tag shall be removed and returned to the inspector in charge. 
 A record of the tag showing the serial number, the final disposal of the carcass 
 or part to which it was affixed, the date, and the name of the inspector shall 
 be forwarded with the regular reports to the inspector in charge. 
 
 SECTION 5. Upon all passed carcasses slaughtered under inspection there 
 shall be placed by an employee of the Department, or by an employee of the 
 
TAGS, BRANDS, STAMPS 123 
 
 establishment under the supervision of an employee of the Department, meat- 
 inspection marks bearing the words "Inspected and Passed," or an authorized 
 abbreviation thereof, and such other matter as may be required by the Depart- 
 ment. The number of marks, their location on the carcass, and the time they 
 shall be affixed shall be determined by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal 
 Industry. 
 
 SECTION 6. Paragraph 1. Each passed primal part or the true container 
 thereof must be marked under the supervision of a Department employee, 
 with the words " Inspected and Passed," or an authorized abbreviation thereof, 
 and the official establishment number, except as provided in Paragraphs 2 
 and 3 of this section and in Section 12 of Regulation 25. 
 
 Paragraph 2. When primal parts are shipped from one official establish- 
 ment to another for further processing, it is not obligatory that the inspection 
 legend appear on such primal parts, but the container thereof in the case of 
 a package shall be marked as specified in Section 9, of this regulation, and 
 in the case of a car shall be sealed; in such cases the primal parts, after proces- 
 sing, shall show plainly the inspected legend and the number of the official 
 establishment at which the processing was completed. 
 
 Paragraph 3. Passed primal parts of pork intended for export need not be 
 marked with the authorized marks of inspection, but all outside containers shall 
 bear the meat-inspection stamp. 
 
 SECTION 7. The inspection legend or an authorized abbreviation thereof 
 may be affixed, under the supervision of a Department employee, to hams, 
 bacon, and similar primal parts with a hot branding iron, and when so affixed 
 will be recognized as the official mark of inspection. When hot branding irons 
 are used to affix trade brands or descriptions, such brand or description must 
 be distinct and apart from the inspection legend. 
 
 SECTION 8. Upon all meat-food products which are suspected on reinspec- 
 tion of being unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human 
 food, or upon the containers thereof, there shall be placed by a Department 
 employee at the time of reinspection the "U. S. Retained" tags hereinbefore 
 described. The employee who affixes the tag shall send the numbered stub 
 with his report to the inspector in charge. These tags shall accompany the 
 said meats or meat-food products to the retaining room or other special place 
 for final inspection. When the final inspection is made, if the meat or meat- 
 food product be condemned, the "U. S. Retained" tag shall be stamped "U. 
 S. Inspected and Condemned," and shall accompany the condemned meat 
 or meat-food product to the tank, and the inspector shall report his action 
 to the inspector in charge. If, however, upon final inspection the meat or 
 meat-food product is passed for food, the inspector shall stamp the retained 
 tag " Inspected and Passed" and return the tag with his report to the inspector 
 in charge. 
 
 SECTION 9. When meat products for domestic trade have been inspected 
 and passed, the outside containers of such meat shall bear (in lieu of meat- 
 inspection stamp), a domestic meat label which has been submitted to and 
 approved by the Department, showing the official establishment number and 
 the following legend: "The meat contained herein has been inspected and 
 passed under the provisions of the act of June 30, 1906." The firm name may 
 also appear on the label if desired. The dimensions of the label shall be not 
 less than 4 inches by 2f inches. Outside containers if bearing approved trade 
 labels are not required to be provided with the label above described. Domestic 
 meat labels shall be affixed to packages in the manner prescribed in Regula- 
 tion 24, for affixing labels to export packages. 
 
 SECTION 10. Each outside container (except cloth wrappings) of export 
 meat or meat-food products shall be marked with a meat-inspection stamp. 
 The cloth wrappings of inspected and passed meat which is so marked shall 
 be marked with an authorized mark of inspection. 
 
 SECTION 11. Upon each container of meat or meat-food products, such as 
 ham, bacon, etc., prepared for export with preservatives under Regulation 
 
124 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 22, Section 3, Paragraph 1, there shall be placed, under the personal super- 
 vision of a Department employee, a special stamp for marking such meats, 
 known as the " Preservative' 7 stamp. All outside containers of such meat or 
 meat-food products shall bear the "Preservative" stamp. 
 
 REGULATION 18. TRADE LABELS 
 
 SECTION 1. Upon each can, pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle, or cover- 
 ing containing any meat or meat-food product, which meat or meat-food 
 product does not bear the marks " Inspected and Passed," there shall be securely 
 affixed, under the supervision of a Department employee, a trade label before 
 such meat or meat-food product leaves an official establishment. This trade 
 label shall contain, in plain letters and figures of uniform size, the words "U. 
 S. Inspected and Passed," the number of the official establishment at which 
 the meat or meat-food product is last processed, and the true name of the meat 
 or meat-food product contained in such package. The words "under the act 
 of Congress of June 30, 1906," may be placed upon the label after the words 
 "U. S. Inspected and Passed." An inspector shall not allow trade labels to 
 be affixed until he is satisfied that the contents of the package are sound, health- 
 ful, wholesome, and fit for human food, in accordance with the statements on 
 the label. 
 
 SECTION 2. Duplicate copies of each trade label in the form of sketches or 
 proofs shall first be submitted to the department, and no trade label shall be 
 used until a sketch or proof thereof has been approved. After trade labels are 
 printed from approved proofs or sketches they shall be forwarded in triplicate 
 to the Department for approval and filing. 
 
 SECTION 3. No trade label bearing the words "U. S. Inspected and Passed," 
 or any abbreviation or simulation thereof, shall be used on meat or meat- 
 food products which have not been inspected and passed under these regula- 
 tions, and no trade label bearing the inspection legend, or any abbreviation 
 or simulation thereof, shall be placed upon meat or meat-food products except 
 under the supervision of an inspector. 
 
 SECTION 4. Tin containers, embossed or lithographed with the label as 
 prescribed in Section 1, will be considered as bearing trade labels. On and 
 after October 1, 1908, all sealed tin containers must have the number of the 
 official establishment where packed embossed, lithographed, or printed thereon. 
 
 SECTION 5. The essential features of a trade label are as follows, and shall 
 appear upon each label: 
 
 The true name of the product. 
 
 The inspection legend. 
 
 The establishment number. 
 
 SECTION 6. The inspection legend "U. S. Inspected and Passed," or an 
 authorized abbreviation thereof, and the official establishment number in 
 plain characters of uniform size, which shall be in proper proportion to the 
 general lettering of the label, must be separately and prominently embodied 
 in all trade labels. 
 
 SECTION 7. In the case of meat contained in cartons, or in wrappers of 
 paper, cloth, or other similar substance, the inspection legend and the official 
 establishment number may be embodied in a sticker or seal of proportionate 
 size prominently displayed with the trade label but not necessarily a part 
 of the trade label, such stickers or seals to be approved by the Department 
 of Agriculture. It is not permissible to affix to meat or meat-food products 
 a detachable device of any kind which bears the inspection legend. 
 
 SECTION 8. While labels to be affixed for foreign shipment may be printed 
 in a foreign language, the same rules shall apply with reference to false labelling 
 and the naming of ingredients as shall apply to goods prepared for domestic 
 use. The inspection legend and the official establishment number must in 
 all cases appear in English; but if desired they may in addition, literally 
 
REINSPECTION 125 
 
 translated, appear in the language of the country to which the package is 
 destined. 
 
 SECTION 9. Paragraph 1. When an article is prepared by an official estab- 
 lishment for another firm or individual, if the name of the said firm or individual 
 is to appear upon the label the statement must be made that the article was 
 "prepared for" or " manufactured for," tne firm or individual. Names of sub- 
 sidiary companies which have legal entity may be used without the prefix 
 " prepared for," or "manufactured for." 
 
 Paragraph 2. When a firm or individual not operating under Federal inspec- 
 tion desires to reship inspected and passed meat that has been processed only 
 under Government inspection and is eligible under these regulations for inter- 
 state shipment he may affix to the package the following statement: "The 
 meat contained herein has been inspected and passed at an establishment where 
 Federal inspection is maintained." 
 
 SECTION 10. No meat or meat-food products shall be sold or offered for sale 
 by any person, firm, or corporation under any false or deceptive name; but 
 the established trade name or names which are usual to such products, which 
 are not false and deceptive and which shall be approved by the Secretary of 
 Agriculture, are permitted. 
 
 SECTION 11. No picture, design, or device which gives any false indication 
 of origin or quality shall be used upon any label. The law prohibits any state- 
 ment, design, or device false in any particular regarding the virtues or properties 
 of the materials contained in the package. 
 
 SECTION 12. A meat-food product when composed of more than one ingre- 
 dient shall not bear a trade label with a name stating or purporting to show 
 that the said meat food product is a substance which is not the principal 
 ingredient contained therein, even though such name be an established trade 
 name. 
 
 SECTION 13. A meat-food product that contains a substance or substances, 
 including water, added for the purpose of adulteration and which lessens its 
 food value shall bear a label stating that such substance or substances have 
 been added. 
 
 SECTION 14. When any weight is given upon the true container it must be 
 the correct weight, and it must be stated whether this weight is the net weight 
 or the gross weight. 
 
 REGULATION 19. REINSPECTION 
 
 SECTION 1. Immediately before shipment and at such other times as may 
 be deemed necessary, all carcasses or parts thereof, whether fresh or cured, 
 that have been previously inspected and passed, shall be reinspected by the 
 inspector in charge or his assistants, in such manner as shall be prescribed by 
 the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and if upon any such reinspection 
 any carcass or part thereof is found to have become unsound, unhealthful, 
 unwholesome, or in any way unfit for human food, the original mark, stamp, 
 tag, or label shall be destroyed or defaced, and the carcass or part shall be 
 condemned. 
 
 SECTION 2. Except as provided in Regulation 20, only carcasses and parts 
 thereof, meat, or meat-food products which have not been processed except 
 under Government supervision, and which can by marks, seals, brands, or 
 labels be identified as having been previously inspected and passed by a 
 department employee, shall be taken into or allowed to enter an official 
 establishment. All such carcasses, parts, meat, or meat-food products which 
 are brought into one official establishment from another, or which are returned 
 to the establishment from which they issued, shall be identified and reinspected 
 at the time of receipt, and shall be subject to further reinspection in such manner 
 and at such times as may be deemed necessary. If upon any such reinspection 
 any carcass or part thereof, or meat or meat-food product is 'found to have 
 
126 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any way unfit for human food, 
 the original mark, stamp, tag, or label shall be defaced or destroyed, and the 
 carcass, part, meat, or meat-food product shall be condemned, 
 
 SECTION 3. Special docks and receiving rooms shall be designated by the 
 establishment for the receipt and inspection of all meat or meat-food products, 
 and no meat or meat-food products 'shall be allowed to enter the establish- 
 ment except in the presence of a Department employee. 
 
 SECTION 4. Unrendered fats from carcasses which have been inspected 
 and passed may be returned and received into official establishments, provided 
 the fats have been handled in a sanitary manner after leaving the establish- 
 ment, and provided further that upon inspection the fats are found to be clean, 
 sweet, wholesome, and fit for human food. However, the return of such fats 
 to official establishments and the manner in which they shall be handled from 
 the time they leave such establishments until their return thereto shall be 
 governed by such specific instructions as may be issued from time to time by 
 the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 SECTION 5. Inedible fats may be received only into the tank room provided 
 for inedible products, and when so received they shall not enter any compart- 
 ment used for edible products. 
 
 SECTION 6. Paragraph 1. In order to provide for the interstate transpor- 
 tation from public markets and other places of portions of "Inspected and 
 Passed" carcasses, parts, and meat-food products which, when cut or otherwise 
 removed from a marked carcass, part, or container, do not show the inspection 
 mark and cannot therefore be identified as having been "inspected and 
 passed," market inspection may be furnished. Each city in which market 
 inspection is established will be assigned a number, and all products for- 
 warded under such inspection shall bear the inspection legend and the official 
 number assigned to the city. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Unmarked portions which are cut from the marked carcass 
 or part, or are removed from the marked container for interstate transportation, 
 shall be marked by a Department employee. Wherever practicable the brand 
 shall be applied to the meat itself; where this cannot be done the true container 
 of the meat or meat-food product shall be marked as required by the Chief of 
 the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 Paragraph 3. All market stalls or other places which are given market 
 inspection shall be maintained in a sanitary condition and shall also conform 
 to the requirements of the Department governing the use of the drugs, chemicals , 
 dyes, and preservatives. 
 
 REGULATION 20. CARCASSES OF ANIMALS NOT INSPECTED 
 
 ANTEMORTEM. 
 
 SECTION I. 1 Carcasses of animals which have had no antemortem inspec- 
 tion by inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry will not, except as here- 
 inafter provided, be admitted into an official establishment. The exception 
 to the rule applies only to carcasses to which the head and all viscera, except 
 the stomach, bladder, and intestines, are held by the natural attachments. 
 Such carcasses, if offered for admission into official establishments, shall be 
 inspected, and if found to be free from disease and otherwise sound, healthful, 
 wholesome, and fit for human food they shall be marked "Inspected and 
 Passed" and admitted. If found to be diseased, unsound, unhealthful, un- 
 wholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, they shall be marked "U. S. 
 Inspected and Condemned," and the proprietor of the establishment shall be 
 required to destroy them for food purposes, as provided in Regulation 16, 
 Section 2. 
 
 1 Formerly Regulation 62, B. A. I. Order 137, 
 
PREPARATION OF MEAT AND MEAT-FOOD PRODUCTS 127 
 
 REGULATION 21. TANK CARS 
 
 SECTION 1. Tank cars carrying edible meat-food products into interstate 
 or foreign commerce shall be provided with proper appliances for sealing and 
 be securely sealed with seals furnished by the department and affixed by depart- 
 ment employees. 
 
 SECTION 2. When such products for export are transferred from tank cars 
 to other containers on boats, such transfer shall be under Government super- 
 vision, and the said containers on boats shall likewise be sealed. 
 
 REGULATION 22. DYES, CHEMICALS, AND PRESERVATIVES 
 
 SECTION 1. No meat or meat-food product shall contain any substance 
 which lessens its wholesomeness, nor any drug, chemical, dye, or preserva- 
 tive, except as hereinafter provided. 
 
 SECTION 2. Paragraph 1 . There may be added to meat or meat-food products 
 common salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar, pure spices, and saltpeter. Only 
 such coloring matters as may be designated by the Secretary of Agriculture as 
 being harmless may be used, and these only in such manner as the Secretary 
 of Agriculture may designate. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Substances necessary for the preparation, clarification, or 
 refining of meat-food products will be permitted to be used subject to the 
 approval of the Secretary of Agriculture, provided they are eliminated from the 
 meat-food products during the further process of manufacture. 
 
 SECTION 3. Paragraph 1. In accordance with the written direction of the 
 foreign purchaser or his agent, meat or meat-food products prepared for export 
 may contain preservatives of a kind and in proportions which do not conflict 
 with the laws of the foreign country to which they are to be exported; but when 
 such meat or meat-food products are prepared for export under this regulation 
 they shall be prepared in compartments of the establishment separate and 
 apart from those in which meat or meat-food products are prepared for the 
 domestic trade, and such products shall be kept separate. Distinctive export 
 certificates and stamps will be issued for meat or meat-food products of this 
 character, but if the products are not exported, under no circumstances shall 
 they be allowed to enter domestic trade. 
 
 Paragraph 2. The packing of meat which is prepared, as provided in Para- 
 graph 1 of this section, with any preservative not permitted by Paragraph 1, 
 Section 2, may be done in the regular packing room, provided that no other 
 meat is allowed in the packing room during the time of such packing. After 
 such packing is completed the packing room shall be thoroughly cleansed of 
 the preservative before the packing of other meat therein is resumed. A sepa- 
 rate compartment constructed of tight partitions or walls shall be set apart 
 for storing the preservative trays and other appliances used in connection with 
 the packing. The department will furnish a lock and key for this compartment, 
 and the packing of all meat under this section shall be conducted under the 
 personal supervision of an employee of this department. 
 
 REGULATION 23. PREPARATION OF MEAT AND MEAT-FOOD 
 
 PRODUCTS 
 
 SECTION 1. All processes used in curing, pickling, rendering, canning, or 
 otherwise preparing meat or meat-food products in official establishments 
 shall be supervised by department employees. No fixtures or appliances, 
 such as tables, trucks, trays, tanks, vats, machines, implements, cans, or con- 
 
128 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 tainers of any kind shall be used unless they are clean and sanitary. All steps 
 in the process of manufacture shall be conducted carefully and with strict 
 cleanliness. All salt-pickling fluids and other solutions or substances used 
 in curing meat must be clean. 
 
 SECTION 2. Canned meat or meat-food products which require sterilization 
 to preserve them must be subjected to this process on the same day that the 
 cans are filled. Defective or leaking cans discovered after the process of steriliza- 
 tion has been "completed shall not be repaired or repacked (unless such repairing 
 or repacking is done within six hours of the time of original sterilization), 
 but the contents of such cans shall be removed and condemned. 
 
 SECTION 3. Potato flour shall not be used in the preparation of sausage, 
 nor shall excessive quantities of cereals or water be used. 
 
 SECTION 4. Paragraph 1. The manufacture of all fats into lard, tallow, 
 oils, and stearin at official establishments shall be closely supervised by em- 
 ployees of the Department, who shall see that all portions of carcasses rendered 
 into edible products are clean and wholesome. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Heads rendered into edible products shall first be split, cross- 
 sectioned, and thoroughly washed and cleaned. 
 
 Paragraph 3. When hogs' feet are used for lard, the hair, hoofs, and the 
 tissues of the interdigital spaces must be removed. 
 
 Paragraph 4. All pipes and similar conveyors used in conducting edible 
 fats from one receptacle or container to another shall be of a distinctly different 
 color from the pipes and similar conveyors used in conducting inedible fats 
 from one receptacle or container to another. 
 
 Paragraph 5. Blueprints or other accurate diagrams showing all under- 
 ground pipe lines or other conveyors used to conduct edible and inedible prod- 
 ucts at official establishments and also those extending from official establish- 
 ments to other establishments, either official or unofficial, with a description 
 giving the exact location, terminals, and dimensions of such pipes, or other 
 conveyors, and of all gates, valves, or other controlling apparatus, shall be filed 
 with the Department, and a copy of such prints or diagrams shall be filed with 
 the inspector in charge. The prints or diagrams should designate the lines 
 used for conveying edible products and those used for conveying inedible 
 products. If no such underground pipes or conveyors are used for the purposes 
 above indicated, a written statement certifying to this fact and duly signed 
 by the management of each establishment shall be filed with the Department. 
 
 Paragraph 6. All containers, such as vats and tierces, in which white grease 
 or other inedible meat products are placed, shall be plainly marked "inedible" 
 in such a manner that they can be readily identified. 
 
 Paragraph 7. Final containers, such as tierces, shall be appropriately marked 
 on both' ends immediately after filling. 
 
 SECTION 5. The only animal casings that may be used as containers in the 
 manufacture of sausage under these regulations are those from cattle, hogs, 
 sheep, or goats. 
 
 REGULATION 24. STAMPS FOR EXPORT PACKAGES. 
 
 SECTION 1. Paragraph 1. Numbered meat-inspection stamps shall be 
 affixed to packages (except those in cloth wrappings) containing meat or meat- 
 food products to be shipped or otherwise transported in foreign trade. 
 
 Paragraph 2. Stamps shall be affixed in the following manner, and w r hen 
 they have been affixed they shall be covered immediately with a coating of 
 transparent varnish or other similar substance: 
 
 (a) The stamp may be affixed in a grooved space made by removing a por- 
 tion of the wood of sufficient size to admit the stamp. 
 
 (6) The stamp may be placed on either end of the package, provided that 
 the sides are made to project at least one-eighth of an inch to afford the neces- 
 sary protection from abrasion. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 129 
 
 SECTION 2. Inedible-product stamps and certificates may, upon request, be 
 issued, to accompany shipments for export of casings, bladders, lungs, hoofs, 
 and other similar inedible animal products. 
 
 REGULATION 25. TRANSPORTATION 1 
 
 SECTION 1. Upon the application of the exporter the inspector in charge 
 of an establishment is authorized to issue certificates for export shipments 
 of inspected and passed meat or meat-food products. The certificate should 
 be issued at the time the product leaves the establishment; if, however, the 
 certificate is not issued at that time, it can only be issued upon identification 
 and reinspection of the product. 
 
 SECTION 2. These certificates shall be issued in serial numbers and in tripli- 
 cate form. Each certificate shall show the names of the exporter and the 
 consignee, the destination, the numbers of the stamps attached to the article 
 to be exported, the shipping marks, the kind of product, and the weight. 
 
 SECTION 3. Only one certificate shall be issued for each consignment unless 
 otherwise directed by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 SECTION 4. Both the original and duplicate certificates shall be delivered 
 by the inspector to the shipper. The copy of certificate provided by law to 
 be delivered to the chief officer of the vessel shall be the duplicate copy and 
 shall be filed with the custom officers at the time of filing the master's manifest 
 or the supplemental manifest. 
 
 SECTION 5. No master of any steam or sailing vessel shall receive for trans- 
 portation or transport from the United States to Great Britain or Ireland, 
 or any of the countries of continental Europe, or to Argentina or Mexico, 
 any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food product of cattle, sheep, swine, 
 or goats, except ship stores, unless and until a certificate of inspection covering 
 the same has been issued and delivered as provided in this regulation. The 
 requirement of export certificates is waived for meat and meat-food products 
 to foreign countries other than those hereinbefore named. 
 
 SECTION 6. When inedible grease, inedible tallow, or inedible stearin derived 
 from cattle, sheep, swine, or goats is offered for export, the collectors of customs, 
 under instructions from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, will require 
 an affidavit from the exporter that the products to be exported are inedible 
 and are not intended for food purposes. 
 
 SECTION 7. 2 No person, firm, or corporation shall receive for transportation 
 or transport from one State or Territory or the District of Columbia to another 
 State or Territory or the District of Columbia any carcass, part of carcass, or 
 meat-food product of cattle, sheep, swine, or goats unless and until a certificate 
 is made and furnished in one of the forms prescribed in Sections 11, 12, 13, 
 and 14 of this regulation, showing that such meat or meat-food product has been 
 either inspected and passed or exempted from inspection, according to the 
 act of Congress of June 30, 1906: Provided, That printed certificates in the 
 forms formerly required and now on hand may be used for this purpose. It 
 is necessary, as old stocks of printed certificates are exhausted, that new ones 
 be printed in the new forms. 
 
 SECTION 8. 3 When any shipment of meat or meat-food products covered 
 by these regulations is offered to any common carrier for carriage within the 
 United States as a part of a foreign movement, the same certificate shall be 
 required as if the shipment were destined to a point within the United States. 
 
 1 The transportation of meat or meat-food product from one point in a State or Territory to 
 another point in the same State or Territory, when in course of shipment the meat or meat-food 
 product is taken through another State or Territory, is interstate commerce. 
 
 2 Formerly Regulation 52, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 'Formerly Regulation 52, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
 9 
 
130 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 SECTION 9. 1 Paragraph 1. Shipments of Inspected and Passed meat or 
 meat-food products that are so marked may be diverted from the original 
 destination without a reinspection of the product; if a new certificate showing 
 the changed destination be given to the carrier by the owner or shipper, who 
 may or may not be the original shipper; or in case of a wreck or other extra- 
 ordinary emergency the carrier may divert such shipments from the original 
 destination without a new shipper's certificate. 
 
 Paragraph 2. The Government seals on a car containing " Inspected and 
 Passed" meat or meat-food products may be broken by the carrier in case 
 of wreck or other extraordinary emergency, and if necessary the product may 
 be reloaded into another car or the shipment may be diverted from the original 
 destination without another shipper's certificate; but in all such cases the 
 carrier shall immediately report the transaction by telegraph to the Chief of 
 the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. Such report shall include 
 the information indicated below: 
 
 (a) Nature of the emergency. 
 
 (6) Place where seals were broken. 
 
 (c) Original points of shipment and destination. 
 
 (d) Number and initials of the original car. 
 
 (e) Number and initials of the car into which the product is reloaded. 
 (/) New destination of the shipment. 
 
 (g) Kind and amount of product. 
 
 SECTION 10. Reshipments of Inspected meat or meat-food products which 
 are sound and wholesome at the time of reshipment may be made without 
 reinspection when the meat or meat-food products, or the containers thereof, 
 are marked " Inspected and Passed" and the meat or meat-food products have 
 not been processed since they were originally shipped under Section 1 1 of this 
 regulation. Also jobbers, wholesalers, or others who do no processing, and who 
 receive "Inspected and Passed" meat or meat-food products, may break bulk, 
 repack, and reship the same into interstate commerce under Section 11 of this 
 regulation if each piece of meat or meat-food product in the unmarked pack- 
 age bears the original authorized mark of Government inspection. Inspection 
 shall be maintained at the establishment of all such jobbers, wholesalers, or 
 others who do any processing. 
 
 SECTION II. 2 When any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food product of 
 cattle, sheep, swine, or goats which has been "Inspected and Passed" and 
 so marked under these regulations is offered to any common carrier for 
 transportation from one State or Territory or the District of Columbia to 
 another State or Territory or the District of Columbia for interstate shipment 
 only, or for interstate shipment as part of a foreign movement, or for foreign 
 shipment, the person, firm, or corporation offering such carcass, part of carcass, 
 or meat-food product shall make a certificate in the following form and deliver 
 the same to the common carrier, except as provided in Section 12 of this 
 regulation: 
 
 Date 191 
 
 Name of common carrier 
 
 Shipper 
 
 Point of shipment 
 
 Consignee 
 
 Destination 
 
 I hereby certify that the meat or meat-food products described herein, 
 which are offered for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce, have been 
 inspected and passed according to act of Congress of June 30, 1906, are so 
 
 1 Formerly Meat Inspection Ruling, 1 A. 
 
 * Formerly Regulation 53, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 131 
 
 marked, and at this date are sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human 
 food. 
 
 Kind of product. Amount and weight. 
 
 (Signature of shipper.) 
 
 (Address of shipper.) 
 
 This certificate may be stamped upon or incorporated in any form which 
 is regularly or ordinarily used in the shipment of meat or meat-food products. 
 
 SECTION 12. 1 Paragraph 1. An official establishment may ship from the 
 said establishment to any other official establishment any meat or meat-food 
 product which has been inspected and passed under these regulations without 
 marking the same " Inspected and Passed" if such shipment be placed in a 
 railroad car which is sealed by an employee of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
 and provided that not less than 25 per cent, of the contents of each car con- 
 sists of meat or meat-food products not marked " Inspected and Passed." 
 
 Paragraph 2. Wagons so equipped that they can be securely sealed by a 
 department employee may be considered as true containers. 
 
 Paragraph 3. When shipments are made under Paragraph 1 of this section 
 the shipper shall make for each car and deliver to the common carrier a certifi- 
 cate in duplicate in the following form: 
 
 Date 191 
 
 Name of common carrier 
 
 Establishment number of consignor 
 
 Point of shipment 
 
 Establishment number of consignee 
 
 Destination 
 
 Car number and initials . 
 
 I hereby certify that the following described meat or meat-food products 
 have been inspected and passed according to act of Congress of June 30, 1906. 
 They are not marked " Inspected and Passed," but have been placed in the 
 above car under the supervision of an employee of the Bureau of Animal 
 
 Industry which was sealed by him with Government seals Nos 
 
 and 
 
 Kind of product. Amount and weight. 
 
 (Signature of shipper.) 
 
 (Address of shipper.) 
 
 
 The duplicate certificate shall be forwarded immediately by the initial carrier 
 to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. Attention 
 is directed to the law which provides a penalty of fine and imprisonment for 
 any unauthorized person who breaks a seal on such cars. 
 
 When shipments are made under this section the inspector in cfiarge at 
 point of origin shall duly notify the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
 and the inspector in charge at point of destination . 
 
 1 Formerly Regulation 54, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
132 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 SECTION 13. l When any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food product of 
 cattle, sheep, swine, or goats which has not been inspected under these regula- 
 tions is offered for shipment from one State or Territory or the District of 
 Columbia to another State or Territory or the District of Columbia by any 
 retail butcher or retail dealer who holds a certificate of exemption issued by 
 the Secretary of Agriculture, the common carrier shall require a certificate to 
 be made in duplicate in the following form by said retail butcher or retail 
 dealer, which certificate shall in all cases show the exemption number 
 designated by the Secretary of Agriculture for said retail butcher or retail 
 dealer. 
 
 Date 191 
 
 Name of common carrier 
 
 Shipper 
 
 Point of shipment 
 
 Consignee 
 
 Destination 
 
 Number of exemption certificate 
 
 I hereby certify that I am a retail butcher or a retail dealer in meat or meat- 
 food products; that the following-described meat or meat-food products are 
 offered for shipment in interstate commerce to a customer, as exempted from 
 inspection according to act of Congress of June 30, 1906, under certificate 
 issued to me by the United States Department of Agriculture, and that at this 
 date they are sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food, and con- 
 tain no preservative or coloring matter or other substance prohibited by the 
 regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture governing meat inspection. 
 
 Kind of product. Amount and weight. 
 
 (Signature of shipper.) 
 
 (Address of shipper.) 
 
 The duplicate certificate shall be forwarded immediately by the initial carrier 
 to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. This 
 certificate shall be separate and apart from any waybill, bill of lading, or other 
 form ordinarily used in the shipment of meat. 
 
 SECTION 14. 2 When any cattle, sheep, swine, or goats have been slaughtered 
 by any farmer on the farm, and the carcasses, parts of carcasses, or meat-food 
 products thereof are offered to any common carrier for transportation from one 
 State or Territory or the District of Columbia into another State or Territory 
 or the District of Columbia, the common carrier may so transport such car- 
 casses, parts of carcasses, or meat-food products as long as the same may be 
 identified as of animals slaughtered by any farmer on the farm. The common 
 carrier shall require a certificate in duplicate in the following form: 
 
 Date 191 
 
 Name of common carrier 
 
 Shipper 
 
 Consignee 
 
 Point of shipment 
 
 Destination 
 
 1 Formerly Regulation 55, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
 2 Formerly Regulation 56, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 133 
 
 I hereby certify that the following described uninspected meat or meat- 
 food products are from animals slaughtered by a farmer on the farm, and are 
 offered for transportation in interstate commerce as exempted from inspection 
 according to act of Congress of June 30, 1906, and that at this date they are 
 sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food, and contain no preserva- 
 tive or coloring matter or other substance prohibited by the regulations of the 
 Secretary of Agriculture governing meat inspection. 
 
 Kind of product. Amount and weight. 
 
 
 (Signature of shipper.) 
 
 (Address of shipper.) 
 
 The duplicate certificate shall be forwarded immediately by the initial carrier 
 to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. 
 
 SECTION 15. 1 All original certificates delivered to the common carrier, as 
 required by this regulation, shall be filed and retained for one year by the 
 initial carrier, in order that they may be readily checked by this department 
 in such manner as the Secretary of Agriculture may from time to time prescribe. 2 
 
 SECTION 16. 3 All waybills, transfer bills, running slips, or conductor's cards 
 accompanying an interstate or foreign shipment of meat or meat-food product 
 must have embodied in, stamped upon, or attached to it a signed statement 
 which shall be evidence to connecting carriers that the proper shipper's certifi- 
 cate as required by Sections 11, 12, 13, and 14 of this regulation is on file with 
 the initial carrier, and no connecting carrier shall receive for transportation or 
 transport any interstate or foreign shipment of meat or meat-food product 
 unless the waybill, transfer bill, running slip, or conductor's card accompany- 
 ing the same includes the aforesaid signed statement in one of the following 
 forms: 
 
 When shipment is made under Section 11 or 12: 
 
 (Name of transportation company.) 
 
 United States inspected and passed as evidenced by shipper's certificate 
 on file with initial carrier. 
 
 (Signed) Agent. 
 
 W^hen shipment is made under Section 13 or 14: 
 
 (Name of transportation company.) 
 
 Exempted from inspection as evidenced by shipper's certificate on file with 
 initial carrier. 
 
 (Signed) Agent. 
 
 SECTION 17. 4 Paragraph 1. When any carcass, part of carcass, or meat- 
 food product of cattle, sheep, swine, or goats loaded on a truck, wagon, cart, or 
 other vehicle, or otherwise prepared for shipment, is offered for transportation 
 or transported by ferry, such ferry being the initial carrier from one State, 
 
 1 Formerly Regulation 57, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
 2 Stocks of printed certificates now on hand may be used, but as new supplies are printed they 
 should conform to the forms prescribed. 
 
 3 Formerly Regulation 58, B. A. 1. Order 137. 
 
 4 Formerly Regulation 65, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
134 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 Territor}^ or the District of Columbia to another State, Territory, or the 
 District of Columbia, the person, firm, or corporation offering such carcass, 
 part of carcass, or meat-food product shall, except as hereinafter provided by 
 Paragraph 5, make a certificate in one of the forms hereinafter indicated and 
 deliver the certificate to said common carrier; and no person, firm, or corpora- 
 tion operating a ferry line as aforesaid shall receive for transportation or trans- 
 port any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food product of cattle, sheep, swine, 
 or goats loaded on a truck, wagon, cart, or other vehicle, or in any other manner 
 prepared for transportation, unless a certificate in one of the forms referred 
 to is properly filled out and delivered by the shipper as herein required. 
 
 Paragraph 2. When the shipment consists of " inspected and passed" meat 
 or meat-food products, the form of certificate shown in Section 14 of this 
 regulation shall be used. 
 
 Paragraph 3. When the shipment is made under exemption and consists 
 of meat or meat-food product which has not been " inspected and passed/' the 
 form of certificate shown in Section 13 of this regulation shall be used, and 
 a duplicate shall be forwarded immediately by the ferry company to the Chief 
 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Paragraph 4. When the shipment consists of meat or meat-food products 
 from animals slaughtered by a farmer on the farm and which have not been 
 "inspected and passed," the form of certificate shown in Section 14 of this 
 regulation shall be used, and a duplicate shall be forwarded immediately by 
 the ferry company to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 Paragraph 5. When a shipper's certificate for meat or meat-food products 
 has been issued and is on file with the initial carrier, and that fact is shown 
 by notation on the billing, the ferry company need not require another certifi- 
 cate. 
 
 SECTION 18. 1 Imported meat or meat-food products which have not been 
 mixed or compounded with or added to domestic meat or meat-food products 
 may be transported by any common carrier from one State or Territory or 
 the District of Columbia into another State or Territory or the District of 
 Columbia if the packages containing them are marked "Inspected under the 
 Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906," when received for transportation. 
 
 SECTION 19. 2 Paragraph 1. Meat or meat-food products which have been 
 inspected and passed and so marked, and which have been transported from 
 the establishments in which they were prepared into the channels of trade, 
 and which are alleged or known to have become unsound, unwholesome, or 
 otherwise unfit for human food, may be transported in interstate commerce 
 only under the following restrictions: 
 
 Paragraph 2. Meat or meat-food products inspected and passed and so 
 marked and which are alleged to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit 
 for human food may be shipped from one State or Territory or the District 
 of Columbia to any official establishment in the same or a different State or 
 Territory if a written permit in duplicate for such shipment be first obtained 
 from the inspector in charge of the establishment to which the shipment is 
 destined. In all such shipments both the original and duplicate copies of the 
 permits shall be surrendered to the carrier accepting the meat or meat-food 
 product, and the carrier shall require the shipper to furnish three copies of the 
 form of certificate hereinafter given. One of these certificates and the dupli- 
 cate copy of the permit shall be retained by the carrier; another copy of the 
 certificate, together with the original permit, shall be mailed by the carrier 
 to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C., and the 
 third copy of the certificate shall be addressed and mailed by the carrier to 
 the Bureau of Animal Industry inspector in charge at the point to which the 
 shipment is consigned. Upon the arrival of the shipment at the establishment 
 
 1 Formerly Regulation 64, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
 2 Formerly Regulation 61, B. A. I. Order 137. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 135 
 
 the inspector in charge shall cause a careful inspection to be made of the ship- 
 ment, to determine whether or not it is unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise 
 unfit for food. Should the meat or meat-food product contained in the ship- 
 ment prove to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, 
 it shall at once be stamped "U. S. Inspected and Condemned" and be imme- 
 diately tanked or removed to the condemned room. If the meat or meat-food 
 product contained in the shipment shall prove to be sound, wholesome, and 
 fit for human food, the inspector shall allow the meat or meat-food product 
 to enter the establishment. Meat or meat-food products at an official establish- 
 ment alleged or known to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for 
 human food shall not be shipped under this paragraph, but must be disposed 
 of at the establishment. 
 
 Paragraph 3. Meat or meat-food products which have been inspected and 
 passed and are so marked and are alleged to be unsound, unwholesome, or 
 otherwise unfit for human food may be returned from one State or Territory 
 or the District of Columbia to any jobber, wholesaler, or other dealer from whom 
 the said meat or meat-food product was purchased, if a written permit, in 
 duplicate, for such shipment be first obtained from the Chief of the Bureau 
 of Animal Industry. In all such shipments both the original and duplicate 
 copies of the permits shall be surrendered to the carrier accepting the meat 
 or meat-food product, and the carrier shall require the shipper to furnish two 
 copies of the form of certificate hereinafter given. One of these certificates 
 and the duplicate copy of the permit shall be retained by the carrier, and the 
 other copy of the certificate, together with the original permit, shall be mailed 
 by the carrier to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, 
 D. C. If the meat or meat-food product which is shipped under this section 
 shall prove to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food 
 it may; be reshipped in interstate commerce as a food product. 
 
 Paragraph 4. The shipper's certificate required by Paragraphs 2 and 3 
 of this section shall be in the following form, and shall in all cases show a descrip- 
 tion and the weight of the meat or meat-food product i 1 
 
 Date 191 
 
 Name of common carrier 
 
 Consignor 
 
 Point of shipment 
 
 Consignee 
 
 Destination 
 
 Number of permit 
 
 I hereby certify that the following-described meat or meat-food products 
 have been inspected and passed according to the act of Congress of June 30, 
 1906, and are so marked. It is alleged that the said meat or meat-food products 
 are uhsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, and unfit for human food. 
 
 Kind of product. Amount and weight. 
 
 (Signature of shipper.) 
 (Business or occupation of shipper.) 
 (Address of shipper.) 
 
 1 Attention is directed to the meat-inspection law, which provides a penalty of a fine of $10,000 
 and imprisonment for two years for any person who ships for human consumption in interstate or 
 foreign trade any meat or meat-food product which is unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit 
 for human food. 
 
136 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 As evidence to connecting carriers that the proper shipper's certificate as 
 required by this paragraph is on file with the initial carrier, the waybills, transfer 
 bills, running slips, or conductor's cards accompanying the shipments of meat 
 or meat-food products, made under Paragraphs 2 and 3 of this section, must 
 have embodied in, stamped upon, or attached to the same a signed statement 
 in the following form: 
 
 (Name of railroad company.) 
 
 Meat or meat-food product alleged to be unsound, unwholesome, or other- 
 wise unfit for food, as evidenced by shipper's certificate on file with initial 
 carrier. 
 
 (Signed) Agent. 
 
 Paragraph 5. Uninspected meat or meat-food product, or meat or meat- 
 food product inspected and marked and which is known to have become un- 
 sound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, or inedible grease 
 or tallow or other fat, may be shipped from one State or Territory or the District 
 of Columbia to another State or Territory or the District of Columbia or to a 
 foreign country for industrial purposes. No such shipment shall be accepted 
 by any carrier unless and until the product which is known to be unsound, 
 unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for food shall have been denatured or other- 
 wise rendered unavailable for food purposes. The carrier shall require the 
 shipper to certify in writing that the meat or meat-food product has been so 
 denatured or otherwise rendered unavailable for food purposes. This certifi- 
 cate of the shipper that the meat or meat-food product has been denatured shall 
 be forwarded by the carrier to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
 Washington, D. C. It is suggested that the shipper's certificate of denaturing 
 required for shipments made under this paragraph be in the following form: 
 
 Date ..191 
 
 Name of common carrier 
 
 Consignor 
 
 Point of shipment 
 
 Consignee 
 
 Destination 
 
 I hereby certify that the following described inedible meat or meat-food 
 products have been denatured or otherwise rendered unavailable for food pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Kind of product. Amount and weight. 
 
 (Signature of shipper.) 
 (Business or occupation of shipper.) 
 (Address of shipper.) 
 
 As evidence to connecting carriers that the proper shipper's certificate is 
 on file with the initial carrier, the waybills, transfer bills, running slips, or 
 conductors' cards accompanying the shipment of meat or meat-food product 
 under this paragraph must have embodied in, stamped upon, or attached to 
 the same a signed statement in the following form: 
 
 (Name of railroad company.) 
 
 Unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for food, and denatured or other- 
 wise rendered unavailable for food purposes, as evidenced by shipper's certificate 
 on file with the initial carrier. 
 
 (Signed) Agent. 
 

 LAW UNDER WHICH FOREGOING REGULATIONS ARE MADE 137 
 
 REGULATION 26. COUNTERFEITING, ETC. 
 
 SECTION 1. It is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment, 
 for any person, firm, or corporation, or officer, agent, or employee thereof to 
 forge, counterfeit, simulate, or falsely represent, or without proper authority 
 to use, fail to use, or detach, or knowingly or wrongfully to alter, deface, or 
 destroy, or to fail to deface or destroy any of the marks, stamps, tags, labels, 
 or other identification devices provided for by law or by these regulations, 
 on any carcasses, parts of carcasses, or the food product, or the containers 
 thereof, or wrongfully to use, deface, or destroy any certificate provided for 
 by law or by these regulations. 
 
 REGULATION 27. REPORTS 
 
 SECTION 1. Reports of the work of inspection carried on in every official 
 establishment shall be forwarded to the department by the inspector in charge, 
 on such blank forms and in such manner as may be specified by the Chief 
 of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 SECTION 2. The proprietors of official establishments shall furnish daily 
 to the department employees detailed to the various departments accurate 
 information regarding receipts, shipments, and amounts of products on which 
 to base their daily reports. 
 
 SECTION 3. Reports on sanitation shall be made at stated times by the 
 department employees in charge of the various departments to the inspector 
 in charge of the station, and by the inspector in charge to the Chief of the 
 Bureau of Animal Industry. If any insanitary conditions are detected by 
 any department employee, such conditions shall be reported immediately 
 to the inspector in charge, who, after investigation, shall report them to the 
 Chief of the Bureau. 
 
 REGULATION 28. APPEALS 
 
 SECTION -1. When the action of any inspector in condemning any carcass 
 or part thereof, meat, or meat-food product is questioned, appeal may be 
 made to the inspector in charge, and from his decision appeal may be made 
 to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry or to .the Secretary of Agri- 
 culture, whose decision shall be final. 
 
 REGULATION 29. CO-OPERATION WITH MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES 
 
 SECTION 1. Inspectors in charge are directed to notify the municipal author- 
 ities of the character of inspection, and upon request to advise with such 
 authorities with a view to preventing the entry into the local markets of diseased 
 animals or their products. The details of any proposed co-operative arrange- 
 ment must be first submitted to and approved by the Chief of the Bureau 
 of Animal Industry. 
 
 LAW UNDER WHICH THE FOREGOING REGULATIONS ARE 
 
 MADE 
 
 Extract from an act of Congress entitled "An act making appropriations for 
 the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nine- 
 teen hundred and seven/' approved June 30, 1906 (34 Stat., 674). 
 
138 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 THE MEAT-INSPECTION AMENDMENT 
 
 That for the purpose of preventing the use in interstate or foreign com- 
 merce, as hereinafter provided, of meat and meat-food products which are 
 unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, the 
 Secretary of Agriculture, at his discretion, may cause to be made, by inspectors 
 appointed for that purpose, an examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, 
 swine, and goats before they shall be allowed to enter into any slaughtering, 
 packing, meat-canning, rendering, or similar establishment, in which they 
 are to be slaughtered and the meat and meat-food products thereof are to 
 be used in interstate or foreign commerce; and all cattle, swine, sheep, and 
 goats found on such inspection to show symptoms of disease shall be set apart 
 and slaughtered separately from all other cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, and 
 when so slaughtered the carcasses of said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats shall 
 be subject to a careful examination and inspection, all as provided by the 
 rules and regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture as herein 
 provided for. 
 
 That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of Agriculture 
 shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose, as herein- 
 after provided, a postmortem examination and inspection of the carcasses 
 and parts thereof of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats to be prepared for human 
 consumption at any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, 
 or similar establishment in any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia 
 for transportation or sale as articles of interstate or foreign commerce; and 
 the carcasses and parts thereof of all such animals found to be sound, health- 
 ful, wholesome, and fit for human food shall be marked, stamped, tagged, or 
 labeled as "Inspected and Passed;" and said inspectors shall label, mark, 
 stamp, or tag as " Inspected and Condemned" all carcasses and parts thereof 
 of animals found to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit 
 for human food; and all carcasses and parts thereof thus inspected and con- 
 demned shall be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the 
 presence of an inspector, and the Secretary of Agriculture may remove inspector 
 from any such establishment which fails to so destroy any such condemned 
 carcass or part thereof, and said inspectors, after said first inspection shall, 
 when they deem it necessary, reinspect said carcasses or parts thereof to 
 determine whether since the first inspection the same have become unsound, 
 unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any way unfit for human food; and if any 
 carcass or any part thereof shall, upon examination and inspection subsequent 
 to the first examination and inspection, be found to be unsound, unhealthful, 
 unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, it shall be destroyed for food 
 purposes by the said establishment in the presence of an inspector, and the 
 Secretary of Agriculture may remove inspectors from any establishment which 
 fails to so destroy any such condemned carcass or part thereof. 
 
 The foregoing provisions shall apply to all carcasses or parts of carcasses 
 of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, or the meat or meat products thereof which 
 may be brought into any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, 
 or similar establishment, and such examination and inspection shall be had 
 before the said carcasses or parts thereof shall be allowed to enter into any 
 department wherein the same are to be treated and prepared for meat-food 
 products; and the foregoing provisions shall also apply to all such products 
 which, after having been issued from any slaughtering, meat-canning, salt- 
 ing, packing, rendering, or similar establishment, shall be returned to the 
 same or to any similar establishment where such inspection is maintained. 
 
 That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of Agriculture 
 shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose an examina- 
 tion and inspection of all meat-food products prepared for interstate or foreign 
 commerce in any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or 
 
THE MEAT-INSPECTION AMENDMENT 139 
 
 similar establishment, and for the purposes of any examination and inspec- 
 tion said inspectors shall have access at all times, by day or night, whether 
 the establishment be operated or not, to every part of said establishment; 
 and said inspectors shall mark, stamp, tag, or label as " Inspected and Passed" 
 all such products found to be sound, healthful, and wholesome, and which 
 contain no dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients which render such 
 meat or meat-food products unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or unfit 
 for human food; and said inspectors shall label, mark, stamp, or tag as " In- 
 spected and Condemned" all such products found unsound, unhealthful, 
 and unwholesome, or which contain dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingre- 
 dients which render such meat or meat-food products unsound, unhealthful, 
 unwholesome, or unfit for human food, and all such condemned meat-food 
 products shall be destroyed for food purposes, as hereinbefore provided, and 
 the Secretary of Agriculture may remove inspectors from any establishment 
 which fails to so destroy such condemned meat-food products: Provided, 
 That, subject to the rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture, 
 the provisions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat-food 
 products for export to any foreign country, and which are prepared or packed 
 according to the specifications or directions of the foreign purchaser, when 
 no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the 
 laws of the foreign country to which said article is to be exported; but if said 
 article shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption, 
 then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the operation of all the 
 other provisions of this act. 
 
 That when any meat or meat-food product prepared for interstate or foreign 
 commerce which has been inspected as hereinbefore provided and marked 
 " Inspected and Passed" shall be placed or packed in any can, pot, tin, canvas, 
 or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where inspection under 
 the provisions of this act is maintained, the person, firm, or corporation pre- 
 paring said product shall cause a label to be attached to said can, pot, tin, 
 canvas, or other receptacle or covering, under the supervision of an inspector, 
 which label shall state that the contents thereof have been " Inspected and 
 Passed" under the provisions of this act; and no inspection and examina- 
 tion of meat or meat-food products deposited or enclosed in cans, tins, pots, 
 canvas, or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where inspec- 
 tion under the provisions of this act is maintained shall be deemed to be 
 complete until such meat or meat-food products have been sealed or inclosed 
 in said can, tin, pot, canvas, or other receptacle or covering under the super- 
 vision of an inspector, and no such meat or meat-food products shall be sold 
 or offered for sale by any person, firm, or corporation in interstate or foreign 
 commerce under any false or deceptive name; but established trade name 
 or names which are usual to such products and which are not false and decep- 
 tive and which shall be approved by the Secretary of Agriculture are permitted. 
 
 The Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made, by experts in sanita- 
 tion or by other competent inspectors, such inspection of all slaughtering, meat- 
 canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishments in which cattle, 
 sheep, swine, and goats are slaughtered and the meat and meat-food products 
 thereof are prepared for interstate or foreign commerce as may be necessary 
 to inform himself concerning the sanitary conditions of the same, and to pre- 
 scribe the rules and regulations of sanitation under which such establishments 
 shall be maintained; and where the sanitary conditions of any such establish- 
 ment are such that the meat or meat-food products are rendered unclean, 
 unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, he 
 shall refuse to allow said meat or meat-food products to be labeled, marked, 
 stamped, or tagged as "Inspected and Passed." 
 
 That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause an examination and inspection 
 of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and the food products thereof, slaughtered 
 and prepared in the establishments hereinbefore described for the purposes 
 of interstate or foreign commerce to be made during the nighttime as well 
 
140 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 as during the day time when the slaughtering of said cattle, sheep, swine, and 
 goats, or the preparation of said food products is conducted during the night- 
 time. 
 
 That on and after October first, nineteen hundred and six, no person, firm, 
 or corporation shall transport or offer for transportation, and no carrier of 
 interstate or foreign commerce shall transport or receive for transportation 
 from one State or Territory or the District of Columbia to any other State 
 or Territory or the District of Columbia, or to any place under the jurisdiction 
 of the United States, or to any foreign country, any carcasses or parts thereof, 
 meat, or meat-food products thereof, which have not been inspected, examined, 
 and marked as " Inspected and Passed/' in accordance with the terms of this 
 act and with the rules and regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agri- 
 culture: Provided, That all meat and meat-food products on hand on October 
 first, nineteen hundred and six, at establishments where inspection has not 
 been maintained, or which have been inspected under existing law, shall be 
 examined and labeled under such rules and regulations as the Secretary of 
 Agriculture shall prescribe, and then shall be allowed to be sold in interstate 
 or foreign commerce. 
 
 That no person, firm, or corporation, or officer, agent, or employee thereof 
 shall forge, counterfeit, simulate, or falsely represent, or shall without proper 
 authority use, fail to use, or detach, or shall knowingly or wrongfully alter, 
 deface, or destroy, or fail to deface or destroy, any of the marks, stamps, tags, 
 labels, or other identification devices provided for in this act, or in and as 
 directed by the rules and regulations prescribed hereunder by the Secretary 
 of Agriculture, on any carcasses, parts of carcasses, or the food product, or 
 containers thereof, subject to the provisions of this act, or any certificate in 
 relation, thereto, authorized or required by this act or by the said rules and 
 regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made a careful inspec- 
 tion of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats intended and offered for export to 
 foreign countries at such times and places, and in such manner as he may deem 
 proper, to ascertain whether such cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are free from 
 disease. 
 
 And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to 
 give an official certificate clearly stating the condition in which such cattle, 
 sheep, swine, and goats are found. 
 
 And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board cattle, sheep, 
 swine, or goats for export to a foreign country until the owner or shipper of 
 such cattle, sheep, swine, or goats has a certificate from the inspector herein 
 authorized to be appointed, stating that the said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats 
 are sound and healthy, or unless the Secretary of Agriculture shall have waived 
 the requirement of such certificate for export to the particular country to 
 which such cattle, sheep, swine, or goats are to be exported. 
 
 That the Secretary of Agriculture shall also cause to be made a careful 
 inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle, sheep, swine, and 
 goats, the meat of which, fresh, salted, canned, corned, packed, cured, or 
 otherwise prepared, is intended and offered for export to any foreign country, 
 at such times and places and in such manner as he may deem proper. 
 
 And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to 
 give an official certificate stating the condition in which said cattle, sheep, 
 swine, or goats, and the meat thereof are found. 
 
 And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board any fresh, 
 salted, canned, corned, or packed beef, mutton, pork, or goat meat, being 
 the meat of animals killed after the passage of this act, or except as herein- 
 before provided for export to and sale in a foreign country from any port in 
 the United States, until the owner or shipper thereof shall obtain from an 
 inspector appointed under the provisions of this act a certificate that the 
 said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats were sound and healthy at the time of 
 inspection, and that their meat is sound and wholesome, unless the Secretary 
 
THE MEAT-INSPECTION AMENDMENT 141 
 
 of Agriculture shall have waived the requirements of such certificate for the 
 country to which said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats or meats are to be exported. 
 
 That the inspectors provided for herein shall be authorized to give official 
 certificates of the sound and wholesome condition of the cattle, sheep, swine, 
 and goats, their carcasses and products as herein described, and one copy of 
 every certificate granted under the provisions of this act shall be filed in the 
 Department of Agriculture, another copy shall be delivered to the owner or 
 shipper, and when the cattle, sheep, swine, and goats or their carcasses and 
 products are sent abroad, a third copy shall be delivered to the chief officer 
 of the vessel on which the shipment shall be made. 
 
 That no person, firm, or corporation engaged in the interstate commerce 
 of meat or meat-food products shall transport or offer for transportation, 
 sell or offer to sell any such meat or meat-food products in any State or Terri- 
 tory or in the District of Columbia or any place under the jurisdiction of the 
 United States, other than in the State or Territory or in the District of Columbia 
 or any place under the jurisdiction of the United States in which the slaughter- 
 ing, packing, canning, rendering, or other similar establishment owned, leased, 
 operated by said firm, person, or corporation is located unless and until said 
 person, firm, or corporation shall have complied with all of the provisions 
 of this act. 
 
 That any person, firm, or corporation, or any officer or agent of any such 
 person, firm, or corporation, who shall violate any of the provisions of this 
 act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished on convic- 
 tion thereof by a fine of not exceeding ten thousand dollars or imprisonment 
 for a period not more than two years, or by both such fine and imprisonment, 
 in the discretion of the court. 
 
 That the Secretary of Agriculture shall appoint from time to time inspectors 
 to make examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats,, 
 the inspection of which is hereby provided for, and of all carcasses and parts 
 thereof, and of all meats and meat-food products thereof, and of the sanitary 
 conditions of all establishments in which such meat and meat-food products 
 hereinbefore described are prepared; and said inspectors shall refuse to stamp, 
 mark, tag, or label any carcass or any part thereof, or meat-food product there- 
 from, prepared in any establishment hereinbefore mentioned, until the same 
 shall have actually been inspected and found to be sound, healthful, wholesome, 
 and fit for human food, and to contain no dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or 
 ingredients which render such meat-food product unsound, unhealthful, un- 
 wholesome, or unfit for human food; and to have been prepared under proper 
 sanitary conditions, hereinbefore provided for; and shall perform such other 
 duties as are provided by this act and by the rules and regulations to be pre- 
 scribed by said Secretary of Agriculture; and said Secretary of Agriculture 
 shall, from time to time, make such rules and regulations as are necessary 
 for the efficient execution of the provisions of this act, and all inspections 
 and examinations made under this act shall be such and made in such manner 
 as described in the rules and regulations prescribed by said Secretary of Agri- 
 culture not inconsistent with the provisions of this act. 
 
 That any person, firm, or corporation, or any agent or employee of any 
 person, firm, or corporation, who shall give, pay, or offer, directly or indirectly, 
 to any inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector, or any other officer or 
 employee of the United States authorized to perform any of the duties pre- 
 scribed by this act or by the rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture 
 any money or other thing of value, with intent to influence said inspector, 
 deputy inspector, chief inspector, or other officer or employee of the United 
 States in the discharge of any duty herein provided for, shall be deemed guilty 
 of a felony and, upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by a fine not less 
 than five thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and by imprison- 
 ment not less than one year nor more than three years; and any inspector, 
 deputy inspector, chief inspector, or other officer or employee of the United 
 States authorized to perform any of the duties prescribed by this act who 
 
142 REGULATIONS GOVERNING MEAT INSPECTION 
 
 shall accept any money, gift, or other thing of value from any person, firm, 
 or corporation, or officers, agents, or employees thereof, given with intent 
 to influence his official action, or who shall receive or accept from any person, 
 firm, or corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce any gift, money. 
 or other thing of value given with any purpose or intent whatsoever, shall 
 be deemed guilty of a felony and shall, upon conviction thereof, be summarily 
 discharged from office and shall be punished by a fine not less than one thousand 
 dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and by imprisonment not less than 
 one year nor more than three years. 
 
 That the provisions of this act requiring inspection .to be made by the 
 Secretary of Agriculture shall not apply to animals slaughtered by any farmer 
 on the farm and sold and transported as interstate or foreign commerce, nor 
 to retail butchers and retail dealers in meat and meat-food products, supplying 
 their customers: Provided, That if any person shall sell or offer for sale or 
 transportation for interstate or foreign commerce any meat or meat-food 
 products which are diseased, unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or other- 
 wise unfit for human food, knowing that such meat-food products are intended 
 for human consumption, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on convic- 
 tion thereof shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars 
 or by imprisonment for a period of not exceeding one year, or by both such 
 fine and imprisonment: Provided, also, That the Secretary of Agriculture is 
 authorized to maintain the inspection in this act provided for at any slaughter- 
 ing, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment not- 
 withstanding this exception, and that the persons operating the same may 
 be retail butchers and retail dealers or farmers; and where the Secretary of 
 Agriculture shall establish such inspection, then the provisions of this act shall 
 apply notwithstanding this exception. 
 
 That there is permanently appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury 
 not otherwise appropriated, the sum of three million dollars, for the expenses 
 of the inspection of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and the meat and meat- 
 food products thereof which enter into interstate or foreign commerce and for 
 all expenses necessary to carry into effect the provisions of this act relating 
 to meat inspection, including rent and the employment of labor in Washington 
 and elsewhere, for each year. And the Secretary of Agriculture shall, in his 
 annual estimates made to Congress, submit a statement in detail, showing the 
 number of persons employed in such inspections and the salary or per diem 
 paid to each, together with the contingent expenses of such inspectors and 
 where they have been and are employed. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE 
 INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 As the organization of meat inspection in the United States varies 
 somewhat from that of Germany, it is deemed essential to incorporate 
 in this text-book the conditions applying to the meat-inspection force 
 in this country, and also to describe the methods of procedure which 
 are required in the execution of the antemortem and postmortem 
 inspection by the Government inspector. As this subject is so thor- 
 oughly treated by Dr. A. D. Melvin, Chief of the Bureau of Animal 
 Industry, in his work on the Federal Meat Inspection Service, 1 he will 
 be quoted in substance in the following: 
 
 PERSONNEL OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 The Bureau's employees are both capable and expert. The men in charge 
 of all stations where slaughtering is done, and the men who do the postmortem 
 work at all stations, are veterinarians. These men must first have successfully 
 completed a three years' course in veterinary medicine at a reputable veterinary 
 college. The Department recognizes only fourteen such institutions, exclud- 
 ing several so-called colleges that aspire to cover this field of knowledge. The 
 Civil Service Commission examines these graduates, and about 50 per cent, 
 of those examined make the required grade of 70. 
 
 For the information of those who believe that a letter written to the Secretary 
 of Agriculture by an influential citizen is all that is necessary for appointment 
 to this service, it may be stated that the Department makes absolutely no 
 permanent appointments except of men whose names are certified to it by the 
 Civil Service Commission. During a period of six months one so appointed 
 is on probation, and if he fails to measure up to the requirements he is dropped. 
 If at the end of this six months he attains his absolute appointment, he is not 
 at once freed of supervision and clothed with full authority to pass or condemn. 
 The force is large, and he is so placed on it under experienced inspectors that 
 he may learn the law and regulations and the methods of their application. 
 A set of rules, supplemented, of course, by some necessary discretion on the part 
 of the heads of the service, govern his advancement in authority and salary. 
 On the latter men rests the burden of inspection. The Bureau holds them 
 responsible, and they well understand that their promotion depends on efficient 
 and faithful service. They have ample opportunity to become experts in detect- 
 ing diseased animals, and they do. The Department demands all their time 
 during the working day, and a man must be dull indeed if in the days, months, 
 and years spent amid the swift work of the killing floors he fails to develop 
 a most masterly dexterity in discovering abnormalities in the carcasses that 
 come before him. 
 
 The laboratory inspectors constitute another class of employees. They 
 also are selected through civil service examination in the principles of bac- 
 teriology and chemistry, with special application to meats. 
 
 1 Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 125. 
 
144 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 A third grade of employee is the inspector's assistant. Being under the 
 direction of the veterinarian, he is not required to be himself regularly educated 
 along this line. He examines live stock, tags animals, stamps carcasses, seals 
 cars, patrols the houses at night, superintends the removal and tanking of 
 condemned carcasses in short, he does everything he can, where expert patho- 
 logical knowledge is unnecessary, to relieve and assist the veterinarian. 
 
 The meat inspector is a fourth class. He is expert in pickling, salting, smok- 
 ing, and otherwise curing meat. He likewise enters the service through the 
 civil service examinations, and his previous experience is taken into account 
 in grading him. By means of the educated senses of sight and smell he can 
 tell when a piece of meat is unfit, and he knows whether it is irretrievably 
 bad or whether it can be utilized. This class of employees condemned 14,000,000 
 pounds of meat in the fiscal year 1906 and 1907. 
 
 The Bureau selects certain of the most experienced veterinary inspectors 
 and meat inspectors,, divides the country into districts, and sends these men 
 traveling through them, visiting every station and every plant. Their visits 
 are unannounced, and they submit reports with recommendations to the 
 Washington office. They are able, out of their wider experience, to instruct 
 the inspectors in charge at the various stations, and their reports are of great 
 value to the Department in its efforts to secure a uniform inspection and to 
 learn of insanitary conditions and have them corrected. That the regulations 
 are enforced is capable of demonstration by an examination of the reports of 
 the number of animals condemned. Other safeguards, however, are provided. 
 The law promises to fine not less than $5000 and to imprison for at least a year 
 any man who gives anything of value, even a piece of meat, to a Government 
 employee to influence him in the performance of his duties; it is stricter still 
 with such employees, for it holds over them the menace of similar fine and 
 imprisonment if they accept any thing of value, no matter what the intent 
 of the donor or the purpose of the gift may be. It is thus dangerous for the 
 packer to bribe, and it is more dangerous still for the employee to accept. 
 
 The Bureau places further obstacles in the way of collusion between inspector 
 and owner by frequent changes at the larger stations of employees from house 
 to house, and by changes, less frequent, of employees from station to station. 
 It is working constantly, also, to secure uniformity in the inspection at all 
 stations. It has a very complex system of reports, and its experts scrutinize 
 these with the view of discovering abnormalities in results and making the 
 proper corrections. Again, practically all the operations of slaughtering and 
 preparing meats are open to the world, and are, indeed, in the larger centres 
 one of the sights to which visitors flock. It is well known that accredited repre- 
 sentatives of foreign governments, expert and otherwise, see all the processes 
 of inspection, and more than one has satisfied himself and his government, 
 sometimes to the surprise of both, that inspection is all that it is claimed to be. 
 Publicists also spend days in the stockyards and packing houses, embodying 
 the results of their observations in articles that have recently been of a more 
 favorable tone than they were one or two years ago. 
 
 On the whole, it is submitted that no material dishonesty in the inspection 
 can long exist, in view of the above methods and facts, and owing further to 
 the involuntary espionage that each employee undergoes from his fellow- 
 employees, which, while it is not depended upon by the Department, is yet a 
 powerful factor in maintaining a strict integrity iu the enforcement of the law. 
 
 X 
 
 THE PERFORMANCE OF ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM 
 
 INSPECTION 
 
 For the carrying on of the antemortem and postmortem inspection, 
 the published regulations of the meat-inspection law prescribe the 
 detailed requirements. These instructions for the U. S. Inspector of 
 
ANTKMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM I\S1>ECTION 145 
 
 meats are contained in the regulations of the Federal meat-inspection 
 service, B. A. I. Order, Xo. 150. It will, therefore, be necessary to 
 discuss here only a few technical and especially important conditions. 
 
 Action in General. Antemortem Inspection of Food Animals. The 
 performance of the antemortem inspection is regulated by the regula- 
 tions governing the enforcement of the meat-inspection law, and 
 does not necessitate a further explanation for the veterinary inspector. 
 
 Concerning the age of tire food animals the most important informa- 
 tion has already been given on page 3o. 
 
 The influence of transportation on the condition of food animals was 
 considered on page 25. 
 
 Regarding the diseases which may be observed, reference should 
 be made to Chapters VII and VIII. 
 
 ( Concerning the judgment on living food animals see page 171. Under 
 certain conditions slaughter can be permitted only after a period of 
 rest (see page 27). The inspector has also the authority to request 
 that the slaughter should be undertaken at an established hour and 
 in his presence. A reinspection must be made should the slaughter 
 have been delayed for over two days after permission was granted. 
 
 [The antemortem inspection in the United States is governed by 
 B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 11, the carrying out of which is described 
 as follows : 
 
 The antemortem inspection of live stock is highly important and 
 a valuable safeguard to the health of the meat consumer, as there 
 are certain diseases and conditions not attended with any gross lesions 
 in the carcass, albeit they are noxious and repugnant. Direct proof 
 of this is found in the literature of meat poisoning, the great majority 
 of which cases could be directly traced to eating the meat of cattle 
 slaughtered in emergency without any noticeable changes being 
 observed in the tissues on postmortem examination. The interests 
 of the live-stock industry are also protected by this examination, 
 since none but healthy animals which have not been exposed to any 
 infectious disease are permitted to be shipped from the Union Stock 
 Yards to the farm as breeders and feeders or to the abattoirs of other 
 cities not having Federal inspection. A brief description of the condi- 
 tion of each rejected animal is recorded on a permit signed by the 
 yard inspector, which permit is delivered to the abattoir inspector 
 in order that the animal may be properly identified on the killing 
 floor. It is then held for final disposition on postmortem examination, 
 with the exception of those animals that have been rejected for 
 advanced pregnancy and recent parturition. These latter may be 
 held until they have fully recovered from the parturient state (ten 
 days) and then slaughtered; or in case they are not affected with, 
 or have not been exposed to, any infectious disease they may be sold 
 for stock purposes. 
 
 As conducted at present, the first step in actual inspection is the examination 
 of the living aninml. The law does not absolutely require this, but places it 
 within the discretion of the Secretary, (lovernment inspectors make this 
 10 
 
140 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 examination in the stockyards or in the pens, alleys, etc., of the establishment 
 by which the animals have been bought and in the slaughter house of which they 
 are proposed to be slaughtered, and on animals which have not undergone 
 this examination are allowed to enter the slaughter house proper. The pens 
 contain from as low as 10 to as high as 200 animals each. The inspector goes 
 into the pen and looks carefully over each animal. When he finds one that to 
 his mind is not perfectly sound and healthy, he or his assistant affixes to its 
 ear a numbered metal tag bearing the words "U. S. Suspect." Such animals 
 are segregated and slaughtered separately from other animals, either before 
 or after the regular course of the killing. If the postmortem examination of 
 an animal does not confirm the suspicions aroused by the appearance of the 
 live animal, and no lesions of disease are found, the tag is taken off and sent 
 to the office of the inspector in charge of the station, who has already been 
 informed of the number of the tag after it was affixed on suspicion, and the 
 carcass is sent along as edible meat. If lesions are found which warrant con- 
 demnation, the carcass is sent to the tank, the tag being removed and taken 
 with a report to the office.] 
 
 Inspection of the Slaughtered Animals (Meat Inspection). For the 
 examination of the slaughtered animals exact directions are given 
 in the regulations of the meat-inspection law. The presence of veter- 
 inary inspectors at the slaughter is urgently desired in certain diseases 
 (for instance, peritonitis, pleuritis, pericarditis, and certain abscess 
 formations) . 
 
 Although it is desirable to limit the work of inspection to those 
 hours showing sufficient daylight, this cannot always be accomplished 
 for obvious reasons. For inspection by artificial light an abundant, 
 and, if possible, a white light should be demanded; while in ambula- 
 tory meat inspection, examinations under oil or plain gas light in the 
 winter time cannot be entirely prevented, yet they should be positively 
 postponed if there is any suspicion of an injurious condition of the 
 entire meat (blood poisoning), or even if there are color changes of 
 the meat (jaundice). In the latter case examinations should be made 
 only by daylight. Before beginning the examination it should be 
 established that no part of the slaughtered animal is missing and that 
 nothing has been done to change the appearance of certain parts 
 (scalding of the stomachs, mesentery, head, feet, etc.). Separation 
 of the intestines from the mesentery and the emptying of the stomach 
 and the intestinal contents, as well as the cleaning of these parts, 
 cannot be very well prohibited on account of their spoiling, unless the 
 inspector is present immediately after the conclusion of the slaughter. 
 On the other hand, cutting the mesentery or its further preparation 
 is not permissible. 
 
 Technique of Meat Inspection. Inspection of the slaughtered animals 
 in accordance with these instructions consists in the following: 
 
 1. Inspection of all organs and part 
 
 2. Feeling of certain parts, as lungs, liver, spleen, uterus, udder, 
 tongue. 
 
 3. Incision of lymph glands, the location of which is given on page 
 58, in connection with Figs. 21 to 33; also muscles, organs with cavities, 
 and suspected or diseased parts. However, this should be restrained 
 
ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 
 
 147 
 
 as much as possible in tuberculosis, suppurations, etc., on account 
 of the danger of spreading the infective substance and the contamina- 
 tion of the meat with this material. Suitable knives, with cases, espe- 
 cially well adapted for the ambulatory inspection/ and which can be 
 easily cleansed and disinfected, are illustrated under Figs. 47 to 49. 
 According to the regulations, the knives of the inspectors should be 
 smooth and free from scratches and splits. For the disinfection of 
 knives and their cases boiling in a 2 per cent, soda solution is sufficient. 
 4. Squeezing out the contents of the passages and the cavities or 
 organs (bile ducts of the liver, cut surface of the lungs, etc.). Besides, 
 under special conditions the following additional methods may also 
 be applied: 
 
 Fio. 47 
 
 Postmortem knife and case made from nickel. (After Albrecht, Dresden Veterinary High School.) 
 
 .">. Reaction test of muscles with blue or red litmus paper, which 
 after moistening should be pressed with a forceps or knife against a 
 fresh cut surface of the muscles. In this work the cuts must be made 
 at various intervals and in muscles lying at various distances apart 
 (see page 53). 
 
 6. Microscopic examinations of blood, muscles, various tissues, 
 diseased parts, secretions and excretions, parasites, etc. 
 
 7. Bacteriological examinations of blood, parenchymatous fluids, etc., 
 in infectious diseases. 
 
 S. Bacteriological examinations through the inoculation of culture 
 media, inoculations of test animals, etc. 
 
 Directions for the bacteriologic examination of imported meat may 
 also be applied in the inspection of fresh slaughtered animals in case of 
 necessity, and are described on page 150. 
 
14S METHOD* OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 Bacteriological meat inspection was first recommended by Basenau for 
 cases of doubtful affections, especially in emergency slaughters, in which an 
 unobjectionable positive result cannot be obtained in any other way. In such 
 inspection bacterial blood intoxications are included first of all (see Chapter 
 VIII, page 264), and a diagnosis even in these cases may prove quite difficult. 
 Basenau himself gives the following directions: ''It is practicable to under- 
 take the examination twenty-four hours after slaughter, as all the meat- 
 poisoning bacteria grow even at a low temperature, thereby increasing their 
 
 FIG. 48 
 
 FIG. 49 
 
 Case for postmortem knives. (After Tempel, of 
 the firm Hauptner, Berlin.) 
 
 Postmortem knife. (After Koch, of the firm 
 Hauptner, Berlin.) 
 
 numbers, which facilitates the examination. In this study it is presumed that 
 after slaughter the stomach, intestines, etc., were removed in the usual order. 
 This excludes the possibility that bacteria, which may be found in the interior 
 of the meat, have reached that point through postmortem invasion from the 
 intestines. According to numerous experiences which have recently been 
 confirmed by A. Chillees, microorganisms are not present in the interior of 
 the meat of healthy animals even for a longer time following slaughter. From 
 the interior of the meat, which is rich in connective tissue, cover-glass prepara- 
 
ANTEMORTKM AND rOXTMOKTKM /XHruCTIOX 149 
 
 tions are made and gelatin plates are inoculated. Gelatin plates suffice per- 
 fectly for this purpose, if Forster's gelatin with a high melting point is used. 
 At the same time two mice are fed with raw pieces of the meat and two others 
 are fed with meat which has been exposed to 100 C. for one hour. 
 
 If no microorganisms are present in the smear preparations, and if no 
 colonies will develop within twenty-four hours on the plates, the meat should 
 he released without any further action. 
 
 If these preparations or plates establish the presence of bacteria, the meat 
 should be temporarily held in a suitable place and the results of the animal 
 experiments, which, when positive, appear in most cases within three days, 
 should be taken into consideration for final judgment. Should the mice, which 
 were fed with the raw meat die, while those given the boiled meat remain 
 well, it serves to prove that the toxic substances were destroyed by boiling. 
 Then, in accordance with present experiences, the meat can be released for 
 consumption without danger to human health, after a sufficient sterilization 
 in the steam apparatus. If no sterilizing apparatus is available, the proof of 
 the presence of a larger number of bacteria in the meat would be sufficient 
 for its condemnation. Should the mice fed with the boiled material containing 
 the bacteria succumb, the meat should be withheld from commerce and per- 
 mission should only be given for its technical utilization." 
 
 As a simplification of Basenau's plating method Ostertag recommends 
 sowing on slant agar, as agar tubes can be carried easily in a sterile condition. 
 
 v. Drigalski recommends surface sowings on alkaline lactose-litmus-agar with 
 particles of the spleen and muscles and in addition, the inoculation of similar 
 particles into slightly alkaline nutrient bouillon at 22 C. until the following 
 day for the purpose of growing the organism, and afterward inoculation of 
 new plates from the growth in bouillon. If the growth on the plates shows pre- 
 dominantly bluish, transparent colonies, a specific infection of the concerned 
 animal (Bacillus enteritidis, Gartner) is indicated. For further determinations 
 test inoculations have to be undertaken. 
 
 9. Chemical examinations may be necessary for certain purposes 
 as testing for the use of preservative substances. 
 
 10. Examination for odor is in many cases requisite. It is especially 
 necessary, even though it is not final, in cases where the boiling test 
 has to be made for the examination of meat for spoiling. 
 
 11. The boiling test is frequently of great aid in the examination 
 of the odor and taste of meat. 
 
 This should always be made with chilled meat twenty-four hours after 
 slaughter, as certain peculiarities of odor and taste undergo a change in cooled 
 meat. It is also inadvisable to place the meat to be examined in boiling water, 
 but preferable to place it in a covered receptacle with cold water in which it 
 may be gradually heated to the boiling point; from time to time the develop- 
 ing steam should be tested for the odor. The taste of the meat and the meat 
 broth should be determined after the meat is thoroughly boiled through. The 
 boiling test should be especially undertaken with the meat of boars, cryptor- 
 chids, male goats, and emergency slaughtered animals, when there is suspicion 
 of an administration of drugs that may give a taste or odor to the meat, such 
 as large quantities of iodide of potassium or inhalation of bad-smelling gases and 
 vapors. There are pronounced changes in the odor of meat when offensive 
 abscesses are encapsulated in large body cavities, in certain forms of icterus 
 of hogs, in parasitism of calves, etc. 
 
 [Procedure of Meat Inspection. The procedure of the postmortem 
 inspection as conducted in the United States is as follows: 
 
150 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 At the first exposure of the glands when the head is severed these being 
 common seats of tubercular infection a Federal inspector makes an examina- 
 tion for evidences of disease, himself cutting into the glands, if necessary. 
 Another inspector stands at the elbow of the gutter and, as the viscera are 
 revealed, watches with practised eye for abnormalities, carefully examining 
 and handling the various parts in order that any obscure indication of disease 
 may be discovered. The Bureau requires this inspector to handle the viscera 
 and, if necessary, to cut into them. This is rapid as well as exacting work, and 
 the head and visceral inspectors frequently exchange places, or the visceral 
 inspector is relieved by another, after two hours' work. 
 
 When the inspector finds a diseased carcass he attaches to it, by means of 
 a wire and seal, a paper tag with the words " U. S. Retained" on it and numbered 
 to correspond with the number on the stub from which it is taken. He sends 
 the numbered stub to the office with his report. The carcass, with the parts 
 that have been separated, none of which is allowed to lose its identity, is now 
 sent directly to a compartment called the " retaining room." The Govern- 
 ment requires this important room to be rat proof, well lighted, to have floors 
 of cement, or of metal or brick laid in cement, and to be provided with facilities 
 for locking. The Government also provides a special lock for the room, and 
 the keys remain in the custody of the inspector. At convenient periods the 
 retained carcasses undergo in this room at the hands of other inspectors a more 
 leisurely and careful inspection. 
 
 This is the final step in the postmortem examination. The inspectors here 
 have a good deal of personal discretion. Certain definite rules are laid down 
 by the Bureau, but something must be left to the judgment of the inspectors. 
 They must pass upon the question of the extent of the affection and decide 
 whether or not the whole carcass or only parts of it should go to the tank. 
 Not being pushed by the exigencies of the rapid work on the killing beds and 
 the necessity of keeping up with the never-ending stream of carcasses, they 
 are deliberate and careful in making their examinations and in forming their 
 judgment. Carcasses which they decide to be fit for food they permit to be 
 removed and placed with other healthy carcasses, which have been passed on 
 the first inspection. They take off the "U. S. Retained" tag, return it with 
 their report to the office, and stamp it "U. S. Inspected and Passed." 
 
 When their examination confirms the suspicious indications of the first 
 examination, however, they stamp conspicuously on the carcass, also on the 
 tag, the words "U. S. Inspected and Condemned." The carcass is removed 
 immediately from the retaining room under the eye of a Government employee, 
 and goes either to the tank or, if it is not convenient to tank it immediately, 
 to the condemned-meat room, which, like the retaining room, is provided with 
 a lock, the key of which is kept by a Government employee, and which is opened 
 only by Government employees. As soon as practicable Government men 
 remove the carcass to the tank, keeping a record of the tag numbers, which 
 they forward with their reports to the office. At houses which do not provide 
 a " condemned room," the carcass is sent directly to the tank. About 25 per 
 cent, of the carcasses retained are condemned. 
 
 All carcasses, both fit and unfit, having been removed from the retaining 
 room, the floor and walls are washed with hot water and disinfected in order 
 that the room may be clean and free from disease infection for the reception 
 of the next batch of retained carcasses.] 
 
 In the performances of meat inspection it is advisable to maintain 
 the following method of procedure in the inspection of the various 
 species of animals: 
 
 CATTLE. The (Suitably Prepared) Head. Viewing, cutting the 
 lymph glands (retropharyngeal, submaxillary, parotid lymph glands), 
 and tonsils in sections. Viewing and feeling of the tongue, applying 
 
ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 151 
 
 extensive cuts to the muscles of mastication on both sides (beginning 
 at the maxillary border and running parallel with the branches of the 
 inferior maxilla.) 
 
 Viscera of the Thoracic Cavity. 1. Lungs: Viewing and palpating. 
 Cutting the lymph glands in sections (right and left bronchial glands, 
 also the mediastinal glands) [the anterior mediastinal glands are hang- 
 ing, as a rule, near the thoracic entrance on the fore-quarter], and a 
 cross-section through each lobe of the lungs at about the last third, 
 extending to the larger bronchial tubes. In cutting the bronchial 
 gland it is also advisable to cut into the principal bronchi (look for 
 evidence of aspiration of the contents of the stomach). 
 
 2. Heart: Opening of the pericardium; viewing and opening of 
 both ventricles by a longitudinal cut which should extend through 
 the septum. 
 
 Viscera of the Abdominal and Pelvic Cavity. 1 . Stomach, mesentery 
 omentum, with small and large intestines. Viewing and cutting their 
 lymph glands. 
 
 2. Liver: Viewing of both surfaces, feeling and cutting the lymph 
 glands lying around the portal ring; cross-section through the larger 
 bile ducts, on the gastric surface and in the Spigelian lobe. 
 
 3. Spleen: Palpation and cutting for the examination of the pulp. 
 
 4. Urinary bladder: Viewing and cutting only if it shows a diseased 
 condition. 
 
 5. Uterus with vagina and vulva: Viewing and cutting trans- 
 versely through both horns of the uterus, and also longitudinally, 
 if necessary. 
 
 0. Udder: Feeling, viewing, and cutting the organ according to 
 necessity; cutting of the lymph glands, which occasionally remain 
 attached to the hind-quarter. 
 
 In male cattle, the testicles with the penis and the accessory sexual 
 lymph glands are to be viewed instead of the organs mentioned in 
 5 and 6. 
 
 The Carcass Proper. 1. In every case viewing of the serous cover- 
 ings of the large body cavities, the cut surfaces of the accessible meat 
 and bones, the kidneys loosened from their fat envelope, and the 
 surfaces of the meat quarters; in addition the kidney lymph glands 
 should be cut. 
 
 2. In suspicious cases, especially in emergency slaughter and in 
 tuberculosis with extension through the systemic circulation, namely, 
 the portal and pulmonary circulation, or the occurrence of extensively 
 softened areas or in pronounced affections of the serous membranes, 
 and of the uterus, the carcass should be cut into: 
 
 (a) The body wall lymph glands; inferior cervical lymph glands 
 (including also the anterior mediastinal glands), lymph glands of the 
 superior and inferior thoracic walls, lumbar, internal iliac, and external 
 ischial lymph glands. 
 
 (b) The body lymph glands proper; prescapular, axillary, external 
 iliac, popliteal, and superficial inguinal lymph glands. 
 
152 .17 A' 77/0 AS OF I'KOCEDl'ltK OF THE IXM'ECT/ON FORCE 
 
 CALF. Inspection of the viscera, thoracic and abdominal cavities, 
 as in cattle, omitting the cutting of bile ducts. It is necessary to 
 consider especially the umbilical vein. The kidneys should only be 
 loosened from the fat capsule in suspicious cases. 
 
 Special attention should be paid to the navel and to the joints of 
 the carcass, which, as a rule, is only partially skinned. Extensive 
 lymph gland examinations under such conditions as were given for 
 cattle should be carried out in the same manner. An inspection for 
 measles (cutting into the heart and muscles of mastication, examina- 
 tion of the tongue) should only take place in calves over six weeks 
 of age, except in suspicious cases; likewise the lymph glands of the 
 head should be cut only in cases of suspicion. 
 
 SHEEP AND GOAT. The examination is conducted the same as in 
 calves. The cutting of the heart, head, and pulmonary lymph glands 
 is only undertaken in cases of suspicion. Likewise an inspection of 
 the body lymph glands should be made only under those conditions 
 which apply for cattle. 
 
 HOG. Before the inspection, the vertebral column must be split 
 and the abdominal fat (leaf lard) must be separated from the abdominal 
 muscles. 
 
 Pluck (Haslets). Viewing the tongue and the muscles on the inferior 
 surface, the muscles of the larynx and of the heart and cutting into 
 the latter. Lungs (cross-section through the posterior portion) : Incis- 
 ing the bronchial lymph glands. Liver: Viewing, palpating, cutting 
 the lymph glands (for the absent mediastinal glands, examine the 
 middle bronchial gland at the bifurcation of the trachea; the portal 
 glands, as a rule, are attached to the mesentery near the pancreas). 
 
 Mesentery with stomach, intestines, spleen, omentum, urinary 
 bladder, and uterus. Viewing, palpating, cutting the gastric (and 
 if present, the attached portal) lymph glands, also the mesenteric 
 lymph glands of the small and large intestines. 
 
 The Carcass. 1. In every case view the serous linings of the body 
 cavities, the accessible parts, and cut surfaces of the meat, bones, and 
 surface of the skin; incise the submaxillary and the superior cervical 
 lymph glands. 
 
 2. In a suspicious case (under conditions as applied to cattle), 
 incise the superior, middle, and inferior cervical lymph glands, internal 
 iliac and external ischial lymph glands, the prescapular, external 
 iliac, popliteal, and superficial inguinal glands. The external ischial 
 lymph glands lie, as a rule, superficially, but they are also frequently 
 detached from the pelvic wall, on the rectum; the lymph glands of the 
 inferior thoracic wall are generally absent, those of the superior thoracic 
 wall are frequently cut off with portions of the aorta, in the evisceration 
 of the pluck; as a rule, the axillary lymph glands are also absent. 
 
 At the request of the owner, and if there is no reason for suspicion, 
 the splitting of the vertebral column may be waived, and this is also 
 omitted in suckling pigs. 
 
 HORSE. The inspection is carried out practically as in cattle, but 
 a thorough examination of the nasal mucous membrane should be 
 
ANTKMOKTKM AM) rOHTMOHTKM IXM'KCTION 153 
 
 made, the head must be split longitudinally, and the septum uasi 
 should be taken out in every case. 
 
 I)o(;s. On dogs the inspection is followed in the same manner 
 as has been described for small stock. 
 
 Inspection of Meat in Emergency Slaughter. In emergency slaughter 
 the inspection must be carried out with special care, and particularly 
 where special instructions have been given to the inspectors by the 
 governments of the various allied states. For instance, the Kingdom 
 of Saxony, in 19()(), enacted the following: 
 
 "In an emergency slaughter the inspector should be especially careful about 
 the presence of all the organs, and should there be the slightest suspicion after 
 the first inspection as to the wholesomeness of the meat for human consump- 
 tion he should undertake a second inspection on the slaughtered animal. If 
 blood poisoning is suspected it is especially necessary to ascertain whether 
 early changes will appear in connection with the keeping quality, color, and 
 odor of the meat; in addition, a boiling test should also be undertaken with 
 the meat. A repetition of the inspection is always necessary if for an excep- 
 tional cause the inspection was made by artificial light. It must be apparent, 
 however, that the second inspection should not be delayed too long, thus 
 permitting the questionable meat to become affected by putrefactive changes. 
 Therefore, in summer the second inspection should never take place later than 
 twenty-four hours after the slaughter." 
 
 FIG. 50 
 
 Transverse section through the neck of a bull. 
 
 Determination of Age. Indications of age of the slaughtered animals 
 were mentioned on page 33. 
 
 Determination of Sex. The determination of the sex in the dressed 
 animals may ensue from the following indications: 
 
 (Battle. The bulls are conspicuous by their strong development 
 of the muscles, especially on the withers (Fig. 50) and shoulders, as 
 well as by their compact development in general. The color of the 
 meat is in general darker (see page 74), and the quantity of fat is 
 smaller than in steers and cows. On the hind-quarters the following 
 characteristics are to be noted (Fig. 51): The opened inguinal canal, 
 the small quantity of scrotal fat, the triangular or irregular rhomboidal- 
 shaped cut section of the gracilis muscles, the place of attachment 
 of which on the ischial portion of the pelvic floor is, as a rule, covered 
 with fascia and fat tissue; on the ischial notch there generally remains 
 a large portion of the bulbocavernosus muscle, sometimes with adhering 
 
154 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 FIG. 51 
 
 parts of the corpora cavernosa of the penis; the striking angularity of 
 the pelvic floor with the strongly developed tuberculum pubicum, and 
 
 the slightly developed fat cap- 
 sule of the kidneys. Sometimes 
 the channel of the penis can be 
 followed in the fat on the inner 
 surface of the thigh and the ab- 
 dominal wall. 
 
 In steers the development of 
 the body is not as compact, and 
 especially the muscles of the neck 
 and withers are not as well devel- 
 oped (Fig. 52); the color of the 
 muscles is also lighter (see page 
 74) than in the bull; the develop- 
 ment of fat is always greater, the 
 inguinal canal is closed, and the 
 scrotal region contains a large 
 quantity of fat (cod fat). Cows 
 are characterized by a more 
 slender, finer development of the 
 body; the muscles are not as 
 well developed and their color is 
 lighter (see page 74, Fig. 53); 
 the color of the fat is sometimes 
 conspicuously yellow; on the 
 hind-quarter the large loose udder 
 is noticeable; after being cut away 
 it leaves a defect in the posterior 
 abdominal region; the cut surface 
 of the gracilis muscle is bean or 
 
 CrCSCent-shaped and readies to 
 the ischial notch; tllC floor of 
 the j^ appears on j y s H g htlv 
 
 * i L i 
 
 angular OF arched J the tllbCF- 
 
 Median side of the right hind-quarter of a bull ; a, 
 cut surf ace of the muse, gracilis; 6, external inguinal 
 ring; c scrotal fat tissue; d, part of the muse. 
 bulbocavernosus (represented somewhat enlarged) ; 
 , tuberculum pubicum; /, fat capsule of the kidney. 
 
 FIG. 52 
 
 Transverse section through the neck of a steer. 
 
 (llS- 
 
 culum pubicum is not well developed (Fig. 54). Heifers may be 
 tinguished from the cows by their slightly developed milkless udder 
 which in well-fattened animals is considerably intermixed with fat. 
 
ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 
 
 155 
 
 Calces. Bull calves are easily recognized by the small testicles, 
 the openings in the inguinal canal, the stump of the penis, etc., and 
 
 FIG. 53 
 
 Transverse section through the neck of a cow. 
 
 FIG. 54 
 
 by the ischial notch, while heifer 
 calves are recognized by the presence 
 of the udder. 
 
 Calves in the skin. In bull calves 
 the scrotum and the brush (a tuft of 
 long hairs at the orifice of the sheath) 
 are present. In heifer calves the 
 teats, which are present in both sexes, 
 are better developed. 
 
 Sheep and Goats. The distinguish- 
 ing of rams from wethers and ewes 
 has to be followed by the same indi- 
 cation as in cattle. In bucks the 
 peculiar sexual odor is conspicuous 
 (see Chapter VII, page 194). 
 
 Hogs. In boars, besides the small 
 deposits of fat there is strikingly 
 noticeable the dark color of the 
 muscles, the thickness of the skin 
 on the neck and shoulders, as well as 
 the strong sexual odor (see Chapter 
 VI I , page 194) . If the testicles with 
 the scrotum have been cut out, the 
 large skin defect becomes conspicu- 
 ous. The remaining parts of the penis 
 and the bulbocavernosus muscle, the 
 channel of the penis, and the cut sur- 
 face of the gracilis muscles (Fig. 55) 
 appear in a condition similar to bulls. 
 The opening cut of the abdomen 
 shows in the navel region on both 
 sides, or more to one side a defect 
 as a result of a cutting out of the 
 
 navel sac. Cryptorchid boars may appear according to the functional 
 ability of the testicles more or less as boars or castrated animals; this 
 also applies to the so-called stags (page 20). 
 
 Median side of a right hind-quarter of a 
 cow: a, cut surface of the muse, gracilis; b, 
 udder; c, tuberculum pubicum; d, fat capsule 
 of the kidney. 
 
15() METHODS OF PROCKDVRK OF THK IXHPECTION FORCE 
 
 The sexual characteristics of the slaughtered castrated male hogs 
 are in general almost identical with those of boars ; however, the castra- 
 tion scars (Fig. 55, ri) are noticeable on the posterior contour of the 
 leg, and the development of the body resembles very much that of 
 the female hogs. 
 
 In female hogs the pelvis appears wider, and the posterior pelvic 
 notch larger than in male animals; the cut surface of the gracilis muscle 
 is bean-shaped; on the opening cut of the abdomen the place of the 
 
 FIG. 55 
 
 FIG. 56 
 
 Right hind-quarter of a castrated male hog: 
 1, ischiopubic symphysis; 2, first sacral vertebra; 
 m, muse, bulbocavernosus enclosing a portion of 
 the corpus cavernosum of the penis; n, castration 
 scar; r, groove of the penis in the fat tissue. 
 
 Right hind-quarter of a female hog. Here 
 comes into consideration the bean-shaped 
 cross-section of the muse, gracilis lying distally 
 (in the picture above) from the ischiopubic 
 symphysis. 
 
 excision of the navel is not present; the development of the udder and 
 teats depends on the number of times the animals have suckled young. 
 In female hogs which have been spayed, scars of the operation are 
 visible on the left flank. 
 
 Horses. The sex of the dressed horses may be determined by the 
 same characteristics as were described for cattle. In stallions the fat 
 is generally of a lighter color and almost white, in contradistinction 
 to the intensely yellow fat of geldings and mares. 
 
 Dogs. Concerning the characteristics of the sexes of slaughtered 
 dogs, nothing particular can be said. 
 
 Judgment of Slaughtered Animals. For the judgment of slaughtered 
 animals after inspection is accomplished, the points outlined on page 
 171 should be considered. 
 
ANTE MORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 157 
 
 Stamping of Meat. Regarding the stamping of meat after inspec- 
 tion is made, see page 172. 
 
 Inspection of Imported Meat. Meat from Foreign Countries. The 
 inauguration of a general antemortem and postmortem inspection 
 on animals slaughtered within the German Empire makes it naturally 
 essential to subject imported fresh and prepared meats to a careful 
 inspection and strict judgment. For this purpose exact directions 
 were issued in the regulations in connection with the imperial meat- 
 inspection law, which also include the chemical examination of such 
 meat. As the judgment of diseased imported meat sometimes varies 
 from the disposition to be taken of native meat, it is advisable to con- 
 sider carefully the regulations in every case of condemnation. 
 
 Importations of foreign meat, of contaminated meat, sausages, and 
 other mixtures in air-tight cans or similar containers, into Germany 
 have been prohibited since October 1, 1900 (see also page 94). 
 
 The relative sizes of imported fresh and prepared pieces of foreign 
 meat were temporarily established up to December 1, 1903, and as 
 there have been no new regulations made to govern these relations, 
 the last established conditions of importations remain in effect until 
 further amendments are issued. The shipment of foreign meats to 
 Germany is limited to certain places of entry, named in connection 
 with the inspection stations in the regulations of the Federal Council. 
 
 Regarding the designation of imported salted intestines (casings), Groning dis- 
 tinguishes 5 parts in the intestines of cattle: " Wreath intestines" (small intes- 
 tines), "cap" (cecum), "butt" (cecum, with the orifice of the ileum and a small 
 portion of the colon), "middle intestines" (colon), and "fat end" (rectum). 
 Every bundle of intestines has, in accordance to its origin from the various 
 countries, a certain length, or it contains a certain number of intestines. A 
 bundle of "wreath" intestines is 24 to 32; a bundle of "middle" intestines is 
 generally 18 m. long. So-called nodular intestines (Chapter VII) [see B. A. I. 
 Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 32] are frequently packed separately as 
 inferior in quality. These bundles are longer; and, therefore, a barrel packed 
 with them contains, as a rule, about 180 bundles, while of the good quality, 
 over 200 bundles are contained in each barrel. 
 
 The following distinctions between salted horse intestines from cattle intes- 
 tines are noted by Wentzel: The "middle" intestines of cattle run in a straight 
 line, while those of the horse are curved because the wall to which the mesentery 
 is attached is shorter than that of the opposite side. Furthermore, the external 
 surface of the small intestines of the horse (that is, the mucous membrane 
 turned out) cannot be thoroughly and readily separated, as a result of the 
 firmer consistence of the submucosa and the small quantity of fat it contains. 
 Usually, larger shreds of the mucous membrane remain attached to the intes- 
 tines of the horse and give them a brown appearance. On the small intestines 
 of the horse the place of attachment of the mesentery is conspicuous, but this 
 cannot be .noticed on the middle portion of the intestines in cattle. In inflating 
 the small intestines of the horse with air they will arrange themselves in coils, 
 while those of cattle will run straight. If inflated, the walls of the intestines 
 of cattle show an interweaving with fat tissue in all directions, which is absent 
 in the intestines of the horse. 
 
 [The importation of meat and meat products into the United States 
 is subject to Regulation 32, Section II, of the Rules and Regulations 
 
158 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 for the enforcement of the "Food and Drugs Act/' which is determined 
 in the following: 
 
 Regulation 32. Imported Food and Drug Products (Section II). (a) Meat 
 and meat-food products imported into the United States shall be accompanied 
 by a certificate of official inspection of a character to satisfy the Secretary 
 of Agriculture that they are not dangerous to health, and each package of 
 such articles shall bear a label which shall identify it as covered by the certificate, 
 which certificate shall accompany or be attached to the invoice on which entry 
 is made. 
 
 (6) The certificate shall set forth the official position of the inspector and 
 the character of the inspection. 
 
 (c) Meat and meat-food products as well as all other food and drug products 
 of a kind forbidden entry into or forbidden to be sold, or restricted in sale in 
 the. country in which made or from which exported, will be refused admission. 
 
 (d) Meat and meat-food products which have been inspected and passed 
 through the customs may, if identity is retained, be transported in interstate 
 commerce.] 
 
 Domestic Meat. As a result of uniform regulation of meat inspec- 
 tion in the entire German Empire, the reinspection of meat shipped 
 from one place to another, no longer appears as necessary as formerly; 
 nevertheless, control of such introduced meat appears desirable, espe- 
 cially when there are extensive shipments to a certain locality. In 
 order to make this control effective, it appears necessary that the meat 
 should originate from regularly inspected food animals, and should 
 comply with all the general requirements which are demanded of 
 marketed meat in the respective localities. A supervision of shipped 
 meat is also necessary on account of the manifold changes to which 
 it is exposed (putrefaction, spoiling, etc.). The need of inspection for 
 meat snipped to places having public abattoirs and a strict veterinary 
 inspection appears also essential, as otherwise some of the butchers 
 would prefer to slaughter their animals in neighboring towns with less 
 rigid inspection and probably smaller expense. Such procedure would 
 threaten not alone the management of the public abattoirs, but would 
 also considerably diminish their revenues. It was, therefore, deter- 
 mined that the right of the various states in Germany may be further 
 exercised regarding the reinspection of meats shipped to localities in 
 which public abattoirs are maintained and through authorized regula- 
 tions, such meat would be subject to a compulsory reinspection. An 
 exception was made for the Kingdom of Prussia, by the law of June 
 28, 1902, in connection with the law of September 23, 1904, whereby the 
 authority of the towns, even if they had public abattoirs, was revoked, 
 so that meat shipped to such localities and which was officially inspected 
 by a veterinarian, need not be subjected to a compulsory reinspection. 
 [See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 19, Section 1 to 5.] 
 
 In localities to which extensive shipping of meat takes place the 
 establishment of an inspection office appears very essential. Its 
 equipment should include everything necessary for a thorough expert 
 inspection of the meat, such as arrangements for hanging up the meat, 
 inspection tables, good light, microscopes and reagents, stamping 
 
ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 159 
 
 apparatus, etc. Veterinarians alone should be employed as experts. 
 The time for inspection should be restricted as far as possible to day- 
 light hours unless there is a very good artificial light (electric light, 
 glowing gas light, acetylene light). Where the quantity of fresh meat 
 is inconsiderable, it may be inspected on the premises of the consignee, 
 or may be brought directly to the inspector, who, however, in all cases 
 should be a veterinarian. The inspection of prepared meat or meat 
 products may be undertaken by lay meat inspectors, since the meat of 
 these products has been previously subjected to veterinary examination. 
 
 The method adopted in the veterinary inspection of meat imported 
 from foreign countries may serve as guidance in the examination of 
 fresh and prepared domestic meat brought in from other localities. 
 
 Should a chemical examination of such meat be necessary, the 
 directions for the chemical examination of meats and fats give the 
 necessary information. 
 
 An examination for trichinse, where such is maintained, should 
 always be undertaken on pork shipped from other localities, if the 
 meat originates from localities which do not conduct regulated trichinse 
 examinations; or if the pieces of pork or carcasses are not marked or 
 otherwise designated to show that the respective animals were examined 
 by an authorized trichina? examiner and found free of that affection. 
 The procedure of trichinse examination may be carried out in accord- 
 ance with the directions for the examination of meat for trichinse and 
 measles, as given in the regulations to the meat-inspection law. 
 
 The judging of imported foreign meat must be carried out in accord- 
 ance with the regulations to the meat-inspection law. For native 
 meat such regulations are authorized as exist at the destination, in 
 connection with the state police instructions for those places. 
 
 Inspection for Trichinse. Trichinosis in hogs and dogs (see Chapter 
 VII, page 254) requires a microscopic examination of the muscles of 
 these animals for the determination of trichinse. 
 
 The authorized regulation of this examination the trichina? inspection is, 
 according to the imperial meat-inspection law, left to the State governments. 
 It has already been made obligatory and inaugurated in North Germany through 
 Stale government police regulations; while in States of South Germany it is 
 carried out only exceptionally, and almost exclusively in some of the larger 
 cities. 
 
 [Formerly in the United States trichinse inspection was maintained 
 only for export pork. This, however, has also been abandoned, as 
 it was found that some of the foreign governments were not giving 
 any attention to the certificates. Quite adequate reasons for not 
 maintaining a trichinse examination in the United States are given 
 by Dr. A. 1). Melvin in his work on the "Federal Meat Inspection 
 Service" (B. A. I. Circular 125, page 35), which is quoted in the 
 following: 
 
 "While the Federal meat inspection in this country is as thorough as a com- 
 prehensive law, stringent regulations, and a liberal appropriation of money 
 
100 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 can make it, and the consumer of meats bearing the stamp 'U. S. Inspected 
 and Passed' may in general have the comfortable assurance that he is buying 
 and eating products from healthy animals prepared under clean and sanitary 
 conditions, and the danger of contracting disease from eating these meats is 
 practically eliminated, yet the fact should not be overlooked that there is one 
 disease against which the meat inspection legend does not pretend to be a safe- 
 guard. For the detection of most of the diseases affecting meat the human 
 eye needs no assistance. The disease called trichinosis, however, to which hogs 
 are subject, is caused by a parasite so small that the microscope must be em- 
 ployed to detect it. Thorough curing or thorough cooking of the meat kills 
 this parasite. It seems, however, that some European peoples have a habit 
 of eating raw or half-raw pork, and consequently they have suffered from this 
 disease. Very elaborate measures have been taken in some countries to do 
 away with or to lessen the danger. In Germany, for instance, there is an army 
 of inspectors who use the microscope to detect these parasites in pork. These 
 countries some years ago forbade the importation of American pork products 
 unless they had been microscopically inspected. To meet this requirement 
 the Bureau instituted several years ago a system of microscopic inspection of 
 pork intended for shipment to such countries. No microscopic inspection of 
 pork intended for home consumption, however, has ever been made or even 
 contemplated. The Department takes the ground that from the nature of the 
 disease an examination of certain parts of a hog carcass can only minimize 
 and not eliminate the danger. 
 
 The parasites, it is true, are usually found, if found at all, in certain parts, 
 as the pillar of the diaphragm, the psoas muscle, the inner aspect of the shoulder, 
 or the base of the tongue. Not finding them in these parts by the usual methods, 
 it may be assumed to be probable that they do not exist in the remainder of 
 the carcass. This is, however, only a probability, as they may exist, and even 
 to such an extent as to produce disease if the flesh is eaten raw. Many cases 
 are on record where twenty, even thirty, examinations were made before trichina? 
 were found; and out of 6329 cases of trichinosis in Germany, between 1881 
 and 1898, a careful inquiry traced 2042 cases (over 32 per cent.) to meat which 
 had been microscopically examined and passed as free from trichinae. In 
 view of these facts the Department has regarded it as utterly impracticable 
 to inspect hog carcasses for this disease. It has further taken the view that such 
 inspection which as formerly carried on for exported products would cost 
 about $3,700,000 a year if all hogs killed at inspected houses were so examined 
 would do more harm than good. It would create in the minds of the con- 
 sumers a feeling of false security, which might lead them to omit the only sure 
 means of escaping danger, namely, to refrain from eating uncooked or uncured 
 pork; and it would thus defeat its very purpose and render the great trouble 
 and expense worse than useless."] 
 
 Trichina Inspection Association. To facilitate the meat traffic between 
 the governments of Prussia (with the exception of the Hohenzollern country), 
 an agreement was accepted that all meat from hogs which originate inside of 
 the territories of the participating states, and which is shipped from one of these 
 states, is considered as inspected for trichina?, as the requirements for inspection 
 are in all of these states practically the same. 
 
 The execution of trichina inspection on fresh or prepared meats, may be 
 assigned to special trichina examiners, and should be carried out in accordance 
 with the directions of the law. Outside the public abattoirs it is desirable 
 to have the meat and trichina inspection in hogs performed by one and the same 
 person in order that one or the other inspection should not be omitted. For 
 details in inspection, the reader is referred to the authorized directions as 
 well as to the numerous special publications on trichina inspection. 1 
 
 1 For instance: Johnc, The Trichina Examiner, Berlin, 1<>()4. 9th edition; I.ong-Preusse. Practical 
 Guide for Trichina Inspection, Berlin, 1905, (>th edition, and others. 
 
.\\TKMOKTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 
 
 161 
 
 Compressors are now generally adopted in preparing squeeze preparations. 
 Fig. 57 represents a very commonly used compressor divided into 24 parts; 
 Figs. 58 and 59 represent a practical American compressor which, however. 
 is not divided into fields; it is shown in both open and closed condition. 
 
 FIG. 57 
 
 Compressor, the upper plate of which may be drawn out. (Hauptner, Berlin.) 
 
 Numerous so-called trichina microscopes are constructed for the easy micro- 
 scopic examination of prepared squeeze preparations. Projection apparatuses 
 are also employed in larger abattoirs and inspection bureaus under the designa- 
 tion of trichina scopes, which serve for a quick purely mechanical search of 
 the preparations. Regarding the importance and execution of these pro- 
 jection trichina inspections, the reader is referred to the publications of Kohler, 
 Bockelmann, Schiiller, in the Zeitschrift f. Fleisch-und Milch-hygiene. 
 
 FIG. 58 
 
 FIG. 59 
 
 American compressor (closed). 
 
 American compressor (opened). 
 
 That the taking of samples of meat required for the examination of trichinae 
 should be undertaken by special sample takers is apparent from the official 
 directions. These sample takers, who cannot be dispensed with in the larger 
 abattoirs, must possess the same qualifications as the trichina examiners. The 
 latter, but especially the sample takers, should be required to perform the exami- 
 nation of these samples for measles. 
 
 The judging of the results of the examination for trichina? and measles should 
 not be trusted to the trichina examiners, but it is necessary that they be re- 
 examined by veterinary inspectors. Regarding the disposition of meat found 
 to be infested with trichinae or measles, see the regulations to the imperial 
 meat-inspection law, as well as Chapter VII, page 192. [See B. A. I. Order 
 150, Regulation 13, Section 17, Paragraph 1.] 
 11 
 
162 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 The samples of muscles which are cut out for the preparations of slides 
 cannot be considered as unobjectionable food after they have been so used, 
 and they should, therefore, be treated as meat of inferior quality, which, at 
 larger places, is best utilized in the Freibanks. 
 
 Legal Means of Redress and Complaints in the Execution of Meat 
 Inspection. An appeal to higher authority against the decisions of the 
 inspector and the police authorities in matters pertaining to food 
 animals and meat inspection must be granted to the owners. The 
 regulations of the meat-inspection law accordingly determine precisely 
 the manner of complaints and the legal means of redress by the State 
 governments. The latter should issue measures stating that in cases 
 of appeal from the condemnation of an inspector who is not a veteri- 
 narian, the opinion of a graduated veterinarian must be required, 
 and in case of condemnations by a veterinarian, at least the opinion 
 of one suitable expert must be taken into consideration. In a locality 
 or in abattoirs which have only one veterinarian, the official veteri- 
 narian (district, county, or chief bureau veterinarian) may be con- 
 sidered as an expert. In the larger abattoirs, a chief veterinarian or 
 the director of the abattoir constitutes the expert. This should be 
 the last court of appeal, as the value of the object does not warrant 
 appeal to a still higher authority and also because meat is subject 
 to spoiling, and besides the lesions are readily obliterated. [See B. 
 A. I. Order 150, Regulation 28, Section 1.] 
 
 For these reasons the time limit for the institution of a complaint 
 should not extend beyond two hours after the decision is tendered. 
 
 The costs incurred by the appeal should be borne by the owner if 
 the opinion of the first inspector is confirmed, while if it is reversed 
 the costs must be paid by the authorities. Only by such a procedure 
 and by appropriately high costs can constant appeals be prevented. 
 
 Bookkeeping and Certifications of Findings. The bookkeeping required 
 in connection with meat inspection depends on the extent of the 
 inspection and the nature of other local conditions. 
 
 Nevertheless, a diary-inspection book for the antemortem and 
 postmortem inspection should be kept. 
 
 By the resolutions of the Federal Council of May 28, 1903, and May 5, 1904, 
 authority was granted to the State governments to adopt a simplification of 
 the daily bookkeeping in public abattoirs to such an extent that animals passed 
 on inspection mav* be entered in a summary; also that the entering of the time 
 of registration and the time of the antemortem and postmortem inspection 
 may be omitted, as well as the condemnation of single parts, when they result 
 from the same cause. The respective animals may be daily combined and 
 entered, but must be kept separated according to species. In other cases the 
 designation of further distinguishing signs with the kind and sex of the animals 
 in column 2 of the diary may be omitted. [See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 
 27, Sections 1 and 2.] 
 
 At the inspection stations for foreign meats the bookkeeping of 
 meat inspection must be carried out in accordance with the regulations. 
 
ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 163 
 
 If requested, the inspector must make out a special certificate 
 (certification of the findings) giving the results of the inspection of 
 an animal. Certain forms are adopted for these certificates. The 
 imperial regulations contain no specifications in regard to the issuance 
 of such certificates of inspected foreign meats. 
 
 Statistics of Antemortem and Postmortem Inspection. In order to 
 utilize the results of the inspection statistically, the Federal Council 
 adopted resolutions on June 1, 1904, requiring a report from the 
 inspectors. They direct the inspectors to prepare quarterly reports 
 (slaughter statistics) of the inspected animals, on a specially printed 
 form. These reports must be transmitted to the places determined 
 by the State governments. In addition annual statistical compila- 
 tions on the results of the antemortem and postmortem inspection 
 on specially prepared forms must be submitted. The veterinary 
 and non-veterinary inspectors use different forms, adapted to the 
 differing duties of these experts. The inspection stations for foreign 
 meat must also prepare annual reports of the results of inspection, 
 and until further orders, the findings of tuberculosis in the slaughtered 
 animals must be prepared and compiled in an annual statistical report. 
 
 For details as to the preparation of the statistics, reference should 
 be made to the special regulations of the various State governments. 
 
 The first slaughter statistics were prepared for the third quarter 
 of 1904, and the results of the annual inspection were reported for the 
 first time for the year 1904. The compilation of the entire statistical 
 material is done by the Imperial Health Department, which also 
 publishes it. 
 
 Fees for the Antemortem and Postmortem Inspection. For the practice 
 of antemortem and postmortem inspection the experts are allowed 
 a compensation, which is designated as "slaughter fees." For the 
 inspection of foreign meats the amount is regulated by the Federal 
 Council; for all other inspections it is left to the State governments. 
 'The amount of the fee should not be an unreasonable burden upon 
 the slaughterer, yet it ought to assure the expert an adequate pay. 
 
 An underbidding of the authoritatively adjusted fees by the experts 
 should be condemned and severely punished. 
 
 The collection of the inspection fees in abattoirs and in places which 
 have special inspection offices (page 169) established for ambulatory 
 inspection, is made through the respective treasuries, and also through 
 the local police authorities; otherwise the fees are, as a rule, directly 
 paid to the inspector. The latter should be restricted as much as 
 possible by the police in consideration of the authority of the inspector 
 as an expert. By not having to accept his fee directly from the owner 
 it would make the inspector more or less independent of the public. 
 Therefore, it is best for the police authorities, as well as for the inspec- 
 tors, if the latter are appointed with a fixed salary and the fees for 
 the inspection are collected by the authorities. This plan must also 
 be followed when the payment of the inspection fee to the inspector 
 is not made. 
 
104 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE INSPECTION FORCE 
 
 The fees are also to be payable in cases where the inspector was 
 called, but was unable to perform the duties through no neglect 
 of his. 
 
 Supervision of the Antemortem and Postmortem Inspection. That 
 the entire system of meat inspection must be placed under super- 
 vision, and under the ultimate control of a central office is self evident. 
 According to the regulations the State governments are required to 
 issue suitable directions for the examination of every inspection district 
 at least every two years. In most instances it is best to assign this 
 work to official veterinarians, while the central direction of the office 
 should rest in the hands of higher state veterinarians (State, department, 
 or district veterinarians). 
 
 Freibank. By the term Freibank is understood a place (shop) 
 for the selling of meat of inferior quality, not first-class, marketable 
 meat (page 175). The term "bank," in its present application, origi- 
 nates from the old designation of the meat-selling places as "meat 
 banks." At the places so designated, only such meat was sold which 
 possessed all the requirements of high-grade meat, and, therefore, 
 it was accepted as "marketable" (suitable for market, shop clean, 
 meat of full value). All other meat, which while still salable was 
 designated as "not marketable" (not suitable for market, not shop 
 clean, inferior quality, deficient), and its sale was restricted to a special 
 bank (Freibank), located apart from the other meat shops. At present 
 the Freibank is an indispensable establishment for meat inspection, 
 the necessity for which need not be further discussed here. The Frei- 
 bank was legalized by the food law of May 14, 1879, in the regulations 
 based on the same, in the imperial meat-inspection law of June 3, 
 1900, and also by State as well as local statutory legislation. 
 
 The principle of the modern Freibank and of other similar estab- 
 lishments is selling under declaration namely, by stating the cause 
 which makes the meat otherwise unmarketable. As a consequence 
 of the "non-marketable" condition of the meat the price of the meat 
 is, as a rule, lower than that of marketable meat. This is, however, 
 not absolutely necessary, and depends on the local conditions of the 
 meat trade. The adjusting of the price of the meat ought to be left 
 to the owners, as an official fixing of the price is not permissible legally. 
 In case the compulsory declaration cannot be sufficiently carried out, 
 meat which is "non-marketable" must be excluded for further trade 
 purposes. Therefore, the purchase of such non-marketable meat and 
 its utilization by butchers, manufacturers of meat products, hotel, 
 restaurant, and boarding-house keepers, is inadmissible and punish- 
 able. As a rule, the sale of meat is limited to small quantities. The 
 official supervision of the entire Freibank management is accom- 
 plished most simply and successfully in places where only authorita- 
 tively appointed, sufficiently compensated, and otherwise independent 
 persons are employed. A supervision of the Freibanks, if possible, 
 by veterinarians, or at least by non-veterinary inspectors, is necessary 
 under all conditions. 
 
.\\TKMORTEM AND POSTMQRTEM INSPECT/OX 165 
 
 The operation of the Freibanks may be advantageously united with the 
 equipment for storing conditionally passed meat, such as requires refrigerating, 
 boiling or pickling, as well as for the rendering of fat. The location of Frei- 
 banks in places which have abattoirs is best established on the premises, as 
 by such arrangements their operation is the simplest and cheapest. For large 
 cities with abattoirs one Freibank would be insufficient, and it is necessary 
 to establish one or more additional Freibanks within the city limits. Further- 
 more, and this applies also to localities without abattoirs, such places should 
 be selected which are inhabited principally by the laboring class, and also not 
 in the immediate vicinity of a regular butcher shop. 
 
 Recently it was recommended to establish ambulatory Freibanks also, and 
 special wagons were constructed for this purpose. 
 
 For the maintenance of the Freibank the authorities may levy appropriate 
 dues, and the expenses may also be covered by the receipts from the sales. 
 
 The sale of meat under police supervision resembles the Freibank. This 
 may occur at any place where the meat was declared inferior in quality. This 
 disposition of the non-marketable meat proves very suitable, especially for 
 smaller towns which cannot afford to maintain a permanently equipped Freibank. 
 
 Under certain conditions such meat may be immediately disposed of on 
 the premises of the butcher. It is apparent that supervision by the authorities 
 must be especially strict, otherwise all the requirements which constitute the 
 principles of the Freibank system must be carried out. 
 
 [The establishment of the Freibanks in various countries of Europe 
 has proved a great success. The strict official supervision of them 
 assures the poor classes a wholesome, palatable/ and yet inexpensive 
 meat. Such meat thus advantageously utilized in the Freibanks 
 would otherwise have to be condemned and only its value in by-products 
 would come into consideration; hence the economic importance of 
 this system can be readily recognized. 
 
 The establishment of the Freibank in the United States, making 
 a three-class meat system, would afford the same advantages that 
 obtain in the countries where it is now in operation. The system would 
 not create any prejudice among that class of people who would patron- 
 ize it, as there are at the present time a large number of families in 
 this country who have emigrated from the countries where the Freibank 
 system has been in existence for many years, and, therefore, they 
 are thoroughly familiar with this institution, and would gladly take 
 advantage of the opportunities afforded thereby. 
 
 Besides the above-mentioned advantages to be gained from the 
 Freibank, there is one which would have a far-reaching effect toward 
 the eradication of tuberculosis. By the establishment of the Freibank 
 a large percentage of carcasses which are under the present system 
 of meat inspection condemned for tuberculosis would be passed for 
 the Freibank, 1 which would greatly diminish the losses to the stock 
 raiser, shipper, and packer, and hence the existing feeling of the stock 
 owners toward the application of the tuberculin test to their herds 
 would be beneficially influenced in that a greater compensation would 
 be obtained for their tuberculous cattle.] 
 
 1 For detailed information on this subject the reader is referred to Dr. Ch. W. Stiles' work on The 
 Three-class (Freibank) Meat System as an Aid in Eradicating Tuberculosis, Jour, of the American 
 Medical Association, November 2, 1907, p. 1483. 
 
IOC) METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE IXXTFA'TIOX FORCE 
 
 Performance of the Antemortem and Postmortem Inspection in 
 the Stockyards and Abattoirs. The purpose of the public abattoirs 
 and stockyards (Chapter XII) is primarily to centralize at one point 
 all the slaughtering of a community. They are, however, of greater 
 importance in the performance of meat inspection because of the 
 inauguration of compulsory slaughter therein. In the public stock- 
 yards and abattoirs the inspection of animals, both alive and after 
 slaughter, is not restricted to the animals brought there, but the meat 
 which is shipped from outside into such a community is also inspected. 
 In very large cities, however, it is sometimes necessary to establish 
 special inspection stations inside of the city for the inspection of meat or 
 carcasses which are brought or shipped into the city. In the abattoirs 
 the meat-inspection authorities are in charge of the further disposi- 
 tion of the condemned meat (page 188), the sale of inferior or impaired 
 meat, etc. 
 
 In the extensive and varied inspection service in stockyards and 
 abattoirs it is natural that this work can be carried out in a complete 
 manner only by veterinarians. As they may, at the same time, manage 
 the establishment, conduct the affairs of the food-animal insurance, 
 etc., a requirement to have only veterinarians assigned to the manage- 
 ment of public abattoirs would not be unjust. Besides the veterinary 
 director the services of special veterinarians to carry out the inspection 
 in larger abattoirs are also required. The performance of certain 
 work in connection with meat inspection in stockyards and abattoirs 
 may be assigned to non-veterinary inspectors or to other appointed 
 experts (trichina examiners), under veterinary supervision and respon- 
 sibility; however, this should be followed only when it is absolutely 
 necessary. The employment of lay inspectors exclusively for meat- 
 inspection work in stockyards and abattoirs cannot be approved. 
 When lay inspectors are substituted for veterinary experts the arrange- 
 ment should be such that the inspection should be regularly performed 
 during the prescribed hours. The antemortem and postmortem 
 inspection in stockyards and abattoirs, finally necessitates a personnel 
 for the supervision of the order and the operation of the abattoirs, 
 as well as skilled and conscientious assistants for the discharge of 
 incidental labor and duties in connection with the meat-inspection 
 service. 
 
 In large abattoirs the time for inspection extends, as a rule, to all 
 hours of the day, and in several places it is even continued during the 
 night. In small and medium-sized abattoirs it is reasonable to limit 
 the service of inspection to certain hours, adapted to local necessities. 
 
 The Ambulatory Antemortem and Postmortem Inspection. In 
 places which do not possess stockyards and abattoirs, meat inspec- 
 tion must be performed on the premises of the slaughtering party. 
 This is naturally far more troublesome, more difficult, and not as 
 thorough as inspection in public abattoirs. Where the size of the 
 place and other conditions permit, the inspection should be performed 
 by veterinarians, and only in case they cannot be obtained should 
 
ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION 167 
 
 non- veterinary inspectors be called upon to perform the inspection. 
 The latter will probably never be dispensed with in small towns and 
 in sparsely populated localities. In ambulatory meat inspection it is 
 always necessary to form inspection districts, which assure the appointed 
 meat inspectors suitable and exclusive spheres of activity. In those 
 localities in which the inspection cannot be performed by an individual 
 expert, inspection stations are frequently established in which the 
 inspections to be made are reported, and the fees paid. Here the 
 meat brought or shipped into that locality is also inspected, and all 
 matters affecting food animals and meat inspection are regulated. 
 
 In regard to the time of inspection, the distance to be covered by 
 the inspector should always be considered, and sufficient notice should 
 be given in order that the inspector may regulate his duties accordingly. 
 If, as in hogs, the postmortem inspection and examination for trichinae 
 are not carried out by one and the same inspector, care should be 
 taken that neither of the inspections should remain unperformed. 
 
 Extraordinary Meat Inspection. By this term is understood special 
 examinations which the experts of meat inspection have to carry out 
 either alone or accompanied by the police authorities. They include 
 not only slaughtering places, but also the premises for storing, prepar- 
 ing, and marketing meat. Although veterinary inspectors should 
 always pay attention to the condition and equipment of the industrial 
 premises which they may enter in the execution of their office, yet 
 unexpected special examinations must not be dispensed with. To 
 counteract any possible objections to these examinations, it is advis- 
 able that extraordinary meat inspection should be considered in the 
 local statutory regulations in connection with the general meat inspec- 
 tion. [See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 6, Section 21.] 
 
 This form of inspection should be extended to: 
 
 1. Proper condition and equipment of the rooms used in connection 
 with the operation of the butcher shop, sausage making, or preparation 
 of meat products. 
 
 2. Cleanliness of the plants. 
 
 3. The presence of uninspected meat, or 
 
 4. Tainted meat. 
 
 5. The use of prohibited preservatives and conserving substances. 
 (>. Consideration of contingent, special regulations for the meat 
 
 brought in. 
 
 7. Proper condition of the books pertaining to slaughter, and the 
 meat. 
 
 Not too long an interval should elapse between the examinations, 
 and during the warmer season they should be undertaken frequently. 
 
 Such examinations may also extend to the stores which market 
 game, fowl, fish, or products prepared from them, even if these food 
 substances in themselves are not subject to a compulsory inspection. 
 
 According to an order of the Royal Bavarian Ministry of the Interior of 
 November 21, 1906, the district veterinarians are directed to spend annually 
 
108 METHODS OF PROCEDURE OF THE h\XPtiCTl()X FORCE 
 
 five business days in inspecting the butcheries, sausage manufactories, meat 
 stores and similar establishments. 
 
 This control has to be carried out in accordance with the measures of the 
 prevailing regulations. At the same time it is especially essential to advise the 
 proprietors of the establishments regarding suitable equipment and caretaking 
 of the work and sales rooms, and especially concerning their proper manage- 
 ment. 
 
 In Prussia similar regulations exist only in several of the government dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 For the Kingdom of Saxony there exists an order that the inspectors must 
 report to the police authorities all offences or irregularities which they may 
 observe in slaughtering or meat-storing establishments, etc. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 DECISIONS OF THE VETERINARY INSPECTORS AND DISPOSAL 
 OF THE CONDEMNED MEAT 
 
 All decisions of the veterinary inspectors are based not only upon 
 the imperial meat-inspection law and regulations issued in connection 
 therewith, but also on the State and local police orders which may 
 be authoritatively passed. As the authority for such decisions as the 
 non-veterinary inspectors may make is subject to veterinary super- 
 vision, the following representations apply only to the veterinary 
 inspection force: 
 
 ANTEMORTEM INSPECTIONS 
 
 The decision of the inspector may determine the following: 
 
 (a) Prohibition of slaughter when the animals show the presence 
 of anthrax, blackleg, rinderpest, rabies, glanders, hemorrhagic septi- 
 cemia, or if there is a suspicion of any of these infections. 
 
 (b) Deferring the slaughter of the animals which are exhausted or 
 overheated through transportation, and of those calves which are 
 apparently immature. While there are no legislative measures in the 
 regulations for this action, such an order is justified from a technical 
 standpoint; besides it is also in the interest of the owners of the animals. 
 
 (c) Authorization of slaughter in all other cases. 
 
 INSPECTION OF THE SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 
 
 After the conclusion of the inspection of the slaughtered animal 
 the decision of the inspector may be as follows: 
 
 (a) The meat, including the entire carcass (meat with bones, fat, 
 viscera, and all other parts which may be utilized for human food, the 
 skin as well as the blood), is passed for consumption (marketable). 
 
 (b) The meat is passed for consumption (marketable) after the 
 removal and condemnation of certain affected parts. 
 
 Under this decision is also classified the meat of the so-called "one- 
 measled cattle," which after storage for twenty-one days in cooling or 
 refrigeration room may be passed for consumption without restrictions. 
 
 (c) The meat is passed for consumption, but is considerably dimin- 
 ished in its nutritive value (non-marketable, inferior quality), and, as a 
 rule, several diseased viscera or more extensive parts of the carcass are 
 removed and condemned. 
 
170 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 FIG. 60 
 
 (d) The fat is passed without restrictions, while the meat is either 
 condemned, conditionally passed, or passed without restriction. 
 
 The unaffected viscera of measly animals, the meat of which should 
 be either condemned, conditionally passed, of inferior quality, or 
 passed without any restrictions, are also included in this group. 
 
 (e) Individual quarters are conditionally passed (non-marketable, 
 with subjection to special treatment), or condemned while the other 
 parts are passed (marketable) or sold as of inferior quality after the 
 removal of certain altered organs and parts. 
 
 (/) The entire carcass is conditionally passed (non-marketable, with 
 subjection to special treatment), with the exception of the part which 
 might have to be condemned. 
 
 (g) The fat of the animal is conditionally passed (non-marketable, 
 with subjection to special treatment), and the other meat, including 
 the viscera, is condemned. 
 
 (h) The entire carcass is condemned for human consumption. 
 [While in Germany, as the result of the postmortem examination, 
 any one of the above-described actions may be taken with the carcass, 
 
 in the United States only two methods of 
 procedure are followed. The carcasses are 
 either passed for consumption or they are 
 condemned for the offal tank. Those of the 
 first group are either passed in their entirety 
 or they are passed only for the preparation 
 of lard, in which case the meat cannot be 
 utilized in any form. For instance, in slight 
 lesions of tuberculosis, governed by B. A. I. 
 Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 13, rule 
 D, or mild cases of hog cholera and swine 
 plague, ^Regulation 13, Section 10, Paragraph 
 3, or in localized affections, such as bruised 
 parts, fractures, limited lesions in one of the 
 viscera, etc., only the affected parts are con- 
 demned, while the carcass mav be passed for 
 lard.] 
 
 Marking of Meat. The inspected meat 
 should be stamped without delay. [See 
 
 B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 17, Section 5.] For this marking 
 the. ink stamps, which may be cut out of metal and variously con- 
 structed, seem to serve best. Rubber stamps cannot be recommended 
 on account of their lesser durability. For convenient transportation, a 
 box stamp is very well adapted, while for the great amount of stamp- 
 ing in abattoirs and inspection offices a box stamp similar to that of 
 Fig. 60 may be advantageously employed. 
 
 For ambulatory meat inspection the Garth-Muto stamp (Fig. 01) 
 may be recommended; it contains all the necessary forms of stamps 
 conveniently in a case. The stamp consists of a steel handle contain- 
 ing a spring, a sliding ring, and five separate steel frames, which can 
 
 Jar stamp. 
 
INSPECTION 0/< f 777 /<; SLAUGHTERED AMMALS 
 
 171 
 
 be easily connected or detached from the handle by slight pressure 
 and sliding the ring on the shank of the handle. The case contains 
 besides the stamps a small bottle of stamping ink, a pad, and forceps. 
 Other kinds of stamps were devised by Garth, Liebe, Kiihnau, Hollander, 
 Groning and others. 
 
 FIG. 61 
 
 Garth-Muto stamping outfit. (Hauptner, Berlin.) 
 
 As stamping ink for marking of meat of native slaughtered animals 
 a blue ink has been prescribed. It must be harmless, stable, adhere 
 easily, and dry quickly. It should also penetrate into the superficial 
 layers of the meat, and the impressions should not disappear after 
 pickling or smoking. 
 
 Branding irons of suitable construction are used for marking, and 
 may be heated in charcoal fire, gas flames (bunsen burner), and alcohol 
 or benzin apparatuses. The construction of a benzin branding stamp, 
 which the author had constructed from a benzin soldering iron, is 
 illustrated and described under Fig. 62. This simple and cheap stamp- 
 ing apparatus can be highly recommended, and there is no danger 
 
172 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 of burning the meat with the benziu flame, which streams from the 
 heating tube, thereby constantly heating the stamp. For the quick 
 heating of several branding stamps, the large benzin heating apparatus 
 of the firm of Hauptner, Berlin, illustrated on page 30, may be highly 
 recommended. 
 
 FIG. 62 
 
 Ben/in branding stamp: a, benzin container, one end of which is closed by a cap screwed on, but 
 to which may be attached a small pumping arrangement for increasing the pressure in the benzin 
 container; b, opening for filling; c, screw for the regulation of the flow of the benzin vapors; d, fasten- 
 ing screw for the stamp; e, heating pipe; /, iron box, which, filled with alcohol, serves for the heating 
 of the apparatus in order to develop the benzin vapors; g, stamp. 
 
 [B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 17, Section 1 to 11, describes in 
 detail the procedure of marking all of the meat, whether passed, retained, 
 or condemned. Doctor Melvin is quoted on this subject as follows: 
 
 "The marking is done by means of a metal or rubber stamp and a purple 
 indelible ink, and the words thus stamped are 'U. S. Inspected and Passed/ 
 or an abbreviation of these words, with the establishment number (Fig. 63). 
 The number is one assigned to the house by the Department at the time inspec- 
 
 FIG. 63 
 
 6. 
 
 PS'D FOR 
 
 LARD 
 
 U. S. INSP'D AND 
 
 j 
 
 American stamp marks. 
 
 tion is begun. It is registered in the Department records, and besides serving 
 as a convenient means of reference, it provides a sure method of tracing meat 
 about which questions may subsequently arise. 
 
 "This mark is absolutely necessary under the law to procure the movement 
 of the meats between States. The law forbids carriers to transport from one 
 State to another any meats that are not so marked, except the meats of farmers 
 and of retail butchers and dealers. It may as well be repeated here, in order 
 
INSPECTION OF THE SLAUGHTERED AMMALS 173 
 
 to emphasize the statement, thnt the Federal law does not and cannot forbid 
 the carriage of unmarked meats inside a State, so that in the absence of State 
 laws the carriers may, unmolested, carry any kinds of meat from one part of 
 a State to another."] 
 
 Disposal of Condemned Meat. If a condemnation is to be made 
 in accordance with the decisions enumerated in paragraphs b to h, 
 pages 169 and 170, the inspector should temporarily seize the affected 
 parts or the entire carcass and notify the owner immediately, as well 
 as the police authorities, stating also the cause of the condemnation. 
 The police authorities have to determine the further disposal of the 
 condemned meat, and notify the owner immediately of the course 
 taken. 
 
 The details of the method have been determined by the individual 
 state governments, thereby greatly facilitating the work of the inspectors 
 after their notification of the police authorities, etc. 
 
 [The disposal of condemned meat in the United States is carried 
 out in accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulations 14 to 16, 
 which contain the instructions as to the course to be followed with 
 condemned carcasses and meat-food products.] 
 
 The disposal of the meat which is to be declared of inferior value 
 (non-marketable) and which was described on page 171, belongs to the 
 authority of the inspector, providing there are no other provisions 
 made by special State regulations. 
 
 Meat Passed with Restrictions (Passed Conditionally). There are 
 five methods employed to remove the infurious properties of meat 
 belonging to this group: Boiling, steaming in steam-boiling appa- 
 ratus, rendering, pickling, and refrigerating. 
 
 BOILING. The boiling method is well adapted for the destruction 
 of all animal parasites occurring in meat and also of the vegetative 
 forms of the infectious disease producers, which the meat may contain. 
 For the killing of spores, on the other hand, simple boiling is not suffi- 
 ciently certain, and for chemical poisons it is, as a rule, entirely ineffec- 
 tive. The satisfactory boiling of meat can be easily recognized by 
 the appearance of a gray or white coloration of the meat, which should 
 affect even the deepest layers. 
 
 The simple boiling in open boilers can be easily carried out every- 
 where, but it has the disadvantage that in the process a comparatively 
 large quantity of the soluble nutritive substances are extracted from 
 the meat. 
 
 STEAMING. Steaming of meat in a steam-boiling apparatus is 
 an innovation due to the united efforts of Hertwig, Duncker, and 
 Rohrbeck, in Berlin; it has been further improved by numerous veteri- 
 narians and technical men. This method aims at obtaining a high 
 temperature in the interior of meat, infected with certain diseases, 
 through the application of steam under pressure. This renders larger 
 quantities of meat suitable for human food with as slight influence 
 as possible on its nutritive value. The apparatus wjiich served at first 
 for this purpose, and which was also installed in numerous abattoirs, 
 
174 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 is Rohrbeck's steam disinfect or. It was originally designed for the 
 disinfection of clothes, but has been equipped for the sterilization 
 of meat. 
 
 Various other steam-boiling apparatuses have been constructed 
 since and have gradually forced the Rohrbeck apparatus to the back- 
 ground. There is a considerable special literature concerning the 
 advantages and disadvantages of these disinfectors, as well as regard- 
 ing steam boiling itself. 
 
 FIG. 64 
 
 Meat steamer, according to Engineer Honnicke in Berlin-Schom-berg. Vertical section. 
 
 Honnicke's meat steamer and the meat steamer of the firm of Rud. 
 H. Hartmann, of Berlin, are the most important types at present. 
 
 Honnicke's Meat Steamer. Honnicke's meat steamer is represented 
 in cross-section in Fig. 64. 
 
 The sterilizer proper consists of the body (1), which, on its lower side, is 
 equipped with a double bottom. On this steam double bottom the water 
 for the production of the sterilizing steam is located. A pipe (3), which con- 
 tains a conveniently placed stop-valve, conducts the steam from the boiler to 
 the double bottom, which heats the water within. The condensed water which 
 is formed by the heajbing or boiler steam is drawn off by a pipe (4) into a con- 
 veniently located condensed water receiver. The containers or baskets (5) 
 
INSPECTION OF THE SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 175 
 
 receive the meat. The movable door (6), which is attached to side hinges, is 
 closed hermetically with the aid of clamp screws. In order to draw off the broth 
 conveniently a stopcock (8) is supplied. 
 
 At the side of the sterilizer proper stands the condenser, which is connected 
 with the first by a pipe (11), which draws off air, the mixture of steam and 
 air, and steam from the body (1). The pipe opens into a chamber (12) above 
 the bottom (13). The chamber (9) is protected above from falling dirt by a 
 loose cover. It receives a connection (14) for the supply of fresh water and 
 a tap cock (15) for drawing off hot water. To the lower chamber (10) another 
 chamber (16) is connected, which, through the pipes (16', 16"), connects with 
 the outside. An emptying cock (17) serves for drawing off the condensed water. 
 In the operation of the apparatus the meat is placed into the baskets, the 
 double bottom is filled with water, and the chamber (9) of the condenser is 
 filled with fresh water; chamber (10) must be empty at the beginning of the 
 operation. After this has been completed the door (6) is closed, and the steam 
 valve in pipe (3) is opened, when the apparatus may be left alone. There is 
 no air cock present. At the beginning of the heating of the water to 100 C., 
 before the formation of steam, the air volume is warmed to a certain extent, 
 and expands correspondingly. At this time some of the air has already entered 
 the chambers (11, 12, 10, and 16) from the body (1). At the beginning of 
 steam formation a steam-air mixture develops, which also reaches the chambers 
 (12 and 10) through the pipe (11) in the proportion of the displacement to which 
 it is subjected by the newly formed steam, to the extent of the heat not absorbed 
 by the meat. From this steam-air mixture the steam contents is now con- 
 densed in the chambers (12 and 10), and the air leaves through the pipe (16), 
 while the condensed water accumulates on the bottom of chamber (16). There 
 it gradually rises higher, until it finally closes the lower mouth of chamber 
 (16). The location of this mouth is placed at a selected point so that at the 
 time it gets closed all the air has certainly disappeared from body (1). After 
 the closing of chamber (16), by the condensation, the development of pressure 
 begins, that is, the steam pressure in the sterilizer begins to rise. The maximal 
 height, of the pressure may be established by the height of pipe (16). This 
 may be extended as high as it is desired. After the closing of the lower mouth 
 of chamber (16), the water of condensation rises under the expansion which 
 exists in body (1), and effects a counterpressure against the present steam 
 pressure. At a corresponding height the pipe (16) is led either directly to the 
 outside or into the canalization. If the pressure in body (1) should reach such 
 a height that the water in pipe (16) would exceed the highest point, it would 
 then overflow. But this is in practice prevented by other arrangements. 
 
 One of these arrangements has already been mentioned in discussing the 
 abstraction of air the steam condenser. The surplus of steam, which on 
 account of its pressure aims toward the exit of chamber (16), which is closed 
 by water, must pass the cool surfaces of the condenser formed by the chamber 
 (12) and the bottom (13). As soon as the steam from the body passes in here 
 the cool surfaces abstract from the steam a part of its temperature and expan- 
 sion, and its resulting action on the column of water is diminished and the 
 expelling of water therefore is checked. It should be remembered that at the 
 same time the meat contained in the apparatus continually abstracts heat 
 from the sterilizing steam so that only a small fraction of the steam produced 
 in the double bottom comes into consideration in the condenser. To the same 
 extent as the taking up of heat by the meat is reduced, the dropping of juice 
 from the meat into the fluid of the double bottom is likewise reduced. The 
 results of both conditions are that the fluid of the double bottom that is, 
 on the heating surface gradually becomes poorer in water; on the other 
 hand, it becomes continually richer in constituents, among which fat is the 
 most difficult to heat. This increasing concentration of the broth stands in 
 direct opposite relation to the quality of heat absorption of the meat. The 
 consequence of this is that steam production and the quality of heat absorp- 
 tion become proportional to each other, as the steam production diminishes 
 
170 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 with the loss of water in the broth. Therefore, the last procedure prevents 
 exceeding the desired highest expansion. Honnicke's meat steamer is also 
 advertised as an apparatus equipped with direct heating arrangements. 
 
 Harlmann's Meat Steamer. The construction of Hartmann's new meat 
 steamer, Franke's system, is illustrated in Fig. 65. The fundamental idea on 
 which the construction is based, originated with the late M. Franke, veterinarian 
 of the Berlin abattoirs. It consists in eliminating from the sterilizing chamber 
 all the air by filling it with water and by placing the meat into the boiling water 
 to prevent a considerable soaking by the formation of a superficial coagulated 
 
 Fu;. Go 
 
 Steam-- 
 
 Draw pipe 
 
 Overflow pipe/ 
 
 Bouillon 
 find fat 
 
 Condensation 
 
 ^fa^^/^/T^/'/^'/f/TiZ/T/'/z/ftty water 
 
 Hartmann's meat steamer, system Franke, in vertical section. 
 
 layer. Attention was first directed, to the abstraction of the air, because, 
 as is well known, its presence excludes the presence of any other body, even 
 steam, and further because air on account of its slight heat conducting qualities 
 prevents the passage of heat from the sterilizing steam into the meat. In this 
 apparatus the abstraction of the air is accomplished in such a manner that the 
 vertical boiler is closed air tight, and is entirely filled with hot water, which 
 afterward, in the course of the process, is displaced from the boiler in the largest 
 part by the developing steam. The abstraction of the air in the apparatus 
 is without doubt, complete. The sterilizer consists of a vertical boiler, which 
 rests on four legs, and is surrounded by a steam jacket up to its upper angular 
 
INSPECT/OX OF THE SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 177 
 
 reinforcement. Above the angle iron an overflow pipe branches off, which 
 unites by a three-way cock with the emptying pipe of the inside chamber of 
 the jacket, to which the condensation drain pipe is applied at the lowest part. 
 The upper closing of the boiler is accomplished by a cover which is arched 
 toward the inside, the internal surface of which reaches deeper into the cylinder 
 than the height of the mouth of the overflow pipe. The handling of the cover 
 and the perforated meat baskets is accomplished by the aid of a wheel-crane, 
 the block being attached to the side of the apparatus or to one of its legs. After 
 the cylindrical chamber is filled with water to a certain height, which is brought 
 to a boiling temperature by the heating of the steam jacket, the baskets con- 
 taining the meat are placed into the boiling water, the lowest basket resting 
 on several shelves of angle iron. Care should be taken that the highest layers 
 of the meat are submerged in the water. The water cools off several degrees 
 while putting in the meat, but is again soon brought to a boiling point by the 
 continual heating of the jacket. After the meat has been boiled for about 
 five minutes in the open boiler the cover is placed on and made steam tight. 
 This displaces all the superfluous water through the overflow pipe and renders 
 the boiler free of air. In keeping open the lower drainage vent the steam 
 jacket remains in operation. The steam developed from the water of the boiler 
 displaces by this time the water up to a height of the bottom drainage stand- 
 pipe. As soon as steam escapes from the delivery cock, the draining valve is 
 closed, and the remainder of the water is continually evaporated; in this steam 
 the meat is well cooked. On the bottom of the sterilizer the dripping juice 
 forms with the water a bouillon, on the surface of which a layer of fat collects. 
 After a certain time the steam jacket ceases to be operated, and the apparatus 
 is left to itself until the termination of the sterilization. After the opening 
 and removal of the cover, the meat baskets are taken out with the aid of the 
 wheel crane, the standpipe is lifted, and the meat broth is drained off through 
 the draining valve. The apparatus is also placed on the market in the form 
 of a quadrangular box into which the meat baskets are placed by hand and 
 made to lay alongside each other. The heating surface in this form of apparatus 
 lies on the bottom of the box. 
 
 In Franke's apparatus, with direct heating, the forged iron boiler hangs by 
 an upper angle ring in a forged iron casing, which is covered with fire clay on 
 the inside, representing the covering of the boiler. The casing possesses on the 
 front face a preliminary firing place, the heating fumes of which envelop the 
 boiler directly from all sides and escape on the back side of the boiler through 
 an upper draft as flue. A mercury safety standpipe, a safety valve, and man- 
 ometer prevent exceeding the permissible pressure. The overflow pipe which 
 has been discussed in detail in the description of the apparatus for steam heat- 
 ing has its continuance in the inside of the boiler up to the lowest surface 
 of the water, beneath the lowest of the two meat baskets. It works in a way 
 similar to that described in its construction for steam heat. To obtain the 
 required pressure for forcing out the water through the overflow pipe, the 
 safety valve is weighted down by a weight pushed down on its lever until 
 a pressure of 0.05 an atmosphere is obtained, which, after the escape of the 
 water, is again removed. Afterward the fire is drawn out of the box and the 
 sterilization is concluded, with the heat contained in the fire-clay lining. This 
 heat suffices to convert the water which is contained in the bottom of the boiler 
 entirely into steam. An advantage of this apparatus is its easy transportation, 
 and it is always in readiness to be put up for immediate operation. The flue 
 has only to be connected with a chimney of the building by making an opening 
 into it. 
 
 Another construction of meat steamer has been placed on the market by 
 the firm of Rud. A. Hartmann, under the designation of Hartmann's New 
 Meat Sterilizer, patent of Becker and Ulmann, which is illustrated in Fig. 66, 
 and which is also constructed for direct firing. 
 
 The sterilizer consists of a forged iron vertical cylinder (a), which in front 
 is supplied with an easily moving door, and on the lower part it has a cleating 
 12 
 
17S 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 for steam heating (r). From the deepest point of the inside room a pipe (/) 
 branches off to the receiving tank (<y), which is set up to the side of the sterilizer. 
 The cock (A) serves for the draining of the entire apparatus. The neatly tinned 
 meat baskets (i), which are constructed of perforated sheet iron, are for the 
 purpose of holding the meat to be sterilized, and they can be comfortably slid 
 into the apparatus and also drawn out on ledges which are fastened to the sides 
 of the cylinder. The water which condenses in the steam cleating (c) is sepa- 
 rated by an automatic condensation drawer (A*). A cock serves for the abstrac- 
 tion of air from the inside of the apparatus. Before beginning the* operation 
 the boiler is filled with pure water to the level (/), then the meat is sprinkled 
 with spices, placed into the perforated baskets ('), shoved into the apparatus, 
 and the door closed. Then through the valve (e) the steam cleating (c) is 
 heated, which soon brings the water to evaporation. An automatic arrange- 
 ment for the abstraction of air separates the air contained in the apparatus 
 during the development of steam, so that soon the air is sufficiently abstracted 
 from the entire apparatus and is entirely filled up with steam. From this 
 moment on the meat is subjected to the influence of steam at 100 C. The 
 same condenses on the meat, and heats it up, the condensate drips below, 
 and is again converted into steam on the heating surface (c). 
 
 FIG. 66 
 
 Hartmann's new meat sterilizer in vertical section. Becker and Ulmann's patent. 
 
 With the increased warming of the meat the consumption of steam decreases. 
 But as the steam production on the heating surface (c) remains approximately 
 the same, the result is that more steam is produced than is used up. Through 
 this a slight pressure develops, which presses the water from the sterilizer 
 to the receiving tank (</). The heating surface (r) is consequently more or 
 less deprived of water, and in the same relation the steam production is 
 diminished. In this way the balancing of the steam production and the heat 
 absorption of the meat is spontaneously accomplished. The pressure in the 
 sterilizer can never rise higher than the corresponding pressure in the receiving 
 tank (jy), and this amounts at maximum to about 500 mm., when the tem- 
 perature of the steam is fully 100 C. As soon as the temperature penetrates 
 to the interior of the meat and reaches 80 C., the steam is shut off by the 
 closing of valve (c), and then the apparatus is opened and its contents removed, 
 and the bouillon is drawn off by the cock (//). 
 
 nipt 
 of i 
 
 indication of the conclusion of sterilization, it is advisable to place an electric 
 
INSPECTION OF THK SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 
 
 179 
 
 contact thermometer (Fig. 67) into one of the pieces of meat. Other similar 
 instruments were constructed by Franke, Honnicke and others. 
 
 The signal thermometer, Honnicke's model, is represented in Fig. 68. This 
 instrument contains a mercury signal thermometer, in which the graduations 
 are made as fine as possible. It is combined with a metallic protective casing. 
 The thermometer proper consists of a glass body (a), with mercury bulb (a'} 
 and capillary tube (of/). Into the mercury bulb on the lower part is a platinum 
 wire (6), melted in, and a similar kind (&') is applied in the capillary tube 
 (a") at a -corresponding height, which should indicate the temperature to be 
 attained by signal. This thermometer is placed into a metallic tube, which 
 is provided with a slit (c') } which is closed below by a perforated winding 
 
 FIG. 67 
 
 FIG. 08 
 
 . 
 
 Simple form of electric mercury contact, 
 thermometer. 
 
 Electric signal thermometer, models of 
 Honnicke, Berlin (Schoneberg). 
 
 stopper (a), made of insulating material. Through this perforation the plati- 
 num wire (6) is inserted and is pressed in with the aid of the perforation (e'} 
 and a contact screw (e"), which is supplied with a knob. Above on the casing 
 (c) rests a metallic plate (/), through which the platinum wire (b') is inserted. 
 This is then also pressed in with the aid of the perforation (.7') and a contact 
 screw ((/"), which is supplied with a knob (</). After the mercury column has 
 expanded at the desired temperature to the upper platinum wire the current 
 circuit closes. The current runs from the current producer through the conduit 
 wire (/') to the ringing apparatus and again to the current producer, whereby 
 the signal is sounded. In employing the signal thermometer, it is inserted with 
 the mercury bulb downward perpendicularly into a piece of meat of medium 
 weight. Before the insertion it is advisable to make certain that not a drop 
 of mercury is torn from the column. If this is the case it is returned to the other 
 portion of the mercury through shaking or by some other method. It is also 
 
ISO DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 advisable to observe whether a contact exists by turning the squeeze screw 
 to the right. Both insulated wires leading to the instrument are conducted 
 into the meat steamer of Honnicke (Fig. 64) simply through the notch in the 
 door. At the place where the wires touch the border of the door either a simple 
 sheet of paper is placed around them or they are covered with a paper husk 
 supplied with the instrument. In closing the door the wires are squeezed 
 between the border and the jam of the door; this, however, does not produce 
 any inconvenience in the tight closing of the door. 
 
 The thorough steaming of the meat with the various apparatuses requires, in 
 accordance with the regulations, a temperature of 80 C. for two to two and 
 one-half hours in the interior of the pieces of meat. In this process the loss of 
 weight of the meat is considerably less than in cooking under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances, the difference amounting in beef to 25 to 26 per cent., and in 
 pork to 12 to 13 per cent. The meat remains very juicy, of a spicy, pleasant 
 taste and odor, resembling roasted meat. 
 
 The apparatuses are principally utilized in rendering uninjurious the meat 
 of tubercular animals in certain forms of the disease, as well as in trichinous 
 and measly meat. Other various kinds of disinfectors serve for the same pur- 
 pose as the above^discussed apparatuses, as for instance the disinfector of 
 Budenberg-Dortmund and the steam-cooking and rendering apparatus of 
 Seiffert (W. Boese, Jr., in Breslau). 
 
 MELTING OUT FAT. The process of melting out fat which is employed 
 for the extraction of fat from diseased animals (tuberculosis, measles) 
 will be only briefly mentioned. 
 
 Cut or mashed fat is rendered in ordinary open kettles, during 
 which the temperature rises to 150 C. The meat steamers of Honnicke, 
 Hartmann and others, as well as the cleated boilers with steam running 
 through, are also adapted for this purpose. However, the liquid fat 
 must not be drawn off before a temperature of at least 100 C. is 
 registered. The connective-tissue residue of the fat tissues is then 
 scooped off and subjected to pressure in order to obtain as much of 
 the remaining fat as possible. 
 
 [In the United States, carcasses showing lesions which justify the 
 passing of the tissues for lard have to be subjected, according to the 
 B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 10, Paragraph 3, and 
 Section 13, rule I), to a temperature of 220 F. for not less than four 
 hours.) 
 
 PICKLING. The commercial method of pickling may render measly 
 meat if the pickling is carried out sufficiently long (three to four weeks) 
 and if the pieces of meat do not exceed over 2 kg. The destructive 
 action of pickling on pathogenic bacteria or their products is very 
 slight; but this method may be applied to the meat of hogs which 
 are condemned on account of swine erysipelas, hog cholera, and swine 
 plague. 
 
 [Such dispositions of carcasses affected with the diseases mentioned 
 are not admissible in the United States, and the regulations governing 
 the disposition of such affected carcasses will be referred to under the 
 discussion of those diseases.] 
 
 THOROUGH CHILLING. The method designated as "thorough 
 chilling" is employed exclusively on slightly measled beef, and serves 
 to keep the meat in a fresh condition. The action of low temperature 
 
INSPECTION OF THE SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 181 
 
 on the measles does not destroy them, but they lose their power to 
 develop during the time the meat is retained. The employment of 
 this method necessitates well-arranged meat-cooling rooms in all 
 seasons. 
 
 The sale of conditionally passed meat which has been rendered 
 fit for human consumption is only permitted after making known 
 this condition, and in accordance with the instructions after it has 
 been satisfactorily marked. The more specific measures concerning 
 this marking are left to the State governments. The sale of such meat 
 should always be carried out under the restrictions corresponding to 
 those mentioned on page 166 for the Freibank. 
 
 Permission for the conditionally passed meat to be utilized by the 
 owner in his own household is not prevented, provided that the meat 
 has been rendered fit for consumption and that the owners are not 
 butchers, meat dealers, hotel or restaurant keepers. 
 
 Meat of Inferior Quality. The conditions stated for conditionally 
 passed meat should also be applied to the sale and utilization of meat 
 which has been declared of inferior quality (non-marketable). 
 
 [The regulations governing the meat inspection in the United States 
 contain no provisions for passing certain dressed carcasses conditionally. 
 An exception is only made with certain slight cases of tuberculosis and 
 hog cholera, when the carcasses may be passed conditionally for lard. 
 Accordingly, the Freibank system and the sterilization of meat are not 
 practised in the United States at the present time.] 
 
 Absolutely Condemned Meat. Meat condemned as unfit for human 
 consumption may be disposed of harmlessly by subjecting it to a higher 
 degree of heat (cooking or steaming until the maceration of the soft 
 parts, dry distillation, burning), treating it with chemicals which will 
 bring about dissolution of the soft parts or burying it. The products 
 obtained by the first method may be utilized in the industrial 
 arts. 
 
 Before burying, deep cuts should be made into the meat, and it 
 should be sprinkled over with lime or fine dry sand; or tar, crude oil 
 (carbolic acid, cresol), or alpha-naphthylamin in 5 per cent, solution 
 should be poured over it (denaturing). The latter procedure is also 
 recommended when the condemned meat cannot be disposed of at 
 once under the supervision of the inspector. Condemned meat must 
 always be marked except in the case of single portions of meat, which 
 are disposed of immediately in the presence of the inspector. All 
 other condemned organs and parts must be marked positively with a 
 condemned stamp, whereby the condemnation becomes official. 
 
 For temporary storing of condemned meat, especially in larger abattoirs, 
 special containers should be provided from which removal of condemned 
 parts should be impossible except by the proper authorities. For the collec- 
 tion of such meats a box on a cart frame is illustrated in Fig. 69. The condemned 
 part is thrown into the trough c, and the crank is turned around 180, which 
 causes the piece to drop into the box .4. Condemned pieces cannot be taken 
 out without removal of the locked cover with the attached trough, as the 
 
182 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 trough fills out the opening of the box, and besides in turning over the box 
 the trap board immediately covers the opening between the trough wall and 
 the box cover. 
 
 ^%^m<^^^ 
 
 Collecting box for condemned meat on cart structure, in section. Model of Honnicke, Berlin. 
 
 (Schoneberg.) 
 
 SIMPLE BOILING. Simple boiling of the meat in open boilers until 
 the soft parts fall apart is carried out in old flaying plants in order 
 to obtain the fat, bones, and the mass of meat boiled to pieces; the 
 method is not good, and from a hygienic standpoint is not without 
 objection. 
 
 BOILING UNDER HIGH PRESSURE. Boiling meat to pieces in a high- 
 pressure steam apparatus includes the advantages of a certain sterili- 
 zation, together with the gaining of valuable products. The appa- 
 ratus is operated by means of water steam, conveying to the meat 
 a temperature up to 150 C. The meat is broken up to such an extent 
 that the principal constituents, such as bones, fat, insoluble albumen, 
 glue, and other substances as well as glue substances, may be obtained 
 separately. 
 
 Of the high-pressure steam apparatuses the following are most 
 extensively used: 
 
 Simple Steam Digester. The simple steam digester (steam barrel) is, 
 as a rule, a perpendicularly constructed iron container, supplied with 
 a perforated bottom, which can be made steam tight by a cover on 
 top. Below it is equipped with arrangements for the draining of fluids, 
 and it also has a manhole. On various parts of the digester, steam of 
 
INSPECTION OF THE HLAVai/TKItED ANIMALS 183 
 
 2 to 3 atmospheric pressures may be conveyed to the pieces of meat 
 placed in the apparatus. 
 
 After sufficient steaming;, the fluids (condensed water, meat hroth, and fat) 
 which are collected below the perforated bottom are drained off, and the firmer 
 masses still intact are removed from the digester. The bones are utilized 
 under certain conditions for the preparation of bone flour, and the other parts 
 yield muscle flour, after they have been dry-cured and ground up in mills; 
 or the bones are dried and ground with the meat and the product is called 
 "animal body flour." This is advantageously utilized as a fertilizer and food 
 substance. The fat serves for the manufacture of soap, ointments, etc., but 
 the broth is a burdensome by-product on account of its great decomposing 
 qualities. It can be utilized only to a certain extent at such places where it 
 can be immediately and freshly used as a soil fertilizer. 
 
 Flaying Disinfector. Similar to the simple digester, the flaying 
 disinfector of Rietschel and Henneberg resembles the simple digester, 
 but its construction is more advantageous. It is also equipped with 
 accessory apparatus for an improved method of obtaining the fat and 
 for the condensation of the evaporations. The apparatus is based 
 on the system first employed by De La Croix, veterinary director of 
 the Antwerp abattoirs for the utilization of the animal parts. Drying 
 and comminuting of the cooked masses are accomplished by special 
 mechanisms. 
 
 The old Hartmann's extraction apparatus is similar to the flaying 
 disinfector. 
 
 In the apparatus already described, the rendering process with the 
 steam in the digesters is only preparatory. Afterward it is necessary 
 to transport the non-liquid masses from the digester to the drying 
 and grinding contrivances. The following rendering methods possess 
 the advantage that the entire process is carried out in one and the 
 same apparatus. The latter is not opened during the rendering and 
 processing, and at the end only the finished products are apparent. 
 
 Pod&vil's System. Podewil's system, which has been in use for 
 twenty-three years, was first to inaugurate horizontally constructed, 
 rotating drums for the steaming of animal parts, and in this way made 
 possible the sterilization, drying, and grinding of the product in a 
 single closed apparatus. The construction of Podewil's system, 1 which 
 in the course of years has been variously improved, is illustrated in 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 Podewil's rotating drum consists of an inside cylinder, an outside heat 
 jacket, and also heatable double bottoms. An accessory receptacle called hot 
 water boiler is also supplied with steam-heating arrangements for the heat- 
 ing of the washing fluid which it contains. The liquid conduit pipe (Z) and 
 the fat conduit pipe (F) are connected with the drum by hollandic screw- 
 ing, and are easily taken off. With the fat conduit is connected a Liebig's 
 cooler (K) and a gas separator (G). The steam is conveyed and the condensed 
 water from the heat jacket is led off through one of the hollow bearing plugs 
 of the apparatus, while the steam from the interior of the cylinder is drawn 
 off through the other bearing plug. 
 
 1 Manufactured by the Podewil factories in Au^sberg. 
 
1S4 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 For rendering large undivided animal carcasses (as for instance in anthrax 
 and glanders) there has been recently constructed Podewil's drum (Fig. 70), 
 with double manhole, one of which is of such a size that even large carcasses 
 can be placed undivided into the drum. 
 
 Accessory machines are necessary, such as steam boiler, steam engine, or 
 other motors, and an air pump with a condenser. 
 
 FIG. 70 
 
 Section through PodewiPs drum with specially large manhole. 
 
 Description of the Operation. The carcass or material is introduced into 
 the Podewil apparatus through the manhole (AT); the manhole is then closed 
 steam tight, and the air is removed from the apparatus by the aid of an air 
 pump. At the same time the fluid in the hot water boiler is heated with boiler 
 steam to 3 atmospheres of pressure. Next a portion of the heated fluid is pressed 
 by the conduit (Z) into the apparatus, and the heat jacket is heated by 
 boiler steam, which causes a pressure of 3 atmospheres to develop in the interior 
 of the cylinder. This pressure is maintained for about four hours, and the 
 apparatus is from time to time rotated. Through the action of the hot fluid, 
 all disease germs are destroyed with a certainty, the carcass is cooked to a pulp, 
 and the fat substances are separated. The remaining quantity of fluid from 
 the hot water boiler is then pressed over into the apparatus; thus the inside 
 of the cylinder is filled to the top, and the material is again washed through 
 and lixiviated. The fat swimming on the surface then flows through the opened 
 cock (F] into the conduit (F), passes the cooler (K) and gas separator (G), 
 and is drawn through the drawing pipe (R) in a pure cooled state into fat 
 barrels in a condition for immediate sale. 
 
 The removal of the fat is followed immediately by the drying of the other 
 products in the Podewil apparatus. Preceding this a quantity of fluid like that 
 which has been taken from the boiler is returned in order to be used again in 
 a similar way during the next operation. 
 
 The drying and grinding of the carcass material is accomplished by the action 
 of the boiler steam led into the heat jacket, which thoroughly dries the 
 material in about six hours, and with aid of the roller (W), which lies free in 
 the rotating apparatus, it is converted into a finely ground dry product ready 
 for the market (meat flour). After the manhole (M) is opened and the rota- 
 tion is continued for about ten minutes longer, the apparatus is emptied into 
 the carts placed under the opening. 
 
 The vapors from the products developed during the drying process inside 
 of the cylinder are sucked out through the curved pipe by the air pump and 
 
I\S]>ECTION OF THE SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 
 
 185 
 
 are then conveyed into a condensator, where they are mixed with water and 
 condensed. This condensation water is the only waste water obtained; it is 
 entirely uninjurious, and is drained off as clean water into the sewer or into 
 the sinking hole. The slight quantities of uncondensible gases are conveyed 
 under the fire grate of the steam boiler and are burned there. 
 
 The pure hot water condensed in the heat jacket of the apparatus is refed 
 into the steam boiler. The entire process lasts only ten to twelve hours. 
 
 The utilization of fat and animal flour by PodewiPs method depends naturally 
 on the material to be worked up. In the rendering works of Dresden, by 
 a mixed working of carcasses and meat-inspection condemnations, a yearly 
 average of 10 per cent, fat and 20.87 per cent, animal flour was obtained. The 
 latter consisted in the average of 9.64 per cent, nitrogen (60.22 per cent, raw 
 protein), 12.70 per cent, fat, 18.87 per cent, ash (in which 7.19 per cent, phos- 
 phoric acid was contained), and 6.91 per cent, water. The animal flour on 
 account of its large quantity of nitrogen, fat, and phosphoric acid is a valuable 
 fattening food substance for hogs, cattle, fowls, and fish. Glage's extensive 
 researches have shown that it is uninjurious. 
 
 FIG. 71 
 
 Section through the apparatus of Podewil's system. 
 
 Hartmanris System. Rud. A. Hartmann's system of Berlin (Fig. 72) is 
 similar to Podewil's system. It is distinguished by a perforated drum, which 
 rotates inside of a double walled, stationary drum; by rendering without the 
 action of direct steam, which is produced in the evaporator by steam from 
 the boiler and is conveyed from the evaporator to the extractor; and also by 
 the continual separation of the fat and glue water during the cooking. The 
 illustration shows the design of the entire system of Hartmann's apparatus, 
 which consists of 5 single containers fed by pipes. The large horizontal cylin- 
 drical container is the extraction and drying apparatus proper. It contains 
 within a perforated drum which receives the raw material, and which can be 
 rotated by the engine (a). Here the carcass material is steamed through, 
 extracted, and finally dried to animal flour ready for the market. The fluids 
 extracted from the raw material fat, glue, and broth flow through the pipe 
 (6) into the second container, which is the fat separator, in which the fat is 
 separated from the glue broth. The fat collects in the upper conical part of 
 the container, becomes visible on the indication glass (c) attached to it, and 
 can be drawn off by opening the valve (rf), which is applied at the highest point 
 to the fat tank, while the defattened glue broth passes spontaneously into 
 the third container, the receiver. The pipe (e) connects the receiver with the 
 extraction apparatus. From the receiver the glue broth is periodical!}" con- 
 
186 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 veyed by the opening of cock (/) into the fourth container to the so-called evapo- 
 rator in order to be here evaporated to a gelatinous consistence with the aid 
 of a coiled heating arrangement. 
 
 The steam developed in this process from the glue broth is not conveyed 
 to special condensation arrangements and precipitated with cold water, as in 
 the old apparatuses, but it is returned to the extractor in order to serve as 
 working steam for the cooking and drying process. 
 
 For this purpose a pipe (.7) leads from the evaporator to the extractor, which 
 divides into two branches, of which the one (/?) can be closed by a valve arid 
 leads to the inside of the apparatus, and, therefore, to the raw material, while 
 the other (?) can be also closed by a valve, and is led into the jacket which 
 envelops the entire extraction apparatus. This pipe permits the utilization 
 of the steam which develops in the evaporator from the glue broth, according 
 
 FIG. 72 
 
 To air 
 
 pittnp 
 
 Model of Hartmann's system of carcass-destruction and utilization apparatus. 
 
 to the desire, either for the steaming or for the drying of the carcass material. 
 The water extracted thereby in the form of steam from the evaporator reaches 
 either the extractor or the jacket and returns again through the cock (b) 
 or cock (p) into the fat separator and the receiver. Accordingly a constant circu- 
 lation of the water originating from the carcass itself takes place in the appa- 
 ratus. Therefore the more water is abstracted in the form of steam from the 
 evaporator, the more concentrated will the glue broth become, until at the 
 conclusion of the working process the finished thickened glue jelly is obtained 
 in the evaporator. At that time the finished dried animal flour is obtained 
 in the extractor, while the distilled meat water remains in the receiver and 
 in the fat separator; the fat, on the other hand, has been already drawn off 
 into the fat container during the working process. 
 
 The fifth container is placed above the extractor and serves as a temporary 
 receiver for the 'thickened glue broth. If it is desired to work up together the 
 
OF THE XLAC(UITKRKl) AMMALS 1X7 
 
 extracted meat and bone masses with the glue jelly to a slue-containing animal 
 flour, the glue broth can then he easily conveyed again to the extractor. 
 
 The opening in the extractor which can be closed with the cover (m) is of 
 such a size that the perforated drum may be placed into it and also removed 
 and replaced again in case of repair. The large cover opening, except in the 
 case of the smallest size apparatus, permits also the introduction of undivided 
 carcasses. 
 
 The interior of the extractor contains the revolvable perforated drum, which 
 is closed by the removable cover (/?), and on the external circumference it is 
 equipped with stirring arms (o). 
 
 After the conclusion of the extraction, which on an average requires four 
 hours, the perforated drum is rotated, and at the same time by heating the double 
 jacket, the drying of the extracted meat and bone masses contained in the 
 extractor is carried out. The material, which by the thorough steaming becomes 
 entirely soft, is ground up in the rotating drum, falls through the sieve holes, 
 and thus reaches the space between the moving drum and the heated double 
 jacket. Here it is seized by the stirring arms, is continuously brought in con- 
 tact with new areas of heated surface, and at the same time it is ground to 
 a powder. The vapors set free from the drying product are sucked out with 
 the aid of a wet air pump, and precipitated by direct contact with cold water. 
 Other non-condensible gases are conveyed under the furnace and are burned 
 there. 
 
 The drying process in the smaller Hartmann apparatus is calculated to 
 take about two hours, while in the larger ones from three to five hours. After 
 this time the entire dried product is contained as a pulverized animal flour 
 outside of the sieve drum, and can be emptied from the apparatus by removing 
 the cover and turning the extractor 180. 
 
 The water of evaporation which develops in the extractor during the drying 
 process,- collects in the accessory containers, namely, the fat separator and 
 receiver, which are emptied before the commencement of the drying process. 
 This water may be drained from them into the sewer after the conclusion of the 
 working process. If there is no sewer, the waste water which in itself is clean 
 and sterile is collected in a special cooling basin, and after having cooled it 
 is drained off into the mill trough. 
 
 Recently the firms Hochmuth, in Dresden, as well as Venuleth and Ellen- 
 berger, in Darmstadt, and Grove, in Charlottenburg, Berlin, constructed 
 apparatuses which are based on the same principle as the two systems described. 
 While the last two have not yet been sufficiently tested in practice, the cheap 
 apparatus of Hochmuth has already proved very useful in various rendering 
 works. 
 
 Garth's Apparatus. Sterilization, but incomplete comminution of animal 
 parts, is obtained by Dr. Garth's collecting container and destroying apparatus 1 
 (Fig. 73). 
 
 The operation, productiveness, advantages, and defects of the apparatus 
 are discussed in the publications of Garth, Clausen, Resow and others. 
 
 The apparatus consists of a double-walled container, which can be easily 
 turned by hand around its transverse axis; it is constructed in three sizes of 
 300 to 800 kg. contents. If the apparatus is not worked, the container is turned 
 in such a way that the upper opening lies at a man's height. After opening 
 the closed, gas-tight valve the products are introduced into a cylindrical receiver 
 and fall from here, after they have passed another air-tight closing valve, 
 into the inside of the boiler. A removal of the contents is impossible. 
 
 When the working up of the product is to take place, the closing head is 
 removed and a cover is tightly screwed on. For ten to fourteen hours steam 
 is conveyed into the interior of the cleating at 5 atmospheres' pressure. The 
 fluid constituents may be drawn off into the receiver standing at the side of the 
 
 1 Built by (Johrig and Leuchs A-G., in Darmstadt. 
 
188 
 
 DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 apparatus; the fat may then be drawn off from the receiver. In the side of 
 the receiver is a valve which allows the glue water to mix with tap water, and 
 this fluid is carried from here into the sewer. During steaming the container is 
 turned to mix the material thorough^ and to offer new points of action to the 
 steam. 
 
 Fat, glue broth, and residues are obtained as end products. After cooling, 
 the residues form a brown, soil-like, crumbling mass intermixed with bones 
 and fibers, which, after a further comminution, is utilized as food for hogs 
 and fowls. 
 
 FIG. 73 
 
 External view of Dr. Garth's collecting receptacle and destruction apparatus. 
 
 CHEMICAL DESTRUCTION. There are various methods for chemical 
 destruction of meat. One of the older consists in the treatment of 
 the meat with sulphuric acid and steam. The meat is placed into 
 acid tanks or into wooden containers lined with lead sheets, and sul- 
 phuric acid at 45 B. is added, after which steam is conducted into 
 the containers. As a result, a breaking up and loss of fat in the meat 
 take place. The fat is skimmed off, and the remaining shiny pulpy 
 mass is mixed with bonemeal, lime phosphate, etc., and dried. In 
 the drying, disagreeable odors develop, and consequently the method 
 can only find application in fertilizer plants. 
 
 Recently, Franke recommended the treatment of condemned meat 
 with a 3 per cent, solution of sodium hydrate (NaOH) for about twenty- 
 four hours, and subsequently boiling it for two to three hours with steam 
 or direct fire, until a complete breaking up of the soft parts. This 
 
INSPECTION OF THE SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS 
 
 189 
 
 method is very inexpensive and will probably be more widely employed 
 in the future; it yields fat, glue broth, and alkaline albumen. Saponifi- 
 cation of the fat does not occur. 
 
 DRY DISTILLATION. The dry distillation of the meat is not used 
 as a practical method of disposal. 
 
 BURNING. Burning of small parts may be undertaken at any place 
 in the heating arrangements of the household, and is without a doubt 
 the safest method of disposition. Where steam boilers are present 
 even larger parts and divided carcasses of large animals may be burned. 
 This, however, is not economical, and also injurious to the walls of 
 the boiler. To eliminate this disadvantage, various kinds of burning 
 ovens were constructed, of which those of Kori prove to be the best. 
 
 FIG. 74 
 
 Longitudinal section through one of Kori's burning ovens, type III. 
 
 The illustration (Fig. 74) represents the latest construction of Kori's burn- 
 ing ovens, type III, with an upper slime basin. The burning oven consists 
 of a massively built wall body, the surfaces of which, coming in contact with 
 the smoke gases and fire, are constructed of the best fire bricks, while the other 
 wall work consists of brick stones. Besides every apparatus receives a reinforce- 
 ment of strong iron U-rails, which are fastened together by strong round irons, 
 both long and crosswise. The operation is carried out in the following way: 
 
 The solid offal, condemned meats, etc., are thrown without consideration 
 of their kind through the opening (E T) into the burning chamber (V R), 
 and thence to the cast-iron basin (Sch.B II), and from here on the slanting 
 
KM I DECISIONS OF VETERINARY INSPECTORS 
 
 surface of the arching (G /, G II). The latter consists of specially constructed 
 perforated fire bricks, which are horizontally continued (G III). The coal flame 
 produced in the so-called main fire box ( HF) reaches in the greatest part directly 
 to the burning chamber (VR), and consumes the products which are accumu- 
 lated there, while a small part reaches through the canal (K), directly under 
 the perforated arching (G II), drying and igniting the offal lying on it. 
 
 To make possible the burning of pulpy and thin liquid material without any 
 other addition, and without disturbing the burning process proper in the 
 chamber (VR), the stove is extended in its upper part into another small chamber 
 (OVR), into which a flat but broad basin (Sch.BI) is built. This basin can be 
 reached from the opening (E I), lying on the opposite side to the opening for 
 receiving the materials, and in order to make this accessible, the otherwise 
 sloped back of the stove is made with a platform extension. 
 
 The flame from the main place which fills the burning chamber (VK) leaves 
 this through the side draft opening (F/7), and reaches the upper burning 
 chamber (OVR), in which it passes over the basin (Sch.BI), and evaporates 
 the fluids contained therein, thus thickening them. This is accomplished 
 in about five hours, then with the hoisting of the conical valve (KV) in the 
 floor of the basin (#), the thickened content flows or is pushed down into the 
 lower burning chamber (VR), where its complete destruction is accomplished 
 in a short time. 
 
 The residues remaining in the chamber (VR) are drawn down at the con- 
 clusion of the work, with the aid of a fire hook, to the grading of the main 
 firing, where the complete destruction to a gray ash takes place. When the 
 burning process is well in progress it is advisable to restrict direct firing, as 
 the meat masses falling from time to time into the fire replace the burning 
 material. 
 
 Where it is accessible, the destructor is connected with the smokestack of the 
 steam boiler. The burning ovens of Kori give good satisfaction everywhere, and 
 work very inexpensively. 
 
 BURIAL. Burial of meat occurs principally in flat countries, after 
 the meat has been previously denatured (page 183). The ditch should 
 be laid out so that the surface of the meat may be covered with a 
 layer of earth of at least 1 m. thickness. According to the regulations 
 of the imperial meat-inspection law, trichinous meat is not allowed 
 to be disposed of by burial. 
 
 [Condemned carcasses or parts, as well as condemned meat and its 
 products, and the offals of the abattoir, are rendered in the United 
 States in tanks, also called digesters. Such tanks are usually installed 
 in abattoirs, and in the larger establishments a large number of such 
 tanks are placed in the so-called tank-house or tank-room. The tanks, 
 which receive the condemned meat, are sealed by a Federal employee, 
 who also supervises the tanking of the condemned material. After 
 the process of rendering is concluded, the seal is broken by the Federal 
 employee and the contents of the tank are also removed under his 
 supervision (see B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 16, Sections 1 to 3). 
 In the rendering process the regulations prescribe a forty pound steam 
 pressure, producing a temperature of 288 F., which should be main- 
 tained for not less than six hours. Before tanking the meat is always 
 denatured. Through the rendering process all of the solids are thor- 
 oughly disintegrated, forming a pulpy mass. The grease is then drawn 
 off through a conveniently placed draw-off valve, and the product 
 is stored and shipped with the word "inedible" marked on the con- 
 
INSPECTION OF ME A T IMPORTED FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES 191 
 
 tainers. After the fat is drawn off, the residue of the tank is dumped 
 into a scrap vat in which it is allowed to settle, the grease is next skimmed 
 off and the residue is placed again into the tank for the next cooking. 
 Then the residue is placed in a press, usually a hydraulic press, where 
 it is separated from all the moisture and grease, the dry substance 
 being then prepared for fertilizers. In various places the tank water, 
 which contains from 10 to 15 per cent, solids, is utilized for the prepara- 
 tion of ammonia. The entire rendering process in the tanks requires 
 from eight to ten hours.] 
 
 INSPECTION OF MEAT IMPORTED FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 
 The decisions of the inspectors and the treatment of meat imported 
 from foreign countries after inspection must be in accordance with 
 the regulations of the imperial meat-inspection law. 
 The decision may be one of the following: 
 
 (a) Passed and admitted for traffic in the state. 
 
 (6) Condemned and rejected from importation. % 
 
 (c) Condemned with harmless disposal. 
 
 (d) Condemned and admitted after rendering it useless. 
 
 These decisions may extend in accordance with the conditions in 
 fresh meat, to the entire shipment, to single carcasses, to single affected 
 parts; and in prepared meat, to the entire shipment, to single packages, 
 or to single pieces of meat. 
 
 All final decisions are made by the inspection office in accordance 
 with the opinion of the veterinarian assigned for the inspection, to 
 whom the results of the chemical examinations, if such were necessary, 
 should be reported in writing. 
 
 The police authorities have control of the further treatment of 
 condemned meat. 
 
 The marking of the meat (page 172) is carried out in accordance 
 with the regulations, with colored or branding stamps on the meat 
 proper, -and on the containers. 
 
 In condemnations the meat should be temporarily retained, and 
 provided with a suitable identification mark. Immediate notice of 
 the retention should be given to the disposal authorities of the customs 
 and tax office, as well as to the police authorities designating the cause 
 of the condemnation. 
 
 The harmless disposal of condemned imported meat has to be carried 
 out under the same conditions as for native meat. 
 
 For rendering useless foreign meat which is not permitted for con- 
 sumption, the regulations give the necessary orders. 
 
 Prohibition for importation into Germany applies at the present time to 
 dog meat, prepared horse meat, sausages, and other mixtures from comminuted 
 horse meat, meat in air-tight, closed boxes, or similar containers; pickled meat, 
 if the weight of a single pirn' is less than 4 kg.; fresh beef and veal from Belgium, 
 Russia, Roumania, Servia, Bulgaria, America; and fresh mutton, goat meat, 
 and pork from Russia, Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 ABNORMAL CONDITIONS AND DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING 
 
 ANIMALS 
 
 PECULIARITIES WITHIN PHYSIOLOGICAL LIMITS 
 
 Fetuses and Dead-born Animals. Unscrupulous butchers some- 
 times attempt to place the meat of almost mature fetuses or dead- 
 born animals on the market as normal veal. If this meat is worked 
 into various preparations it can only be found out, as a rule, by obtain- 
 ing trustworthy information; it is very difficult to recognize in meat 
 products. At best, the high glycogen content (see page 54) of meat 
 mixtures might be an indication, as fetal meat contains a relatively 
 large amount of this carbohydrate. 
 
 Postmortem Examination. The undressed carcass of a calf fetus 
 presents the following: Soft claws with untouched convex sole-pads; 
 remains of the umbilical cord hanging from the open navel ring; um- 
 bilical vessels open, containing fluid blood; sometimes the throat is 
 cut or is so stuck as to simulate slaughter by bleeding, but the edges 
 of the wound are not infiltrated by blood. The dressed carcass shows 
 the following: 
 
 Gaping condition of the umbilical vessels, in which the points of 
 origin of the arteries from the internal pudenda artery should be espe- 
 cially noticed; open urachus; stomach and intestines free of coagulated 
 milk; absence of milk feces; lungs atelectatic if they were not blown 
 up by the butcher; muscles loose, flabby, and watery; so, likewise, 
 is the undeveloped fat tissue, especially around the kidneys, which 
 is jelly like; bone marrow is red. 
 
 Judgment. As the consumption of fetal meat would awaken a feel- 
 ing of repulsion in most cases, such meat should be considered as unfit 
 for human food. [B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 27.] 
 
 Immature Animals. Only calves which are too young come into 
 consideration here, as young pigs, lambs, and kids are consumed when 
 only a few days old. Calves are considered mature or mature for 
 slaughter when the meat and fat have attained a certain development, 
 which, as a rule, is only reached within eight to ten days after birth. 
 However, the requirements of the public relative to this vary greatly. 
 In North Germany, especially in Mecklenburg and Holstein, calves 
 are frequently slaughtered as so-called "fasting calves" when only 
 three or four days old, and even shortly after birth ; but they are allowed 
 to become much older in South Germany, being generally two to three 
 
PECULIARITIES WITHIN PHYSIOLOGICAL LIMITS 193 
 
 weeks old. Young pigs (roasting pigs), lambs (Easter lambs), and 
 kids are considered mature for slaughter at an age of about three or 
 four weeks. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The meat of immature calves is very moist, 
 loose, ten,der, and tears easily; can be perforated with the fingers, 
 and is grayish red. The muscular development, as a whole, is but 
 slight, which can be especially noticed on the leg (upper shank). The 
 tissue, which later develops as the fat capsule of the kidneys, is edema- 
 tous, dirty yellow, or grayish red, tough, and intermixed with some 
 islands of fat. For characteristic signs of the age, see page 33. 
 
 Judgment. According to the German meat-inspection regulations 
 immature or insufficiently developed calves should be declared of 
 inferior quality. 
 
 The same practice should be followed with the immature meat of 
 other animals. 
 
 [In the United States the regulations provide that calves, pigs, 
 kids, and lambs under three w r eeks of age should be condemned. 
 (See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 27.)] 
 
 Emaciated Animals. Emaciation must not be confused with lean- 
 ness. 
 
 Leanness is a physiological condition which may coincide with 
 perfect health of the individual, and the animal after slaughter may 
 show no disease, or only insignificant indications of diseased changes. 
 Leanness can be observed in all animals which are in the stage of 
 development; in most of the male breeding animals, in cows which 
 are in a period of strong lactation, and in poorly nourished animals, 
 or in those not properly taken care of. 
 
 The meat of lean animals contains a small amount of fat, but is 
 otherwise firm, tense, and, as a rule, darker in color than normal, and 
 sometimes the connective tissue appears strongly developed, which 
 causes toughness of the meat. 
 
 Emaciation is always the result of disease or old age, and is char- 
 acterized by a retrogression of the general nutritive condition below 
 the normal. In well-marked cases, and when associated with a pro- 
 nounced loss of strength, it is designated as cachexia. Emaciation 
 may develop rapidly in febrile diseases. Occasionally anemic and 
 liydremic conditions are associated with emaciation. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The following characteristics are noted 
 on living animals: Marked projections of prominent portions of the 
 bones, sunken muscles, flabby skin without elasticity and laid in folds 
 with much desquamation, scrubby, dull hair, tired look from sunken 
 eyes, and decided weakness when in motion, with relaxed muscles 
 while standing. 
 
 In slaughtered animals, the most striking appearance is shown 
 in emaciated hogs, as with the exception of boars and brood sows 
 these animals are generally slaughtered in a fattened condition, unless 
 the slaughter is necessitated by disease. In general, absence of fat 
 in all emaciated animals is noted first in the subcutis, which is shrunken 
 13 
 
194 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 away like all other places of fat deposit, and is replaced by a loose 
 yellowish or reddish, more moist, and even jelly-like tissue. Advanced 
 changes are naturally dependent upon more severe cases, which are 
 especially distinguished by pronounced changes of the kidney fat. 
 The muscular tissues are atrophied, sunken, loose, pale, more moist, 
 and very rich in connective-tissue elements. Lymph glands and 
 lymphoid tissue are frequently very prominent in young individuals, 
 while they may be atrophied in older subjects. Bone marrow is, in 
 advanced cases, poor in fat, red, watery; or, in older animals, even 
 slimy. Sometimes, also, signs of atrophy of the liver and spleen are 
 noted. 
 
 Judgment. The judging of the meat of emaciated animals depends 
 on the cause of emaciation and upon its degree. In marked sub- 
 stantial changes of the meat, or if complete emaciation is the result 
 of disease, the meat must be considered, according to the regulations, 
 as unfit for human consumption. This applies also to all cases in which 
 the existing original disease would in itself exclude utilization of the 
 meat. In all other cases, the meat represents a food of inferior value 
 according to the regulations. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 24, car- 
 casses which show advanced emaciation should be condemned; the 
 association of the emaciation w r ith a disease condition w r ould naturally 
 exclude the carcass for food purposes.] 
 
 Abnormal Odor and Taste of Meat. Sexual Peculiarities. Abnor- 
 malities of odor and taste in meat, associated with sexual activity, 
 are manifested in the most pronounced form in boars and male goats, 
 and then in cryptorchid boars. 
 
 Findings. A specific odor of the meat is always perceived in old 
 boars immediately after slaughter; it resembles the odor of living 
 boars, and is designated as a urine-like or sexual odor. Although 
 this gradually diminishes through cooling the meat, it again becomes 
 marked as soon as the meat is warmed by boiling or roasting. 
 
 Therefore, it is necessary to undertake a boiling test (page 149) with the 
 meat of every boar twenty-four hours after slaughter. The odor is most per- 
 ceptible when the boiled meat begins to cool. In doubtful cases the odor test 
 should be made by several persons. The characteristic repulsive odor is also 
 accompanied by a similar taste. 
 
 Besides the disagreeable odor and taste, the meat of boars possesses 
 also a peculiar toughness, and the skin of the back, shoulders, neck, 
 and chest walls is of a cartilaginous hardness (Schild). 
 
 As the boar odor is retained for some time after castration, recently 
 castrated animals must be judged like those not castrated. Careful 
 attention should be given to so-called stags. 
 
 In larger abattoirs, where the antemortem and postmortem inspection is 
 seldom made by the same person, it is advisable to practise care in meat inspec- 
 tion, for butchers, as a rule, remove the testicles with a portion of the scrotum 
 in dressing the animal. In such cases the cutting away of the skin on the 
 
PECULIARITIES WITHIN PHYSIOLOGICAL LIMITS 195 
 
 inside of the thigh is conspicuous, which, in connection with other sexual 
 peculiarities (thickness of the skin, penis, or its roots at the notch of the pubis, 
 and the marked development of the bulbocavernosus muscle), must excite 
 suspicion. 
 
 In meat of cryptorchid boars the sexual odor is almost invariably 
 present if the retained testicles possess functional activity. At any 
 rate, it is advisable to condemn temporarily every cryptorchid boar 
 until a boiling test with the cooled meat can be made. 
 
 Meat of male goats has a very pronounced disagreeable, goatish 
 odor and taste, resembling the odor of the living animal. The boiling 
 test with the cooled meat is decisive. 
 
 Meat of specially strong full-fleshed bulls may, according to Goltz, 
 develop an exceptionally noticeable odor, which is similar to the odor 
 from the skin of these animals in life, and which is also manifested 
 after boiling. 
 
 Before being chilled the meat of rams has frequently a slight peculiar 
 odor which is quite noticeable, but it cannot be designated as repulsive. 
 For judgment of such meat, see page 196. 
 
 Influences of Feeding. As a result of extensive feeding with fish, 
 which sometimes occurs near the sea coasts, the meat, and especially 
 the fat of hogs, acquires a fishy odor and taste. Extensive feeding 
 of garbage (food remnants and offal from hotels, institutions, etc.) 
 gives meat an insipid, rancid odor and taste, and changes the consist- 
 ence of the meat and fat. 
 
 After feeding fenugreek, meat, according to observations made in 
 France, acquires an odor and taste resembling that of hog manure. 
 This may also occur in calves given milk from cows fed with this 
 plant. 
 
 Oilman observed a rancid odor and a soapy taste in the meat of 
 lambs fed with beets in which fermentation had begun to develop. 
 
 The flesh of poultry acquires an oily flavor in animals fattened with 
 oil seed, oil cake, colza, or hempseed; and a fishy odor and taste from 
 feeding with fish. Turnips are supposed to produce a bitter taste, 
 and pond mussels also cause a very disagreeable flavor in the meat 
 of ducks. 
 
 All these abnormalities of odor and taste produced by the influence 
 of food are, as a rule, only perceivable after heating the meat. For 
 judgment of the meat, see page 196. 
 
 Absorption of Odors. The ingestion and administration of odor- 
 producing substances in the body of animals may also cause an abnormal 
 odor and flavor in the meat. While not always strictly within the 
 physiological limits, they may, however, be mentioned here. These 
 substances may be taken up accidentally, or may be administered as 
 medicines, and especially come into consideration in emergency 
 slaughter. Among the more important to which attention should 
 be called are: Ether, anise, asafetida, baldrian, benzin, camphor, 
 carbolic acid, chloroform, petroleum, tar, and fennel. 
 
 It is especially noteworthy that inhalations of carbolic acid, chlorine, 
 
196 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 ether, and chloroform vapors by animals cause their meat to absorb 
 the corresponding abnormalities of odor and taste. This may occur 
 in stable and railroad stock-car disinfection. 
 
 These odors may be manifested to a high degree in freshly slaughtered 
 animals, but they appear most distinct after boiling or roasting the meat. 
 
 Judgment. Meat which possesses to a high degree a repulsive odor 
 or flavor is, according to the regulations, unfit for human food. Meat 
 having a fishy odor or taste, and all meats which possess deviations 
 of these peculiarities to a moderate degree, should be declared of an 
 inferior quality. [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, 
 Section 20, carcasses giving off urine or sexual odors should be con- 
 demned.] 
 
 For deviations in the odor and taste of meat of diseased animals, 
 and those with intestinal parasites, see Chapters VII and VIII, pages 
 207 to 322. For postmortem abnormalities of odor, see Chapter IX, 
 page 323. 
 
 Animals in Advanced Pregnancy. It is generally believed among 
 butchers that the meat of animals in advanced pregnancy is of inferior 
 quality, because it contains more moisture, has a looser consistence, 
 and therefore does not keep so well, and is not suitable for the prepara- 
 tion of sausages which require keeping qualities. This, however, cannot 
 be in general substantiated. There are cases in which the meat, espe- 
 cially of the hind-quarters, possesses these peculiarities, but they are 
 restricted principally to sows in the last stages of pregnancy. 
 
 Judgment. The judgment can, therefore, be applied only to cases 
 individually, and must be directed in accordance with carefully observed 
 objective finding on the animal itself. 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 2(i, 
 carcasses of animals in the last stages of pregnancy (showing signs 
 of parturition), also those which have given birth to young within ten 
 days, are passed for lard or tallow, provided there are no signs of septic 
 infection.] 
 
 If the terms of purchase included absence of pregnancy, the buyer is entitled 
 to claim indemnification from the seller. For this purpose, an authorized certifi- 
 cation of the meat inspector is required, specifying the exact weight of the 
 pregnant uterus, and from which the weight of a normal uterus must be de- 
 ducted. The latter, on the average, can be calculated in cattle as 1* kg-5 
 in hogs. 0.75 kg.; and in sheep, 60 grams. 
 
 Abnormal Color of the Fat. An intense yellow coloring of the fat 
 appears in old cows as a sign of advanced age. Feeding also, as a rule, 
 influences the color of fat. Cattle principally fattened on the pasture, 
 for example, possess an intensely yellow fat; hogs extensively fed on 
 corn or cottonseed meal have a milder yellow coloration of the fat. 
 A more saturated, dirty yellow color is observed in the fat of calves, 
 nourished on cottonseed meal or acorn cake. If hogs are fed on fish or 
 garbage the fat manifests a blackish-gray or grayish-yellow coloration. 
 
 According to Porcher, the yellow coloration which results from 
 feeding depends upon a pigment belonging to the "lutein" group. It 
 is entirelv distinct from bilirubin. 
 
PECULIARITIES WITHIN PHYSIOLOGICAL LIMITS 197 
 
 Lutein is soluble in chloroform, amyl alcohol, common alcohol, benzin, 
 turpentine, and ether; bilirubin, on the other hand, is soluble only in chloroform 
 and amyl alcohol. Lutein has two absorption bands (green blue, and blue); 
 bilirubin has none. Solutions of bilirubin in CHCL, shaken with a small 
 quantity of soda solution, lose the pigment rapidly, while the lutein does not. 
 Lutein solutions exposed to the air are soon discolored while those of bilirubin 
 retain their color; and lutein solutions do not give the Ehrlich reaction. 
 
 Judgment. Meat and fat of so-called pasture or grass-fed cattle 
 should not be condemned. This also applies to calves with yellow 
 coloration of fat. Otherwise, moderate deviations relative to color 
 render the meat of a lesser quality. In more marked changes of color 
 the meat, as a rule, shows also abnormalities of odor and taste, and 
 should be judged according to the provisions >of the regulations. The 
 discolorations cannot be mistaken for jaundice by a careful inspector, 
 as in the yellow coloration resulting from feeding the fat only show^s 
 the yellow color, while in icteric animals all connective-tissue sub- 
 stances, and particularly the serous membranes, manifest a yellow 
 coloration. For further influences on the meat of hogs from feeding 
 upon fish and garbage, see page 195. 
 
 [Carcasses showing an intense yellow or greenish-yellow discolora- 
 tion after proper cooling should be condemned. (B. A. I. Order 150, 
 Regulation 13, Section 19.)] 
 
 Incompletely Bled Animals. Since the aim in the slaughter of 
 animals is to abstract as much blood as possible from the body, insuffi- 
 cient bleeding is always somewhat unusual and conspicuous. 
 
 Lesions. An unusual blood content is observed in the viscera, 
 especially of the liver and intestinal veins, and a marked fulness is 
 noted in the ventricles of the heart, the subcutaneous veins, and those 
 of the muscles, which also contain more moisture. The spongy parts 
 of the bones are richer in blood, and under certain conditions the bone 
 marrow is also. In accordance with the degree of bleeding, the increased 
 blood content is more or less marked. 
 
 Judgment. In judgment it is first of all necessary to decide the 
 cause of insufficient bleeding. If it was the result of disease, then the 
 nature of the disease is the standard for decision. 
 
 If insufficient bleeding results as a consequence of long transporta- 
 tion, overexertion, overfeeding, heat stroke, lightning stroke, violent 
 brain or spinal-cord injuries, sudden internal bleedings, etc., the meat 
 is, as a rule, to be declared of inferior quality. But there may also 
 be changes which render the meat entirely unfit for use. 
 
 [Incomplete bleeding is invariably an evidence of a serious condition 
 of the animal before slaughter and carcasses showing these indications 
 should be condemned.] 
 
 Exhausted Animals. Although meat of exhausted animals usually must 
 be judged in association with insufficient bleeding, there are instances in which 
 the meat contains some other peculiarities, as a result of exhaustion. Accord- 
 ing to Ficker, the exhaustion of animals facilitates considerably the penetration 
 of bacteria through the intestinal walls. The Bacillus coli was demonstrated 
 in the kidneys, liver, and mesenteric glands of exhausted dogs, and Bacillus 
 
198 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 proteus in the liver. It produces a similar condition as in the dying animal. 
 This also explains why the meat of exhausted food animals spoils soon after 
 slaughter, while it will keep well if the animals rest for several days before 
 being put to death. 
 
 Lesions. The color of the meat is, according to Villain, brown or dark red, 
 frequently even blackish; the odor is repulsive, slightly sour, sometimes re- 
 sembling ether; the muscle fibers are dry in cutting; no muscle juice oozes out, 
 and the meat cuts like rubber; hemorrhages and ruptures occur in the muscle 
 fiber; the spongy part of the bones is dark, the bone marrow hemorrhagic, and 
 the lymph glands injected. The muscles are supposed to contain ten times 
 as much kreatin as normal muscles. 
 
 Judgment. As a rule, the meat of exhausted animals acquires pronounced 
 repulsive changes, which make it unfit for human food. 
 
 Dead Animals. Aniihals are slaughtered sometimes after they 
 have died, and manipulations are undertaken on dead animals to give 
 the appearances of slaughter ("cold slaughter"). Therefore, the meat 
 of dead animals sometimes appears for inspection. 
 
 Lesions. Absence of signs of a regular slaughter; complete fulness 
 of all the venous vessels, especially noticeable in the liver, intestines, 
 and subcutis; a varied content of blood in the lungs and kidneys (hypo- 
 stasis) ; marked fluid content of the subcutis and muscles. 
 
 Judgment. The meat of dead animals is, according to the regula- 
 tions, unfit for human food. 
 
 Whether such meat is objectively unwholesome depends on the 
 cause (disease, accident) of death. Furthermore, meat of dead animals 
 undergoes putrefactive changes very soon (see page 197), and as a result 
 may be rendered unwholesome. 
 
 The meat of animals seriously ill, as from injury, stroke of light aing, 
 cardiac or cerebral apoplexy, suffocation, and from other causes, may 
 receive a more liberal decision if some blood could be extracted from 
 the body and the dressing were hastily performed (see page 197). 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Sections 29 and 30, 
 animals which die in the abattoirs and those in a dying condition 
 should be condemned; the same provision is made for suffocated animals. 
 Besides, the regulations also specify that the carcasses of such animals 
 when conveyed to the tank room should not pass through the com- 
 partments in which food products are prepared.] 
 
 GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES AS RELATED TO MEAT 
 
 INSPECTION 
 
 Disturbances of the Circulation. Hyperemia. An increased quantity 
 of blood in various parts of the animal body may occur as functional, 
 active, passive, collateral, or inflammatory hyperemia, and its recognition 
 is not difficult. However, it should be remembered that all changes in 
 organs caused by the quantity of blood in them become, with rare 
 exceptions (local active hyperemia), more or less indistinct after the 
 bleeding of slaughtered animals. On the other hand, after natural 
 death or insufficient bleeding, hyperemia is so pronounced that it may 
 
PLATE I 
 
 FIO. 1 
 
 
 ,-ells containing amorphous blood pigment: a, with a few IM, 
 broken-down products; 6 and c, with numer- 
 of red blood corpuscles. B, rhomi- 
 hematoidin. X 3OO. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 
 
 
 Cells Containing Hemosiderin and Hematoidin from mi 
 Old Hemorrhagic Area in the Brain (Alkaline Berlin Blue 
 Reaction). 
 
 ;,. cells witli 
 
 Us with h ells whir 
 
I'ATHOUHIICAL CHANGES IN MEAT INM>K("riON 199 
 
 serve as n sign for recognition of these last-named conditions. For 
 judgment, see page 202. 
 
 Hyperemia should not be confused with hemorrhagic saturation or imbibi- 
 tion, which does not represent an engorgement of bloodvessels, but consists of 
 a red coloration of tissues by the blood-coloring matter, dissolved by blood 
 serum (see Septicemia and Putrefaction). 
 
 Postmortem spots (cadaver spots, livid areas, postmortem hypostasis) are 
 blue discolorations of the skin of dead animals which result from the tendency 
 of blood after death to sink to the dependent tissues, finally filling the capil- 
 laries. 
 
 Anemia. This condition, which is characterized by a local deficiency 
 of blood (ischemia) in the respective parts, can also be readily detected; 
 and in this connection, the influence of stronger or lesser bleeding 
 should always be taken under consideration. For disposition of such 
 carcasses, see page 200. 
 
 For general anemia, see Chapter VII, page 222. 
 
 Hemorrhages. In the occurrence of hemorrhages, it is necessary to 
 distinguish between the escape of blood into the tissues due to tearing 
 of the heart muscle or the walls of the bloodvessels [hemorrhages by 
 rupture (per rhexis) resulting from traumatisms, greatly increased blood 
 pressure or nutritive disturbances of the walls of the bloodvessels], 
 and hemorrhages without separation of the continuity of the blood- 
 vessel, in which blood corpuscles and serum escape by diapedesix, 
 through dilated pores of the walls of the vessels. In the former, larger 
 hemorrhages and blood effusions are produced (extravasations, suggilla- 
 tions, hemorrhagic areas, infarcts, hematomas) ; in the latter, punctiform 
 and circumscribed hemorrhages (petechia and ecchymosis). 
 
 The consistency of the hemorrhages is not affected by the animal 
 being bled to death. 
 
 Driick determines the time of the occurrence of hemorrhages, as follows: 
 First the red blood corpuscles swell and begin to clear. As a result of clear- 
 ing they become pale after two days and finally almost completely transparent, 
 while as a result of the swelling the biconcave blood plates gradually adopt 
 a round form. From the fifth day, shrinkage takes place with formation of 
 very fine crenations on the periphery of the blood corpuscles. The increased 
 shrinkage changes the blood corpuscles up to the sixth to eighth day into either 
 irregular polygonal or star-shaped formations, or into key or cup-shaped bodies. 
 The hemoglobin penetrates the surrounding tissues uniformly until the sixth 
 day, and produces a brownish tint. At the seventh day, hemosiderin, which 
 contains iron (Plate I, Fig. 2), develops and soon diffuses through the entire 
 tissue. However, from the twelfth day it is exclusively found in the contracted 
 cells. From the twelfth day the pigment, which is at first in solution in the white 
 blood corpuscles, becomes granular; and from the eighteenth to the twenty- 
 fifth day, it gradually breaks up into finer and finer granules. At the same time 
 the white corpuscles containing granulesalso break up, so that from the eighteenth 
 day the first free pigment granules may be noticed in the tissues. In the latter, 
 about the sixtieth day, there is a very fine granular pigment exclusively present, 
 which is free of iron. Besides, under certain but entirely unknown conditions, 
 coloring matter crystals may form (hematoidin, a derivative of hemoglobin, con- 
 taining iron, Plate I, Fig. 1). 
 
 For judgment, see under page 202. 
 
200 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Transudates. The increased escape of fluid constituents of the 
 blood through the uninjured walls of the vessels, which results inside 
 of the tissue in edema (anasarca, hyposarca) and in the body cavities 
 in effusions, is either the result of changes of the blood (hydremia) 
 or of disturbances of circulation, the recognition of which is very 
 difficult, although the causes are quite significant. While edemas 
 are, as a rule, not changed by slaughter, observation of suspected 
 transudation in the large body cavities requires the personal presence 
 of the inspector at the opening of the carcass. 
 
 For judgment, see below. 
 
 Thrombosis and Embolism. Obstructions of bloodvessels, as a rule, 
 are recognized in meat inspection only when they affect large blood- 
 vessels, or when thrombosis is present in organs in which a hemor- 
 rhagic infarct develops. The infarct usually possesses a wedge-shaped 
 cross-section, and is chiefly conspicuous by its dark red color, which 
 gradually turns to a dim gray and dull yellow. Hemorrhagic infarcts 
 are principally found in organs with terminal arteries (spleen, kidneys, 
 brain, retina), but also in the lungs. If the region of the obstructing 
 bloodvessels does not anastomose with other vessels from which it 
 may receive blood, that region remains free of blood and dies off. 
 It will develop an anemic, pale infarct, which may be principally 
 observed in the heart, spleen, and kidneys. Later, it results in con- 
 nective-tissue degeneration and cicatrization of the region cut off 
 from the arterial blood supply. 
 
 Judgment. In the judgment of meat included under the described 
 local circulatory disturbances, the extent and cause of conditions must 
 be considered; also whether these changes are purely local and appear 
 independently, or whether they are the accompanying manifestations 
 of a general affection. In purely local changes, as a rule, only the 
 diseased part of the body, or the entire affected organ is condemned as 
 unfit for human food on account of its altered consistence. 
 
 When circulatory disturbances are manifested in numerous parts 
 of the body it is usually indicative of a general affection and should 
 be judged accordingly, but when the circulatory disturbances are 
 not symptomatic of a generally diseased condition, and yet appear 
 extensively throughout the body, their significance should be con- 
 sidered under Organic Diseases (page 207). 
 
 Inflammations. For the purposes of meat inspection it appears 
 most appropriate to consider various inflammations in accordance 
 with the character of their exudates. Accordingly the following forms 
 are distinguished : 
 
 1. Serous and catarrhal inflammation. 
 
 2. Fibrinous inflammation. 
 
 3. Suppurative and ulcerative inflammation. 
 
 4. Hemorrhagic inflammation. 
 
 5. Croupous inflammation. 
 
 6. Diphtheritic inflammation. 
 
 7. Gangrenous inflammation. 
 
 8. Productive inflammation. 
 
rAT/IOLOUICAL CHANGES IN MKAT I XS/'KCTION 201 
 
 There are also variously related and mixed forms (serofibrinous inflamma- 
 tions, croupous-diphtheritic inflammation, etc.). The parenchymatous and 
 interstitial inflammations of glandular organs, from a practical standpoint are 
 better kept apart. 
 
 In regard to the lesions found in various forms of inflammations, nothing need 
 be said here, as their manifestations should be familiar to everyone who has 
 studied pathology. For the same reason the cause of inflammations will not be 
 treated here. 
 
 Judgment. In judging the meat of affected carcasses the purely 
 local forms of inflammation must be separated from those which appear 
 as accompanying symptoms of general disease. The purely local 
 forms are frequently the results of traumatic lesions and are more 
 or less confined to certain areas; accordingly only the inflamed parts, 
 or at most the affected* organ, should be condemned as unfit for human 
 food. In serous and catarrhal inflammations of the mucous mem- 
 branes this is frequently unnecessary, as the diseased organs are either 
 not used in any form for human food, or in further manipulations 
 (intestines, air passages, urinary and sexual passages) the diseased 
 mucous membranes are removed. That local inflammations may be 
 the starting point of infectious processes is known, and therefore, when 
 suspicious of such cases, it is advisable to be careful in the disposal 
 of the meat. 
 
 Those general affections which manifest accompanying symptoms 
 of inflammation are usually of an infectious nature (principally the 
 more severe hemorrhagic, croupous-diphtheritic and parenchymatous 
 inflammations) . The judgment of such carcasses depends on the original 
 disease. 
 
 Retrogressive Nutritive Disturbances and Infiltration of the Tissues. 
 Atrophy. In meat inspection the condition known as atrophy is of no 
 special importance, and comes only into consideration when fat, mus- 
 cular tissues, and certain glands, especially the liver, are affected. While 
 the atrophy of the glandular organs is easily recognized by the decrease 
 in size and the firmer consistence, nevertheless, the atrophy of the 
 muscles and of the fat tissues is, as a rule, only noticed in an advanced 
 state. As a result of atrophy of parenchymal cells, the connective- 
 tissue elements stand out more prominently in the atrophied organ; 
 and this condition is sometimes wrongly considered as an increase 
 of connective tissue (induration). 
 
 Judgment. See page 205. 
 
 Cloudy Swelling. Cloudy swelling (parenchymatous degeneration, 
 granular infiltration) is of very great diagnostic importance in meat 
 inspection. It occurs in large glandular organs and in muscles, and 
 is characterized by slight enlargement of the organ, with a cloudy, 
 dull, lusterless appearance, especially of the cut surface, together 
 with the projection and diffused appearance of the latter. The normal 
 color is changed into grayish color tints, the lightness of which corre- 
 sponds with the severity of the changes. The consistence of the organ 
 is friable, which as a result of a diminution in blood and moisture 
 
DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 may increase to a brittleness. In a pronounced case the organs appear 
 as if they were boiled. Cloudy swelling is to be considered as a dis- 
 organization of the protoplasm, which ensues under 
 FlG - 75 the absorption of fluids, and leads to a partial 
 
 fm^_ separation of the solid and fluid parts (Ziegler). 
 
 Microscopic examination reveals an accumula- 
 tion of fine, slightly refractile granules in the 
 protoplasma of the swollen cells, the connection 
 cioudy swelling of liver of which appears somewhat loosened. The albu- 
 ceiis as a result of septi- menous granules, which are insoluble in alkalies 
 rTT - x 350 diameters. d ether b t are so i u ble in acetic acid, give the 
 
 (After Ziegler.) > & 
 
 cells a cloudy appearance, as it they had been 
 covered with dust (Fig. 75). The nucleus may also be swollen and 
 its structure degenerated. 
 
 Cloudy swelling is frequently the precursor of fatty degeneration 
 (see below on this page). 
 
 Judgment. See page 205. 
 
 Fatty Infiltration. Fatty infiltration, which frequently occurs in 
 various organs of fattened-food animals, does not represent an abnormal 
 condition in meat inspection, and is only mentioned in contradistinction 
 to the fatty degeneration described below. 
 
 By physiological infiltration is understood a deposit of fat globules 
 in the cells, the normal structure of which remains otherwise intact. 
 The fat enters the cells, according to Rievel, in dissolved form, is split 
 up, and is then again synthetically built up within the cells (granular 
 fat synthesis of Arnold). This condition appears principally in the 
 tissues which normally serve for storing fat (connective tissue). 
 
 It also occurs to a great extent in primitive muscular fibers, in various 
 epithelial cells, and especially in liver cells. To this form of infiltra- 
 tion belongs the so-called fatty liver of highly fattened animals as well 
 as the liver in cases of advanced pregnancy, in sucking animals, and in 
 diseased conditions where there is an insufficient oxidation of blood. 
 
 Fatty liver is characterized by its lighter yellowish-brown color, 
 slight swelling, rounded edges, cloudiness, fatty luster of the cut 
 surface, but by no structural abnormalities, and the lobules are not 
 obliterated. The consistence is soft. Microscopically, a rich accumu- 
 lation of fat is found in the interlobular tissue, and the swollen fat 
 globules have a tendency to run together, to form large droplets in the 
 cell protoplasm (Fig. 76, a, 6). 
 
 Judgment. See page 205. 
 
 Fatty Degeneration. Fatty degeneration, which, according to Rievel, 
 would be more correctly designated as pathological or degenerative 
 fatty infiltration, represents occasionally an advanced development 
 of cloudy swelling; but it may also occur without this preliminary 
 process. It affects both epithelial cells (liver and kidney), connective- 
 tissue substances (heart and skeleton muscles, connective-tissue fibers), 
 and consists in an accumulation of fat in the cells, the structure of 
 which is more or less injured. Fat, however, does not originate from 
 
r.\T/f()LO(H( 1 AL CI/AXUEti IN MEAT INM'ECTIOX 
 
 20:5 
 
 breaking up of the cell albumen, as it" was formerly supposed, but it 
 is conveyed as such to the cells. The entire procedure might be traced 
 to respiratory causes. 
 
 Fatty degenerated organs are characterized by a yellowish color, 
 which may be uniform or spotted, with slight fatty luster of the cut 
 surface, obliterated structural relations, and flabby, doughy consistence. 
 A swelling of organs in the majority of cases does not take place. Micro- 
 
 FIG. 76 
 
 FIG. 77 
 
 Liver cells containing fat: a and 6, fatty infil- 
 tration; c, d, e, f, fatty degeneration. X 400 
 diameters. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 Fatty degeneration of the heart muscle. X 350 
 diameters. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 scopically, a disintegration of cell connections is found, and sometimes 
 a crumbling and breaking down of the cell into a fatty detritus, which 
 consists of granules and fat globules (Figs. 76 and 77). The latter 
 remain unchanged by the action of acetic acid; while they are dissolved 
 by ether and chloroform. 
 Judgment. See page 205. 
 
 Various Degenerations. Mucoid degeneration (mucin metamorphosis) is 
 rarely observed in food animals. It affects fat tissues, which are transformed 
 into a yellow transparent jelly-like mass (Ostertag). 
 
 Hyaline or glassy degeneration of the muscles also occurs infrequently, and 
 is always associated with severe general affections. It was observed by Frattner 
 to affect the heart muscles in the malignant form of foot and mouth disease. 
 
 Amyloid degenerations have been observed in various organs, especially 
 in fowls. 
 
 Judgment. See page 205. 
 
 Necrosis, Caseation, Gangrene. The easily recognized necrosis, or 
 necrobiosis of the organs or tissues, occurs principally as a local affection, 
 and would accordingly be of little importance in meat inspection if 
 the necrotic parts did not readily become centres for the colonization 
 and multiplication of saprophytic and pathogenic microorganisms. 
 In such cases an inflammation always develops in the tissues surround- 
 ing the necrotic parts, and not infrequently a uniformly diseased con- 
 dition follows in the affected animal. 
 
 Caseation is designated as necrobiotic coagulation necrosis, in which 
 the broken-down tissue has a caseous appearance. Tuberculous change 
 of the tissues is the typical form. In cellular tissue, caseation may 
 be frequently observed between the cells as a "fibrinoid mass," or 
 even as typical thready fibrin (Fig. 78). 
 
204 Df 8 E AS NX OF FO()l)-l>RODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Gangrene, which results from necrosis as a result of breaking down 
 of diseased tissues through the influence of saprophytes, is characterized 
 by a softening of those tissues with the formation of gases having an 
 offensive odor. Therefore, everything said about necrosis, and espe- 
 cially concerning the danger of a resulting uniform affection, also 
 applies to gangrene; as a matter of fact, the development of putrid 
 intoxications or spetic infections is quite frequent in connection with 
 gangrene (see Chapter VIII, page 264). 
 
 Judgment. See page 205. 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 Tissue from a partially caseated tuberculous focus with bacilli (alk. fuchsin-aniline blue) : a, granu- 
 lar; a', cheesy masses; 6, fibrous cellular tissue; c, partly necrotic giant cell with bacilli; d, bacilli in 
 the cellular tissue; e, bacilli in necrotic tissue; /, bacilli enclosed in cells. X 200 diameters. (After 
 Ziegler.) 
 
 Suppuration.- While suppuration is a product of inflammation and 
 as such has been already mentioned, it deserves special attention as 
 a frequently occurring disintegration of tissues in food animals. 
 
 Although suppuration may be produced by chemical substances 
 (mercury, turpentine, petroleum, creolin, digitoxin, bacterial pro- 
 teins), still, from a practical standpoint, all cases of suppuration must 
 be considered of infectious origin, occasioned by various pus-forming 
 organisms (Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, albus, and citreus; Strep- 
 tococcus pyogenes; Streptococcus equi ; Bacillus pyogenes suis; Bacillus 
 pyogenes fcetidus; Bacillus liquefaciens bovis; Bacillus pyelonephriditis 
 and others) . Various other microorganisms (for instance, Actinomyces 
 bovis, Botryococcus ascoformans) may also act as pus-producing agents. 
 
 In regard to the origin of suppurations, Kreutzer expresses the following 
 opinion: " Pus-forming bacteria irritate the tissues by their large masses, and 
 through proteins contained in their bodies attract leukocytes (chemotactic 
 action) and produce by this cell-infiltration a true inflammation. Toxins and 
 ferments produced by pus-forming bacteria cause a breaking down of leuko- 
 cytes, through a chemical action, which makes their return migration impos- 
 sible disturb and prevent fibrin-formation, and peptonize all albumen of the 
 tissues." In the horse, the most frequent pus-producing organism, according 
 to Kreutzer, is Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and albus; and in cattle, Strep- 
 tococcus pyogenes predominates; but in most instances various pus-forming 
 organisms are present at the same time. In the pus of sheep, Staphylococcus 
 pyogenes is chiefly present, while in hogs, dogs, and cats it is Staphylococcus 
 pyogenes aureus. 
 
1'ATllOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MEAT INSPECTION 205 
 
 Suppuration remains localized, as a rule, in the form of suppurative 
 catarrh (pyorrhea), ulceration, suppurative exudate (empyema), or 
 suppuration within the tissues (abscess); or it may be generalized 
 throughout the circulation and develop into pyemia (see Chapter 
 VIII, page 301). The local abscesses may become encapsulated and 
 heal by drying up and calcification. 
 
 Judgment See below. 
 
 Calcification. Deposits of lime salts are found in food animals, 
 either as diffused calcification in various tissues (cartilage, fat tissues) 
 or as circumscribed areas of calcification, which partly appear as end 
 products of retrogressive tissue metamorphosis (calcified deposits 
 within the muscles, calcified abscesses), and also deposits enclosing 
 dead parasites. Circumscribed calcifications are also designated by 
 the unsuitable name of concrements (page 209) . 
 
 Concrements proper, which occur as so-called intestinal, urinary, biliary, and 
 renal calculi, and which are occasionally found in animals, are of no importance 
 in meat inspection. 
 
 Judgment. See below. 
 
 Pathological Pigment Formation. Abnormal pigmentation occurs 
 principally in cattle and calves, but also in sheep and hogs (Lemke, 
 Feuereissen), as melanosis maculosa, or less frequently, as melanosis 
 diffusa, which may be confined to single organs (lungs, pleura, liver, 
 meninges, various parts of the subcutis, muscular aponeurosis), or 
 may be generalized. In the latter form all connective tissues may be 
 intermixed with black-colored spots. The melanosarcomata belong to 
 the multiple tumor formations. 
 
 The condition described by Virchow as ochronosis a brown to blackish 
 coloration of the cartilage, tendons, and capsules of the joints is brought 
 on by imbibition of the tissue with coloring similar to that of melanin. It 
 occurs in cattle, calves, and hogs. (Mosselmann, Brouvier, Lachmann, Helrout, 
 Bail and others.) 
 
 The condition described by Goltz as xanthosis, which is of comparatively 
 rare occurrence, consists of a liver-brown discoloration of the muscles; according 
 to Roth and Resow, a designation " brown atrophy" would apply more correctly 
 to this condition. It is always associated with changes of the suprarenal 
 capsules. 
 
 The hematogenous pigment formations (changing of the blood-coloring matter 
 in extravasations, etc., page 199) and the symptomatic discoloration of tissues 
 (icterus) cannot be considered here. 
 
 Judgment. In judging cases of atrophic degeneration and infiltra- 
 tion of tissues (pages 201 to 205), it should be decided in the first place, 
 whether the processes are purely localized or whether they represent 
 symptoms of general affections. 
 
 As localized cases are considered, all those conditions of atrophy, 
 fatty infiltration, necrosis, suppuration, calcification, and pigment 
 formation in which the affection is slight and the localized diseased 
 parts are removable. The affected organ itself is considered as un- 
 wholesome, and must be condemned as unfit for human food. 
 
206 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Fatty infiltration, however, gives no cause for condemnation unless 
 at the same time conspicuous changes in the consistence (pulpy soften- 
 ing) of such organs confer upon them the character of a spoiled tissue. 
 
 In necrosis and gangrene the meat should be carefully examined 
 for evidence of septicemia; and in fresh suppurations a similar exami- 
 nation regarding pyemic manifestations should be made. 
 
 General muscular atrophy should be judged according to the prin- 
 ciples of emaciation (page 193). 
 
 Pigment formation may appear widespread throughout the entire 
 body (melanosis) and render the animal unfit for human food. In 
 local pigmentations, judgment should be made in accordance with 
 the regulations. 
 
 The occurrence of cloudy swelling, fatty, mucoid, hyaline, and 
 amyloid degenerations points usually to severe generalized affections, 
 and judging should be in accordance with the nature of the disease. 
 
 Circumscribed calcifications so-called lime concrements must be 
 judged according to their etiology, especially if they appear in multiples, 
 and are more or less extensive (see Muscle Concrements, page 209). 
 
 [The judgment of the conditions described above is carried out by 
 the United States meat-inspection force on similar lines to those pro- 
 vided by the German regulations.] 
 
 Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaplasia. The hypertrophy of an organ 
 through enlargement of the elementary constituents (hypertrophy), or through 
 increase of these constituents (hyperplasia), has no importance in meat inspec- 
 tion, as in this condition the macroscopic composition does not appear changed. 
 
 The condition designated as metaplasia represents transformation of already 
 developed tissues into other tissues without intervention of organisms or con- 
 nective tissue. It occurs in food animals as bone formation in scars (castration 
 scars), belly fat and mesentery of hogs, etc., and is of no importance to meat 
 inspection. 
 
 Judgment. Hypertrophic and hyperplastic organs give no cause for con- 
 demnation. Metaplastic tissues, however, should be condemned, inasmuch as 
 they represent foreign bodies in the affected tissues. [The same disposal is 
 observed by the United States meat-inspection force.] 
 
 Tumors. Non-malignant tumors appear principally localized, and 
 confined as solitary or isolated new formations on one and the same 
 part of the body. 
 
 In malignant tumors (sarcoma and carcinoma) an affection of the 
 corresponding lymph glands is invariably associated, and sometimes 
 there is extensive metastasis, which may result in generalized sarcoma- 
 tosis and carcinomatosis, without the accompaniment of cachectic 
 conditions in the lower animals. 
 
 Judgment. Non-malignant tumors are usually easily removed, and 
 after their removal they have no influence on the wholesomeness of the 
 part of the body from which they were excised. 
 
 In the case of malignant tumors, transmissibility of sarcomas and 
 carcinomas to man by the ingestion of meat is probably to be excluded; 
 at any rate it is not yet proved. In most cases the affected organ, 
 
THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TISSUES AND ORGANS 207 
 
 together with its lymph glands, is involved by malignant tumors to 
 such an extent that it becomes unfit for human food, and should there- 
 fore be condemned. 
 
 Where tumors are numerous, a decision is made from the extent 
 of the lesions and the nutritive state of the carcass as to whether it 
 should be passed for food, declared of an inferior quality, or be con- 
 demned. The latter action should always be taken if metastasis occurs 
 on numerous parts of the skeleton, body, or in the lymph glands; or if 
 secondary changes (watery condition, flabbiness, etc.) are observed in 
 the muscles. 
 
 For the so-called granulomata or infectious growths (new formations in 
 tuberculosis, actinomycosis, botryomycosis, and glanders), see the chapter on 
 Infectious Diseases, page 264. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 23, any 
 organ or part of carcass which is affected by malignant or benign tumors 
 shall be condemned. In case the carcinoma or sarcoma involves any 
 internal organ to a marked extent, or affects the muscles, skeleton, 
 or body lymph glands, even primarily, the carcass shall be condemned. 
 In the presence of metastasis to any other organ or part of a carcass, 
 or if metastasis has not occurred but there are present secondary changes 
 in the muscles (serous infiltration, flabbiness, etc.), the carcass should 
 be condemned.] 
 
 Malformations. Various malformations which occur in food animals 
 are only of importance in meat inspection should they conspicuously 
 change the appearance or structure of that respective part of the 
 body. When marked structural changes are present, or if there be 
 a repulsive appearance of the malformed part, it should be declared 
 as unfit for human food; in milder cases only partial condemnation 
 mav be necessarv. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TISSUES AND ORGANS 
 
 In the following section only those pathological anatomical changes 
 of tissues and organs will be discussed which possess a certain impor- 
 tance in meat inspection, and which have not been sufficiently described 
 in the previous chapters. 
 
 In judging these tissues and organic diseases in meat inspection, 
 it should be understood that they usually cause purely localized changes, 
 which require only removal of the diseased tissues or the respective 
 organs, for only exceptionally do they affect the full value of the entire 
 carcass. Therefore, the judging of the diseases described below, which 
 should be chiefly carried out according to the regulations, will not be 
 further mentioned under the Various processes, and will be specified 
 only in such places where they have to be considered from an additional 
 point of view. 
 
208 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Skeletal Muscles. 1. Hemorrhages may appear in muscles as 
 local and multiple hemorrhages. The first are due to local traumatic 
 influences which result in a tearing of the muscular fibers and their 
 bloodvessels. Multiple hemorrhages are sometimes due to toxic or 
 infectious causes; more frequently, however, they are of mechanical 
 origin. 
 
 Multiple hemorrhages in muscles of fattened hogs are classified 
 among the hemorrhages of mechanical origin (fragmentatio hsemor- 
 rhagica carnis, Kitt). They result from tearing of the muscle fibers 
 and capillaries in consequence of exertions, to which the fatty infiltrated 
 muscular fibers are not equal on account of not being used to work. 
 They are found as irregular, isolated spots, ranging in size from a 
 pin's head to twice the size of a pea in at least 8 per cent, of all the 
 slaughtered hogs. They are situated principally in the muscles of 
 the diaphragm; next in frequency they occur in the abdominal, psoas, 
 and pelvic muscles. In rare cases they may also be found in all the 
 skeleton muscles. Occasionally multiple hemorrhages may also occur 
 in other species of food animals; for instance, they were described in 
 cattle by Clausen. 
 
 Multiple hemorrhages of toxic and infectious origin accompany 
 phosphorus poisoning, tetanus, and anthrax, as well as septic and 
 pyemic diseases. In addition, ecchymoses on the serous membranes 
 and other characteristic lesions of the respective general diseases are 
 always present. The judgment of meat showing these hemorrhages 
 should, therefore, depend on the nature of the condition which produced 
 them. 
 
 2. Inflammatory processes of the muscles are principally of trau- 
 matic origin, and are confined locally. Scattered and non-traurnatic 
 (polymyositis) inflammatory changes appear as symptoms of severe 
 general affections, and result frequently in muscle degenerations. 
 
 Whether the so-called " chicken-meat appearance," which has been occasion- 
 ally observed in calves and young cattle, represents always an interstitial myositis 
 (Stoss, Bayersdorf er) , or whether the condition is due to deficiency of muscle 
 coloring matter, is not yet definitely established. The latter is probably also the 
 case in iridescence of the muscles, which is occasionally observed on the longis- 
 simus dorsi muscle of hogs. More frequently, iridescence occurs in boiled, 
 pickled ; or smoked meat (see Chapter X). 
 
 3. Degenerations, cloudy swelling, or granular degeneration of the 
 muscle fibers occur in severe intoxications and in febrile infectious 
 diseases. The macroscopic appearance of the degenerated muscle shows 
 a flabby, mellow, pale, gray, and cloudy condition; microscopically, the 
 muscle fibers show fine granular, dust-like, albumenous precipitation, 
 which disappears upon addition of acetic acid (see page 202). 
 
 In fatty degeneration the muscles appear still softer, yellowish, or 
 mottled, with yellow stripes. Microscopically, strong refractile bodies 
 (fat globules) are found, which, under certain conditions, may cover 
 the cross-striations, and do not disappear upon addition of acetic acid 
 (Fig. 77). 
 
THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TISSUES AND ORGANS 209 
 
 For fatty infiltration, which should not be confused with fatty 
 degeneration, see page 202. 
 
 Hyaline or glassy degeneration is observed in hemaglobinemia, 
 morbus maculosus, acute muscular rheumatism, and in parturient 
 paresis (Zschokke). 
 
 Microscopically, hyaline degeneration is only recognizable when 
 it affects numerous muscle fibers. In such cases, the muscles appear 
 cloudy, dull, pale, like the meat of fish. Microscopically, the degener- 
 ated and coagulated contractile substances appear homogeneous, glassy, 
 and disintegrated into flakes. 
 
 FIG. 79 
 
 FJO. 80 
 
 
 Amyloid degeneration: a, transversely striated 
 normal fibers; 6, degenerated fibers; c, enlarged 
 muscle nuclei; d, connective tissue infiltrated 
 with cells. X 250 diameters. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 Lime concretions in the muscles of the hog. 
 X 40 diameters 
 
 The nature of hyaline degeneration of muscles observed in isolated 
 cases in young cattle and calves, and producing a white or colored 
 appearance, is not yet clear. 
 
 The peculiar changes which were recently described as specific muscle 
 degenerations (Ostertag), and which were formerly designated as muscle 
 actinomycosis (Duncker), also appear to be hyaline degeneration 
 (David). This specific degeneration develops also without a general 
 diseased condition (Fig. 81). 
 
 4. Lime concrements are often found in the muscles of hogs, and 
 may occur in large numbers. They may be recognized frequently 
 by the naked eye as small, elongated, or round, gray or grayish-white 
 points and dots. They are usually met with in muscles of the dia- 
 phragm and abdomen. These concrements are indicative of either 
 the end products of retrogressive metamorphosis of the tissues or 
 calcification of dead parasites. The latter is occasionally confirmed 
 14 
 
210 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 by microscopic examination, which, however, does not disclose the 
 nature of the concrements in numerous cases. Glage demonstrated 
 cysticercus tenuicollis as the cause of lime concrements occurring in 
 sheep. 
 
 FIG. 81 
 
 Specific degeneration of the muscle of hog. X 35 diameters. (After Duncker.) 
 
 Tumors occurring in the muscles, embolic affections, metaplasia, and para- 
 sites are discussed elsewhere. 
 
 Blastomycosis of the muscles of cattle, described by Ostertag, is very rare. 
 All the muscles are studded with fibrinous nodules ranging in sizes from a 
 lentil to that of a walnut; the centres contain punctiform, yellowish, cloudy 
 colonies. 
 
 Judgment. (See page 207.) Occasionally, especially in the presence 
 of lime concrement, the meat must be considered of inferior quality. 
 
 Connective Tissue. 1. Hemorrhages. What has been said relative 
 to hemorrhages in the muscles applies equally to the etiology and 
 anatomy of hemorrhages in connective tissue. See also page 199, 
 concerning hemorrhages in general. 
 
 2. Imbibition with blood-coloring matter only occurs in general 
 affections (intoxications and infectious diseases) where the blood 
 becomes wax colored, or where through action of water after death 
 the blood contained in the meat transmits coloring matter to the 
 fluids of the tissues, as, for instance, in meat exposed to the rain. As 
 meat from well-bled animals should contain only traces of blood, only 
 an insignificant local bloody imbibition can develop through the influence 
 of water. Larger bloody imbibitions are always suspicious. 
 
 3. Inflammatory and breaking-down processes in connective tissue 
 (hyperemia, edema, phlegmon, suppurations, etc.) appear under 
 known pathological anatomical manifestations. Large and extensive 
 edemas may be the symptoms of severe general affections (hydremia, 
 cachexia). In suppuration and putrefaction of the connective tissues, 
 pyemia and septicemia should be remembered. 
 
 4. Emphysema. The presence of air in the subcutaneous tissue 
 and the intermuscular connective tissue may be artificially produced by 
 inflating the carcasses of calves and sheep (page 43) through forcing 
 air into the subcutis. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TISSUES AND ORGANS 211 
 
 [In the United States this practice is confined to Louisiana and 
 eastern Texas to meet the demands of the French people.] 
 
 Furthermore, emphysema may be due to injuries of the air passages 
 and lungs, as well as to escape of gas from the intestines, in cases where 
 intestinal adhesions to the abdominal wall have caused perforation. 
 In such cases the collection of gas in the connective tissue becomes 
 conspicuous by its disagreeable odor. The latter is also noticeable 
 when emphysema is the result of gangrenous decompositions, black- 
 leg, septicemia, etc. Injuries to the skin, which allow the subcuta- 
 neous tissues to come in contact with the external air, also may result 
 in emphysema at places where the skin is easily displaced (extremities). 
 
 The other pathological changes in connective tissue, such as parasitic affec- 
 tions, tumors, and embolic processes, are either of no importance in meat 
 inspection or are discussed elsewhere. 
 
 Judgment. (See page 207.) Inflated meat, according to the regula- 
 tions, is to be declared unfit for human food. 
 
 Fat Tissue. In general, fat tissue is rarely affected by pathological 
 changes; occasionally, however, the following characteristics may be 
 present : 
 
 1. A sclerotic condition of the fat tissues (lipoma) occurs occasionally 
 in the kidney fat of cattle and in the omentum of hogs (especially in 
 hogs from Bakony-Hungary). The fat tissue appears in larger or 
 smaller nodules, opaque, firm, almost like skin (called fat stones by 
 butchers) . Microscopically, a hyperplasia of connective-tissue structures 
 at the expense of the number of fat cells is found. 
 
 2. Black pigmentation appears occasionally in the belly fat of fat black- 
 haired hogs, very probably the result of hemorrhages (Ostertag) . The pigmenta- 
 tion appears as numerous black irregularly formed spots, frequently branched 
 in the shape of trees or like veins. Besides a deposit of coloring matter (melanosis 
 diffusa) may be frequently observed on the belly fat of hogs, giving to bacon 
 a bluish-black appearance, with fine dotted lines, and at some places a brownish 
 tint (Glage, Feuereissen) . A green coloration of fat tissue and muscles near 
 the intestinal tract, on the breast bone, carpal joint, hips, and abdomen was 
 found by Beel in cattle which were constantly pastured. In boiling the dis- 
 colored meat of these regions an impregnated "grass odor" appeared. 
 
 3. Multiple fat mcrosis has been repeatedly observed in the retroperitoneal 
 fat tissue, on the fat of the mesentery, and on the omentum in the form of 
 numerous yellow-white opaque colonies up to the size of a ten-cent piece 
 (Ostertag). This affection, which is usually of no consequence in meat inspec- 
 tion, may be associated with disease of the pancreas (page 215). 
 
 Judgment. See page 207. 
 
 Bone Tissue. The various diseased conditions involving bones 
 do not require a special discussion at this time, since they mostly occur 
 as purely local changes, are readily intelligible as to their pathologic- 
 anatomic nature, and are of little importance in meat inspection. 
 But as diseases of bone tissue and bone marrow may be associated 
 with general affections, as in rachitis, osteomalacia, osteomyelitis, 
 
212 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 pyemia, leukemia, or from a parasitic cause (tuberculosis, actinomycosis, 
 botryomycosis, glanders, echinococci), they are described under these 
 diseases. For pigmentation of bone tissue, see page 205. 
 
 Presternal calcification (Ostertag), although not belonging directly 
 to affectibns of the bones, is best considered at this place. Occa- 
 sionally, knobby, irregularly shaped formations, with calcified contents 
 ranging in size from a nut to a man's fist, are found in the presternal 
 fat cushion of cattle. These formations sometimes extend into the 
 sternum as a result of pressure. In a superficial examination these 
 calcifications might be mistaken for tuberculous lesions, but they are, 
 without a doubt, of traumatic origin. They can be distinguished from 
 tuberculous processes by their resemblance to masses of plaster of Paris, 
 pure white in color (Fig 82). 
 
 FIG. 82 
 
 Cross-section through the point of the breast of cattle, with presternal calcification: o, lime deposit; 
 6, normal cushion of the sternum; c, sternal bones. 
 
 Judgment. See page 207. 
 
 Cartilaginous Tissue. The pathological changes of the cartilagi- 
 nous tissues have no significance for the inspector of meats. 
 
 The Other Meat Components. Diseases of other components of 
 meat in the narrow sense, namely, those of the nervous system, the 
 lymph and bloodvessels, and lymph glands, will be dicussed later. 
 
 Digestive Apparatus. 1. Traumatic Inflammation of the Rutncu. 
 Through the pricking of the rumen by sharp foreign bodies taken up 
 with food, a chronic inflammation of a suppurative or sclerotic nature 
 
THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF 7YN,sr/<;,S' AND ORGANS 213 
 
 develops. This results in thickening of the wall of that organ, and 
 also, as a rule, in plastic or suppurative inflammation of the serous 
 covering. Adhesion of the rumen to neighboring organs may also 
 develop, generally involving the diaphragm first. By the strong con- 
 traction of the muscles of the rumen, sharp foreign bodies are pushed 
 forward, principally in the direction of the diaphragm. In their course 
 around the tissues these foreign bodies form fibrous tissue, fistulous 
 tracts and abscesses, with greenish-yellow pus. The abscess may 
 develop between the stomach, liver, and diaphragm, and may become 
 the size of a man's head. 
 
 After perforation of the diaphragm, these foreign bodies not infre- 
 quently strike the pericardium, which is only 3 to 4 cm. distant, resulting 
 in pericarditis. 
 
 For septic peritonitis or pleuritis developing from perforation of 
 suppurative material into the abdominal and thoracic cavities, see 
 Chapter VIII, page 297. 
 
 2. Peptic Ulcers. Round or peptic ulcers are occasionally found 
 in the abomasum of calves in the form of sharply defined erosions in 
 the mucous membrane, with slightly rounded edges. The ulcers are 
 not necessarily always round; they may extend into the muscular 
 coat of the stomach; and occasionally only the serous membrane of 
 
 'the thickness of paper is left intact. Similar ulcers may also occur 
 in the duodenum. The inspector's attention is usually called to the 
 presence of these affections in the abomasum, by peritonitis, which 
 corresponds with the location of the ulcers; or a perforation of the 
 ulcer may occur shortly before death of the animal, as during trans- 
 portation for slaughter, etc., and in such cases the contents of the 
 stomach are found in the abdominal cavity. 
 
 Should the ulcer, through an early perforation, produce septic peri- 
 tonitis, the meat should be condemned as unfit for human food. In 
 late perforations care should be taken in the judgment, on account 
 of a repulsive sour odor which the meat may possess (boiling test). 
 Otherwise, peptic ulcers are of no importance to the veterinary inspector 
 of meats. 
 
 [If peritonitis develops in consequence of a peptic ulcer the carcass 
 should be condemned according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, 
 Section 18, a.] 
 
 3. Diffuse lymphadenia of the mucous membrane of the abomasum 
 is sometimes observed in cattle. The mucous membrane may appear 
 on the rigid stomach wall to the thickness of 5 cm., fatty, grayish 
 white, and glassy in places. 
 
 4. The rarely occurring diphtheritic inflammation of the abomasum of cattle 
 is, according to Ledschbor, due to a long filamentous bacterium, which closely 
 resembles the Bacillus necrophorus. 
 
 5. Multiple hemorrhages in the intestinal wall have been occasionally observed 
 in cattle and hogs; in the latter they are usually associated \vith multiple hemor- 
 rhages of the muscles (page 208). The origin of these hemorrhages is not entirely 
 clear. The small hemorrhages may be of purely mechanical origin (severe 
 coughing:, asphyxia) ; larger ones, on the other hand, may have other causes, such 
 
214 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 as septic and other acute infections, which, however, may be excluded from 
 cases mentioned here. To point out this fact is the only reason for mentioning 
 these larger hemorrhages. 
 
 6. For the characteristic changes of the intestines in hog cholera, see Chapter 
 VII. 
 
 7. Changes of the liver, formerly known as angiomatosis, were recently 
 designated as teleangiectasis by Jaeger; this condition commonly 
 occurs in older animals, most frequently in a multiple and spotted 
 form in cows (hemangioma cavernosum hepatis, Kitt). 
 
 Externally, deepened, irregularly formed, purple-red to bluish-black 
 spots under the serous membrane of the liver can be seen (Plate II, 
 Fig. 1). They vary greatly in size; sometimes they are confined to 
 single sections of the liver, but they may also involve the entire organ. 
 On the cut surface the spots appear contracted, of a reddish tinge and 
 spongy consistence (blood sponges), and are sharply separated from the 
 otherwise normal liver parenchyma. 
 
 According to Jaeger, the anatomical foundation of the teleangiectatic degen- 
 eration in the liver of cattle results primarily from a breaking down of liver 
 cells in groups, leaving the bordering capillary endothelium intact. Thus the 
 unaffected capillary blood circulation extends under its own blood pressure 
 toward the margin of the altered parenchyma, forming sinuses, and finally 
 cavernous spaces. There arc no satisfactory explanations concerning the cause 
 of this degeneration. 
 
 8. Chronic interstitial hepatitis may occur in various stages in all 
 food animals. In the early stages the liver appears greatly enlarged, 
 grayish brown in color, firm and dense (hypertrophic cirrhosis), while 
 later it becomes smaller and harder, through the cicatricial contraction 
 of the interstitial newly formed connective tissue. Portions of the 
 parenchyma become obliterated, while intact parts of the latter pro- 
 trude so that the surface and the section of the liver appear granular 
 (atrophic cirrhosis, cirrhotic granular atrophy, hob-nail liver). 
 
 According to Tschauner, cirrhosis of the liver in hogs appears to be produced 
 occasionally by teeding alcoholic foodstuffs which are in the act of fermenta- 
 tion (swill). Cirrhosis of the liver in horses is of importance in the diagnosis 
 of the so-called " Schweinsberger disease." The cirrhotic connective-tissue 
 proliferation in the liver of cattle having distomatosis is, according to Jaeger, 
 due to the irritating toxic products of metabolism from distomas in the bile 
 ducts. 
 
 9. Multiple liver necrosis is observed principally in cattle (necrosis 
 nodosa, Kitt), but it occurs also in calves, sheep, hogs (hog cholera), 
 horses, and dogs. The liver is frequently enlarged, icteric, of an olive- 
 brown to a red-brown color, and through it embolic, pale brown or 
 grayish-yellow sharply circumscribed foci or nodules in large numbers 
 are disseminated. They are without luster, brittle, compact, and sur- 
 rounded in the early stages by a red zone, but later by a connective- 
 tissue capsule. In later stages the necrotic masses are occasionally 
 transformed into a greenish, flaky, pus-like fluid. The causative factor 
 
PLATE II 
 
 FIG. 1 
 
 Angiomata in a Beef Liver. 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 Section of a Beef Lung showing Contagious Pleuropneumonia, 
 
THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TIS8UEX AND ORGANS 215 
 
 of these changes is the Bacillus necrophorus, which is conveyed to the 
 liver by the portal or umbilical vessels, and obtains lodgement in that 
 organ. 
 
 10. Calcareofibrous nodules are quite frequently found in the liver of the 
 horse (chalicosis nodosa). They are disseminated in all parts of the liver 
 tissue, as sharply circumscribed yellow to yellowish-brown formations, of 
 sizes ranging irom a pin's head to that of a milletseed, and are parasitic in 
 origin. 
 
 11. A peculiar nodular formation in a calf's liver is described by Langer, who 
 found sharply circumscribed foci, situated under the capsule of the liver. They 
 were of a grayish-white to an orange-red color, and of varying sizes up to a millet- 
 seed. Langer considers the foci as the remains of an infectious disease, which is 
 produced by a bacillus first isolated by Bugge, and which he termed Bacillus 
 nodulifacius bovis, a new species of the paratyphoid group. Manifestation 
 of a general disease was not observed in the affected calves. 
 
 12. Fatty necrosis of the pancreas is observed in old, very fat hogs. The 
 greatly hypertrophied fat tissue enveloping the pancreas shows numerous dull 
 grayish-yellow or grayish nodular areas, which are dry, hard, or cheesy. The 
 glandular tissue proper appears intact, and therefore no disturbances in the 
 general condition of the animals can be observed. The nature of the necrosis 
 is still unknown (see also page 211). 
 
 13. [Mottled livers of hogs not infrequently reveal the presence of foreign 
 material. The lesions in such cases are manifested as slightly raised, light 
 brownish areas, which give to the organ a somewhat mottled appearance 
 entirely unlike a parasitic condition. The cut surface of the affected area 
 shows a lighter color than the normal liver tissue, and this condition is more 
 noticeable around the hepatic veins. Investigations as to the cause of these 
 lesions in the liver proved that they result from the foreign materials, such as 
 particles of fat and tissue as well as hair and wash water, which are driven from 
 the sticker's wound into the thorax and thence into the incised heart by the 
 beaters in the dehairing machine. The foreign material gains entrance into the 
 liver through the heart and posterior vena cava. The occurrence of these 
 changes in the liver of swine is associated with a certain type of dehairing 
 machine, and occur only when the carcass passes through the machine head 
 up. Thus the objectionable condition may be overcome by requiring that the 
 hogs pass through this type of machine head down. All livers which are con- 
 taminated in the manner indicated should be condemned.] 
 
 Judgment. See page 207. 
 
 Peritoneum. -1. Mesenteric Emphysema (Intestinal Emphysema 
 Jaeger) of the Hog. Single or grape-like clusters of air-containing 
 cysts ranging in size from a pin's head to a grape, sometimes hanging 
 on pedicles, are not infrequently found on the small intestines and its 
 mesentery. The walls of the cysts appear transparent, or are colored 
 red by hemorrhages. Sometimes the air cysts accompany the course 
 of the mesenteric vessels in the form of a rose wreath; occasionally 
 cysts are also found in the muscular coat of the intestines and in the 
 lymph glands. This pneumatosis was investigated by Schmutzer and 
 Heydemann. According to Jaeger, it is due to the Bacterium coli 
 lymphaticum aerogenes, which belongs to the coli group and penetrates 
 the intestinal wall, where it produces gas as a result of its great ferment- 
 ing qualities; it only secondarily extends to the mesentery in severe 
 cases. 
 
210 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODTCIXd ANIMALS 
 
 2. Hypophrenic Abscesses. Abscess formations which may develop at any 
 part of the peritoneum are of the greatest interest in meat inspection, and 
 those suppurations which not infrequently develop between the diaphragm, 
 liver, and kidneys of cattle may often reach a considerable size, and are encap- 
 sulated. In the process of removing the abdominal viscera, these abscesses 
 are frequently cut open, resulting in a soiling of the viscera and the parietal 
 serous membrane of the body cavities with the contained pus. In such cases 
 the serous membranes should be removed as well as the superficial layer of 
 the meat which has been contaminated. For other results from these abscesses, 
 see page 303. 
 
 3. For peritonitis as a result of heavy infestation by cysticercus tenuicollis, 
 see page 241. 
 
 4. Multiple calcifications in the form of flat elevations (Ostertag) ranging 
 in size from a pin's head to that of a lentil, occur comparatively rarely on the 
 peritoneum in cattle, and must not be 'mistaken for tuberculosis. 
 
 Judgment. See page 207. 
 
 Genito-urinary Apparatus. 1. The white-spotted kidney of calves 
 (nephritis fibroplastica, or maculosa alba) occurs more frequently 
 than is really observed, as the recognition of these changes is fre- 
 quently obscured by the kidney fat. Slightly projecting whitish- 
 gray spots may be seen on the surface of the kidney. They are dis- 
 
 FIG. 83 
 
 Kidney of calf with fibroplastic nephritis. 
 
 tributed over numerous lobules, and vary in size from a millet seed to 
 a bean and even a hazelnut. On section the white spots appear as 
 wedge-shaped or circular, juicy, shining areas, which extend through 
 the cortex, reaching to the medullary or tubular layer. In the medullary 
 substance the grayish-white extensions appear less frequently. The 
 parenchyma of the kidney is generally unchanged; occasionally a 
 slightly reddened zone is found around the white areas; or less fre- 
 quently single punctiform hemorrhages are seen in the parenchyma, 
 which, however, are probably coincident. 
 
 These spotted changes, according to Rieck, Kitt, Kabitz and others, are 
 infectious emboli, while Vaerst considers the white areas as embryonic nodular 
 remains of the blastemic state. 
 
 De Blieck considers the process as an acute, hematogenous, toxic, parenchym- 
 atous, and interstitial nephritis, a diffused focal nephritis, the cause of which 
 
THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TISSUES AND ORGANS 217 
 
 is unknown. Guillebeau, on the contrary, emphasizes the fact that the inflam- 
 matory origin of the spotted kidney is neither histologically nor clinically 
 understood, but that even De Blieck's findings speak for the blastemic theory. 
 
 At any rate, this change in the kidney is without a noticeable influ- 
 ence on the general condition of the calves; besides, its harmless nature 
 is also confirmed by complete disappearance of the spots during the 
 first year of life. 
 
 The appearance of these changes in a diffused extension over the entire 
 cortical layer of the kidney, which is designated by Kitt as nephritis alba, 
 or h'broplastica diffusa, is quite rare. These white spots are confluent to such 
 an extent that the entire cortical layer appears to be of a whitish color. In 
 the medullary layer there is always a hyperemia in such cases with hemor- 
 rhages, and edematous infiltration of parts adjacent to the pelvis of the kidney. 
 
 2. From purulent nephritis,' which, as a rule, occurs as a hemato- 
 genous, embolic, focal nephritis, but which may also develop gradually, 
 should be distinguished the bacterial (diphtheritic) pyelonephritis, which 
 is a special form. It appears occasionally in cattle on one or both 
 sides, and' is probably of hematogenous origin (Bollinger, Ernst) and 
 of a cryptogenic nature. 
 
 The kidney is prominently enlarged, and its surface is either spotted 
 with gray or totally gray in color. The kidney is enveloped in a fat 
 capsule which has undergone a serous infiltration. On section a col- 
 lection of slimy pus, with a strongly smelling urinous odor, is noted in 
 the distended pelvis of the kidney and in the dilated calices, the walls 
 of which are considerably thickened. The papillae show a diphtheritic 
 deposit, and pi-n-shaped, radiating, yellowish-gray streaks of various 
 breadths extend from the centre toward the cortex. In this location, 
 and also in normally appearing parts of the kidney, small, suppura- 
 tive, softening foci may be found. As the lesion progresses the kidney 
 tissue degenerates more and more, until finally the enormously en- 
 larged kidney may only represent a thin-walled cyst filled with pus 
 (pyonephrosis) . The ureter on one or both sides also appears dilated 
 and filled with pus in advanced cases. 
 
 The Bacillus renalis bovis is accepted as the cause of pyelonephritis in cattle, 
 but mixed infections also occur, so that, according to Kitt, Cadeac, Lucet, 
 and Ernst, the affection may be considered as polybacterial, similar to other 
 suppurative processes. 
 
 In the judgment of pyelonephritis, the general condition, the nutri- 
 tive state, and the presence or absence of other suppurations in the 
 body must be considered. 
 
 Unilateral pyelonephritis appears generally as a purely local affec- 
 tion; if bilateral, retention of urine must be suspected, and the meat 
 should be tested by boiling for odor of urine. The result of the latter, 
 and also other changes which might be present, determine whether the 
 meat should be declared of inferior quality or be condemned as totally 
 unfit for human food. 
 
218 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 [In cases of bilateral pyelonephritis causing retention of urine, the 
 carcass should be condemned according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regu- 
 lation 13, Section 20.] 
 
 3. Cystic and bladder kidneys not infrequently appear in hogs, cattle, 
 and occasionally also in calves. In cystic kidneys the disease is limited 
 to single small or larger sections of the kidney from which the flow 
 of the urine is prevented. In bladder kidneys, the entire kidney repre- 
 sents a cyst filled with urine (hydronephrosis). 
 
 When hydronephrosis is found affecting both sides, greater attention 
 is required in the judgment of the meat, as the meat not only in the 
 surrounding parts, but also at distant parts of the body may be watery. 
 In addition to this edematous condition, the meat may possess a urinous 
 odor. The boiling test should determine the extent of this condition, 
 and in accordance with the objective finding of the meat, it should be 
 passed or declared of inferior quality or condemned. 
 
 [Frequently only one kidney is found cystic, in which case the car- 
 cass is passed for food; while if the affection is bilateral, causing an 
 edematous condition of the meat in various parts of the body, or if 
 the meat possesses a urinous odor, the carcass should be condemned 
 (B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 20).] 
 
 4. The inflammations of the uterus are of considerable interest for 
 the inspector on account of their relations to septicemia (Chapter 
 VIII, page 300). All acute inflammations of the uterus, following 
 parturition, or as a result of fetal and placental decomposition, should 
 be considered suspicious. 
 
 5. .Catarrh of the uterus may result in hydrometra and pyometra, 
 due to accumulations of mucopurulent secretions in that organ. 
 Chronic catarrh (leucorrhea) may occasionally be followed by great 
 emaciation, thus giving sufficient cause to declare the meat of inferior 
 quality. Otherwise, the suppurative contents of the uterus are of no 
 consequence unless pyemic or septicemic manifestations are present. 
 
 [In acute cases of diffused metritis, the carcasses should be con- 
 demned (B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 18, d).] 
 
 6. The infectious vaginal catarrh of cattle (colpitis follicularis infectiosa, 
 vaginitis granularis infectiosa bovis, Raebiger) is probably due to specific 
 streptococci (streptococcus vaginitis bovis, Ostertag). It is accompanied by 
 nodular formation in the inflamed mucous membrane, but is of no impor- 
 tance for the veterinary inspector. [According to the investigations of Williams, 
 infectious vaginal catarrh or granular vaginitis occurs quite extensively in the 
 United States, although previously its presence had not been recognized. In 
 the ambulatory clinics of the New York State Veterinary College, 201 cases 
 of this affection were treated in the college year of 1909 and 1910.] 
 
 Judgment. For the judgment of the diseases of the urinary and sexual 
 apparatus, see page 207. 
 
 Udder. 1. Catarrh of the udder is only mentioned as it has been 
 mistaken for tuberculosis of the udder. The enlarged quarters of the 
 udder are harder. From the teats of the diseased quarters, a thick ropy 
 secretion, intermixed with pus may be squeezed out. The mammary 
 
THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TISSUES AND ORGANS 219 
 
 lymph glands are uniformly swollen, but they are not lumpy and 
 hard. On the cut surface the milk ducts are dilated and filled with 
 the ropy secretion. Their walls are thickened, and occasionally the 
 mucous membrane shows firm fibrous nodules, which, on superficial 
 observation, resemble tuberculous nodules. The interparenchymatous 
 connective tissue is increased; the lobules of the glands are, however, 
 apparently unchanged. 
 
 In the course of catarrh of the udder some of the milk ducts may 
 become obstructed and dilated, so that cysts will develop, which on 
 touch are lumpy (milk nodes) and are filled with a curdy content. 
 
 2. Gangrenous and septic mastitis (Chapter VIII, page 300), alone 
 of the various inflammations of the udder, will be discussed at this 
 place because of the associated severe general affection, according 
 to which the judgment should be made. 
 
 A catarrhal form of mastitis, which leads to agalactia, and which is called 
 in Switzerland "yellow gait," is caused by a particular streptococcus. Dam- 
 maun and Freese described an infectious inflammation of the udder in sheep 
 which is produced by rod-shaped bacteria. 
 
 3. For the characteristic changes in color of cows' udders on boiling, see 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 Judgment. For the judgment of the diseases of the udder, compare 
 with page 207. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 18, d, 
 carcasses which are affected with acute diffused mammitis should be 
 condemned.] 
 
 Respiratory Apparatus. 1. Subpleural hemorrhages of the lung, 
 which are very frequently seen in food animals, originate at the time 
 of slaughter, and are to be considered as hemorrhages from suffoca- 
 tion. They are punctiform, sharply defined, light red in color, and are 
 disseminated over the entire lung. These hemorrhages are absolutely 
 of no importance for the inspector, and should not be mistaken for 
 ecchymosis of septic origin. 
 
 Inflammations of the lungs are especially important if of a specific character, 
 such as contagious pleuropneumonia in cattle and swine plague (see pages 
 308 and 313. 
 
 3. Calcareofibrous nodules in the lungs are very frequently found 
 in horses (chalicosis nodularis). They are scattered irregularly in the 
 parenchyma of the lung, and are usually very numerous, firm, and 
 readily peel out. They vary in size from a pin's head to that of a hemp- 
 seed, and are rarely as large as a pea. Their color is white or whitish 
 gray, and young nodules appear glassy. There is no red zone sur- 
 sounding them. The origin of these nodules, which occasionally appear 
 at the same time in the liver (page 215), might be traced back to embolic 
 invasion of animal parasites (Olt, Kunnemann, Schiitz, Grips). 
 
 In differentiating the calcareofibrous nodules from those of glanders, 
 it should be remembered that in the first place the red zone is absent; 
 furthermore, they are of uniform size and consistence, possess pro- 
 
220 
 
 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 nounced inclination toward calcification, while all manifestations of 
 glanders are absent. Though a normal condition of the bronchial glands 
 might have some weight in differentiating from glanders, there are 
 instances where calcareofibrous nodules may also appear in the lymph 
 glands. Besides, the histological structure of the nodules determines 
 the nature of the affection (Figs. 84 and 85). For comparison with 
 the structure of glanders nodules, see Chapter VIII, page 288. 
 
 Judgment. For the judgment of diseases of the respiratory apparatus, 
 see page 207. 
 
 FIG. 84 
 
 FIG. 85 
 
 Calcareofibrous nodule from the lung of a 
 horse: a. connective-tissue capsule; b, slightly, 
 and c, markedly calcined centre. (After Kitt.) 
 
 Calcareofibrous nodules from the lung of a 
 horse: a, connective tissue-capsule; b, calcified 
 zone. (After Kitt.) 
 
 4. Anthracosis of the lungs occurs in horses and cattle, as well as in dogs; 
 in the latter about 60 per cent, may be affected (Feuereissen). 
 
 5. Pollution of the lungs with blood and contents of the stomach may follow 
 the slaughter of all food animals, as a result of the inhalation of these sub- 
 stances. Most frequently it occurs in animals which have been "shachted,'' 
 but is found also in sheep (Miiller), cattle, and hogs. While blood can be readily 
 recognized by the irregularly red-colored sections of the lungs, the aspiration of 
 food can be determined only by cutting into the lung in the posterior third 
 of the main lobe. Such a procedure is necessary in examination for the presence 
 of scalding water in the lungs of hogs. To determine the extent of the aspira- 
 tion of food, it is recommended that during the act of cutting the bronchial 
 lymph glands the principal bronchus of each side be severed at the same time ; 
 otherwise the aspirated food, which does not extend into the small bronchi, 
 cannot be seen. 
 
 Judgment. In the judgment of these pollutions of the lungs, their extent 
 should determine the disposition of the organs. If the aspiration of blood is 
 only slight and the amount of food and scalding water limited to the trachea 
 and large bronchi, the lungs may be passed after a thorough cleansing. In 
 pronounced aspiration of blood the lungs should be declared of inferior quality. 
 In the presence of food contents or scalding water in the deeper sections of 
 the bronchial tubes, the lungs should be condemned as unfit for human food. 
 
 [Lungs containing aspirated substances, either solids or liquids, are 
 condemned in the United States.] 
 
 Pleura. 1. Petechia of the pleura may be present in perfectly healthy 
 food animals as suffocation hemorrhages resulting from slaughter 
 (page 219), and should not be confused with hemorrhages of septic 
 origin. 
 
'THE PRINCIPAL AFFECTIONS OF TISSUES AND ORGANS 221 
 
 2. False neuromas in the course of intercostal nerves are not infrequently 
 observed in cattle. They are new formations of myofibromatous nature, of 
 sizes ranging from that of a pea to a hazelnut seldom larger which develop 
 from the nerve sheaths. 
 
 3. Relative to melanotic pigmentation of the pleura, especially in calves, see 
 page 205. 
 
 4. Regarding secondary inflammation of the pleura in contagious pleuro- 
 pneumonia of cattle, swine plague, and rinderpest, see these respective diseases. 
 
 Judgment. See page 207. 
 
 Circulatory Apparatus. 1. Petechice on the pericardium, epicardium, 
 and endocardium of food animals are mostly the result of asphyxiation 
 at the time of slaughter, especially if they are present in connection 
 with hemorrhages of the pleura and with those of the lung (page 219); 
 but they may also result from sepsis or other acute infectious diseases. 
 Hemorrhages occur frequently on the auriculoventricular valves. 
 
 Reddened patches at the level of the column* carnese are of systolic origin 
 and disappear at diastole; they indicate a systolic pause of the heart. 
 
 2. Pericarditis is most frequently observed as the result of trau- 
 matism in cattle, due to the pressing forward of sharp foreign bodies 
 in the rumen. The degree and the form of such traumatic pericarditis 
 may vary greatly. The judgment, therefore, is influenced by the 
 severity as well as possible complications from disturbances in circula- 
 tion and from fever. In febrile conditions it must be remembered 
 that traumatic pericarditis may be of septic nature; however, it must 
 also be recognized that a pericardial content with offensive odor is 
 not sufficient for the determination of a diagnosis of sepsis (Chapter 
 VIII, page 300). 
 
 Besides, pericarditis of serous and serofibrinous form may be observed in 
 hogs as an accompanying symptom of swine plague (Chapter VIII, page 308). 
 
 Pericarditis, from which recovery has been made, appears not infre- 
 quently as the "villous heart" in cattle and in hogs. 
 
 3. Endocarditis is observed most frequently in hogs as a verrucose 
 valvular form, and occurs principally as a result of swine erysipelas 
 infection. Ulcerous and diphtheritic endocarditis may be of toxic or 
 pyemic origin. 
 
 4. Cystic formations (hematoma and lymph cysts) on the auriculoventricular 
 valves were found frequently by Klaeger and Glage in calves and hogs and 
 not infrequently by Fischer in cattle. 
 
 5. Phlebectasis is found in older food animals as nodular dilatations of the 
 veins in parts rich in bloodvessels, principally in the mesenteries. 
 
 6. The formation of multiple infarcts in the spleen as a result of endocarditis 
 was first indicated by Ostertag. The splenic infarcts appear like wedge-shaped 
 or round growths, at first dark red, later yellowish and white in color. After 
 the resorption of the areas of necrotic infarct there usually follows consider- 
 able shrinkage of the spleen. The latter also follows rotation of the spleen. 
 
 7. Rotation of the spleen is a condition to which Glage has called attention; 
 it occurs rarely. The splenic tumor which develops as a result of the torsion of 
 the bloodvessels is distinguishable by absence of softening of the pulp. 
 
 Judgment. See page 207. 
 
222 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 [Carcasses affected with acute pericarditis should be condemned, 
 according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 18, a. For 
 judgment of other lesions of the heart appearing in association with 
 various general affections, see these respective diseases.] 
 
 Skin. 1. Reddening of the skin is only important from the stand- 
 point of differential diagnosis in hogs, especially in connection with the 
 presence of infectious diseases of these animals (swine erysipelas, etc.). 
 
 2. For granular eruptions (Schrotausschlag) of hogs, see Chapter 
 VIII, page 234. 
 
 3. [Pigmented moles, or ncevi pigmentosi, are seen most frequently in 
 the skin over the back and thighs of black hogs, and are congenital. 
 They appear as inky-black irregularly round spots from one-eighth to 
 one-half of an inch in diameter. The larger moles are elevated, and are 
 covered with stiff, coarse hair, which grows straight outward. Usually 
 only a few are present, but occasionally an animal is found where they 
 are quite numerous. If the small moles are incised, a black semifluid 
 pigment is found deposited between the layers of the skin, while in the 
 larger moles the pigment may extend into the fat beneath.] 
 
 4. The term "sooty mange" is applied to a pustular exanthema of young 
 pigs, which leads to the formation of pitch-like scabs (pitch mange), and occurs 
 as an accompanying symptom of general chronic affections. The latter and 
 also the condition of the animal determine the disposal of the meat. 
 
 Central Nervous System. Among the diseases of the central nervous system 
 the only one which need be mentioned is infectious cerebrospinal meningitis 
 of horses (meningitis cerebrospinalis enzootica), as it frequently occasions emer- 
 gency slaughter. It is generally without influence upon the utilization of the 
 meat, but in cases of delayed slaughter incomplete bleeding may be present. 
 If the disease is of long standing, and is associated with marked decubitus or 
 other injuries, as well as traumatic pneumonia, a certain amount of caution is 
 advisable. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 
 
 Anemia (Oligemia). Anemia appears in food animals as symptomatic 
 or as so-called pernicious anemia. 
 
 Symptomatic Anemia. Symptomatic anemias are expressions of 
 various disturbances in the metabolic functions of the body, and as 
 etiological factors internal parasites, chronic intestinal or pulmonary affec- 
 tions, chronic cachexia, and tuberculosis play the most important part. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. During life paleness of the mucous mem- 
 brane in advanced cases, dulness, loss of appetite, and emaciation 
 point to anemia; while in the slaughtered animal it is observed only 
 in advanced cases by emaciation and slight coagulation of the blood, 
 as well as by the pale appearance of the muscles. The presence of 
 certain organic affections indicates the cause of the disease. 
 
 Microscopic examination of the blood may show considerable decrease 
 of red blood corpuscles (Shaper). 
 
 Judgment. The judgment depends on the primary affection which 
 may be present and on the nutritive condition of the carcass. As 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 223 
 
 a rule, this meat may be passed for human food, and only in advanced 
 cases should it be declared of inferior quality. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 24, carcasses 
 of animals which are too anemic to produce wholesome meat should 
 be condemned. Advanced cases of anemia are usually associated with 
 pronounced emaciation.] 
 
 Pernicious Anemia. The essential primary pernicious or progressive 
 anemia is a disease which has not yet been sufficiently explained. It is 
 of infectious or toxic nature, and almost entirely confined to horses 
 [producing the so-called swamp fever or infectious anemia in the United 
 States]. The disease runs an acute or chronic course. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Acute cases are marked by intermittent high fever, 
 with greatly increased frequency in pulse, and rapid emaciation without any 
 indications of a local affection. The red blood corpuscles undergo a marked 
 change in form, designated as poikilocytosis; macrocytes and microcytes are 
 present. In chronic disease the manifestations are the same as in symptomatic 
 anemia. In slaughtered animals, acute cases show a cloudy swelling and 
 fatty degeneration of the visceral parenchyma and muscles, with hemorrhages 
 in most of the organs, especially under the serous membranes, spleen tumor, 
 cellular infiltration of the bone marrow, hemoglobin infarcts of the kidneys, 
 without any particular conspicuous affection of the organs. In a more chronic 
 type pathological changes are similar to those of symptomatic anemia; only 
 the bone marrow is greatly changed, appearing like raspberry jelly, or like 
 embryonic bone marrow. 
 
 Judgment. On account of great emaciation and pronounced changes 
 in the muscles and. viscera, the meat should be considered badly spoiled, 
 and, consequently, unfit for human consumption. It has not yet been 
 proved that this meat is injurious to health. 
 
 Hydremia. A watery condition of the blood of food animals occurs 
 most frequently in sheep and cattle. It develops as a result of insuffi- 
 cient assimilation of nutritive substances, or from excessive feeding 
 or food containing a large amount of water, such as swill and sugar 
 beets. In the first instance it produces chronic disturbances of the 
 blood-producing organs as in anemia, with which disease hydremia is 
 usually associated. The symptoms in living animals depend on the 
 extent of the affection. Edema of dependent portions of the body 
 (neck, brisket, abdomen, legs) is usually present even in the earliest 
 stages; at the same time symptoms of anemia are apparent. In slaugh- 
 tered animals well-pronounced changes of the blood, such as noticeable 
 thinness and slight coagulability, are only found in advanced cases. 
 Furthermore, the subcutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue 
 appears edematous and transudates are in the body cavities. The 
 muscles are relaxed, and rigor mortis is riot well marked; they are dis- 
 colored and grayish red only in very advanced cases (cachexia). In 
 these cases there are also pronounced atrophy and gelatinous infiltration 
 of the fat tissue. 
 
 Judgment. In advanced hydremia the meat should be condemned 
 as unfit for human food, on account of its repulsive changes, and the 
 marked emaciation. 
 
224 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 In less severe cases the slaughtered animals are allowed to hang 
 for twenty-four hours, since experience has shown that a large portion 
 of the transudates and edema of the connective tissue disappears by 
 dripping and evaporation and through its resorption by the muscle 
 substance. 
 
 In cutting the carcass it becomes evident whether a distinct watery 
 condition of the muscles is still present in the deeper parts. If this 
 cannot be noticed the carcass is released, while, if visible, the meat 
 should be sold under declaration after the removal of the watery tissues, 
 as of inferior quality. In mild cases deterioration occurs very rarely 
 if the carcasses are allowed to hang. 
 
 [In case hydremia is associated with emaciation, or if the carcass 
 manifests edema of the muscles and connective tissue, in consequence 
 of that condition, the carcass should be condemned, according to 
 B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 24.] 
 
 Leukemia. True leukemia is more infrequent in food animals than 
 pseudoleukemia, which, however, should be distinguished etiologically 
 and anatomically from the former. 
 
 To what extent these diseases are of an infectious nature is not defi- 
 nitely known. 
 
 True Leukemia. This disease depends on a marked and continuing 
 increase of white corpuscles (leukocytes and lymphocytes), and origi- 
 nates in hyperplasia of lymphadenoid tissue, i. e., the spleen, lymph 
 glands, bone marrow, and other organs. The blood in this condition 
 may contain a large increase of lymphocytes (leukemia lymphatica). 
 On the other hand, the leukemia may be due to a migration of leuko- 
 cytes from the bone marrow resulting in myelogenic leukemia. The 
 clinical and anatomical picture of the disease likewise varies accord- 
 ingly. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. In living animals the presence of leukemia 
 is only suspected, as a rule, in the lymphatic form, owing to enlarge- 
 ment of most of the accessible lymph glands. There is also a dulness of 
 the animal, and a paleness of the mucous membranes. Examination 
 of the blood establishes the correct diagnosis. The slaughtered animal 
 shows slightly coagulable pale blood, the serum of which may be of 
 a milky or pus-like consistence; the coagulum in the heart and large 
 bloodvessels is similar in appearance. There is hyperplasia of the 
 spleen and of the lymph glands, which may reach enormous propor- 
 tions; at the same time the lymph glands are frequently very soft 
 and moist. The bone marrow has either undergone a lymphadenoid 
 change to a raspberry jelly consistence, or it is like pus. Leukemic 
 infiltrations or tumors may be present in any of the organs; also hemor- 
 rhages in the kidneys, serous and mucous membranes, as well as in 
 the muscles. The muscles are considerably paler than normal, gray, 
 flabby, arid permeated with hemorrhages. The characteristic micro- 
 scopic appearance of the blood cannot be discussed here. 
 
 Judgment. On account of the severe and pronounced changes, the 
 meat should be condemned as unfit for human food. 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 225 
 
 [Carcasses affected with leukemia, which is invariably associated 
 with a general swelling of- the lymphatic glands, should be condemned, 
 according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 18, h.} 
 
 Pseudoleukemia. The course of this disease manifests the same 
 clinical aspect as true leukemia. Pseudoleukemia (Hodgkin's disease) 
 is principally distinguished from the latter through the fact that the 
 numerical proportion between the leukocytes and erythrocytes of the 
 blood is not disturbed. Pseudoleukemic conditions occur occasionally 
 in cattle and hogs, but rarely to such a degree that the general con- 
 dition of the animal appears greatly disturbed. 
 
 The anatomical lesions do not differ from those of leukemia. Haffner 
 found lymphoid areas in the form of grayish spots throughout the 
 entire muscular system of a sow. Carcasses showing pseudoleukemia 
 should be judged like those with true leukemia. 
 
 Rachitis. Rachitis, which appears most frequently in young hogs, 
 depends on an insufficient calcification of the periosteal tissues, and on 
 the irregular ossification of the cartilage, causing excessive proliferation 
 of cartilaginous and periosteal tissue (Kitt). 
 
 The clinical findings consist of enlargements of the bones, especially 
 on the epiphyses and cartilages of the ribs; bending of the extremities 
 and of the vertebral column; and enlargements of the nose and superior 
 and inferior maxillary bones (snuffle disease), which may be observed 
 in hogs. The manifestations in the slaughtered animal correspond 
 to the clinical findings and to the stage of the disease. In advanced 
 cases lesions of severe nutritive disturbances and of cachexia may be 
 present in the meat. 
 
 Judgment. In the beginning of rachitis, when nutritive conditions, 
 are good, there is no ground for condemnation. When the disease is 
 of medium degree with pronounced changes of the bones in addition 
 to those affecting the bones of the head, the meat is considered of 
 inferior quality. Condemnation becomes necessary in very rare cases 
 with cachectic changes of the muscles, and considerable emaciation. 
 
 [Carcasses affected with rachitis in an advanced degree should be 
 condemned, according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 22.] 
 
 Osteomalacia. This brittle condition of the bones, called osteop- 
 sathyrosis, is a softening of the bones of mature animals as a result 
 of a diminution of the lime contents and a partial transformation of 
 the bone into an osteoid mass (Kitt) . Klimmer and Schmidt designate 
 this disease, which occurs most frequently in cattle, as a halisteresis 
 ossium, and consider rachitis and osteomalacia as identical in their 
 nature. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The most marked clinical manifestation 
 is the occurrence of bone fractures (fractures of ribs and pelvis) with- 
 out any corresponding cause being apparent. There are also associated 
 nutritive disturbances, swellings of the joints, and painful gait; later 
 emaciation, hardened skin, and cachexia. The slaughtered animals 
 show hyperemia of the diseased bones, thinning of the hard outer 
 part, softening of the bone substances, and even its transformation 
 15 
 
220 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 into a fibrous tissue, transformation of the marrow of the bones into 
 a dark yellow to dark-red jelly-like mass, bone fractures, peeling off 
 of the periosteum, and the wearing away of the joint. Although pro- 
 nounced changes of the meat appear usually only in cachectic condi- 
 tions, occasionally they may be observed earlier, according to Klimmer 
 and Schmidt. On account of physical changes of the walls of the blood- 
 vessels, marked serous infiltrations of the bordering tissues develop, 
 the muscles become flabby, watery, and, as a rule, darker and softer; 
 their reaction is generally alkaline. The fat tissue appears atrophied 
 in the later stages. The preservative quality of the meat is poor. 
 
 Judgment. According to Klimmer and Schmidt, animals affected with 
 osteomalacia should only rarely be passed without restriction. They 
 recommend judging meat, finally, twenty-four hours after slaughter. 
 If emaciation and slight changes in the meat are present at that time, 
 the animal should be declared of inferior quality. If pronounced changes, 
 and especially cachectic conditions, are noticeable, the judgment must 
 be made for total condemnation. 
 
 [Carcasses showing pronounced changes of osteomalacia should be 
 condemned, according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 22.] 
 
 Sarcomatosis and Carcinomatosis. These belong here, but have been con- 
 sidered on page 206. 
 
 Poisoning in Slaughtered Animals. Poisoning of slaughtered animals 
 is only of importance from a meat hygiene standpoint when changes 
 have occurred in the flesh as a result of the toxic action of the poisons, 
 or when the meat itself has been poisoned. 
 
 As a rule, poisoning in slaughtered animals is rare. Still, the owners 
 of the animals frequently consider some diseases as such, since the 
 layman is inclined to view all suddenly occurring affections as due to 
 this cause. Poisoning is usually accidental, the poisonous substances 
 being ingested with the food or while searching for food; or it may 
 be the result of improper administration of drugs. 
 
 For the clinical symptoms and pathology of various poisonings 
 in living animals, the reader is referred to text-books on toxicology, 
 as only general remarks may be indulged in here with regard to the 
 findings in the slaughtered animals. The following groups of intoxica- 
 tion are to be differentiated: 
 
 1. Poisons which exert a pronounced local effect and those which 
 primarily affect the parts with which they come in contact are relatively 
 easy of recognition. To these belong, among others, caustics, acids, 
 alkalies, and salts; phosphorus, arsenic, catharidin, and also insect 
 and snake venom. Marked inflammation, swelling, hemorrhages, and 
 eschars, especially in the digestive tract and on the skin, occur at the 
 points of contact with the poison, but the principal effect of the poison 
 is usually secondary, and is to be sought in disturbances of function 
 of the more important body organs. 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 227 
 
 2. Some of the blood poisons combine with the hemoglobin of the 
 red cells (carbon monoxide, hydrocyanic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen) 
 and reduce their functional power as carriers of oxygen; while others 
 (nitrites, iodine, potassium chlorate, pyrogallol, picric acid, aniline, 
 carbon bisulphide, etc.) destroy the red cells and form methemoglobin. 
 As a result, the blood will appear light violet to cherry red and even 
 chocolate brown in color. These changes may not be marked, however, 
 if the animals have been slaughtered early on account of the serious 
 effect of the poison on the central nervous system. Urine of a red 
 to dark-red color will doubtlessly be present in severe intoxication 
 by poisons of the latter group. 
 
 3. With poisons which act on the nerves and heart, anatomical 
 changes, as a rule, are not demonstrable, in spite of extreme nervous 
 irritation or paralysis. 
 
 For the purpose of meat inspection, another group might be added 
 to the foregoing: 
 
 4. Those which develop marked odor and thereby reveal their 
 presence in the slaughtered animal, such as chloroform, ether, alcohol, 
 petroleum, chloral hydrate, camphor, ethereal oils, phosphorus, carbolic 
 acid, etc. The effect of these drugs would be similar to one of the 
 three classes already mentioned. 
 
 As recognition of poisonings and their essential causes may be difficult 
 in certain instances, it is, in many cases, only possible to establish 
 a probable diagnosis, unless an exact chemico-analytical examination 
 is made. Such an examination is rarely practicable for purposes of 
 meat inspection on account of the amount of time required, and even 
 then it may fail in some cases. 
 
 Judgment. The judgment of this class of food animals is dependent 
 upon the separation of the meat proper in its narrow sense from the 
 viscera. Of the viscera, the stomach and intestinal canal will always have 
 to be condemned as dangerous to health. It has been shown that the 
 other viscera are harmless in a number of instances, while in doubtful 
 cases, however, it is necessary to consider the nature of the poison and 
 the probable course it pursues in the organism. In one case the udder 
 of a cow was found dangerous to health, the animal having been fed 
 large quantities of veratrum album. In the subcutaneous administra- 
 tion of poisonous substances, the site of injection and its vicinity, as 
 well as the associated lymphatic vessels up to and including the nearest 
 lymph glands, are to be removed. 
 
 Careful observations by Frohner and Knudsen lead to the assumption 
 that meat in "medicinal treatment of an animal with any drug cannot 
 result in becoming dangerous to health," and what holds good for 
 the medicaments of powerful action as the result of experimental and 
 observational research applies also to other poisonous drugs. 
 
 Whether the meat is of reduced or impaired value in case of an 
 animal slaughtered on account of having been poisoned, depends 
 on the associated conditions or circumstances and the nutrition of 
 the animal. It may be precluded, of course, that consumers will be 
 
228 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 diced against meat of this class. The value of it is below par as 
 soon as odorific poisons have given the meat an abnormal odor. (See 
 boiling test, page 149.) 
 
 Meat of poisoned animals is always to be considered unfit for human 
 food whenever a nauseating or loathsome odor is present, when septic 
 infections are observed, or when marked changes in the meat, such 
 as emaciation and edema, occur associated with poisoning. 
 
 [The judgment of this class of food animals in the United States 
 is carried out on the same principles as those followed in Germany.] 
 
 Auto-intoxications in Slaughtered Animals. By auto-intoxication is 
 understood the passage of toxic substances developed in the intestines 
 (enterogen), or in the tissues (histogen), into the fluids of the body. 
 The transition of such poisons is caused either by the presence of 
 exciting or toxic metabolic products, by a physiological increase in their 
 production, or as a result of their incomplete destruction. In the same 
 manner the blood may also receive toxic substances in disturbances 
 or suspension of the functions of certain organs. 
 
 Cholemia. The presence of the constituents of bile in the blood is, 
 strictly taken, only a symptomatic condition, a well-marked manifes- 
 tation of which consists in a yellow coloration of the tissues, called 
 jaundice (icterus). The etiological classification of cholemic affections 
 into catarrhal, hepatoxemic, and hematogenic icterus, is also to be 
 considered from the standpoint of meat inspection. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Of the clinical symptoms, the yellow colora- 
 tion of the mucous membranes is of importance in meat inspection, 
 and also the fact whether a general affection is absent or present. In 
 the latter case, there are present severe organic changes, or an intoxica- 
 tion (lupinosis, phosphorus poisoning), or an infectious disease (sepsis, 
 anthrax, swine plague, influenza), with its characteristic symptoms. 
 The anatomical lesions are dependent upon the original cause and 
 are associated with yellow discoloration of the tissues. The discoloration 
 is not only noticeable to a high degree on the serous membranes, but 
 also on -all tissues and organs, and shows also occasionally distinct 
 greenish-color tints. In animals with normal white fat tissue the 
 slightest degree of yellow coloration is also recognizable on the fat, 
 but this must not be mistaken for the yellow coloration resulting from 
 feeding, and the old age discoloration of the fat in cattle. 
 
 Judgment. The judging of icteric animals should be carried out 
 only in daylight. It is also to be remembered that slight yellow colora- 
 tions may almost entirely disappear within a certain time after death, 
 as a result of the reductive action of the body cells; therefore, slightly 
 icteric carcasses are judged only after twenty-four hours. In severe 
 forms of icterus with parenchymatous degeneration as a result of 
 infections or intoxications, this is not necessary. In the latter case 
 the meat is spoiled in a high degree, and is unfit for human consump- 
 tion. Otherwise, in cases which are pronounced icteric, the meat 
 should be declared of inferior quality, while it may be passed if in 
 twenty-four hours after slaughter the yellow coloration disappears, 
 or if only a nominal discoloration remains. 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 229 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Regulations, carcasses affected with 
 icterus and showing the characteristic yellow 7 or greenish-yellow 7 dis- 
 coloration after proper cooling should be condemned, while those 
 which lose the discoloration after cooling may be passed for food.] 
 
 Uremia. [This term is applied to certain clinical manifestations 
 caused by the retention of toxic substances in the blood which ordi- 
 narily are excreted with the urine. The nature of the substances 
 in question remains obscure.] The occurrence of uremia in food ani- 
 mals is limited, with a few exceptions, to male individuals, in which 
 the anatomical peculiarities of the urethra (S-shaped bending in rumi- 
 nants and in hogs) favor its occurrence. The urethra is principally 
 the seat of obstructions with concrements, which as a result produce 
 gangrene of the urethra or a rupture of the bladder. The absorption 
 of the constituents of urine effused into the periurethral connective 
 tissue, or into the peritoneal cavity, results in a uremic poisoning 
 of the blood. Very rarely uremia may also develop as a result of an 
 insufficient excretion of the constituents of urine, as, for instance, in 
 bilateral pyelonephritis of cattle, or in the presence of bilateral cystic 
 kidneys. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The living animals show the known symp- 
 toms of retentio urines, which it is true, in indolent steers, is not very 
 pronounced. After the resorption of urine, febrile symptoms, accel- 
 erated pulse, pronounced psychic depression, strong urinary odor of 
 the expirations, uremic convulsions, and under certain conditions 
 even subnormal temperatures are manifested. On the slaughtered 
 animal and in the immediate vicinity of the carcass pronounced urinary 
 odor may be noted, which, however, is absent in fresh cases. Corre- 
 sponding with the cause there may be found an infiltration of urine 
 in the scrotal region, rupture of the bladder with peritonitis or severe 
 kidney changes. The muscles have a distinct uriniferous odor, which 
 gradually becomes less marked with the increased cooling of the carcass ; 
 intermuscular hemorrhages may also be present. 
 
 Therefore, in the examination of a cooled carcass in which uremia 
 is suspected, the meat should be always subjected to a boiling test, 
 during which the presence of a urinary odor becomes recognizable. 
 
 Judgment. The judgment should be made only after the cooling 
 of the meat, and the employment of the boiling test. If during the 
 latter only a very slight uriniferous odor is perceptible which occurs 
 in fresh cases exclusively, the meat may be passed for human con- 
 sumption, but should be declared of inferior quality. In advanced 
 uremia the odor of the meat becomes so intensely uremic on account 
 of its highly spoiled condition that it must be condemned as unfit 
 for human food. 
 
 [The Federal Meat Inspection Regulations provide that carcasses 
 which give off the odor of urine should be condemned.] 
 
 Hemoglobinemia of Horses. The hemoglobinemia of horses, also 
 designated as hemoglobinuria, azoturia, and lumbago, is usually a 
 rheumatic myositis with dissolution of the coloring matter of the 
 
230 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 muscles. It probably results from an auto-intoxication of myogenic 
 origin, in which the muscular coloring matter and other transformed 
 products of the existing myositis enter the circulation, producing disin- 
 tegration of the red blood cells and elimination of the hemoglobin with 
 the urine. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Of the clinical symptoms, the well-known 
 dark red to dirty brown and black coloration of the urine, and the 
 paralysis-like weakness of the hind-quarters are especially conspicuous. 
 Mucous membranes are highly congested and show a dirty discolora- 
 tion; the temperature, on the other hand, is usually only very slightly 
 elevated. In the slaughtered animal the blood is of a varnish color 
 and tar-like; edematous swelling and pale coloring of the psoas and 
 croup muscles, as well as of the quadriceps femoris, may be noted as 
 a result of parenchymatous myositis. Secondary lesions are: Swell- 
 ing of the liver and spleen, infiltration of the red bone marrow, paren- 
 chymatous nephritis, and hemorrhages in various organs. In cases of 
 longer duration, septic lesions may be present as a result of decubitus 
 gangrene. 
 
 Judgment. The meat of horses slaughtered in the early stages of 
 this disease may be passed for food. Later, insufficient bleeding and 
 muscular changes render the meat unfit for human consumption on 
 account of the highly spoiled condition. 
 
 [Hemoglobinemia of horses is at the present time of no interest to 
 meat inspection in the United States, as horses are not considered 
 food animals in this country.] 
 
 According to SchlegePs investigation, another more rarely occurring infec- 
 tious hemoglobin emia of horses must be mentioned; he designates it as an 
 infectious spinal meningitis, caused by the Streptococcus melano genes. The 
 later stages of this infectious hemoglobinemia pass off under the semblance of 
 septicemia. 
 
 Parturient Paresis. Parturient paresis (parturition fever, calf fever, 
 milk fever) is observed principally in cows; more rarely in gcats and 
 hogs. While this affection until recently was considered as an auto- 
 intoxication in which the udder was supposed to be the place for the 
 development of toxins (Sonnenberg), recent publications (Meier, 
 Gebauer and others), and especially the beneficial results following 
 the air treatment of this disease, make it apparent that the affection 
 is the result of a circulatory disturbance in the brain. It is possible, 
 however, that both causes must be given consideration. The disease 
 appears, as a rule, in twelve to forty-eight hours after parturition; 
 it, however, has been observed before that time. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The conspicuous symptoms in the living 
 animal are characteristic manifestations of depression and paralysis. 
 If these have advanced to a certain degree, the animals will lie with 
 their legs half way bent or stretched out, and their heads turned to 
 the side, resting on the thorax. At the same time there are present 
 somnolence, ptosis, absence of skin reflexes, paralysis of the muscles 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 231 
 
 of the tongue and pharynx, and salivation. As a result of the paralysis 
 of the muscles of the stomach, intestines and bladder, flatulency and 
 retention of urine develop. The body temperature is unevenly distrib- 
 uted; the internal temperature is slightly elevated only in the beginning 
 of the disease; later it is normal or subnormal. 
 
 On the slaughtered animal the findings are principally negative. 
 The uterus is usually strongly contracted and without abnormal con- 
 tents; the abdominal viscera are frequently highly injected, while 
 insufficient bleeding will be noted in delayed slaughter. 
 
 The recognition of this disease in the living animal is very easy. 
 Nevertheless, a careful examination is necessary in order to determine 
 the possible presence of other puerperal affections (sepsis), special 
 attention being paid to the absence of high fever and to whether there 
 are tenesmus or indications that the animal was given cold water enemas. 
 On the slaughtered animal the diagnosis must be made by the exclusion 
 of other diseases and by giving consideration to the history of the 
 case. First of all, the attention should be directed to the absence of 
 inflammatory changes in the uterus and the genital organs, as well as 
 to the characteristic lesions of sepsis. 
 
 Judgment. The meat of animals which are slaughtered on account 
 of parturient paresis is not injurious to human health. In early 
 slaughter and in well-nourished animals there is sometimes no ground 
 for condemnation. Delayed slaughter renders the carcass inferior 
 in quality on account of the greater blood content of the meat. The 
 carcass must be condemned when complications with sepsis are present, 
 or when marked substantial changes of the meat or severe internal 
 lesions are present. If an infusion of iodide of potassium or iodide of 
 sodium has been made into the udder, which may transmit a peculiar 
 stale odor and taste to the meat (boiling test), it should be always 
 condemned on account of its repulsiveness. Owing to the repeated 
 administration of strong-smelling remedies (camphor, turpentine, 
 ether, and others), their possible absorption by the meat should not 
 be forgotten and the boiling test applied (see page 149). 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Regulations carcasses of animals show- 
 ing symptoms of milk fever at the time of slaughter should be con- 
 demned. This action is based not only on the changes of the meat 
 relative to its consistence, color, etc., but also on the present view of 
 the pathology of the disease, which suggests an auto-intoxication.] 
 
 PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 The diseases of food animals caused by animal parasites the diseases 
 of invasion are either of purely local nature (diseases of organs), 
 or they appear in various parts of the body, and may, therefore, be 
 designated as general parasitic affections. According to their impor- 
 tance in meat inspection, the animal parasites of food-producing animals 
 may be classified as follows: 
 
232 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODVCING ANIMALS 
 
 (a) Parasites which are not injurious to man: To this class belong 
 all parasites represented on pages 232 to 242 (with the exception of 
 Linguatula rhinaria), and those protozoa which excite general parasitic 
 affections. 
 
 (6) Parasites ivhich may become injurious to man only indirectly; 
 Echinococci and pentastomes. 
 
 (c) Parasites which are transmissible to man by the ingestion of meat; 
 Pork and beef measles and trichinae. 
 
 Parasitic Diseases of Organs. The parasites of organs may be 
 grouped together in so far as judgment in meat inspection is concerned. 
 As has been stated, they are not transmissible to man. The organs 
 invaded by the parasites should be condemned as unfit for human 
 food in all cases where the parasites are not removed in the commercial 
 preparations of the parts (intestines), or if the organ in all of its portions 
 contains parasites, or their presence gives to the organ a repulsive 
 appearance. If the parasites are confined, or invade only single sections 
 of an organ, only the changed parts need be condemned. 
 
 Parasites of the Skin. HYPODERMA LARV.E. The larvae of the Hypo- 
 derma boris (CEstrus bovis, gad fly) and of Hypoderma lineata develop 
 in the subcutis of cattle. [Only the latter is 'found in the United States.] 
 
 Development. The gad fly deposits its sticky eggs on the skin of cattle, 
 where they undergo the first process of development, and are brought into 
 the mouth through licking. Very soon (June), according to Koorevaar, trans- 
 parent larvae, 2 to 4 mm. long, are found in the wall of the esophagus, from 
 whence they migrate partly to the subcutis, but usually toward the vertebral 
 canal (Hinrichsen, Ruser, Koorevaar), in order to develop further in the dural 
 fat tissue, and later to proceed to the subcutis. There they grow until the 
 ninth month after invasion to 28 mm. in length and 12 to 15 mm. in breadth. 
 They are blackish-brown, roller-shaped larva?, which begin in April to migrate 
 to the outside by breaking through the skin, in order that they may change 
 into pupae in the ground. 
 
 Lesions. "Warbles," or "gad boils/' are flat, nodular elevations 
 of the skin, especially along the back, from which larvae covered with 
 pus may ,be squeezed. After the skin is removed, dirty, greenish- 
 yellow, suppurative areas are found in the subcutis, with edematous 
 infiltration of the surrounding parts, extending even into the muscles, 
 which may also be found invaded by dirty, greenish larval passages. 
 
 Judgment. For the judgment of this and all other parasitic diseases 
 of organs, see page 232. 
 
 SCABIES MITES. Psoroptes communis, var. onis (sucking mite, Fig. 
 86), produces the skin eruption designated as sheep scabies, which 
 affects the woolly parts of the body, and begins generally at the sacral 
 region. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions.- At first there is loosening of the wool, which 
 extends over the surface of the body in various places, leaving vesicles 
 and pustules on the skin; later scabs are formed with matting of the 
 wool, thickening of the skin, formation of folds and fissures, and itch- 
 ing, especially when warm. In extensive affections, emaciation, anemia, 
 and cachexia are present. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 233 
 
 Cases of psoroptic scabies of sheep and horses, as well as sarcoptic scabies 
 of horses, must be reported to the police authorities, according to the Imperial 
 law on Infectious Diseases. 
 
 [The movement of cattle and sheep affected with scabies in the 
 United States is restricted by the existing regulations which prohibit 
 the shipment of affected and exposed animals unless they are destined for 
 immediate slaughter. 1 
 
 FIG. 86 
 
 FIG 87 
 
 Male of Psoroptes communis, 
 var. ovis, viewed from the ab- 
 dominal side. X 50 diameters. 
 (After Ziegler.) 
 
 Sar copies scaliei, var. equi. Above to the left, maie; 
 below, dorsal view of female; above to the right, female; 
 below, ventral side of male. X 75 diameters. (After 
 Hutyra and Marek.) 
 
 Sarcoptes scabiei, var. equi, produces scabies of horses. The disease 
 begins with slight granular elevations and papules on the thickly 
 haired protected portions of the skin, and as it progresses leads to 
 serous exudates, scabs, and scab formations. In advanced cases hair- 
 less spots, thickened skin, pustules and flat swellings may develop; 
 also emaciation may appear. Itching is generally well marked. 
 
 Demodex folliculorum, var. suis (Demodex phylloides) the hair- 
 follicle mite of hogs produces nodules and pustules ranging in size 
 from a milletseed to a hazelnut. This not infrequent acne eruption 
 appears on the snout, neck, pectoral region, abdomen, the inner sur- * 
 face of the thighs and flanks, and is manifested by grayish or yellowish- 
 
2.S4 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 gray pustules, as well as by being sharply defined from the neighboring 
 parts (Ostertag). 
 
 Demodex folliculorum, var. canis, causes the demodex mange, which 
 occurs frequently in dogs, where it invariable appears locally on the 
 face, the pectoral region, and on the paws, but it may also extend over 
 the entire skin and result in emaciation. The red and bluish-red 
 papules and pustules, from which a seropurulent bloody fluid may be 
 squeezed, are the characteristic lesions. 
 
 Sarcoptes scabiei, var. canis, produces sarcoptic mange, frequently 
 affecting dogs. It appears principally on the head, but is found on 
 other parts of the body; it is also manifested as red spots, later by 
 nodules and vesicles, with exudates and scab formations, loss of hair, 
 and emaciation in extensive cases. 
 
 The other forms of scabies in food animals are: The dermatocoptes and 
 dermatophagus scabies of horses and cattle; the sarcoptes and dermatophagus 
 scabies in sheep and goats and the sarcoptes scabies of hogs. With the excep- 
 tion of the dermatocoptes scabies of the horse, they are of no importance in 
 meat inspection or to veterinary police supervision. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 16, car- 
 casses showing advanced lesions of scabies associated with emaciation, 
 or if the inflammation extends to the flesh, should be condemned. In 
 mild cases the carcasses are passed for food.] 
 
 Immense numbers of lice (hsematopines) are occasionally found on calves, 
 and in order to prevent their crawling on the meat, it is advisable to have the 
 skin removed immediately after slaughter. 
 
 COCCIDIA. Coccidium fuscum, which was discovered by Olt, is the 
 cause of coccidiosis cutis, spiradenitis coccidiosa, in the granular erup- 
 tions of hogs. These protozoa, the classification of which as coccidia is 
 disputed by Liihe, penetrate into the sweat glands and produce chronic 
 inflammation in the glands by a damming up of the secretion. 
 
 Lesions :- On various parts of the skin, pale, bluish-gray, lead-gray, 
 or yellowish-brown nodules develop, ranging in size from a pin's head to 
 a bean. They are semisolid, lying very superficially in the skin, and 
 contain a cloudy, watery or bloody, smeary mass, and sometimes 
 rolled-up hair. 
 
 No disturbance in the general health is associated with this eruption. 
 
 Parasites of the Respiratory Apparatus. (EsTRUS LARVAE. The larvae 
 of the gad fly of sheep (Oestrus ovis) invade the nose and sinuses of the 
 sheep. 
 
 Development. The fly deposits eggs or partially developed larvae on or 
 into the openings of the nose of sheep, from whence they migrate into the 
 nasal, frontal, and maxillary sinuses as well as into the cones of the horns. 
 There they develop within nine months into yellowish-brown larva?, 20 to 30 
 mm. in length. They are expelled to the outside by sneezing, blowing, or 
 shaking (shaking disease), and burrow into the ground, where they change into 
 a chrysalis stage. 
 
PA It AM TIC />/,S'AMA7<;,S 235 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Catarrh of the respective mucous mem- 
 branes with mucopurulent nasal discharges, shaking of the head, 
 sneezing, and indications of brain irritation are observed. Swelling of 
 the mucous membrane occurs with hemorrhages, and there is a loss 
 of weight. Finally, the presence of larvae enveloped in pus and mucus, 
 which may be fetid, is noted. 
 
 PENTASTOMES. Linguatula rhinaria (Pentastomum tcenioides), which resem- 
 bles the tapeworm, infests the nasal cavities and sinuses of dogs and men 
 and produces only slight catarrhal disturbances. These parasites, which belong 
 to the arachnoidae, are 15 to 20 mm. long (male), and 80 to 90 mm. long (female). 
 
 For the veterinary inspector the only parasite of importance on account of 
 its larval condition is the Pentastomum denticulatum. This develops from the 
 eggs of the Linguatula rhinaria, which reach the outside with the nasal mucus, 
 and are then taken up by herbivorous animals. There the embryos are set 
 free in the digestive apparatus, and reach either actively or passively the 
 mesenteric glands, liver, lungs, or peritoneum, where they become encapsulated 
 and form cysts. 
 
 PARASITES OF THE LUNGS. Metastrongylus apri (Strongylus para- 
 do.rus): This strange palisade worm occurs very frequently in the 
 lungs of both domesticated and wild hogs, but according to Muller 
 only in young animals. The males are 16 to 20 mm. and the females 
 40 mm. long, and they live in the trachea and bronchi, where they 
 produce only slight catarrhal disturbances. Lungs affected at the 
 places invaded by a large number of these worms have elevated, flat, 
 dense areas, with a mother-of-pearl luster. 
 
 As the latter indications may be absent in spite of the presence of the para- 
 sites, it is advisable to cut into every hog lung posteriorly. If worms can 
 be squeezed out of the cut surface, another cut is then made a few centimeters 
 anteriorly, and if parasites are also found there, the centre of the lung may 
 then be considered infested. 
 
 Dictyocaulus filaria (Strongylus filaria), the thread worm of the 
 lung, lives in the bronchi of sheep, goats, deer, and roe, where it pro- 
 duces catarrh and pneumonia. In sheep it occasionally occurs in 
 such immense numbers and extensiveness that entire flocks become 
 infested with it, and a large number of sheep succumb from pneu- 
 monia and cachexia (lung-worm plague). The findings resemble those 
 for Metastrongylus apri. The males are 25 and the females 84 mm. long. 
 
 Synthetocaulus rufescens (Strongylus ovis pulmonalis, lung hair worm) 
 and other species of this genus, 10 to 30 mm. long, live as reddish- 
 brown parasites in sheep, goats, deer, and chamois. They produce 
 in the lungs, small yellowish or greenish-gray hard nodules or wedge- 
 shaped areas. In cutting into these places, caseous, gray, crumbling 
 masses are found, which contain eggs, embryos, and dead parasites. 
 
 Dictyocaulus mviparus (Strongylus micrurus) is found comparatively 
 seldom in the lungs of cattle and calves. It also occurs in deer and roe. 
 The males are 30 to 40 mm. long and the females 60 to 80 mm. long. 
 They are recognized through the mother-of-pearl luster of the hard 
 
230 
 
 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 lobuli, and occur preferably at the base of the lung, where the para- 
 sites are lodged in the dilated bronchi. Occasionally, dead parasites 
 may be found in greenish-colored nodules (Ostertag). 
 
 Synthetocaulus commutatus (Strongylus commutatus) occurs in the 
 lungs of hares and rabbits. The worm is 30 to 70 mm. long and pro- 
 duces in the lung tissue proper inflammatory areas varying in size from 
 a hempseed to a hazelnut. These areas have a yellow caseous content. 
 Occasionally the parasite produces enzootic losses in rabbits. 
 
 According to Schlegel, the Strongylus commutatus is comparatively frequent 
 in sheep, and is also the most harmful lung worm of this species. It is supposed 
 to be present always in the dark brown to black or violet-red nodules of the 
 lungs of sheep. 
 
 Parasites of the Digestive Apparatus. GASTRUS LARVAE. The larvae 
 of Gastrophilus equi, the stomach bot of the horse, are 18 to 20 mm. 
 long, roll-shaped, yellowish or flesh-colored bodies, which live on the 
 cardiac portion of the mucosa of the horse's stomach. Occasionally 
 they also occur in the dog (Fig. 88). 
 
 FIG. 88 
 
 Gastrophilus equi: a, male fly; b, larva. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 The gad fly lays eggs 1 mm. long on the hair of the horse. After three to 
 five days the worms slip out of the eggs and they are then licked off. In this 
 way they reach the stomach, burrow into the mucous membrane, and are 
 developed after nine to ten months into full-grown larvae, which are ejected 
 with the feces. 
 
 The larvae of the Gastrophilus hcemorrhoidalis of the horse are more slender 
 than the former, and of a lighter red color. 
 
 Larva3 of the Gastrophilus duodenalis occur in the pyloric portion of the 
 stomach of the horse. They are whitish yellow in color, and measure 13 to 
 15 mm. in length. 
 
 ROUND WORMS. Hoemonchus contortus (Strongylus contortus), the 
 contorted palisade worm, lives in the abomasum of sheep and goats and 
 occasionally in young cattle. The reddish- white worms are 16 to 20 
 mm. long. The blood-sucking parasite produces anemia and cachexia 
 through heavy infestations. If they appear extensively in a flock of 
 sheep, it is spoken of as stomach-worm epizootic of sheep. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 237 
 
 Oslertagia ostertagi (Strongylus ostertagi, Strongylus convolutus), con- 
 glomerated palisade worm, lives frequently in the abomasum of cattle, 
 sheep, and goats. They are 7 to 13 mm. long. The presence of these 
 worms, which lie under the epithelia of the mucous membranes, is 
 indicated by round elevated spots the size of lentils, with a central 
 opening. Extensive infestation with these parasites may result in 
 emaciation. 
 
 Ostertagia ostertagi (Strongylus convolutus), as well as various other strongy- 
 lidse, according to Schnyder, is the cause of a chronic diarrhea in cattle in 
 Switzerland, designated as " Kalkbrandigkeit," or "lime burn." 
 
 Strongylus rubidus was the cause of a severe affection in hogs, observed by 
 Oppermann, consisting of a diphtheritic or chronic inflammatory affection of 
 the gastric mucous membrane, which resulted in severe anemia to the sucking 
 mother pig. 
 
 Trichuris ovis (Trichocephalus affinis), which generally occurs only in cattle, 
 sheep, and goats, was found by Meyer in large masses in the large intestines 
 of a hog. Trichocephalus crenatus was also found by Haase (Heine). 
 
 Oxyuris curvula and Oxyuris mastigodes occur in the large intestines of the 
 horse, according to Jerke. 
 
 Strongylus vulgaris, S. edentatus, S. equinus, formerly known as Strongylus 
 armatus, inhabit the large intestines of horses, and embryos of S. vulgaris 
 produce aneurysms of the abdominal bloodvessels. 
 
 Spiroptera sanguinolenta, blood-sucking, coiled-tail parasite, lives in minute 
 cavities under the mucous membrane of the esophagus and stomach of dogs. 
 
 Ascaris equorum (A. megalocephala), the large-headed stomach worm, is 
 most frequently found in the small intestines of horses. 
 
 Ascaris suum (A. lumbricoides) is frequently found in hogs. Heavy infesta- 
 tions of ascarides in the intestines of calves and sheep cause an abnormally 
 stale, sourish odor and flavor of the meat (Morat, Laubion, Leibender, Vallis- 
 nieri, Mathis). 
 
 Larva3 of (Esophagostomum radiatum and (Esoph. columbianum, which infest 
 the small intestine and cecum of European cattle and sheep, are, according 
 to Scheben, the cause of helminthiasis nodularis intestinalis, also called nodular 
 disease of the intestines. In the intestines of American cattle and of American 
 and Australian sheep, the (Esoph. radiatum and (Esophagostomum columbianum 
 are present as the cause of the formation of intestinal nodules. 
 
 Gnathostoma hispidum (Cheiracannthus hispidus), the three-colored stomach 
 worm, lives on the blood from the mucous membrane of the stomach of hogs. 
 This parasite, which is 2 to 3 cm. long, has a spherical head which is separated 
 by a deep furrow from the remainder of the body. 
 
 Gigantorhynchus hirudinaceus (Echinorynchus gigas}, the giant worm, is 
 from 7 to 9 cm. (males), and 30 to 40 cm. (females) long, and inhabits the 
 small intestine of hogs. At the point of attachment it produces a circum- 
 scribed inflammatory nodule and small abscesses which may then be easily 
 mistaken for a tuberculous nodule. 
 
 For the discussion of trichinae in the intestines, see page 254. 
 
 FLAT WORMS. Tcenia (Moniezia) expansa produces the most im- 
 portant and frequent tapeworm disease of sheep, and in young animals 
 causes emaciation, diarrhea, cachectic anemia, followed by death. It 
 also occurs in cattle, and is from 2 to 6 mm. in length. 
 
 Various distinct species have recently been separated from the principal 
 species, Tcenia expansa. The cysticercus stage of this parasite probably lives 
 in the so-called sheep tick (Melophagus ovinus). 
 
238 
 
 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Of the other flat worms found in food-producing animals the following may 
 be mentioned: 
 
 Cittotcenia denticulata of rabbits, cysticercus unknown, 25 to 80 cm., some- 
 times 150 cm. long. 
 
 Anoplocephala perfoliata of horses, 3 to 5 cm. long. 
 
 Anoplocephala plicata of horses, 10 to 25 cm. long. 
 
 Anoplocephala mammillana of horses, 1 to 3 cm. long. 
 
 In dogs are found : 
 
 T. hydatigena (T. marginata), 1| to 2 m. long, which is the adult of Cysti- 
 cercus tenuicollis of sheep, hogs, and cattle. 
 
 T. pisiformis (T. serrata), \ to 1 m. long, which is the adult of Cysticercus 
 pisiformis of hares. 
 
 T. coenurus (Multiceps multiceps) , 40 to 60 cm. long, which is the adult of 
 Coenurus cerebralis of sheep. 
 
 Dipylidium caninum (T. cucumerina), 10 to . FIG. 91 
 
 40 cm. long. Its cysticercus stage is in the dog 
 louse (Trichodectus canis latus) and in the dog 
 flea (Pulex serraticeps) . 
 
 T. echinococcus, 3 to 4 mm. long, which has its 
 origin from either the Echinococcus unilocularis 
 or E. multilocularis (page 244) of ruminants and 
 hogs (Fig. 89). 
 
 FIG. 89 
 
 FIG. 90 
 
 Full-grown Tcenia echino- 
 coccus. X 12 diameters. 
 (After Ziegler.) 
 
 Head of the Dibothrio- 
 cephalus latus (Bremser), 
 enlarged. (After Heller.) 
 
 Fasciola hepatica, with male 
 and female sexual organs. X 3.2 
 diameters. (After Lcuckart.) 
 
 Dibothriocephalus latus (Bothriocephalus latus}, the larval stages of which 
 are found in the muscles of pike, perch, eel, pout, grayling, and trout (Fig. 90). 
 
 Recent investigations (Vaullegeard) appear to establish the fact that heavy 
 parasitic infestations occasion the production of toxin-like poisonous products 
 in the intestines. 
 
 FLUKES. Fasciola hepatica (Distomum hepaticum), the large distoma, 
 occurs in the bile ducts of the liver of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs (very 
 rarely), and deer. Distoma or their remains are occasionally found in 
 the lungs, spleen, heart, subcutis, muscles, and beneath the serous 
 membranes. 
 
PARAS1 TIC DISEAHKS 
 
 This leaf-shaped worm is 20 to 40 mm. long and 12 to 15 mm. broad 
 at its widest portion. Its color is muddy yellow to greenish brown. 
 It has an oral and ventral sucker and its cuticula bears scale-like thorns 
 (Fig. 91). 
 
 The invasion of the distoma occurs in the larval state (Cercaria). The 
 parasite develops in small water snails (Limnoeus minutus and L. pereger] 
 and is ingested with food or water. In the intestines the Cercaria burst their 
 cyst wall and wander through the ductus choledochus into the liver; some 
 may also reach this destination by penetrating an intestinal vein and entering 
 the portal circulation. They develop in the bile ducts of the liver, become 
 sexually mature, and with the bile enter the intestinal canal, to be discharged 
 with the feces. 
 
 The lesions in the liver depend on the intensity and duration of 
 invasion. If the latter is recent (three weeks) and heavy, symptoms 
 of acute inflammation of the liver may be observed. Occasionally 
 hemorrhages of the liver also occur. Later, changes are found in the 
 bile ducts ranging from simple catarrh of the mucous membrane of 
 the bile ducts to a chronic hyperplastic inflammation of their walls 
 with considerable hypertrophy and calcareous incrustations. Either 
 synchronously or later a chronic interstitial hepatitis with indurations 
 and contractions (hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver) may develop. 
 In the majority of cases the liver tissue itself remains unchanged. 
 Occasionally, suppurative cysts, in which living or dead flukes reside, 
 are found in the parenchyma of the liver communicating with the bile 
 ducts. 
 
 Jaeger attributes the action of the distomes on the tissue of the liver to 
 their toxic products of metabolism. 
 
 Invasion by the liver fluke does not visibly disturb the general 
 condition of other animals, but in the sheep, when the disease is severe 
 and extensive (liver fluke pest or rot), it, as a rule, occasions serious 
 losses by producing digestive disturbances, icterus, anemia, and cachexia. 
 
 Examination. These flukes are found by expression of the bile 
 ducts after incisions into the liver, so as to strike the main ducts; for 
 instance, on the stomach surface of the liver of cattle, to the left of the 
 portal canal and at the base of the Lobus Spigelii. 
 
 Dicroccelium lanceatum (Distomum lanceolatum) , the lancet-shaped 
 fluke, is most common in the liver of sheep, rarer in cattle, hogs, rabbits, 
 hares, and also in man. 
 
 The worm attains a length of only 4 to 9 mm., and a width of 1 to 2.5 
 mm. (Fig. 92). Its anterior portion is quite motile, and stained black 
 in parts. The mode of invasion resembles that of Distomum hepaticum. 
 
 This liver fluke may also infest whole herds and produce numerous 
 deaths, as Roemer observed in goats. 
 
 Findings and Examination. The parasite occasions only slight catar- 
 rhal changes in the bile ducts, and its presence is frequently not dis- 
 cernible at the surface of the liver. They are, therefore, found only 
 
240 
 
 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 on incision of the bile ducts, where they are frequently present in large 
 numbers. 
 
 Judgment. The judgment of distomatosis depends on the number of 
 flukes and the probable changes in the liver. If the latter are absent, or 
 restricted to the large bile ducts and the distomes are confined to these, 
 they may be entirely removed by careful dissection of the bile ducts and 
 the remaining tissue of the liver utilized. If, however, the flukes are 
 also present in the smaller bile passages, or if severe indurative or 
 suppurative processes are present, the whole organ is confiscated and 
 destroyed. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 23, if the 
 liver shows an infestation with flukes it should be condemned.! 
 
 FIG. 92 
 
 Dicroccelium Janceatum: s', oral sucker 
 and entrance to the fork-shaped intestine; 
 s", ventral sucker; h, testicle with vasa 
 deferentia; c, cirrus; u, uterus; o, ovarium; 
 shell I, canal of Laurer and yolk gland; d, 
 glands; w, excretory vessel; g, ganglion. 
 X 8 diameters. (After Hertwig.) 
 
 Paramphistomum cervi is a reddish- white 
 fluke, the shape of a ten-pin (Endloch). It 
 is from 4 to 12 mm. long, 1 to 3 mm. 
 thick, and is found on the mucosa of the 
 first and second stomachs of cattle, sheep, 
 goats, deer, and buffalo. It is rare in Ger- 
 many and of no importance whatever. 
 
 PROTOZOA Coccidium zurnii is of interest, 
 as it causes the red diarrhea of cattle 
 (dysenteria hsemorrhagica coccidiosa, Hess). 
 
 FIG. 93 
 
 Coccidia in the various stages of development, 
 from the bile duct of a rabbit's liver: a, 6, small 
 granular, young forms; c, d, larger forms with dark- 
 stained border granules; e, f, 0. A, oval, encapsulated 
 forms, the protoplasma of which fills up a portion 
 of the capsule. X 400 diameters. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 The oval or spherical unicellular coccidia belong to the Sporozoa and inhabit 
 the epithelium of the intestinal mucosa, producing severe inflammatory pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 The symptoms in the living animal may be summarized as a usually acute 
 diarrhea, mixed with blood and accompanied by a general febrile condition. 
 In the slaughtered animal severe inflammation of the intestines is found with 
 blood-red intestinal contents. 
 
 Judgment. In the judgment of such cattle the meat cannot be considered as 
 dangerous to health, yet on account of the existing severe general disturbance 
 its value is impaired. In very severe cases where the animals are greatly ema- 
 ciated, the meat is sometimes unfit for human food. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 241 
 
 The Coccidiutn ov if or me (Eimeria stiedoe), Fig. 93, inhabits the epithelium of 
 the bile ducts of the rabbit liver, and produces abscess-like nodules and cysts. 
 
 Coccidium perforans, which is also parasitic in the intestinal epithelia of 
 rabbits, produces profuse diarrhea. It is said to occur also in the intestinal 
 epithelia of sheep and calves. 
 
 Coccidium fuscum occasions the shot-like skin eruptions (Schrotausschlag) 
 of the hog. 
 
 Parasites of the Pleura and Peritoneum. Cysticercus tenuicollis. 
 The slender-necked bladder worm is a frequent parasite of hogs 
 and ruminants, particularly of sheep. It is often found on and beneath 
 the serous membranes, especially of the omentum, mesentery, and 
 liver in the form of flabby bladders, or vesicles, rilled with serous fluid, 
 ranging in size from a pea to a man's fist. Occasionally, the Cysticercus 
 tenuicollis has been encountered in the lung tissue of the hog. In a 
 fully grown state the bladders are joined by a long, thin neck, to a 
 scolex, from which the Tcenia marginata of the dog develops, after a 
 change of host. The scolex contains four suckers and a double crown 
 of 32 to 40 hooks. 
 
 Extensive peritonitis is sometimes produced in hogs in cases of 
 heavy invasion of the parasites beneath the folds of the abdominal 
 serosa, resulting in extensive adhesions of the abdominal organs. The 
 dead cysticerci may be found in large numbers among the peritoneal 
 folds as spherical, nodular, or more flattened formations, ranging in size 
 from milletseeds to hazel nuts, and composed of whitish to yellowish- 
 brown caseous material with a membranoid envelope (the thickened 
 serosa) . 
 
 The nature of the nodules, as a rule, is easily ascertained macro- 
 scopically by making smears of the contents of the larger and softer 
 caseous nodules, which should contain portions of the cysticercus 
 membrane, and microscopically by the presence of hooks and calcareous 
 bodies. 
 
 The calcareous concrements occasionally encountered in the muscula- 
 ture of sheep may be produced by the invasion of slender-necked cysti- 
 cerci, according to Glage. 
 
 Relatively young animals may harbor the parasite, as the development of 
 the thin-necked bladder worm from the tapeworm ova occurs within five to six 
 weeks. At this stage they lie, as a rule, beneath the serous membrane. In 
 further development the bladder worms increase the protrusion of the serosa 
 more and more, but always remain covered by it. In young animals which 
 have recently ingested numerous tapeworm ova, serpentine paths in the liver 
 are occasionally encountered. These are filled with dark red, brownish, or 
 greenish masses, and indicate the course traversed by the bladder-worm embryos. 
 Should the parasites remain in the interior of the organs, especially the liver, 
 they barely attain the size of a pea, and rapidly undergo cheesy and calcareous 
 degeneration. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. The slender-necked bladder worms never 
 occur between the muscle fibers as matured parasites, but they have, 
 nevertheless, been confounded with true measles, when found as pea- 
 16 
 
242 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 sized vesicles in places where the serosa lies directly in contact with 
 the musculature (diaphragm, pillars of- the diaphragm, abdominal, 
 intercostal, and sternal muscles). Such errors do not occur when exami- 
 nation is made of 
 
 1. The favorite site of true measles (C. celluloses or C. bovis), where 
 the thin-necked measles never occur (tongue, larynx, heart muscula- 
 ture). If no measles are found there it is improbable that the doubtful 
 structure is a true measle. 
 
 2. The scolex of the doubtful bladder worms under the microscope, 
 carefully noting the number and shape of the hooks. 
 
 To avoid mistaking the caseous or calcified thin-necked bladder 
 worms for tuberculous areas, it is essential to bear in mind the character- 
 istic structure of the latter, and to ascertain the absence of infection 
 of the lymphatic glands of the organ under consideration. 
 
 Cysticercus pisiformis. The pea-shaped bladder worm (the larval stage 
 of the Tcenia pisiformis (T. serrata) of the clog) is quite common in the lungs 
 and liver, and especially prevalent in the serous lining of the thoracic and 
 abdominal cavities of rabbits and hares. Sometimes the infestation occurs 
 epizootically, and it is then spoken of as rabbit venery; and in some cases 
 it is at times held to be tuberculosis, as caseation and calcification of the cysts 
 occur within the organs. 
 
 On echinococci of serous membranes, see page 244. 
 
 OTHER PARASITES. Filaria equina, a round worm 6 to 15 cm. long, has been 
 found free in the abdominal cavity of horses; and Strongylus armatus (Kitt) 
 has been found in the same animal. Migrating liver flukes may also find their 
 way into the serous cavities and become attached to serous membranes. 
 
 Parasites in the Brain. Coenurus cerebralis (Multiceps mulliceps). 
 Cerebral bladder-worm cysts, filled with serous fluid, varying in size 
 from a pea to a hen's egg, occur in the brains of sheep, more rarely 
 in cattle, and produce the so-called gid, or staggers. 
 
 Large numbers of milletseed-sized whitish granules are situated on the 
 inner wall of the cysts. These are the scolices, from which the Tcenia ccenurus 
 of the dog is developed. 
 
 The development of ccenurus cysts occupies two to two and one-half months. 
 The embryos, which have been set free from the ova in the digestive tract, 
 are largely disseminated embolically. As early as eight to fourteen days after 
 invasion bluish- white cysts are found on the surface of the brain. They have 
 a diameter of 1 to 3 mm., and show sulphur-yellow streaks. Similar streaks, 
 indicating the path of the wandering onchospheres, may be also found in other 
 organs, in which there are later observed spherical, encapsulated areas with 
 greenish pus-like contents (cestodal tuberculosis, pseudotuberculosis verminosa) . 
 These areas are transformed by calcification into fibrous, calciform nodules 
 (chalicosis nodularis). 
 
 Occasionally, ccenurus cysts (C. serialis) are seen in the abdominal cavity 
 and muscles of hares and rabbits. 
 
 Other parasites occurring in the central nervous system, such as Cyxliccrcu* 
 cellulose? and CEstrus larvce, are mentioned elsewhere. 
 
 For the judgment of parasitic organ affections, sec page 232. 
 
 Parasitic General Diseases. Peniaxionnnu deuiiculaiurn. - The 
 denticulate pentastome is the larval stage of the tapeworm-like 
 
PLATE III 
 
 FIG. 1 
 
 Section of a Mesenterie Lymph Gland of a Cow 
 with Pentastome Foci. 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 Section of a Tuberculous Bronchial Lymph Gland 
 from a Cow. 
 
1'ARASITIC DltiEAXKS 243 
 
 five-mouth parasite . (Pentastomum s. Linguatula rhinaria), considered 
 under parasites of the respiratory system (page 235). It inhabits the 
 intestines, lymphatic glands, and the under surface of the serous mem- 
 branes of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, deer, rabbit, and hare. 
 
 Development. The young larvae escape from the ova ingested into the 
 intestinal tract with food, pierce the intestinal wall, and enter the various 
 organs actively or embolically. They are most common in the liver, mesenteric, 
 inguinal and iliac lymphatic glands, but are also found in the lung, spleen, pleura, 
 and peritoneum. They become encysted, undergo various changes, and six 
 to seven months after invasion the mature larva, P. denticulatum, is found. 
 It either dies or wanders actively through the peritoneal or pleural cavities 
 into the intestines or bronchi, in order to reach the beginning of the respiratory 
 apparatus, and thus escape. 
 
 The larval invasion and its results produce milletseed-sized white 
 nodules, which lead to the suspicion of tuberculosis. In the lymphatic 
 glands, especially on the periphery, 
 irregular, milletseed to hazelnut-sized FlG - 94 
 
 areas of yellowish or greenish-gray 
 color are formed (Plate III, Fig. 1). 
 The parasites occur within this caseous 
 or mortar-like substance as whitish, 
 flat larvae, 6 to 8 mm. long, an anterior 
 width of 1.2 to 2 mm. and narrower 
 posteriorly. The segmented body, 
 covered with tooth-like thorns, is sup- 
 plied with two pairs of hooks on either 
 side of the mouth (Fig. 94). The 
 latter are permanent and may be dem- Hea d of Pentastomum denticulatum. x 40 
 
 OUStrated microscopically when the diameters. (According to Ziegler.) 
 
 pentastoma larvae die and decompose. 
 
 Recognition or Identification and False Interpretation. The recog- 
 nition of the larval site is not difficult if the places in question and the 
 lymphatic glands are cut open. They may be mistaken for tuberculous 
 areas unless it is remembered that : 
 
 1. Tuberculous areas do not occur in the peripheral zone of the 
 lymphatic glands only, but also in their interior. 
 
 2. Tuberculous areas caseate from the centre and are surrounded by 
 a gray peripheral layer, whereas pentastomum areas possess a uniform 
 caseous consistence. 
 
 3. Caseous tuberculous areas are yellow, while caseated pentasto- 
 mum areas give a greenish color (Plate III, Fig. 1). 
 
 4. In beginning calcification, tuberculous areas retain their yellow 
 color; the pentastomum areas on the contrary turn gray, and 
 
 5. In pentastomum areas the larvae or their hooks are easily demon- 
 strated. 
 
 Judgment.- Direct transmission of the pentastoma larvae to man, 
 through eating meat, is most improbable. The portions of meat show- 
 ing a heavy infestation with P. denticulatum are not to be considered 
 
244 - 
 
 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 dangerous to health, but at the most are to be designated as greatly 
 impaired in value. Parts or organs extensively invaded are to be 
 removed as unfit for use, while isolated areas in valuable organs (liver) 
 may be excised. 
 
 [In the United States, organs infested with P. denticulalum are 
 condemned.] 
 
 The indirect harmfulness of the pentastoma larvae for man is shown 
 by its relation to P. t&nioides of man and dog; and for this reason 
 special care should be exercised to prevent dogs from eating organs 
 infested with P. denticulatum. 
 
 Particularly careful examination is required in pentastomatosis of 
 body lymph glands to avoid mistaking it for tuberculosis. 
 
 FIG. 95 
 
 
 Wall of an echinococcus cyst with brood capsules and scolices: a, chitin membrane (cuticula); b, 
 layer of parenchyma with cystic cells; c, daughter cysts; d, e, f, g, h, scolices in various stages of develop- 
 ment. X 100 diameters. (According to Ziegler). 
 
 Echinococci. Echinococci are bladder worms whose scolices are 
 not situated immediately or directly on the inner surface of the cyst 
 walls, but they are surrounded by separate capsules (proligerous 
 vesicles or daughter cysts) which are attached to the enveloping 
 membrane by a pedicle, or they exist free within the serous fluid which 
 fills the cysts. 
 
 Echinococci (Echinococcus polymorphus) occur in all animals used for 
 slaughter; most commonly, however, in sheep, hogs, and cattle. They 
 form the asexual stage of Tcenia echinococcus, the three-segmented 
 tapeworm of the dog (page 238), and occur in two forms as 
 
 (a) Echinococcus polymorphus s. unilocularis s. simplex, and 
 
 (b) Echinococcus multilocularis s. alveolaris. 
 
 Echinococci develop from the ova or onchospheres of the Tcenia echinococcus 
 after they reach the alimentary tract. According to recent observations by 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 245 
 
 Mangold, Miiller, von Linstow, Posselt, this taenia exists in the dog in two 
 varieties, which externally, however, appear very similar. The dissemination 
 of the embryos from the intestines is mainly through the portal circulation. 
 For this reason the liver is the organ most commonly infested with develop- 
 ing echinococcus cysts. According to Leuckart the development is compara- 
 tively slow. White nodules of about 1 millimeter in size may be seen four 
 weeks after invasion, and after four more weeks the cystic nodules have only 
 attained a size of 1.5 to 2.5 mm. with a central cavity containing fluid. Only 
 at the age of five months have they attained 15 to 20 mm. in size, and the 
 first proligerous or daughter cysts with scolices are then formed. 
 
 The echinococci degenerate easily and undergo caseation or calcifi- 
 cation. The initial stage of this degeneration is a softening and fatty 
 change of the parenchyma layer, and a transformation of the partly 
 transudated echinococcic fluid into a sticky honey-like mass. In sheep 
 the cyst wall may become cartilaginous, or it may even calcify. The 
 scolices of the echinococci die as a result of the processes of degenera- 
 tion. 
 
 Echinococcus polymorphus s. unilocularis s. simplex. The simple echi- 
 nococcus cyst ranges in size from a pea to a child's head. It may be 
 transparent or opaque, light gray to pure white, and may appear in 
 all animals that are slaughtered, especially in sheep, hogs, and cattle. 
 They are principally found in the liver and lung, but they may also 
 be present in all other organs of the body, even in the heart, bones, 
 udder, brain, muscles. Of the organs infested with echinococci, the 
 liver particularly may increase enormously in size and weight. 
 
 The unilocular echinococci are always enclosed by a connective- 
 tissue capsule (organic membrane of Ostertag), which results from the 
 reaction of the immediately surrounding structures, and separates 
 the parasite from the neighboring tissues of the organ. 
 
 FIG. 96 
 
 Closed and ruptured brood capsules with scolices in connection with the parenchymatous layer 
 of the cystic wall. X 40 diameters. (According to Leuckart.) 
 
 The true wall of the echinococcic cysts is composed of a laminated cuticula 
 and a parenchymatous layer in which calcareous bodies may be found. Should 
 the parenchymatous layer remain smooth upon its inner surface the echinococcus 
 will contain only fluid, and is then called E. cysticus sterilis; this is the most 
 common form in slaughter animals. If proligerous vesicles (Fig. 96) develop 
 from the parenchymatous layer, the E. fertilis is formed; this form is found 
 most frequently in hogs and sheep. A formation of so-called daughter cysts, 
 having the same structure as the mother cyst, may develop from portions of 
 
246 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 the parenchymatous layer which have remained between the layers of the 
 cuticula (M. Braun). Originating in the substance of the cuticle, they distend 
 the wall of the mother cyst, either outwardly (E. granulosus] or inwardly 
 (E. hydatidosus) . In the latter case the daughter cysts may rupture the inner- 
 most layers of the wall of the mother cyst, be set free, and fall into the mother 
 cyst. The early growing forms of the echinococci, according to Leuckart, 
 appear as whitish bodies the size of sago seed, which, under the microscope, 
 show a structureless enveloping membrane of granular formation within. 
 
 Echinococcus multilocularis s. alveolar is. The many-chambered hy- 
 datid occurs as a tumor-like growth (Fig. 97) in the liver and lungs, 
 especially in cattle. It has been found occasionally in the spleen 
 and kidneys and other organs in sheep, also in hogs. In hogs it 
 occurs in a form differing from that in cattle, and is more like the 
 alveolar echinococcus found in man (Ostertag). The multilocular 
 echinococcus is composed of numerous small cysts or vesicles em- 
 bedded in a connective-tissue network. TJie latter is delicate and 
 thin in small echinococcus cysts, but during growth attains consider- 
 
 FIG. 97 
 
 Section through liver of cow with Echinococcus multilocularis. 
 
 able thickness in the large forms. According to size and age, the 
 individual , vesicles of the multilocular echinococci are either soft and 
 elastic, with thin walls and filled with serous fluid, or gelatinous, caseated, 
 and calcified. The centres of larger echinococci are usually of the 
 latter consistence, while the peripheral layers are made of the former. 
 The hydatid grows by the formation of new daughter cysts from the 
 mother cysts. These emerge from within, are freed by the connective 
 tissue, and themselves form mother cysts, which, in their turn, send 
 out daughter cysts toward the periphery. 
 
 In other respects the single vesicle of the alveolar echinococcus is similar 
 to the structure of the simple echinococcus; but, according to v. Linstow, 
 E. alveolaris has fewer hooks than E. cysticus (26 as compared with 36). They 
 are not identical biologically, and two different varieties of echinococcus develop 
 (see page 238). 
 
 The alveolar echinococcus found in the pleura of hogs by Ostertag gave 
 the impression of a miliary pearl disease. The numerous milletseed-shaped 
 nodules were grayish yellow, of firm consistence, and enclosed fresh and caseated 
 hydatids containing scolices. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES . 247 
 
 The recognition of echinococci is easy after they become visible 
 on the surface of the organs and if they have not degenerated. When 
 deeply located within the organs, palpation will disclose the large 
 cysts; smaller ones, however, can only be discovered by section. The 
 alveolar echiriococcus and caseated or calcified simple echinococci may 
 be mistaken for tuberculosis unless it is noted that in echinococcus 
 disease: 
 
 1. The lymph glands belonging to the organ are free of the infection. 
 
 2. In the caseous or calcareous masses are contained delicate mem- 
 branous remnants, the hull or enveloping membrane of the proligerous 
 vesicles, or the remnants of the main membrane of the mother cyst. 
 
 3. The cuticula of the echinococcus wall shows microscopically a 
 banded or striped structure (Fig. 95). 
 
 4. The caseated or calcified contents of unilocular cysts are easily 
 removed from the surrounding smooth-walled connective-tissue capsule. 
 
 Judgment. In the judgment of echinococci it must be remembered 
 that they are not transmissible to man by ingestion. The parasites 
 themselves, however, are objectionable formations, and whenever 
 found in small numbers in any organ, they should be carefully excised, 
 while the organ infested is to be cut in layers. When present in great 
 numbers the organ becomes unfit for food, and should be condemned. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 17, Para- 
 graph 3, the presence of an organ found infested with echinococcus 
 cysts does not affect the wholesomeness of the meat, and the carcass 
 may be passed for food after condemnation of the infested part or 
 organ.] 
 
 The importance of the echinococcus cyst to man lies in the easy transmission 
 of the ova of Tcenia echinococcus of the dog to man. This is proved by the 
 fact that echinococcus disease in man is proportional to that of domestic animals 
 in those localities in which the animal echinococci are not carefully removed, 
 thus allowing dogs to gain access to the tissues containing echinococci. The 
 echinococcus cysts in man formed from the Tcenia echinococcus of the dog are 
 developed in the same way as in animals and in almost every case lead to 
 severe disturbance of health and may even prove fatal. For this reason the 
 careful removal of all echinococci through meat inspection is of the greatest 
 sanitary value and importance. 
 
 Measles. The true measles of food-producing animals are the larval 
 stages of two varieties of tapeworms in man. There are for considera- 
 tion, therefore, two corresponding forms of measles: 
 
 (a) Cysticercus celluloses, the pork measle. 
 
 (6) Cysticercus bovis, the beef measle. 
 
 The transition stage of a third tapeworm of man, found in the flesh 
 of fish, namely, that of Bothriocephalus latus, will be considered in 
 Chapter X. 
 
 The larval stages of the Bothriocephalus liguloides, which occur in man in 
 Japan, according to Miyake, need not be considered here. The same is true 
 of the hydatids of Tcenia krabbei, which Rusche reported in reindeer meat. 
 The tapeworm in question is parasitic in dogs. The hydatids are somewhat 
 smaller than hog measles, their scolex having 26 to 39 hooks of various sizes. 
 
248 
 
 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 FIG. 98 
 
 Generalities and Development. The measles develop from the tape- 
 worm eggs which have gained access to the stomach of the respective 
 host where they are freed from their covering. Either actively or 
 passively the developing embryos gain access to all parts of the body, 
 and form the so-called measles in the connective tissue of the animal, 
 especially in the striated musculature. They appear as round or 
 oval, transparent, colorless to grayish-white vesicles, ranging in size 
 from a milletseed to a double pea, and are filled with a serous fluid. 
 An invagination of the cyst wall, the site of the future tapeworm, 
 shows the scolex as a whitish translucent spot. The measles are sepa- 
 rated from the surrounding tissues by the so-called bladder worm 
 capsule, a delicate, connective-tissue membrane, formed by the reaction 
 of the cellular tissue. In microscopic examination of a cyst whose 
 
 scolex has been extruded by gentle 
 pressure between two glass plates, four 
 suckers are observed, and sometimes 
 crowns of hooks on the spherical or pear- 
 shaped head (scolex). In the so-called 
 neck numerous calcareous bodies and a 
 cross-striation pointing to the future 
 segments are found. The development 
 of measles in animals follows ingestion 
 of tapeworm ova, whose onchospheres 
 (embryos), supplied with hooks, are 
 largely carried from the intestines to the 
 widely divergent portions of the body 
 (connective tissue of the body) by the 
 blood stream. The measles, especially 
 those of cattle, may at any stage of 
 their development undergo degeneration 
 hypertrophy of the sac surrounding 
 the measle, coagulation necrosis, casea- 
 tion, suppuration, calcification, and they 
 usually lose their capacity for further 
 development, which is decided by the 
 If the latter cannot be demonstrated, or 
 is easily crushed, the measles are no doubt dead. The viability of 
 measles is limited, temperatures of 45 to 50 C. causing them to die; 
 a strong salt solution will also kill them in a short while. The measles 
 survive the death of their host for several weeks. The fact that meat 
 is spoiled does not necessarily mean death of the hydatids. 
 
 Intrauterine infection of the fetus with embryos of measles, as some 
 observations from practice would indicate, is not yet proved. 
 
 Cysticercus celluloses. Measles of pork is the asexual transition or 
 larval stage of the hermit tapeworm ( Tcenia solium) of man. The 
 bluish-white cysts of pork measles and the surrounding bladders are 
 very thin; through them the invaginated scolex may be distinctly 
 seen. The latter has four suckers and a rostellum with double crown 
 of 22 to 28 hooks (Fig. 98), which are absent in beef measles. 
 
 Scolex of the hog measle. Squeeze pre- 
 paration. X 50 diameters. 
 
 intactness of the scolex. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 249 
 
 Occurrence Situation. Pork measles are found particularly in the 
 connective tissues of domestic and wild hogs; they are rarely observed 
 in sheep, goat, dog, bear, cat, deer, buck, monkey, and man. The 
 favorite site is the intermuscular tissue of the heart, tongue, larnyx, 
 abdomen, diaphragm, flanks, cheeks, neck, sternum, intercostal muscles, 
 and adductors of the hind legs. When infestation is heavy they may 
 be found in all muscles of the body, in the panniculus adiposus, and 
 in the brain; very rarely in the lung and liver. In case of marked 
 invasion, the musculature is aqueous and discolored a grayish red. 
 When a heavy invasion occurs the measles may be recognized beneath 
 the mucosa of the tongue in the living animal. 
 
 Frequency. The number of measly hogs has been decreasing steadily in 
 Germany, thanks to meat inspection. The number of measly hogs is in general 
 much larger in East Germany than in the west and south. 
 
 According to the government meat-inspection statistics of the year 1904, 
 measles were found in 0.25 per cent, of all slaughtered hogs in the German 
 Empire. Infection is much more common in hogs in Russia and Austria- 
 Hungary; Prettner, of Prag, found measles in 3.44 per cent, of the hogs in 
 Austria-Hungary. 
 
 Careful examination of the favorite sites makes the detection of 
 measles easy. The tongue muscles are always to be separated, and 
 the heart should be laid open with a cut exposing both chambers and 
 dividing wall. In doubtful cases a microscopic examination should 
 be made. This will determine the presence or absence of the hooks, 
 their number, etc. The hooks remain intact even in caseous or calcified 
 measles. 
 
 To avoid error, the thin-necked bladder worm (Cysticercus tenuicollis), 
 whose characteristics were described on page 241, must be borne in 
 mind. From a differential diagnostic point of view, the following 
 indications are especially to be observed: 
 
 1. The thin-necked bladder worm is never situated intermuscularly; 
 if present it will be found on muscles covered with serous membrane 
 (abdominal, diaphragmatic, intercostal, and sternal muscles). 
 
 2. In the isolated specimen of Cysticercus tenuicollis attention is 
 called to the thin neck and the presence of more than 28 hooks (32 
 to 40) on the scolex. 
 
 3. The hooks of Cysticercus tenuicollis are more sickle-shaped (Fig. 
 100) ; those of Cysticercus celluloses shaped more scythe-like. Some of the 
 smaller hooks of the former possess, in addition, a cleft or bifurcated 
 basal process, which is not found in Cysticercus celluloses (Schwarz) 
 (Fig. 99). 
 
 Even small echinococci may most exceptionally occur in the muscu- 
 lature in cases of unusually heavy infestation, but by bearing the 
 characteristic signs of this parasite in mind, no difficulty should be 
 encountered in recognizing it. 
 
 In the differentiation of caseous and calcified measles, there come 
 into consideration 
 
250 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 1. Embolic suppurations in the muscles, 
 
 2. Calcareous areas' of degeneration. 
 
 3. Calcified parasites (trichinae, echinococci, thin-necked bladder 
 worms. 
 
 These occur very rarely in the musculature and present such definite 
 characteristic appearances in the area affected that a careful examina- 
 tion will prevent mistaking them for measles. 
 
 Judgment. Measly pork in a raw or improperly cooked condition is 
 harmful to man, inasmuch as the hermit tapeworm develops in man from 
 the measle. This parasite, 2 to 3.5 m. in length, is injurious to man. 
 
 1. By causing disturbances of digestion and nervous symptoms, 
 which may be present more or less markedly according to the individual 
 susceptibility of the patient. 
 
 2. By removal of foodstuffs (nutrition). 
 
 3. By the danger of auto-infection with measles. 
 
 FIG. 99 IMG. JOO 
 
 Hooks of the Cysticercus cellulosce. Hooks of the Cy slice-mix teniiicollix. 
 
 Auto-infection may be caused by uncleanliness in defecation, or through 
 antiperistalsis, in which the ova or mature segments of the tapeworm may 
 gain entrance into the stomach of the affected individual and reproduce in 
 this way the same measle development which occurs in the regular way of change 
 of host in the hog. But the development of this species in the human bod}' 
 is of special gravity and danger, as it frequently appears in the cerebrum, spinal 
 cord, and eyes, producing severe disturbance of health and even death. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 17, Para- 
 graph 1, carcasses affected with Cysticercus cellulosce may be passed 
 for lard unless the infestation is excessive, in which case the carcass 
 is condemned.] 
 
 Regulations. As stated on page 248, measles may be made harm- 
 less by high temperature and strong salt solutions. For this reason 
 measly pork may be utilized for food, provided the infestation is not 
 too heavy. Meat is considered heavily infested when the measles are 
 found alive or dead in large numbers in areas as large as the palm of 
 the hand, on incising muscles in the favorite location of the measles. 
 This is the case, as a rule, when in the majority of the cut surfaces 
 more than one measle is found in each section. 
 
 Heavily infested measly meat possesses characteristics which pro- 
 duce a general disgust and make the meat unfit for food. This is also 
 
PARA til TIC DIXEAHKH 251 
 
 true when the meat, without being heavily infested with measles, is 
 aqueous or discolored. 
 
 Anent the utility of measly meat, the true musculature is to be con- 
 sidered separate from the fat and the viscera. Measles rarely occur in 
 the fat and in the viscera, nor are either of these used for food in 
 the raw state. Special regulations, therefore, apply to these tissues. 
 
 Lightly infested measly meat (Cysticercus cellnlosce) may be made 
 harmless by the following methods: 
 
 1. Thorough Boiling. Inasmuch as a temperature over 49 C. 
 destroys measles, thoroughly boiled pork which assumes a grayish- 
 white color throughout, even in the thickest portions, and in which 
 the juice emanating on section is no longer red, is to be considered 
 harmless. 
 
 2. Pickling Salting. If pork has been thoroughly salted for two 
 to three weeks the measles will be destroyed with certainty. 
 
 3. Freezing Refrigeration. After large pieces of pork have been 
 kept for four days at a temperature 8 to 10 C. below zero, the measles 
 contained therein will be found dead. This method has, however, not 
 been accepted or incorporated into legal regulations. 
 
 The method of killing beef measles (see page 253) by sufficiently long pre- 
 servation of the meat, cannot be employed in pork measles, as they have been 
 found viable forty-two days after the death of the host (Ostertag). 
 
 For inspection regulations, see page 252. 
 
 Cysticercus inermis s. bovis. The beef measle is the asexual inter- 
 mediate or, larval stage of the tapeworm Tcenia saginata s. T.medio- 
 canellata s. T. inermis of man. The usually oval, grayish-white 
 vesicles contain the scoiex, which may be seen within the cyst. The 
 scolex contains four suckers, but no crown of hooks. Numerous cal- 
 careous (small) bodies may be seen microscopically in the neck of the 
 scolex. The size, of the measles varies, according to Kaeppel, from 
 5 to 19 mm. in length and 3 to 8.5 mm. in width. 
 
 Ostertag was the first to establish the fact that numerous measles 
 may become completely disintegrated and be absorbed later. This 
 explains the excess of infestation in younger cattle. 
 
 Processes of degeneration are much more common in beef measles 
 than in pork measles, and may appear at any stage of development. 
 Measles of the viscera, masticatory muscle and tongue muscle are 
 most susceptible to degeneration and the processes of caseation are 
 frequently recognized by their green color. If the scolex has also 
 been destroyed in these retrogressive metamorphoses, and is not demon- 
 strable microscopically, the measles are without doubt dead. 
 
 Occurrence Prevalence. Beef measles occur relatively seldom in 
 suckling calves, more frequently in older calves and beeves in the' 
 intermuscular connective tissue, although usually in small numbers. 
 Sites of predilection are the inner (M. pterygoid. medial, et lateral.) 
 and outer (M. masseter) muscles of mastication, heart and tongue 
 muscles. Next in order are the muscles of the diaphragm, diaphragmatic 
 
252 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 pillars, esophagus, larynx, thorax, intercostals, and rump muscles; 
 and, in fact, they are found in all the muscles of the body, but their 
 distribution is very irregular. Nests of measles may be met with 
 suddenly in the centre of a large uninfested area. In severe or heavy 
 invasion the lungs, liver, brain, lymphatic glands and fatty tissue are 
 also affected, but measles have been found in these organs or regions 
 in isolated numbers, in even very slight infestations. 
 
 FIG. 101 
 
 Scolex of the Cysticercus bovis. X 50 diameters. 
 
 Frequency. According to the Government meat-inspection statistics for 
 the year 1904, measles occurred in the German Empire in 3.2 of every 1000 
 head of cattle slaughtered, as follows: 5.13 steers, 6.03 bulls, 1.67 cows, 3.21 
 young beeves, and 0.024 calves. 
 
 C. bovis does not occur in reindeer meat, but the armed measles of Tcenia 
 krabbei are found there (see page 247). 
 
 In order to detect beef measles it is absolutely necessary to make 
 several cuts into the inner and outer muscles of mastication, to inspect 
 carefully the tongue musculature, also to inspect carefully the heart 
 externally and internally after laying open the chambers and cutting 
 through the dividing wall. It is understood that all other surfaces 
 as well as cut surfaces of the remaining muscles should be inspected 
 for beef measles. The discovery of doubtful formations and degenerated 
 measles requires a microscopic examination. 
 
 In regard to the likelihood of mistaking beef measles for similar 
 structures, reference should be made to the points presented on page 
 249 in connection with pork measles. The special morphologic 
 characteristics of beef measles are always to be borne in mind. 
 
I 'Mi' A SI TIC DISEASES 
 
 253 
 
 Judgment. Raw, measly beef must be considered injurious to man, 
 as the 4 to 6 meter long Toenia saginata is developed in man from the 
 ingested beef measle. The effect of infestation in man is the same as 
 that of infestation with Tcenia solium (see page 250), except that the 
 danger of auto-infection has not been observed in the hosts of Tcenia 
 saginata. 
 
 Legal Regulations for Inspection of Slaughter Animals Infested with Measles 
 
 Injurious to Health 
 
 Judging of the meat. 
 
 Finding. 
 
 Heavy infestation with 
 measles. (Measles occur 
 alive or dead, in a large 
 number of the pre- 
 scribed muscle sections 
 or the meat is aqueous 
 or discolored without re- 
 gard to the grade of 
 measle infestation.) 
 
 2. Slight infestation with 
 measles. (All cases of 
 finding live measles with 
 exception of heavy in- 
 festation with measles, 
 etc., as under 1, and of 
 one-measled infestation 
 as under 3.) 
 
 3. One measle: (a) Only one 
 measle (live) has been 
 found, even after exami- 
 nation of the animal 
 body upon section into 
 pieces of about 2.5 kg. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Hogs, sheep, goats. 
 
 The whole body is unfit for food with the following exceptions: 
 
 Fat, liver, spleen, kidneys, 
 stomach and intestines, 
 
 Liver, spleen, kidneys, stom- 
 ach, and intestines, 
 
 are fit for food when careful examination has shown them to be 
 free of measles; otherwise 
 
 the fat is to be used under cer- 
 tain conditions, and the 
 other organs are unfit for 
 food. 
 
 the organs are unfit for food 
 The fat is considered ad- 
 missible, provisionally. 
 
 The entire animal body may be utilized with certain restrictions. 
 
 The fat, liver, spleen, kidneys, 
 stomach and intestines 
 
 Liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach, 
 and intestines 
 
 are fit for food if found free of measles upon careful inspection. 
 I Fat is always fit, conditionally. 
 
 The meat is to be excised at the site where the measle is situated 
 and this portion is unfit for food. 
 
 The fat, liver, spleen, kidneys, 
 stomach, and intestines 
 
 Liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach, 
 and intestines 
 
 are to be considered fit for food without cutting them into sections 
 
 if upon proper inspection they have been found free of measles. 
 
 Nor is thorough cooling required. 
 
 The other meat is impaired in 
 value. 
 
 f b) On prescribed examina- As under 3a. 
 tion for measles onlyone 
 live measle has been 
 found, and the meat 
 has been kept in the 
 cooling or refrigerating 
 room for 21 days. 
 
 The other meat is fit for food 
 without restrictions. 
 
 The other meat, inclusive of 
 the fat, is impaired in value 
 
 Dog 
 
 Regulations. As the beef measle is much more easily killed than 
 the pork measle, measly beef may be made fit for human food by boil- 
 ing thoroughly, salting, freezing, or preserving it for sufficient length 
 of time (cooling it thoroughly), provided that the infestation is not 
 heavy (see page 250). The first three methods have already been 
 discussed under pork measles (page 251). The admission of so-called 
 one-measled beeves (einfinnigen Kinder) as human food, without 
 
254 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 previous destruction of the measles, is a regulation in favor of com- 
 mercial interest against which weighty sanitary considerations will 
 not prevail. 
 
 In regard to thorough cooling of the meat and its effect on the vitality 
 of the measles under proper preservation of the meat, numerous experi- 
 ments have shown that the beef measle survives its host eighteen 
 to twenty days at the outside. 
 
 If, therefore, slightly infested beef be kept in the prescribed manner 
 (refrigerating rooms) for at least three weeks, it may be admitted to 
 the trade in the raw state without incurring any risk of infestation. 
 
 [The regulation to B. A. I. Order 150, applying to the infestation 
 of pork with Cysticercus celluloses, which was quoted on page 250, 
 applies also to infestation of beef with Cysticercus boms, i. e., unless 
 the infestation is excessive the carcass may be rendered into tallow.] 
 
 Trichinosis. Trichinosis is due to Trichinella spiralis (Trichina 
 spiralis}, a round worm inhabiting the muscles (muscle trichina), which 
 is, however, not a sexually mature individual, but the asexual larval 
 state of the intestinal trichina whose habitat is in the intestines. 
 
 Generalities and Development. The intestinal trichina is a round 
 worm belonging to the family Trichotrachelidae, according to Schneider, 
 of the Holomyarite. It exists in both sexes, and is found in the adult 
 state in the small intestines of man and various mammals. The males 
 attain a length of 1.5 mm., are 0.04 mm. thick, and possess two caudal 
 appendages (sexual spicules). The females are 3 to 4 mm. long and 
 0.06 mm. thick. 
 
 The pointed anterior and the blunt posterior extremity of the body, 
 as well as the so-called "cell body," a row of large nucleated cells 
 which lie in the anterior half of the body around the esophagus, are 
 characteristic of the morphology of the trichina, 
 
 The trichina occurs in carnivorous and omnivorous animals, of 
 which the following deserve special mention: Domestic and wild hog, 
 dog, rat, fox, badger, marten, polecat, bear, cat. It may be trans- 
 mitted to a number of other mammals by feeding, but cannot be 
 transmitted to birds or cold-blooded animals. Muscle trichina? do 
 not develop in birds, but intestinal trichina may occur in them. 
 
 The most common host of the trichina, no doubt, is the rat; and 
 these animals readily transmit the infestation to each other. Animals 
 which prey on, or occasionally eat rats, may become infested from 
 them (hog, dog, cat, bear, marten, polecat), and the trichina contained 
 in their meat can again reinfest the rats. Trichina may also be trans- 
 mitted through the ingestion of feces of animals which have eaten 
 trichinous meat. The transmission, however, is not directly by way 
 of intestinal trichinae, but because the feces contained undigested 
 trichinosed meat (Ostertag). 
 
 Development of the Trichinoe. Upon the ingestion of meat containing 
 trichime, the latter are freed through digestion of the parasitic sacs 
 and their surrounding capsules and develop to sexually mature worms 
 in the intestinal tract. The males die shortly after impregnating the 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 255 
 
 female and are digested and discharged with the feces, but the females 
 penetrate into the glands of Lieberkiihn of the intestinal mucous mem- 
 brane with their anterior extremity, and deposit 
 their young. During the six to seven weeks of 
 life each female gives birth to 1500 to 2000, 
 according to Braun even 8000 to 10,000, embryos 
 of 0.1 mm. in length, which are carried into the 
 blood by the intestinal lymph stream. The 
 blood carries them to all parts of the body, and 
 in this way they gain access to the striated mus- 
 cular tissues, in which they locate exclusively, the 
 heart excepted. Trichina embryos in other tis- 
 sues and organs of the body die. In the further 
 development of trichina embryos in the striated 
 muscles, they emerge from the capillaries partly 
 by diapedesis, partly by boring through the wall, 
 and enter the sarcolemma sheath. As early as 
 the seventh to eighth day after ingestion of 
 trichinosed meat, the first wandering embryos 
 may be found in the musculature. The embryos 
 which wander within the muscle sheath to the 
 bony or tendinous insertions of the muscle fibers 
 destroy the contractile contents of the muscle 
 sheath, which lose their striation and assume 
 first a homogeneous, then a granular appearance. 
 Finally, the embryos become quiescent and roll 
 up spirally within the sarcolemma. This ter- 
 minates the migration of the embryos, which 
 have attained a length of 1 mm., and three weeks 
 after ingestion of trichinosed meat have become 
 muscle trichinae. The characteristics of the mus- 
 cle trichina, which has no sexual apparatus, are 
 the anterior pointed and the posterior blunt 
 extremity, the cell body, and its situation within 
 the muscle sheath. The encystment of the 
 muscle trichina soon begins, forming capsules 
 of a lemon-shaped form, whose longitudinal 
 axis corresponds with that of the muscle fibers. 
 The first signs of the capsules may be observed 
 during the fifth week following infestation; and 
 nine to twelve weeks later fully developed cap- 
 sules will be found everywhere. The capsule 
 itself is structureless, homogeneous, shiny, pos- 
 sesses a double contour, and is transparent in 
 the beginning. Fat cells form at the poles of 
 the capsules within the muscle sheath, and at A B 
 
 the end of three months lime salts also appear. Adult tri(lhinffi: A < male ; 
 
 mi i , i 11 B, female. X 120 diameters. 
 
 ihe latter gradually encrust the entire capsule (After 
 
DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 and sometimes the trichina itself. The calcification of the capsule 
 may be complete at the ninth month, but it usually takes eighteen 
 months. Muscle trichinae may remain active within the capsule for 
 many years (they have been found alive for thirty-one years in man). 
 
 FIG. 103 
 
 Encapsulated muscle trichinae. X 60 diameters. (After Leuckart.) 
 
 Historical. The trichina was first named by Owen, who gave a detailed 
 account in 1835 of a worm which had been found in the same year by Paget, 
 of London, encysted in the musculature of man. The muscle trichina was 
 found in hogs by Leidy, of Philadelphia, in 1847. In 1850, Herbst, of Gottingen, 
 made the first experiments in the transmission of trichina. He infected a badger 
 with the encapsulated trichinae of a dog, and with the meat from the badger, 
 in turn, infected two dogs. The importance of trichina to man was recognized 
 in 1869 by Zenker, of Dresden, who found sexually mature trichinae in the 
 intestines of a girl who had died from typhoid ; he also found recent unencap- 
 sulated muscle trichinae in the musculature. He was enabled to prove that 
 the girl had eaten pork which had been found by him to be heavily infested 
 with trichinae. In view of this discovery some of the best known investigators 
 studied the trichina, and the life cycle of the worm was established by Leuckart, 
 Virchow, Fiedler, Haubner, etc. The biological study of the trichina received 
 further attention later from Heitzmann, Cerfontaine, Geisse, Askanazy, Chatin, 
 Graham, Staeubli, etc. 
 
 The great danger of trichina to man was demonstrated scientifically for 
 the first time in the epidemics of trichinosis at Hettstedt (1863), where 160 
 persons became infested and 28 died, and at Hedersleben (1865), where 337 cases 
 occurred with 101 deaths. In the following years numerous observations of 
 small and large epidemics were made in the most widely divergent portions 
 of Central and North Germany. 
 
 The distribution of trichinae in the musculature is not uniform. 
 They are found in greatest numbers in the diaphragmatic pillars and 
 the diaphragmatic muscles. Heitzmann explains this by the arrest 
 of the embryos at the moment of muscular contraction, which causes 
 a transitory contraction or narrowing of the capillary diameter. In 
 view of the constant activity of the respiratory muscles, this heavy 
 infestation of trichinae is not surprising. Next in order of frequency 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 257 
 
 of invasion are the tongue, laryngeal muscles, lumbar, masticatory, 
 and abdominal muscles. Specimens for examination should, therefore, 
 be taken from these muscles of the hog. If careful microscopic exami- 
 nation of the diaphragmatic pillar, diaphragmatic, laryngeal, and tongue 
 muscles has failed to reveal trichinae, it may be assumed that the remain- 
 ing musculature does not harbor parasites; should isolated specimens 
 occur in the remaining musculature, the ingestion of this meat is never 
 followed by any deleterious results. Trichinae do not occur in fat; 
 sides of bacon may contain them should muscle tissue be adherent, 
 especially the skin muscles. 
 
 The frequency of trichinosis in hogs is variable and does not give rise to 
 any characteristic symptoms in these animals. By far the greater number 
 of trichinosed hogs of Germany come from the eastern portion of the Empire. 
 In the Kingdom of Prussia, 0.005 per cent, of hogs examined in 1904 were found 
 affected. The same ratio was obtained in the Kingdom of Saxony during 
 1901 to 1905, whereas in 1891 to 1900, 0.01 per cent, of all slaughtered and 
 inspected hogs showed trichinous infection. Trichinosis among hogs in Germany 
 is, therefore, gradually decreasing. In Saxony it was found that hogs imported 
 from Austria-Hungary were more frequently infected than those at home. 
 Pork from America has been found trichinous in 4 to 8 per cent, of the cases, 
 according to our observations [i. e., observations made in Germany. In the 
 United States the percentage of trichinous hogs found by the trichina inspectors 
 after examining thousands of carcasses averaged about 2 per cent, yearly.] 
 Among 1177 dogs slaughtered in Chemnitz during 1897 to 1900, 13 (1.11 per 
 cent.) were found infested with trichinae. In the entire Kingdom of Saxony, 
 in 1906, among 3603 slaughtered dogs 8 (0.222 per cent.) were infested with 
 trichinae. 
 
 In order to discover the origin of infested hogs the Imperial Chancellor 
 has instituted compulsory trichina inspection in the various states. Every 
 infested animal is traced and reported accordingly to the Reichsamt of the 
 interior, which in turn notifies the affected sections of the allied states of the 
 presence of trichina in hogs coming from their district. 
 
 A careful microscopic examination is necessary in order to recognize trichina 
 in the meat; a magnification of 30 diameters is best. 
 
 A careful examination for trichina in suckling pigs, wild hogs, dogs, and 
 bears, according to the directions laid down, is also of importance, owing to the 
 prevalence of trichina in man, of which Opalka has recently presented interest- 
 ing tables (see page 159). 
 
 Diluted acetic acid (1 : 30) may be added to preparations of indistinct, not 
 entirely fresh, meat for the purpose of clearing it; diluted potassium hydrate 
 solution may be added to salted meat or ham to aid swelling of the muscle 
 fibers. 
 
 In the examination of pork, the specimens should always be taken 
 in hams, etc., from near the bones; that is, at the tendinous insertions 
 of the muscles. Examination of sausage is naturally of doubtful value. 
 
 For the compulsory federated trichina inspection among the allied 
 states of the German Empire, see page 159. 
 
 The following may be confounded with muscle trichinae in their 
 various stages of development: Calcareous concretions (see page 209), 
 Miescher's bodies (see page 259), specific muscle degeneration of the 
 hog (see page 209), and crystals of tyrosin (ham); their characteristics 
 on careful examination will, however, prevent mistakes. Vinegar 
 17 
 
258 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 eels may accidentally gain access to the preparation, but these are easily 
 recognized by their active serpentine movements. They are also almost 
 twice as large as muscle trichinae, and will be found in the fluid which 
 has been added, rarely between the muscle fibers. Worms, similar 
 to embryos of Strongylus paradoxus, have been found in preparations 
 for inspection of trichina (Wallman, Georges, Tiemann). They may 
 gain access as the result of cutting the lungs of the hog, and in this 
 way get into the microscopic preparation. 
 
 In addition, trichina-like worms (so-called pseudotrichinse) have also been 
 found in the musculature of various animals (rat, rabbit, mouse, fowl, fish, 
 mole). Under careful examination, these are unlikely to be mistaken for 
 trichinae. These round worms never occur in the muscle sheaths, possess no 
 cell body, and taper at both ends. In the case of capsule formation they will 
 not be found of the peculiar structure of the trichina capsule, but of connective- 
 tissue-like formation. 
 
 For details regarding pseudotrichinse, see Johne's Der Trichinenschauer: 
 
 Judgment. Trichinous meat is injurious to health, as its ingestion 
 causes trichinosis resulting fatally in 10 to 40 per cent, of the cases. 
 The disease may occur epidemically when meat heavily infested with 
 trichina? is dispensed in numerous small portions at one time. It is 
 to be presumed, however, that the trichinous meat has been eaten 
 in the raw state, in an imperfectly cooked condition, or in the form of 
 slightly smoked ham or sausages. The muscle trichinae are not very 
 resistant to the usual methods of preparation of meats. Tempera- 
 tures of over 62 to 70 C. kill the parasites by coagulation of the 
 albumen. Salting or pickling of the meat will not kill the trichinae 
 in the surface layers in less than fourteen days, and those in the deeper 
 tissues will require four to six weeks for their extermination. Hot 
 smoke is effective, partly through the heat, partly through the cresols 
 of the smoke, thus destroying the trichinae; but the process is rather 
 a slow one in large pieces of meat. 
 
 In decaying meat and under the influence of low temperatures (minus 15 
 to 20 C.), the muscle trichinae retain their vitality for weeks. Wandering 
 embryos are harmless, and muscle trichina continue their development in 
 another host only after they develop sexual parts and have attained a body 
 length of 0.5 to 0.75 mm. 
 
 Trichinous meat of wild hogs, dogs, and bear is to be judged like that of 
 domestic hogs ; examination for trichinae is absolutely essential before the meat 
 is to be used for food. 
 
 Regulations. As infested meat can be rendered harmless easily 
 by the action of high degrees of temperature, there is no reason why 
 trichinous meat should be withdrawn from the food supply of man. 
 The judgment of the fat, in which trichinae do not occur, will be more 
 favorable even than that of the muscles. For reasons similar to those 
 given under measles it will be necessary to distinguish between slightly 
 and heavily infested meat. Meat is considered heavily infested when 
 microscopic examination of six preparations taken from the pillars of 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES , 259 
 
 the diaphragm, the costal portions of the diaphragm, the laryngeal 
 and tongue muscles (24 specimens in all) discloses trichinae in nine or 
 more of the preparations. While the strongly trichinous muscle meat, 
 as well as trichinous dog meat, is to be considered unfit for use in every 
 case, slightly trichinous meat, inclusive of the fat of the strongly trichi- 
 nous hogs, may be considered fit, with certain restrictions. 
 
 Legal Regulations for Rendering Decisions. The presence of trichinae 
 renders unfit for food: (1) The entire body of dogs [dogs are not con- 
 sidered as food animals in the United States], (2) the entire body, 
 exclusive of the fat, of strongly trichinosed hogs; and conditionally 
 fit, (a) the entire body in slightly trichinosed hogs; (b) the fat of hogs 
 described under (2) above. 
 
 Unfit trichinosed meat may be removed or destroyed only by the 
 employment of high degrees of temperature or by chemically effect- 
 ing a dissolution of the soft parts. 
 
 General Diseases Produced by Protozoa. SARCOSPORIDIOSIS. Of the 
 sarcosporidia, which cause sarcosporidiosis, one genus inhabits the 
 muscle fibers (Miescheria) and another is found in the connective 
 tissue (Balbiania). 
 
 1. MIESCHER'S BODIES. Miescher's or psorospermial bodies, which, 
 according to Blanchard, may be subdivided into the genera Mies- 
 cheria and Sarcocystis, are found in the musculature of hogs, sheep, 
 horses, cattle, goats, dogs, deer, antelope, rabbits, and chickens. They 
 are composed of straight, faintly spindle-shaped structures 3 mm. long 
 and 0.006 to 0.4 mm. wide, and lie within the contractile contents of 
 the striated muscle fibers. 
 
 General Development. Miescher's bodies are composed of a delicate 
 enveloping membrane, sending delicate fasciculi into the interior. 
 The latter is filled with spherical kidney or sickle-shaped bodies (sporo- 
 zoites, Rainey's bodies), which are probably without a surrounding 
 sheath, but nucleated. The sporozoites may decompose and form a 
 granular detritus; quite commonly calcification of the psorosperms 
 occurs. In what manner and in what form these parasites gain access 
 to the animal body is as little known as is their development in the 
 animal body, which probably is of an embolic nature. 
 
 Lesions. The sacs of Miescher (Sarcocystis miescheriana) occur in 
 the striated muscles of the hog, but are found most frequently in the 
 abdominal and diaphragmatic muscles. The large sacs, especially 
 when calcified, may be seen macroscopically as light gray, pointed 
 or tapering oblong dots in the dark musculature, but the smaller ones 
 cannot be found without the aid of the microscope. They are peculiarly 
 granulated structures within otherwise unchanged muscle fiber (Fig. 
 104). In the smaller sacs, and with a high magnification, the thor- 
 oughly preserved striation of the muscle fibers may be made out along- 
 side of the parasite. After calcification has occurred the sac will appear 
 as a more or less opaque, almost black structure macroscopically. 
 Of the muscles of sheep, the abdominal and skin muscles are most 
 frequently inhabited, and here very large Miescher's bodies (Sarcocystis 
 
260 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 tenella) obtain. Small microscopic sacs may occur in other muscles 
 also. Not infrequently macroscopic Miescher's sacs (Sarcocystis ber- 
 trami) are found in the neck and esophageal muscles of the horse. 
 Miescher's bodies (Sarcocystis blanchardi) are uncommon in cattle in 
 this country", and may be recognized by their milletseed to barley- 
 seed size and yellowish-green appearance. 
 
 Miescher's bodies, when in the calcified state, may be confounded 
 with the so-called calcareous concretions (lime deposits) (see page 
 209), and, in the hog, with calcified trichinae (see page 256). In both 
 cases the addition of acetic acid will remove the calcification, and the 
 microscopic examination will reveal the substratum of the calcification. 
 
 FIG. 104 
 
 
 
 Sacs of Miescher from hog muscles: a, b, longitudinal and transverse section of muscle. X 60 diameters. 
 c, longitudinal section of muscle. X 380 diameters. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 Judgment. The very fact that the presence of Miescher's sacs 
 in the muscles does not irritate the latter, nor produce any symptoms 
 of disease in the animals, would lead to the conclusion that they are 
 harmless parasites. They have not yet been positively described as 
 having been found in man, nor has their transmission through inges- 
 tion of meat been observed. 
 
 The report by Beel of a disagreeably sweetish odor of the meat in 
 the case of a hog heavily infested with sarcosporidia has not been 
 verified by other authors. 
 
 Regulations. The utility of the meat infested with Miescher's 
 bodies depends on the appearance of the meat and the intensity of the 
 infestation. 
 
 If the meat does not show infestation macroscopically, it may be 
 used with impunity. If the calcified sacs are visible macroscopically, 
 and if they are present in large numbers in all the muscles, or if the 
 meat (musculature) shows greenish or yellowish spots, or if it is edema- 
 tous, the entire carcass, exclusive of the fat, is to be condemned. If 
 the changes are confined to certain muscles, as in sheep and cattle, these 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 261 
 
 FIG. 105 
 
 muscles are to be condemned. In intermediate grades of infestation 
 the meat is to be admitted to the trade, but considered as of inferior 
 quality. 
 
 In the cases of infestation with Miescher's bodies in which the meat 
 has been condemned, the fat is to be rendered; in all other cases it is 
 to be treated as the meat is treated. 
 
 2. BALBIANHXE. The balbianidse are designated as psorospermial 
 pouches as compared with the psorospermic bodies of Miescher. They 
 occur in the esophagus of sheep, goats, horses, cattle, buffaloes, and 
 deer, often in large numbers. They are found more rarely in the tongue, 
 laryngeal, thoracic, abdominal, and eye muscles, and in the heart. 
 On account of their size, Railliet named them Balbiania 
 gigantea (Sarcocystis gigantea). 
 
 Lesions. The intermuscular connective tissue of the 
 esophagus contains milletseed to hazelnut-sized yellow- 
 ish-white cysts, with suppurative contents, composed 
 mainly of sporozoites (Fig. 105). 
 
 Judgment. On account of their objectionable con- 
 sistence all muscles inhabited by Balbianidse are to be 
 condemned. 
 
 HEMOSPORIDIOSIS. 1 . PIROPLASMOSIS. Piroplasmo- 
 ses are diseases of the blood occasioned by protozoa of 
 the genus Piroplasma or Pyrosoma. The transmission 
 of these parasites is effected through the medium of 
 ticks (in Europe, Ixodes redumus [I. ricinus], in other 
 places, Rhipicephalus orMargaropus [Boophilus] species). 
 
 Piroplasmosis of Cattle. This epizootic or isolated, 
 sometimes acute, but more often chronic, disease is 
 produced by the Piroplasma bigeminum (Pyrosoma 
 bigem. Smith and Kilborne; Apiosoma bigem. Wandol- 
 leck Peron; Ixidioplasma bigem. Schmidt; Babesia 
 boms) . 
 
 Pathogenesis. The parasites on gaining access to 
 the blood by transmission through ticks, occasion 
 destruction of the red blood corpuscles of cattle. 
 This results in hemoglobinemia, and in severe cases in hemoglobinuria 
 and icterus. The cell detritus causes emboli, hemorrhages, and paren- 
 chymatous nephritis. After considerable increase in the number of 
 parasites, fever sets in. In some cases death from asthenia occurs as 
 the result of the disturbances of nutrition and rapid decrease of the 
 erythrocytes. 
 
 Symptoms Lesions. In the living animal there may be present 
 symptoms of fatigue, emaciation, fever of 40 to 42 C., disturbed 
 rumination, and in the beginning, irritation and even attacks of mad- 
 ness may be observed. There is retention of fecal matter and colic; 
 later thin stools, with mixture of mucus and blood. The milk secre- 
 tion is diminished. Afterward there follow muscular tremors, uncertain 
 gait, swelling of superficial lymph glands, lacrymation, reddening of 
 
 Esophagus of sheep 
 with balbianidae. 
 
262 DISEASES OF FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 the mucous membranes, which subsequently become pale and icteric. 
 The urine at first is reddish and later turns darker and darker. The 
 disease is fatal in four or five days in unfavorable cases. In the 
 lighter forms improvement occurs about the middle of the first week, 
 the fever diminishes, but convalescence is, as a rule, very slow. 
 
 In the slaughtered animal are found, according to the stage of the 
 disease, catarrhal inflammation of the stomach and intestines with 
 small hemorrhages and erosions; hypertrophy of the liver, the latter 
 being flabby, lusterless, faintly reddish brown, and permeated by 
 yellowish bands and spots; the spleen is considerably enlarged, the 
 pulp highly injected and softened; urinary bladder is filled with light 
 to dark red urine, and the mucous membrane shows numerous hemor- 
 rhages; there is cloudy swelling of the kidneys; hemorrhages in the 
 serous membranes; the blood is light red and thin; icterus is present 
 in some cases. 
 
 FIG. 106 
 
 ^fe Ji\ - 
 
 V 
 
 Piroplasma bigeminum. Typical ring and pear-shaped forms. The upper row stained with alkaline 
 methylene blue; the lower according to Romano wsky (After Kossel and Weber, from Hutyra and 
 Marek.) 
 
 The recognition of the disease is facilitated during life by finding 
 the parasites on microscopic examination of the blood. 
 
 Dried cover-glass preparations are fixed in absolute alcohol, or 
 in a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether, and stained with a 
 1 per cent, aqueous solution of methylene blue. 
 
 In the differential diagnosis anthrax, hemorrhagic septicemia, and 
 hematuria must be considered; the symptoms in these diseases, as 
 well as their bacteriologic findings, differ in important features from 
 those of piroplasmosis. 
 
 Judgment. The judgment will depend on the grade of the disease 
 and on the fact that this affection is not transmissible to man by inges- 
 tion of the meat. In severe cases the meat is to be condemned; in 
 lighter forms the question of inferior value will have to be considered. 
 
 [Carcasses affected with Texas fever should be condemned, accord- 
 ing to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 14.] 
 
 Of the more important piroplasmoses should be mentioned : 
 
 Texas fever of cattle, which occasions tremendous losses in the United 
 States of North America, and is responsible for the German law pre- 
 venting importation of American cattle. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 Diseases of cattle similar in their intensity and rate of mortality to 
 Texas fever occur in German East Africa, Hungary (forest disease), 
 Roumania (epizootic hemoglobinuria), Italy (malaria of cattle), Sardinia 
 (hematuria), Finland, Turkey, Argentine Republic (tristeza), Australia 
 (tick fever), South Africa (redwater or coast fever). 
 
 FIG. 107 
 
 FIG. 108 
 
 Piroplasma bigeminum. Round and pear- 
 shaped forms. Cattle blood. Stained with 
 methylene blue. (After Hutyra and Marek.) 
 
 Piroplasma bigeminum. Rod-shaped forms. 
 Cattle blood. Stained according to Laveran. 
 (After Hutyra and Marek.) 
 
 FIG. 109 
 
 Infectious hemoglobinuria of cattle (enzootic bloody urine), occurs 
 sporadically in Germany as well as enzootically. It differs from Texas 
 fever by a longer period of incubation and a milder course. 
 
 The South African horse malaria (Geglielmi, Rickmann), which 
 is frequently associated with a separate and distinct enzootic disease 
 of horses described by Theiler. 
 
 Carceag or parasitic icterohematuria of 
 sheep in Roumania, which also occurs in 
 other countries (malarial catarrhal fever). 
 
 Malignant jaundice of dogs in France, 
 Hungary, Italy, Africa, and India (malig- 
 nant malarial fever, malignant protozoan 
 jaundice). 
 
 2. TRYPANOSOMIASIS. (a). Surra and 
 tsetse-fly disease, or nagana of cattle, 
 camels, horses, and elephants in Africa 
 and India, and mal de caderas of horses 
 in South America, are caused by flagellate 
 infusoria (trypanosomes) , and are without 
 importance in meat inspection. 
 
 (6) The investigations of Schneider and. 
 Buffard proved that dourine of horses must also be classified as a 
 protozoan (trypanosoma) disease, and the results of these investiga- 
 tors were confirmed by Nocard. At the present time this disease is 
 of no importance from a sanitary police standpoint. 
 
 Trypanosoma equinum s. elmassiani. 
 Guinea-pig blood. (After Hutyra and 
 Marek.) 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF FOOD ANIMALS TRANSMISSIBLE 
 
 TO MAN 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS occurs among all food-producing animals, and is the 
 disease with which the veterinary inspector is mostly occupied. Etio- 
 logically, it is identical with tuberculosis of man, and is caused by the 
 tubercle bacillus discovered by Koch in 1882. The disease in animals 
 runs a chronic course. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The development of the disease requires a certain 
 predisposition in the body, which affords favorable colonizing con- 
 ditions for the entering tubercle bacilli. The disease may, according 
 to the mode of infection, become established in the following manner: 
 
 1. Through the respiratory tract (inhalation tuberculosis). 
 
 2. Through the digestive tract (ingestion tuberculosis). 
 
 3. Through the female genital organs (genital infection, generative 
 tuberculosis). 
 
 4. Through the skin (cutaneous tuberculosis). 
 
 5. From the umbilical vein during intrauterine development of the 
 fetus (fetal tuberculosis, congenital tuberculosis). 
 
 Although in accordance w r ith these modes of infection the primary 
 lesion of the disease is expected to be present in the respective organs, 
 nevertheless, it frequently happens that the tubercle bacilli will not 
 produce an affection at the seat of entrance, but will be disseminated 
 throughout the body and only cause lesions remote from the place of 
 entry. 
 
 The fact that lymph glands offer especially favorable conditions for 
 the colonization and development of tubercle bacilli is of importance 
 in meat inspection, and they must therefore be regarded as favorite 
 locations for tuberculosis. 
 
 As soon as tubercle bacilli find conditions favorable for develop- 
 ment in any tissue of the body, they multiply and cause a reaction 
 of that tissue. This is manifested as a round-cell proliferation, which 
 appears either in the form of an isolated tubercle or as a tuberculous 
 infiltration. The isolated tubercle in its developed condition forms 
 a gray, transparent, non-vascular, cellular nodule of the size of a millet- 
 seed, which encloses tubercle bacilli. Among these cells there develop, 
 as a rule, multinuclear giant cells, which are centrally located. In 
 the case of tuberculous infiltration, principally exudative processes 
 of a fibrous nature appear. Retrogressive processes soon taK& place 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 2G5 
 
 from the centre of the tubercle, as a result of which the latter becomes 
 clouded and changes to a grayish or yellowish-white color; the tubercle 
 becomes caseous (coagulation necrosis with secondary granular dis- 
 integration). In the tuberculous infiltration the retrogressive processes 
 consist of a more purely coagulation necrosis, e. g., hyaline degeneration. 
 If the periphery of the tubercle does not disintegrate it will gradually 
 become fibrous, and a caseofibrous tubercle develops. The forma- 
 tion of entirely fibrous tubercles in food animals, except in the horse, 
 is rare. These processes are followed by a further retrogressive meta- 
 morphosis, that of calcification of the tubercle, which is of special 
 importance in food animals. Suppuration of the tubercle and the forma- 
 tion of abscesses or cavities may result from a simultaneous infection 
 with pus-forming organisms, or, as Bongert has proved in case of cattle, 
 it may result when tubercle bacilli die gradually in great numbers. 
 Abscesses and cavities occur comparatively rarely in food animals. 
 Ulcers, however, may be formed as a result of the caseation of tubercles 
 located on the surface of mucous membranes. 
 
 Notwithstanding the degenerative processes within the tubercle, 
 the latter may increase continually in size on the outside and thus 
 develop into larger nodules and tubercles. The confluence of small 
 nodules may lead to the formation of conglomerates or to new forma- 
 tions of a fibrous character. 
 
 Methods of Dissemination. The methods of dissemination of tuber- 
 culosis and its metastatic formations are of special importance in the 
 judgment of tuberculous animals. 
 
 1. Dissemination by the Lymphatic System. Lymphatic miliary 
 tubercles are formed in the neighborhood of the primary tubercle and 
 the lymph glands involved become diseased. By means of the further 
 dissemination of the tubercle bacilli by the lymphatic fluid other 
 lymphatic glands lying nearer the heart and finally the lymph of the 
 thoracic duct and the blood itself may become infected. 
 
 As the lymphatic fluid flows from the inside of the organs toward 
 their surface (e. g., toward the corresponding lymphatic glands), it 
 becomes self-evident that an infection of the organ cannot be in an 
 inward direction from the surface. Should the bacilli enter the lymph 
 of the thoracic or abdominal cavities, then not only the serous mem- 
 branes may become infected (serous tuberculosis), but the bacilli may 
 also enter the adjoining cavity through the lymph spaces of the dia- 
 phragm. 
 
 2. Dissemination by the Blood. This may take place after the 
 entry of tubercle bacilli into the blood in the way described, or also 
 after a direct penetration of tubercle bacilli into the blood stream, 
 when the walls of the veins become diseased or destroyed by caseation 
 of tuberculous foci. As a result of the dissemination of the tubercle 
 bacilli by means of the blood a hematogenous miliary tuberculosis 
 (embolic tuberculosis) develops at the point where the bacilli are de- 
 posited and multiply. The bacilli which have come into the venous 
 blood may be retained in the lungs, and if their penetration occurred 
 
2(H) IXFKCTIOL'X D/XKASKX IX FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 at the basic region of the portal vein they may be retained in the liver, 
 which is by no means unusual in a mild infection of the blood. When 
 the venous blood is flooded with great numbers of tubercle bacilli, or 
 when the latter enter the veins of the lungs, they pass into the arterial 
 blood of the large circulatory system and thereby into the whole body. 
 This process of dissemination is known as "generalized tuberculosis." 
 
 In the dissemination of tubercle bacilli through the large circulatory 
 system the placenta may also become infected, and from there infec- 
 tion may spread to the fetus. 
 
 3. Dissemination of Tubercle Bacilli on the Surface of Mucous Mem- 
 brane by Means of Secretions. This process may not only transmit 
 a further infection of the organs belonging to the affected apparatus 
 (larynx, trachea, bronchi, and other parts of the lungs; lymph glands 
 of the palate, small and large intestines), but it may also lead to the 
 infection of another organ or tract. Thus infection of the digestive 
 apparatus may result in consequence of pulmonary tuberculosis if 
 the tuberculous excretions of the respiratory mucous membranes are 
 swallowed. To the first-mentioned form of dissemination belongs 
 the spreading of tubercle bacilli from the kidneys by means of the urine 
 to the pelvis of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or to the urethra. 
 
 Forms of Tuberculosis. Meat inspection must distinguish between 
 two forms of tuberculosis in accordance with the aforesaid methods 
 of dissemination. 
 
 Localized Tuberculosis. This term designates the following conditions : 
 
 (ft) The infection of a single part of the body with the correspond- 
 ing lymph glands. This form of tuberculosis is most frequent in food- 
 producing animals on account of the small number of bacilli in the 
 tuberculous processes. 
 
 (6) Infection of several parts of the body without the concurrence 
 of the large circulatory system. In this case the tuberculous processes 
 have originated from a primary infection by continuous development 
 through dissemination of the bacilli by means of the lymphatic or 
 secretive juices, and, as far as the blood enters into consideration, 
 through the portal circulation. 
 
 Generalized Tuberculosis. This form exists when a part of the 
 body is affected to which the tubercle bacilli can be canied by the 
 arterial blood only (e. g., spleen, kidneys, suprarenal glands, testicles, 
 ovaries, udder (Plate V), bones, muscles, body lymph glands, central 
 nervous system, eyes, etc.). The number and consistence of tuber- 
 'culous processes which develop in generalized cases depend upon the 
 degree of prevalence of bacilli in the blood and upon the filterable action 
 of the liver and lungs. When this action is very marked many bacilli 
 are retained by these organs, and both lungs and liver are found to be 
 everywhere uniformly permeated with tuberculous nodules of a similar 
 stage of development (hematogenous miliary tuberculosis). Acute 
 miliary tuberculosis may be defined as the dissemination of tubercle 
 bacilli by means of blood shortly preceding the death, which results 
 in the production in most of the organs of a countless number of erup- 
 
PLATE IV 
 
 FIG. 
 
 " > ~ 
 
 Tubercle Bacilli. Fuchsin and Methylene Blue Staining 
 X 4OO. (Aaer Ziegler.) 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 Changes-ln the Tissue Produced by a Fresh Invasion of 
 Tubercle Bacilli. (After Baumgarten.) 
 
 a proliferating connective tissue; 6, cross-section of bloodvessel; r. karyo- 
 nve tissue; ,1. karyomitosis of an endothel 
 
 leukocytes. X 33O. 
 
 F10 
 
 .: 
 
 ... 
 
 Giant Cell Containing Bacilli from a Tubercle with Necrotic 
 Centre. X 35O. (After 1 Ziegler.) 
 
PLATE V 
 
 
 
 Section of a Tuberculous Udder of a Cow with 
 Adjacent Lymph Glands. 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 2(>7 
 
 tions of only slightly degenerated tubercles of uniform size. When the 
 venous blood is poor in bacilli only a few single tubercles will develop 
 in the liver and lungs. The presence of numerous embolic tubercles in 
 the lungs is of marked diagnostic significance, as it positively indicates 
 infection of the blood with numerous tubercle bacilli, and points to the 
 suspicion of generalized tuberculosis. 
 
 Generalized tuberculosis, is infrequent among food animals, and 
 does not lead to uniform development of tubercles in all parts of the 
 body. The arrangement of the bloodvessels in the various organs 
 and the extent of circulation of the blood in the organs are essentially 
 decisive. Generalized tuberculosis, in addition to the lesions of the 
 lungs and liver, is usually found in the spleen and kidneys, in the various 
 body lymph glands, in the bones and joints, and in the udder and 
 uterus. Tuberculosis of the uterus, however, does not indicate a gener- 
 alized condition in every instance, e. g., passing of tubercle bacilli from 
 the abdominal cavity through the Fallopian tubes into the uterus. 
 The muscles proper are so very rarely affected that by many they are 
 considered as almost immune to tuberculosis. Tubercle bacilli which 
 enter the circulatory system but are not deposited in any of the organs 
 die in from four to six days, as was established by Nocard and others. 
 
 Prevalence of Tuberculosis in Food Animals. The statement made by 
 Ostertag that "at least 25 per cent, of the older cattle are tuberculous" is 
 perfectly true. 
 
 According to meat-inspection statistics of the German Empire the percentage 
 of tuberculosis in animals slaughtered in 1904" was as follows: 
 
 Cattle, 17.88 per cent.; calves, 0.26; sheep, 0.20; goats, 0.69; hogs, 2.46; 
 horses, 0.15; dogs, 0.85. 
 
 Tuberculosis in cattle was most prevalent in the Kingdom of Saxony with 
 34.48 per cent., Schaumburg-Lippe being lowest, with 5.73 per cent. 
 
 Tuberculosis in calves was most prevalent in Pommerania (Prussia), with 
 0.79 per cent., while Alsace-Lorraine was lowest, with 0.02 per cent. 
 
 The Kingdom of Saxony also had the highest: percentage of tuberculosis 
 in hogs, with 5.13 per cent., Hohenzollern being lowest, with 0.30 per cent. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The clinical appearance of tuberculosis can 
 be only briefly described here. The symptoms become of diagnostic 
 importance only when they are conspicuous, and when it may be 
 assumed that the affection has reached an advanced stage. Even then 
 they are not trustworthy. Highly suspicious symptoms in all food 
 animals are hard, nodular swellings of the lymph glands, udder, or 
 testicles, painless exostosis and swellings of joints, which cannot be 
 attributed to other causes, coughing and difficulty in breathing, with 
 very apparent loss of flesh. Hard, tight skin and a rough coat of hair, 
 chronic bloating, hardening of the udder, and dry rattling may be addi- 
 tional indications in cattle. The symptoms which arouse suspicion 
 in hogs among which nutritive disturbances are rare are principally 
 exostosis and curvature of the spine without rachitic symptoms. 
 
 Other methods for diagnosticating tuberculosis in the live animal 
 (antemortem inspection) cannot be given in detail here. The lesions 
 present in the slaughtered animal differ in the various species. 
 
268 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 In cattle tuberculosis occurs principally in two different forms, which, 
 however, are often combined namely, tuberculosis of the serous 
 membranes (pearly disease) and tuberculosis of the organs. The former 
 begins with reddish, soft, granulation-like proliferations, from which 
 large nodules of various sizes are developed (Figs. 110 and 111), and 
 which, either when isolated or confluent, show a tendency to become 
 calcified early. Occasionally, enormous thick fibrous or calcified 
 tuberculous deposits are formed on the commonly diseased pleura 
 and pericardium. Peritoneal tuberculosis is somewhat less common. 
 
 FIG. 110 
 
 Small nodular tubercles from the pleura of a cow. 
 
 Concerning tuberculosis of the organs and mucous membranes, 
 the respiratory apparatus is most often the primary seat of the affec- 
 tion (tuberculous bronchial pneumonia); next comes the digestive 
 tract, while the female genital organs are very seldom affected. In 
 the lungs there are now and then cavities. In the intestines of cattle 
 the result is occasionally a uniformly marked thickening and coarse 
 wrinkling of the mucous membrane, which represents a diffused 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 269 
 
 epithelioid infiltration without the formation of nodules (Johne and 
 Frothingham, Rieck, Markus, Bongert and others), and in which 
 caseation and ulcerations cannot be determined. 1 
 
 All parts of the body may be secondarily infected. The manifesta- 
 tion of the disease is influenced by the nature and the mode of infection 
 as well as by the anatomical structure of the various organs. Lymph 
 gland tuberculosis (Plate III, Fig. 2) is often conspicuous for its enor- 
 mous development. For tuberculosis of the udder, compare Plate V. 
 
 FIG. Ill 
 
 Large nodular tubercles from the pleura of a cow. 
 
 Tuberculous processes in cattle tend generally toward dry caseation 
 and calcification. Tuberculosis of any organ in which the lesions are 
 softened may develop into generalized tuberculosis; the latter is char- 
 
 [ l Recently it has been satisfactorily shown by Bang, McFadyean and others that these intestinal 
 lesions are not due to the tubercle bacillus, but to a somewhat similar acid-proof bacillus which pro- 
 duces this hypertrophy of the intestinal mucous membrane to which the names of Johne's disease, 
 chronic pseudotuberculous enteritis, and chronic bacterial dysentery have been given.] 
 
270 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 acterized in young animals in the first place by an affection of the 
 spleen; in older animals by involvement of the kidneys. Tuberculosis 
 of the bones is not very common; on the other hand, it is not uncommon 
 for the body lymph glands to become diseased without accompaniment 
 of a similar affection in the spleen and kidneys. 
 
 Corresponding to the transmission of the disease by the placenta, 
 calves very frequently manifest embolic tuberculosis of the various 
 organs; first of all, in the liver, portal glands, lungs, posterior medias- 
 tinum, spleen, and kidneys, but the disease may also result and spread 
 by infection from the digestive tract. Generalization occurs in a 
 majority of cases. 
 
 Tuberculosis, although comparatively seldom found in sheep, pre- 
 sents in a general way the conditions and appearance of tuberculosis 
 in cattle. Lesions of the serous membranes occur also, although they 
 are not so common as in cattle. Calcification takes place at a com- 
 paratively early period. 
 
 This disease appears also in a similar form in goats, in which pearly 
 disease and lesions in the lungs of a similar nature to those found in 
 human phthisis (cavity formation) have been observed. [Generalized 
 tuberculosis is not uncommon among sheep and goats in Germany, 
 but is extremely rare among these species in the United States.] 
 
 In hogs, tuberculous affections occur most frequently in the digestive 
 tract from which secondary infection of the various organs takes place, 
 especially in the liver and lungs. Very often a generalized tubercu- 
 losis results, which is characterized by tuberculosis of the spleen in the 
 majority of cases. Primary respiratory tuberculosis is less common 
 than in cattle, while lesions of the serous membranes are even more 
 rare. Calcification in the tuberculous foci begins at an early period. 
 In generalized tuberculosis the lymph glands of the muscles and bones 
 are often affected. Junack has described "tuberculosis without retro- 
 gressive alterations in swine." In one case in which a hog became so 
 diseased, the condition resembled sarcomatosis. 
 
 Tuberculosis in the horse, while very infrequently observed, resembles 
 tuberculosis in cattle, but does not possess a tendency to calcify; it 
 does, however, tend to soften at the centre. The formation of small 
 fibrous tubercles is not uncommon. The lymph glands of the affected 
 organs become considerably hyperplastic. Infection spreads principally 
 from the lungs. 
 
 The general appearance of tuberculosis in the dog suggests the 
 conditions found in the goat, but the tuberculous lesions in the lungs 
 and lymph glands are of a more grayish-white color, similar in con- 
 sistence to bone marrow. Instead of caseation there is degeneration 
 into grayish-white decomposing masses which resemble whey. 
 
 Postmortem Examination. In carrying out the general method of 
 examination at the postmortem inspection for tuberculosis, the fol- 
 lowing directions should be observed : 
 
 1. All lymph glands located at the portal of entry of the infection 
 must be carefully incised; first of all the submaxillary and retro- 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 271 
 
 pharyngeal lymph glands, tonsils, bronchial, mediastinal, mesenteric, 
 and portal lymph glands. 
 
 2. Cutting into plainly visible seats of tuberculous infection, espe- 
 cially cavities, should be avoided, if possible, owing to the dissemination 
 of tuberculous material. Contamination of the meat with tuberculous 
 material must also be carefully guarded against. Soiled knives must 
 be used only after boiling in a 2 per cent, solution of soda. 
 
 3. In an animal which is found to be tuberculous, the parts which 
 are least often affected (lymph glands of the muscles, spleen, kidneys, 
 udder, bones) should be examined first. Von Stroh records some 
 interesting studies concerning the prevalence of tuberculosis of the 
 lymph glands of the muscles. 
 
 Identification of the common forms of tuberculosis is not difficult 
 for the inspector when once he is familiar with the manifold varia- 
 tions in the form of development of tuberculous processes and their 
 metamorphosis. The lymph glands, as has repeatedly been emphasized, 
 form a point of predilection for the development of tubercle bacilli, 
 and the specific condition of the lymph gland is, therefore, of special 
 importance for diagnosis (Plate III, Fig. 2). The condition of the 
 lymphatic glands also verifies the diagnosis of doubtful affections of 
 organs, since it may generally be considered that at least one of the 
 corresponding glands will be typically affected in tuberculosis of the 
 organs. 
 
 It need not be emphasized that the characteristic conditions of 
 development and structure of tuberculous granulations from the most 
 diminutive transparent grayish nodules, which at first become clouded 
 at the centre, after which they degenerate, together with the tendency 
 to spread to the surrounding tissues by the formation of secondary 
 nodules, are also indications worthy of cognizance. Ostertag recom- 
 mends a microscopic examination (at about 40 diameters) of a crushed 
 sample, in order to determine with certainty the character of doubtful 
 nodules. By this method the round or elongated giant cells can be 
 plainly seen; these, as.it is well known, are especially well developed 
 in the tubercles of domestic animals. This method is also said to be 
 well adapted for the examination of lymph glands for tuberculous 
 foci, which cannot be determined macroscopically; they appear con- 
 spicuous from the surrounding normal lymph-gland tissue by disclosing 
 round, colony -like, cloudy spots, with giant cells in the centre and 
 epithelioid cells around the outside. 
 
 It is self-evident that the demonstration of the presence of tubercle 
 bacilli also serves to make the diagnosis positive, although an effort 
 to determine their presence may result in failure even in genuine tuber- 
 culosis. It has been experimentally determined that in strongly caseated 
 or calcified foci, attempts to find bacilli often fail, especially in tuber- 
 culosis of swine. Such foci are, however, infectious, which can be 
 proved by animal experiment. This, however, cannot be utilized 
 for practical meat inspection on account of the delay in the decision 
 which it would cause. 
 
272 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. The following-named conditions may be 
 mistaken for tuberculous lesions : 
 
 1. Degenerated echinococci and measles (pp. 244 and 247). 
 
 2. Actinomycotic processes (p. 278). 
 
 3. Pentastome colonies in the lymph glands (p. 243). 
 
 4. Strongyle nodules in the lung of sheep (p. 235). 
 
 5. Lesions of hog cholera (p. 310). 
 
 The characteristic indications of these diseases are sufficiently 
 discussed under their respective heads, and when compared with the 
 characteristic pathological peculiarities of tuberculosis they assure 
 definite results in diagnosis, particularly as the latter is, in addition, 
 based on the appearance of the lymph glands and the result of a micro- 
 scopic examination. 
 
 Virulence of the Tissues of Tuberculous Animals. In testing 
 the question as to the extent to which tuberculous changes in food 
 animals may become dangerous to human health as a result of their 
 utilization as food, it is impossible to avoid the premise that the tubercle 
 bacillus of animals is identical with the bacillus which causes human 
 tuberculosis. As tubercle bacilli entering the digestive tract of man 
 are apt to produce tuberculosis, and also since virulent tubercle bacilli 
 are found in the tuberculous parts of food animals, it follows that all 
 organs and parts of carcasses which are tuberculous must be regarded 
 as infectious and dangerous to human health. Animals in which only 
 the lymph glands are diseased belong in this category, as it is very 
 possible that small, virulent tuberculous foci in the earliest stage of 
 development have been overlooked at the macroscopic examination 
 of the parenchyma of the organs. This fact makes it self-evident 
 that tuberculous organs must be considered as totaly unwholesome, 
 even when only a few scattered lesions may apparently occur therein. 
 
 In regard to the virulence of the meat, e. g., the striated muscles, 
 it must be remembered that the musculature is very infrequently the 
 seat of tuberculous processes, that, as a rule, tubercle bacilli are carried 
 to the muscles by the blood only, and that they occur in the blood 
 rarely, and then they remain in the circulation only for a short period 
 of time. 
 
 Numerous experiments in feeding and inoculation have been con- 
 ducted on animals to test the virulence of tuberculous meat, but, as 
 has already been pointed out by Ostertag, the dissemination or extent 
 and special character of the tuberculous affection in the animal, from 
 which the sample of muscle was taken, were entirely disregarded. 
 Ostertag summarizes the results of these experiments by saying that 
 "muscle or juice of muscle from tuberculous animals does not, as a 
 rule, contain any or not sufficient bacilli to produce tuberculosis in 
 experimental animals." The meat is infectious only in the most 
 advanced stage of tuberculosis, and when suppurative softening of 
 the tuberculous lesions is present. In connection with this it must 
 also be recognized that, although the susceptibility of man to tuber- 
 culosis is assumed to be the same as that of experimental animals, 
 yet the number of bacilli which will produce tuberculosis on intra- 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 273 
 
 peritoneal inoculation is not sufficient to produce it by their introduction 
 into the digestive tract, and that, therefore, a positive result from 
 inoculation does not imply that the meat is unwholesome for food. 
 Even the most recent investigations along this line by Hoefnagel, 
 Westenhoeffer, and Swierstra, in which the condition of the tuber- 
 culous animal, the extent of the affection, and the nature of the 
 tuberculous processes were carefully taken into consideration, have 
 corroborated Ostertag's view. 
 
 The results of the experiments regarding the blood and the muscle 
 juice from tuberculous animals should be considered from the same 
 standpoint. 
 
 Notwithstanding all this, it must be remembered that, from a meat- 
 inspection standpoint, muscle is not the only form of meat which must 
 be considered, and that the term "meat" does not include the striated 
 musculature only. It also includes other constituents of meat, such 
 as the lymph glands and bones which are not uncommonly affected 
 by tuberculosis when the disease has become generalized in the body. 
 Precaution is therefore necessary in judging generalized tuberculosis. 
 
 In the utilization of meat from tuberculous animals, the fact that 
 the tubercle bacilli possess only a small degree of resistance to high 
 grades of temperature is of great importance to national economy. 
 According to Bang, 85 C. for a period of ten minutes will suffice to 
 kill tubercle bacilli, while Yersin and Forster give 70 to 75 C. at ten 
 minutes as sufficient. On this is based the utilization of the meat 
 of tuberculous animals after cooking. Tubercle bacilli are very resistant 
 to pickling and to smoking and pickling. 
 
 Judgment. In the judgment of tuberculous lesions of food animals 
 by the veterinary inspector in connection with their harmfulness to 
 man, the points to be considered are the extent of the affection and 
 stage of development, the age and nature of the tuberculous changes, 
 and the nutritive condition of the animal. 
 
 In general a poor nutritive condition, especially extreme emaciation, 
 will influence the judgment unfavorably. 
 
 The same is also true regarding the age of the tuberculous lesions 
 when fresh disease processes exist, and especially when the latter are 
 contiguous to the old infections A fresh "blood infection" (fresh 
 generalized condition, acute miliary tuberculosis in the most restricted 
 sense) is present only when the spleen or the lymph glands are swollen, 
 or when very small tubercles, not over the size of a milletseed, which 
 have been disseminated through the large circulatory system, are 
 present. Fresh blood infection, which, as a rule, is seldom found in 
 food animals, demands careful examination and consideration. 
 
 Precaution is recommended owing to the nature of tuberculous 
 materials in the soft tuberculous processes (cavities and purulent 
 cheesy abscesses), as a generalized condition is frequently associated 
 with them. In regard to the extension of tuberculosis, the forms 
 mentioned on page 266 should be clearly distinguished. 
 
 The judgment of individual cases of tuberculosis must proceed 
 according to the following outline, which has been made public in con- 
 18 
 
274 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 nection with the meat-inspection regulations for the guidance of non- 
 veterinary inspectors. Owing to the comprehensive character of this 
 manual it has been deemed necessary to add explanatory notes giving 
 the reasons on which the outline is based. 
 
 Outline Showing the Forms of Tuberculosis in Food Animals, and Disposal of 
 the Meat of Tuberculous Animals. 
 
 Forms of tuberculosis. 
 
 I. Tuberculosis of one organ : 
 
 (a) With extreme emaciation. 
 (6) Not extremely emaciated. 
 
 II. Tuberculosis which is not confined to 
 one organ: 
 
 1. In which infection was not spread by 
 
 the large circulatory system. 
 
 A. With extreme emaciation. 
 
 B. Not extremely emaciated. 
 
 (a) With extensive softened lesions. 
 
 (6) Without extensive softened le- 
 sions: 
 
 1. When the disease is only 
 
 slightly extended. 
 
 2. When the disease is greatly 
 
 extended. 
 
 2. In which infection was spread by the 
 
 large circulatory system. 
 
 A. Manifestations of a fresh blood in- 
 
 fection. 
 
 (a) With extreme emaciation. 
 (6) Without extreme emaciation: 
 
 1. Fresh infection in the viscera 
 
 or in the udder only. 
 
 2. Fresh infection not confined 
 
 only to the viscera or in 
 the udder. 
 
 B. Without the manifestation of fresh 
 
 blood infection, 
 (a) With extreme emaciation. 
 ' (fc) Without extreme emaciation: 
 
 1. With extensive softened le- 
 
 sions: 
 
 2. Without extensive softened 
 
 lesions. 
 
 (a') Tuberculous changes ex- 
 ist in the viscera or 
 in the udder only: 
 (a") When the disease is 
 only slightly ex- 
 tended. 
 
 (&") When the disease rs 
 
 greatly extended. 
 
 (6') Tuberculous changes not 
 
 confined to viscera and 
 
 udder only. 
 
 (a") When the disease is 
 only slightly ex- 
 tended. 
 
 (&") When the disease is 
 greatly extended. 
 
 Disposal of the meat 
 
 Whole carcass unfit for food. 
 Parts not changed are unconditionally fit for 
 food. 
 
 Whole carcass unfit for food. 
 
 Parts not changed conditionally fit for food 
 (Freibank). 
 
 The parts not changed are unconditionally fit 
 
 for food. 
 The parts not changed are fit for food, but 
 
 materially reduced in value (Freibank). 
 
 The whole carcass in unfit for food. 
 
 Unchanged parts are conditionally fit for food 
 
 (Freibank). 
 Fat is conditionally fit for food; meat is unfit 
 
 for food. 
 
 Whole carcass unfit for food. 
 
 Unchanged parts are conditionally fit for 
 food (Freibank). 
 
 Unchanged parts are unconditionally fit for 
 food. 
 
 Unchanged parts are fit for food, but materially 
 
 reduced in value (Freibank). 
 Of the unchanged parts, quarters of a carcass 
 
 which contain a tuberculous lymph gland 
 
 are conditionally fit for food (Freibank). 
 The other unchanged parts are unconditionally 
 
 fit for food. 
 
 Fit for food, but materially reduced in value 
 (Freibank). 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 275 
 
 Remarks. The changed parts under I b, II 1 B, II 2 A b 1, and 
 II 2 B b of the table are unfit for food. 
 
 An organ must be regarded as tuberculous even when only the correspond- 
 ing lymph glands of that organ show tuberculous changes; a similar position 
 must be taken with regard to pieces of meat which have not been shown to be 
 free from tuberculosis by careful inspection. 
 
 In regard to tuberculosis of individual organs the rule is that the 
 whole organ should be always condemned when its corresponding 
 glands show tuberculous changes. 
 
 When the mesenteric lymph glands are affected a distinction must 
 be made between those of the small and large intestines, and the respec- 
 tive intestines to which the affected group of lymph glands belong 
 must be condemned. The mesentery with the diseased glands may 
 be permitted to be utilized for technical purposes after it has been 
 thoroughly denatured. 
 
 When the submaxillary and retropharyngeal lymph glands are 
 diseased they must be removed, together with the surrounding parts, 
 including the tonsils; however, no other parts of the head need be 
 condemned, as these lymph glands become infected almost exclusively 
 from the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and pharyngeal 
 orifice, none of which are used for food in Germany. 
 
 Relative to the judgment of a tuberculous " quarter," that part 
 of the body is considered infected which corresponds to the region 
 drained by the diseased body lymph glands. However, in case of 
 tuberculosis of the vertebrae, ribs, or sternum, when the cause of the 
 affection in the lymph glands can be traced to the respective bones, 
 it will not be necessary to condemn the more posterior draining region 
 of the lymph gland, but the altered bones and glands only need be 
 condemned. The judgment of the remaining part of the carcass should 
 naturally depend on the presence of other lesions. When tuberculosis 
 of the bones is suspected, especially in hogs, it becomes necessary to 
 remove the meat from the bones and to split the latter. 
 
 In removing tuberculous parts, especially serous membranes, attention 
 is called to the necessity of removing the associated lymph glands and 
 the other parts adjoining them. In order to remove satisfactorily the 
 small lymph glands to which access is difficult, it is advisable to remove 
 the surrounding parts of meat and bone with them. The veterinary 
 inspector must do this himself or see that it is done under his immediate 
 supervision. In this operation one should not go to an extreme by 
 removing more meat than is absolutely under suspicion of being tuber- 
 culous. In all this work care must be taken not to contaminate sound 
 meat with tuberculous material ; also, special attention should be given 
 to changing knives, saws, etc., which are soiled with tuberculous material. 
 
 Veal from calves which were vaccinated with protective tuberculosis vaccine 
 (for example, Bovovaccine and Tauruman) contains virulent tubercle bacilli 
 for several months after the inoculation; owing to this fact, several States have 
 issued regulations permitting the use of such meat only after cooking. 
 
276 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 [The judgment of tuberculous carcasses of food animals in the United 
 States varies somewhat from that adopted in Germany. While it 
 would appear that the condemnations from the extent of the lesions 
 are stricter in this country, and that affected carcasses which would 
 pass conditionally in Germany are condemned in this country, yet 
 the difference in the judgment of tuberculosis is principally due to the 
 fact that no provisions are made in the United States by which cer- 
 tain affected carcasses could be passed conditionally for food (after 
 sterilization), as the "Freibank system" has never been established in 
 this country. On the other hand, the regulations governing meat 
 inspection in the United States permit tuberculous carcasses which 
 are conditionally passed for food in Germany to be passed for lard 
 and tallow in this country; such carcasses, however, have to be sub- 
 jected to a temperature of 220 F. for not less than four hours. 
 
 In the following section, the requirements for the disposition of 
 tuberculous carcasses are given, in accordance with B. A. I. Order 150: 
 
 SECTION 13. Paragraph 1. The following principles are declared for guidance 
 in passing on carcasses affected with tuberculosis : 
 
 Principle A. The fundamental thought is that meat should not be used 
 for food if it contains tubercle bacilli, if there is a reasonable possibility that 
 it may contain tubercle bacilli, or if it is impregnated with toxic substances of 
 tuberculosis or associated septic infections. 
 
 Principle B. On the other hand, if the lesions are localized and not numer- 
 ous, if there is no evidence of distribution of tubercle bacilli through the blood, 
 or by other means, to the muscles or to parts that may be eaten with the muscles, 
 and if the animal is well nourished and in good condition, there is no proof 
 or even reason to suspect that the flesh is unwholesome. 
 
 Principle C. Evidences of generalized tuberculosis are to be sought in 
 such distribution and number of tuberculous lesions as can be explained 
 only upon the supposition of the entrance of tubercle bacilli in considerable 
 number into the systemic circulation. Significant of such generalization are 
 the presence of numerous uniformly distributed tubercles throughout both 
 lungs, also tubercles in the spleen, kidneys, bones, joints, and sexual glands, 
 and in the lymphatic glands connected with these organs and parts, or in the 
 splenic, renal, prescapular, popliteal, and inguinal glands, when several of 
 these organs and parts are coincidentally affected. 
 
 Principle D. By localized tuberculosis is understood tuberculosis limited 
 to a single or several parts or organs of the body without evidence of recent 
 invasion of numerous bacilli into the systemic circulation. 
 
 Paragraph 2. The following rules shall govern the disposal of meat of tuber- 
 culous animals: 
 
 Rule A. The entire carcass shall be condemned 
 
 ^(a) When it was observed before the animal was killed that it was suffering 
 with fever. 
 
 (6) When there is a tuberculous or other cachexia, as shown by anemia 
 and emaciation. 
 
 (c) When the lesions of tuberculosis are generalized, as shown by their 
 presence not only at the usual seats of primary infection, but also in parts of the 
 carcass or the organs that may be reached by the bacilli of tuberculosis only 
 when they are carried in the systemic circulation. Tuberculous lesions in 
 any two of the following-mentioned organs are to be accepted as evidence of 
 generalization when they occur in addition to local tuberculous lesions in the 
 digestive or respiratory tracts, including the lymphatic glands connected there- 
 with: Spleen, kidney, uterus, udder, ovary, testicle, adrenal gland, brain or 
 
PSE UDOT UBERC ULOSIS 277 
 
 spinal cord or their membranes. Numerous uniformly distributed tubercles 
 thorughout both lungs also afford evidence of generalization. 
 
 (d) When the lesions of tuberculosis are found in the muscles or intermuscular 
 tissue or bones or joints or in the body lymphatic glands as a result of draining 
 the muscles, bones, or joints. 
 
 (e) When the lesions are extensive in one or both body cavities. 
 
 (/) When the lesions are multiple, acute, and actively progressive. (Evidence 
 of active progress consists in signs of acute inflammation about the lesions, or 
 liquefaction necrosis, or the presence of young tubercles.) 
 
 Rule B. An organ or a part of a carcass shall be condemned 
 
 (a) When it contains lesions of tuberculosis. 
 
 (6) When the lesion is immediately adjacent to the flesh, as in the case of 
 tuberculosis of the parietal pleura or peritoneum, not only the membrane or part 
 affected, but also the adjacent thoracic or abdominal wall is to be condemned. 
 
 (c) When it has been contaminated by tuberculous material, through contact 
 with the floor, a soiled knife, or otherwise. 
 
 (d) Heads showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be condemned, unless such 
 lesions are confined to the lymph glands and are slight, calcified, and encap- 
 sulated, in which case the heads of passed carcasses may be used for rendering 
 into edible product. 
 
 (e) An organ shall be condemned when the corresponding lymphatic gland 
 is tuberculous. 
 
 Rule C. The carcass, if the tuberculous lesions are limited to a single or 
 several parts or organs of the body (except as noted in Rule A), without evidence 
 of recent invasion of tubercle bacilli into the systemic circulation, shall be 
 passed after the parts containing the localized lesions are removed and con- 
 demned in accordance with Rule B. 
 
 Rule D. Carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous than those described 
 for carcasses to be passed (Rule C), but not so severe as the lesions described 
 for carcasses to be condemned (Rule A), may be rendered into lard or tallow 
 if the distribution of the lesions is such that all parts containing tuberculous 
 lesions can be removed. Such carcasses shall be, cooked by steam at a tem- 
 perature not lower than 220 degrees Fahrenheit for not less than four hours. 
 
 PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS 
 
 As pseudotuberculosis are designated the affections which run their 
 course by producing nodules similar to those in tuberculosis, and which, 
 as a rule, also caseate, but which are not caused by Koch's tubercle 
 bacillus. Foreign bodies, cocci, bacteria, bacilli, and hyphomycetes, 
 may be etiologically involved. However, only those names which 
 are etiologically correct are at present used in connection with the 
 tuberculous-like processes caused by animal parasites, which were 
 formerly also designated as tuberculosis. 
 
 Frequency. Among food animals pseudotuberculous processes with 
 conspicuous caseation or premature calcification occur most frequently 
 in sheep. They have, however, been found in cattle, calves, guinea- 
 pigs, rabbits, and chickens. 
 
 In sheep the disease is caused by the Bacillus pseudotuberculosis ovis, Preisz 
 (Fig. 112), which appears as a very thin immotile rod, and which stains readily 
 with aqueous aniline dyes and by Gram's method; the bacilli in cultures are 
 both thicker and longer, developing also club and pear-shaped forms (Hutyra 
 and Marek). 
 
278 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 [In this country the disease is called caseous lymphadenitis, and is 
 fully described by Norgaard and Mohler in the Seventeenth Annual 
 Report of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry.] 
 
 The absence of giant cells and epithelioid cells, according to Ostertag, 
 is of importance in identifying pseudotuberculous alterations. The 
 dry, caseated pseudotuberculous lesions in the lymph glands are char- 
 acterized by onion-like layers (Noack). 
 - 112 An attempt should also be made to estab- 
 
 lish the cause of the processes. It may be 
 confused with tuberculosis only, but this 
 may be avoided by carefully observing the 
 aforementioned characteristics, together 
 with those changes which are character- 
 istic of genuine tuberculosis. 
 
 Judgment. All parts of carcasses per- 
 meated with pseudotuberculous processes 
 should be treated as unfit for food, re- 
 gardless of the form of infection, whether 
 it is of primary, secondary, or embolic 
 nature. Whether or not the whole car- 
 Hutyra and Marek.) cass shall be condemned or declared of 
 
 inferior value for food depends upon the 
 
 condition of the animal and the character of the meat. Noack 
 recommends that similar action be taken as in genuine tuberculosis 
 until it has been proved that man is not susceptible to the bacillus 
 pseudotuberculosis. 
 
 [The judgment of carcasses affected with pseudotuberculosis is 
 carried out in this country on the same lines as those prescribed for 
 Germany.] 
 
 ACTINOMYCOSIS 
 
 The ray fungus disease is caused by a fission fungus, the Actinomyces 
 bo vis (Fig. 113), or Streptothrix actinomyces, and is a disease of slow 
 course, which occurs in cattle, swine, sheep, and horses, as well as in 
 man. It is characterized by the formation of tumors, connective- 
 tissue infiltrations and abscesses. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The ray fungus can enter the body through the 
 digestive or respiratory tracts or through the outer skin. After enter- 
 ing the tissues the fungus develops a nodule, in the neighborhood of 
 which an inflammatory area and a granulation zone soon arise. Around 
 this centre changes will then occur, which consist either in the forma- 
 tion of connective-tissue neoformations, which lead to induration and 
 hardening, or destruction of tissue and abscess formation. The latter 
 condition occurs especially among swine. The actinomycotic growth 
 in domestic animals shows chiefly fibrous characters, but occasionally 
 a myxofibromatous consistence may also appear. Both enclose the 
 above-mentioned granulation centre, in which the actinomyces fungi may 
 be recognized macroscopically as fine-grained, sulphur-yellow bodies. 
 
ACTINOMYCOSIS 279 
 
 Microscopically, these bodies appear to be greenish and of a char- 
 acteristically radiated structure, but when calcified they are somewhat 
 darker in color. 
 
 Metastatic extensions of the fungus from the primary lesion may 
 occur, causing generalization in other parts of the body; but this is 
 exceptionally infrequent, as is also any affection of the lymphatic 
 glands, where neither purulence nor calcification is often found to 
 occur. 
 
 FIG. 113 
 
 Actinomyces bovis. a, X 200 diameters; b, X 500 diameters. (After Johne.) 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. In cattle the chief symptoms are hard 
 tumor-like distentions of the jaw bones, at which points red, sarco- 
 matous-like proliferations may break out through the skin. Such 
 tumors may also occur in the region of the parotid glands, on the cheeks, 
 the lips, and more rarely on other parts of the body. The tongue 
 changes to be described later, while occurring much more frequently 
 than the affection of the jaw, are noticed only in the most severe cases 
 during the life of the animal, or when the animal is noticeably troubled 
 in taking up its food. The latter condition will gradually lead to the 
 emaciation of the animal, although its general health is undisturbed. 
 In swine the most common indication of actinomycosis consists in 
 nodular growths and cold abscesses within the udder. The first may 
 also be accompanied by ulcerations or fistulous formations. Larger 
 tumors are comparatively rare. Small actinomycotic nodules may 
 be observed at the seat of castration, both in male and female hogs. 
 In other food animals, actinomycotic affections are very rarely recog- 
 nized during life. 
 
 In slaughtered cattle, the most frequent seat of the disease is the 
 tongue, the actinomycotic affection starting, as a rule, in the transverse 
 
280 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 groove (Fig. 114). In and around this location little nodules may 
 arise, scattered about in the mucous membrane. Whenever these 
 growths permeate the lingual muscles, inflammation results, which 
 affects chronically the intermuscular connective tissues and leads to 
 
 FIG. 114 
 
 Actinomycotic ulcer on the dorsum of the tongue of cattle. (After Hutyra and Marek.) 
 
 enlargement and hardening of the organ (wooden tongue). On the 
 surface of the tongue actinomycotic erosions and fungiform prominences 
 may develop. Similar alterations may also occur upon the cheeks and 
 gums. 
 
 FIG. 115 
 
 Frontal section through the nose and superior maxilla of cattle with an actinomycotic growth: a, 
 nodules consisting of connective tissue, bone, and small suppurative foci. One-quarter of the natural 
 size. (After Ziegler.) 
 
 The changes in the jaw bones usually result from the entrance of the 
 fungus alongside the teeth, and often lead to considerable swelling 
 and deformities (Fig. 115). The infrequently occurring actinomycotic 
 changes in other mucous membranes and viscera appear as pedunculated 
 tumors (in the buccal cavity, esophagus, and stomachs), or as nodular 
 
ACTINOMYCOSIS 281 
 
 tumors, which through myxomatous infiltrations may reach great dimen- 
 sions, especially in the lungs. 
 
 In the udder the changes occur as nodular growths or as diffuse 
 indurative inflammations in conjunction with the growths. Actino- 
 mycosis of the skin is seen principally on the head and neck in the 
 form of tumors, or as diffused bacon-like infiltrations. Pieroni found 
 actinomycotic changes in the dura mater and the occipital bone. 
 
 As previously mentioned, actinomycosis of swine appears most 
 frequently as a disease of the mammae, manifested either by nodules 
 with skin erosions, or by cold abscesses with or without fistulous forma- 
 tions. Extensive infiltrations are comparatively rare in these parts. 
 The lesions at the places of castration are mostly nodular. Actino- 
 mycotic changes in the fauces are relatively rare (Johne); likewise 
 abscesses in the region of the throat and on the other parts of the skin. 
 
 Actinomycosis has been found in the lungs, muscles, and on the 
 lips and tongues of slaughtered sheep. 
 
 The cases of actinomycosis of the horse are limited to a few observa- 
 tions of the disease in the spermatic cord, lymph glands, bones, tongue, 
 and generalized affections. 
 
 Diagnosis is not difficult if attention is given to the pathological 
 characteristics mentioned above. The scattered yellowish granules 
 are to be especially noted in the growths, the microscopic examination 
 of which assures a diagnosis. This may be a difficult undertaking 
 where degeneration of the actinomyces fungi has become established, 
 but in food animals this condition does not often occur. The fungi 
 stain readily with Gram's stain and with picrocarmine. 
 
 Actinomycotic tumors may be mistaken for various other growths, 
 especially for tuberculous nodules, when the characteristic structure 
 of the actinomycotic tumors is not considered, and besides when in- 
 sufficient attention is paid to the condition of the lymph glands. 
 
 Judgment. Although actinomycosis may at times affect man 
 dangerously, no instance has been observed of a direct transmission 
 of the fungus to people, either from living or slaughtered animals. 
 Actinomycotic tissues should be condemned as unfit for human food 
 on account of their decidedly abnormal consistence. This disposition 
 should be made of the entire organ wherever multiple local infection 
 has occurred. In cases of generalized actinomycosis the entire carcass 
 should be carefully examined on account of the atypical course of 
 such generalization, and the parts showing actinomycotic changes should 
 be condemned. 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 11, 
 Paragraphs 1 to 3, carcasses affected with generalized actinomycosis 
 should be condemned; in case the affection has not extended from the 
 primary area of infection and is confined to the head, the carcass is 
 passed for food while the head and tongue are condemned. If but 
 slight lesions of actinomycosis are observed in the oral cavity in the 
 form of abrasions on the transverse furrow of the dorsum of the tongue, 
 the inner surface of the cheek, or on the palate, the parts may be passed 
 
282 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING 'ANIMALS 
 
 provided there is no involvement of the bone or of adjacent lymph 
 glands, and the abrasions are cut away and condemned. Where the 
 lesions are uncomplicated and localized the infected organ or parts 
 are condemned, while the carcass is passed for food.] 
 
 Actinobacillosis, which has been found by Lignieres and Spitz, in the cattle 
 and occasionally in the sheep of Argentine is not of importance to the German 
 inspector or meats. 1 
 
 BOTRYOMYCOSIS 
 
 Botryomycosis is a chronic, tumor-like, connective-tissue prolifera- 
 tion, caused by the Botryococcus ascoformans, Kitt. It grows in the 
 form of spherical or grape-like colonies (Fig. 116), which soon are sur- 
 rounded by hyaline capsules. These clumps 
 Fia - 116 of round microorganisms were called Botryo- 
 
 myces by Bollinger; Biscomyces equi by Rivolta; 
 Micrococcus ascoformans by Johne, and Micro- 
 coccus botryogenus by Rabe. This disease occurs 
 almost exclusively in horses, but it has also 
 been observed in cattle and hogs in isolated 
 cases. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The characteristic 
 lesions are fibrous nodules and tumors, with 
 Colony of botryomyces. (After softened yellowish-brown areas in the centre, 
 Rabe.) in which small sand-like granules of a yellowish- 
 
 white color are found . The latter are composed 
 
 of grape-shaped, conglomerate, closely adherent clumps of botryococci. 
 The most common site of these nodules in the horse is the subcutis 
 and spermatic cord, but they may also occur in the udder, ribs, muscles, 
 and on the pleura. Guenther, Czokor, Immelmann, and Reali have 
 also reported botryomycosis in cattle, while Wilbrandt and Schneide- 
 muhl have found it in the hog. A generalization of the disease has 
 been variously observed. 
 
 The disease is recognized by microscopic examination of the granules, 
 which stain with all the basic aniline stains, thereby avoiding confusion 
 with other infectious granulomata, such as actinomycosis and glanders, 
 Judgment. All parts affected with botryomycotic processes are to be 
 condemned as unfit for food and destroyed. [See B. A. I. Order 150, 
 Regulation 13, Section 23.] 
 
 ANTHRAX 
 
 Anthrax, which occurs in all food-producing animals, in game, and 
 in fowls, is caused by the Bacillus anthracis. The hog and dog are 
 somewhat resistant to infection, but anthrax infection has been 
 definitively demonstrated in them. 
 
 f 1 In Canada this disease has been reported in cattle, and recently a case of actinobacillosis was 
 observed in a hog in this country.] 
 
ANTHRAX 
 
 283 
 
 Bacteriology. The anthrax bacilli (Figs. 117 and 118) measure 1.5 to 3 
 microns in length, 1 to 1.5 microns in width, with slightly convex or perfectly 
 square ends. They form obtusely angular chains, reaching a maximum of 10 
 microns in length. The anthrax bacilli are immotile, and those taken from the 
 blood are surrounded by a characteristic, capsular, or gelatinous membrane, 
 by which they are distinguished from other similarly formed, bacteria. The 
 anthrax bacillus grows only in the presence of oxygen and forms spores (Fig. 
 118); the latter, however, never form in the live animal body or in the intact 
 cadaver. The best way to prepare suspected material (spleen pulp) for ship- 
 ment and bacteriological examination is by careful slow drying of thick smears 
 on glass slides or on the inner surface of test-tubes (Bongert and Hosang); 
 or perhaps better still, by the Forster plaster-of-Paris rod method (Marxer, 
 Jacobsthal and Pfersdorff, Eberle, Dausel). 
 
 FIG. Hi 
 
 FTG. 118 
 
 Anthrax bacilli with stained 
 capsules. 
 
 Anthrax bacilli containing spores. Agar culture 
 eight hours old. Stained by fuchsin. (After 
 Hutyra and Marek.) 
 
 Staining of the Anthrax Bacilli with their Capsules. After Luepke: Slightly 
 boil the cover-glass preparation with a 0.2 per cent, gentian violet solution; 
 rinse thoroughly with water. After Johne: Stain in hot 2 per cent, gentian 
 violet solution; wash in water; decolorize for ten to twenty seconds in 2 per 
 cent, acetic acid; wash in water. After Klett: Boil in alcoholic methylene blue 
 solution (1 to 10 alcohol to 100 water); wash in water; stain in alcoholic solution 
 of fuchsin (1 to 10 alcohol to 100 water); wash. After Olt: Heat the cover-glass 
 over a flame after applying a 3 per cent, aqueous safranin solution; wash in 
 water. After Raebiger: Air-dried cover-glass preparations are stained cold 
 with formalin-gentian violet (150 grams, 40 per cent, formalin, with 15 to 20 
 grams gentian violet) for twenty seconds; wash in water. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The anthrax bacilli, or their spores, enter either 
 through injuries of the skin or through the digestive apparatus into 
 the body. Only the spores are effective by the latter method. Infec- 
 tion by way of the air passages, which occurs in man, is exceedingly 
 rare in animals. From the point of inoculation the bacilli enter the 
 blood, where they multiply rapidly, and through their toxins produce 
 a severe febrile affection. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The clinical symptoms vary considerably, 
 according to the point of infection, species of animals, and individuals, 
 and they may be entirely overlooked in abortive cases (apoplectiform 
 anthrax). Otherwise, characteristic symptoms are the sudden appear- 
 
284 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 ance of the disease, the rapid course, high fever, general severe con- 
 stitutional symptoms, hemorrhages into the mucous membranes, 
 bloody discharges, cerebral or pulmonary congestions, colic and drying 
 up of milk secretion in lactating animals. In some cases there may 
 be present visible localizations, such as carbuncle and edema of the 
 skin (especially in cattle and horses) and mucous membranes (espe- 
 cially of the tongue, termed gloss anthrax); also edema of the neck 
 in hogs. 
 
 The most important pathological finding is the swollen spleen, 
 whose pulp is blackish red and of a fluid consistence. In the hog and 
 horse, exceptionally also in emergency slaughtered cattle, enlarge- 
 ment of the spleen may be slight or absent. Further, there occurs 
 cloudy swelling of the heart, liver, and kidneys, with venous stasis or 
 formation of hemorrhagic infarcts and petechial hemorrhages. The 
 latter may occur on any part of the body, especially beneath the peri- 
 cardium and pleura. Marked stasis in the mesenteric, intestinal, 
 and hepatic veins is present, with brownish-red discoloration of the 
 mucous membrane of the abomasum and intestinal walls, in which 
 hemorrhages may occur; bloody infiltration of the mucous membranes 
 of the small intestines, and to a less degree of the colon mucosa is 
 observed. Pulmonary edema and marked cervical edema, especially 
 in hogs, may be noted, and also yellowish gelatinous and bloody infiltra- 
 tions of the subcutis, with engorged veins of the skin and muscles. 
 The majority of the lymphatic glands are strikingly edematous, hyper- 
 emic, and show bloody extravasations. Rigor mortis is absent. The 
 blood is not coagulated, and is, as a rule, dark to black red (tar-like). 
 There occur cases, however, which run a rapid course in which the 
 color of the blood is not materially changed. 
 
 The unopened cadaver rapidly becomes distended, and discharges 
 mixed with blood will flow from the natural body openings; in the 
 body cavities a blood-stained serous fluid will be found. 
 
 The recognition of anthrax is based on careful consideration of the 
 pathological findings and the microscopic examination of stained 
 cover-glass preparations made from the splenic pulp, the lymph of the 
 mesenteric glands, the blood of the veins of the skin, or from the edema- 
 tously infiltrated portions of the subcutis. In doubtful cases test 
 inoculations and culture growths for the demonstration of the bacilli 
 will be effective; but these cannot be considered at this point. It might 
 be emphasized, however, that the plate method (Fig. 119) is the best 
 and safest for the bacteriological diagnosis of anthrax (Kitt, Bongert, 
 Hosang, Kaesewurm). 
 
 For differential diagnosis must be considered: Blackleg, malignant 
 edema, hemorrhagic septicemia, septic diseases, petechial fever, certain 
 intoxications, overfeeding of cattle after long transportation, and 
 erysipelas in hogs. For a description of the particular characteristics 
 of these diseases, as compared with the symptoms of anthrax as well 
 as the differentiating characteristics of some of the microorganisms 
 of these diseases, the reader is referred elsewhere. 
 
ANTHRAX 
 
 285 
 
 . 119 
 
 Partial splenic enlargement (infarcts) resulting from emboli is char- 
 acterized by firm consistency of the swollen parts. A very large splenic 
 tumor, involving the entire organ, has been observed in the hog as a 
 
 result of torsion. A con- 
 fusion of cadaver bacilli 
 with anthrax bacilli is ex- 
 cluded in the light of our 
 recent staining technique, 
 and upon careful study 
 of the two species (Figs. 
 117 and 120), 1 Kaesewurm 
 has called attention to a 
 
 Fio. 120 
 
 Superficial colony of the Bacillus anthracis in a 24-hour-old 
 agar plate culture. X 50 diameters. 
 
 Cadaver bacilli. X 500 
 diameters. 
 
 pseudoanthrax bacillus which also forms colonies composed of bundles 
 of wavy, tangled filaments. 
 
 Judgment. The meat of animals affected with anthrax should be 
 considered injurious as food, and is to be condemned and destroyed. 
 The latter is effected by the veterinary police; every case of anthrax 
 or suspected anthrax is, according to the regulations, to be reported 
 immediately to the local police authorities. 
 
 Meat suspected of having been only superficially soiled with anthrax bacilli, 
 which may occur in the case of an animal infected with anthrax being slaughtered 
 in an abattoir with other animals, may be utilized for food after having been 
 sterilized with steam. 
 
 If on antemortem inspection an animal be suspected of having 
 anthrax, slaughtering is to be forbidden, and the necessary measures 
 should be taken to prevent its spread to man or to animals and to arrest 
 further dissemination of the infectious material. 
 
 If a slaughtered animal be found diseased, all parts thereof are to 
 be confiscated and left to the disposition of the veterinary authorities. 
 Persons engaged in the slaughter of the animal or in handling it in 
 any way are to be carefully examined for probable infection wounds 
 on hands or arms. 
 
 [' McFadyean has recently described a peculiar staining reaction of anthrax bacilli which is specific. 
 Smear preparations are stained for a few seconds with a 1 per cent, aqueous solution of methylene 
 blue; the amorphous material around and between the bacilli appears violet or reddish purple, while 
 the bacilli and cell nuclei are blue.] 
 
286 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 The fact that much anthrax meat has been eaten without any harm to man 
 is explained by the loss of vitality of the bacilli (not of the spores, however) 
 in the intestinal tract, where, as a rule, they are destroyed by the gastric juice. 
 This meat, nevertheless, remains dangerous to man on account of the liability 
 of inoculation by handling or by ingestion through the injured mucous mem- 
 brane of the digestive tract. 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 2, 
 carcasses affected with anthrax should be immediately incinerated 
 or otherwise thoroughly destroyed; the same disposition should be 
 made of the hides, hoofs, horns, viscera, and all other parts of the 
 diseased animal. The killing bed and all the instruments used in the 
 slaughter of the animal should be disinfected with a 1 to 1000 solution 
 of bichloride of mercury,] 
 
 RABIES 
 
 On account of its rarity and the exceedingly difficult recognition of 
 rabies (lyssa) in slaughtered animals, it will be but slightly touched upon. 
 This disease may occur in all food animals, and is usually occasioned 
 through the bite of a rabid dog. 
 
 Etiologically rabies requires further research [although it is quite 
 generally accepted that the nerve-cell inclusions discovered by Negri 
 in 1903, and termed Negri bodies, are the causative agents], 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. In view of the multiplicity of variation of 
 the clinical symptoms of rabies in the different animal species and the 
 uselessness of an extensive description, the reader is referred to the 
 special text-books of veterinary medicine. The anatomical changes are 
 not characteristic. 
 
 The recognition of a well-developed case of rabies in the living animal 
 is not so very difficult, especially if it can be observed for several days. 
 In the slaughtered animal, however, only a probable diagnosis of 
 rabies can be established, which may be verified by the determination 
 of a bite from a dog at some previous time, and a comparison of the 
 clinical symptoms reported. In the dog, suspicion is further incited 
 by the presence of indigestible material (wood, straw, hair, cloth, etc.) 
 in the otherwise usually empty stomach; the intestinal tract is also 
 generally free from normal foodstuffs. The absence of any other distinct 
 organic disease which might be the cause of the symptoms, also supports 
 the diagnosis of rabies. 
 
 Absolutely certain diagnosis is obtained by subdural, intraocular, or intra- 
 muscular inoculation of the substance of the central nervous system into experi- 
 ment animals. Historically the diagnosis may be made by the demonstration 
 of Negri bodies. Negri bodies are round, oval, or pear-shaped structures 
 situated in the interior of the large ganglia cells of the central nervous system. 
 They assume a dark red color on staining with eosin-methylene blue solution, 
 while the cells and cell-nuclei appear blue. In the section for the treatment 
 of rabies at the Royal Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin, the diagnosis 
 of rabies is accepted on the finding of the Negri bodies without recourse to animal 
 inoculation. 
 
GLANDERS 287 
 
 Judgment. As the meat of rabid animals is dangerous to health 
 and unfit for food, it should be condemned. Although transmission 
 of rabies has not been observed to result from ingestion of meat from 
 rabid animals, the disease is nevertheless possible if inoculation occurs 
 while handling the meat. According to v. Ratz, the virus of rabies 
 remains active for thirteen to twenty-four days after death of the 
 animal. 
 
 Veterinary police measures for rabies are the same as for anthrax, 
 e. g., report of cases, forbidden slaughter, destruction or removal of 
 the cadaver so it can do no harm. 
 
 In the incubation stage of the disease, slaughtering of domestic 
 animals, with the exception of cats and dogs, is not prohibited, and 
 the meat may also be utilized after removal of the bitten area. 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 7, 
 carcasses of animals affected with rabies should be condemned.] 
 
 GLANDERS 
 
 Glanders or farcy is an exceedingly infectious disease of solipeds, 
 but may be transmitted to sheep, goats, dogs, cats, and various other 
 animals, especially man. Of the food animals, cattle are immune, 
 while hogs are nearly so. The disease is produced by the glanders 
 bacillus discovered by Loffler and Schiitz. 
 
 Bacteriology. The Bacillus mallei is immotile, 2 microns long, 0.3 micron 
 wide, and frequently arranged in pairs. Sporulation does not take place. The 
 staining is best accomplished, according to Loffler, by using aniline aqueous 
 gentian violet for five minutes, to which has been added the same quantity of 
 potassium hydrate solution (1 to 10,000). Next dip in acetic acid solution 
 (1 to 100), to which a few drops of tropeolin solution have been added, and 
 then wash in water. 
 
 Potato culture is characteristic; at a temperature of 37.5 C. for two days 
 it shows a yellow homogeneous growth, which later turns dark brownish red 
 and assumes a honey-like appearance. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The glanders bacillus gains entrance in solipeds in 
 most cases by way of the digestive apparatus; next in order through 
 the abraded skin. Infection occurs rarely by way of the air passages. 
 Only in very severe infections do the bacilli produce changes or lesions 
 at the point of entrance (intestinal mucosa). As a rule, they are dis- 
 seminated by the lymphatic or blood stream and produce diseased 
 processes embolically in the most remote organs. There will form 
 either millet to pea-sized, subepithelial nodules (nodular glanders), 
 or diffuse cellular infiltrations of the mucous membranes (infiltrated 
 glanders). Disintegration of the nodules of the mucous membranes 
 causes ulcers, with a yellowish infiltrated base, which rapidly enlarge. 
 Healing of the ulcers with radiating cicatrices may also occur (Fig. 
 121). The nodules, nodes, and diffuse glanderous growths in the 
 
288 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 interior of the organs are partly light gray and abundant in cells, partly 
 opaque, yellowish white, caseated or approaching suppuration, and 
 partly grayish white, with a firm consistence. 
 
 In infection of the skin (farcy, cutaneous glanders) there form, 
 partly in the papillary portion, partly in the subcutis, rapidly dis- 
 integrating nodes, which give rise to abscesses. From these abscesses 
 a glanderous lymphangitis develops. 
 
 All glanderous processes are associated with a specific inflammation 
 of the lymphatic glands, which is characterized by inflammatory 
 swelling, formation of nodules, areas of degeneration, and chronic 
 inflammatory proliferation of connective tissue, which extends to the 
 neighboring tissues, resulting in coalition of the glands with the sur- 
 rounding tissues. 
 
 FIG. 121 
 
 Nasal septum of a horse, showing ulcers and a scar of glanders. (After Ostertag.) 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Of the various symptoms of chronic glanders, 
 which is frequently recognized with difficulty in the living animal- 
 acute glanders not coming into consideration in inspection the follow- 
 ing are of particular importance on antemortem examination: Nasal 
 discharge, which is irregular; adhesive mucus which is gray or greenish 
 yellow, may be mixed with a clear catarrhal secretion; nodules or 
 ulcers or cicatrices on the mucous membranes of the nose; diffuse 
 enlargement of the submaxillary lymphatic glands, which later appear 
 painless, nodular, hard, and attached to the maxilla; nodes, ulcers, 
 corded lymphatics and glanderous phlegmons of the skin. 
 
 The anatomical changes correspond to the clinical symptoms, from 
 the very beginning of the disease. Aside from the changes in the skin 
 and the nasal and accessory cavities, special attention should be 
 directed to changes in the lungs where embolic glanderous nodules 
 (Fig. 122), sometimes of considerable magnitude, form. Further- 
 more, emboli occur particularly in the liver, spleen, kidneys, testes, 
 muscles, heart, brain, and bones. The above-described lesions will 
 also be found in the lymph glands. 
 
 The anatomic recognition of glanders is of special importance. 
 The glassy-gray, transparent, or translucent appearance of the glanders 
 nodules, their red area and involvement of the corresponding lymph 
 glands (swollen and nodular on section), have been emphasized by 
 Ostertag. Schiitz has also called attention to chromatotexis of the 
 
GLANDERS 
 
 289 
 
 pus cells in glanders, in which, during progressive cell necrosis, the 
 chromatin of the nuclei is broken up into fine granules. A bacterio- 
 logic and cultural test is indicated in all suspected cases, which are 
 to be immediately turned over to the veterinary police authorities. 
 The work of practical meat inspection does not permit of animal experi- 
 ments, as a rule. 
 
 [Keyser obtained very good results from the complement-fixation 
 test for the diagnosis of glanders in carcasses of horses, and the applica- 
 tion of this test in doubtful cases would therefore appear advisable.] 
 
 FIG. 122 
 
 Old glanders nodule from the lung: a, central necrosed portion; 6, innermost cellular capsule; 
 c, connective-tissue capsular layer. X 30 diameters. (After Ostertag.) 
 
 In order to avoid confusion with other diseases, there must be con- 
 sidered parasitic lung nodules (calcareous and fibrous nodules); small 
 multiple areas or processes in traumatic pneumonia; embolic lung nodules 
 in pyemia, strangles, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, and botryomycosis of 
 the lungs, leukemia, and nasal catarrh. In all of these diseases the 
 characteristic glanderous lesions will be absent, or similar findings will 
 be found to differ on comparison. 
 
 Judgment. Upon the recognition of glanders in the living animal, 
 its slaughter is to be prohibited and the necessary sanitary precautions 
 left to the veterinary police. The meat of glanderous animals is to be 
 declared unfit for food as it is dangerous to health. 
 
 From a veterinary police standpoint the compulsory reporting and 
 19 
 
290 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 killing of the diseased animals must be considered. The killing should 
 be done under the direction of the regular veterinarian; also the removal 
 of the cadaver which is not to be skinned. 
 
 Great care in handling glanderous or suspected animals is urgently 
 advised. 
 
 [Solipeds are not slaughtered as food animals in the United States, 
 and as glanders is chiefly a disease of solipeds, it is of little importance 
 in meat inspection in this country ; the disease, however, may be trans- 
 mitted to sheep and goats, and it is only natural that animals showing 
 lesions of glanders should be condemned.] 
 
 FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 
 
 This peculiar affection of cloven-foot animals, also called aphthous 
 fever, is a febrile disease starting with vesicles or blisters on the mucous 
 membranes of the digestive apparatus and outer skin. The affection 
 more frequently occurs in swine and cattle. Sheep, goats, and wild 
 cloven-footed animals are seldom affected. It may be transmitted to 
 cats, fowls, and human beings. 
 
 The exact cause of this disease is not known, but the virus is filter- 
 able and is exceedingly contagious. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The initial symptom of the infection is a slight 
 internal fever, followed by rapidly forming vesicles. In cattle the 
 latter appear on the lips, muzzle, all parts of the buccal mucous 
 membrane, between the claws, on the pads of the hoofs, and around 
 the coronary band. Exceptionally these erosions are also found at the 
 base of the horn, udder, vulva, perineum, and on the scrotum of the 
 male. In sheep and goats there appear most frequently very small 
 vesicles between the claws; lesions are very seldom found in the mouths 
 of these animals. Swine are first affected in the interdigital space and 
 around the supernumerary digits; later, small vesicles are noticed on 
 the muzzle and snout. 
 
 These rapidly appearing blisters soon burst, leaving a red, moist 
 erosion. These erosions, as a rule, heal very rapidly, and are covered 
 by shreds of epithelium growing in from the edges. In very severe 
 cases the claws may drop off, and the tendons of the digits may become 
 affected by extensive suppuration, or suppurative arthritis may develop 
 with accompanying septicemia or pyemia. 
 
 The disease usually takes a malignant course in suckling animals, 
 which generally die from inflammation of the stomach and intestines. 
 A malignant type of disease is also observed in older animals during 
 certain periods of the plague, when the animals die of apoplexy or 
 with manifestations of an intoxication in connection with a violent 
 type of diarrhea. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Besides the appearance of vesicles, the 
 most striking symptoms are lameness, an affection of the buccal mucous 
 membranes, and dribbling of saliva. In cattle the latter appears thick 
 
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 
 
 291 
 
 and tenacious, containing large bubbles. This salivation may be absent 
 in cases where the eruption and formation of vesicles are on the pos- 
 terior parts of the buccal mucous membrane, in which cases the animals 
 swallow the saliva. Besides inappetence, there is a characteristic 
 "smacking" noise of the lips, which is caused by a fast in and out 
 motion of the lips. The other symptoms of this disease appear accord- 
 ing to the previously mentioned development of the disease. 
 
 FIG. 123 
 
 Vesicles and ulcers on the gums and ulcers on the muzzle of a cow affected with foot and mouth 
 disease. (After Hutyra and Marek.) 
 
 The anatomical changes are in accord with the development of the 
 disease, and include moist erosions, which may be followed by compli- 
 cations, such as suppuration and ulceration of the joints and feet. 
 
 In the virulent form of this disease the lesions present themselves 
 very differently, according to the clinical manifestations. Severe gastro- 
 enteritis, multiple embolic myocarditis, parenchymatous or amyloid 
 degeneration of the heart, and other indications of blood poisoning are, 
 however, seldom absent. 
 
292 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 The recognition of typical cases of foot and mouth disease is not 
 difficult. In the early stages it may not be easily recognized, and 
 in certain conditions the disease may only be diagnosticated in the 
 slaughtered animal. The slaughtering of "suspects" should preferably 
 be carried out in abattoirs so that an accurate diagnosis can be estab- 
 lished and the rapid eradication of the disease accomplished. In the 
 formation of vesicles on the dorsum of the tongue it should be noted 
 that the fungiform papillae remain standing apparently intact in the 
 eroded places (Leutsch). 
 
 Other lesions of the oral cavity which may be confused with foot 
 and mouth disease are: 
 
 I. Traumatic injuries of the epithelium of the mouth. 
 II. Chemical and thermic injuries. 
 
 III. Superficial actinomycotic lesions. 
 
 IV. Pseudo-aphtha (Leutsch) or erosive stomatitis (M. Miiller). 
 
 V. Benign stomatitis; stomatitis bovis specifica (Ostertag and 
 Bugge, Hess, Peters, Hajnal [Stomatitis oidica]). 
 
 The first two, as a rule, show irregular destruction of the mucous 
 membrane or deeper tissues. The actinomycotic erosions, which are 
 characterized clinically by very slight sensitiveness, appear as sharply 
 circumscribed, mostly rounded defects of the mucous membrane 
 with brownish-red base, from which flat, reddish, button-like prolifera- 
 tions gradually protrude like mushrooms. 
 
 In pseudoaphtha or erosive stomatitis the lesions range in size 
 from a pea to a penny, and begin as flat elevations on the mucous 
 membrane of the mouth. Small amounts of saliva dribble from the 
 mouth, but the appetite is not destroyed; later, these elevations 
 change into superficial ulcerations. Occasionally fever and depres- 
 sion accompany this disease. The origin of this affection is not 
 known. 
 
 Erosive stomatitis ononidea, according to Miiller, is produced only 
 by eating Ononis spinosa, or 0. repens, and, as a rule, is accompanied 
 by some inappetence. 
 
 The benign stomatitis cannot be transmitted to calves, and other- 
 wise corresponds to pseudo-aphtha. In the benign buccal eruptions, 
 described by Hess, papules form on the mucous membrane and border 
 of the lips in sizes ranging from a hempseed to a pea, in the centre of 
 which appears a quickly bursting vesicle. After this bursting occurs, 
 superficial ulcers are observed. The general health of the animal is 
 not disturbed and the disease is not transmissible. 
 
 The following diseases of the feet enter into consideration in differ- 
 ential diagnosis: 
 
 1. Animals transported over hard and stony roads are, as a rule, 
 affected with hardening of the pad of the hoof, which occurs uniformly 
 on all four feet. 
 
 2. Contusions of the feet in hogs are not infrequently seen, mostly 
 in but one foot, which shows infiltration of blood without vesicles, 
 or a small blood blister on the coronary band. 
 
VARIOLA 293 
 
 3. Swelling of the coronary band and pad, due to long standing 
 on wet ground. 
 
 4. Inflammation of the interdigital space, especially foot rot in sheep, 
 but there are no vesicles present. 
 
 Judgment. The meat of animals affected with this disease should 
 not, as a rule, be condemned on account of the disease itself. On the 
 other hand, the diseased parts must be scalded on account of the 
 danger of spreading the disease to animals and man. In febrile cases 
 and complications the clinical appearance and anatomical lesions are 
 decisive in judging the utilization of the meat. 
 
 From the standpoint of veterinary police, compulsory notification 
 of the disease should be observed. The hide should not be permitted 
 to be moved from the premises until dried unless a direct shipment 
 is made to the tannery. Only the veterinary inspector is to decide on 
 this question as well as on the disposal of the affected parts. In con- 
 sideration of the easy dissemination of the disease by the inspectors 
 themselves, the greatest care is advised. 
 
 [Foot and mouth disease does not exist at the present time in the 
 United States, and therefore it does not concern the meat-inspection 
 service of this country.] 
 
 VARIOLA 
 
 Of the pock-like diseases which occur in all animals that are slaughtered 
 for their meat, the pox of sheep and the vaccination pox of calves are 
 of importance. 
 
 Sheep Variola. Sheep pox, after absence for a number of years 
 from Germany, has recently reappeared. It is produced by an easily 
 disseminated, filterable virus, whose pathogenicity varies. It is prob- 
 able that it is taken into the system through the air passages. 
 
 Pathogenesis. After a period of six or eight days' incubation the clinical 
 symptoms of sheep variola appear, beginning with fever, debility, loss of appe- 
 tite, suppurative conjunctivitis with swelling of the lids, severe mucopurulent 
 nasal and pharyngeal catarrh, and foul odor from mouth and nose. After a 
 day or two red, round, or oblong, nettle-rash-like excrescences (roseola variolosa 
 according to Hutyra and Marek) appear on the skin of those portions of the 
 body which are devoid of wool or only slightly woolly, such as the vicinity of 
 the eyes, cheeks, lips, alae nasi, inner part of thighs, under surface of tail, lower 
 chest, and posterior part of the abdomen. 
 
 In the normal course of the disease, pimples develop in these spotted areas, 
 which may increase at their base to the size of a penny (Stad,ium papulosum). 
 From under the surface of the papules exudes a tenacious fluid, which soon forms 
 vesicles (S. vesiculosum) , containing a yellowish or slightly reddish fluid. By 
 the sixth or seventh day this becomes cloudy and purulent (S. pustulosum, 
 S. suppurationis) . A crust or scab (S. crustosum) follows desiccation of the 
 pustule, which dries and later falls off. 
 
 As the skin and subcutis become edematously infiltrated at the diseased 
 areas there occurs swelling of these portions of the body, which may be especially 
 marked at the head and extremities. 
 
 In some epizootics the pustular stage is absent at first and during the further 
 course of the disease develops slowly. 
 
294 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Although the constitutional condition of the sheep improves with the de- 
 crease of the eruption, severe catarrh of the mucous membranes will remain in 
 some cases, followed by catarrhal pneumonia. A sweetish, nauseating odor 
 emanates from these animals; they cease to feed, and finally succumb to the 
 disease. 
 
 Among other complications of special significance are the appearance of 
 extensive hemorrhages (variola hsemorrhagica), the confluence of the pox, and 
 the development of gangrenous pox, in which septicemia or pyemia leads to 
 fatal results. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The symptoms and lesions in the live animal 
 are as above described. In the slaughtered animal corresponding 
 lesions are found in the skin, subcutis, and the mucous membranes, 
 where pock vesicles may also appear and give the appearance of only 
 slight or of severe general constitutional involvement (pyemia or 
 septicemia). 
 
 Judgment. If sheep are slaughtered while suffering from variola, 
 which rarely occurs, the meat may under most favorable circumstances 
 be admitted as impaired in value. In complications, especially extensive 
 suppurations and gangrenous or putrid pox, the meat is to be con- 
 demned as unfit for food. If the pox are healing and the nutrition of 
 the sheep is good, the meat is serviceable for food. 
 
 From the standpoint of the veterinary police regulations, compulsory 
 notification is required and the disposition of the hides should be in 
 accordance with the instruction applying to hides from animals affected 
 with foot and mouth disease, great care being necessary on account 
 of the easy manner in which pox contagion is spread. 
 
 Cowpox. While the spontaneous appearance of cowpox from a 
 meat-inspection standpoint is insignificant, the vaccination pox of 
 calves, which is artificially produced in special institutions for the 
 purpose of preparing vaccine lymph for protective vaccination of 
 mankind against smallpox, deserves special mention. Following the 
 slaughter of calves from which lymph of vaccine vesicles is taken as 
 above mentioned, the carcasses are inspected, but they do not offer 
 any ground usually for condemnation. By way of exception a febrile 
 intercurrent, intestinal catarrh, with ensuing deterioration of the flesh, 
 causes this class of meat to be considered of inferior quality. 
 
 Imperfect scarification on the lower abdomen, leads occasionally 
 to gelatinous infiltration of the subcutaneous tissue and of the super- 
 ficial muscular layer, in which case the altered portions, with the 
 adjacent lymph glands, must be rejected as unfit for human food. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 6, carcasses 
 of vaccine animals, showing unhealed vaccine lesions, should be con- 
 demned.] 
 
 TETANUS 
 
 By tetanus is understood a specific infectious disease, the exciting 
 cause of which produces in the body tonic contractions of the trans- 
 versely striated muscles, through the formation of toxic substances 
 
TETANUS 295 
 
 acting on the nervous system. Tetanus appears in all food animals and 
 especially in horses and lambs. 
 
 Etiology and Pathogenesis. The tetanus bacilli or their spores 
 penetrate a wound of the skin or mucous membrane of the body, 
 multiply in the coagulated blood or in the necrotic tissue of the wound 
 without passing through the blood, form spores, and produce toxins, 
 tetanotoxin, tetanolysin (Ehrlich) , which are carried through the blood 
 and lymph, causing an increased reflex excitability of the spinal cord 
 and nerves, with consecutive tetanic muscular contraction. 
 
 The tetanus bacilli (Fig. 124) are 3 to 5 microns long and 0.3 to 0.5 microns 
 wide, motile, anaerobic, and as soon as their terminal spores are formed appear 
 as stickpins in shape. They stain by the ordinary stains and also by Gram's 
 method. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Among the clinical appearances the only 
 one to be mentioned is the progressive stiffening of the muscles, which, 
 following tetanic contractions, appear as hard as boards. The condi- 
 tion begins to prevail in the head as 
 trismus, and spreads out more or less FlG - 124 
 
 rapidly to the muscles of the limbs. 
 Accompanying this are excitability, great 
 fear, frequent sweatings, and increased 
 respiration. 
 
 The postmortem findings are generally 
 negative. In advanced cases there may 
 appear evidences of imperfect bleeding; 
 the blood is blackish red and improperly 
 coagulated, ecchymoses appear on the 
 serous and mucous membranes and also 
 on the heart. There is also parenchym- 
 atous degeneration of the liver, heart, Tetanus badm with spores in various 
 
 , . , , , . stages of development; 4 days old agar 
 
 kidneys, and muscles, certain groups of culture. cboi-fuchsin solution. (After 
 which show a diffused dirty red, bluish- Hutyra and Marek.) 
 brown, soft or cooked appearance. Hypo- 
 static pneumonia may be present. The recognition of tetanus is as 
 difficult and even impossible after slaughter as it is easy during life. 
 
 In animals slaughtered in advanced cases it may be mistaken for 
 septicemia, hemoglobinemia, suffocation, certain cases of morbus 
 maculosus and cerebrospinal meningitis, but each of the diseases men- 
 tioned may be differentiated from tetanus by one or more of their 
 specific symptoms. 
 
 Judgment. Because the tetanus bacilli do not pass through the 
 blood, the meat of animals suffering from tetanus when slaughtered 
 early so that only one or a few groups of muscles are diseased, can be 
 marked as fit for consumption after rejecting the possibly affected meat. 
 It is, however, of inferior quality, when improper bleeding or other 
 slight changes (fetid odor and taste, deviation in color, consistency, 
 and keeping quality) are in evidence. If improper bleeding in a higher 
 
296 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 degree or degeneration of the parenchyma exist, the meat should be 
 declared as unfit for consumption because of the high degree of deteriora- 
 tion. The tissue around the supposed point of entrance of the bacilli 
 must also be condemned. 
 
 According to Kitasato, the tetanus toxin is broken up and destroyed by 
 cooking at 65 C. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 8, car- 
 casses of animals affected with tetanus should be condemned.! 
 
 MALIGNANT EDEMA 
 
 Malignant edema is an acute febrile wound infection which appears 
 spontaneously in horses, cattle, and sheep, and less often in other 
 food-producing animals. 
 
 FIG. 125 
 
 FIG. 126 
 
 Bacilli of malignant edema, showing 
 flagella. 
 
 Bacilli of malignant edema. Peritoneal exudate 
 from a guinea-pig. Cover-glass preparation 
 stained with fuchsin. X 1000 diameters. (After 
 Hutyra and Marek.) 
 
 A particularly prominent form of malignant edema is the so-called 
 parturient symptomatic anthrax, the careful study of which, by Albert 
 and Carl, has demonstrated with great certainty that genuine symp- 
 tomatic anthrax cannot develop in this form (Hutyra and Marek). 
 
 Pathogenesis. The causative microorganisms of malignant edema are 
 ubiquitous and appear normally in the intestines. They are slender bacilli 
 3 to 5/i long, 0.8 to I// wide (Figs. 125 and 126), with rounded ends (thus 
 differing from anthrax bacilli), and possess slight motility. They form chains 
 and flagella, are anaerobic, and therefore do not appear in circulating blood. 
 After death they wander out of the intestines into the portal blood in case the 
 carcass chills very slowly. On that account they may be found in the spleen 
 after twenty-four hours, and, under such conditions, they form centrally 
 located spores in the blood, which are easily stained, but not by Gram's method. 
 
 After entrance of the bacilli into the connective tissue, there develops an 
 edema infiltrated with gas bubbles together with toxins, the absorption of which 
 causes fatal constitutional disease. 
 
SEPTICEM1A 297 
 
 The clinical symptoms are manifested by quickly progressive, 
 dough-like, hot swellings, which afterward show crepitation. A strong 
 febrile reaction is also present. 
 
 Lesions. Yellow gelatinous infiltrations of the affected connective 
 tissue and of the surrounding muscles, together with infiltration of 
 these areas with fetid-smelling gas bubbles, are observed; the paren- 
 chyma is occasionally unaffected ; sometimes, however, it is degenerated ; 
 by way of exception, there is a spleen tumor or swollen spleen. In 
 cases where the disease originates in the uterus, the latter is slightly 
 contracted; its walls are edematous, and the mucous membrane is 
 swollen with the destruction of the affected cotyledons. The con- 
 nective tissue of the small pelvis is edematously infiltrated. 
 
 Diagnosis. For recognition of malignant edema, it is necessary to 
 take into consideration all the morphological and biological charac- 
 teristics of the bacilli of malignant edema; nevertheless their presence 
 is not decisive, because they can spread easily into the body of an 
 animal from the intestines after death. 
 
 The disease may be mistaken for: 
 
 1. Symptomatic Anthrax. Here the foul odor of the edematous 
 swellings is absent. The bacilli of symptomatic anthrax form only 
 end spores and do not grow in filaments. The appearance of symp- 
 tomatic anthrax (blackleg) in certain sections of the country is to be 
 considered, and also the fact that the muscles are only occasionally 
 attacked by malignant edema. 
 
 2. Anthrax. In malignant edema there are the above-mentioned 
 morphological characteristics of the bacilli, their absence in blood, and 
 failure in inoculating rats. They do not grow on potato and gelatin 
 media. Besides these differential characteristics, there is no crepita- 
 tion in the edematous swellings of anthrax. 
 
 3. Inflammatory Edema. This does not present crepitation. 
 
 4. Subcutaneous Emphysema. In this case fever is absent. 
 Judgment. Although the meat is not injurious to health, it should 
 
 be declared unfit for food, principally on account of objectionable 
 alterations in the meat. Only seldom, in early slaughtered cases, can 
 the question of passing the meat as of inferior quality arise after the 
 rejection of the edematous areas. 
 
 [In accordance with the meat-inspection regulations of the United 
 States, carcasses affected with malignant edema should be condemned, 
 not alone on account of the possibility of dissemination of the bacilli 
 throughout the carcass by the blood, but also on account of the changes 
 in the meat produced by the high febrile condition of the animals in the 
 course of the disease.] 
 
 SEPTICEMIA 
 
 By the collective term "sepsis" 1 is designated, from a purely scien- 
 tific point of view, a severe hemolysis produced by the entrance of 
 
 1 The designation "ichorus" or "putrid blood poisoning," for sepsis, should not be used any longer 
 in view of the etiology of the latter. 
 
298 INFECTIOUS, DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 infective material (microorganisms or ultravisible contagions) into the 
 blood. (Sepsis in a narrow sense.) 
 
 For practical meat inspection those hemolytic diseases of sepsis 
 which are caused by the entance of products of pathogenic bacteria 
 (toxins and toxalbumins) into the blood or by the combination of 
 both the infectious material and toxins, are to be considered under 
 the term septicemia. (Sepsis in a broad sense.) 
 
 The term can also refer to a bacteriemia or a toxinemia, and also 
 to mixed cases as toxemic bacteriemia. 
 
 The presence of toxins produced in the blood through the activity 
 of saprophytic bacteria, causes toxinemia, which is called putrid intoxi- 
 cation or sapremia in contradistinction to septicemia. 
 
 The term sepsis includes the entrance of all pathogenic bacteria and their 
 toxins into the blood channels; and it includes also the spreading of purulent 
 matter through the blood, though the disease of the blood termed pyemia con- 
 stitutes a special affection when metastatic suppurative foci develop in conse- 
 quence of bacterial dissemination. 
 
 The combination of septicemia and pyemia is called septicopyemia. 
 
 It is evident that the other microparasitic blood infections which develop 
 under the manifestation of sepsis and which bear distinct names such as anthrax, 
 erysipelas, etc., belong in the broadest sense to septic diseases on account of 
 the well-defined characteristics of their causative factors as specific agents 
 of blood infections. 
 
 Pathogenesis. Although there are still no definite results in funda- 
 mental investigations for exciting causes of all the septic diseases of 
 food-producing animals, yet certain forms of the streptococci and 
 staphylococci should be etiologically considered here. Doubtless 
 other bacteria (for instance, certain forms of coli and Gartner's enteri- 
 tidis bacillus) also cause septic conditions, and it is probable that such 
 conditions are also favored by other bacteria (proteus) under certain 
 symbiotic relations. 
 
 The point of entrance for the exciting causes of sepsis can, in many 
 cases be recognized as a local disease (wounds, inflammations, and 
 disintegrating foci), while obscure infections do occur, however, with- 
 out any noticeable place of inoculation. The further effects of the 
 deleterious microbes result from the facts already explained, the principal 
 factor being the formation of toxic substances, which almost invariably 
 cause a fatal termination. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The clinical as well as the anatomic 
 appearances of septic diseases are frequently so little apparent that 
 an especially thorough examination and careful estimate of every single 
 symptom are absolutely necessary. 
 
 Of the clinical phenomena the following are of special impor- 
 tance : 
 
 1. High fever (in cattle 41 to 42 C.), beginning with rigor, which 
 is absent only in very exceptional cases. During the last stage of the 
 disease, normal and subnormal temperatures appear. 
 
 2. Cardiac weakness and greatly accelerated, wiry pulse. 
 
SEPTICEMIA 299 
 
 3. Severe psychical depression, muscular weakness, tremors, and 
 paralysis of certain nerve regions, which, however, in most cases are 
 difficult to establish. 
 
 4. Dirty red, blurred coloring of the visible mucous membranes, 
 showing petechia and ecchymosis. 
 
 5. Drying up of the milk during lactation. 
 
 6. The presence of an injury or of a suppurating wound upon the 
 surface of the body where the septic disease originated, or discharge 
 of an ichorous nature through a natural orifice of the body, especially 
 from the vagina; but these lesions may be absent. 
 
 In the postmortem examination there are especially to be observed: 
 
 1. Cloudy swelling of the heart, liver, and kidneys, which is some- 
 times accompanied by fatty degeneration. The latter should not be 
 mistaken, for normal fatty livers of animals which are in an advanced 
 stage of pregnancy or have recently given birth to young. 
 
 2. Swelling and serous infiltration of most lymphatic glands. These 
 may also be permeated by isolated hemorrhages or hemorrhagic foci. 
 Lymph stasis, following obstruction in the circulation (as for instance 
 in traumatic pericarditis), should not be mistaken for marked satura- 
 tion of the lymph glands in the dependent portions of meat that is 
 hanging up. 
 
 3. Petechise ecchymoses and suggillations under the serous mem- 
 branes and in the mucous membranes, for which the so-called asphyxia- 
 tion hemorrhages should not be mistaken (page 221). 
 
 4. Bloody imbibition of the intima of the great bloodvessels. 
 
 5. Blood-stained serous exudates in the thoracic and abdominal 
 cavities. 
 
 6. Imperfect coagulation of the blood. 
 
 7. Insufficient rigor mortis and imperfect bleeding. 
 
 8. Soft, withered, watery character of the meat, which has a singular, 
 generally dark color, and sometimes develops a peculiar sweetish 
 repugnant odor, which, as a rule, appears only during the cooking 
 test. 
 
 9. Alkaline reaction of the meat, which is permanent (compare 
 page 53). 
 
 10. The existence of a centre of origin for the septic disease, which 
 in many instances may be present only as an insignificant lesion, and 
 sometimes it cannot even be detected. 
 
 11. The duration of the course of the disease must be in certain 
 relation to the intensity of the infection. 
 
 The recognition of sepsis, from the pronounced features of the disease, 
 is not difficult, especially if a point of origin can be demonstrated, but 
 in new cases, and where infection is obscure, the diagnosis may be 
 difficult. In such instances all changes, even insignificant ones, must 
 be observed and their relative importance carefully weighed. There 
 should always be taken into consideration the fact, correctly pointed 
 out by Ostertag, that the more prominent pathological changes in the 
 internal organs, by which the marked symptoms may be explained, 
 
300 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 are very often absent, and that sepsis, nevertheless, may be present 
 regardless of the absence of these lesions. In doubtful cases, and 
 especially where immediate slaughter becomes necessary, a second 
 examination must be made after twenty-four hours. In some instances 
 the method proposed by Basenau (page 148) may be of aid in reaching 
 a diagnosis. 
 
 The septicemic diseases of cattle appear chiefly in the following 
 forms, the most important characteristic symptoms of which alone 
 are here given: 
 
 1. Septic polyarthritis of calves, following septic infection of the navel (septic 
 omphalophlebitis in calves). Flaccid inflammation of the navel, with dirty 
 red, offensive secretions, very often accompanied by ichorous disintegration of 
 the umbilical vessels, serous arthritis with gelatinous infiltration of the peri- 
 articular portions, especially of the tarsal and carpal joints, as well as of the 
 radio-ulnar, hock, and hip-joints, tumefaction and marked saturation of the 
 muscular lymph glands, and sometimes icterus, are present. 
 
 2. Hemorrhaqic enteritis of calves, which runs a rapid course, so that in some 
 cases no cloudy swelling of the parenchyma is observed. Bloody diarrhea, 
 blood-stained intestinal contents, and acute hemorrhagic enteritis, especially 
 of the small intestines, with swelling and bloody saturation of the mesenteric 
 lymph glands, are observed. The disease is probably a form of scour of calves 
 (p. 322). 
 
 3. Septic enteritis of cattle, similar to the foregoing, but incomplete with 
 regard to symptomatology. Every inflammation of the intestines of cattle, 
 accompanied by severe febrile and general disturbances, must be looked upon 
 as suspicious of sepsis. 
 
 4. Septic metritis of cows, which follows retention of fetal membranes, or 
 injury to the genital passages. In the latter there are mostly diphtheritic 
 patches and ulcers. Septic metritis is accompanied by pelvic peritonitis, 
 saturation of the pelvic connective tissue, and marked infiltration of the sacral 
 and iliac lymph glands. It has been emphatically stated by Albrecht that not 
 all febrile diseases of cattle caused by metritis are of septic nature from the 
 beginning, and with timely slaughter and good bleeding the meat may not be 
 injurious to health. Perhaps Albrecht 's case was one of general sapremic 
 intoxication caused by secondary retention (page 203) . On the other hand, great 
 precaution is necessary when cattle are slaughtered in an advanced stage 
 of the disease, and when there is incomplete bleeding, or extensive gangrenous 
 alteration of the genital passages. 
 
 5. Septic pleuritis and peritonitis are caused by external injuries, or by per- 
 foration of the intestines, respectively, as a result of ulcerations or necrotic 
 processes. 
 
 6. Septic or Traumatic Pericarditis. This affection appears only in cattle, 
 and is caused by penetration of foreign bodies through the stomach into the 
 pericardium. Cases of pericarditis, however, are not always accompanied 
 by offensive secretions of septic nature. 
 
 7. Septic Mastitis of Cows. This is distinguished from other inflammatory 
 conditions of the udder by its rapid progress, accompanied by severe general 
 symptoms. It may affect at least one-half of the udder or the entire udder, 
 which is considerably swollen, dark red, and hot, with corresponding swelling 
 and infiltration of its lymph glands. Extension of the inflammation to the 
 abdominal wall and to the surface of the inner thigh may follow. 
 
 8. Septic wounds and injuries of any kind and origin may lead to septicemia. 
 Wounds of the joints, deep puncture wounds, with improper drainage, and 
 wounds on the digits, with extensive destruction of tissue, predispose to septi- 
 cemia. 
 
PYEMIA 301 
 
 9. In classifying morbus maculosus (petechial fever, purpura haBmorrhagica) 
 of horses and cattle under septicemic forms, the author agrees with Ostertag, 
 Hutyra, Marek and others to the effect that the most striking symptoms 
 of the disease, i. e., hemorrhages and marked changes in the parenchyma, 
 indicate that morbus maculosus is a septic intoxication. 
 
 Judgment. From experience gained in cases of meat poisoning 
 it is essential that carcasses of all food animals affected with sepsis 
 should be considered unfit for human food on account of their danger 
 to health, and such disposal should be made of them as would cause 
 no harm. As the toxalbumins of septicemia bacteria are not positively 
 destroyed by heat, the use of this meat even in a cooked condition 
 is not permitted. 
 
 The practice proposed by Basenau, namely, the feeding of fresh and 
 cooked meat to mice to prove that it is poisonous, cannot be recom- 
 mended universally on account of the circumstances frequently 
 accompanying suspected cases of septicemia. 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Sections 5 
 and 18 a, carcasses showing lesions of septicemia should be condemned.] 
 
 PYEMIA 
 
 Pyemia is a disease of the blood caused by microorganisms entering 
 into the circulation and resulting in the development of metastatic 
 abscesses or suppurative osteomyelitis (osteomyelitis suppurativa) . 
 It is described as a purulent blood poisoning. 
 
 FIG. 127 FIG. 128 
 
 f . 
 
 
 Staphylococcus pyogenes. Stained prepara- Streptococcus pyogenes. Stained preparation 
 
 tion from a pure culture. X 1000 diameters. from a pure culture. X 1000 diameters. (After 
 (After Weichselbaum.) Weichselbaum.) 
 
 Pathogenesis. The pus-forming microorganisms, which are the 
 exciting causes of pyemia, are principally Staphylococcus pyogenes 
 aureus (Micrococcus pyogenes, Fig. 127), and Streptococcus pyogenes 
 (Fig. 128). They usually enter the blood directly through a local 
 suppurative focus or indirectly through the lymph channels; the disease 
 may also develop from an obscure origin. 
 
302 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 As long as bacteria circulate in the blood they will produce fever. 
 Elimination from the circulation may follow if they become deposited 
 in the various organs, the lungs and liver coming first into considera- 
 tion, then the kidneys, spleen, bone marrow, joints, muscles, brain, 
 etc. The results of suppurative emboli differ according to the character 
 of the pyogenic bacteria. In cases where the beginning of embolic 
 suppurative foci is characterized by the appearance of grayish-yellow 
 areas, that are surrounded at first by a red zone, the emboli may be 
 considered as principally streptococcic. From' these foci, abscesses 
 develop in the interior of the organs, their growth being arrested by 
 encapsulation, and later the abscesses become consolidated by drying 
 and calcification. Accordingly, recovery from pyemia is possible 
 and is not infrequent in food animals. The disseminated pus-forming 
 organisms, however, may also produce suppurative inflammation of 
 the serous membranes. 
 
 When, on the other hand, the changes described below occur in 
 the marrow, they should be considered as due to staphylococcic emboli 
 (Ostertag). 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Clinically, the disease can only be diag- 
 nosticated as pyemia by the presence of local suppurations, accom- 
 panied by intermittent high fever and depression. If, in addition, 
 there is inflammation of the joints and of the bones, or if affections 
 of the lungs or kidneys are manifested, then the seat of the metastatic 
 abscesses is indicated. The pathological lesions are the result of the 
 pathogenic effect of the bacteria. It is to be especially observed, 
 however, that as long as actual pyemia exists there are always mani- 
 fest appearances of severe infection of the blood, and particularly cloudy 
 swelling of the parenchyma, punctiform hemorrhages in the kidneys, 
 lymph glands, and under the serous membranes; these are present 
 in addition to the above-mentioned punctiform, puriform foci, or 
 suppurative inflammation, and changes in the bone marrow. 
 
 The recognition of pyemia in slaughtered animals is not difficult 
 when the disease is well developed. In the first stages the diagnosis 
 must be established even without the presence of the metastatic suppu- 
 rative foci, by means of the other symptoms of a general blood infec- 
 tion, especially if local suppuration or local osteomyelitis be present; 
 when doubtful, it would be advisable to protect the consumer by 
 condemning the carcass. 
 
 Although pyemia may develop as a consequence of any local suppura- 
 tive process, the following forms, whose symptomatology deserves only 
 slight mention, may be particularly noted: 
 
 1. Pyemic polyarthritis, occurring especially in calves (pyosepticemia in 
 calves, suppurative inflammation of umbilical vein). It may also exist without 
 a conspicuous affection of the umbilicus as a disease of the carpal, tarsal, 
 radio-ulnar, hock, and femoro-tibial joints with corresponding general symptoms. 
 Attention is also called to the fact that numerous instances of recovered cases 
 of pyemia in calves have been noted. 
 
 2. Hemorrhagic and purulent osteomyelitis is often of obscure origin. At 
 first there is hyperemia of the bone marrow with hemorrhages therein, but 
 
PUTRID INTOXICATION 303 
 
 later, puriform softening of the bone marrow occurs with suppurative ulcera- 
 tions in the joints. 
 
 3. The pyemias following swine plague and caseous pneumonia, especially 
 in sheep, goats, and calves, present no special characteristics. 
 
 4. The pyobacillosis of pigs, under certain conditions, may run the course of 
 pyemic cachexia; but symptoms of acute intoxication are not prominent. 
 
 Judgment. The causes of suppuration in animals and man are 
 identical, and the meat of pyemic animals contains pus-producing 
 bacteria with their metabolic products (toxalbumins) . Such meat has 
 been shown to be injurious to the health of mankind by the numerous 
 poisonings which have occurred through infection, and must be desig- 
 nated as unfit for human food, for even boiling does not remove its 
 injurious properties. 
 
 It is not yet established whether the toxicity of the meat from 
 pyemic animals is due to the pus-producing organisms alone, or to the 
 introduction of other microorganisms (enteritidis and colon bacilli) 
 from the intestines into the tissues of the body as a result of severe 
 constitutional disease. 
 
 When metastatic abscesses occur in the animal body, without any 
 constitutional symptoms processes which therefore do not belong to 
 pyemia as such, and can be viewed only as possibly healed pyemia 
 the portions of the carcass not infected are always to be considered 
 as harmless. A distinct encapsulation of the abscesses is not always 
 necessary; but in no case should any signs of blood poisoning be present. 
 Whether in cases of multiple abscess formation the utilizable portions 
 of meat are to be declared of impaired value, depends upon the nutritive 
 condition of the animal, the extension of the metastases, their intensity 
 and location, and upon changes in the meat, such as variation of odor 
 and consistency from that of normal meat. In certain cases (for 
 instance, suppuration of the body lymph glands and joints, muscular 
 abscesses) it may be necessary to consider the meat as unfit for food 
 on account of its deteriorated or spoiled condition. 
 
 For hypophrenic abscesses, see page 218. 
 
 Contamination of meat with pus from the heart or vena cava, in which 
 pus enters after death from rupture of hypophrenic and hepatic abscesses, 
 has been described by Lohbeck, Reimers, Haffner. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Sections 5 and 
 18 a, carcasses showing lesions of pyemia should be condemned.] 
 
 PUTRID INTOXICATION. 
 
 Putrid intoxication or sapremia (Ostertag) recently separated from 
 the clinical diagnosis of septicemia, is more rarely observed in meat 
 inspection since septic processes are frequently associated with it. 
 Sapremia is an intoxication of the blood produced by resorption of 
 the products of metabolism of saprophytes (saprophytic bacteria) 
 
304 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 which are situated in a portion of the organism not engaged in 
 nutrition (necrotic areas, thrombi, hematoma, retained secretions 
 and excretions), and produce decomposition. The bacteria, it is 
 true, produce constitutional disturbances, but this, however, is not 
 marked, as the toxins present in the blood are destroyed by active, 
 healthy cells. Parenchymatous affections are absent or are insig- 
 nificant on postmortem examination of sapremic animals, but they 
 invariably show a putrefactive process of bad odor. 
 
 In traumatic pericarditis of cattle pure clinical examples of sapremia 
 may be occasionally observed. In these cases marked changes will 
 frequently be found in the heart and pericardium with very malodorous 
 masses of exudates, showing no signs of fever during life, nor presence 
 of any other pathological lesions. In such cases the meat is not to 
 be considered injurious to health, though of impaired value, in view 
 of the diseased condition. Occasionally the meat will be found edema- 
 tous, or organic diseases of other organs may be present and for this 
 reason it will be necessary sometimes to declare the meat unfit for 
 food. 
 
 On account of the possibility of transmission of the putrid odor 
 from the exudative masses in the pericardial sac to the rest of the meat, 
 the boiling test should always be applied. 
 
 In retained placenta of cattle there may develop at the beginning 
 a purely sapremic constitutional disease, which may lead to recovery 
 under proper treatment in spite of slight or moderate fever. In these 
 cases the meat of animals slaughtered early and showing no signs of 
 sepsis is harmless. However, on account of complications with inflam- 
 matory lesions of the uterus (septic metritis), care should be exercised. 
 
 [Carcasses showing putrid intoxications are judged in the meat- 
 inspection service of the United States on the same lines as infection 
 with septicemia or pyemia, and therefore should be condemned.] 
 
 ERYSIPELAS OF HOGS 
 
 Although more recent observation shows the possibility of transmission of 
 erysipelas of hogs to man under certain conditions, this form of septicemia 
 will be considered in the following section on account of its relation to other 
 diseases. 
 
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES CHARACTERISTIC OF FOOD 
 ANIMALS BUT NOT TRANSMISSIBLE TO MAN 
 
 SWINE ERYSIPELAS, URTICARIA, SWINE PLAGUE, AND HOG 
 
 CHOLERA 
 
 Swine Erysipelas. Erysipelas of swine, also called rotlauf and 
 bacillary erysipelas, is an acute, frequently occurring epizootic disease, 
 produced by a specific bacillus (Bacillus rhusiopathice') , discovered 
 by Loffler. 
 
SWINE ERYSIPELAS 
 
 305 
 
 According to certain German investigators, the disease which will 
 later be described as urticaria belongs etiologically to erysipelas, but 
 for practical reasons 1 it should be differentiated from the latter. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The erysipelas bacilli, which may also develop ecto- 
 genously, gain admission to the organism through the digestive tract 
 or through wounds of the skin. Perhaps they are normally present 
 in the body of the hog (intestines, tonsils), but under certain conditions 
 they may become pathogenic, according to the recent observations 
 of Olt, Bauermeister, and Jensen. 
 
 The erysipelas bacilli are about 0.8 to 1.5 p long, 0.1 to 0.2 // wide, and stain 
 with basic aniline stains; also by Gram's method (Fig. 129). In nutritive gela- 
 tin media at room temperature stab cultures assume the characteristic bottle- 
 brush shape after three or four days (Fig. 130). The bacilli are not particularly 
 
 FIG. 129 
 
 FIG. 130 
 
 Bacilli of swine erysipelas. Dried blood preparation. X 500 diameters. 
 
 resistant to atmospheric influences. While Petri's obser- 
 vations, which have been practically verified by Stadie, 
 showed that the usual preparation and conservation 
 methods of handling meat are not sufficient to kill the 
 organisms, heating in a steam kettle destroys them. 
 
 After passing through mice, the erysipelas bacilli lose 
 their virulence for hogs (Prettner). 
 
 The bacilli, after gaining entrance into the blood, 
 multiply rapidly, producing toxins whose action 
 extends particularly to the blood, the larger organs 
 of the body, and the nervous system. In the 
 majority of cases the disease runs a fatal course, and 
 on account of its dangerous character frequently 
 leads to the emergency slaughter of the animal. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. In the living animal, red- 
 ness of the skin is particularly noticeable, occurring 
 in spots on the inferior part of the abdomen, inner thigh surfaces, breast, 
 neck, and ears. The red spots spread rapidly, turn blue or brownish 
 red, and are evenly discolored. At the same time there exist severe 
 general disturbances, such as fever, debility, anorexia, constipation 
 followed by diarrhea, accelerated breathing, etc. 
 
 Erysipelas bacilli, stab 
 culture in gelatin; 5 days 
 old in room temperature. 
 
 [ l If urticaria were a mild form of erysipelas, one would naturally expect to find some severe cases 
 of swine erysipelas; but, although the former prevails to a considerable extent in this country, the 
 latter has never been observed.] 
 
 20 
 
306 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 The pathological lesions vary with the stage of the disease during 
 which the animal was slaughtered. It frequently happens that when 
 the hog is scalded the redness of the skin becomes even more intensified, 
 and may extend deep into the subcutaneous fatty layer (Speckschicht). 
 In addition there is but slight "bleeding out/' insufficient rigor mortis, 
 enlargement of the spleen, parenchymatous degeneration of the liver, 
 heart, and kidneys, which latter usually show hemorrhagic inflamma- 
 tion, hemorrhages beneath the serosa and in the cortical layer of the 
 kidneys, hemorrhagic gastro-enteritis, swelling of the intestinal lymph 
 follicles, enlargement and marked transudation of the mesenteric 
 glands and other lymph glands, which may also show punctiform 
 hemorrhages. In severe cases, and especially in animals slaughtered 
 when approaching death, the musculature appears serosanguinolent, 
 grayish red, and has a tendency to decompose rapidly. 
 
 Endocarditis valvularis verrucosa may be observed as a sequel. 
 
 These symptoms furnish sufficient basis for the recognition of the 
 disease, the demonstration of the erysipelas bacillus being best effected 
 through specimens taken from the splenic pulp. Inoculated mice or 
 pigeons succumb after three or four days, and a culture will develop 
 the characteristic properties within the same period of time. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. In order to avoid confusion in the recognition 
 of erysipelas there must be considered : 
 
 1. Swine Plague and Hog Cholera. The symptoms of both these 
 diseases resemble in the acute stage those of erysipelas; in the slaugh- 
 tered animal, however, the anatomical findings will differ decidedly. 
 
 2. Urticaria. This disease during life produces characteristic skin 
 macules, while on postmortem examination there is an absence of the 
 lesions in the viscera. At most there may be present enlargement 
 of the spleen or liver if the animals are slaughtered at the height of 
 the disease. 
 
 3. Erythema of Thermic or Mechanical Nature. These changes are 
 confined to the skin of certain portions of the body only, and in mechani- 
 cal causes hemorrhages occur; internal lesions are absent. 
 
 4. Heat Stroke. This frequently occurs in summer transportation 
 of hogs, and is accompanied by bluish-red discolorations of the skin, 
 the latter, however, being mostly hypostatic; on postmortem examina- 
 tion indications of suffocation will be found. 
 
 5. Wound Erysipelas This condition being almost always restricted 
 to the head, is usually unilateral and characterized by severe infiltra- 
 tion of the subcutis of the parts affected. Kleinert has observed two 
 cases in hogs of more extensive erysipelas of the head, breast, abdomen, 
 outer surface of the thighs, back, and ears, associated with putrid 
 metritis (suppurative metritis). 
 
 6. Anthrax. This disease is very rare in hogs, occurring generally 
 as gloss anthrax. Demonstration of the bacilli confirms the diagnosis. 
 
 Judgment. For judgment of erysipelas in hogs, see page 312. 
 Urticaria. Nettle fever, or diamond^skin disease, of hogs is a macular 
 hemorrhagic dermatitis, accompanied by febrile constitutional symp- 
 
SWINE PLAGUE 307 
 
 toms, and runs a mild course. Since FlG - 131 
 
 Lorenz, Jensen, Schiitz, Luepke, 
 
 etc., have demonstrated erysipelas 
 
 bacilli in the skin, the disease is 
 
 classed with erysipelas, although the 
 
 other symptoms differ from it. 1 ^^^^^ 
 
 The clinical findings are charac- 
 terized by flat, red, round, or rhom- 
 bic skin plaques, which rapidly 
 increase in size and number. In 
 the slaughtered animal the plaques 
 usually present a rhombic shape 
 (Fig. 131), and extend deep into the 
 cutis and even into the subcutis. 
 Diseases of internal organs are ab- 
 sent in slight cases, but severe cases 
 may be associated with enlarged 
 spleen and hyperemia of the liver. 
 
 The recognition of urticaria is 
 easy; to avoid confusion, it will be 
 necessary to consider the diseases 
 mentioned in the discussion on dif- 
 ferential diagnosis of erysipelas. 
 
 Judgment. The diseased skin 
 areas should be removed and no 
 further restrictions placed on the 
 meat. 
 
 In Prussia this disease is subject to 
 
 the same veterinary, regulations as 
 
 erysipelas, according to the decree of 
 March 11, 1902. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Regula- 
 tions hogs affected with urticaria 
 may be passed after detaching ai:d 
 condemning the skin.] 
 
 Swine Plague. Swine 
 plague or swine septice- 
 mia (Loffler, Preisz) is a 
 subacute or chronic con- 
 tagious disease of hogs, 
 frequently occurring as- 
 sociated with hog cholera 
 in the same animal. 
 The pure forms of swine sid* of a hog with urticaria. 
 
 [' In this country, urticaria has never been found associated with the erysipelas bacillus, and further- 
 more swine erysipelas does not exist in the United States. The urticarial disease found in postmortem 
 work is caused by vasomotor changes, resulting from the consumption of certain foodstuffs, as in other 
 species of animals.] 
 
308 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 plague are characterized by severe pneumonia, accompanied by pleu- 
 ritis and pericarditis and their complications and sequelse. 
 
 According to Ostertag, every inflammation of the lungs in hogs 
 which cannot be proved to be caused by foreign bodies, parasites, 
 tubercle bacilli, or pus bacteria is to be suspected as being swine plague. 
 
 Pathogenesis. Swine plague is caused, by bacteria which are usually 
 oval in shape, but occasionally bacillus-like (Bacillus suisepticus] . 
 They belong to the group of bacteria causing hemorrhagic septicemia 
 (Hueppe), i. e., rabbit septicemia (Koch). 
 
 The bacteria (Fig. 132) are about 1 p long, 0.5 n wide, oval, immotile, and 
 take a bipolar stain with gentian violet. According to Preisz, this is best 
 accomplished when stained with aqueous fuchsin, and then decolorized with 
 alcohol or weak acetic acid. These bacteria are found in the blood as well 
 as in the diseased tissues. 
 
 The bacteria of swine plague enter the body through the respiratory 
 organs or by the digestive tract and from thence to the blood, produc- 
 ing a rapid or gradual general infection similar to septicemia. The 
 lungs are the sites of predilection for their destruc- 
 FIG. 132 five action. In accordance with the virulence of 
 
 the swine plague bacteria, various "types" are 
 noted, but they do not differ morphologically. 
 
 The course of the disease may be peracute, 
 simulating hemorrhagic septicemia; acute, as a 
 multiple caseous pneumonia; and chronic, with 
 the symptoms of a catarrhal pneumonia, the latter 
 being the most common form. Recovery may occur, 
 
 Swine plague bacteria. , P , . xi_ i i l 
 
 Dried blood preparation, leaving more or less extensive pathological lesions, 
 x 500 diameters. such as adhesions between the pleurae, and between 
 
 the lungs and pericardium, fibrosis of the lung 
 tissue, and caseous, sequestrated areas. When swine plague and hog 
 cholera occur in the same animal, Preisz holds that in acute cases the 
 latter infection is primary, while the former is only secondary. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The clinical symptoms depend on the course 
 of the disease; for at one time they are of general septic infection, 
 while at others those of pneumonia will predominate. The special 
 pathological conditions are severe pneumonia in various stages of 
 hepatization with multiple necrosed areas, hemorrhagic, fibrinous 
 pleuritis, and pericarditis, and occasionally peritonitis may be asso- 
 ciated. During the height of the disease there are also marked enlarge- 
 ment and redness of the lymph glands with hemorrhages in them as 
 well as in the kidneys, degeneration of the large organs, and occasionally 
 icterus. 
 
 It may prove difficult to recognize swine plague in the living animal ; 
 therefore, diagnosis in some cases cannot be made with any degree 
 of certainty except when marked pneumonic symptoms (cough) are 
 present. In slaughtered animals diagnosis is verified by the conditions 
 described, by bacteriologic examination, and through inoculation 
 of white mice, which die in from one to three days' time. Only in 
 
HOG CHOLERA 309 
 
 acute forms of swine plague are bacteria found in the blood, while in 
 chronic cases they are only present in parts affected, though according 
 to Junack it is impossible to find bacteria in about one-third of all 
 the cases diagnosticated as chronic swine plague. Certain types of 
 the Bacillus suisepticus develop long forms in addition to short forms, 
 but they do not occur in the animal body. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. In differential diagnosis the following diseases 
 come into consideration: 
 
 1 . Swine erysipelas, in acute cases of swine plague, where red colora- 
 tion of the skin also occurs, but is present only in those parts of the 
 body involved by the disease. In swine erysipelas there are no char- 
 acteristic pulmonary changes of swine plague ; and finally, the bacterio- 
 logic and bacterioscopic findings 'will establish the nature of the 
 infection. 
 
 2. Hog cholera in its initial stages, when the intestinal changes are 
 not yet well developed or when mixed infection exists, which rapidly 
 terminates the life of the animal. 
 
 3. Tuberculosis after the inflammatory changes have run their 
 course. In swine plague there are no characteristic multiple infec- 
 tions of the lymphatic glands as in tuberculosis, the areas of caseation 
 or necrotic areas of the lungs being without new formation of granula- 
 tion tissue at the periphery; nor are those peculiar secondary nodules 
 of tuberculosis present in the vicinity. 
 
 4. Verminous pneumonias which occur en masse and may be readily 
 recognized by the presence of parasites. 
 
 5. Traumatic pneumonias lead to gangrene, as a rule, and are found 
 in the main lobes of the lung. 
 
 Judgment. For the judgment of swine plague carcasses, see page 312. 
 
 Pyobacillosis of Pigs. Pyobacillosis, pyemic cachexia of pigs, occurs in 
 young hogs quite frequently as a non-acute disease, and is caused by the Bacillus 
 pyogenes suis, which is viewed by Grips, Nieberle, and Glage as belonging to 
 swine plague. The disease is characterized by catarrhal changes or suppura- 
 tive catarrh of the intestines and air passages, associated with serofibrinous 
 inflammation of the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum, as well as by suppura- 
 tive or caseated changes in the lungs, with hepatization and atelectasis in their 
 vicinity. A generalization of the pyobacillus and suppurations in the joints, 
 bones, tendon sheaths, muscles, body lymph glands, mammae, etc., are also 
 observed. 
 
 In the judgment of pyobacillosis, its form of appearance and the nutritive 
 condition of the animal must be taken into consideration. As the latter is 
 often greatly impaired, the entire carcass usually must be condemned, and 
 this is also the case where the suppurative changes are generalized. 
 
 As pigs are rarely slaughtered while affected with pyobacillosis, but, as a rule, 
 die of the disease, the importance of meat inspection is not significant in this 
 disease. 
 
 [In the United States carcasses of pigs affected with pyobacillosis should 
 be judged on the same principles as pyemia, and, therefore, should be con- 
 demned.] 
 
 Hog Cholera. Hog cholera, or swine fever, is an infectious disease 
 of hogs which runs partly an acute and partly a chronic course; it is 
 
310 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 characterized by marked lesions in the digestive apparatus and an infil- 
 tration of the l3 r mph apparatus, especially of the lymphatic glands. 
 In many instances the disease occurs complicated with swine plague. 
 Pathogenesis. Until quite recently the Bacillus suipestifer, whose 
 portal of entry is the digestive tract, has been accepted as the cause 
 of hog cholera; but recent investigations indicated that the disease 
 is due to an ultramicroscopic filterable virus, and 
 FIG. 133 that the saprophytic hog cholera bacilli bring about 
 
 changes only secondary to the conditions produced 
 > / j i/|f as a result of the presence of the invisible virus. 
 ^ This is the view of de Schweinitz and Dorset, 
 
 jjf McFadyean, Hutyra, Ostertag, and Stadie. Schreiber- 
 , , ; * V Landsberg takes issue with these writers, and still 
 adheres to the old theory that the Bacillus suipestifer 
 is the exciting cause of the German hog cholera, and 
 HO cholera bacilli ^^ ^ acts ma ^ n ^ through the medium of its meta- 
 Pure 8 cuiture a x fioo kolic products. Schreiber considers the filterable 
 diameters. virus the toxin which is formed by Bacillus suipes- 
 
 tifer infection, which acts as an aggressin furthering 
 the infection and mobilizing the hog cholera bacilli in the body. 
 Ostertag and Stadie hold Schreiber's view as incorrect and disproved 
 by their experimental results. 1 
 
 The Bacillus suipestifer (Fig. 133) is a short, motile, typhoid-like bacillus 
 with rounded ends, 1.2 to 1.5/w long, and 0.6/^ wide. The bacilli lie singty or 
 arranged in pairs and possess flagella. The latter may be indistinctly visible 
 if the specimens are stained with Loffler's flagella stain. The bacilli stain 
 best with Loffler's alkaline methylene blue solution. The swine-pest bacilli 
 are most readily found in the* mesenteric lymph glands. In more advanced 
 necrotic changes resulting from hog cholera the necrosis bacilli also come into 
 consideration (Bang, Preisz, Karlinski, Ostertag, Kitt). 
 
 As a result of the invasion of the organism by the hog cholera bacilli 
 there occur, according to the virulence of the bacilli and the resistance 
 of the tissues, either hemorrhagic intestinal inflammations with infec- 
 tion of the blood and a rapidly lethal course, or chronic forms with 
 marked destruction of the intestinal canal and mesenteric lymph 
 glands. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The clinical symptoms in the develop- 
 ment of hog cholera vary. In acute cases there are fever, diarrhea, 
 red petechia of the skin, with exanthemata on the ears, nose (snout), 
 the inner surfaces of the thighs and around the anus, suppurative con- 
 junctivitis, great weakness, and debility. In the less rapid course 
 variable symptoms arise (constipation and malodorous, green diarrhea), 
 those of the intestinal canal predominating; also emaciation, weakness, 
 chronic skin exanthemata with crust formation. When complicated 
 
 f 1 Hutyra believes that the invisible filterable virus is responsible not only for so-called hog cholera, 
 but for swine plague as well, and that the respective bacilli of these previously considered separate 
 diseases are merely secondary invaders.] 
 
HOG CHOLERA 
 
 311 
 
 FIG. 134 
 
 with swine plague, symptoms of chronic lung disease with dyspnea, 
 cough, etc., may be observed. 
 
 The pathological lesions in the peracute cases correspond to those 
 of hemorrhagic septicemia with croupous and necrotic changes of the 
 intestinal mucosa. In less acute types there is a specific affection of 
 the colon, the mucosa of which presents croupous-diphtheritic changes. 
 Corresponding to the solitary and multiple lymph follicles of the 
 intestinal mucous membrane, there are 
 millet to hazelnut-sized, definitely cir- 
 cumscribed or confluent caseous, yellow, 
 button-like projecting ulcerations covered 
 with a crust-like dirty coat (Fig. 134). 
 On removal of the latter, the irregular 
 ulcers are exposed. The ileo-cecal valve 
 especially is, as a rule, pathognomonic- 
 ally enlarged and caseated (Ostertag) 
 These changes are in some cases recog- 
 nizable on the exterior of the intestine as 
 prominent yellowish-gray spots. In addi- 
 tion to this, it is by no means uncommon 
 to find certain portions of the intestinal 
 wall quite rigid, hypertrophic, or even the 
 entire large intestines may be grown 
 together into tough, thick rolls. If such 
 is the case there will, as a rule, be found 
 fibrous adhesion to the peritoneum also. 
 Similar characteristic areas and ulcers 
 develop also in the small intestines. The 
 mesenteric glands are always swollen, of 
 a dark bluish-red or pale color, and 
 partially or entirely caseated. Similar 
 changes are also usually observed in the 
 cervical, and occasionally in the pelvic 
 lymph glands. Croupous-diphtheritic 
 membranes may also be found on the 
 mucosa of the tongue, cheeks, gums, 
 tonsils, pharynx, and epiglottis. The 
 spleen may be enlarged and injected, 
 and the kidneys present petechial hemor- 
 rhages in the cortex. 
 
 If a multiple caseous pneumonia is present, it is an indication of a 
 complication with swine plague. Whether the metastatic bone and 
 joint caseations and suppurations in the chronic cases are a part of 
 the descriptive symptoms of hog cholera or of pyobacillosis still remains 
 to be proved. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. Recognition of the developed chronic forms 
 of hog cholera is not difficult, but the following diseases must be 
 considered in differential diagnosis: 
 
 Porti< 
 
 e intestines with lesions 
 hog cholera. 
 
312 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 1. Swine erysipelas in acute and peracute cases of hog cholera. In 
 addition to the absence of the swine erysipelas bacilli there is the 
 absence of the intense hemorrhagic nephritis and the presence of intes- 
 tinal lesions. 
 
 2. Tuberculosis of the Digestive Apparatus Differentiation from 
 this disease is indicated by the extensive destruction of the intestinal 
 mucous membrane, the total caseation of the lymph glands, the absence 
 of the characteristic tuberculous nodules in the vicinity of the lesions, 
 the absence of calcification in the affected lymph glands, and the 
 absence of tuberculous changes in other organs. 
 
 Judgment of the Meat in Swine Erysipelas, Swine Plague, and Hog 
 Cholera. In view of the fact that the meat of these diseased animals 
 has frequently been used for food without ever having incurred any 
 impairment or injury to man, it can hardly be classed as injurious to 
 health ; in individual cases, however, the following should be considered : 
 
 1. The entire carcass is unfit for food as soon as marked substantial 
 changes (congestion of blood, serous infiltration, degenerations, yellow 
 discoloration) of the musculature or fatty tissue are observed, or when 
 marked emaciation has occurred. 
 
 2. In all other cases, with the exception of the chronic forms of 
 swine plague and the sequelae of this disease and those of hog cholera, 
 the carcass in all three of these diseases is to be considered fit for food, 
 but subject to certain conditions. For veterinary sanitary reasons 
 and partly in consideration of the presence of the causative agents 
 in the blood of cases of swine erysipelas, swine plague, and the acute 
 forms of hog cholera, the meat and fat are to be boiled, steamed 
 (rendered into lard), or pickled. The portions affected by the disease 
 should be condemned. 
 
 3. In case of slow chronic forms of swine plague, without disturb- 
 ance of the general condition, or sequelae of this disease (adhesions, 
 cicatrices, capsulated caseated areas, etc.), or of hog cholera (caseation 
 of the mesenteric lymphatic glands, adhesions of intestines, formation 
 of cicatrices in the intestinal mucosa), only the affected portions of 
 the meat are to be condemned and destroyed. The remainder of the 
 carcass is fit for food without any restriction. 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, Section 13, 
 Paragraphs 1 to 4, carcasses which are well nourished, showing only 
 slight and limited lesions of hog cholera or swine plague may be passed ; 
 those showing well-marked and progressive lesions shall be condemned, 
 while those carcasses in which the lesions are more extensive than 
 those of carcasses to be passed, yet not sufficiently severe for condemna- 
 tion, may be rendered into lard, provided they are cooked by steam 
 for four hours at a temperature not lower than 220 F., or at a pressure 
 of four pounds.] 
 
 4. For the judgment of urticaria, see page 307. 
 
 Veterinary Police Regulation. In compliance with the decree of 
 the Imperial Chancellor, dated September 8, 1898, every case of swine 
 erysipelas, swine plague, and hog cholera is to be reported, in all parts 
 
CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA OF CATTLE 313 
 
 of the Empire, to the police authorities at the nearest point to where 
 they occur. Non- veterinary inspectors may, under the inspection 
 regulations of the Imperial meat-inspection law, inspect only light forms 
 of swine erysipelas, provided the local government permits the exercise 
 of this function (for instance, the Kingdom of Saxony prohibits such 
 action) . 
 
 CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA OF CATTLE 
 
 This epizootic disease of the lungs is a chronic, contagious pleuro- 
 pneumonia peculiar to cattle. [It was eradicated from the United 
 States in 1892.] 
 
 Pathogenesis. The cause of the disease, according to Nocard and 
 Roux, seems to be minute, motile microorganisms of indefinite mor- 
 phology, which enter the lungs by the air passages and gradually 
 produce progressive pleuropneumonia, beginning in the connective 
 tissue of the lungs. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Since the clinical symptoms of this disease, 
 when occurring in isolated cases, can never be diagnosticated on ante- 
 mortem inspection, they will not be discussed here. 
 
 The anatomical lesions, however, are quite characteristic (Plate 
 II, Fig. 2). The unilateral inflammation of the lungs is superficially 
 recognized by a varying grade of pleuritis and the coarse condition 
 of the changed portion of the lung, which contains no air. Section 
 of the diseased area will reveal marked proliferation of the interlobular 
 connective tissue, which will be found thick, gelatinous, intermixed 
 with fibrinous, grayish-yellow bands, about 2 cm. wide, separating 
 the compressed lung lobules and the lobules of the adjoining lung sec- 
 tions. The diseased lobules may appear singly or in groups with varying 
 degrees of inflammation, while fresh inflammatory lobules will be 
 seen lying beside older forms. Hyperemic, edematous, and bright red 
 hepatized lobules alternate with dark red, liver-like lobules, and with 
 some which show a grayish-yellow to grayish-brown color. The latter 
 are cloudy, dry, and point to an early stage of necrosis, which may 
 lead to sequestration of smaller or larger lung areas. As a result of 
 the condition just described, the lung presents a marbled appearance 
 on section (Plate II, Fig. 2). The inflammation of the pulmonary pleura 
 extends also to the other pleural surfaces, in advanced cases of the 
 disease, and leads to extensive fibrin deposits, adhesions, and collections 
 of exudate within the pleural sac. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. Pleuropneumonia is recognized quite readily 
 when the above-mentioned pathologic lesions are present. Only in 
 quite recently formed cases will any difficulty of diagnosis be met, and 
 in these great care should be exercised on account of the grave conse- 
 quences which might follow an error in diagnosis. 
 
 Pleuropneumonia may be mistaken for 
 
 1. Foreign body (traumatic) pneumonia, which occurs either at one 
 particular point only or in multiple places, and may also present a 
 
314 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 marbled appearance. Here the foreign body may be demonstrated, 
 however; and in the latter case the widely distributed areas will not 
 suggest pleuropneumonia. 
 
 2. Genuine croupous pneumonia, which, however, is rare, usually 
 occurs on the right side and presents uniform processes throughout. 
 
 3. Hemorrhagic septicemia of cattle in the pectoral form. Here the 
 rapid clinical course and the anatomically uniform acute pulmonary 
 inflammation differentiates it from pleuropneumonia. Mice and 
 rabbits die of hemorrhagic septicemia within twelve to thirty-six 
 hours after inoculation. 
 
 4. Contagious bronchopneumonia of calces, which occurs as a lobular 
 catarrhal inflammation of the lung without involving the interlobular 
 tissue. 
 
 5. Pneumonomycosis , which is readily recognized microscopically. 
 Judgment. As the meat of animals suffering from pleuropneumonia 
 
 is not harmful to man as food, it may be declared serviceable after 
 removal of the diseased portions, provided emaciation, fever, serosity, 
 and other conditions of the meat do not impair its value. It would 
 be necessary to condemn the carcass only exceptionally in cases of 
 pronounced emaciation with serosity. 
 
 [Contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle does not exist at the present 
 time in the United States and as the regulations governing the importa- 
 tion of cattle prescribe a quarantine of thirty days, counting from the 
 date of arrival at the quarantine station, which constitutes the longest 
 period for the incubation of this contagion, it is not likely that the 
 disease will reappear in this country, and accordingly it is not of any 
 great interest in meat inspection.] 
 
 Veterinary Police Regulations. The occurrence of the disease is 
 to be immediately reported and the entire carcass confiscated. Regula- 
 tions require that the lungs be buried at the depth of one meter, and 
 that the meat be not removed from the infected premises until it has 
 been cooled thoroughly, and that the hides should also be retained until 
 they have been completely dried, unless they are turned over directly 
 to a tannery. 
 
 BLACKLEG 
 
 Symptomatic anthrax or blackleg may attack cattle, sheep, goats, 
 very rarely horses, and also hogs, but this infectious disease is 
 usually restricted to certain localities. Blackleg is characterized by 
 the formation of gas-containing swellings in the subcutis, which rapidly 
 spread. 
 
 Pathogenesis. Blackleg is caused by anaerobic bacilli, which enter 
 the organism through abrasions of the skin or mucous membrane. 
 
 The bacilli measure 3 to 6 p in length and 0.5 to 0.7 // in width, are motile 
 as long as they have not developed spores, and stain readily; they do not stain 
 by Gram's method, however. They are never found in the circulating blood, 
 but always in the subcutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue (Fig. 135). 
 
Blackleg bacilli with spores. Muscle 
 
 BLACKLEG 315 
 
 After the bacilli have gained entrance into the body there develop 
 crepitating, rapidly spreading swellings in the connective tissue, espe- 
 cially at the neck, shoulders, beneath the breast, thigh, flanks, and 
 more rarely at the gums, base of tongue 
 and wall of the pharynx, accompanied FlG - 135 
 
 by severe general febrile symptoms. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The symp- 
 toms in the living animal correspond to 
 the preceding description. Anatomically 
 the subcutis and the intermuscular con- 
 nective tissue beneath the partly necrosed 
 skin appear of a yellowish color, bloody, 
 permeated by air bubbles and of an offen- 
 sive odor, which in many instances is 
 similar to that of rancid butter. At these 
 points the musculature is a muddy brown- 
 ish red, crepitating, and very juicy; the 
 corresponding lymphatic glands contain 
 a bloody, serous infiltration, are swollen, Hutyra and 
 and contain hemorrhagic areas. The latter 
 
 are also found under the serosa. Serosanguinolent extravasations or 
 exudates in the body cavities and occasionally perirenal and mesenteric 
 bloody gelatinous infiltrations are noted. Degenerations of the heart, 
 liver, and kidneys occur, w r hile the spleen and blood remain un- 
 changed. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. Blackleg is easily recognized in differential 
 diagnosis. The following diseases must be considered: 
 
 1. Malignant edema, which need rarely be differentiated clinically 
 from blackleg. Anatomically, attention should be directed to the 
 foul necrotic odor of the edematous swellings, the more plump mor- 
 phology of the edema bacillus (page 296), which in addition possesses 
 spores in the centre of the organism and not at end, as is the case 
 with the blackleg bacillus. The latter do not develop into threads 
 in the cadaver, like edema bacilli. 
 
 2. Anthrax. The clinical course of this disease differs considerably 
 from that of blackleg, and in the slaughtered animal the blood and 
 spleen alterations, as well as the demonstration of the bacillus of anthrax, 
 serve to differentiate it from blackleg. 
 
 3. Mechanical subcutaneous emphysema, which clinically and ana- 
 tomically differs entirely, particularly in that it produces no necrosis 
 of the skin. 
 
 4. Phlegmons of the subcutis as a result of pyogenic wound infec- 
 tion run a much slower course than blackleg and remain localized. 
 
 Judgment. If blackleg is found on antemortem inspection, or if 
 it is even suspected, slaughtering of the animal is to be forbidden. 
 The meat of animals suffering from blackleg, although not injurious 
 to man, must be condemned on account of the marked substantial 
 changes therein, and is not to be considered fit for human food. 
 
316 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 Veterinary Police Regulations. In this respect blackleg is to be 
 treated just like anthrax (see page 285), since in almost all states 
 compulsory notification is required of all cases that may arise. 
 
 That the so-called "parturient blackleg" is not true blackleg, but a form of 
 malignant edema, has already been stated on page 296. 
 
 Reindeer pest is quite similar to blackleg, and this is mentioned on account 
 of the fact that no inconsiderable quantities of reindeer meat are imported 
 into Germany. In reindeer pest there is found gas formation in the subcutis, 
 the intramuscular, subpleural, and subperitoneal tissues, and especially abun- 
 dant beneath the renal capsule. As compared with blackleg it is found that 
 reindeer pest differs also in the presence of abundant gas formation in the 
 internal organs. The cause of reindeer pest, according to Lundgren and Berg- 
 man, are aerobic rods, thinner than those of blackleg or anthrax bacilli, forming 
 spores either in the middle or at the end, and staining by Gram's method. On 
 account of the great similarity to blackleg the meat of animals affected with 
 reindeer pest is to be judged like that of blackleg. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Regulations carcasses of animals showing 
 lesions of blackleg should be condemned.] 
 
 BRADSOT 
 
 The disease called bradsot (rapid plague), or braxy, is an acute 
 infectious disease of sheep, which originated in Iceland, Norway, 
 Scotland, and occurs in Germany, according to Peters, in Mecklen- 
 burg, Pommerania, and recently also in Middle Germany (Dam- 
 mann and Oppermann, R. Froehner). It occurs almost exclusively 
 during the winter months, particularly in young animals, and in its 
 nature it is a gastromycosis. 
 
 Pathogenesis. Bradsot is produced by the Bacillus gastromycosis ovis 
 (Nielsen), an anaerobic, slender, motile schizomycetes, which stains by Gram's 
 method. It forms central or polar spores, and is frequently found arranged 
 end to end. 
 
 The entrance of the bacillus into the digestive tract produces a hemorrhagic, 
 abomaso-duodenal inflammation followed by general infection or intoxication. 
 
 Pathology. On account of the frequent peracute course of the 
 disease clinical symptoms, such as debility, gnashing of teeth, difficulties 
 of respiration, coma, and tympanitis, are rarely observed. The ana- 
 tomical changes have been described in the pathogenesis. In addition 
 to these, there occur occasionally fibrinous infiltrations of the sub- 
 cutaneous connective tissues, with gas formation and serosanguinolent 
 exudates in the abdominal cavity. Decomposition sets in quickly. 
 
 Judgment. Although injury to human health is unlikely as the 
 result of ingestion of meat from sheep affected with "bradsot," as 
 has been noted by certain observers, it is necessary to condemn it on 
 account of the severe general infection or intoxication which is present. 
 
 In view of the rapid course of the disease, it is not likely that many 
 sheep affected with this disease will be brought to abattoirs for slaughter. 
 
RINDERPEST 317 
 
 [Bradsot has not been observed in the United States, and therefore 
 it is of no interest in meat inspection. The occurrence of the disease 
 would naturally require a condemnation of the affected carcasses on 
 account of the severe infection and intoxication.] 
 
 RINDERPEST (CATTLE PLAGUE) 
 
 Cattle plague is an acute infectious disease peculiar to cattle, 
 which may be transmitted to other ruminants, and occurs as a severe, 
 febrile general infection associated with inflammation of all mucous 
 membranes, especially those of the digestive tract. The plague has been 
 extinct in Germany for years, but might readily be introduced again 
 from foreign countries. [It has never occurred in the United States.] 
 Little is known in regard to the nature of the infectious material. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Clinical symptoms: Chills (rigor), high 
 fever, marked depression, constipation, and after a few days catarrh 
 of all visible mucous membranes, which are stained scarlet red, either 
 diffusely or in spots (petechia) . Difficulty in respiration and dysenteric 
 feces, occasionally mixed with blood, occur later. The visible mucous 
 membranes show erosions, upon which grayish-white crusts appear, 
 and when these are cast off ulcers become visible. As the animals 
 rapidly emaciate, the secretions of the mucous membranes become 
 discolored, pus-like, malodorous, and the temperature sinks to sub- 
 normal. 
 
 The anatomic lesions, according to Kitt, are : In the primary stages 
 hyperemia and catarrhal condition of the mucous membranes, then 
 croupous-diphtheritic exudates, with marked hyperemia, particularly 
 along the entire digestive tract, and at the orifice of the female genitals ; 
 occasionally simultaneous croupous exudate in the bronchi occurs. 
 To these are added ecchymosis of the heart and exanthema of the 
 skin. The third stomach is frequently filled with very dry, powdered 
 fodder; the gall-bladder is usually full and distended; parenchyma 
 degenerated; musculature wasted, soft, and filled with small blood 
 extravasations. 
 
 Diagnosis. In order to recognize cattle plague, which is exceedingly 
 difficult in isolated cases, all of the diagnostic factors must be most 
 carefully considered, such as the symptom-complex, autopsy findings, 
 the course of the plague, and its history. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. It may be mistaken for: 
 
 1 . Malignant catarrhal fever, in which, however, the mucous mem- 
 branes of the head, the respiratory apparatus, and the eyes are particu- 
 larly involved, and in which the viscera are intact. It usually occurs 
 only enzootically. 
 
 2. Dysentery and Mycotic Enteritis. Here the intestinal symptoms 
 predominate and the other pest symptoms are absent. 
 
 3. Poisoning, Especially Mercurial and Caustic Poisons. Here the 
 contagion is absent, and the generalized croupous-diphtheritic inflam- 
 mation of the mucous membranes is also lacking. 
 
318 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 4. Infectious hemoglobinuria of cattle (page 263), when on postmortem 
 examination of cattle which have died from this disease ulcers and 
 lamellar deposits are found in the abomasum and duodenum (Hutyra- 
 Marek). There is, however, an absence of the changes in the oral 
 mucous membranes, the air passages and genitals, while the hemo- 
 globin-containing urine will attract attention. 
 
 Judgment. The killing or slaughtering of animals affected with 
 cattle plague or those suspected of having this disease is to be pro- 
 hibited. Although the meat of cattle-plague animals has been proved 
 to be harmless to man when used for food, it must nevertheless, be 
 destroyed or declared unfit for food on account of the great danger 
 in spreading the disease. It should be buried in accordance with regula- 
 tions of the rinderpest law of April 7, 1869. 
 
 [As the disease does not exist in the United States, there are no pro- 
 visions made in the regulations for the judgment of animals affected 
 with rinderpest; it is, however self-evident that the occurrence of 
 the disease would require condemnation of the affected carcasses with 
 strict veterinary police regulations to prevent its spread.] 
 
 VESICULAR EXANTHEMA OF HORSES AND CATTLE 
 
 This contagious disease of the genital organs, which occasionally produces 
 a constitutional disturbance, is mentioned here only on account of its veterinary 
 police (sanitary) importance. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. Marked redness and swelling of the mucous mem- 
 brane of the vagina, prepuce, and penis, itching, slight discharge and strangury, 
 development of delicately covered vesicles of sizes from a milletseed to a dime, 
 which burst and change into superficial ulcers. They form brownish crusts and 
 heal, leaving white cicatrices. It is sometimes difficult to observe the symp- 
 toms in bulls, since only fine erosions and small vesicles appear on the mucous 
 membrane of the prepuce. In severe cases there occur confluent, deeper pene- 
 trating ulcers, with suppuration and foul pus, more marked discharge, and 
 swelling of the surrounding parts as well as grave febrile general disturbance. 
 
 Judgment. The meat of animals afflicted with vesicular exanthema is 
 generally fit for food; in severe cases, which, however, are rarely brought for 
 slaughter, the grade of the disease and complications present decide whether 
 the meat is to be declared of impaired value or to be entirely condemned. 
 
 The veterinary police regulations require report of such cases and retention 
 of the diseased portions for examination by the veterinarian in charge. 
 
 [In the meat inspection of the United States carcasses of cattle 
 affected with vesicular exanthema may be passed for food, provided 
 the disease has not caused general systemic disturbances and the 
 lesions are confined to the genital organs, which should be condemned.] 
 
 For contagious vaginal catarrh or granular vaginitis, see page 218. 
 
 HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA (GAME AND CATTLE PLAGUE) 
 
 This disease, belonging to the group of septicemia hsemorrhagica 
 (Hueppe), occasionally occurs epizootically in cattle, deer, and black 
 game, and in isolated cases may be transmitted to the horse, goat, 
 
HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 319 
 
 and hog. It appears in pectoral and exanthematous forms, though 
 both may occur together. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The cause of this disease (Bacillus [bipolaris] bovi- 
 septicus), which simulates that of swine plague, may gain entrance to 
 the organism in various ways, corresponding to the above-mentioned 
 forms of the disease. According to Dammann and Oppermann a 
 species of gnat (Simulia ornata) is the intermediate host in the 
 transmission of this affection. The bacilli produce local inflammations, 
 and passing into the blood create various changes resembling the 
 course of sepsis. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. In cattle the exanthematous form is the 
 most frequent. The clinical symptoms are the rapidly developing 
 warm swellings of the subcutis of the head and neck, with high fever 
 and difficult respiration. Anatomically there are sanguinogelatinous 
 exudations at the head and neck, marked swelling of the retropharyngeal 
 and cervical lymphatic glands, cloudy swelling of the large viscera, and 
 hemorrhages into most organs. 
 
 The pectoral form, which predominates in game, runs the clinical 
 and anatomic course of severe croupous pleuropneumonia, with 
 marked dyspnea. The above-mentioned hemorrhages are never 
 absent. 
 
 In both forms there also exists marked hemorrhagic enteritis, which 
 is noticeable clinically by bloody discharges in addition to the severe 
 general constitutional condition. These intestinal forms or symptoms 
 were formerly described as a special intestinal form of game and 
 cattle plague. 
 
 The positive recognition of the plague intra mtam is oftentimes 
 impossible, though per post mortem it is quite easy. The presence of 
 the bacteria, inoculation of rabbits and mice, and feeding infectious 
 material to birds, causing death to all within twelve to thirty-six 
 hours, confirm the diagnosis. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. It might be mistaken for: 
 
 1. Anthrax. In hemorrhagic septicemia the marked splenic changes 
 are absent, and the blood alterations and anthrax bacilli as well. 
 
 2. Pleuropneumonia. From this disease the uniform age and syn- 
 chronicity of all the diffuse pneumonic areas in game and cattle plague 
 differ considerably. 
 
 3. Malignant edema, blackleg, and rinderpest, whose differential 
 diagnostic features have already been cited. 
 
 Judgment. The slaughter of animals affected with hemorrhagic 
 septicemia is prohibited, and they are to be treated like those affected 
 with anthrax. In some states the occurrence of this disease must be 
 reported. 
 
 In view of the danger in spreading contagion, the entire carcass is 
 to be condemned, although the ingestion of the meat by man is not 
 dangerous to health. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. .Regulations, carcasses of animals affected with 
 hemprrhagic septicemia shall be condemned.] 
 
320 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER OF CATTLE 
 
 This miasmatic infectious disease peculiar to cattle is characterized 
 by marked inflammation of all mucous membranes of the head and 
 eyes, accompanied by severe constitutional and cerebral disturbances. 
 [It is also called malignant epizootic catarrh.] 
 
 Pathogenesis. The still unknown infectious principle sometimes 
 causes in addition to the above-mentioned symptoms, a more extensive 
 affection of the respiratory apparatus as well as croupous-diphtheritic 
 inflammation of the digestive tract, and occasionally vesicular or nodule- 
 like skin exanthemata (skin eruptions), while nephritis, cystitis, and 
 colpitis may also occur. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The most prominent clinical symptoms 
 are rapidly increasing fever, marked fatigue, impairment of sensation, 
 muscular tremors, inflammation of the mucous membranes of the 
 head, particularly those of the eyes, difficulty of respiration, diarrhea, 
 which may be mixed with blood, and rapid emaciation. Predominating 
 anatomic lesions are catarrhal or hemorrhagic, later croupous and 
 diphtheritic inflammations of the mucous membranes of the entire 
 respiratory apparatus, and occasionally also involving the digestive 
 apparatus; great congestion of blood in the cranial cavity; marked 
 swelling of the lids, conjunctivitis, keratitis, and even iritis; enlarge- 
 ment of the spleen and cloudy swelling of the liver and kidneys, which 
 are usually not marked; and at times nephritis, cystitis, colpitis, and 
 the above-mentioned skin changes may occur. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. The recognition of the well-developed cases 
 of malignant catarrhal fever is not difficult. For differential diagnosis 
 should be considered : 
 
 1. Rinderpest, in which the affection of the eyes is conspicuously 
 absent, and in which the rapid course is characterized by the pre- 
 dominating gastric symptoms, while in catarrhal fever the affection 
 of the respiratory apparatus is most marked. In catarrhal fever the 
 organs are only slightly involved, whereas in animals suffering with 
 rinderpest they are greatly degenerated. 
 
 2. Mycotic enteritis, when the intestinal infection predominates. 
 Here are noted, however, the absence of marked depression symptoms 
 and changes in the mucous membranes of the head. 
 
 Judgment. The meat is not injurious to man as food. It may, 
 however, have to be condemned in advanced cases on account of the 
 occurring emaciation and the objective changes in the meat (increased 
 blood contents, etc.) . In any case, the meat is always to be considered 
 impaired in nutritive value. 
 
 [According to B. A. I. Regulations, carcasses of animals affected with 
 malignant catarrhal fever of malignant epizootic catarrh and showing 
 generalized inflammation of mucous membranes shall be condemned.] 
 
NECROTIC STOMATITIS OF CALVES 321 
 
 NECROTIC STOMATITIS (DIPHTHERIA) OF CALVES 
 
 Diphtheria of calves is not related to diphtheria in man, and occurs 
 comparatively infrequently as an infectious disease with rapid course of 
 development, characterized by the appearance of croupous-diphtheritic 
 patches on the mucous membranes of the oral cavity. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The exciting cause of the disease is the necrosis bacillus 
 (Bang), which appears as short rods (1.8 to 2.4 // long, and 0.6/* wide), and 
 also as filaments (Fig. 136). Without doubt the bacillus also termed Bacillus 
 necrophorus gains admission through wounds or abrasions, whereupon it effects 
 its further action by way of the blood. Sepsis may be associated with the 
 course of this affection. 
 
 FIG. 136 
 
 Bacillus necrophorus, showing coccoid, bacillary, and filamentous forms. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The clinical symptoms are similar to those 
 of foot and mouth disease, but in addition, cough, difficulty of respira- 
 tion, and diarrhea occur. Pathologically there are noted in advanced 
 cases croupous-diphtheritic ulcers on the mucous membrane of the 
 mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, stomach, and intestinal canal, pneu- 
 monic areas, and also cloudy swelling of the internal organs. 
 
 Recognition of necrotic stomatitis of calves is based on the above- 
 mentioned findings, which are not likely to be mistaken for anything 
 else, unless it be foot and mouth disease. 
 
 Judgment. If the animals are slaughtered in the early stages, the 
 meat may be considered as of impaired value; later, it becomes unfit 
 for food on account of rapid emaciation and general constitutional 
 symptoms, which produce such changes as to render it unfit for food. 
 This is also the case when sepsis has occurred. 
 
 The passing of a carcass for food after condemning the diseased 
 parts is possible in Germany, as the animals are not usually slaughtered 
 until general constitutional symptoms have set in. 
 
 [In accordance with meat inspection in the United States, carcasses 
 of animals with necrotic stomatitis may be passed if the lesions are 
 only local in character; if there is indication of toxemia, associated 
 with emaciation, the carcasses should be condemned. 
 21 
 
322 INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FOOD-PRODUCING ANIMALS 
 
 DIARRHEA OR DYSENTERY OF CALVES (WHITE SCOUR) 
 
 White scour of calves is an infectious intestinal inflammation, which 
 may occur also in other sucklings and sometimes appears enzootically. 
 
 Pathogenesis. The exciting agents of dysentery, according to Jensen, Poels, 
 and Joest, are bacteria belonging to the colon group, which are facultatively 
 pathogenic and enter the blood from the intestinal tract, producing general 
 infection with special localization in the intestinal canal. 1 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. The clinical symptoms possess no definite 
 characteristics. Pathologically there is emaciation, anemia, reddish, 
 blurred injection of the mucous membrane of the abomasum and the 
 entire intestinal tube, swelling of the mesenteric glands, and sub- 
 serous hemorrhages, the musculature being flabby, lusterless, and of 
 a muddy red color. 
 
 With the aid of a microscope recognition of this disease is readily 
 accomplished. 
 
 Differential Diagnosis. It is apt to be mistaken for 
 
 1. Acute gastric and intestinal catarrhs, in which, however, the course 
 is milder, and in 'which the signs of blood infection are lacking. 
 
 2. Diarrhea of septicemia and pyemia, whose other symptoms, how- 
 ever, are usually easy of recognition. 
 
 Judgment. When the calves are slaughtered early in the disease 
 their meat may be permissible as food, though being rated as of impaired 
 value. If a general infection had already set in, the meat will have to 
 be declared unfit for food, on account of the possibility of its being 
 dangerous to health. As the bacteria are found in the blood and rapidly 
 multiply in the carcass (Ostertag), caution is imperative from the 
 well-known fact that certain varieties of the colon bacillus may assume 
 marked pathogenic properties. 
 
 [As white scour in calves represents a general infection, and since 
 the disease is usually associated with general debility and emaciation, 
 therefore," carcasses thus affected are condemned in the Federal inspec- 
 tion service.] 
 
 DISTEMPER AND INFLUENZA OF HORSES 
 
 Diseases of horses coming under this classification require no special notice 
 here since they do not necessitate slaughter of the animals, because the diseases 
 in question either run a mild course or cause death in severe cases, not bring- 
 ing into question the possibility of emergency slaughter. If such an excep- 
 tional case should arise, however, judgment of the meat will not be difficult, 
 when it is borne in mind that septic or pyemic infections may complicate the 
 course of distemper, influenza, and pneumonia of horses. 
 
 [ l Nocard, Mettam, etc., consider the cause of this disease to be a pasteurellose, known as the 
 B. bipolaris septicus.] 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 POSTMORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT 
 
 THE first changes of the animal tissues after death are of a physico- 
 chemical nature, such as the appearance of coagulation, changes of 
 color, changes in reaction. The appearance of coagulation is most 
 distinctly marked in the stiffening of fat in fat cells, and in the coagula- 
 tion of myosin in striated muscles. The latter is probably brought 
 on by acid formation in the muscles, and rigor mortis is the result. 
 The muscles thus obtain an acid reaction, a condition which is desig- 
 nated as a simple souring of meat by W. Eber, who was the first to 
 systematize the decomposition processes of meat. To this is added 
 the sour fermentation which may occur in two forms: 
 
 FERMENTATION PROCESSES IN MEAT 
 
 Simple sour fermentation begins with rigor mortis and produces the 
 so-called "ripening" of the meat. The latter becomes more tender, 
 appears more juicy and gradually loses the quality to take up a bright 
 scarlet-red color on the cut surface. The cut surface then becomes 
 light brown to yellow. The odor of the ripening meat is sourish 
 aromatic. Later, traces of formation of hydrogen sulphide (haut gout) 
 may develop (W. Eber, Glage) as a result of the sulphur compounds 
 present in the meat. 
 
 The nature of ripening of meat consists, according to recent investigations 
 (Salkowski, Jacoby, M. Miiller, Vogel), in fermentation processes, which may be 
 designated as an autodigestion (Salkowski); or autolysis (Jacoby, M. Miiller); 
 also as a physiological destruction of the meat (Glage). 
 
 Stinking sour fermentation occurs in meat which could not cool 
 out. Thus it appears in game which is tightly packed while still con- 
 taining body heat, or in meat of slaughtered animals if it is piled up 
 without being sufficiently chilled. The condition is designated in 
 game as "overheated;" in meat, as "suffocated." 
 
 [This condition is termed, "sour side" in the United States, and is 
 produced by hanging the sides too close to each other in the cooler, 
 thus preventing the proper circulation of cooled air between them; 
 and also by too sudden chilling of the carcass, whereby insufficient 
 time is given for gradual disappearance of body heat.] 
 
 In game the hair can be pulled out by the handful from the skin, 
 the subcutis is colored green, and the cut surfaces of the copper-red 
 
324 POSTMORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT 
 
 colored muscles change in the same way ; gas bubbles may appear. The 
 last two changes are also observed in pieces of meat of food animals. 
 The stinking products contain large quantities of H 2 S. The determi- 
 nation of fermentation processes is not difficult by these described 
 changes. The presence of an acid reaction is necessary, and the absence 
 of ammonia (see Demonstration of Putrefaction). 
 
 [The recent investigations of McBryde show that ham souring as 
 encountered in the wet cure, where the hams are entirely submerged 
 in pickling fluids, is due to the growth of the Bacillus putrefaciens 
 within the bodies of the hams.] 
 
 Judgment. While meat in a state of simple sour fermentation is 
 suitable for human consumption, as a matter of fact it is designated 
 in that condition as "table ripe;" on the other hand, meat showing 
 the slightest trace of stinking sour fermentation should be considered 
 highly spoiled, and be condemned, as injurious to health. 
 
 [The above judgment applies also to meat inspection in the United 
 States.] 
 
 PUTREFACTION OF MEAT 
 
 Putrefaction of meat is a bacterial decomposition, which by adequate 
 treatment, curing or preserving, may be checked. On the other hand, 
 it is above all superinduced by heat and moisture. The last two factors 
 facilitate the growth of putrefactive microorganisms. 
 
 Nature and Development. Obligatory anaerobic bacteria come into considera- 
 tion as agents of putrefaction, especially the Bacillus putrificus (Bienstock), 
 Bacillus edematis maligni (page 296), Bacillus gangrcence emphysematosce 
 (page 314), for whose existence and development satisfactory conditions are 
 produced on the surface of the meat through abstraction of oxygen by the 
 aerobic bacteria. Of the aerobic bacteria in putrefactive meat, there may be 
 found staphylococci, Bacterium coli, species of proteus (Figs. 137 and 138), 
 and bacteria, which greatly resemble the Bacillus enteritidis, Gartner. The 
 Bacillus paraputrificus (Bienstock) retards putrefaction. 
 
 The action of putrefactive microorganisms consists in the decomposition 
 of albuminous bodies and gelatinous substances, which are broken up under 
 the formation of gases of a disagreeable odor. The freer the access of oxygen 
 to the putrefactive meat, the quicker and more completely decomposition 
 progresses (rotting). With an insufficient supply of air, a stinking putrefac- 
 tion develops. As end products of putrefactive decomposition there develop, 
 according to Gotschlich: 
 
 1. Gases (C0 2 , CH 4 , H 2 , N 2 , NH 3 , H,S). 
 
 2. Fatty acids (formic, acetic, butyric, valerianic, palmitic acid). 
 
 3. Oxy and other basic acids (lactic succinic oxalic acid). 
 
 4. Various other substances (amines, amides, amidoacids, leucin, tyrosin, 
 aromatic acids, indol, scatol, peptone, ptomains, toxins). 
 
 Toxins appear to assume the properties of strong poisons only in the presence 
 of a free supply of air (Nielson) . 
 
 Lesions. Putrefaction, as a rule, begins on the surface of meat 
 and penetrates the deep parts, following the course of the connective 
 tissue. The muscle fibers proper resist putrefaction for some time. 
 
PUTREFACTION OF MEAT 
 
 325 
 
 Meat of animals which had febrile affection, or that of insufficiently 
 bled animals, putrefies more quickly than flesh of healthy animals. 
 Stinking, putrefactive, malodorous substances do riot necessarily 
 appear, as has been stated already, in all putrefactions; besides, they 
 vary considerably in accordance with the kind of meat. In putrid 
 meat sausages and salted meat, stinking odors are sometimes entirely 
 absent. Some of the putrefactive odors appear more pronounced in 
 treating meat, with acids or alkalies ; some again are uninfluenced by 
 such treatment. Marked changes of color (turning gray, yellow, green) 
 are not always characteristic. Changes in the consistence appear 
 noticeable only in advanced stages of putrefaction, and then the meat 
 
 FIG. 137 
 
 4^ 8 ^ J ^\l ^X-ip/^' 
 >. ^ - \^p^c jk ^3^} \ & 
 
 i v *- jj v -~v^r r rs^ d 
 
 ^m%%W^ 
 
 "^soajr g 
 
 tfmmfttx 
 
 
 Proteus vulgaris. From a pure culture. X 
 730 diameters. (After Weichselbaum.) 
 
 appears sloppy, smeary, and 
 porous. Alkalinity alone is 
 no criterion of putrefaction, 
 but it ma'y always be present. 
 Putrefactive toxins are very 
 resistant against the customary 
 methods of preparing meats, 
 and cannot be completely de- 
 stroyed by ordinary boiling; 
 they lose their poisonous effects 
 
 after heating for One and One- Colony of the Proteus vulgaris with swarming 
 
 i 11? i , -i nno r< A processes. Gelatin plate. X 70 diameters. (After 
 
 half hours at 100 C., accord- Weichs eib a um.) 
 ing to Scholl. 
 
 For proof of putrefaction, the changes of meat in relation to color, 
 consistence, odor, taste, resistance, should be taken into consideration, 
 but as they may vary greatly, their detection must depend to a large 
 extent on subjective perception by the inspector. Besides, the bac- 
 terioscopic and bacteriologic examination shows very large numbers 
 of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. The muscle fibers under the micro- 
 scope appear cloudy and infected with bacteria ; triple phosphate crystals 
 may be present. 
 
 According to Marxer, meat should be considered as putrefactive 
 if one gram contains over a million of organisms of any kind, or proteus 
 bacteria in large numbers. W. Eber recommends proving the presence 
 of free ammonia, which develops in meat in all putrefaction; and his 
 putrefactive test (see below) is based upon this fact. In opposition 
 
326 
 
 POSTMORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT 
 
 to this, however, Glage claims that it cannot by itself be decisive for 
 the demonstration of putrefaction, as the presence of ammonia is not 
 an exclusively specific sign of putrefaction, and its development does 
 not occur sufficiently early with the formation of toxins in the meat. 
 Glage demands a bacteriologic examination of meat which is in 
 the act of decomposition by making smear-preparations, cultures, and 
 animal experiments. However, this requirement, which may be justi- 
 fied from a scientific standpoint, could be carried out in practice only 
 with the greatest difficulty. In large pieces of meat, 
 FIG. 139 examination should extend particularly to the deeper 
 
 layers of muscles, as putrefaction of the surface may 
 be present without involving deeper parts. 
 
 Eber's test for putrefaction is based on the fact that 
 when ammonia and hydrochloric acid vapors combine, 
 gray to white sal ammoniac clouds form. For this test 
 the' folio wing reagents are used: Acid hydrochloric, pur., 
 1; alcohol, 3; ether, 1. Of this mixture, enough is poured 
 into a 2 cm. wide reagent glass (Fig. 139) to cover its 
 bottom to the depth of 1 cm. The glass can be closed by 
 a rubber stopper, through which a glass rod is inserted, 
 which almost reaches to the surface of the fluid. On the 
 rod is placed a small sample of the material to be examined, 
 or from the latter some of the juice is taken up by the glass 
 rod. After the reagent has been shaken in the test tube, 
 in order to fill the tube with the vapors of the hydro- 
 chloric acid, the glass rod is set into the tube. The reac- 
 tion varies in accordance with the quantity of ammonia, 
 which is set free from the sample. There is a formation of 
 gray, smoke gray, or white clouds, which, starting at the 
 sample, sink down to the surface of the fluid. Naturally 
 no free ammonia should be present in the room where the 
 examination is made: the sample to be examined should 
 not be colder than the reagent glass. 
 
 This test is not applicable on pickled meats on account 
 of the presence of trimethylamin. 
 
 Proof of the presence of hydrogen sulphate, which can 
 be easily tested with a paper moistened in a 10 per cent, 
 solution of nitrate of lead, cannot essentially support the 
 diagnosis of putrefaction, as H 2 S forms soon, even in fresh 
 meat (Rubner, Glage). 
 
 Reagent glass for Eber's 
 test for putrefaction. 
 
 Judgment. The judgment of putrefactive meat which shows con- 
 siderable perceptible changes is not difficult, as such would at once 
 be considered highly spoiled and unfit for human food. In general, it 
 may be considered injurious to health, but this is not in direct relation 
 to the intensity of the putrefaction. The nature of the causative agents 
 of putrefaction enters into this question; also, numerous unknown 
 additional circumstances, and besides the symbiotic association of the 
 bacteria present. Therefore, Eber's test alone cannot be sufficient 
 for establishing the injurious properties of meat, but in general it is 
 only useful as a supporting diagnostic method for determining bacterial 
 decomposition. 
 
MICROPHYTIC CHANGES OF MEAT 327 
 
 With reference to this condition, and in consideration of the signifi- 
 cant poisonous properties of putrefactive toxins under various con- 
 ditions (see Chapter XI), precaution should be taken to withhold even 
 slightly putrid meat from the market; however, from the standpoint 
 of law its injuriousness to health cannot be positively asserted, which 
 has also been considered as doubtful by van Ermengem. Therefore, 
 in making a decision it should be with consideration of the forensic 
 results. It is always advisable to declare meat with superficial decom- 
 position of inferior quality, and at the same time the changed layers 
 of the meat should be removed. 
 
 [In accordance with the regulations governing the meat inspection 
 of the United States, meats which on reinspection show evidence of 
 putrefaction should be considered unhealthful and therefore unfit for 
 human food.] 
 
 MIXED PROCESSES IN THE DECOMPOSITION OF MEAT 
 
 Various kinds of fermentative and putrefactive processes may natu- 
 rally develop simultaneously in the meat, and it is not always possible 
 to characterize their nature exactly. Especially difficult is the demon- 
 stration of the presence of the exceptionally dangerous Bacillus botulinus 
 (page 359) in the meat either microscopically or bacteriologically. 
 The judging in such cases has to depend principally upon the objective 
 characteristics of the meat, and . the unfavorable conditions should 
 be considered always as decisive. 
 
 MICROPHYTIC CHANGES OF MEAT 
 
 Characteristics. Moulds. Mould formation on meat is usually 
 the result of keeping meat in damp, poorly ventilated rooms. Of the 
 known mould fungi, the penicillium, aspergillus, and mucor species 
 are especially apt to establish themselves on meat, the surface of which 
 they cover with their white, gray, or grayish-green tufts, which may 
 also proliferate into the slits, gaps, vessels, and cuts of the meat (Figs. 
 140, 141, and 142). 
 
 For the chemical changes in mouldy meat, see results of Butjagin's investiga- 
 tions which contain the desired information. 
 
 Phosphorescence. The phosphorescence of meat in the dark is the 
 result of an infection of its surface with phosphorescent bacteria. 
 The organism which comes principally into consideration in this con- 
 nection is Bacillus (photobaderium) phosphorescent, which, according 
 to Molisch, is the most widely distributed phosphorescent bacterium. 
 
 Matzuschita classifies the phosphorescent bacteria into two groups, one of 
 which liquefies gelatin, while the other leaves it unliquefied. To the first 
 belong four species of the Bacillus phosphorescens, the Bacillus luminosus, 
 
328 
 
 POSTMORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT 
 
 and the Bacillus cyaneophosphorescens; to the second, six additional species 
 of the Bacillus phosphor escens. 
 
 According to Sacksland the phosphorescent bacteria are very resistant to 
 extreme degrees of cold. 
 
 Red and Blue Colorations of Meat. A spotted reddening of the 
 surface of meat may be produced by an infection with various species 
 of the Bacillus prodigiosus. 
 
 This condition should not be confused with the diffused reddening of boiled 
 meat which has already been referred to on page 90, and which is produced 
 by the action of nitrites and sulphites. 
 
 Superficial blue coloration of meat is produced by the Bacillus 
 cyanogenus. 
 
 FIG. 141 
 
 FIG. 142 
 
 Aspergillus glaucus: C.conidia 
 chains; F, young eurotiumperi- 
 thecium; M, mycelium. X 300 
 diameters. 
 
 Penicillium glaucum: 
 C, conidise; M, myce- 
 lium. X 300 diam- 
 eters. 
 
 Mucor mucedo: C, burst sporan- 
 gium with conidise; G,- closed sporan- 
 gium; Z, germinating zygospore; B, 
 carrier of conidise with sporangium in 
 a schematic longitudinal section. X 
 300 diameters. 
 
 Diverse Changes of Meat. Besides the microorganisms already 
 described, many other varieties thrive on meat. Their development is 
 greatly favored by the suitable nutritive substance and by inadequate 
 storing of the meat. 
 
 At this point there come into consideration the aroma bacteria (Glage), 
 which belong to the ice bacteria, and which develop only on meat kept in cool 
 places. They produce, besides ammonia, a fruit-like odor. 
 
 Since the causes of some of the infectious diseases of man (typhoid, cholera, 
 scarlet fever, and others) thrive on meat, it should not be kept in the vicinity 
 of a place where any such contagion exists. 
 
 Judgment. In judging the changes of meat described in this section, 
 it should be remembered that they are principally of a superficial 
 nature, and do not otherwise affect the meat to a disadvantage. If, 
 
INSECT LARVAE ON MEAT 329 
 
 therefore, no decomposition (putrefaction, stinking fermentation) 
 accompany these conditions, mouldy or phosphorescent meat or meat 
 showing colored spots is, as a rule, neither injurious to health nor 
 spoiled; and after removal of the fungoid vegetation or washing with 
 vinegar, it should be passed for food. 
 
 A declaration of inferior quality should be made only if the described 
 changes are well marked. In the presence of moulds it should be 
 remembered that meat might assume a mouldy taste and odor, which 
 should be determined by the boiling test. 
 
 A highly spoiled condition, and with it an unfitness for food, occurs 
 in the presence of marked mouldy taste and odor. 
 
 The red coloration of sardines is supposed to be injurious to health. 
 
 [Meats showing changes described above are judged in the United 
 States on the same lines as in Germany; however, a declaration of 
 inferior quality does not enter into consideration, and in such cases 
 the extent of the changes decides whether the meat should be passed 
 for food or be condemned.] 
 
 INSECT LARVAE ON MEAT 
 
 During the summer season this condition may easily occur. The 
 flies deposit their eggs or living larvae on the meat, and the fly larvae 
 (maggots) develop rapidly, sometimes within twenty-four hours. 
 
 Species. The following species especially come into considera- 
 tion: 
 
 Calliphora wmitoria (blow fly, muck fly, bluebottle fly). Stubby, 
 cheeks black, red hairs, four black back shield stripes; rear of body 
 steel blue (Fig. 143). 
 
 Sarcophaga carnaria (meat fly). Slender; gray; rear of body 
 checkered; three black back stripes; eyes red. Prefer putrid meat, 
 and deposit living larvae (Fig. 144). 
 
 The length of the latter on the first day is 1 mm., and it increases in size 
 about 1 mm. daily. 
 
 Musca domestica (house fly) . 
 
 Stomoxys calcitrans (stinging fly). Gray, resembling the house 
 fly, with horizontal stinging proboscis on the head. Back shield with 
 three whitish stripes. Lays eggs only exceptionally on decomposed 
 meat otherwise prefers horse manure (Fig. 145). 
 
 Besides these flies there is the Aglossa pinguinalis (fat cockroach), which 
 lays its eggs on bacon, and later these eggs develop into the 16-footed glittering 
 brown caterpillar. This cockroach is reddish brown, has glittering wings, 
 the front ones of which are covered with spots resembling cross-bands, while 
 the hind wings have long fringes. 
 
 By keeping ham in bran or flour, it may become infested with the Tyro- 
 glyphus farince (flour mite) . 
 
330 
 
 POSTMORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT 
 
 Judgment. As the larvae of flies may occur on the surface of per- 
 fectly fresh meat, their presence is not sufficient to claim that it is 
 
 FIG. 143 
 
 Calliphora vomitoria. X 2 diameters. 
 
 spoiled or of inferior quality. This, however, could be asserted and 
 even total condemnation made if the maggots enter the meat. Besides, 
 
 FIG. 144 
 
 FIG. 145 
 
 Stomoxys lalcitrans. X 3 diameters. 
 
 Sarcophaga carnaria. X 2 diameters. 
 
 the consistence of the meat must also be taken into consideration in 
 this decision. 
 
 [Judgment in the United States is the same as in Germany.] 
 
 OTHER CHANGES 
 
 Soiling. In the soiling of meat during slaughter with urine, bile, 
 intestinal contents, pus, or ichor, it frequently happens that simple 
 washing of the meat is not sufficient for their removal, and in such 
 cases, especially in soiling with pus and ichor, the superficial layers of 
 the meat should be removed. 
 
 For contamination of meat with anthrax bacilli, see page 285, and for con- 
 tamination with pus-producing organisms, page 303. Decker's investigations 
 show the possibility of the transmission of tubercle bacilli to the meat by 
 contaminated tools of butchers. 
 
SOURING AND RANCIDITY OF FATS 331 
 
 Absorptions of Odors. Absorption of odors may occur through 
 unsuitable storage of meat. Odors from the following substances 
 are especially readily absorbed and retained: Carbolic acid, chlorine, 
 turpentine, tar vapors, tobacco, and carrion. The corresponding odor 
 and taste appear, as a rule, only after the meat is prepared; therefore, 
 a boiling test should be made in all suspected cases. 
 
 Sulphurous acid, according to Kickton, may occur in meat if it is kept in 
 sulphurated rooms. 
 
 Carbolic acid can be demonstrated in meat by bromide water, which forms 
 with a watery carbolic solution a yellowish-white precipitation of tribromide 
 of phenol (Glage). 
 
 Metallic Poisons. Metallic poisons may be transmitted to meat 
 through unsuitably prepared storage containers (tin boxes, lead solder), 
 or by machines for working up meat. 
 
 Judgment. Judgment in these cases is in accordance with the cause. 
 
 Changes in Color. Peculiar changes in color, the nature of which is yet to 
 be determined, occasionally appear on boiling apparently normal udders of 
 cows. The entire substance of the udder, after boiling is completed, appears 
 of a bluish, dark blackish blue, or an ink-like color. 
 
 These changes are observed only after a certain time following slaughter, 
 in the working up or during the culinary preparation of the tissue, and they 
 are supposed to occur only in udders of older cows during lactation. Such 
 changes cannot be determined even after thorough examination of the organ 
 in an unprepared condition. 
 
 While no injurious results to health, so far as known, have been observed 
 from their ingestion, yet such changed udders should be condemned. 
 
 SOURING AND RANCIDITY OF FATS 
 
 Fatty acids in large quantities develop in fats and in meats rich in 
 fat when unsuitably stored, and they produce a souring of the product. 
 The causes for this lie principally in the influence of light and oxygen, 
 which split the fatty acids and oxy-fatty acids from the fats, and 
 possibly also from the action of fat-splitting microorganisms. 
 
 Souring is usually accompanied by the development of rancidity, 
 but the degree of souring is not in proportion to the acidity of the 
 fat. The rancid odor and taste of fats are in connection with the 
 formation of aldehydes and ketones, which originate from the glycerin. 
 The formation of alcohol from lactose probably plays a part in this 
 also. 
 
 Rancid odor may also be produced without any marked changes in the meat 
 through infection with the Bacillus botulinus. However, in those cases souring 
 of meat is absent, as the Bacillus botulinus grows only on alkaline soil. 
 
 Souring and rancidity in meat containing fat are recognized by the 
 characteristic changes in odor and taste, both of which may be desig- 
 nated as stinking and repulsive. The degree of acidity, i. e., the quantity 
 of acid in fat, and its rancidity should be established by the chemist. 
 
332 POSTMORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT 
 
 Judgment. Rancid meat products should be declared of inferior 
 quality, as rancidity does not demand the total condemnation of the 
 meat. No injurious effect to health from the ingestion of rancid meat 
 has as yet been proved, and this also applies to free fatty acids. 
 
 If Bacillus botulinus is the cause of the rancid changes, then the 
 meat is always injurious to health (page 357). 
 
 [There is no standard adopted in the United States by which the 
 rancidity of meat and fat is judged. The condition, taste, and odor 
 are the guides by which the disposal is made. 
 
 Fats are looked upon with suspicion if they contain over 1J per 
 cent, of acidity, and when in such cases there is also a marked rancid 
 taste and odor, they are considered as unfit for food.] 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 EXAMINATION AND JUDGMENT OF PREPARED AND 
 
 PRESERVED MEATS, CHICKENS, GAME, FISH, 
 
 AMPHIBIA, AND CRUSTACEANS 
 
 PRESERVED AND PREPARED MEAT 
 
 THE properties of the preserved meat to be discussed in this section, 
 as well as the manner of obtaining it, have been amply discussed in 
 Chapters I and III. For examination and judgment of such meat 
 in general, all the principles apply which have already been described in 
 the previous chapters. Therefore, only those essential characteristics 
 will be mentioned in the following discussion, which are of special signifi- 
 cance for the kind of meat belonging here. 
 
 Ground Meat, Sausages, and Meats Prepared by Culinary Methods. 
 The composition and ingredients of ground meat and sausage, also 
 of culinary prepared meat preparations when they consist of small 
 pieces, are difficult to determine. 
 
 The addition of starch flour may be quite easily established by 
 treatment with tincture of iodine or Lugol's solution. It is best to 
 boil a small piece of the sausage, etc., in water, and then to the cooled 
 decoction add Lugol's solution. Smearing the cut surface of sausage 
 with iodine solution also discloses the blue coloration developing from 
 the presence of starch flour; but in these cases the occurrence of single 
 blue dots (starch from spices) should not be considered as intentional 
 addition of starch. As is well known, the starch granules can also be 
 easily recognized microscopically. The quantitative determination of 
 the addition of starch should be entrusted to professional chemists. 
 
 Testing for mixtures of egg albumen and gum tragacanth ("albu- 
 mina") (page 88) should also be left for the chemist. 
 
 For the tests for horse meat, see pages 77 and 81. 
 
 Trichina and measles are the principal parasites which should be 
 given consideration. While microscopic examination of what are 
 presumably pieces of pork might disclose the presence of trichina, 
 such an examination will always remain incomplete for easily under- 
 stood reasons, taking into consideration the comminuted masses of 
 meat. This also should be considered in delivering an opinion. The 
 examination for measles is very circumstantial and uncertain. 
 
 In the matter of coloring materials, a striking red color of the ground 
 (chopped) meat indicates mixture with sulphurous acid salts. When 
 a superficial red coloration of boiled or roasted meat is present, the 
 
334 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 nitrate action on the muscle-coloring matter mentioned on page 90, 
 should be remembered. 
 
 Coloring of sausages with artificial materials (page 88) is suspected 
 when the fat pieces present show a red coloration on their peripheries. 
 
 Demonstration of Artificial Coloring. For the demonstration of artificial 
 coloring matter, the following method will be found satisfactory: 
 
 Two lots of ground meat, each containing 20 grams, are heated for 
 one-half hour in a water bath, with occasional shaking the first 
 
 (a) With 40 c.c. of a slightly acidified mixture of equal parts of 
 glycerin and water the second 
 
 (6) With 40 c.c. of a 4 per cent, aqueous solution of sodium salicylate; 
 then it is pressed and filtered. If one or both filtrates show a red color 
 it is evident that artificial colorings are present. The presence of 
 carmine in the filtrate (a) is indicated by the appearance of a red 
 stained deposit on the bottom of the vessel, a few hours after an over- 
 saturation with an ammoniac solution and addition of alum solution 
 after a few hours. For the demonstration of coal-tar dyes a thread 
 of raw cotton is boiled with a part of the stained extract and with 
 10 c.c. of a 10 per cent, potassium sulphate solution for a considerable 
 time. In the presence of coal-tar coloring the thread turns red and 
 retains that color, even after washing in water. 
 
 Examination for Spoiling and Decomposition. Examinations for 
 spoiled conditions and decompositions should be made according to the 
 instruction given on page 325. Spoiled sausages usually have a smeary 
 appearance, and show a cyst formation under the covering, which is 
 brittle and separates readily from the sausage filling. Blood sausage, 
 after it is spoiled, shows on its cut surface a pale red color; the odor 
 is sour, and the fat areas appear yellowish green. The cut surfac of 
 liver sausage reddens after being spoiled, and very soon emits a sour 
 odor. Jelly sausages turn soft, friable, smeary, sour, and stinking. 
 Meat sausages appear, according to their water contents, of a uniform 
 gray, grayish-green, or reddish-yellow color, with a discoloration of 
 the fat. 
 
 All sausages which are rich in carbohydrates putrefy under certain 
 conditions very rapidly and strongly. Furthermore, all other mani- 
 festations of putrefaction, taste, mould formation, etc., should be 
 considered. 
 
 Shilling undertook investigations in regard to the contents of dirt in sausage 
 coverings by examining fresh intestines which had been cleaned in the usual 
 way. He found that each meter of hogs' small intestines weighing 2.16 grams 
 contained 0.330 gram dry substance; hogs' large intestines weighing 4.98 grams 
 contained 0.530 gram dry substance; cattle small intestines weighing 2.47 grams 
 contained 0.275 gram dry substance; cattle large intestines weighing 5 grams 
 contained 0.666 gram dry substance. 
 
 The considerable amount of dirt in the large intestines is caused by the 
 number of deep folds. 
 
 Meat sausages, the filling in which has a gray border, or which has 
 entirely turned gray (page 88), should not be considered as spoiled 
 
PRESERVED AND PREPARED MEAT 335 
 
 without further thought, but they should be examined for characteristic 
 signs of fermentation and putrefaction. 
 
 Rancidity (page 331) should be determined by the sharp, harsh, and 
 consequently disagreeable taste. The exact test for rancidity should 
 be made by a chemist, who should also establish the degree of acidity. 
 
 Judgment. The judging of deviations mentioned here is made accord- 
 ing to previously developed principles with regard to the spoiled con- 
 dition and the presence of parasites. 
 
 In regard to the admissibility of starch flour in making sausages, 
 and the addition of so-called albumina, see pages 87 and 88. 
 
 Von Raumer demands punishment for adulteration when binding substances 
 are used. Sausage prepared with 1 per cent, of binding substance contained 
 53.075 per cent, water; with 4 per cent, of binding substance, it contained 
 58.08 per cent, of water, compared with 43.33 per cent, of water in sausage 
 without binding substances. 
 
 The coloring of sausage filling, but not of casings, is prohibited 
 throughout the German Empire. This applies also to the use of sul- 
 phurous salts and borates. If colored meat products, etc., containing 
 these substances are offered for sale they should be confiscated. 
 
 [In accordance with the regulations governing meat inspection in 
 the United States only such coloring matters as are designated by the 
 Secretary of Agriculture as harmless may be used, and these only in such 
 a manner as the Secretary of Agriculture may designate. 
 
 The use of chemical preservatives with the exception of salt and 
 saltpeter, as well as the addition of potato flour in sausage filling, 
 is prohibited, while cereals and water may be only used in moderate 
 quantities.] 
 
 In regard to the consistence of sausage filling, the methods char- 
 acteristic to the various localities and described on pages 86 to 89, 
 are decisive. The working up into sausages of testicles, uteri, fetuses, 
 and cattle skins is to be judged as an adulteration. 
 
 Meat Preserved by Physical Methods. In canned meats (page 
 93) examination should at first determine whether they are spoiled. 
 Spoiling may be regarded as established when the contents of the 
 container can be shaken. Bulging of the otherwise concave bottoms 
 of the cans also indicates accumulation of gases within the can, as a 
 result of putrefaction. If gases have been present, but have been 
 removed, double soldering places will be found on the bottom of the 
 can, and also a movableness of the contents. 
 
 If a can with shakable contents has been exposed to heat, it should be 
 allowed to cool, as the jelly in the cans liquefies at 26 C. 
 
 According to Pfuhl and Wintzen, the cause of bulging in canned meats may 
 be also due to an insufficient soldering of the containers. The formation of 
 hydrogen and the separation of ferrous phosphate are in direct relation to 
 each other, and are traceable to the action of the organic acid contained in the 
 bouillon on the iron of the walls of the container, and to the following secondary 
 processes: 
 
336 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 As soon as decomposition sets in it is found on opening the can that 
 the jelly is liquefied, of a disagreeable odor, and that corresponding 
 changes have occurred in the pieces of meat. But even without decom- 
 position, the liquefying of canned jelly is a suspicious sign and makes 
 a more careful examination necessary (bacteriologic, boiling test, etc.). 
 It should also be examined for adulterations, prohibited additions of 
 chemicals, and a content of inferior quality in the cans (gelatinous 
 admixtures). 
 
 When the presence of lead salts is suspected in canned material as a result 
 of a considerable content of lead in the pewter used for soldering, chemical 
 examination is required. 
 
 The examination of frozen meat, to be done accurately, should be 
 undertaken only after thawing it out in the usual way (page 158). 
 Such meat appears softer and more moist; also the red blood corpuscles 
 on microscopic examination can be distinguished from those of meat 
 not frozen, since they are discolored, deformed and swim in a greenish 
 serum. 
 
 This serum contains the hemoglobin in the form of irregular yellowish- 
 brown crystals. 
 
 Judgment. The judging of frozen meat, and also of canned meat, 
 is carried out in accordance with the general principles. In spoiled 
 canned meats there is always a suspicion of harmfulness to health, 
 and for this reason they should be declared as unfit for consumption 
 (see Meat Poisonings, Chapter XI). Adulterations, to which also 
 should be added the gelatin containing admixtures, render the canned 
 products of inferior quality. 
 
 [In accordance with B. A. I. Regulations the contents of defective 
 or leaking cans should be condemned unless the repairing or repacking 
 is done within six hours of the time of original sterilization. If the con- 
 tents show a spoiled condition they should always be condemned.] 
 
 Meat Preserved with Chemical Substances. Pickled Meat. In 
 regard to the occurrence of decomposition in pickled meat, attention 
 should be directed to the consistence and the surface of the meat, 
 especially near the bones, as well as to the condition of the brine. 
 Nothing further need be said here in reference to the examination 
 for measles, trichina, and other diseased changes. 
 
 The iridescence of cooked, pickled, or smoked meat on the cut sur- 
 faces is the result of deficiency in muscular coloring matter (Legge), 
 and is otherwise unimportant. 
 
 Test for Salt. For testing of common salt in the deeper portions of 
 the meat, dotting the cut surface with 10 per cent, solution of nitrate 
 of silver serves satisfactorily and causes a thick white precipitation 
 to form. A better test for determination of thorough pickling is Glage's 
 method, which is described as follows: 
 
 (a) Preparing the reagent; 100 c.c. of a 2 per cent, nitrate of silver 
 solution is shaken with 23 c.c. of normal ammonium hydrate. Then 
 
PRESERVED AND PREPARED MEAT 337 
 
 more of the latter reagent is added, drop by drop, until the precipitate 
 which develops has disappeared and the solution is as clear as water. 
 An excess of 40 c.c. of normal ammonium hydrate is then added and 
 the solution is diluted to 200 c.c. by the addition of distilled water. 
 This solution should be kept in yellow bottles, each containing 20 c.c. 
 
 (6) Method of performing the test: From the centre of the meat 
 a piece the size of a hazelnut is taken and placed in a test-tube with 
 20 c.c. of the solution and thoroughly shaken several times. If a 
 white precipitate develops, which in daylight rapidly turns black, it 
 is an indication that the meat is salted through; otherwise it is fresh. 
 
 Test for Saltpeter. For determining the presence of saltpeter in 
 pickled meat the brucin reaction is the best. According to Simon, 
 the presence of saltpeter can be determined in a dilution of 1 to 100,000 
 by this method. 
 
 Several small cut pieces of meat are soaked out in the reagent glass, with 
 a few cubic centimeters of water. One or two drops of this solution are placed, 
 by means of a glass rod, into a white porcelain dish, to which 2 drops of a brucin 
 solution is added (brucin is shaken with aqua destillata, so that only a small 
 quantity of brucin remains undissolved) . To this are added 5 to 10 drops of 
 concentrated sulphuric acid, which must be free from nitric acid. The solu- 
 tions are then allowed to flow together. A pink coloration will develop in the 
 test solution, the intensity of which depends on the quantity of saltpeter present. 
 
 Test for Boracic Acid. If the presence of boracic acid is suspected, 
 the following test will prove satisfactory for the demonstration of the 
 acid and its salts: 
 
 Thirty grams of ground meat are well mixed with 5 c.c. of a saturated 
 sodium carbonate solution, dried and ashed in a platinum dish. The 
 ash thus obtained is dissolved in a small quantity of sulphuric acid, 
 and with the latter a strip of carcuma paper is moistened, which is 
 then dried on a watch-glass at 100 C. If in this process the carcuma 
 paper shows a red coloration on the moistened part, which changes 
 into a blue by an addition of a drop of a sodium carbonate solution, 
 the presence of boracic acid is proved. 1 The remaining portion of the 
 ash solution is made alkaline and evaporated. The residue is then 
 slightly acidified with hydrochloric acid, the solution is placed in a 
 Woulfe's flask, mixed with methyl alcohol, and hydrogen passed through 
 the solution. The hydrogen, when ignited, in the presence of boracic 
 acid, burns with a green-bordered flame. 
 
 Test for Sulphuric Acid. If the meat is treated with the salts 
 of sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, or their salts, their presence may 
 be best determined by Kaemerer's method, which is best adapted 
 according to Edelmann, Meyer, and Strauss for a quick qualitative 
 test of sulphurous acid and hyposulphites in meat. It is as follows: 
 
 The sample to be examined (fine-cut meat) is placed on iodide of potassium 
 starch paper, which is prepared with iodide of potassium. The meat is moistened 
 
 1 If this test is carefully executed with reliable carcuma paper it is decisive, and the test by other 
 methods may be omitted. 
 
 22 
 
338 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 with dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 8), and in the presence of dinatrium sulphite 
 or sulphurous acid a deep brown ring develops around the meat sample, as 
 a result of the formation of iodide of starch. 
 
 Test for Salicylic Acid. While salicylic acid is not employed in the 
 preservation of canned meat, it is used occasionally, however, for the 
 preservation of fresh meat. The test is made as follows: 
 
 Fifty grams of ground meat are macerated in 200 c.c. of a 1 per 
 cent, sodium carbonate solution; then it is heated to boiling point, 
 acidified with hydrochloric acid, and after adding 5 grams of sodium 
 chloride it is squeezed and filtered. The filtrate is then mixed with 
 a sodium carbonate solution until a slight alkaline reaction is obtained. 
 It is then evaporated to 30 c.c., and if necessary it is again filtered. 
 The liquid is acidified with sulphuric acid and mixed with an iron 
 chloride solution. A violet coloration indicates the presence of salicylic 
 acid. 
 
 Test for Formaldehyde. Although formaldehyde is not adapted for 
 the preservation of meat on account of its disagreeable odor and taste, 
 the method for its determination should be indicated. 
 
 Thirty grams of ground meat are placed in a flask with a capacity 
 of about 500 c.c., to which is added a mixture of 200 c.c. of water and 
 10 c.c. of an aqueous 25 per cent, solution of phosphoric acid. After 
 one-half hour's standing 40 c.c. of this quantity is distilled and 10 c.c. 
 of the distillate is mixed with 1 c.c. of a fuchsin solution, which has 
 been discolorized by sulphuric acid. The presence of formaldehyde 
 causes a red coloration. If the latter does not appear it does not necessi- 
 tate a further examination. In case of a positive reaction of the test 
 described above, the remaining portion of the distillate is mixed with 
 an excess of ammonium hydrate solution, and is then evaporated. 
 In the presence of formaldehyde characteristic crystals of hexamethyl- 
 tetramin will remain. These are dissolved in a few drops of water. 
 One drop of the solution is placed on each of two object glasses and 
 tested with both of the following reagents : 
 
 1. With mercuric chloride in excess, a crystalline precipitate develops 
 immediately; soon stars may be observed of three or more rays and later 
 octahedra. The latter develop in large quantities in a concentration 
 of 1 to 10,000, but also very distinctly in 1 to 100,000. 
 
 2. With mercuric potassium iodide and a small quantity of diluted 
 hydrochloric acid, hexagonal, pale yellow stars develop; they appear 
 very distinct even in a concentration of 1 to 10,000. 
 
 The presence of formaldehyde can only be established as proved 
 when the obtained crystalline residue shows the two reactions described 
 above. 
 
 Tyrpsin deposits may form on barreled livers, which are preserved in brine 
 (Groning). The surface of such livers, and the intima of the vessels of the 
 liver, are covered with small roundish, millet-sized granules, which show a 
 yellowish centre, surrounded by a narrow, whitish-gray zone. On section, such 
 a liver appears mottled and sprinkled with white dots. Microscopically, under 
 large magnification and after clearing with glycerin, fine, light needles lying 
 
PRESERVED AND PREPARED MEAT 339 
 
 clfe^vY/ together in bundles may be seen radiating from the opaque, yellowish 
 granules toward the periphery. A yellowish-green solution of the granules in 
 nitric acid turns red on heating. 
 
 Smoked Products. In the examination of smoked products for 
 spoiled conditions the parts lying around the bones should be especially 
 observed, as well as the larger connective-tissue tracts and the con- 
 sistence of the skin, if such is present. Since meat is more apt to 
 decompose along the bones, it is a custom to introduce thin wooden 
 sticks into hams in order to be convinced by the odor test of the good 
 or spoiled condition of the respective meat layers. 
 
 [In the United States, the so-called "tester" a sharp-pointed steel 
 rod with a handle, is introduced toward the ham bone.] 
 
 As a result of gas formation within the ham during pickling, small 
 vacuoles may develop in the muscles (caro porosa). 
 
 In regard to the iridescence of smoked meat on the cut surface (salmon 
 ham), see page 336. 
 
 Judgment. No special features are offered in the judgment of 
 meat products belonging to this section. As the use of boracic acid, 
 sulphurous acid salts, and formaldehyde is prohibited in the German 
 Empire, all meat found on the market to be treated with these sub- 
 stances should be confiscated as unfit for consumption. For police or 
 penal prosecutions of such offenders, the preliminary tests mentioned 
 should be supplemented by exact chemical examinations. 
 
 The iridescence and vacuole formations in meat are of no importance 
 when other processes of decomposition can be excluded. 
 
 [The use of the above-mentioned preservatives is prohibited in the 
 United States.] 
 
 Various Conserve Preparations. Meat Extract (pages 57 and 105). Decom- 
 position and mould formation, which are easily recognizable, spoil meat extract 
 and render it unfit for food. 
 
 Wilhelmy made investigations regarding the bacterial flora of meat extracts. 
 The number of organisms, which principally occur as spores, is not very large. 
 
 Adulterations are only recognizable by a careful chemical examination. 
 
 The presence of horse meat may be suspected when the extract is of a thick, 
 slimy consistence, has a fatty taste, and does not dissolve clearly in water. Broth 
 made from such extract forms films on the surface like cream on milk, which 
 repeatedly reappear after removal. 
 
 Lard and Cooking Tallow. The principal adulterations are mentioned on page 
 106. Their detection, as well as the determination of the degree of acidity 
 and rancidity (page 331), is only possible by technical examination. 
 
 For control of the fat trade, the Zeiss-Wollny refractometer is best adapted 
 for ascertaining suspicious kinds and grades. This is also used for the examina- 
 tion of fat imported from foreign countries. 
 
 For examination of fats which are not fluid at ordinary temperatures, the 
 apparatus must be brought to a corresponding high temperature and maintained 
 there. This is accomplished through a warm- water heating arrangement. The 
 filtered liquid fat is placed at the one-half of the prism case B, and the prism 
 from B is pressed against that of A. Then, through the ocular the micrometer 
 scale is observed on the inside of the tube, and the refraction thus observed 
 is compared with the temperature as well as with the permissible value limits 
 on a scaled table. Recently the apparatus has been improved by Wollny 
 
340 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 by a so-called indicator thermometer, the scale of which does not contaiiinjhe 
 temperature degrees, but it indicates the permitted value limits for butter and 
 
 lard, so that by comparing the micrometer 
 F IG . 146 value and the thermometer degrees it is at 
 
 once disclosed whether the sample is suspi- 
 cious. 
 
 If the examination with the refractometer in- 
 dicates a conspicuous high negative ( ) value, 
 or a higher positive value (-}-) of more than 
 1.3 (+ 1.3) the fat should then be examined 
 for an adulteration. 
 
 In various tallows beef, mutton, and goat 
 tallow which appear on the market in a raw 
 or rendered state only the preserved condition 
 comes under consideration. 
 
 Tallow with an abnormal odor, and that 
 which is changed in color, should be utilized 
 only for technical purposes. 
 
 Refractometer by Zeiss-Wollny in 
 Jena: A, fixed half of the prism case; 
 B, movable half; C, joint; D, nozzle 
 for the attachment of a rubber tube for 
 conducting warm water; E, nozzle for 
 the attachment of a rubber tube for 
 drawing off the warm water; F, closing 
 pin for the prism case; G, opening for 
 adjustment of the scale; H, supporter 
 for B; J, mirror. 
 
 Examination of Fats. In the examina- 
 tion of fats the following principles should 
 be observed: 
 
 1. In the presence of moulds, fungi, or 
 colonies of bacteria, it should be deter- 
 mined whether these represent: (a) an 
 insignificant localized pollution from the 
 outside, for instance, as a result of slight 
 
 defects in the packing; (6) a significant outside covering of the fat; 
 
 or (c) proliferations in the inside of the fat. 
 
 2. In the judgment of the color, care should be taken to see whether 
 the fat manifests a color which is not characteristic for that particular 
 kind of fat, or whether it shows any perceptible foreign ingredient. 
 
 3. In the test for odor it should be examined for a rancid, tallowish, 
 oily, sour, musty, mouldy, as well as for a putrid repulsive odor. 
 
 4. In testing for the taste, it should be established whether there 
 is a bitter or a repulsive taste. Care should also be taken to detect 
 foreign ingredients by the taste. 
 
 5. If a musty odor or taste is established the fat should be examined 
 to learn if this originates from insignificant outside pollution of the 
 fat or of the package. 
 
 Of the chemical examinations of fats it is deemed advisable to describe 
 only the tests for foreign colorings and for adulteration with cotton- 
 seed oil. 
 
 Test for Foreign Coloring Matter. The presence of foreign coloring 
 matter in fat is established by dissolving the melted fat in about double 
 the quantity of absolute alcohol. In artificially colored fats the cooled 
 alcoholic solution shows a pronounced yellow or reddish-yellow colora- 
 tion. 
 
 For the demonstration of certain coal-tar dyes, 2 to 3 grams of fat 
 are dissolved in 5 c.c. of ether, and the solution is thoroughly shaken 
 in a test-tube with 5 c.c. of hydrochloric acid, which has a specific 
 
PRESERVED AND PREPARED MEAT 341 
 
 gravity of 1125. In the presence of certain azo coloring matters the 
 layer of hydrochloric acid which sinks to the bottom shows a distinct 
 red coloration. 
 
 Test for Cottonseed Oil. In a corked flask, which is provided with 
 an upright tube, 5 c.c. of fat are mixed with an equal quantity of amyl 
 alcohol and 5 c.c. of a 1 per cent, solution of sulphur in carbon bisulphide, 
 and heated for fifteen minutes in a boiling- water bath. If a coloration 
 does not appear, 5 c.c. more of the sulphur solution are added and 
 it is again heated for one-quarter of an hour. A distinct red coloration 
 of the solution is produced by the presence of cottonseed oil. 
 
 If this test indicates that the fat is adulterated with vegetable oils 
 a test should be made for phytosterin. 
 
 Test for Phytosterin. The test for the demonstration of phytosterin 
 should be carried out in the following way: 
 
 One hundred grams of the fat are melted in a water bath in a flask 
 of about 1 liter capacity, provided with a return condenser, and the 
 fat is then saponified over the boiling-water bath by adding 200 c.c. 
 of an alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution, which contains 200 grams 
 potassium hydroxide in 1 liter of alcohol (70 per cent.). After the 
 conclusion of the saponification, which requires about one-half hour, 
 the saponified solution is mixed with 600 c.c. of water, and after cooling 
 it is shaken out four times with ether in a separating funnel. For the 
 first shaking 800 c.c. of ether is used, while for the three following 
 400 c.c. of ether is used for each; the solution is then distilled and the 
 residue is again heated in a water bath for five to ten minutes with 
 10 c.c. of the alcoholic potassium hydroxide. The solution is then 
 mixed with 20 c.c. of water, and after cooling is shaken twice, using 
 200 c.c. of ether in each shaking. The ether solution is washed four 
 times with 10 c.c. of water, then is filtered through a dry filter and 
 the ether is distilled off. The residue is placed in a glass dish and dried 
 at 100 C. Then 2 to 3 c.c. of acetic acid anhydride is added, the 
 dish is covered with a watch-glass, and heated to boiling on a wire 
 net for about one-half minute. The excess of acetic acid anhydride 
 is then evaporated off on the water bath. The residue is crystalized 
 four to five times with 1 to 1.5 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and after the 
 third crystalization the melting point is determined for each crystaliza- 
 tion. If the last crystalization product melts only at 117 C. (corrected 
 melting point), or higher, the test for vegetable oil should be considered 
 established. 
 
 Caviar. The examination of caviar referred to on page 107, should be made 
 from the point of view of color, consistence, odor, taste, neutral reaction, size 
 of eggs, and foreign ingredients. 
 
 Adulterations are made with sago, oil, bouillon, white beer, and sometimes 
 are very difficult to recognize. 
 
 Acid and rancid conditions in suspicious cases should be chemically deter- 
 mined, as should also suspiciously high, plain salt contents. 
 
 Putrefactive decompositions are evident in the presence of ammonia and 
 hydrogen sulphide. 
 
342 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 Judgment. In all these preparations, all decompositions should be judged 
 in accordance with the degree; and if such be present in caviar, it is to be con- 
 sidered injurious to health. A marked acid and rancid state renders fat and 
 caviar spoiled (inferior quality), and even unfit for food. 
 
 According to Niebel, the line between inferior quality and strongly rancid 
 caviar appears to be a 4.5 per cent, content of free fatty acid. 
 
 EXAMINATION AND JUDGING OF FOWLS, GAME, FISH, 
 AMPHIBIA, CRUSTACEANS, AND MOLLUSKS 
 
 The meat included under this section has already been discussed 
 in Chapters I and II, with reference to its origin and characteristics. 
 As the conditions to be observed in the examination and judgment 
 of such meat correspond in general with those which were established 
 for food animals in the narrow sense (page 146), only a few character- 
 istics need be given here. 
 
 Fowl. Domestic fowl should be examined in life, and also when 
 slaughtered, after plucking. The slaughter wound should be noted 
 in fowls which are brought to the market after being plucked. 
 
 The skin should not be discolored (bluish or bluish gray, faded or 
 shriveled), and should not disclose cadaver spots. 
 
 Light, poorly nourished geese are occasionally inflated, according to 
 Ostertag. 
 
 Age. In regard to the age, a distinction is made, as a rule, only 
 between young and old; that is, whether it is under one year old or 
 over. Niebel points out the following signs of age : 
 
 The domestic pigeon is considered young until the attainment of sexual 
 maturity; but most unfledged animals (five to six weeks) are usually sold as 
 young. In very young squabs the breast appears white. Very soon it changes 
 to a bluish red, until it finally becomes blue red. In very young pigeons the 
 entire breast bone is flexible; in young ones only the posterior end, while in 
 old pigeons it cannot be flexed at all. A young pigeon possesses long, yellowish 
 down, and the tail feathers appear stemmed; that is, the shaft of the same on the 
 lower end does not contain any feathers. An older, full-fledged pigeon has red- 
 colored feet and no down. According to Cornevin, the bill for the first six to 
 eight months is soft, later becoming hard. 
 
 In very young domestic fowl the back portion of the breast bone can be 
 easily bent outward; in young fowls it breaks easily, and in old fowls, only when 
 considerable force is applied. The breast bone keel bends sideways readily 
 in young animals; in old ones it remains stable. The ischium and the os pubis 
 can be pressed forward without breaking in young animals, while in old ones 
 the latter occurs with a cracking sound. An old cock has a spur over 1 cm. in 
 length, which in the young is correspondingly smaller. Occasionally spurs 
 may be also met with in hens. Older hens have hard spurs and rough scales 
 on the legs; the lower half of the bill cannot be bent at all with the fingers, as 
 is the case with young hens. 
 
 In young guinea fowls the feather flag of the o,utside quill feather is pointed; 
 in the old birds it is more or less rounded. 
 
 In turkeys the age is determined by the spur, and also by the appearance of 
 the first quill feather already described. This is also decisive in turkey hens, 
 in which the rectum of old animals is also surrounded by a red ring. In a 
 young domestic goose or domestic duck the trachea at the entrance of the thorax 
 can be easily indented; in the old it resists pressure. If a goose still possess 
 yellow down, it is then at the most but ten weeks old. 
 
EXAMINATION AND JUDGING OF FOWLS, GAME, FISH, ETC. 343 
 
 External Diseases. Of the external diseases of fowl may be mentioned 
 chickenpox (epithelioma contagiosum), which preferably occurs in chickens, 
 turkeys, and pigeons, on the combs, wattles, corners of the bill, and also on 
 the mucous membranes of the head and neck. According to Marx and Sticker, 
 it is produced by an ultramicroscopic filterable virus. 
 
 The comb scab (Tinea galli, chicken favus) and the leg scab (Dermatoryctes 
 mutans), which leads to the development of the so-called lime feet (scaly 
 feet), should be considered. 
 
 Internal Diseases. The numerous animal parasites occurring internally in 
 fowls are, as a rule, of no importance for the veterinary inspector, except in 
 severe infestations and cachectic conditions, thereby effecting changes in the 
 meat. The connective-tissue mite (Symplectoptes or Laminosioptes cysticola), 
 however, deserves special mention. It frequently produces dull white or yellow- 
 ish spots and nodules up to the size of 1 mm., often in very large numbers 
 in the subcutaneous and muscular connective tissue of chickens. The contents 
 of these formations are otherwise granular, fatty, or chalky. In severe infesta- 
 tions with this parasite the meat becomes unfit for human food; milder cases 
 make it a spoiled (deficient) food. The air-sac mite (Cystodites nudus) lives 
 in the neck, breast, and abdominal air sacs in chickens and pheasants, where 
 they may cause inflammatory changes and necrosis. In invasions of the lungs 
 and trachea, inflammation and dyspnea are observed. As a result of the presence 
 of numerous Davainea mutabilis in the intestines of chickens, cachectic con- 
 ditions may develop (Ruther). 
 
 Of the specific infectious diseases of fowl, the following come under 
 consideration : 
 
 CHICKEN CHOLERA. Chicken cholera is a septicemic affection which 
 occurs in all domestic fowl, and spreads rapidly in an epizootic form. 
 
 The cause is the Bacterium avicidum, which belongs to the group 
 of hemorrhagic septicemia bacilli (page 318). 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. In the living bird the symptoms are not 
 characteristic: Fever, dulness, difficulty in respiration, feathering 
 bristled, and livid coloring of the comb in chickens. 
 
 Occasionally also there is sudden death without showing pronounced 
 signs of illness. The anatomic findings consist principally in a hemor- 
 rhagic enteritis; hemorrhages under the serous membranes, epicardium, 
 on the heart and in the lungs; infarctions of the muscles which in 
 prolonged sickness may also degenerate. 
 
 The recognition of chicken cholera depends on the demonstration 
 of the bacteria, which may be found in the blood of larger veins. In 
 doubtful cases Kitt recommends the inoculation of blood into pigeons 
 with the aid of lance prickings of the chest muscles. In case of chicken 
 cholera, death occurs in twelve to forty-eight hours. Chickens slaugh- 
 tered in the last stage of the disease, which is indicated by the cadaver 
 spots on the inside of the legs and on the lower portion of the abdomen, 
 are, as a rule, not offered for sale. 
 
 Judgment. As there is no danger to human .health from eating 
 these fowl, the degree of the disease and the condition of the bird 
 decide whether it should be considered as highly spoiled and accordingly 
 condemned, or whether after previous boiling it should be admitted 
 for consumption. The latter precaution is necessary, from a veterinary 
 police standpoint, for preventing the spread of bacteria. 
 
344 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 CHICKEN PEST. Chicken pest is an acute contagious, infectious 
 disease, which almost exclusively occurs in chickens, very rarely in 
 pigeons and water fowl, and terminates fatally within two ' to four 
 days. The cause is an ultramicroscopic filterable virus. 
 
 Symptoms and Lesions. In the living animal there are noted dul- 
 ness, lethargy, dark red coloration of the comb and wattles, slimy 
 discharges from the opening of the mouth, and occasionally profuse 
 diarrhea. The anatomic findings in quickly terminating cases may 
 be limited to several punctiform hemorrhages on the pericardium, 
 breast bone, and peritoneum. Otherwise there is a collection of mucus 
 in the nasal and buccal cavities, pulmonary hyperemia, pericarditis, 
 hemorrhages on the mucous membranes and under the serous mem- 
 branes, intestinal catarrh, fibrinous exudate in the abdominal cavity, 
 salpingitis, cloudy swelling of the liver, edema on chest and neck. 
 
 For the recognition of chicken pest it is always advisable to inoculate 
 a pigeon and a chicken ; if chicken pest is present, death occurs in from 
 twelve to forty-eight hours. Besides, the absence of the causative 
 bacillus of chicken cholera and absence of a marked intestinal inflamma- 
 tion are decisive. 
 
 Judgment. The same principles should be applied as in chicken 
 cholera. 
 
 For chicken cholera and chicken pest compulsory notification was 
 established by proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor in 1903. 
 
 CHICKEN DIPHTHERIA. Chicken diphtheria is an infectious disease 
 of chickens and pigeons running an acute or chronic course, and which 
 is produced by the Bacillus diphtheria avium. 
 
 Lesions. Yellowish-white membranous deposits on the tongue, 
 palate, and buccal mucous membrane appear, and in advanced affec- 
 tions also croupous-diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous membranes 
 of the eye, the nose, the deeper air passages, and the intestinal canal. 
 In the latter cases it is generally accompanied by anemia, cloudy 
 swellings of the parenchyma, and hemorrhages on the heart. 
 
 Judgment. Although Piorkowski has recently declared chicken 
 diphtheria identical with human diphtheria, still there are no dele- 
 terious effects observed on human health from ingestion of the meat; 
 neither are there any observations recorded of transmission of the 
 disease from chicken to man. [In fact, the general opinion prevails 
 among scientists that there is no relation between diphtheria of chickens 
 and that of man; furthermore, Uhlenhuth and Ratz have recently 
 established the identity of chicken diphtheria with epithelioma con- 
 tagiosum.] Whether the meat should be considered spoiled, depends 
 on its objective changes. 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS OF FOWL. This should be judged for the present 
 in the same manner as in mammalia (page 273), although there is 
 no pathogenicity of the bacilli of fowl tuberculosis for man and for 
 certain other domestic animals. [Recent investigations, however, 
 have demonstrated the presence of the avian tubercle bacillus in 
 human beings, hogs, horses, and other mammals.] 
 
EXAMINATION AND JUDGING OF FOWLS, GAME, FISH, ETC. 345 
 
 FOWL ARTHRITIS. Finally there should be mentioned fowl arthritis 
 with changes of the joints, and calcareous incrustations in the skin, 
 kidneys, and serous membranes. For the test of uric acid deposits 
 the murexid reaction is applied as follows: The concrements are 
 mixed with a small quantity of nitric acid, evaporated by drying to 
 an onion-red mass, which, on the addition of a drop of ammonia, gives 
 a beautiful purple-red color. The meat of animals severely affected 
 with arthritis must be considered as spoiled food. Egg concrements 
 in the body cavity, which are occasionally observed in hens, are of 
 no importance. 
 
 The general judging of fowl meat does not deviate from the general 
 principles described for other flesh. 
 
 Postmortem Changes of Fowl Meat. Borchmann called attention 
 to the unfavorable influence on goose meat through long storing of un- 
 drawn geese in refrigerators and cold-storage houses (ice geese, Russian 
 geese). The objective deterioration of the appearance of such geese 
 consists in a whitish-yellow to a whitish-green discoloration of the 
 skin ("cadaver color"), which after thawing out becomes oily, yellow, 
 leather-like, and tightly attached. Besides, there may be present 
 hypostasis of the skin of the lower abdomen and rump. The muscles 
 of cold-storage geese are red-violet or deep dark red, and when roasted 
 appear dark brown to brownish black and tough. The fat of a cold- 
 storage goose is oily, does not stiffen, and deposits a gray, gritty sedi- 
 ment; its taste is rancid or musty. Due to these characteristics, cold- 
 storage geese are, under all conditions, of inferior quality, and besides 
 they may also be in a highly spoiled condition and consequently unfit 
 for consumption. 
 
 Bacon also pointed out the dangers of long storing of undrawn fowl 
 in cold-storage houses. 
 
 Game. The meat of game is characterized in general by its high blood con- 
 tent, which favors its decomposition when unsuitably kept, notwithstanding 
 the fact that the meat of game resists putrefaction for comparatively a long 
 time. 
 
 Although game should, as a rule, disclose shot wounds, nevertheless wild 
 fowl can be seen occasionally which were caught in traps or nets, and only 
 display traces of strangulation. The shot wounds which are produced post- 
 mortem have no bloody infiltrated borders. 
 
 Age. In reference to the age which sometimes comes into considera- 
 tion in haired game, principally in rabbits, deer, fallow deer, roe, and 
 boars, Niebel established the following fixed points: 
 
 In young rabbits the thorax can be easily pressed in; and in compressing 
 the posterior branches of the maxillae, the two middle incisors spread apart 
 as wide as the thickness of a finger. The hair of a young rabbit, especially on 
 the abdomen, is softer than that of an old animal. The aponeuroses of the lum- 
 bar region are, in the young rabbit, grayish white, thin, transparent; in the old, 
 yellowish white and not transparent. The ribs of young animals break easily; 
 those of the old do not. The pelvic symphysis is cartilaginous in young animals ; 
 in old rabbits it is ossified. The meat of old rabbits is dark red, while in young 
 rabbits it is pale and grayish red. 
 
346 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 In deer the question occasionally arises whether it is a calf or a full-grown 
 deer. According to Whering, an alleged deer which possesses less than six 
 molar teeth in each row, and accordingly is less than sixteen to eighteen months 
 old, must be considered a calf. Whering indicates the changes of teeth in the 
 roe, common stag, and fallow deer in the following exhibit : 
 
 The centre incisors appear after 
 The inside laterals appear after . 
 The outside laterals appear after 
 The corners appear after 
 The premolars appear after . 
 
 Roe. 
 
 6 to 8 months 
 10 to 11 months 
 
 12 months 
 
 13 months 
 14 to 15 months 
 
 Common stag. Fallow deer 
 
 10 months 
 13 months 
 15 months 
 22 months 
 24 months 
 
 15 months 
 
 17 months 
 20 months 
 
 18 months 
 30 months 
 
 The young of the wild boar have at three to four months, 3 pairs of temporary 
 incisors, 3 temporary molars in each row, and temporary tusks. When eight 
 to nine months, they have besides, one permanent molar in each row and the 
 tusks. A shoat of twenty months has 3 pairs of permanent incisors, the wolf 
 teeth, 5 permanent molars in each row, and the temporary tusks are replaced 
 by permanent ones. In boars and sows, two and one-half years old, the last 
 permanent molar is also present. 
 
 FIG. 147 
 
 FIG. 148 
 
 Pelvis of a doe with a front view of the os pubis 
 and a section through the symphysis. 
 
 Pelvis of a buck with a front view of the os pubis 
 and a section through the symphysis. 
 
 For wild fowl Niebel gives the following signs of age: 
 
 An old partridge is distinguished from a young one by its more strongly 
 developed structure, gray to grayish-blue legs, which in the young are more 
 yellow, and by yellowish-brown feathers on the head, which in the young are 
 gray. But after four months the young partridge also has yellowish-brown 
 head feathers, and therefore after that age only the outside quill feathers show 
 indications by which to decide, their ends being pointed in young partridges, 
 while in the old they are rounded. 
 
 In the mountain partridge the age is determined by the extreme outside 
 quill feather. 
 
 In the woodcock, heathcock, heathpout, and white grouse the extreme out- 
 side quill decides, together with the breast bone and spurs. 
 
EXAMINATION AND JUDGING OF FOWLS, GAME, FISH, ETC. 347 
 
 The spur of a young pheasant cock is short and stubby; that of an old bird 
 is 10 mm. long and 7 mm. wide; in a cock about ten months old the spur is 
 only 6 mm. long. 
 
 The breast bone is flexible in earliest youth; it can be broken in young birds; 
 in old ones, however, it is broken only with great difficulty. The feathers 
 until the second year are of a dark color tint, which remains permanently in the 
 hen, while in the cock at two years the variegated feathering and long tail 
 feathers develop. 
 
 In wild geese and ducks the firmness of the trachea is decisive. 
 
 In young bustards the end of the breast bone is flexible. In snipe, quail, 
 and others the age is of no importance. 
 
 Sex. The establishment of sex is occasionally of some importance in the 
 eviscerated deer. 
 
 When the sexual organs are removed and the cranial covering sawed off 
 the pelvis is decisive, as indicated by Whering and SchafT in the following: 
 The pelvis of the doe (Fig. 147) when viewed from above appears broader, 
 more spacious, less slender than the pelvis of the buck (Fig. 148); the distance 
 of the outside angles of the ileum from each other is as 50 to 40. On the pubic 
 symphysis the pelvis of the buck is thick and like a protuberance; that of the 
 doe is thin, flat in front, and slightly hollowed. It is emphasized by Whering 
 that the appearance of the symphysis can only be utilized with a degree of 
 certainty in older deer, as all the young individuals have a thickened protuberant 
 symphysis; accordingly, Malkmus recommends cutting out the halves of the 
 pelvic bones and boiling them. 
 
 The common stag and fallow deer show also similar sexual differences in 
 the pelvis. 
 
 In regard to the value of the meat of both sexes in haired and feathered 
 game, the meat of male animals is preferred in general on account of its stronger 
 taste of game. During estrum, venison is supposed to have a repulsive taste 
 similar to that of the male goat. 
 
 Diseases. The important diseases which occur in game have already 
 been mentioned in Chapter VIII. Anthrax, hemorrhagic septicemia, 
 and animal parasites, measles, trichina in wild boars, as well as the 
 so-called rabbit measles (Cysticercus pisiformis) should be especially 
 indicated. For measles of deer and reindeer, see pages 247 and 248. 
 Strongylides in the lungs and intestines of rabbits may produce severe 
 affections and may result in numerous fatalities. 
 
 Postmortem Changes. In the matter of postmortem changes (page 
 323), no concessions should be made by the sanitary police to the current 
 conception of "land flavor." In animals not eviscerated the intestinal 
 putrefaction soon passes over to the abdominal walls, and discolors 
 them green or bluish green. The appearance of the eyes is also an 
 indication of the freshness of game; if they are markedly sunken, it 
 is then quite certain the game was shot several days previously. 
 
 Regarding the judging of meat of game there is nothing to be added 
 to what has already been described regarding other flesh. 
 
 Fish. The killing of fish should be preceded by stunning with a 
 blow on the head. 
 
 Although in the water of moderate climates there occur no fish the 
 meat of which in itself would be poisonous, 1 yet it should be remembered 
 that the roe of perch and occasionally also that from pike, herring, 
 
 1 For further particulars see Robert on Poisonous Fish and Fish Poisons, Vortag, Stuttgart, 1905. 
 
348 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 carp, trench, and breem may contain during the spawning time, cholera- 
 like acting poisons (barbel cholera, signatera). 
 
 The raw meat and blood of the river eel and sea eel, as well as of the lamprey, 
 contain a toxalbumen (ichthyotoxicon) which is destroyed by cooking. In 
 the lamprey there may also appear a poison in the skin, which remains active 
 even when the fish are boiled to a soup. Some of the fish also possess poison 
 glands in the mouth and skin; in the latter class are included the so-called 
 " poison stingers" (dragon fish, sea scorpion). For distinguishing fresh fish 
 from stale and decomposed fish, the following fixed points are of service : 
 
 Condition. 
 
 Scales. 
 
 Eyes. 
 
 Gills. 
 
 Body in general 
 and meat. 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Glittering, free 
 
 Standing out 
 
 Gills, lids, and 
 
 Solid; placing 
 
 Sink in water. 
 
 
 of slime, firm- 
 
 
 mouth closed 
 
 fish horizon- 
 
 
 ly adherent 
 
 
 
 tally on the ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 hand, it does 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 not bend. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Meat firm, 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 elastic, tight 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 on bones 
 
 
 Not fresh, stale 
 
 More or less 
 
 Red bordered, 
 
 Lids open or 
 
 Body bends 
 
 Swim on the 
 
 for some time 
 
 easily remov- 
 able, slightly 
 
 sunken; cor- 
 nea cloudy 
 
 can be easily easily, espe- 
 opened; gills cially at the 
 
 water. 
 
 
 slimy or 
 
 
 pale, yellow, tail end; o^- 
 
 
 
 smeary 
 
 
 dirfy, or 
 
 casionally 
 
 
 
 
 
 grayish red, 
 
 bloating of 
 
 
 
 
 
 covered with 
 
 the abdomen, 
 
 
 
 
 
 the same kind 
 
 which may be 
 
 
 
 
 
 of fluid; odor bluish dis- 
 
 
 
 
 
 disagreeable 
 
 colored. Fin- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ger impres- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sions are 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 easily made, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and remain ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 meat is soft, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 can be easily \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 removed fro in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the bone 
 
 
 Putrefied 
 
 Very loose, 
 
 Breaking 
 
 Very off-col- 
 
 Withered, flab- 
 
 Swim on the 
 
 
 covered with 
 
 down; are 
 
 ored; ex- 
 
 by, soft, pale, water. 
 
 
 a smeary 
 s 1 i m e - 1 i k e 
 
 frequently 
 removed 
 
 tremely of- 
 fensive odor 
 
 bloated. The 
 meatissloppy 
 
 
 mass of dis- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 agreeable 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 odor 
 
 
 
 
 
 With the' possible exception of carp, the age of fish is not regarded. To 
 establish it a scale from the side should be cleaned in alcohol and held against 
 the light. If in the centre of this scale a light point is noticed, the carp is then 
 of one summer. In a two-summer carp, the central point is noticed, sur- 
 rounded by a ring; that of three summers has two rings, and so forth. 
 
 Deceptions in Commerce with Fish Meat. Occasionally a species of codfish 
 (Merluccius vulgaris) is used for sea salmon (Raebiger). According to Glage, 
 perch (Caraux vulgaris) should not be sold for genuine sprats. Gadus polla- 
 chius goes as Spanish salmon. The meat of the thorn hound (Acanthias vulgaris) 
 is often offered as sea eel, or sea salmon, as well as that of the common nose 
 fish (Chondrostoma nasus), a cheap fresh-water fish which is sold as mackerel, 
 according to Rehmet. 
 
 The substitutions of sprats for sardines or anchovies in box conserves is 
 determined, according to Henseval, by a spiny comb on the abdominal side 
 of the sprats, which is characteristic of these fish, and which can be perceived 
 by passing the finger over the body in the direction of the head. 
 
 Diseases of Fish. Of the diseases of fish, the following should be referred to: 
 
 (a) Nodular disease (morbus nodulosus, fishpox) commonly occurs in barbs, 
 carp, trench, perch, pike, and red eye. It is produced by myxosporidise (myxo- 
 
EXAMINATION AND JUDGING OF FOWLS, GAME, FISH, ETC. 349 
 
 bolus). The latter are located in the epithelia of the skin, muscles, gills, and 
 in the internal organs, and produce cyst-like tumors, swellings, and abscesses. 
 In the rump muscles of various species of salmon, cysts may appear the size 
 of hazelnuts produced by myxosporidise (Henneguya zschokkei) which displace 
 the muscle and become visible externally in the form of boils. The meat has 
 a yellowish color, becomes soft, jelly-like, and tastes bitter. 
 
 (6) Fish Measles. The plerocercoid of the bothriocephalus latus (broad 
 tapeworm of man) lives in the muscles and the various viscera of the pike, 
 turbot, perch, trout, grayling, salmon, and its varieties. In Germany these 
 measles occur principally in fish from the Baltic Sea, and from the East Prussian 
 Seas, but may be also observed in those from the Starnberger Sea. 
 
 These worm-like plerocercoid are 8 to 30 mm. long, not encapsulated, and 
 lie slightly curved with their grayish-white indistinctly annulated bodies. 
 They are easily found on the pyloric appendices of the turbot; they may also 
 occur in the caviar of pike. 
 
 FIG. 149 
 
 a b 
 
 Plerocercoid of Bothriocephalus latus, from the musculature of the pike: a, head extended: 
 
 b, head drawn in. 
 
 Cysts of 3.5 mm. long and 1.5 mm. broad, containing the larva of Tcenia 
 tetrarhynchus, were found in the meat of codfish and halibut, but they are harm- 
 less for man (Bergmann). 
 
 (c) The young form of the Ascaris copsularia, described by Leuckart as 
 Filaria piscium, lives as a 2 to 5 cm. long encapsulated round worm in the meat 
 of various salt-water fish, and especially of the Gadus callarias .(a species of 
 codfish). Cooking the meat facilitates their finding, as in the process the worms 
 turn red-brown in color. 
 
 (d) Muscle distomes of various kinds are not infrequent in fish. 
 
 (e) The young state of the Distomum felineum, which produces cancer-like 
 affections of the bile passages in the liver of man, is supposed to live, accord- 
 ing to Askanazy, in the red eye (Leuciscus rutilus); however, thus far only 
 the eggs of the parasite have been found in this fish. 
 
 (/) The various infectious diseases of fish can be left unconsidered, as the 
 fish with such affections spoil rapidly and are seldom placed on the market. 
 For details, see Hoier's Handbook of the Disedses of Fish, and Ostertag's Hand- 
 book of Meat Inspection. 
 
 According to Robert, the Bacillus piscicidus agilis (Sieber) produces a septi- 
 cemic affection in carp, which may also become injurious to man. 
 
 Judgment of Diseased Fish. Fish with bothriocephalis measles are injurious 
 to health. In all other diseases the meat is, as a rule, to be considered as highly 
 spoiled. 
 
 Postmortem changes in fish meat appear rapidly, and in putrid fish poisons 
 develop which act more intensely than the putrefactive toxins in meat of warm- 
 blooded animals. The fish poison, according to van Ermengem, is similar to 
 sausage poison, and appears to be strongest at the beginning of putrefaction. 
 
 Crustaceans, Mollusks, and Amphibians. Crabs and lobsters should only 
 be offered for sale alive, as they spoil quickly when boiled. Crabs boiled after 
 they have died have distended bodies, and the caudal fin is not rolled in. A 
 lobster which has been boiled shortly before death has the caudal end turned 
 
350 EXAMINATION OF PREPARED AND PRESERVED MEATS 
 
 toward the abdominal side, and can be readily moved up and down ("Wippen"), 
 If the lobster is boiled some time after death, the meat of the caudal portion 
 cannot be taken out intact; it crumbles between the fingers. 
 
 Of diseases there should be mentioned the " spotted disease" which produces 
 black spots on the shell, and is caused by Oidium astaci, and the crab plague, 
 found by Hofer to be produced by the Bacterium pestis astaci in the muscles, 
 is also pathogenic for fish. Mycosis astacina is accompanied by milky dis- 
 coloration of the under side and mortification of single limbs of crabs. 
 
 Canned lobster is always alkaline, even in an unobjectionable fresh state. 
 Adulterations occur with the Palimiurus vulgaris. As these shell crabs have 
 no claws, the canned products are often sold as "lobsters without claws." 
 
 Occasionally the inferior quality North Sea crab is boiled in fuchsin water 
 and sold as Baltic Sea crab. The coloring is then spotted, and the eggs under 
 the abdomen are bright red; by boiling crabs in alcohol the artificial coloring 
 matter may be extracted. Furthermore, the zoological signs should be con- 
 sidered. 
 
 Dead oysters show open shells, and at the beginning of decomposition a 
 black ring appears on their inner surface. They very soon develop a disagree- 
 able odor. According to Bardet, all oysters are diseased during summer. They 
 show a milky appearance, and their liver is greatly enlarged, gray and white. 
 To obtain a green color, oysters are placed in a copper acetate solution, whereby 
 they turn grass green but not dark green. If vinegar is poured over such oysters 
 an inserted iron needle will show a metallic copper luster, while with the addi- 
 tion of ammonia the oysters turn a dark blue (Springfield). 
 
 That oysters may be carriers of typhoid bacilli has been repeatedly established. 
 
 The common mussel (clams) is dead when the shells do not close after they 
 are taken out of the water. Certain mussels, especially those from stagnant 
 water, may contain poisons, the development and nature of which are still 
 obscure. Mytilotoxin occurs principally in the liver, and in man produces 
 the poisoning called mytilotoxism, which belongs to the ichthyotoxisrn group 
 of poisoning (page 357). Poisonous mussels are supposed to produce a sweetish, 
 nauseating, bouillon odor; they are also less pigmented, and their shells are 
 more easily broken and are broader than those which are not poisonous. The 
 liver is larger and more mellow. Water in which poisonous mussels are boiled 
 appears bluish; that of healthy mussels is light. The meat of poisonous mussels 
 is yellow, that of the non-poisonous is whitish. Placed in alcohol, poisonous 
 mussels color it a strong golden yellow; the non-poisonous scarcely make any 
 noticeable change. 
 
 According to Salkowski, if this solution is heated with a few drops of nitric 
 acid in a reagent glass, the poisonous solution turns a grayish green, while the 
 non-poisonous remains almost colorless. 
 
 In snails, turtles, and frogs' legs, special changes and injurious effects were 
 not observed. 
 
 Judgment. On account of the great danger which diseased, poisonous, or 
 decomposing crustaceans and shell fish produce to human health (mytilotoxism), 
 such food should be positively withheld from human consumption. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 MEAT POISONINGS 
 
 IN this chapter special diseases of animals are not treated, but only 
 the diseases of man which appear as a result of meat consumption, and 
 which on account of the symptomatic picture are designated poisonings. 
 
 While nothing could be added here regarding meat inspection proper, 
 these meat poisonings cannot be left undiscussed, as they are of great 
 importance to meat hygiene, and their etiological relations are noted 
 partly in important diseases of animals and partly in particular changes 
 of the meat. 
 
 Poisonings which are to be traced to consumption of meat can be 
 arranged, according to van Ermengem, into three groups with reference 
 to their etiology namely, meat poisoning as a result of microorganisms 
 which belong to the group of the Bacillus enteriiidis; meat poisoning 
 through the Bacterium coli and the proteus group; and meat poisoning, 
 or botulism, produced by the Bacillus botulinus. 
 
 MEAT POISONING AS A RESULT OF BACILLUS ENTERITIDIS 
 
 The nature of meat poisonings which are produced by the group of 
 Bacillus enteritidis, consists either in an intoxication of the human 
 body "with chemical poisons (bacterial toxins, toxalbumens, toxigenic 
 substances), developed by the microorganisms in the animal body, 
 or else in an infection with the bacteria themselves; or finally in a 
 united action of toxic substances and the bacilli of infection. 
 
 In so-called paratyphoid meat poisoning there enters into consideration the 
 action of the metabolic products of bacteria which in themselves are not poison- 
 ous, but at the same time increase the action and aggressiveness of the bacilli. 
 
 The character of the diseases developed in this manner in man 
 varies extraordinarily. According to van Ermengem the symptoms 
 in general show an acute course and develop as an attack of cholerine, 
 cholera nostras, or an inflammatory gastro-enteritis (febris gastrica), 
 sometimes accompanied by muscular weakness or ataxy. The symp- 
 toms may, therefore, act delusively in a typhoid condition. Frequently, 
 however, they can be hardly distinguished from a gastro-intestinal 
 catarrh. 
 
 Convalescence is always slow: relapses and even fever of two months' 
 duration (Neter) may occur. Mortality hardly exceeds 2 to 5 per cent. 
 
 Without doubt the various forms of the disease are greatly influenced 
 by the nature and intensity of the poisons in consumed meat, by their 
 quantity, preparation, etc. 
 
352 MEAT POISONINGS 
 
 Since there is no uniform typical clinical picture in meat poisoning, 
 a diagnosis of poisoning by meat can only be established by connecting 
 a concrete affection with corresponding complex symptoms, with the 
 history of consumption of certain meat foods, and with the absence of 
 other kinds of disease-producing influences. That suspicion of meat 
 poisoning is justifiable if symptoms occur soon after the ingestion of 
 meat appears self-evident, but the time of incubation may also extend 
 over several days. 
 
 Etiology. Extensive statistics show that septic and pyemic affec- 
 tions and their various forms in food animals (page 297) are the principal 
 causes of meat poisoning proper. Since these affections frequently 
 induce emergency slaughter, it is not surprising that by far the greatest 
 number of meat-poisoning cases may be traced ultimately to emergency 
 slaughtered animals. 
 
 To what extent the bacteria of the enteritidis group play a part in 
 the development of septic and pyemic affections has not yet been 
 explained. The injurious properties in a diseased food animal may 
 be distributed throughout the entire meat or they may be confined 
 only to single parts of the viscera. In both instances the virulence of 
 the meat or viscera may be widely different, and accordingly the degree 
 of the poisoning may vary greatly. The virulence of the meat depends 
 on the severity and nature of the malady of the food animal at the 
 time of slaughter and the bleeding of the animal as well as on the 
 nature of the storage and preparation of the meat. 
 
 With reference to storage, it must be accepted that under certain 
 conditions of heat and dampness the postmortem poisonous properties 
 of meat are further increased by continuing the activities of the causal 
 agents of the infection. Thus, Basenau, Poels, and Dhont have proved 
 that species of bacteria closely related to the Bacillus enteritidis develop 
 luxuriantly in the muscular tissues, even at a low temperature (10 C.). 
 The preparation of the meat plays an important part. Experience has 
 shown that the consumption of raw meat, as a rule, produces more 
 severe disturbances than boiled and roasted preparations. In the 
 latter the exciters of infection which exist in the meat proper are to 
 a great extent destroyed, and thus the danger which threatens human 
 beings through the, multiplication of these causal factors is averted. 
 That the chemical poisonous substances (toxins of the Bacillus enteri- 
 tidis) which are present in the meat are not destroyed by culinary 
 boiling or roasting has been frequently established by experience 
 (see below), and this serves as a proof that the nature of a large number 
 of poisonings by meat is an intoxication. It is readily apparent that 
 these toxic substances may be weakened through the preparation 
 of the meat by soaking or through the formation of chemical com- 
 binations, which at the same time cause an attenuation of the poison 
 in the meat. It has been shown by careful observation that in certain 
 cases the meat broth contained pronounced toxic properties. 
 
 As individual organs, especially the liver and kidneys, were found 
 to be poisonous while the meat proper and the muscular structure 
 
MEAT POISONING AS A RESULT OF BACILLUS ENTERITIDIS 353 
 
 of the same animal proved to be harmless, it must be accepted that 
 these organs were either exclusively the seats of the toxic elements, 
 or that by virtue of their physical functions they absorbed larger 
 quantities of the poisonous 'substances. 
 
 Finally, the instances in which the meat became virulent only on 
 postmortem can be readily understood by the above-mentioned 
 observations of Basenau, Poels, and Dhont, as well as by the fact that 
 the Bacillus enteritidis is extensively distributed in putrefying organic 
 material and also in many carcasses (Gartner). 
 
 According to recent observations, cases of poisoning resulting from 
 the ingestion of fish meat and oysters (Netter, Herdmann, and Boyce, 
 Vivaldi and Rodella), as well as cases of so-called paratyphus of unknown 
 cause, belong within the sphere of action of the Bacillus enteritidis. 
 
 Etiology of the Toxicity of Meat. The bacteria of the group of Bacillus 
 enteritidis, which produce the poisonous qualities of the meat, possess, 
 according to van Ermengem, the following characteristics: 
 
 1. Short bacteria, very frequently of ovoid form (coccus bacilli) of 0.2 to 0.4 //, 
 usually arranged in pairs; sometimes they stain irregularly, especially in some- 
 what older gelatin cultures, as well as in peritoneal and pleuritic exudates, in 
 the liver, etc., so that they resemble the bacteria of hemorrhagic septicemia. 
 
 2. They do not stain by Gram's method. 
 
 3. They are quite motile, resembling the typhoid bacillus, and possess per- 
 ipherally arranged flagella, 4 to 8p long, but sometimes they are more than 10 
 to 12 n long. 
 
 4. The superficial colonies on gelatin are quite polymorphous; frequently 
 they are only slightly distinguished from those of the Bacillus coli, and while 
 they are in general more transparent, they are less lobate, and show usually 
 a transparent border. 
 
 5. They do not form indol, or at the most they produce it only in extremely 
 small quantities. 
 
 6. They do not coagulate milk, but after about ten days reduce its opaque- 
 ness somewhat. In fact, it renders the milk slightly transparent, and causes 
 it,- at the same time, to take up a yellowish color similar to coffee and milk 
 and become markedly alkaline. 
 
 7. They always ferment dextrose with abundant gas formation, and also 
 generally decompose the other kinds of sugars lactose, galactose, maltose, 
 cane sugar, etc. and even glycerin with gas formation, excepting certain 
 varieties of the organisms, as for instance those described by Fischer and 
 Durham, which do not affect lactose. 
 
 8. They cloud bouillon very quickly, and a membrane forms on the surface 
 which tears readily, but no distinguishing odor is communicated to the nutritive 
 media. 
 
 9. On potatoes the growth is frequently barely visible; in other cases it is 
 quite thick, dirty yellowish, or of a brownish development. 
 
 10. The quite luxuriant growth in Petruschki's litmus milk effects no change 
 in the color, nor is there an acid production. 
 
 1 1 . A more or less pronounced formation of fluorescence takes place in the 
 neutral-red agar of Rothberger with a 0.3 per cent, addition of dextrose, the 
 nutritive substance is discolored after eighteen to twenty-four hours, and gas 
 is produced. 
 
 12. On the nutritive media of Drigalski-Conradi, bluish colonies develop afte^r 
 sixteen to eighteen hours, which are somewhat larger and less transparent than 
 those of the typhoid bacilli. 
 
 These microorganisms are further distinguished from the more or less related 
 23 
 
354 MEAT POISONINGS 
 
 species with which they might at first be confused, as for instance with certain 
 varieties of the Bacillus coli, by their great virulence, and by their characteristic 
 production of toxins, which are resistant to high temperatures. These poisons 
 penetrate the nutritive media and may be demonstrated in the filtrate which 
 is free of the organisms. 
 
 The mode of infection by the Bacillus enteritidis and its passage into 
 food animals cannot be taken up here. It should be remembered, 
 however, that a pollution of the latter may occur through contact 
 with the bacilli without the presence of an infection in the animal 
 itself; the latter, however, does occur in rare instances. 
 
 The paratyphus bacilli need not be considered here. 
 
 That the Bacillus suipestifer, notwithstanding its relation to the paratyphus 
 bacilli and to the enteritidis group, does not belong to the meat-poisoning 
 bacteria, has been established by C. Joest. 
 
 De Nobele convinced himself that the muscle juice of animals infected 
 with microorganisms of the Bacillus enteritidis group possesses pronounced 
 agglutinative properties toward the latter. According to this investigation, 
 it would be sufficient to test the muscle plasma in quite strong concentrations 
 (1 to 10 to 1 to 20) with each of the representatives of the two groups of micro- 
 organisms which he established. As the expressed muscle juice of healthy 
 animals does not agglutinate the microorganisms in question even in a con- 
 centration of 1 to 1, a definite result could be obtained by this test within two 
 hours. It would be necessary to resort to the cultural method only in case the 
 agglutination gave negative results. It would be advantageous to keep the 
 meat to be examined for twenty-four hours after slaughter at a temperature 
 ot 18 to 20 C., and to make the culture inoculations only after that time. By 
 this procedure a marked increase of the microorganisms is obtained, which 
 are not numerous immediately after slaughter. On the other hand, through 
 this method the results of examination are unfortunately much longer delayed. 
 
 In scientific or forensic examinations regarding the poisonous qualities of 
 meat, the sero-diagnosis method possesses a great importance for the distinction 
 of the suspicious bacilli found thereby. 
 
 Also for the diagnosis of poisoning in men and animals by meat, the agglu- 
 tination test of the blood of affected individuals may be of value. 
 
 Occurrences of Poisonings. The first critical enumeration of cases 
 before 1880 is found in the work of Siedamgrotzky. The review of 
 similar poisonings by Bollinger in the same year gives an account 
 of 17 endemic poisonings by meat, which probably belonged principally 
 to the enteritidis group, affecting almost 2400 cases, with 35 deaths. 
 The statistics of Ostertag, taken up in his Handbook, increases the 
 number of poisonings by meat to 90 outbreaks, which he obtained 
 from the literature of the last twenty-three years. These 90 outbreaks 
 involve more than 4000 individual cases, of which the largest portion 
 falls to Germany. 
 
 For the recognition of poisonous qualities in meat, the examination 
 for bacteria could be carried out by Basenau's method (page 148); 
 however, such a bacteriologic examination could be used in practice 
 only in emergencies. 
 
 This would also be the case with the method of examination sug- 
 gested by De Nobele. Stress should be laid on the prevention of 
 
MEAT POISONING WITH BACILLUS COLI 355 
 
 poisonings by meat through a conscientious examination of food animals 
 before and after slaughter by the veterinary inspector. As has been 
 already emphasized, the postmortem examination should be especially 
 carried out with the greatest care and conscientiousness in emergency 
 slaughter, and should be executed with the application of all technical 
 methods available (page 146). 
 
 Although there will be certain doubtful cases for the practised 
 expert in which the rendering of a decision will not be easy, at the 
 same time it will be possible for him, by considering and valuing all 
 clinical and pathologic characteristics of septic and pyemic affec- 
 tions, to prevent the occurrences of poisonings by meat almost com- 
 pletely, or at any rate to the greatest extent possible, according to 
 the present standpoint of scientific meat inspection. 
 
 MEAT POISONING WITH BACILLUS COLI, PROTEUS SPECIES, ETC. 
 
 This form of meat poisoning relates to a poisonous action of meat, 
 originating in infection of entirely healthy animals, sometimes only 
 after slaughter, with pathogenic or saprophytic organisms which 
 produce toxins. Sometimes such disease-producing meat is visibly 
 changed, decomposed, or affected with slight putrefaction by the 
 action of bacteria, but in numerous cases absolutely no changes are 
 noticeable in poisonous meat. The latter was principally observed in 
 so-called chopped-meat poisonings (see below). 
 
 Nature and Manifestations. The cases belonging here represent 
 principally pure intoxication by the toxins produced by microorganisms 
 in the injurious meat. This is especially true of the early manifesta- 
 tions of the disease which appear soon after ingestion of the meat 
 (three to four hours). Of course, intoxication may be combined with 
 a pathogenic infection where severe symptoms of poisoning and a 
 protracted course of the sickness develop after some time has elapsed 
 as a result of the increase of injurious microorganisms in the digestive 
 apparatus of affected persons. The manifestations of these meat 
 poisonings vary considerably, and are similar to those which are 
 observed in genuine poisonings by meat. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, 
 giddiness, headache, dizziness, and debility occur, which may increase 
 to faintings; while in children and weak persons, cholera-like symp- 
 toms have also been observed. Recovery is the rule, but deaths have 
 also been observed, especially in children. According to van Ermengem, 
 two saprophytes come into consideration in the etiology of this group 
 of meat poisonings. Both are common inhabitants of putrid animal 
 substance. They are the Bacillus coli, and the Bacillus proteus with 
 its numerous varieties for instance, Proteus radians (Gutzeit); also 
 the microbe named by Hamburger as Bacillus cellulceformis, which 
 differs somewhat from the Bacillus coli, but appears also to be of etio- 
 logic importance. As these bacteria play a secondary part in the 
 putrefaction of meat, the injurious properties of such meat may be 
 traced to them. 
 
356 MEAT POISONINGS 
 
 The injurious action of these bacteria consists principally in the 
 formation of toxins which are not destroyed by ordinary boiling and 
 roasting of meat, although they are somewhat attenuated. Experience, 
 it is true, has shown that boiled and roasted meat foods have produced 
 a great number of poisonings, but they were mostly milder than when 
 the meat was consumed without previous heating, or was insufficiently 
 boiled or roasted. 
 
 The intensity of the decomposition of meat bears no relation to its 
 presumed poisonous character; and in this, experience also has taught 
 that frequently only slight manifestations of decomposition were 
 associated with severe poisonous actions. 
 
 A statistical arrangement of -poisonings is not possible, since the 
 affections belonging here, with the exception of the chopped-meat 
 poisonings, are not, as a rule, of epidemic character, but are limited 
 to individual cases, the scientific investigations of which are made 
 very difficult for obvious reasons. 
 
 The recognition of the poisonous quality of meat belonging to this 
 group is practically impossible, as has been mentioned, since objective 
 changes may be entirely absent, notwithstanding the presence of the 
 poison. In decomposing meat the signs described on page 324 are 
 sufficient to demonstrate putrefaction of the meat and to judge the 
 same, according to the views given on page 326. 
 
 For the prevention of this group of meat poisonings it is necessary 
 to exclude all such meat from traffic in which putrefaction has been 
 demonstrated, or which shows manifestations of decomposition. Other- 
 wise, these meat poisonings must be prevented by the care of the 
 housewife or servants in selecting for use only unobjectionable meat. 
 When suspected meat cannot be unconditionally excluded from human 
 consumption, it should be utilized only after a complete boiling or 
 thorough roasting. 
 
 The so-called chopped-meat poisonings have been observed only in the 
 warmer seasons. This alone indicates that the poisoning depends upon a 
 pollution of the easily decomposing meat with bacteria (see bacterial content, 
 page 86), which grow well on the meat and form toxins. 
 
 More extensive chopped-meat poisonings were almost exclusively observed 
 at places where a large amount of slightly smoked sausage or raw meat or 
 partially roasted meat had been consumed. Recently, epidemic chopped-meat 
 poisonings were observed in Chemnitz, Dresden, Gerbstadt, Gera, Halle a. S., 
 Sulken, Velbert, Hamburg, Berlin, and elsewhere, affecting over 600 people, 
 with several deaths. However, isolated cases occur every summer. 
 
 Lately, chopped-meat poisonings have been observed in which paratyphus 
 bacilli were supposed to be the cause. These should not be grouped with 
 the chopped-meat poisonings proper, but with the meat poisonings of the 
 enteritidis group. 
 
 To prevent poisoning by chopped meat, it is advisable not to keep 
 it at a summer temperature for any length of time; wherefore, the 
 prohibition of the use of preserving substances should be of assistance; 
 and the meat should not be consumed in a raw state or insufficiently 
 prepared. 
 
BO TV LI SM 357 
 
 BOTULISM 
 
 Certain affections in man produced by the consumption of meat, but 
 which deviate by characteristic symptoms from both of the previous 
 groups, are designated as botulism (allantiasis, sausage poisoning). 
 The name "sausage poisoning" originates from the fact that the first 
 critically observed cases by Justmus Kerner in the year 1820 were 
 connected with the ingestion of injurious sausages, and also later 
 many severe affections of this kind could be traced to this source. 
 
 Here, too, most of the poisonings known as ichthyotoxism and 
 mytilotoxism, which are produced by the meat of fish, mussels, and 
 other shell food, should be classified. 
 
 Nature and Manifestations. Botulism consists in an intoxication 
 of the human organism by poisonous substances, which are produced 
 by the Bacillus botulinus, named and discovered by van Ermengem. 
 
 The symptoms, especially characteristic, are disturbances in the 
 sight, such as paralysis in the region of the optics, oculomotorius 
 (mydriasis), trochlearis abducens facialis (ptosis), as well as of the 
 lacrymalis and trigeminus nerves; they may occur singly or in associa- 
 tion. Striking manifestations originating in the digestive apparatus 
 are frequently absent or only slightly pronounced and passing. On 
 the other hand, there exists a persistent constipation, retention of 
 urine, and marked debility. 
 
 Fever and disturbances in consciousness and sensibility are absent. 
 The symptoms of the disease appear twenty-four to thirty-six hours 
 after the meal; occasionally, however, even later. There are great 
 differences in the severity and duration of the disease. The mortality 
 is about 25 to 30 per cent., much higher than in meat poisonings. 
 
 Etiology. As is already indicated by the name, botulism is chiefly 
 caused by the ingestion of sausages which are infected with the Bacillus 
 botulinus, producing toxins. But as this organism thrives also in 
 other meat foods (see below), the most varied meat inay enter into the 
 question of sausage poisoning. 
 
 Among the sausages which frequently cause poisoning the liver 
 sausage, as well as other visceral and jelly sausages, take the first 
 place. In certain localities these varieties are extensively prepared, 
 and are made into cured sausages by smoking. The sausage content 
 itself does not resist putrefaction to any extent. Since the sausages 
 usually appear in large sizes when prepared in so-called home slaughter 
 for domestic consumption, it may readily occur that insufficient boiling 
 will leave the bacteria contained within the sausages undestroyed. 
 The bactericidal action of the smoking is also only slight in very large 
 sausages, because the smoke penetrates with difficulty. This is espe- 
 cially the case when smoking is carried on for only a few hours (during 
 the day), as frequently happens in the households of the country. 
 
 Proof that the poisonous effect of sausages can be traced to bacteria 
 lies in the fact that other meat foods in the state of putrefaction pro- 
 
358 MEAT POISONINGS 
 
 duce affections entirely analogous to those of sausage poisoning. Thus 
 poisoning properties were observed in partially decomposed hams, 
 in slightly putrid meat, and in their broth; also in fermenting pickled 
 meat; in roasted geese, which were allowed to hang undrawn for a 
 day in the cellar; in old roast-mutton gravy; sausage meat; liver; liver 
 pate; spoiled canned preserves, etc. At the same time the respective 
 foods did not display any striking changes, and showed principally 
 only musty, slightly rancid, sourish odors and taste. 
 
 The Bacillus botulinus has some similarity to the edema bacillus; it is 4 to 
 6// long, and 0.9 to 1.2 // broad; straight, with slightly rounded ends. It is an 
 anaerobe; forms oval spores at the end of the rod; grows luxuriantly on alkaline 
 media at 18 to 25 C., and develops a sharp odor of butyric acid. At higher 
 degrees of temperature (35 to 37) it grows only sparingly and without the 
 formation of toxins. By heating half an hour at 80 C. the bacillus becomes 
 inactive the same as when exposed for one hour at 10 C. As the bacillus 
 does not grow on pork containing 6 per cent, salt, well-pickled foods which 
 always contain a large quantity of salt should not be infected with it. But 
 as pickling is frequently quickly and superficially accomplished, pickled and 
 smoked products may contain Botulinus bacilli and their toxins. 
 
 Van Ermengem classifies the Bacillus botulinus in a group of microorganisms 
 newly established by himself the toxigenic saprophytes, which do not multiply 
 in the living body, but act only through their toxins. The enormous poisoning 
 action of their toxins appears evident, when it is considered that for instance 
 1 to 2 drops of a gelatin culture, or 0.001 cm. of dextrose bouillon culture ad- 
 ministered per os to monkeys or guinea-pigs, constitute a fatal dose in from 
 twenty-four to thirty-six hours. 
 
 Occurrences of Poisonings. Most of the sausage poisonings, both 
 epidemic and endemic cases, which have occurred in Wurtemberg, 
 according to Ostertag, can be accredited to the lack of intelligence by 
 which formerly certain kind of sausages, as liver and blood sausages, 
 were prepared. Sausage poisonings have also been observed in Bavaria, 
 Baden, and North Germany, although less frequently; and single cases 
 are reported in the literature from everywhere. 
 
 Prevention of Botulism. For prevention of botulism the following 
 statement prepared by van Ermengem, besides the instructions to the 
 public on the proper preparation of sausages, is worthy of consideration: 
 
 1. Preserved food substances, which are exposed to anaerobic bac- 
 teria, must never be consumed in a raw state, but should be properly 
 cooked. 
 
 2. Preserved food substances which by a rancid or butyric acid-like 
 odor arouse suspicion should be excluded from consumption. 
 
 3. For pickling, only such brine containing at least 10 per cent, 
 common salt should be employed, as the Bacillus botulinus cannot 
 multiply in this solution. 
 
 From a therapeutic standpoint, the antitoxin serum prepared by Kempner 
 for the treatment of botulism is worthy of consideration. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 THE history of meat hygiene, and especially of meat inspection, 
 which is inseparably connected with the history of food of man, need 
 only be briefly discussed here, 1 to indicate its general development. 
 
 There is no doubt that man at all times, at least as far as his appear- 
 ance can be traced paleontologically, has consumed meat food. For 
 Europe especially, it may be considered as proved that the paleolithic 
 cave dwellers had already utilized the meat of various living animals 
 and fish. The meat consumption of man during later epochs, may with 
 certainty be established from the oldest historical traditions. 
 
 The oldest data in the history of meat inspection are the food edicts 
 of the Egyptians which designated certain animals, the hog above all, 
 as unclean, and excluded their meat as food for man. The Egyptian 
 priests held to this with great strictness, and may therefore be con- 
 sidered as the first representatives of a method of meat inspection. 
 
 The Egyptian food laws, whose prohibition of hog meat was accepted 
 by all the Semitic races of those times, were without doubt prefigura- 
 tive for the Mosaic food laws of the Israelites. Among the Israelites 
 the priests also were the judges of the meats; this is accounted for 
 by their connection with the extensive religious animal offerings and 
 the share of the priests in the meat of the sacrificed animal. It was 
 required that these sacrificed animals, and in a broader sense all the 
 food animals, should be healthy and without a blemish. 
 
 Otherwise, animals adapted for food were divided into clean (rumi- 
 nants, domestic fowls, and birds other than birds of prey, as well 
 as fish having fins and scales) and unclean (solipeds, hogs, etc.). The 
 consumption of young animals was interdicted, and the prohibition 
 against consuming fat, blood, and meat of hogs was especially strict. 
 These edicts were amplified from time to time, particularly during the 
 so-called Talmudic period, which extended through the first century 
 A.D., by specific instructions regarding the slaughter and examination 
 of food animals (page 41). The method of slaughter was especially 
 considered by the Jews (page 44). 
 
 Mohammedan food regulations, even of today, are similar to the 
 Israelite and Egyptian food laws. The Koran considers both the hog 
 and the dog as unclean. 
 
 In contrast to the views regarding the meat foods of the Semitic 
 races, stand those of the old Greeks and Romans. Pork was not inter- 
 
 1 For details, see Ostertag's Handbuch der Fleischbeschau; Baranski, Anleitung zur Vieh- und 
 Fleischbeschau; Goltz, Geschichte der Fleischnahrung und Fleischnahrungsmittel. 
 
360 HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 dieted, but was greatly favored by the Romans, and the Greeks likewise 
 favored the meat of young castrated dogs. On the other hand, the 
 consumption of meat of lambs which were not shorn at one time 
 was forbidden to the Athenians, and the Romans disdained the meat 
 of goats as unhealthy. Police were stationed at the Athens market 
 from the earliest times. In Rome, since 388, following the foundation 
 of the city, two state Aedils provided for order and supervision of the 
 stock and meat markets, where also an official inspection of meat 
 was conducted. 
 
 The salting of meat, which is mentioned by Homer, was known to 
 the Romans, as was also the preparation of various kinds of sausages 
 (botuli fry, incisia, slice circelli ring, temacina chopped sausages) and 
 smoked products. Well-equipped abattoirs (larnense) and meat markets 
 (macelli) existed, according to Ostertag, in ancient Rome. The old 
 Roman meat control, however, was not further developed, for it ceased 
 with the downfall of the western Roman Empire. 
 
 In northern Europe and among the ancient Gauls and Germans 
 there are no traditions regarding a supervision of meat foods or on any 
 other special customs. Not until after the spread of Christianity were 
 Old Testament food laws inaugurated, which were strictly supervised 
 by the church. The prohibition of the consumption of horse meat, 
 issued by Apostle Bonifacius, under the direction of Pope Gregory 
 III, at the beginning of the eighth century, may be regarded as the 
 earliest special food edict in old Germany. It, however, was adopted 
 not so much from a hygienic standpoint as from consideration to the 
 horse offerings of the heathen Germans. Bonifacius, under the direc- 
 tion of Pope Zacharias, later prescribed that bacon and pork should 
 not be eaten otherwise than cooked. The consumption of diseased 
 meat from dead and torn animals was also prohibited. 
 
 In the course of time the civil authorities of Germany gradually 
 paid more attention to meat, which formed the principal food of the 
 people in the Middle Ages, and the meat industry developed into a 
 particular business, which was later highly respected. The earliest 
 German records in which meat traffic received consideration go back 
 to the year 1120 (documents of the foundation of the city of Freiburg); 
 butchers, however, are mentioned for the first time in 1156, in the 
 "lustitia civitatis Augsburg" as "carnifices." As the trade developed, 
 the individual control of the meat industry in relation to the orderly 
 traffic of meats not only progressed more and more, but the ecclesiastical 
 and civil authorities concerned themselves about it. Thus market- 
 able and non-marketable meat are distinguished for the first time 
 in a record which was imparted by Bishop Lutold in the year 1248 
 to the butchers' guild at Basel. 
 
 The decrees issued in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries relative 
 to meat traffic were principally of local significance for individual 
 cities, but they contain important meat-inspection regulations. Thus 
 are especially mentioned the measles of hogs, the bloating of meat, 
 immaturity of calves, meat of emaciated and diseased animals, pearly 
 
HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 361 
 
 disease, etc., and in the year 1276 compulsory slaughter as well as 
 compulsory inspection and declaration of sick animals, was ordered 
 for the public abattoir in Augsburg. 
 
 That state regulations were also found necessary in certain states 
 becomes evident from a decree of the state of Mecklenburg for the 
 year of. 1572, according to which the butchers were to be controlled 
 by the city bailiff and two competent persons. 
 
 After the Thirty Years' War, little of the former fraternal and official 
 supervising regulations in the domain of meat traffic remained, and 
 only toward the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning 
 of the eighteenth did the administration again direct some attention 
 to meat and the slaughter of food animals. Without regarding local 
 regulations, the decrees which existed at these times for Mecklenburg, 
 Hanover, Braunschweig-Luneburg, and the electorate of Saxony, 
 as well as the general decrees of Baden, are worthy of mention. The 
 importation of pickled and smoked meats was even then prohibited 
 by certain States (Hanover, Saxony), and cities (Leipzig), without 
 doubt on account of the fear of rinderpest. To a large extent, this 
 led to a decree in Baden in the year 1772, requiring the professional 
 opinion of the district physician on cattle which were affected with 
 an infectious disease; in other diseases the stock examiner had to pass 
 upon the fitness of meat for consumption, in order that meat, which 
 at that time was very expensive, should not be unnecessarily with- 
 held as human food. Even somewhat earlier, in the year 1761, the 
 government of Bavaria prescribed a renewal of the inspection of food 
 animals by official meat inspectors. At that time a change was also 
 effected in the judging of pearly disease. Until then it was accepted 
 as identical with a venereal affection; and, therefore, the meat of all 
 such affected cattle was destroyed without further consideration. 
 But after Graumann, in 1784, explained that the nodules of pearly 
 disease were not injurious to human health, the meat and milk of 
 cattle affected with this pearly disease were no longer considered as 
 unfit for food. 
 
 Until the end of the eighteenth century there was little scientific 
 system in food regulations which gradually appeared with the estab- 
 lishment of veterinary schools, on a basis of the medical views of those 
 days. These, however, were not favorable to meat inspection, since the 
 teachings in regard to the injurious effects of meat in certain diseased 
 animals led to the view that no danger threatened human health from 
 consumption of meat of diseased animals. With this not only was 
 a supervision of the meat traffic declared superfluous, but also the 
 formerly recognized hygienic importance of the public abattoirs was 
 ignored to such an extent that in 1826 a Prussian ministerial script 
 even declared the introduction of compulsory slaughter on the part 
 of the local authorities as inadmissible. As a result, the number of 
 public abattoirs in Prussia not only decreased, but even abattoirs 
 existing already were abandoned. 
 
 The conditions of meat inspection in South Germany were not 
 
362 HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 quite as unfavorable. In Baden and Kurpfaltz the institution of 
 animal inspection was continued, and in the year 1802 a Ministerial 
 decree was issued in Wiirtemberg for the prevention of very frequent 
 poisonings by sausage. In the kingdom of Bavaria the necessity 
 of recognized meat inspection was soon seen, and first expressed in 
 a meat-inspection ordinance for Southern Bavaria, October 21, 1836, 
 and for Schwaben and Neuburg, January 10, 1857. Further meat- 
 inspection regulations followed for Wiirtemberg, March 14, 1860; 
 Northern Bavaria, June 2, 1862; and Baden, August 17, 1865. The 
 further development of meat inspection, which in North Germany 
 was based on the Prussian abattoir laws of March 18, 1868, belongs 
 to modern times. For the development of meat hygiene in other 
 European states, handbooks on meat inspection as well as special 
 historical works should be referred to. 
 
 [The history of meat inspection in the United States is practically 
 the history of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry. While there 
 were forms of municipal meat inspection carried out in several cities 
 previous to the organization of this Bureau, the inspection was not 
 established on a scientific basis until the inauguration of the Federal 
 meat-inspection service. The reasons for commencing this work were 
 as follows: 
 
 The foreign sales of the meat-packing industry from the first included 
 numerous varieties of meats and meat products, and by 1879 the 
 export trade in American bacon alone, without mentioning other food- 
 stuffs, had become well established, when the continental countries 
 became alarmed, seemingly on account of the presence of trichina in 
 American hog products, and accordingly prohibitive measures against 
 these meats were instituted. Italy was the first to promulgate these 
 restrictions, and by 1881, Austria, Germany, and France had likewise 
 prohibited the importation of American pork or its products. American 
 cattle met a similar rebuff at the instance of Great Britain in 1882, 
 when regulations, commonly called the "Slaughter Order," were 
 instituted by the Order-in-Council of the Board of Agriculture, which 
 compelled American cattle to be slaughtered at the port of entry. 
 This prohibition of store cattle was caused, presumably, by the presence 
 of contagious pleuropneumonia among the cattle in a few of the Eastern 
 States and Illinois. Although this disease was effectually eradicated 
 from this country in 1892, and although not a single case has been 
 found either in cattle imported into Great Britain from the United 
 States or among our herds since that date, the restrictive measures 
 continue to be enforced, and the stigma constituting the assumed 
 reason for this embargo remains. It is plainly evident to anyone 
 who has given this subject the least consideration that these two 
 alleged sanitary procedures of foreign governments were directly pointed 
 at the meat and live-stock industry of this country. Although they 
 caused a vast falling off in the value of exports in these lines, and- were 
 to those variously engaged a hardship which continued for a decade, 
 nevertheless, these interdictions must be considered as the potent 
 
HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 363 
 
 and exciting factors in securing legislation for the scientific inspection 
 of meats for foreign and domestic use, and incidentally in advancing 
 the cause of veterinary science in the United States. 
 
 The exclusion of American pork products finally became intoler- 
 able, and in order to relieve the situation and regain an export market 
 for these foodstuffs, Congress passed the act of August 30, 1890, pro- 
 viding for the inspection of salted pork and bacon. It was but natural 
 to presume that with the passage of such a law providing for the certifi- 
 cation of the pure and healthful character of American meats all 
 restrictive measures against our export trade would be revoked. How- 
 ever, this initial act was not sufficiently comprehensive, referring chiefly 
 to the manner in which the products were packed and their appearance 
 immediately before shipment, without taking into consideration 
 the condition of the animals producing these meats at the time of 
 slaughter. For this reason the European countries failed to abolish 
 their restrictions against American pork. The relief expected in con- 
 sequence of this act was not, therefore, realized, and on March 3, 
 1891, Congress, recognizing the importance of protecting and fostering 
 this export industry, the value of which had reached the sum of 
 $104,660,000 in 1881, and of acquiring ancl maintaining a pure and 
 wholesome meat supply for our own people, passed a more effective 
 act. This legislation authorized the issuance of regulations providing 
 for the antemortem and postmortem examination of all cattle, sheep, 
 and hogs intended for export and interstate commerce, especially 
 providing for postmortem inspection of cattle the meat of which is 
 designated for export; for a microscopic examination of all hogs for 
 export in order that certificates could be issued setting forth their 
 freedom from trichinosis; the condemnation of all diseased animals; 
 the marking or stamping of all inspected carcasses and the labeling 
 of food products made from such carcasses intended for export or 
 interstate traffic. 
 
 The work connected with the endorsement of this act was placed 
 under the care of the Bureau of Animal Industry, which had been 
 established in 1884 for the purpose of collecting information concern- 
 ing the nature, cause, treatment, and prevention of diseases of animals 
 and the publication of the best measures for the prevention and eradica- 
 tion of such diseases. These increased duties rendered it desirable 
 that the various lines of work be divided, and accordingly on April 1, 
 1891, the Bureau was organized into several divisions, one of which 
 was designated the Meat Inspection Division, and, as its name implies, 
 had, among other duties, special supervision of the inspection of meats 
 for export and interstate commerce. Regulations were immediately 
 adopted for the purpose of carrying into effect this act of Congress. 
 A system of inspection was devised, a force of veterinarians and their 
 assistants organized, and the inspection of meats inaugurated within 
 ten weeks after the passage of the act, or on May 12, 1891, at the 
 abattoir of Eastman & Co., of New York City. Other abattoirs made 
 application for inspection, and by the end of the first complete fiscal 
 
364 HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 year (1892) inspection had been granted to twenty-eight abattoirs in 
 twelve different cities. 
 
 It will thus be observed that Federal meat inspection has only a 
 very recent history, but one of which our people and our profession 
 can justly be proud. 
 
 The microscopic examination of pork for trichina was first estab- 
 lished in Chicago, June 22, 1891, and likewise begun in other cities 
 before the end of that year. At first there was some hesitancy and 
 skepticism among the packers as to the practical application of this 
 microscopic examination without seriously retarding the business of 
 the firms and causing vexatious and unnecessary delays, but all doubts 
 were shortly dispelled by the satisfactory performance of the work, 
 and the problem was efficiently solved by the persistence and skill 
 of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the growing per- 
 ception and ripening knowledge of his assistants. As a direct result of 
 these microscopic examinations of pork products, which were subjected 
 to the keenest scrutiny of the attaches of European countries and 
 favorably reported upon by them, the decree of September 3, 1891, 
 was made by the German government after the Saratoga Convention 
 which readmitted American pork that was officially certified as having 
 been microscopically examined before shipment from the United States. 
 
 Subsequently similar interdictions were removed by Italy, France, 
 Denmark, and Austria, and in consequence of this re-established 
 confidence relative to the healthfulness and purity of the pork products 
 of this country, the export trade began at once to show decided and 
 gratifying increase, and gradually to expand and regain its former 
 importance and value. 
 
 The beneficial and desirable results that would necessarily accrue in 
 consequence of having the supervision and inspection of the Govern- 
 ment meat inspectors to certify to the purity and soundness of the 
 products of their abattoirs, soon appealed to and was quickly acted 
 upon not only by the packers who sought to compete in foreign markets, 
 but those doing strictly a local and interstate business. The pro- 
 prietors of those abattoirs desiring inspection for their meat products 
 are required to make written application to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
 stating the kind and number of animals slaughtered and the destina- 
 tion of the products thereof, and to agree to such supervision of their 
 business as may be demanded by the regulations of the Bureau. On 
 conforming to such requirements the packing house is given a serial 
 number by which it and the products thereof are thereafter known, 
 and an inspector is placed in charge of the plant and furnished with 
 a sufficient number of veterinary inspectors and inspector assistants 
 to carry out the required inspection. 
 
 The extension of the work caused by the enforcement of the act of 
 Congress cannot be fully appreciated or comprehended without a 
 knowledge of the importance and magnitude of the subject. The 
 successful and speedy elaboration of many details which necessarily 
 required much labor and consideration and the care and efficiency 
 
HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 365 
 
 with which they were immediately enforced exceeded all expectations 
 when the difficulties and obstacles the inherent perplexities of the 
 question were considered. Moreover, this inspection was an innova- 
 tion in sanitation in this country, and was of necessity carried out 
 principally by inexperienced men who were chosen chiefly on the 
 strength of their political influence rather than by the breadth of their 
 veterinary knowledge. 
 
 The next epoch in the history of meat inspection is marked by the 
 placing of all employees of the Bureau into the classified service by 
 Presidential order. This took effect July 1, 1894, since which time 
 all appointments to the force have been made only after the applicant 
 has passed a rigid and highly satisfactorily examination. By this 
 means only the intelligent, competent, and superior candidates are 
 chosen from the eligible list by certification from the U. S. Civil Service 
 Commission. Now that the merit system is in vogue, not only the 
 personnel of the Bureau has been improved, as would be expected, 
 but the harmony and discipline resulting therefrom is vastly better 
 than is possible where political intrigue forms a basis of appointment, 
 promotion, and retention. The first requisite to be met by those aspir- 
 ing to .the position of veterinary inspector is to be a graduate of a 
 recognized and reputable veterinary college, and then to pass a rigid 
 examination that destroys the ambition of a large percentage of appli- 
 cants. After successfully meeting these requirements and receiving 
 an appointment, his future service depends entirely upon the personal 
 equation, and would include the ability, integrity, and discretion with 
 which his onerous and multiple duties are performed. 
 
 Previous to 1894 the inspection consisted principally in the examina- 
 tion of beef for export and the microscopic examination of pork destined 
 for continental Europe; but at this time, owing to an increased demand 
 for official inspection of meats, a similar antemortem and postmortem 
 examination was extended to hogs, as had already been in operation 
 from the beginning with cattle. In the following year calves and 
 sheep were likewise subjected to inspection both before and after 
 slaughter. As the inspection gradually increased and covered a large 
 number of animals, it became more and more important to obtain 
 sufficient authority from Congress to dispose of the condemned car- 
 casses, as the original act failed to grant power for the proper disposal 
 of such products. The danger of allowing condemned meats to remain 
 undestroyed is palpable when taken into consideration with the limited 
 authority of the Federal Government regarding the use of such car- 
 casses within the State. That it was highly unsatisfactory to the 
 Bureau, as well as to the health of our people, to permit the packer 
 to have absolute control over the final disposal of unwholesome meats, 
 was readily appreciated, especially in view of the dearth of State and 
 municipal sanitary authorities vested with the power for properly 
 disposing of those products. Consequently, Congress, by the enact- 
 ment of March 2, 1 S95, granted full power to the Secretary of Agriculture 
 to adopt such rules and regulations as would be necessary to prevent 
 
366 HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 the use of condemned carcasses for export or interstate traffic, making 
 it a misdemeanor punishable by a fine not exceeding $1000 or imprison- 
 ment, in the discretion of the court. The work was rapidly advancing 
 as the inspectors became more thoroughly trained and experienced. 
 New problems and duties were taken up as fast as the previous ones 
 had been elucidated and controlled, and the progress made was highly 
 gratifying. In keeping with this policy of steady conservative progress, 
 the service was extended in 1895 by new legislation to include the 
 interstate cattle inspection, and by 1897 not only all the beef and the 
 greater part of pork and other meat products exported to Europe, 
 but a large amount of meat intended for interstate commerce was 
 inspected in accordance with the law. 
 
 Although the legislation of neither 1891 nor 1895 mentioned sanita- 
 tion, the Department in February, 1906, issued a sanitary regulation 
 demanding the installation of toilet rooms for the employees of the vari- 
 ous packing houses and insisting on cleanliness in all official abattoirs. 
 Considerable progress was being made along these lines when the 
 agitation of 1906 drew attention to the unsatisfactory conditions 
 relating principally to canned and prepared meats, the use of preserva- 
 tives, and the unsanitary condition and methods of the packing estab- 
 lishments, although the Department at that time had no control over 
 such matters under the law. These defects of the law under which 
 inspection was being conducted had been realized and unsuccessful 
 efforts had been made by the Department to improve the efficiency 
 of the service by new legislation and increased appropriations, but 
 it required the agitation of a sensational press to direct public attention 
 to the inadequacy and defects of the law, which finally resulted in 
 the adoption of the meat-inspection act of June 30, 1906. 1 
 
 This act provides that all cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs shall be 
 subject to antemortem examinations when the meat thereof is to be 
 used in interstate or foreign commerce, and such animals as are rejected 
 must be slaughtered subject to postmortem inspection. It further 
 provides for the postmortem inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and 
 goats, the products of which are intended for interstate and foreign 
 trade. Those found fit for human food are marked "IT. S. Inspected 
 and Passed," and those carcasses found diseased or otherwise unfit 
 for food are marked "U. S. Inspected and Condemned," and all such 
 condemned meats are destroyed in the presence of a Government 
 inspector. All meats which are marked "U. S. Inspected and Passed" 
 may be reinspected at any subsequent time, and if they have become 
 tainted, unclean, or otherwise unfit for food they must be destroyed. 
 In order that the slaughtering establishments may be under the super- 
 vision of the Government at all times, it is provided that the employees 
 of the Bureau of Animal Industry shall have access to all portions of 
 the plant day and night, whether it is in operation or not. Further- 
 more, power is granted the Secretary of Agriculture to destroy all 
 
 1 This law is reproduced on page 137. 
 
HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 367 
 
 food products containing dyes, chemicals, or ingredients which render 
 the meat unfit for food. All food products handled in any official 
 establishment must be under the supervision of an inspector during 
 their preparation for preserving in cans, tins, pots, or other receptacles. 
 These containers shall then bear a label that the contents have been 
 inspected and passed. Nor are these food products allowed to be 
 sold under any false or deceptive name. The Government is also 
 empowered to have experts in sanitation to make inspection of all 
 establishments, and to prescribe regulations of sanitation to be main- 
 tained, and when the sanitary conditions are not satisfactory the 
 meat of such an establishment cannot enter interstate commerce. 
 This act further provides that on and after October 1, 1906, no carrier 
 shall transport or receive for transportation any carcasses, meat, 
 or meat-food products which have not been inspected and marked 
 "U. S. Inspected and Passed," and any person or firm violating any 
 of its provisions may be punished by a fine not exceeding $10,000 or 
 imprisonment not longer than two years, or by both such fine and 
 imprisonment. For the enforcement of this law a permanent yearly 
 appropriation of $3,000,000 is made. When it is considered that 
 heretofore the yearly appropriations for meat inspection have always 
 been less than requested by the Secretary of Agriculture, and that in 
 the years of the largest appropriations they averaged a little over 
 $800,000, it will be readily appreciated that a great advance has been 
 made, not only in securing a rational and eminently satisfactory law 
 on meat inspection, but also an appropriation which will permit of 
 its efficient and continued enforcement. It can no longer be said, 
 as it has been in the past, that we are more particular in protecting 
 the people of Europe than our own citizens. 
 
 Meat inspection in Canada is only of recent origin. There was 
 no government control maintained in Canada in connection with 
 meat-food products until the necessity for such action was brought 
 to the attention of the people through the meat-inspection agitation 
 in the United States. Then the Parliamentary authorities passed a 
 meat-inspection bill in September, 1907, which provides for a compe- 
 tent meat-inspection service, not alone for the increasing export of 
 meat and meat-food products, but likewise for the control of the meat 
 supply destined for home consumption. 
 
 Accordingly, in order to provide a sufficient number of well-trained 
 veterinary inspectors for this work, arrangements were made through 
 the Veterinary Director General for a special course of instruction 
 in meat inspection in one of the veterinary colleges of the United 
 States, located near a large packing centre. Thus the Canadian veteri- 
 narians were admitted daily to the large abattoirs and were paired with 
 the inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry in order to acquire 
 a most valuable practical knowledge of the duties required by the 
 Canadian government. At the same time a full course of lectures 
 was given to the students on the scientific aspect of meat inspec- 
 tion. 
 
368 HISTORY OF MEAT HYGIENE 
 
 The requirements for the appointment as veterinary inspector in 
 Canada are practically the same as in the United States. Graduates 
 of recognized veterinary colleges are required to pass a special examina- 
 tion on veterinary branches. 
 
 The regulations governing meat inspection in Canada follow the 
 same lines as those in force at the present time in the United States. 
 They provide for an antemortem and postmortem inspection of all 
 food animals slaughtered in an establishment where government 
 inspection is maintained as well as strict sanitation of those establish- 
 ments. The principles in the judgment of carcasses are also similar to 
 those adopted in the United States meat-inspection regulations.] 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 ABATTOIRS AND STOCKYARDS 
 
 THE supply of meat constitutes for all communities, especially for 
 large cities, a factor of pronounced economic and hygienic importance. 
 This meat supply is being obtained in more and more abundance from 
 certain central places, in which the largest quantity of meat, the so- 
 called dressed meat, is sold. Such central places are the public abattoirs 
 (slaughter houses), which at the same time form the principal and 
 central points for antemortem and postmortem inspection described in 
 this book. For a more accurate study of the questions and conditions 
 to be considered in the building and equipment of public abattoirs, 
 the reader is referred to special literature on that subject. 1 
 
 As the larger abattoirs are frequently connected with stockyards, 
 these stockvards must also be mentioned. 
 
 ABATTOIRS 
 
 Abattoirs are establishments which serve for slaughter of such 
 animals whose meat is utilized as food for human beings. Further, 
 the meat is roughly prepared there for the market, is stored in the 
 various departments, and frequently the so-called offal is worked up 
 or is given preliminary treatment and removed, if further utilization 
 cannot be accomplished. As the use of the abattoirs is open to every 
 one, they are designated in general as public abattoirs, in which the 
 slaughter of all animals is compulsory. The inhabitants of a locality are 
 compelled to carry out the contemplated slaughter of animals of certain 
 species exclusively in public abattoirs, provided accidental or emergency 
 cases do not exceptionally require immediate emergency slaughter 
 of an animal at some other place. With the introduction of compul- 
 sory slaughter further use of all private slaughtering places which 
 may exist in the locality is accordingly prohibited. 
 
 The construction and use of public abattoirs is regulated by law 
 in many of the municipalities of Europe. 
 
 Thus, for instance, the law applying to abattoirs of the Kingdom 
 of Saxony has the following wording: 
 
 1 Among others, Schwarz, Building Equipment and Operation of Public Abattoirs and Stockyards, 
 Berlin, 1898; Schwarz, Machine Technique for the Operation of Abattoirs, Berlin, 1901; Osthoff, 
 Abattoirs and Stockyards; newly adapted by Dr. M. Fischer, Professor of the University of Hall, 
 a. s., 2d edition, Leipzig, 1903. 
 
 24 
 
370 ABATTOIRS AND STOCKYARDS 
 
 Law Concerning the Public Abattoirs, of July 11, 1876 
 
 1. In localities in which public abattoirs are present in sufficient numbers, 
 or such that are to be established by local statutes, there may be prohibited 
 
 (a) The establishment of new private slaughtering places as well as 
 
 (b) A further use of existing private slaughtering places. All such statutory 
 
 ? revisions to be made effective, require the approval of the Minister of the 
 nterior. 
 
 2. Inasmuch as the owners of private slaughtering places are entitled to 
 indemnities in cases of certain diseases, the latter should be granted by the 
 community. 
 
 3. The Department of the Interior is authorized to suspend in whole or in 
 part the statutory provisions enacted in accordance with law if the provisions 
 given in the introductory remarks are no longer present, and if the community 
 does not remedy the existing deficiency within a given time; if such conditions 
 apply to a city community with city regulations, a hearing should be given 
 before the District Commissioners; in all other cases, a hearing before the 
 County Commissioners should be taken. 
 
 Location of the Abattoir. In selecting a location for an abattoir 
 it should be considered that the building should: (1) Be located out- 
 side the city, and that there should be no indication of it being soon 
 surrounded by other buildings; (2) be easy of access from all points 
 of the city by good roads; (3) be easily connected by a side track with 
 the existing railroad line; (4) have underground drainage for the waste 
 water without coming in contact with the built-up section of the city, 
 and this drainage* should be executed in such a way that it empties 
 below the city into a water drain, or into a constructed waste-water 
 cleaning plant; (5) have a sufficient water supply to cover the great 
 demand of wash water which is required in abattoirs, and (6) be of 
 such sufficient size that an extension of the plant at that location 
 should be assured for at least thirty years. 
 
 Entire Establishment. The location of the various buildings and 
 rooms of an abattoir is, in general, according to one of three systems. 
 
 German System. The German arrangement of the buildings (Fig. 
 150) aims to make the plant appear as closed as possible. Therefore, 
 the most -important operating rooms are either united in a single build- 
 ing under one roof, or most of the buildings are connected by roofed 
 connecting passages, in such a way that larger open courts are not 
 present between the various buildings. 
 
 The advantages of the German arrangement of buildings lie in the 
 smaller requirement of space, lower buildings, and operating expenses; 
 good facilities for surveying and supervising, convenient connections 
 of the working establishments, and consequently saving of time in 
 slaughter and an easy control of the butcher helpers by the foremen, 
 as well as protection against draught, rain, snow, and cold, w r hich 
 such a closed plant affords to a greater advantage than an open estab- 
 lishment. A prominent disadvantage of the German system is the 
 difficulty for extensions, which, however, may be avoided by correct 
 measurement of the requirements of space, and commodious arrange- 
 ments of the principal operating rooms. On account of the latter 
 
ABATTOIRS 
 
 371 
 
 conditions, the German arrangement of buildings is not adapted for 
 abattoirs of larger cities; while, on the other hand, it possesses great 
 advantages without doubt for abattoirs of small or medium size, as 
 compared with the French system; and above all, it is also more suitable 
 for climatic conditions of most parts of Germany. 
 
 FIG. 150 
 
 Restaurant Rlda. Administration Blag. 
 
 4 1 ffffti. 
 
 <?.<?.*>*.* ,9 
 
 Ground plan of an abattoir (Tilsit) with German arrangement of the buildings. 
 
 French System. In the French arrangement of buildings, there 
 are open courts or streets between the various buildings, the grouping 
 of which is arranged according to their operation; thus the closed 
 appearance of the German system is absent. 
 
 The advantages of the French system lie, above all, in the easy 
 possibility of extension of every part of the plant; its disadvantages 
 are brought out by the advantages of the German arrangements. 
 Large abattoir plants can be practically constructed only after the 
 French system, or by the combination system next to be described. 
 
372 
 
 ABATTOIRS AND STOCKYARDS 
 
 The original characteristic slaughter-cell arrangement of the French system, 
 into which every abattoir was divided, must now be considered as a condition 
 that belongs to the past. 
 
 Combination System.- By a combination system for abattoir plants 
 (Fig. 151) is meant a system of building in which the principal operating 
 buildings are arranged according to the French system, and connected 
 by roofed passages or connecting halls. This system has been adopted 
 
 FIG. 151 
 
 Stock yards 
 Abattoir 
 Administration 
 Sanitary abattoir 
 Abattoir for horses 
 Stables 
 
 Ground plan of an abattoir and stockyards, in which the first is arranged in accordance with the 
 
 combination system 
 
 more and more extensively during the last few years. The connecting 
 halls between the various killing houses on one side and the cooling 
 house on the other, makes possible not only the transportation of meat 
 without exposure to the changes of weather, but they also serve as 
 a place for keeping the utensils of the butchers, for whom the roofing 
 serves to an advantage, just the same as to the butchers, dealers, officials, 
 and other visitors to the abattoir, who frequent the corresponding 
 buildings. Similarly roofed connecting passages are also established 
 
ABATTOIRS 373 
 
 between the killing halls on one side and the tripe house and manure 
 house on the other. 
 
 The advantages of such building arrangements become apparent 
 from the description. Disadvantages may be present when the cor- 
 responding buildings do not front the connecting passageway, but 
 border the same with long surfaces of wall, thereby affecting slaughter 
 halls, etc. 
 
 In the central plant of a large abattoir which is connected with stockyards, 
 the following principal parts should be considered: (a) Stockyards with 
 special quarantine pens; (6) abattoir with accessory buildings; (c) official 
 and plague abattoir; (d) horse and dog abattoir; (e) office building; (/) living 
 quarters; (g) vaccine establishment (for preparing lymph against smallpox); 
 (h) railroad tracks and station for disposition of railroad cars; (i) provision 
 for sewers and clearing plant for waste water; (k) water-supplying plant; (I) 
 lighting plant, and (m) streets and places with roofed wagon stands. 
 
 [There is no special system followed in the construction of abattoirs in the 
 United States. However, in accordance with the provisions of the require- 
 ments of the United States Department of Agriculture all abattoirs where meat 
 inspection is maintained must be arranged and constructed in accordance 
 with the sanitary requirements. The plans for construction of new buildings 
 or any contemplated changes must be submitted to the Department for 
 approval.] 
 
 Buildings and Rooms. The necessary buildings and rooms of every 
 abattoir, with their purposes and principal equipments, are indicated 
 in the following: 
 
 Killing Houses. In the killing houses, the animals are slaughtered, 
 skinned, or the hair is removed, eviscerated, and inspected; also fre- 
 quently they remain there hanging to cool out. While in small abattoirs, 
 a single room may serve for slaughtering all species of food animals, 
 in medium-sized abattoirs, cattle and small stock are slaughtered 
 together, while only hogs are butchered in a special room. In large 
 abattoirs, special slaughtering rooms must be provided for cattle, small 
 stock, and hogs. 
 
 The slaughtering of horses requires an individual killing house, 
 separated from the others; in this, the slaughtering of dogs may also 
 be carried out. In the same way a special killing house must be pro- 
 vided for the slaughter of sick animals. 
 
 The general equipment of the abattoirs should meet the following 
 requirements: As much light as possible; hard, impenetrable floors; 
 good drainage for the w r ater used in washing, through open shallow 
 gutters; smooth walls which must be easily washed to a height of 2 
 meters from the floor; a plentiful supply of cold and hot water; abundant 
 ventilation, and according to judgment also slight heating in winter. 
 
 In killing houses for large stock, windlasses are found particularly 
 necessary for hoisting both cattle and horses. These hoisters are 
 termed stationary when the slaughtered animal is left to hang on them 
 until cool, and movable when special equipments are provided for 
 cooling the carcass, and the windlass serves only for hoisting and trans- 
 
374 ABATTOIRS. AND STOCKYARDS 
 
 porting the slaughtered animal to the hanging floor. The latter, as 
 a rule, is connected with coolers by rails and a proper transporting 
 equipment in such a way that the undivided hanging sides of large 
 stock may be conveyed to the coolers without exertion. 
 
 Killing houses for small stock contain hook frames built into them 
 for hanging thereon skinned calves and sheep and their viscera. These 
 animals are slaughtered on trestles. 
 
 Lately, special slaughter trestles have also come into use. They 
 are fastened to the floor and may be raised in such a way that they 
 also serve at the same time for hanging arrangements. Hook frames 
 are thus made superfluous. 
 
 The killing houses for hogs are distinguished by the sticking and 
 scalding rooms, as well as by the dressing room. In the former are 
 present the striking and sticking sheds; also hot-water vats, in which 
 the stuck hogs are scalded to facilitate removal of the hair. Some 
 times the hair is removed on special tables in this room; however, 
 the scraping is frequently executed in the room in which the carcass 
 is dressed. The dressing room contains hooks on frames or rails for 
 hanging and eviscerating hogs after the hair has been removed; also 
 hanging arrangements and tables for the viscera and other parts. 
 
 For the conveyance of hogs from the scalding vat to the scraping 
 table and from there to the hanging floor and chill room, very ingenious 
 arrangements are frequently installed, which save human strength as 
 much as possible. One of the latest of these devices, which has widely 
 attracted the attention of abattoir constructors, is a patented gliding- 
 rail system, with traversable spreaders, constructed by the firm of 
 Kreiser & Co., in Kassel. 
 
 In connection with hog-killing houses of large abattoirs, trichina- 
 inspection rooms are usually established. 
 
 Tripe Room. The tripe room (gut room) is used for emptying and 
 cleaning of the gastrointestinal canal. In small abattoirs there is 
 only one common room; in large abattoirs, however, there are separate 
 tripe rooms for every slaughter house. The tripe rooms of cattle 
 slaughter houses are usually connected with a special manure house 
 for the reception of the contents of the stomachs. The tripe rooms 
 are supplied with troughs for cleaning stomachs and intestines in warm 
 and cold water, with vats for scalding certain parts, and with tables. 
 
 Cooling Room. The equipment and operation of the cooling rooms 
 and coolers, which are today inseparable even in small abattoirs, have 
 been fully described on page 98. 
 
 Stables. Stables must be present for all species of food animals, 
 as well as for horses and draught dogs, which are employed in the 
 industrial traffic of abattoirs. For the sick or suspicious stock, stables 
 are equipped, apart from the others, and they must also be used for 
 stabling foreign food stock. 
 
 In the equipment of stables, the omission of woodwork, unpercolat- 
 ing and easily cleaned floors and wall surfaces, good lighting and ventila- 
 
ABATTOIRS 375 
 
 tion, sufficient water supply, and good drainage for the filthy water 
 are indispensable. 
 
 Manure Houses. The manure houses which have given the best 
 satisfaction for the disposal of manure are so equipped that they possess 
 elevated platforms with openings through which the manure is poured 
 or thrown into closed iron manure cars, which are switched there. The 
 most important factors are good ventilation and quickness in carrying 
 off the manure. In large abattoirs useful devices have lately been 
 installed for the disposal of the manure and for its further utili- 
 zation. 
 
 Tallow Factories for Rendering Fat and Tallow Obtained in the Abattoir. 
 Blood-utilizing plants, casing plants, hide-salting establishments and 
 hide houses, and plants for the industrial utilization of condemned 
 products are only found in larger abattoirs. An odorless plant, which 
 may vary greatly, should be required as absolutely necessary. 
 
 Boiler and Engine Houses. Boiler and engine houses are required 
 in order to obtain steam for heating and operating purposes, as well 
 as for working the engines for operating the refrigerating machines, 
 electric dynamos, pumps, etc. The latter convey the water into special 
 tanks placed at some elevation in order to obtain a ready flow for the 
 water supply. 
 
 Disposal of Condemned Meat. The establishments which are present 
 in medium-sized and larger abattoirs, for the separate stabling, slaugh- 
 tering, and sanitary and veterinary police disposal of diseased food 
 stock and those suspected of disease or plagues are designated as 
 sanitary institutions or police slaughter houses. They represent to 
 a certain extent a small abattoir within a larger establishment, and 
 are correspondingly equipped. There are also placed, as a rule, the 
 contrivances for harmless disposition of condemned meat (page 181 
 required by the meat-inspection regulations, for rendering and steam- 
 ing meat (page 173), for rendering fat (page 180), pickling (page 180), 
 and for curing meat, as well as the apparatus and plants mentioned 
 under tallow factories. 
 
 Offices. In the official building are quarters for the general and 
 financial management of the abattoir and for the meat and trichina 
 inspection should they be not located in the slaughter houses proper; 
 wardrobes for the foremen and assistants; the restaurant, unless there 
 is a special restaurant building; and living quarters for officials. 
 
 An inspection office for meat brought from the outside, as well 
 as a Freibank salesroom, may be located in the office building, if they 
 are not placed in other buildings. 
 
 Scale Houses. Scale houses and special quarters for gatekeepers 
 a iv only necessary in medium-sized and large abattoirs. 
 
 Waste-water Cleaning Plants. Waste-water cleaning plants, for 
 which the most varied systems are in existence, must be provided 
 for all abattoirs in view of the great pollution of the waste water of 
 abattoirs. Their construction is principally underground. 
 
376 ABATTOIRS AND STOCKYARDS 
 
 Management of the Abattoirs. The experience of many years 
 has demonstrated that the management of abattoirs must be positively 
 effected by the community itself; it is desired to avoid all numerous 
 unpleasant conditions and incidents, which were observed in the man- 
 agement of such establishments at first, by receiving hearty cooper- 
 ation from private individuals, corporations, and butchers' cooperative 
 associations. Competent veterinarians have always given the best 
 satisfaction as managers of abattoirs. 
 
 The same state of affairs exists in the erection of public abattoirs 
 which are to be managed entirely by local administration. Aside 
 from the noteworthy fact that in public abattoirs the police rights 
 of the community are exercised to a very great extent, it should be 
 especially recognized that the public abattoirs are not only very good 
 investments of capital, but that they are continually proving to be a 
 profitable source of income. They should, however, principally benefit 
 the community, and not the private individual or corporation. 
 
 When an abattoir is privately owned and managed, the experts 
 assigned to the execution of the antemortem and postmortem inspec- 
 tion should be permanently appointed city officials, and there should 
 be a general official supervision of employees. 
 
 What is said on page 380 will apply also to the supervision and 
 veterinary police work in abattoirs. 
 
 STOCKYARDS 
 
 Stockyards which serve for commercial traffic in food animals in 
 specially constructed buildings are appropriately equipped. They 
 are very necessary in all cities in which the supply of food animals 
 from the immediate neighborhood is insufficient and in which the 
 supply comes from larger stock-raising localities. Stockyards which 
 are favorably situated and well attended, frequently become centres 
 for the animal commerce of large territories; and consequently, a 
 considerable amount of shipping takes place from such stockyards. 
 
 As a rule, a large proportion of the stock sold at the stock markets 
 
 is slaughtered at the same place. Therefore, it is advantageous to 
 
 'connect the stockyards directly with the abattoirs. The advantage 
 
 of this is especially great when an outbreak of contagion in the stock 
 
 markets calls for the immediate slaughter of affected stock. 
 
 Location of Stockyards. The same factors come into consideration 
 in the selection of a location for the erection of stockyards as in the 
 establishment of an abattoir. An immediate track connection with 
 a railroad is a natural necessity, and for these reasons the advantage 
 of its connection with an abattoir becomes apparent. Accordingly, 
 stockyards and abattoirs represent usually a complete establishment, 
 composed of two elements which are dependent upon each other. 
 A distinct separation of the abattoir from the stockyard in such a 
 
STOCKYARDS 377 
 
 way that the one may be closed against the other is indispensable 
 from a veterinary police standpoint, and also on the grounds of technical 
 management. 
 
 There are no special systems for grouping stockyard buildings. This 
 is rather influenced by the location of the various buildings of the 
 abattoir, and especially by the practical points of view. Parts of 
 stockyards separated for spedial purposes are: Yards for animals 
 left over from the market; quarantine and plague yards, which, how- 
 ever, in smaller stockyards are mostly represented by isolated stables. 
 
 [The Union Stockyards at Chicago, 111. (Fig. 152), in which ante- 
 mortem inspection of live stock* is conducted by the employees of the 
 Bureau of Animal Industry, contains 500 acres, about 50 of which 
 are either covered by buildings or used for storage of manure, lumber, 
 etc. This latter portion, commonly known as "the dump," is the 
 only area which is not paved or covered with flooring. Of the remain- 
 ing 450 acres, an area comprising a few acres which includes the 
 pens that are scarcely ever in use is floored with planking and drained 
 by box sewers. The remainder of the cattle pens, roadways, and 
 alleys comprising the vast area in daily use are paved throughout with 
 vitrified brick having a low degree of water absorption. The drainage 
 is good, and the pens are kept as clean as the character of their use 
 will permit.] 
 
 Buildings and Plants. The buildings and plants which belong to 
 a well-equipped stockyard will be briefly described. When a public 
 traffic is maintained, or food animals are brought, the equipment in 
 general should, in the first place, satisfy the veteruiary police and 
 sanitary requirements in relation to cleanliness and possibility for 
 disinfection (hard, impenetrable floors; these should be smooth, easily 
 washed walls; omission of woodwork; good arrangements for ventila- 
 tion; good light; abundant water supply, and good drainage for filthy 
 water) . 
 
 Stock which is transported to the stockyards is put up for sale in 
 special market yards, as a rule, only on certain market days. Whether 
 a special pen is provided for every species of food animal depends on 
 the size of the stockyards and the existing trade activity. 
 
 At some places calves are also put up for sale in the market pens 
 used for cattle, while in others they are sheltered in the market yard 
 used for hogs; and in still other stockyards there are special small 
 stock-market pens for calves. 
 
 In the equipment of these market yards, railings should be provided 
 in those used for cattle for tying the animals; and in the yards for 
 smaller stock divisions into smaller and larger pens are required for 
 placing the animals. Equipment for feeding stock in the market yards 
 (mangers, troughs, racks) is not necessary in case there is ample stable 
 room present, in which stabling and feeding may take place before 
 and after market. 
 
 Special emphasis should be laid from the standpoint of veterinary 
 
378 
 
 ABATTOIRS AND STOCKYARDS 
 
STOCKYARDS 379 
 
 police, upon good and sufficient stables. Large attached stable rooms, 
 however, are unsatisfactory and small stable divisions should be favored. 
 
 Special stables for horses are required for the horses employed in 
 the business of the stockyards. The stable loft serves, as a rule, as a 
 storage room for feed and straw. 
 
 An exchange building with restaurant is only necessary in large 
 stockyards. In this building offices and business rooms are also pro- 
 vided for traders, stock commission men, animal insurance companies, 
 stockyard banks, etc. 
 
 A special office building for the officials and the management of 
 the abattoir is necessary in those instances where the required rooms 
 cannot be obtained in the other buildings (exchange halls). 
 
 The location of railroad platforms for loading and unloading stock 
 is influenced on the one hand by track connections, but on the other 
 hand, the traffic with market stock is considerably facilitated by the 
 suitable relation of the stables to the platform. A special platform, or 
 a separated part of the general platform, must be provided for the traffic 
 of quarantined stock or animals infected with a contagious disease. 
 On the platforms are holding and counting pens necessary for tempo- 
 rary quarantine of the stock, which should serve also for veterinary 
 police purposes. Small platforms for loading stock into vehicles are 
 suitably erected at various practical places in the stockyards. 
 
 A dung yard must be provided when the stable manure is not imme- 
 diately loaded into cars from special manure houses (page 375). Lately, 
 the attempt has been made to compost the manure. By this method 
 the vegetable and animal organisms which produce disease are rendered 
 harmless through a development of self-heating manures as a conse- 
 quence of the process. 
 
 Equipment for washing hogs (wash pens, vats) and for the preparation 
 of scalded feed and gruels (gruel kitchens) are usually established in 
 connection with the respective stables. 
 
 The water supply (cold and warm water) of the stockyard is obtained, 
 as a rule, from the corresponding plant of the abattoir. 
 
 A disinfection plant for railroad cars, with necessary tracks, steam, 
 and hot-water boilers, hydrants, etc., is found only in larger stockyards. 
 
 The part of the stockyard used for animals left over from the market 
 is indispensable for large stockyards at a time of danger from plague. 
 It represents a closed portion of the stockyard with stables for all 
 species of animals which were not sold, for the time being, on the 
 market. 
 
 The quarantine or closed yards are somewhat similar to those pre- 
 viously mentioned, and are used for the accommodation of market 
 stock from foreign countries which is not allowed to come in contact 
 with native stock. It is more correct to connect the quarantine yards 
 directly with the abattoir, or to provide an equipment in the yards 
 for slaughtering animals placed in the quarantine pens. 
 
 The yards for animals with infectious diseases are, as a rule, con- 
 
380 ABATTOIRS AND STOCKYARDS 
 
 nected with the sanitary establishment mentioned on page 375, in 
 order that the infected stock may be slaughtered there. 
 
 Management of Stockyards. The management of stockyards is 
 the same as that of abattoirs (see page 376). 
 
 Veterinary supervision of the stockyards, as a rule, devolves upon the 
 competent state official veterinarians, unless special state veterinarians 
 are employed for this purpose; or the director of the stockyards is 
 authorized by the Government to maintain this supervision, assigning 
 an official veterinarian to attend to the duties. 
 
 [In the United States the stockyards which are located in the larger 
 live-stock centres are, as a rule, controlled by private corporations. 
 However, all conditions pertaining to their sanitation are under the 
 direct control and supervision of the Bureau of Animal Industry.] 
 
INDEX 
 
 ABATTOIRS, 369 
 
 law concerning, 370 
 
 performance of meat inspection in, 
 
 166 
 
 public, 369 
 in Rome, 360 
 
 Abdominal cavity, lymph glands of, 60 
 Abomasum, diffused lymphadenia of, 213 
 
 diphtheritic inflammation of, 213 
 Abscess, 205 
 
 hypophrenic, 216 
 metastatic, 302 
 Acarus mange, 232 
 
 Accidents, emergency slaughter in, 198 
 Acetic acid, conserving with, 93, 104 
 Acidity of fat, degree of, 331 
 Actinobacillosis of cattle, 282 
 Actinomycosis, 278 
 Advanced pregnancy, animals in, 196 
 Age of slaughter of animals, 33, 192 
 Agglutination test for distinguishing 
 
 meat, 77 
 
 in meat poisonings, 354 
 Aglossa pinguinalis, 329 
 Air-sac mite, 343 
 Albumin, 50 
 Albumina, 88, 333, 335 
 Albumenoids of muscles, 54 
 Albumose in meat peptone, 105 
 Aldehyde in fat, 331 
 Allantiasis, 357 
 Ambulatory antemortem and postmortem 
 
 inspection, 166 
 Ammonia in putrefaction of meat, test 
 
 for, 326 
 Amphibians, examination of, 349 
 
 pecularities of meat of, 77 
 Amyloid degeneration, 203 
 Anatomy of most important viscera, 68 
 Anemia, 199, 222 
 Angiomatosis of liver, 214 
 Animal flour, 185 
 
 transportation of, regulation on, 25 
 Anoplocephala, 238 
 
 Antemortem and postmortem inspec- 
 tion, ambulatory, 164 
 dues for, 163 
 extraordinary, 167 
 organization of, 143 
 performance of, 169 
 procedure of, 14$ 
 
 Antemortem and postmortem inspec- 
 tion, statistics of, 16 - 
 supervision of, 164 
 Anthracosis of lungs, 220 
 Anthrax, 282 
 Aphthous fever, 290 
 Apiosoma bigemin m, 261 
 Appert's conserving method, 93 
 Aroma bacteria, 328 
 Ascarides, 237 
 Ascaris capsularia, 349 
 Aspergillus, 327 
 Atrophy, 201 
 
 brown, 205 
 
 Autodigestion of meat, 323 
 Auto-infection with measles, 250 
 Auto-intoxications, 228 
 Au^olysis of muscles, 323 
 Azoturia, 229 
 
 B 
 
 BACILLARY erysipelas, 304 
 Bacillus anthracis, 282 
 
 botulinus, 357, 358 
 
 bovisepticus, 319 
 
 cellulseformis, 355 
 
 cyanogenus, 328 
 
 enteritidis, Gartner, 324, 351 
 
 cause of meat poisoning, 351 
 
 gangrsense emphysematosse, 314, 324 
 
 gastromycosis ovis, 316 
 
 malleus, 287 
 
 necrophorus, 321 
 
 nodulifacius bovis, 215 
 
 oedematis maligni, 296, 324 
 
 paraputrificus, 324 
 
 phosphorescens, 327 
 
 piscicidus agilis, 349 
 
 prodigiosus, 328 
 
 proteus as cause of meat poisonings, 
 355 
 
 pseudotuberculosis ovis, 277 
 
 putrificus, 324 
 
 pyorogenes suis, 309 
 
 renalis bovis, 217 
 
 suipestifer, 310 
 
 suisepticus, 308 
 
 tetanus, 295 
 
 tuberculosis, 264 
 Bacon, definition of, 55 
 Bacterial contents of chopped meat, 86 
 
382 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bacteriemia, 298 
 
 Bacteriologic meat inspection, 147 
 
 Bacterium avicidum, 343 
 
 coli, 324 
 
 cause of meat poisonings, 355 
 of sepsis, 298 
 
 lymphaticum aerogenes, 215 
 
 pestis astaci, 350 
 
 proteus, 324 
 Balbianidse, 261 
 Barbel cholera, 348 
 Barmenit, 103 
 Beef, differentiated from horse meat, 81 
 
 measles, 247 
 
 peculiarities of meat, 74 
 Bile, utilization of, 51 
 Billy-goats, odor of meat of, 195 
 Binding quality of meat, 87 
 
 substances in sausage, 87, 335 
 Biological method for distinguishing 
 
 various kinds of meats, 77 
 Blackleg, 314 
 
 parturient, 296, 315 
 Bladder worm, 241, 244, 249 
 Blastomycosis of muscles, 212 
 Bleeding, 41 
 
 incomplete, 197 
 
 thorough, indications of, 42 
 Blood, 50, 58 
 
 aspiration of, 220 
 
 chemical composition of, 58 
 
 poisoning, ichorous, 297 
 purulent, 311 
 
 quantity of, in slaughtered animals, 
 42 
 
 sausage, 88 
 
 vessels, 58 
 
 watery condition of, 223 
 Bloody urine, enzootic, 263 
 Blow fly, 329 
 Blue coloration of meat, 328 
 
 of udder, 331 
 
 Boars, odor of meat of, 194 
 Boat, transportation of food animals by, 
 
 Body lymph glands, 58, 67 
 
 Boiler house, 375 
 
 Boiling of meat, 90, 93, 175 
 
 test, 149 
 
 Bolt apparatuses, 38, 39, 40 
 hammer, 38 
 pistol, 40 
 Bone, 57 
 
 as offal, 51 
 marrow, 57 
 of calf, 74 
 of catt'e, 74 
 of goat, 75 
 of hog, 75 
 of sheep, 75 
 tissue, diseases of, 211 
 Bookkeeping of inspections, 162 
 Bonphilus species, 261 
 Boracic acid, conserving with, 103 
 
 test for, 337 
 Boroglyceride, 103 
 
 Bethriocephalus latus, 238, 247 
 
 liguloides, 247 
 Botriomycosis, 282 
 Botulism, 357 
 Bradsot, 316 
 Branding stamp, 30, 172 
 Breaking down processes in connective 
 
 tissue, 210 
 Brine, 101 
 Bromatology, 19 
 
 Bronchopneumonia of calves, 314 
 Brucin reaction (test for saltpeter), 337 
 Buffalo meat distinguished from beef, 85 
 Bulging of cans, 335 
 Bull, characteristics of meat of, 74 
 
 meat, odor of, 197 
 Bullet-shooting apparatus, 39 
 Burning of small parts of carcasses, 191 
 
 stove after Kori, 191 
 Burying of meat, 190 
 Butter refractometer, 339 
 Butterine, 106 
 Buying of food animals, 21 
 
 CADAVER bacilli, 285 
 
 Calcareofibrous nodules in lungs, 219, 
 
 289 
 Calcification, 205 
 
 multiple, 217 
 
 presternal, 212 
 Calf, age and maturity of, 33 
 
 definition of, 20 
 
 diarrhea, 322 
 
 diphtheria, 221 
 
 fever, 230 
 
 meat, inflation of, 43 
 
 peculiarities of, 74 
 
 pyemic polyarthritis, 302 
 
 ruffles of, 51 
 
 septic polyarthritis, 300 
 Canned meat, 94, 95 
 
 inspection of, 335 
 poisonous, 358 
 Carbolic odor of meat, 331 
 Carceag of sheep (parasitic ictero- 
 
 hematuria), 263 
 Carcinomatosis, 206 
 Came pura, 93 
 Carnifices, 360 
 Caro porosa, 339 
 Cartilage, 58 
 
 diseases of, 212 
 Caseation, 203 
 Casings, 159 
 Cat, distinguishing of meat from rabbit, 
 
 79 
 
 Catarrhal fever of cattle, malignant, 320 
 Caviar, 107 
 
 examination of, 341 
 
 Central nervous system, diseases of, 222 
 Cerebral bladder-worm cyst, 242 
 Cerebrospinal meningitis of horses, 222 
 Chalicosis of lungs, 219 
 
INDEX 
 
 383 
 
 Chalicosis nodosa of liver, 215 
 Charguc dulce, 93 
 Cheiracannthus hispidus, 237 
 Chemical conserving methods, 101 
 
 destruction of meat, 188 
 Chemistry of tissues and organs, 52 
 Chicken cholera, 343 
 diphtheria, 344 
 favus, 343 
 
 meat, appearance of, 208 
 pest, 344 
 pox, 343 
 
 tuberculosis, 344 
 Chlorine odor of meat, 331 
 Cholemia, 228 
 Cholera, dissemination of, by meat, 328 
 
 of fowls, 343 
 Chopped meat, 86 
 
 bacterial contents of, 86 
 examination of, 333 
 poisonings, 356 
 Circulatory apparatus, 221 
 
 disturbances, 200 
 Clams, poisonous, 350 
 Classification of food animals for market 
 
 quotations, 24 
 Cloudy swelling, 201 
 Coccidisc of intestinal mucosa, 240 
 
 of skin, 234 
 
 Coccidium fuscum, 234, 241 
 oviforme, 241 
 perforans, 241 
 Ccenurus cerebralis, 242 
 Cold, preserving meat by, 96 
 slaughtering, 45 
 storage geese, 345 
 Coli bacteria as producers of sepsis, 398 
 
 in pyemia, 303 
 Collecting box for condemned meat, 182 
 
 Garth's, 187 
 
 Color changes of udder in boiling, 221 
 Coloring of meat, 88, 333 
 
 substances, test for, 334, 340 
 Colpitis follicularis infectiosa, 218 
 Comb scab in fowl, 343 
 Comparative anatomy of viscera, 68 
 Composition of meats and meat-food 
 
 products, 55 
 
 Compression machine, 98 
 Compressor for trichina inspection, 163 
 Compulsory slaughter in public abat- 
 toirs, 3(> ( .) 
 Concrement, 205 
 
 lime, 209 
 
 Condemnations, 173 
 Condemned meats, collecting box for, 
 
 182 
 
 disposal of, 181 
 room for, 150 
 utilizing plants for, 375 
 Conditionally passed meat, 173 
 
 collect ing box for, 1X2 
 confiscated, utili/ing plants 
 
 for, 37f) 
 Connective tissue, 54 
 
 diseases of, 210 
 
 Connective-tissue mite, 343 
 Conserves, examination of, 339 
 
 preparation of, 93 
 Conserving by closing out of air, 93 
 
 of meat, 86, v 2 
 Contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle, 
 
 313 
 
 Cooking of meat, 89, 93, 173 
 Cooling rooms, 100, 374 
 Corned beef, 94 
 
 brown, 94 
 
 mutton, 94 
 
 pork, 94 
 Cottonseed oil, adulteration of fat with, 
 
 106 
 
 test for, 341 
 Cow, age of, 35 
 
 definition of, 19 
 
 peculiarities of meat of, 74 
 
 pox, 294 
 
 udder of, blue coloration of, 331 
 Crabs, diseases of, 350 
 
 examination of, 349 
 
 fraudulent substitution for, 350 
 Cracklings, 106 
 Crustaceans, examination of, 349 
 
 peculiarities of meat of, 77 
 Cryptorchid boars, sexual odor of, 195 
 Culinary preparation of meat, 89 
 Cutting ot throat for bleeding, 41 
 Cystic formation of heart valves, 221 
 
 kidney, 218 
 Cysticerci as cause of lime concrements, 
 
 210 
 
 of peritonitis, 216 
 Cysticercus cellulosse, 248 
 
 inermis s. bovis, 251 
 
 pisiformis, 242 
 
 tenuicollis, 241, 249 
 Cystodites nodus, 343 
 
 DAVAINEA mutabilis, 343 
 Dead animals, 198 
 
 born animals, 192 
 Decomposition of meat, 324 
 Deer, age of, 345 
 
 distinguishing meat of, from beef, 85 
 from sheep and goat, 79 
 
 measles of, 247, 346 
 
 sex of, 346 
 Degenerations, 202, 203 
 
 of muscles, 209 
 Demodex scabies, 232, 233 
 Dermatocoptes mites, 233 
 Dermatoryctes mutans, 343 
 Diamond skin disease, 306 
 Diary inspection book, 162 
 Differentiating signs of various meats, 
 
 77 
 
 Diffused lymphadenia of mucous mem- 
 brane of abomasum, 213 
 Digestibility of meat, 90 
 Digestive apparatus, diseases of, 212 
 
384 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Digestive apparatus, lymph glands of, 60 
 
 weight of, 22 
 
 Diphtheria of abornasurn, 213 
 of calves, 321 
 of fowls, 344 
 
 Dipylidium caninum, 238 
 Diseased meat, influence of cooking on, 
 
 90 
 
 of pickling on, 103 
 of smoking on, 104 
 Diseases of blood, 222 
 constitutional, 222 
 
 Disinfection plant for railroad cars, 379 
 Disposal of condemned meat, 169, 173, 
 
 181 
 
 Distemper of horses, 322 
 Distillation, dry, for destruction of meat, 
 
 191 
 
 Distomatosis, 238 
 Distomum felineum, 349 
 Dog abattoir, 383 
 
 distinguishing of meat from pork, 
 
 79 
 
 as food animal, 19 
 peculiarities of meat of, 75 
 Dourine, 263 
 Draw-back harness for transporting 
 
 animals, 25 
 Dressed weight, 22 
 Dressing of carcasses, 43 
 Dry distillation for disposal of meat, 191 
 Drying of meat, 93 
 Duck, age of, determination of, 342 
 Dysentery, hemorrhagic, of cattle, 240 
 
 EAR tags, 30, 31 
 Eber's test for putrefaction, 326 
 Echinococci, 244 
 Echinorhyncus gigas, 237 
 Edema, malignant, 296, 315 
 Eel blood, poisonous qualities of, 348 
 Egg concrements, 345 
 Elastic tissues, 54 
 Emaciated animals, 193 
 Emaciation, 193 
 Embolism, 200 
 Emergency slaughter, 44 
 inspection in, 155 
 meat poisoning from, 352 
 Emmerich's slaughtering method, 93 
 Emphysema of connective tissue, 210 
 
 mesenteric, 215 
 Empyema, 207 
 Endocarditis, 221 
 
 valvularis verrucosa, 306 
 Engine houses, 375 
 Enteritidis bacilli as producers of sepsis, 
 
 298 
 
 in pyemia, 303 
 Enteritis hsemorrhagica, 300 
 
 mycotica of cattle, 317 
 
 septica, 300 
 Enzootic hemoglobinuria, 263 
 
 Enzymes of muscles, 54 
 Epithelioma contagiosum, 343 
 Eruptions of teeth, 33 
 Erysipelas of hogs, 304 
 
 wound, 306 
 Erythema, 306 
 
 Examination of inspectors, 143 
 Exhausted animals, 197 
 Extractive bodies in muscles, 54 
 Extraordinary meat inspection, 167 
 
 FALLOW deer, sexual differences of, 346 
 
 Farcy, 287 
 
 Fasciola hepatica, 238 
 
 Fasting calf, 192 
 
 Fat, 50, 55 
 
 abnormal coloration of, 196 
 
 chemical constituents of, 57 
 
 color of, 55 
 
 prepared, 106 
 
 stones, 213 
 
 test for, 340, 341 
 
 tissue, 55 
 
 diseases of, 213 
 
 structure and consistence of, 55 
 Fattened calves, 74 
 
 steers, 74 
 Fatty acids, 331 
 
 degeneration, 202 
 infiltration, 202 
 necrosis of pancreas, 217 
 I Fauna, bromatologic, 19 
 j Fees for inspection, 163 
 Fermentation in meat, 323 
 Ferments of musculature, 53 
 Fetal meat, 192 
 Filaria equina, 242 
 
 piscium, 349 
 Fish, diseases of, 348 
 
 examination of, 347, 348 
 measles, 349 
 
 meat, characteristics of, 76 
 deceptions with, 348 
 poisonous, 347 
 ripening process in, 90 
 poisoning from, 347 
 poisonings, 349 
 pox, 349 
 
 roe, poisonous, 347 
 Flat worms, 237 
 Flaying disinfector, 183 
 Flour, addition of, to sausage, 87 
 
 mite, 329 
 Flukes, 238 
 Food animals, 19 
 
 abnormal conditions and dis- 
 eases of, 192 
 age of, 33 
 
 anatomy of viscera, 68 
 classification of, for market quo- 
 tations, 24 
 dressing of, 43 
 guarantee for, 32 
 
INDEX 
 
 385 
 
 Food animals, importation of, 28 
 insurance of, 29 
 slaughtering of, 35 
 traffic with, 21 
 transportation, 25 
 utilization, 46 
 aspiration of, 220 
 preparations derived from animals, 
 
 105 
 Foot and mouth disease, 290 
 
 rot in sheep, 293 
 Forest disease, 263 
 Formaldehyde, test for, 338 
 Fowl arthritis, 345 
 
 tuberculosis, 344 
 
 Fraudulent substitutions of meat, 77 
 Freezing, conserving meat by, 101 
 Freibank, 164, 375 
 Frog, 350 
 Frontal blow, 38 
 Frozen meat, inspection of, 336 
 
 GAD boils, 232 
 
 fly, 232, 234 
 
 of sheep, 232 
 Gall sick, 360 
 Game, age of, determination of, 345 
 
 and cattle plague, 318 
 
 diseases of, 347 
 
 peculiarities of meat of, 76 
 
 postmortem changes of, 347 
 Gangrene, 203 
 
 Gastro-intestinal canal, weight of, 23 
 Gastrophilus equi, 236 
 Gastrus larvae, 236 
 Gauls, meat food of, 360 
 Genito-urinary apparatus, diseases of, 
 
 216 
 
 lymph glands of, 67 
 Germans, meat food of, 360 
 Gid of sheep, 242 
 Glanders, 287 
 
 nodules of, in lungs, 219, 288 
 Glassy degeneration, 203 
 Glycerides, 57 
 Glycogen in muscles, 54 
 
 demonstration of, 82 
 Gnathostoma hispidum, 237 
 Goat, distinguishing meat of, from deer, 
 
 79 
 from mutton, 78 
 
 as food animal, 20 
 
 peculiarities of meat of, 75 
 Goldbeater skins, 51 
 Goose, age of, determination of, 342 
 
 meat from cold storage, 345 
 Granular atrophy of liver, 214 
 
 eruptions of hogs, 222, 234 
 Granulomata, 207 
 Grape fungus disease, 282 
 
 sugar in horse meat, 82 
 Grass-fed cattle, 196 
 Green discoloration of fat, 211 
 25 
 
 Ground meat, 86 
 
 bacterial contents of, 86 
 
 examination of, 333 
 
 poisonings by, 356 
 Gruel kitchens, 379 
 Guarantee in trading with food animals, 
 
 32 
 
 Gut room, 374 
 Gutting, 43 
 
 HADDOCK, conserving of, 93 
 
 Hsematopines, 234 
 
 Halisteresis ossium, 225 
 
 Ham, souring of, 324 
 
 Hanging arrangement in abattoirs, 373 
 
 Hare, age of, determination of, 345 
 
 distinguishing of meat from cat meat, 
 
 79 
 Hartmann's carcass-destroying appara 
 
 tus, 185 
 Haut-gout, 323 
 Heart, 72 
 
 of cattle, 74 
 Heat conduction of meat, 91 
 
 stroke, 306 
 
 Heathcock, determining age of, 346 
 Hemangioma of liver, 214 
 Hematoidin, 199 
 
 Hemoglobin, in hemorrhages, 199 
 Hemoglobinemia of cattle, 261 
 
 of horses, 229 
 Hemoglobinuria of cattle, 261, 318 
 
 of horses, 229 
 Hemorrhages of lungs, 219 
 
 multiple, of muscles, 210 
 
 time of occurrence of, 199 
 Hemorrhagic septicemia, 318 
 Hemorrhodin,, 102 
 Hemosiderin, 199 
 Hemosporidiosis, 261 
 Henneguya zschokkei, 349 
 Hepatitis, chronic interstitial, 214 
 Hermit tapeworm, 248 
 Hide houses, 375 
 
 salting establishment, 375 
 History of meat hygiene, 360 
 in Canada, 367 
 in United States, 362 
 Hochmuth's destruction apparatus, 189 
 Hodgkin's disease, 227 
 Hog bristles, utilization of, 51 
 
 cholera, 309 
 
 distinguishing meat from dog meat, 
 79 
 
 emergency slaughter of, 44 
 
 as food animal, 20 
 
 influence of feeding on meat of, 75 
 
 peculiarities of meat of, 75 
 Hoofs and claws as offal, 51 
 Hook-frames in abattoirs for small stock, 
 
 374 
 
 Horns, development of, determining age 
 by, 34 
 
386 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Horns, rings of, in cows, 35 
 Horse abattoir, 373 
 
 distinguishing from beef, 81 
 
 salted intestines of, from cattle 
 intestines, 159 
 
 as food animal, 19 
 
 malaria, 263 
 
 mange, 233 
 
 meat, test for, 82 
 
 peculiarities of meat of, 75 
 House fly, 329 
 Hyaline degeneration, 205 
 Hydremia, 223 
 Hydrometra, 218 
 Hydronephrosis, 218 
 Hygrometer, 101 
 Hyperemia, 198 
 Hyperplasia, 206 
 Hypertrophy, 206 
 Hypoderma Iarva3, 232 
 Hypophrenic abscesses, 216 
 Hypostasis, 200 
 
 ICE boxes, 98 
 
 houses, 98 
 
 production, artificial, 100 
 Ichthyotoxicon, 348 
 Ichthyotoxism, 357 
 Icterus, 228 
 
 Imbibition, hemorrhagic, 199 
 Immature animals, 192 
 Importation of food animals and meat, 
 
 28 
 
 Incising of lymph glands, 148 
 Incompletely bled animals, 197 
 Indigestions of food animals, influence 
 
 of, on weight, 23 
 Induration, 201 
 Infarct, hemorrhagic, 199 
 
 in spleen, 221 
 Infectious diseases, 264 
 
 growths, 207 
 
 vaginal catarrh of cattle, 220 
 Inferior quality meat, 181 
 Infiltrations of tissues, 202 
 Inflammations, 200 
 
 Inflammatory disease of head in cattle, 
 320 
 
 processes of connective tissue, 210 
 Inflation of carcasses, 43, 210 
 Influences of feeding on food animals, 
 
 195 
 
 Influenza of horses, 322 
 Injection pickling, 101 
 Ink stamps, 170 
 Insect larvae on meat, 329 
 Inspection of imported meat, 159, 191 
 
 office, 375 
 
 reports, 165 
 
 of slaughtered animals, 146 
 
 disposal of, as result of, 169 
 Inspector's assistant, 144 
 Insurance of food animals, 29 
 
 I Intestinal emphysema, 215 
 Intestines, 11 
 
 multiple hemorrhages of, 213 
 Intoxication in food animals, 227 
 
 putrid, 303 
 
 Invasion, diseases of, 231 
 Iridescence of muscles, 208 
 
 of pickled meat, 336 
 Ischemia, 199 
 
 Ixidioplasma bigeminum, 261 
 Ixodes reduvius, 261 
 
 JAUNDICE, 228 
 
 malignant, of dogs, 263 
 Jelly sausage, 89 
 Jerked beef, 93 
 Jewish meat laws, 360 
 Johne's disease, 269 
 
 KETONE in fat, 331 
 Kidneys, 72 
 
 weight of, in cattle, 74 
 Killing methods, 38 
 Knocking hammer, 40 
 Kori's burning stove, 191 
 
 LABORATORY inspectors, 143 
 Laminosioptes cysticola, 343 
 Land flavor, 347 
 Lard, 106 
 
 artificial, 106 
 
 examination of, 340 
 
 test of, 340 
 
 Large stock, dressing of, 43 
 as food animals, 19 
 "Leaker" (defective can), 96 
 Legal means of redress in meat inspec- 
 tion, 162 
 
 Leg-scab of fowl, 343 
 Leucorrhea, 218 
 Leukemia, 224 
 Lice, 234 
 Lime concrements from cysticercus tenui- 
 
 collis, 241 
 in muscles, 209 
 
 Live weight of food animals, 21 
 Liver, 71 
 
 fluke, 238 
 
 migrated, 242 
 mottled, 215 
 
 necrosis of, multiple, 214 
 
 telangiectasis of, 214 
 
 weight of, in cattle, 73 
 Livid areas, 199 
 Lobster conserves, 350 
 
 examination of, 349 
 Long clear, 50 
 
INDEX 
 
 387 
 
 Long fat backs, 50 
 
 Losses in meat in preparation for food, 92 
 
 Lumbago of horses, 229 
 
 Lungs, 72 
 
 diseases of, 221 
 
 nodules in, calcareofibrous, 219, 289 
 
 parasites of, 235 
 
 weight of, in cattle, 74 
 Lymphadenia, diffused, of abomasum, 213 
 Lymph glands, 58 
 
 incising of, 146 
 
 nodes, incising of, 146 
 
 size, numbers, and location of, 
 58 
 
 vessels, 58 
 Lyssa, 286 
 
 M 
 
 MACULAR hemorrhagic dermatitis in 
 
 hogs, 306 
 
 Machines, refrigeration, 98 
 Maggots on meat, 329 
 Mai de caderas, 263 
 Malaria of cattle, 263 
 
 of horses, 263 
 Malformations, 207 
 Malignant catarrhal fever of cattle, 320 
 
 edema, 315, 296 
 Malleus, 287 
 Management of abattoirs, 376 
 
 of stockyards, 380 
 
 Manure houses (dung yards), 375, 379 
 Margarin law, 106 
 Market halls in stockyards, 377 
 
 quotations for food animals, 24 
 Marking of inspected meat, 172 
 foreign, 191 
 of injured animals, 29 
 Mastitis, 218 
 
 septic, 219 
 
 Maturity of calves for slaughter, 33 
 Measles, 247 
 
 auto-infection with, 250 
 
 in fish, 349 
 
 in game, 247, 347 
 
 regulations for judgment of, 250, 251, 
 
 Meat, changes in, postmortem, 323 
 conserving of, 92 
 constituents of, 52 
 of crustaceans and mollusks, 77 
 cuts, 87 
 
 decomposition of, 323 
 disposal of condemned, 1 7.~i 
 distinguishing various kinds of, 77 
 extract, 57, 105 
 
 examination of, 339 
 fetal, 192 
 of fish, 76 
 flies, 329 
 flour, American, 105 
 
 preparation of, 95 
 of food animals, 19, 47, 73 
 foods, composition of, ,52, 53 
 
 Meat foods, obtaining of, 19 
 poisoning with, 352 
 fraudulent substitutions of, 77 
 of game, 76 
 inspection, ambulatory, 166 
 
 designation of animals in, 20 
 extraordinary, 167 
 history of, 359 
 law, 137 
 
 performance of, 143, 169 
 regulations for, 109 
 statistics of, 163 
 inspectors (practical), 144 
 Kosher, 44 
 markings of, 159 
 paste, 89 
 
 peculiarities of, 73 
 poisonings, 351 
 
 from bacillus botulinus, 357 
 coli, 355 
 enteritidis, 351 
 postmortem changes in, 323 
 of poultry, 76 
 preparation of, 86 
 prohibition from importing, 28 
 qualities of, 47 
 of reptiles, etc., 77 
 ripening of, 53 
 sausage, 87 
 sterilizers, 173 
 
 technique of inspection of, 146 
 turning gray in cooking, 88 
 Melanosarcomatosis, 205 
 Melanosis, 205 
 Melting out of fat, 180 
 Meningitis, cerebrospinal, 222 
 Mesenteric emphysema, 215 
 Metallic poisons in meat, 331 
 Metaplasia, 206 
 Method of procedure in meat inspection, 
 
 151 
 
 Metritis, septic, 300 
 Microorganisms, action of pickling on, 
 
 104 
 
 of smoking on, 104 
 Microphytic changes of meat, 327 
 Miescher's sacs, 259 
 Milk fever, 230 
 nodes, 221 
 
 Mohammedan food laws, 359 
 Moles, pigmented, 222 
 Mollusks, 77 
 Moniezia, 237 
 Morbus maculosus, 301 
 
 nodulosus of fish, 348 
 Morphology of tissues and organs, 52 
 Mould formation on meat, 327 
 Mucin metamorphosis, 203 
 Mucoid degeneration, 203 
 Mucor, 327 
 Multiple fat necrosis, 213 
 
 hemorrhages of muscles, 210 
 Murexid reaction, 345 
 Musca domestica, 329 
 
 vomitoria, 329 
 Muscle, actinomycosis of, 209 
 
388 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Muscle, coloring matter, retaining of, 86 
 
 degeneration of, 208 
 
 distomes in fish, 349 
 
 lymph glands of, 59, 67 
 
 samples for trichina examination, 
 163 
 
 turning gray in cooking, 88 
 
 in pickling, 106 
 Muscular hemorrhages, 210 
 Musculature, 52 
 Mussel poisoning, 350 
 Mutton, peculiarities of meat of, 75 
 Mycosis astacina, 350 
 Mytilotoxism, 350 
 Myxobolus, 348 
 Myxosporidia, 349 
 Muzzle, prepared as food, 51 
 
 NAGANA of cattle, 263 
 
 Navel, infection of, pyemic, 302 
 
 septic, 300 
 Neat's foot oil, 51 
 Neck stretcher for schachten, 41 
 Necrophorus bacilli cause of calf diph- 
 theria, 321 
 
 in liver, 217 
 Necrosis, 203 
 
 of fat, 213 
 Negri bodies, 286 
 Nephritis, 219 
 Nettle fever, 306 
 
 Neuroma of intercostal nerves, 221 
 Nitrate of potassium, test for, 337 
 Nitric oxyhemochromogen, 91 
 Nodular disease of fish, 348 
 Nutritive value of meat, 90 
 
 OBLIGATIONS, conditions of, 32 
 Ochronosis, 205 
 Odor of meat, 74 
 
 abnormal, 194, 331 
 absorption, 195 
 examination of, 151 
 (Estrus larvae, 232, 234 
 
 ovis, 234 
 Offal, 46, 51 
 Oidium astaci, 350 
 Oil, conserving with, 96 
 
 sardines, 96 
 Olein, 106 
 
 Oleo oil, preparation of, 107 
 Oleomargarin, 106, 107 
 Oligemia, 222 _ 
 Omphalophlebitis, pyemic, 302 
 
 septic, 300 
 Organs, diseases of, 207 
 
 lymph glands of, 58 
 
 parasites of, 232 
 
 used for preparation of therapeutic 
 remedies, 51 
 
 Osteomalacia, 225 
 
 Osteomyelitis, suppurative, 302 
 
 Osteopsathyrosis, 225 
 
 Ovaries, comparative anatomy of, 73 
 
 poisonous, from fish, 347 
 
 utilization of, 51 
 Overheated meat, 323 
 Oversticking, 42 
 Oxyuris, 237 
 Oysters, diseases of, 350 
 
 PALISADE worms, 235 
 Palpitating animals in trading, 21 
 Pancreas, 71 
 
 necrosis of, 215 
 Pancreatic peptone, 105 
 Paprika bacon, 93 
 Paramphistomum cervi, 240 
 Parasites of brain, 242 
 
 of digestive apparatus, 236 
 
 of lungs, 235 
 
 of pleura and peritoneum, 241 
 
 of skin, 232 
 Parasitic diseases of organs, 232 
 
 infestations, toxins of, 238 
 Paratyphoid meat poisonings, 351, 353, 
 
 354, 356 
 
 Parenchymatous degeneration, 201 
 Parturient symptomatic anthrax, 296, 
 
 315 
 Parturition fever, 230 
 
 paresis, 230 
 Pasture stock, 19 
 Pearly disease, 264 
 
 virulence of meat of, 272 
 Pelvic cavity, lymph glands of, 60 
 Penetration of meat by high tempera- 
 ture, 91 
 
 Penicillium, 327 
 Pentastomes, 235 
 Pentastomum denticulatum, 242 
 
 taenoides, 235 
 Pepsin pepton, 105 
 Peptic ulcers, 213 
 Peptone, 105 
 Pericarditis, 221, 300, 304 
 
 traumatic, 304 
 Peritoneum, diseases of, 215 
 Peritonitis, 218, 241, 300 
 Pernicious anemia, 223 
 Petechiae of pleura, 220 
 Petechial fever, 301 
 Pheasant, age of, 347 
 Phlebectasis, 221 
 Phosphorescence of meat, 327 
 Phytosterin, test for, 341 
 Pickled meat, examination of, 336 
 Pickling fluid, concentration, 101, 180 
 
 of meat, 101, 180 
 
 thorough test for, 336 
 Pigeon, age of, determination of, 342 
 Pigment formation, 205 
 Pigmentation, black, of fat, 211 
 
INDEX 
 
 389 
 
 Pigmentation of pleura, 221 
 
 Pigmented moles, 222 
 
 Piroplasmosis, 261 
 
 Pitch mange, 222 
 
 Pithing, 41 
 
 Placenta, retained, 304 
 
 Pleuritis, 223 
 
 septic, 300 
 
 Pleuropneumonia, contagious, 313 
 Pneumatosis of mesentery, 215 
 Pneumonia, caseous, 303 
 Podewil's carcass-destroying apparatus, 
 
 183 
 
 Poisoning, 226 
 Poisonous fish, 347 
 Police abattoir, 375 
 Pollution of lungs, 220 
 Polyarthritis, pyemic, 302 
 
 septica, 300 
 Polymyositis, 208 
 Pork, 75 
 
 measles, 248 
 
 Porschen of kosher meat, 44 
 Postmortem changes of meat, 323 
 
 hypostasis, 201 
 
 spots, 201 
 Poultry, age of, determination of, 342 
 
 diseases of, 343 
 
 meat of, characteristics of, 76 
 influences of feeding on, 195 
 
 postmortem changes of meat, 345 
 Pox, 293 
 
 of chicken, 343 
 
 of fish, 349 
 Precipitation method for distinguishing 
 
 meat, 77 _ 
 Pregnancy in animals, claims on seller, 
 
 196 
 
 Premier jus, 107 
 Preparation of meats, 87 
 Prepared meat, examination of, 334 
 Preservative salts, 101 
 Pressure steam apparatus for diposal of 
 
 meat, 182 
 Pricking stamp, 31 
 Private slaughter houses, 369 
 Procedure of inspection, 143 
 Production of meat, 87 
 Projection trichina microscopes, 161 
 Proteus bacteria, 324 
 
 in meat poisoning, 355 
 Protozoa of digestive apparatus, 240 
 
 general affections due to, 259 
 Pseudoanthrax bacilli, 285 
 Pseudoaphtha, 292 
 Pseudoleukemia, 225 
 Pseudotrichinse, 258 
 Pseudotuberculosis, 277 
 Psorospermial bodies, 261 
 Pulley harness for transportation of 
 
 animals, 25 
 
 Purpura haemorrhagica, 301 
 Pus, contamination of meat with, 203 
 
 forming organisms, 204 
 Putrefaction bacteria in sapremia, 203 
 
 of meat, 324 
 
 Putrefaction, test for, 326 
 Putrid intoxication, 203 
 Pyelonephritis, 217 
 Pyemia, 205, 301 
 
 cause of meat poisoning, 352 
 Pyobacillosis, 303, 309 
 Pyonephrosis, 217 
 Pyometra, 218 
 Pyorrhea, 205 
 
 QUALITY classes of food animals, 21, 24 
 
 of meat, 47 
 
 Quantity of blood in animals, 42 
 Quarantine abattoirs, 375 
 
 yards, 379 
 
 RABBIT, age' of, determination of, 345 
 
 distinguishing the meat of, from cat 
 meat, 79 
 
 as food animal, 20 
 
 measles, 346 
 
 meat of, peculiarities of, 76 
 
 production of, 20 
 Rabies, 286 
 Rachitis, 225 
 Railroad platforms, 379 
 
 sickness, 27 
 
 transportation of food animals, 26 
 Rainey's bodies, 259 
 Ram, odor of meat of, 195 
 Rancidity of fats, 331 
 Ray fungus disease, 278 
 Reaction of musculature, 53 
 
 test for, 149 
 
 Red diarrhea of cattle, 240 
 Reddening of meat, 90, 106, 328 
 Reductive properties of musculature, 54 
 Refractometer after Zeiss-Wollny, 340 
 Refrigerating railroad car, 97 
 Refrigeration plant machine, 98 
 Regulations for meat inspection, 109 
 Reindeer pest, 316 
 Reinspection of meat, 160 
 Rennet ferment, 51 
 Replacement of teeth, 33, 36 
 Reptiles, peculiarities of meat of, 77 
 Respiratory apparatus, diseases of, 219 
 
 lymph glands of, 63 
 Rest for transported animals, 25 
 Retained placenta, 304 
 Retaining room, 152 
 Rhipicephalus, 261 
 Rib bellies, 50 
 Rigor mortis, 53 
 
 ferment, 53 
 Rinderpest, 317 
 Ripening of meat, 53, 90, 323 
 Roasting of meat, 91 
 Roe, poisonous qualities of, 347 
 Romans, meat foods of, 360 
 
390 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Rotation of spleen, 221 
 
 Rotting of meat, 324 
 
 Round worms of digestive apparatus, 236 
 
 Rumen, traumatic inflammation of, 212 
 
 S 
 
 SALICYLIC acid, test for, 338 
 Sanitary establishment, 375 
 
 slaughter house, 375 
 Sausage, 86 
 
 casings, coloring of, 88 
 dirt in, 334 
 
 examination of, 333 
 
 fat, 106 
 
 filling, 87 
 
 poisonings from, 357 
 
 turning gray of, 88, 334 
 Salt, conserving of meat with, 101 
 
 test for, 336 
 
 Salting of meat for conserving, 101 
 Saltpeter, test for, 337 
 Sample taking for trichina inspection, 
 
 161 
 
 Sapremia, 303 
 Saprophytes, 303 
 
 toxigenic, 358 
 
 Sarcocystis miesheriana, 259 
 Sarcomatosis, 206 
 Sarcophaga carnavia, 329 
 Sarcoptic mange, 232, 233 
 Sarcosporidiosis, 259 
 Scabies mites, 232 
 Scalding of slaughtered hogs, 43 
 Scaly feet of fowl, 343 
 Scarlet fever, dissemination by meat, 328 
 Schachten of food animals, 41 
 
 regulations on, 46 
 Schweinsberger disease, 214 
 Sclerostomae, 237 
 
 Sclerotic condition of fat tissue, 211 
 Sea eel, 348 
 
 salmon, 348 
 
 Securing harness for food animals, 25 
 Semitic food laws, 41, 44, 359 
 Sepsis, 297 
 
 cause of meat poisonings, 352 
 Septicemia haemorrhagica, 318 
 Septicopyemia, 298 
 Serum diagnosis for distinguishing meat, 
 
 77 
 
 in meat poisonings, 354 
 Sex, determination of, 153 
 Sexual organs as offal, 51 
 
 peculiarities of meat, 194 
 Shaking disease of sheep, 234 
 Sheep, distinguishing of meat of, from 
 
 deer, 79 
 from goat, 78 
 
 as food animals, 20 
 
 pox, 293 
 
 scabies, 232 
 Shooting of food animals, 40 
 
 bolt apparatus for, 39 
 Short clear, 50 
 
 Short fat back, 50 
 
 Signatera, 348 
 
 Simulia ornata, 319 
 
 Singeing of hogs, 43 
 
 Skeleton muscles, diseases of, 208 
 
 Skin, diseases of, 222 
 
 of food animals, 51 
 
 parasites of, 232 
 Slaughter ax, 38 
 
 houses, public, 369 
 in Rome, 360 
 
 mask, 38 
 
 Slaughtering of animals, 35 
 for Jews, 44 
 
 machine for hogs, 41 
 
 methods with stunning, 38 
 without stunning, 41 
 
 regulation for, 45 
 Small stock as food animals, 19 
 Smoked products, examination of, 339 
 
 salmon, 107 
 
 Smoking, conserving by, 104 
 Snuffle disease of hogs, 225 
 Soiled meat, with anthrax bacilli, 285 
 
 with pus, 303 
 Soiling of meat, 331 
 Sooty mange, 222 
 Sour side, 323 
 Souring of fats, 331 
 
 of meat, 323 
 Spinal meningitis, infectious of horses, 
 
 230 
 
 Spiradenitis coccidiosa, 234 
 Spleen, 71 
 
 rotation of, 221 
 
 weight of, in cattle, 73 
 Spotted disease of lobsters and crabs, 
 350 
 
 kidney of calves, white, 216 
 Spring-bolt apparatus, 39 
 Squeezing out passages or cavities of 
 
 slaughtered animals, 149 
 Stables in stockyards, 374 
 Stamping ink, 173 
 Stamps for meat, 170 
 Staphylococci as producers of sepsis, 
 298 
 
 suppuration, 301 
 
 Starch flour addition to sausage fillings, 
 333, 335 
 
 from spices in sausage, 333 
 Steam digester, 182 
 Steaming of meat, 91 
 
 passed conditionally, 173 
 Steer, definition for, 20 
 Sterilizers for meat, 173 
 Sterilizing of meat by boiling, 93 
 Sti no ing fly, 329 
 Stockyards, 376 
 Stomach, 70 
 
 contents, utilization of, 51 
 
 worm epizootic of sheep, 236 
 Stomatitis bovis, 292 
 Stomoxys calcitrans, 329 
 Streptococci as producers of sepsis, 298 
 
 suppuration, 301 
 
INDEX 
 
 391 
 
 Streptococcus melanogenes, 230 
 
 vaginitis bovis, 2 IS 
 Strongylides of intestines, 12:>(> 
 
 of lungs, 235, 309 
 Stunning of food animals, 38 
 
 by blow on base of head, 35) 
 Sturgeon calves, 74 
 Sucking mite, 232 
 Suffocated meat, 323 
 Sulphate of hydrogen, test for, 326 
 Sulphites, test for, 337 
 Sulphurous acid, conserving by, 103 
 
 test for, 337 
 
 Supervision of antemortem and post- 
 mortem inspection, 164 
 Suppuration, 204 
 Suppurative osteomyelitis, 301 
 Surra of cattle, 263 
 Swamp fever, 223 
 Sweetbread, 50, 72 
 "Sweller" (defective canX 96 
 Swelling, cloudy, 201 
 Swine erysipelas, 304 
 
 fever, 309 
 
 plague, 307 
 
 pyemia, 303 
 
 Symplectoptes cysticola, 343 
 Symptomatic anthrax, 314 
 parturient, 296 
 
 saginata, 251 
 
 solium, 248 
 
 toxins of, 238 
 Tallow, 106 
 
 examination of, 339 
 
 factories, 375 
 Tapeworm disease of sheep, 237 
 
 of man, 238, 247, 349 
 Tasajo, 93 
 
 Taste, abnormalities of, in meat, 194 
 Technique of meat inspection, 146 
 Teeth, determining age by, 33, 36 
 Teleangiectasis of liver, 214 
 Temperature, penetration into meat, 91 
 Tester, 339 
 Tetanolysin, 295 
 Tetanotoxin, 295 
 Tetanus, 294 
 Tetrarhyncus larvae, 349 
 Texas fever, 262 
 Therapeutic remedies prepared from 
 
 organs, 51 
 
 Thoracic wall, lymph glands of, 66 
 Thrombosis, 200 
 Thymus gland, 72 
 Thyroid glands, comparative anatomy of, 
 
 72 
 
 utilization of, 51 
 Tick fever of cattle, 263 
 Ticks, 261 
 Tinea galli, 343 
 Tissues, diseases of, 207 
 Tobacco odor of meat, 331 
 
 Tongue, 70 
 
 Toxinernia, 298 
 
 Toxins of parasitic infestations, 238 
 
 of putrefaction, 327 
 Traffic in food animals, 21 
 Tragacanth in sausage, 333 
 Transportation by boat, 27 
 
 by driving, 25 
 
 of food animals, 25 
 
 losses in food animals from, 22 
 
 by railroad, 26 
 
 regulations on, 27 
 
 wagon for cattle, 26 
 Transudation, 200 
 Traumatic inflammation of rumen, 212 
 
 pericarditis, 223, 300 
 
 pneumonia, 309, 313 
 Trepha, 44 
 Trichina, 254 
 
 inspection, 159, 257 
 association, 162 
 
 microscopes, 163 
 Trichinosis, 254 
 Trichocephalus affinis, 237 
 Triebern of kosher meat, 44 
 Tripe, 50 
 
 room, 374 
 
 Tristeza of cattle, 263 
 Trypanosomes, 263 
 Tsetse-fly disease, 263 
 Tuberculosis, 264 
 
 dissemination of, 265 
 
 examination for, 270 
 
 forms of, 266 
 
 of fowls, 345 
 
 outline showing forms of tuberculosis 
 and disposal of meat, 274, 276 
 
 prevalence of, 272 
 
 vaccination, influence of, on meat,276 
 
 virulence of meat in, 272 
 Tumors, 206 
 
 Turpentine odor of meat, 331 
 Typhoid, dissemination of, by meat, 328, 
 
 350 
 
 Tyroglyphus farinae, 329 
 Tyrosin deposits in barrelled livers, 338 
 
 UDDER, 73 
 
 diseases of, 218 
 United States inspected and condemned, 
 
 150 
 
 and passed, 150 
 retained, 150 
 suspect, 146 
 Uremia, 229 
 
 Uric acid deposits in poultry, 345 
 Urinary apparatus, diseases of, 216, 229 
 
 lymph glands of, 67 
 bladder, 72 
 Urticaria, 306 
 Uterus, comparative anatomy of, 72 
 
 diseases of, 218 
 Utilization of food animals, 46 
 
392 
 
 INDEX 
 
 VACCINATION pox of calves, 294 
 Vacuoles in meat, 339 
 Vaginal catarrh of cattle, infectious, 220 
 Vaginitis, 218 
 Variola, 293 
 Veal, 74 
 
 Venuleth and Ellenberger meat destruc- 
 tion apparatus, 187 
 Verminous pneumonia, 309 
 Vesicular exanthema of horses and cat- 
 tle, 318 
 Veterinary inspectors, responsibility of, 
 
 143 
 
 police in abattoirs, 376 
 supervision of abattoirs, 376, 380 
 of meat inspection, 164, 169 
 Villous heart, 221 
 Viscera, 50 
 
 of cattle, weight of, absolute and 
 
 relative, 22 
 
 comparative anatomy of, 68 
 lymph glands of, 59 
 
 W 
 
 WARBLES, 232 
 
 Waste water clearing plants, 375 
 
 Water, absorption of sausage filling, 53 
 addition to sausage filling, 87 
 supply of abattoirs, 375 
 of stockyards, 379 
 Weight of viscera, absolute and relative, 
 
 22, 73 
 losses in culinary preparation 
 
 of meat, 90 
 White sausage, 89 
 
 scour of calves, 322 
 Wild duck, 347 
 goose, 347 
 
 Woodcock, age of, determination of, 346 
 Wooden tongue, 279 . 
 Wound erysipelas, 306 
 septic, 300 
 
 XANTHOSIS, 207 
 
 YELLOW coloration of fat, 55 
 
 as result of feeding, 1 96 
 gait, 219 
 
 Young cattle, definition for, 19 
 
 peculiarities of meat of, 74 
 
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