REESE LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Received _________ 
 
 Accessions No. _ /?_ &JT_ Shelf No. . _ 
 
THE 
 
 A HISTORICAL AND PESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT 
 
 OF TKE CONSTRUCTION OF THE 
 
 WORKS, AND THE QUANTITY, 
 
 QUALITY AND COST OF 
 
 THE SUPPLY. 
 
 BROOKLYN: 
 1S73. 
 
Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1873, in the office 
 of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 An abundant supply of pure and wholesome water is 
 one of the first requirements of a growing city. The 
 appMcances necessary to procure this supply usually 
 constitute one of the most important and expensive 
 branches of the Public Works. The progress of an 
 undertaking of this character is duly chronicled in the 
 daily prints, and at its completion the citizens are gen- 
 erally familiar with the details ; but as time goes on, the 
 population grows, receiving additions from abroad, and 
 the question soon is asked with increasing frequency : 
 " Whence does the water come, and how is it conveyed ?" 
 Since the introduction of the water into the city of 
 Brooklyn, there has been no description of the Water 
 Works accessible to the general] public, with the ex- 
 ception of the costly official memoir andj the scattering 
 articles in the daily papers. To supply, in a condensed 
 and inexpensive form, the result of a compilation from 
 all existing sources of information, together with facts 
 gained by several years of personal connection with the 
 Works, as an answer to all questions that may be asked 
 concerning the Ridgewood Water, is the present design 
 of the 
 
 AUTHOE. 
 
THE 
 
 first agitation of the question of Water- 
 Supply of which we have authentic record 
 occurred in 1834, shortly after the incorporation 
 of Brooklyn as a city, and when it contained 
 but 23,000 inhabitants. It was then proposed 
 to sink wells near the foot of Fort Green, from which 
 the water \vas to be forced by steam pumps to a reser- 
 voir upon the summit of the hill. The distribution 
 was to consist of 11 miles of 10 and 4-inch pipe ; the 
 whole to cost $100,000. This proposition was not, how- 
 ever, acted upon. In 1847 the subject was again brought 
 up by a committee. report, advising the construction of 
 immense wells at the foot of the southeast slope of the 
 hills at the rear of the city ; the water to be raised by 
 steam-power to a reservoir 40 feet above the tops of the 
 houses on the Heights. 
 
 Again in 1849 the well-system was advocated, but re- 
 ceived a severe blow through the report of Dr. Torrey 
 that the Brooklyn well-water contained 18$- grains of 
 solid matter to the gallon, or 14| grains more than the 
 Croton water, and hence was ill adapted to domestic 
 uses. The population of the city had at this time be- 
 
6 
 
 come three times as large as in 1834, and the estimated 
 cost of the proposed water - works was increased to 
 $800,000. At the same time, plans were under consid- 
 eration for a supply from the country streams, includ- 
 ing an engine and stand-pipe at each mill-pond, forcing 
 the water through iron pipes to a pump-well at Flatbush, 
 from whence it was to pumped to a reservoir upon 
 Prospect Hill. In 1851 the question was again taken 
 up, and, reinforced by an appropriation to defray the 
 expense of preliminary surveys, the committee obtained 
 from Win. J. McAlpin a report on the extent of the 
 water supply and the mode of introducing it, as follows : 
 "Dams were to be placed at Jamaica, Nostrand's, 
 Springfield, and Simonson's Streams, and their waters 
 carried by conduits into Baisley's Pond ; thence to con- 
 duct the water in a large conduit 9 miles to Flatbush, 
 from whence it was to be pumped into an oval reservoir 
 upon the summit of Prospect Hill of 60,000,000 gallons 
 capacity. The minimum capacity of the works was to 
 be 10,000,000 gallons per day, and the total cost, includ- 
 ing a Cornish pumping-engine and 75 miles of pipe-dis- 
 tribution, $3,500,000." It was decided to submit this 
 plan to the popular vote on January 27, 1852 ; but a few" 
 days previous to that date the election was deferred to 
 further revise and mature the plans by means of more 
 elaborate surveys. 
 
 In the meantime, a company known as the Williams- 
 burgh W^ater Company had secured a charter, with the 
 view of supplying water to Williamsburgh alone, and 
 had purchased several of the ponds for that purpose. 
 
 In 1853 this company obtained an amendment to its 
 charter, changing its name to the Long-Island Water 
 
Company, increasing its capital from $500,000 to $3,000,- 
 000, and authorizing it to furnish a water supply to 
 Brooklyn also. 
 
 The election previously alluded to as deferred was 
 held on July 11, 1853, and resulted in a rejection by the 
 people of the proposed plan by a vote of 5,054 to 2,639. 
 In 1854 a new water committee was appointed, and a 
 new plan based upon former surveys was prepared for 
 submission to the people. This plan contemplated a 
 supply from all of the streams west of Parsonage Creek 
 at Hempstead ; the overflow from dams to be erected 
 upon them to be conducted in an open canal to Bais- 
 ley's Pond ; from thence to flow through a closed con- 
 duit to a pump- well situated near Spring Creek, from 
 whence it was to be pumped into a reservior upon the 
 hill above. The works were to have a capacity of 20,- 
 000,000 gallons per diem when opened, and to be capable 
 of future increase to 40,000,000 gallons. The cost of 
 the whole was estimated at $4,500,000. This plan was 
 voted upon June 1, 1854, by the citizens, who again re- 
 jected the proffered supply by a vote of 9,105 to 0,402. 
 At about this time the well system again found its ad- 
 vocates, but was finally disposed of by the report of 
 J. S. Stoddard, C. E., which demonstrated that not more 
 than 1,000,000 gallons per diem could be obtained 
 through wells from a drainage area of 30 square miles. 
 
 In March, 1854, an offer was made by H. S. Welles & 
 Co , contractors, to contruct the works according to the 
 plans last voted upon for the sum of $4,175,000 ; but as 
 no arrangement could be made with the Long-Island 
 Water Company, which still held the ponds and reser- 
 vo ir site, this offer was not entertained. In 1855 another 
 
company was chartered under the name of the Nassau 
 Water Company, with power to construct works and to 
 supply the city with water. Their plans .included an 
 open canal from Jamaica Pond, designed to intercept all 
 of the smaller streams between the pond and the pump- 
 ing-engines. On the 1st of January, 1855, the new City 
 Charter, incorporating William sburgh and Bush wick 
 with Brooklyn, came into effect, giving a fresh impetus 
 to the water question. Under the authority conferred 
 by the charter, negotiations were established between 
 the Nassau Water Company and the city, the result of 
 which was an arrangement whereby the city obtained a 
 controlling power in the directorate of the Nassau 
 Company by the subscription of $1,300,000, the company 
 to conduct the construction of the Works in trust for 
 the city pending the pascage of a law enabling the latter 
 to assume absolute proprietorship. A contract was at 
 once entered into with H. S. Welles & Co. to construct 
 works guaranteed to yield 20,000,000 gallons per day 
 within two years from the date of contract. On the 
 31st of July, 1856, the commencement of the Works was 
 formally inaugurated by breaking ground for the Ridge- 
 wood Reservior. From this thne the work of construc- 
 tion rapidly progressed, until March of 1857, when a 
 change in the character of the conduit east of Jamaica 
 was found advisable, it having proved impossible, in 
 the unstable sands, to construct or maintain an open 
 canal that would continue reliable and efficient. Through 
 delays attendant upon this change in the plan, opera- 
 tions upon this portion of the work were held in abey- 
 ance for more than a year. The remainder, however, 
 was actively pushed to completion ; and on December 
 
9 
 
 12, 1858, the long-looked-for supply was placed at the 
 disposal of the citizens of Brooklyn. Thus, after a 
 twenty-five years' agitation of the water question, its 
 solution was ultimately attained, and the people have 
 continued uninterruptedly to enjoy the convenience and 
 protection of an agent which has contributed more than 
 any other to the advancement of the growth and pros- 
 perity of the city. 
 
 A>o, < 
 
 OPOG\APHY AND ^EOLOGY OF THE 
 
 |^/ONGr ISLAND, upon the western extremity 
 of which the city of Brooklyn is located, 
 extends in an easterly direction about 114 
 miles, with a varying width of from 10 to 20 
 miles. Geologically considered, the Island is of 
 very recent origin, having been formed almost wholly 
 by glacial agency. If any portion of it were in exist- 
 tence prior to the glacial epoch, it has been extensively 
 modified and augmented by the eroding and transport- 
 ing power of the vast field of ice which, extending from 
 the far north, found its terminus in the warmer waters 
 of the Atlantic. Upon the western end of the Island 
 the origin of the materials of which it is composed is 
 especially evident. The ground is full of worn- masses 
 of stone, with surfaces often deeply scored by obstacles 
 over which they have been urged with resistless force 
 during their transportation. Side by side, with bowlders 
 of trap from the Palisades, dark trap and sienites from 
 the Hudson Highlands, and the Taconic range, with oc- 
 casional masses from the Lower Helderberg with their 
 characteristic fossils, lie the gneiss and marble of West- 
 
10 
 
 Chester, the slaty shales of the Hudson group, the red 
 sandstones of New Jersey, together with many other 
 varieties of rock, the counterparts of which still abound 
 northward and northwestward of the Island. These, 
 mixed in extreme confusion, and packed with the 
 water-worn particles of their debris, comprise what is 
 known to geologists as the unmodified Drift. Through- 
 out the entire length of Long Island runs an irregular 
 chain of hills of from 150 to 384 feet in height, the 
 northern spurs of which form the abrupt and diversified 
 North Shore ; while on the south the surface slopes 
 gently away toward the sea, terminating in a gravelly 
 plain, which skirts the shores of the bays with a vary- 
 ing width of from 5 to 15 miles. The material compos- 
 ing the ridge of hills is made up of the compact drift 
 already described. Bowlders are everywhere abundant, 
 and isolated beds of clay fill many of the depressions on 
 the elevated grounds, rendering them quite impervious 
 to water. This character is lost as the slope descends, 
 and layers of fine, uniform-grained sand, beds of pebbles 
 and gravel, and occasionally local deposits of clay in 
 thin strata, characterize the ground to great depths. 
 Through this porous material the waters fiow toward 
 the ocean, bursting forth at various points in springs, 
 forming streams of singular clearness and purity. It is 
 from the larger of these streams that the water supply 
 of Brooklyn is derived. 
 
11 
 
 ^BE JJRA.NAGE-^AS.N. 
 
 HE area included between the ridge and' 
 the lowest limit at which the water of the 
 streams is economized for the supply of Brook- 
 lyn comprises about 60 square miles, and con- 
 stitutes the Drainage-Basin in which the rain- 
 fall is collected. The portion of this basin lying upon 
 the immediate slope of the ridge does not yield a large, 
 available quantity of water in proportion to its area ; for 
 from the almost impenetrable nature of its soil, and the 
 rapid slope of its surface, the greater part of the rain 
 falling upon it .runs quickly off into the streams as 
 storm-water, and is lost to the underground storage. It 
 is from the great expanse of nearly-level, sandy plain 
 that the larger portion of the supply is derived. This 
 plain is composed of fine sand and gravel, very pervious, 
 and at the same time very retentive of water, the fine 
 interstices between the particles of sand affording room 
 for the entrance of v/ater, while at the same time re- 
 tarding the velocity of its flow. The rainfalls of former 
 years have been saturating this mass of sand ; and as 
 each successive fall of rain sank into the ground faster 
 than it could be carried off through the sand and into 
 the bays, it followed that the level to which the satura- 
 tion extended must continually rise until a sufficient 
 head had been attained to force the water through the 
 sand as fast as it was received. It is, by this process,, 
 that the water-roof, as it is called, has been formed a 
 roof, or upper surface of a water-bearing stratum of 
 sand, sloping up uniformly, at a rate of 12 feet per mile,. 
 
from the sea to the ridge. So accurately has the posi- 
 tion of this underground water-surface been determined 
 that it is possible to predicate, within a few feet, the 
 exact depth at which water may be found anywhere 
 within the bounds of the Drainage-Basin. The regimen 
 of this water-bearing body of sand being once estab- 
 lished, is evident that, whenever rain falls upon the sur- 
 face, a certain portion of it goes to replace whatever 
 may be wanting to fill the bed to the water-roof ; the 
 balance, unable to descend further, flows along the sur- 
 face of the saturated sand, and finds its outlet in that 
 class of springs which appear shortly after heavy rains 
 and disappear during protracted droughts. 
 
 It further follows, from the extreme slowness with 
 which the water finds its way through the water-bearing 
 stratum, that the flow from the springs deriving their 
 water from it is not perceptibly affected either by storm 
 or drought. It is, in fact, the recorded opinion of engi- 
 neers who have made this matter an especial study that 
 it would require a succession of unprecentedly-dry sea- 
 sons to materially affect the underground water-level or 
 the flow therefrom. Such, then, is the nature of the 
 source from which the Ridgewood water is derived. 
 Flowing through a natural filter-bed, more perfectly 
 adapted to its purpose than though it had been con- 
 structed by art, containing scarcely more than a trace of 
 soluble mineral or organic matter, it is without a rival 
 in the world for the purity and permanence of its 
 supply. 
 
13 
 
 Traversing the surface of the Drainage-Basin from north 
 to south are several streams of various size, the largest 
 of which have been appropriated for water supply. 
 Commencing at Jamaica on the west, the first stream 
 met with is the supply of 
 
 [S is probably the oldest artificial pond 
 on the Island. It receives the flow of two 
 ^ i^K streams, one of which rises about a quarter of 
 ^P$e[ a mile south from the town of Jamaica and 4 
 ^ | miles from the bay, and the other has its source 
 near Little Plains, about the same distance from the 
 bay. After receiving each several small tributaries, 
 they unite near the head of what was formerly known 
 as Baisley's Mill-Pond. The valleys through which 
 these streams flow, though very wide are quite shallow, 
 not being over 15 feet below the adjoining uplands. A 
 small brook also enters the pond from the east, bringing 
 a small, additional supply. When first acquired by the 
 water authorities, the bed of the pond was filled with a 
 thick deposit of fine mud and vegetable matte./; the 
 streams which supplied it flowed through a dense swamp 
 containing the vegetable debris of centuries, their waters 
 heavily laden with organic matter, and possessed at 
 times of a very disagreeable taste and odor. To remedy 
 these evils the pond was drained, and nearly 300,000 
 cubic yards of bog and muck removed, leaving a bed of 
 
14 
 
 clean, white sand at the bottom. The channels of the 
 streams were also widened and freed from vegetable 
 accumulations, thus rendering the quality of the water 
 all that could be desired. 
 
 During the excavation, remains of a mastodon were 
 found, one tooth of which is cherished by the Long- 
 Island Historical Society as an authentic memento of 
 the oldest inhabitant. The old and insecure mill dam 
 was removed, and a new dam built with an interior 
 puddle-wall and paved slope, provided with an overfall 
 21 feet broad and sluiceway of stone-masonry, the latter 
 delivering into a circular brick conduit of 42 inches in- 
 terior diameter through which the water is conducted 
 a distance of 2,937 feet to the main conduit. The drain- 
 age area from which this pond is supplied comprises 
 10.88 square miles, and its available storage capacity is 
 6,128,300 gallons. The area of its water-surface is 40 
 acres, and lies at a level of nearly 8 feet above tide. 
 This pond can be relied upon for a daily supply of 3,13 J,- 
 000 gallons, even in a season as dry as the dryest upon 
 record. The distance of the pond from the pump-well 
 along the line of the conduit and branch is about 5 
 miles. 
 
 ? HIS pond, situated at a distance of nearly 
 8 miles from the pump well, is supplied by 
 a stream flowing through a comparatively nar- 
 row valley, and branching into three forks near 
 its source, its total length, including tribu- 
 Sj being about 4 miles. The valley is deeper than 
 that of the Jamaica stream, and its rate of descent greater. 
 
15 
 
 The power of the water was formerly economized at 
 several points along its course, Simonson's Mill-Pond 
 being the original name of what is now known as the 
 Brook field Reservoir. The dam is constructed as is the 
 case in all the ponds with an interior wall of puddled 
 clay, 7 feet wide at the base, and 9 feet high, the inte- 
 rior slopes paved and the outer sodded. The pond is 
 rectangular in form, and has an area of water surface, 
 when full, of 8f acres, standing at a level of 15^ feet 
 above tide. It receives the supply from a water-shed of 
 5f square miles, and delivers at a minimum a flow of 
 nearly 2,000,000 gallons daily. The available storage 
 capacity is 15,500,000 gallons. The Merrick plank-road 
 crosses it near the centre of its length, dividing it into 
 two parts, which communicate by a narrow raceway. 
 The water reaches the main conduit through a circular 
 branch conduit of brick 24 inches in diameter. 
 
 HE tributaries of this pond are short, their 
 united length not exceeding one mile. The 
 area drained by them barely covers 2- square 
 miles. The pond is constructed substantially 
 as the others of a somewhat triangular form, 
 with a water surface of about one acre lying 11-J- feet 
 above tide. Its storage capacity is 800,000 gallons, and 
 minimum flow about 750,000 gallons, per day. A branch 
 conduit, 2 feet in diameter and 1,980 feet lop 
 its waters to the main conduit. It is < 
 pump -well about Sf miles. 
 
one mile further to the east lies the 
 Valley-Stream Pond, receiving the drainage 
 of a narrow strip of land extending northerly 
 to the ridge. The stream itself is nearly 4 
 miles long, without tributaries, and passes 
 through two large mill-ponds in addition to that taken 
 by the Water- Works and formerly known as Cornell's 
 Pond. Its drainage area is 6f square miles, and its 
 minimum flow 2,433,000 gallons, yielding a greater 
 quantity of water in proportion to the area drained than 
 any other of the streams. This is, perhaps, owing to 
 the directness of its course and the steeper slope of the 
 water-bed toward it. Its storage capacity is 18,800,000 
 gallons. The water surface covers an area of 17f acres 
 at 12 feet above tide. The branch-conduit of this pond 
 is 30 inches in diameter and 2,103 feet in length. 
 
 LOWING into the pond is a stream which 
 receives its supply from a strip of land 
 parallel with and similar to that supplying Val- 
 ley Stream, but separated from the latter by the 
 valley of Foster's brook, which is not included 
 in the Works. The collecting area is 8 square miles, 
 and the flow, at a minimum, 2,600,000 gallons. The 
 stream is over 3 miles long, its course very direct and 
 without important tributaries. In form the pond is 
 long and irregular. Its water-surface lying 18 feet 
 
17 
 
 above tide, ami covering an area of 8| acres, represents 
 a storage capacity of 3,128,000 gallons. The distance to 
 the pump-well is 12 miles, the minimum flow 2,643,000 
 gallons, and the diameter and length of the branch con- 
 duit are respectively 2| and 1,872 feet. 
 
 J-IEMPSTEAD POND. 
 
 XS*-' <&J 
 
 E principal source of supply, and the 
 most distant point from which the water is 
 
 taken, is Hempstead Pond, situated 12.39 miles 
 ^ from the pump-well. It is fed by two streams 
 
 originating a short distance from the town of 
 Hempstead. These streams unite south of the town, 
 and the subsequent course of the stream is marked by a 
 succession of ponds of varying dimensions. The main 
 pond at which the conduit terminates approaches the 
 form of a square, with a rectangular projection at the 
 point of entrance of the stream. Its water-surface em- 
 braces 23 acres, and stands, when full, 10^ feet above 
 tide. The drainage area extends over 25f square miles 
 of the country, stretching northeasterly from the pond. 
 Its storage capacity is 5,364,000 gallons, and minimum 
 daily flow 7,800,000 gallons. 
 
 JJLCDITIONAL 
 
 ESIDE those already enumerated, the city 
 has gained possession of several other ponds, 
 some of which form part of the streams flow- 
 ing into the supply-ponds, while others, from 
 circumstances of level and location, have not 
 yet been found available. Willetts' Pond and Smart's 
 
18 
 
 Pond lie upon Freeport Creek, 4 miles beyond the end 
 of the conduit. This stream has a Summer flow of 
 5,250,000 gallons per diem ; but the surroundings of the 
 ponds are swampy, and would require extensive im- 
 provement to render the water desirable. One-Mile 
 Pond, lying at the head-waters of the easterly branch of 
 Jamaica Stream is small in capacity, and performs an 
 unimportant part in the general scheme. 
 
 QUANTITY OF SUPPLY. 
 
 HE water flowing in the streams during the 
 greater portion of the year would afford a 
 copious supply for Brooklyn were the city 
 double its present size ; but seasons will come, 
 often unexpectedly, when weeks and months 
 of Summer drought succeed Springs of light rain-fall, 
 and nothing is left to feed the ponds but the steady, yet 
 slow, percolation through the sandy bed of the drainage- 
 basin of the rains that have fallen long before. It is at 
 such times as these, too, that the water finds its most 
 lavish use in the city to refresh the thirst of its citizens, 
 to cool its dusty streets, and to revive its drooping foli- 
 age. It is the chance of the occurrence of such a season 
 a chance which Brooklyn can ill afford to take, with 
 the fate of Chicago and of Boston fresh in memory 
 that has recently led the Water Authorities to urge so 
 strongly in favor of an increased supply. The least 
 flow of the streams, guaged in a season of unusual 
 drought, was found not to exceed 20,000,000 gallons per 
 diem. The greatest flow has not been ascertained, and 
 can only be inferred from the rain-fall. It has been de- 
 
19 
 
 termined by able observers that only 42^ per cent, of 
 the total amount of rain falling in one year finds its 
 way into the ponds, the remainder being lost by evapor- 
 ation and in the supply of springs below the level of the 
 conduit. The rain-records of over 40 years place the 
 average rain-fall at 4.2% inches. At this rate the quan- 
 tity of water brought down by the streams in one year 
 amounts to nearly 19,000,000,000 gallons! The con- 
 sumption of water in the city in 1872 somewhat exceed- 
 ed 8,000,000,000 gallons. The ponds have an united 
 storage capacity of only 57,000,000 gallons ; so that ten 
 thousand neglected millions flow annually over their 
 wiers. The daily consumption during the present year 
 has varied with the day of the week from 20,000,000 to 
 2() 000,000 gallons, and upon one occasion has reached 
 33,000,000. During the Summer of 1872, owing to the 
 temporary interruption of the supply from some of the 
 ponds, pumping from streams below the level of the 
 conduit was resorted to until fortunate rains made good 
 the lacking portion of the supply. Early explorations 
 have determined the existence of 40,000,000 daily gal- 
 lons of water in the streams between Hempstead and 
 the Connetquoit River, some 50 miles east from Brook- 
 lyn ; and many have favored the extension of the con- 
 duit in this direction, as was, in fact, contemplated at 
 the outset of the Works. Others, on the ground of 
 economy and compactness of the Works, have urged the 
 impounding of the surplus waters within the present 
 limits. The latter opinion has prevailed, but not without 
 a severe struggle. The contest of old was between 
 ponds and streams ; latterly it has been between streams 
 ,and reservoirs, no reflecting man in either case doubting 
 
20 
 
 the necessity for more water, but each true to the last 
 to his favorite mode of obtaining it. A. new storage 
 reservoir upon Parsonage Creek, above the Hempstead 
 Pond, is now in progress, with a promise of completion 
 in 1875, which will contain over 1,000,000,000 gallons of 
 water. This will supply a deficiency of 10,000,000 gal- 
 lons per day for over three months, and will set at rest 
 for some time all fears of a water-famine. 
 
 J&HE CONDUIT. 
 
 before stated, the original design con- 
 templated the construction of an open canal 
 from Jamaica eastward, with branches to 
 each of the ponds ; but this crude and anti- 
 quated idea was abandoned as soon as the 
 actual construction of a portion had demonstrated its 
 inefficiency, and a substantial closed conduit of masonry 
 was substituted throughout the entire length. Com- 
 mencing at Hempstead, provision was made for carrying 
 the 8,289,947 gallons derivable from Hempstead Pond, 
 together with 20,000,000 gallons that might be subse- 
 quently collected from points further eastward ; the 
 conduit at this point having a width of 8 feet 2 inches 
 and a slope -or inclination of the bottom of 6 inches per 
 mile. At the entrance of the branch-conduit from 
 Rockville Pond the width is increased to 8 feet 8 inches ; 
 at the junction of Valley-Stream Branch to 9 feet 2 inches ; 
 at junction of Clear-Stream Branch, to 9 feet 4 inches ; 
 at junction of Brookfield Branch, to 9 feet 8 inches; 
 while from Jamaica Pond to the pump-well the width 
 is uniformly 10 feet, and the inclination of the bottom ti 
 
21 
 
 inches per mile. This latter portion of the Conduit is 
 capable of delivering, with 32 inches' depth of water, 
 20,000,000, and, with 5 feet depth, 47,000,000 gallons of 
 water in 24 hours. The low level of the ponds and the 
 rate of slope made deep cutting necessary, especially on 
 approaching the pump-well. Through the whole dis- 
 tance the excavation was carried below the water-level 
 of the country, rendering the construction additionally 
 difficult. Portions of the bottom were found insecure, 
 and resort was here had to pile foundations, while in 
 other parts platforms of timber were used to afford a 
 firm bearing for the structure. The Conduit is support- 
 ed upon a bed of concrete 15 feet wide. On the lower 
 reach, between Jamaica and the pump-well, the sides 
 are of stone, 3 feet high, with an interior lining of 
 brick work. The bottom is an inverted arch of brick 
 4 inches thick, with a versine of 8 inches. The top is 
 a brick arch 12 inches in thickness. The height at the 
 centre is 8 feet 8 inches. The stone used is mostly 
 gneiss -rock from Greenwich, Conn. At convenient 
 points along the line, man-holes are added, either upon 
 the top or on the side of the Conduit, affording access to 
 its interior for inspection or for repairs. Not far from 
 the pump-well the water found was FO considerable 
 that openings were left in the Conduit to admit it. 
 These openings, 30 in number, are estimated to be capa- 
 ble of yielding over 1,000,000 gallons per day. At 
 Spring Creek, as well as at a point about a mile beyond, 
 and at Jamaica, Valley Stream and Rockville Creeks, 
 are waste-wiers over which the surplus water escapes. 
 Here, a^o, are sluice-gates for draining the water from 
 the Conduit entirely, in the event of repairs becoming 
 
22 
 
 necessary. The construction of the upper reach of the 
 Conduit differs only in the omission of the inner lining 
 of the side-walls, which at several points are made 
 wholly of brick, and an increase in the thickness of the 
 bottom to 8 inches. For almost the entire length the 
 Conduit is covered with 4 feet of earth, sloping on the 
 sides at the rate of 1^ horizontal to 1 perpendicular for 
 the lower reach, and 2 horizontal to 1 perpendicular on 
 the upper. Wherever the line has intercepted the 
 courses of streams, inverted culverts have been built to 
 carry the water beneath the bottom. At the pump-well 
 the Conduit terminates in an arched basin 52| feet long 
 at right angles to its course, and connecting with the 
 pump-well by four sluices. The total length of the 
 Conduit is 12.39 miles, 7- miles of which is 10 feet 
 wide and 8 feet high, sufficiently large to drive a car- 
 riage through with ease. 
 
 structure, from which the water is 
 drawn by the engines, is built of heavy 
 granite masonry laid in courses with hydraulic 
 mortar. The bottom, also of granite in radial 
 courses, rests upon a bed of concrete, beneath 
 which is a heavy platform of timber. The surface of 
 the bottom is two feet below the bottom of the conduit. 
 The interior of the Pump-Well is divided into compart- 
 ments by cross-walls to admit of the examination and 
 repair of either pump without interfering with the 
 other. 
 
23 
 
 HE 
 
 tlie plain near the foot of the hill, oc- 
 cupied by the Ridgewood Reservoir, and by 
 the side of the pump-well, stand the Pumping. 
 Engines, three in number, enclosed in a sub- 
 stantial, if not ornamental, structure of brick 
 with brown-stone trimmings. The two chimneys for 
 producing draught for the furnaces are 100 feet in 
 height, and consist of two concentric shells of brick, 
 with an annular air-space between them for 80 feet of 
 the height, the diameter of the interior shell being five 
 feet. Of the three engines now in operation one has 
 been only recently erected ; the other two have been 
 running since the completion of the Works. These En- 
 gines were considered at the time that they were built 
 to be a modification of, and improvement on, the Cornish 
 Engine, then much in vogue for pumping purposes. 
 They differed, however, from the Cornish Engine radi- 
 cally, in that the steam was made to act directly on the 
 column of water in the rising main, and that they weie 
 double acting, taking the steam at both sides of the 
 piston and doing work at either end of the walking- 
 beam. In the Cornish engine a ponderous mass of iron 
 is raised by the steam, the descent of which, while the 
 steam exhausts, forces up the water that has been drawn 
 in beneath it. This class of engine is single acting, the 
 return stroke being made by the gravitation of the 
 pump-plunger. The only feature in common between 
 the Ridgewood and Cornish Engines lies in the absence 
 of the controlling power of the crank and fly-wheel. 
 
24 
 
 The length of the stroke, within certain limits, depends 
 entirely upon the pressure of the steam and the position 
 of the valves, requiring the utmost watchfulness on the 
 part of the attendants. The steam cylinder of Engine 
 No. 1 was 7-4 feet in diameter, and, of No. 2, 7 feet 1 
 inch, the length of stroke in each being 10 feet. The 
 pumps are 3 feet in diameter and of the same stroke as 
 the steam-piston. Upon the rising main of each pump 
 are large air-chambers serving to regulate the flow of 
 the water and to act as a cushion against any shock or 
 sudden change in its velocity. The force-mains leading 
 to the Reservoir are 3G inches in diameter and 3,450 feet 
 long. The total lift is 164 feet. A sloping check -valve, 
 with valves opening upward like trap-doors, prevents 
 the return of the water through the force-main to the 
 pump. The original capacity of these engines was 
 about 15,000,000 gallons each in 24 hours, and their 
 duty, when tested in 1860 and in 1862, was respectively 
 607,982 and 619,037 pounds of water raised one foot by 
 the consumption of one pound of coal. These engines 
 have been running almost continually from the time of 
 their erection up to the completion in 1869 of the new en- 
 gine known as No. 3. This third engine, after a year's 
 trial, was found to operate so satisfactorily that in 1871 
 Engine No. 1 was dismantled, remodeled and converted 
 into a crank-engine, with a fly-wheel 26 feet in diameter. 
 The steam-cylinder was replaced by a cylinder 10 inches 
 less in diameter, and the outer shell of the pump-cylin- 
 der dispensed with. These alterations resulted in the 
 delivery of 3,388 pounds of water into the reservoir for 
 every pound of coal burned in the furnaces. No. 2, 
 which remains in its original condition, requires 1 pound 
 
25 
 
 of coal for every 3,070 pounds of water thus delivered- 
 These two engines were built by Messrs. Woodruff & 
 Beach, of Hartford. The third and latest addition to 
 the engine power is Engine No. 3, built and erected in 
 18G9 by Messrs. Hubbard & Whittaker, of Brooklyn. It 
 is of the class technically known as " Beam-Rotative 
 Engines." The fly-wheel is 26 feet in diameter and 
 weighs over 26 tons. The steam-cylinder is 7 feet 1 
 inch in diameter ; the piston-rod extends through it and 
 acts as a plunger-rod for the pump beneath, the length 
 of stroke being 10 feet. At each stroke of the pump a 
 volume of water equal to 135^ cubic feet, or 1,059 gal- 
 lons, is raised into the Reservoir. As the ordinary num- 
 ber of revolutions made per minute is 11, within that 
 short space of time nearly 12,000 gallons, or over 350 
 barrels, of water are poured into the Reservoir. 
 
 y^- 
 
 RFSERVOIF^. 
 
 the crest of the ridge above the Engine- 
 house is the Distributing Reservoir, cover- 
 ing with its slopes, embankments and grounds 
 ^^ a plot of 48^ acres. It is built in two divisions, 
 the area of which, when full, are 11.85 and 
 13.73 acres, or, together, 25 acres. Its water surface* 
 when filled to a depth of 20 feet, is 170 feet above high 
 water. The embankments contain puddle-walls extend- 
 ing two feet higher than the level to which the Reservoir 
 is filled, and the bottom is covered entirely with a puddle 
 of clay and earth found upon the spot. The inner slopes 
 are paved with broken bowlder-stone upon a bed of 
 stone-chips and gravel. The water flows from the bell- 
 
26 
 
 shaped mouths of the force-mains into a structure of 
 heavy stone-masonry termed the influx-chamber, from 
 which it flows over an apron and into each compartment 
 of the Reservior. In traversing the distance of 1,200 
 feet, the velocity of the stream is quite lost, and ample 
 time is afforded for the deposit of any sediment that 
 may be held in suspension. At the effluent - chamber 
 are two massive granite walls with 4 sluiceways in 
 each, through which the water passes into the chamber 
 and thence into the mains. Separating the effluent- 
 chamber from the stopcock-chamber is a heavy wall of 
 cut stone 6 feet in thickness, into which are set the 
 mouth-pieces of 3 mains each of 36 inches diameter. 
 Only two of thece mains are in use at the present time, 
 the admission of water to them being controlled by two 
 large gates of stop-cocks in the stopcock chamber. Be- 
 fore entering the effluent-chamber the water passes 
 through screens of copper wire, which arrest all float- 
 ing matter of considerable size. Drain-pipes 12 inches 
 in diameter, to drain the compartments for repairs, pass 
 through the stopcock-chamber where their valves are 
 placed. Of the two divisions, the Western is the larger, 
 containing, when filled, to a depth of 20 feet, 86,651,382 
 gallons. The Eastern Division holds 74,439,062 gallons. 
 The total capacity of the Reservoir is 161,090,444 gal- 
 lons, which, at the present rate of consumption, is equal 
 to about one week's supply. 
 
 *%\ 
 
 ((UNIVERSITY) 
 
 rik/ 
 
27 
 
 4AINS. 
 
 fROM the northern wall of the efflux chamber 
 passing through the stopcock-chamber, and 
 curving thence westerly, extend the two princi- 
 pal mains through which the water descends by 
 gravitation to the city. The main entering on 
 the west side is the one first laid, and was the sole de- 
 pendence of the city until 1867. It is 3 feet in diameter, 
 and extends along the Cypress -Hills Plank,- road to 
 Cooper avenue, down Cooper avenue, through Broad- 
 way and Dekalb avenue to Vanderbilt avenue, where it 
 is reduced in diameter to 2- feet. From thence it ex- 
 tends along Dekalb avenue, through Fulton avenue and 
 Joralemon street to Clinton street, and along Clinton 
 street to Hamilton avenue. A 30-inch branch-main pro- 
 ceeds from the corner of Dekalb avenue and Broadway, 
 along Broadway to Union avenue ; and another branch- 
 main of the same calibre extends from the corner of 
 Dakalb and Washington avenues, along Washington 
 and Underbill avenues to the Prospect-Hill Engine- 
 house. Through the increased demand for water, this 
 main soon became unequal to the supply ; and in 1867 a 
 second main was added. This main starts from the 
 efflux-chamber parallel to the first, but soon bends to 
 the south and passes along the Jamaica Turnpike and 
 Atlantic avenue to Clinton street, where it is connected 
 with the first main. Its diameter is 4 feet, and its total 
 - length 6f miles. From the ends of these large mains, 
 and at various points in their length, 10 twenty inch 
 mains extend, conveying the water to the extremities 
 
28 
 
 of the city, and acting as temporary feeders during the 
 repair of any portion of the principal mains. The 
 larger mains were laid in such a manner as to penetrate 
 the then centres of population, their branches to reach 
 toward and into the outlying neighborhoods. Their 
 capacity is at present far in advance of the needs of the 
 people;. but with the growth of the population they 
 must fail, and an additional 5-feet main will eventually 
 be laid on the north of the present mains and extended 
 to the centre of the rapidly-growing Eastern District. 
 The loss of head at present does not exceed ten feet 
 during the hours of heaviest draught. The pipes of 
 which the mains are composed are of cast-iron, varying 
 in thickness with the pressure that they are called upon 
 to sustain. A large number of them came from Glas- 
 cow, Scotland ; the remainder from foundries in New 
 Jersey and Pennsylvania. At convenient points along 
 the line of the mains gates are placed to control the 
 quantity of water flowing through them, as well as to 
 cut off the water for repairs. The gates are enclosed in 
 brick chambers, entered through an iron man hole set 
 in the surface of the street. The spindles of all of the 
 gates are geared for power, with bevel-gearing in the 
 proportion of 3 or 4 to 1. The number of threads on 
 the screws by which the valves are moved is usually 
 either 4 or 5 per inch, so that it is necessary to turn the 
 wrench 784 times with all the force that four men can 
 conveniently exert to open or close a 48-inch gate. 
 When the pressure is all upon one side of the valve, a 
 much greater force than this is needed to raise it. From 
 the number of the cross-connections between the mains 
 there is little danger of the supply being cut off by a 
 
break in either, except in that portion of the 48-inch 
 main between Nostrand avenue and the Reservoir, the 
 failure of which would cause serious inconvenience 
 upon the higher grades. The interior of the mains 
 originally laid are now thickly covered with a coating 
 of rust-nodules, or " tubercles," which resemble mush- 
 rooms in form, and are composed of oxide and carbonate- 
 of-iron, with some clay. The inner surface of the pipe 
 beneath these formations seldom appears corroded to 
 any considerable extent ; and the question has been 
 often raised whether the iron in the rust was originally 
 a part of the water or of the pipe. The great dispro- 
 portion in bulk between metallic iron and its hydrated 
 oxide will amply account for the existence of a large 
 amount of the latter without any readily-perceptible 
 loss to the pipe. All of the mains and smaller pipes 
 laid since 1862 have been coated, both inside and out, 
 with a varnish of coal-tar and linseed-oiJ, into which 
 each pipe is dipped, while hot, at the foundry. This 
 coating affords an almost complete protection against 
 the formation of tubercle. 
 
 are certain portions of the city in 
 cm ^y f Prospect Park that lie so 
 near to the level of the Ridgewood Reservoir 
 that the water will not How to them from 
 thence, or, at best, will only furnish a limited 
 supply during the night. For the accommodation of 
 these the Mt.- Prospect Reservoir was built, and the 
 Mt.-Prospect Engine erected, to supply it. The Engine 
 
30 
 
 is of the crank and fly- wheel pattern, with a steam- 
 cylinder 24 inches in diameter and 4| feet stroke, and 
 two pumps each 20 inches in diameter and 3 feet 
 stroke. Being connected directly with the 30 -inch 
 branch-main, there is always a positive water-pressure 
 of from 12 to 16 pounds per square inch upon the 
 pump-pistons and a corresponding economy of power in 
 operating them. There is an air-chamber upon both 
 the induction and rising mains to render the flow of the 
 water uniform. The ordinary speed of the Engine is 
 20 revolutions per minute, and the quantity of water 
 raised at each stroke is nearly 112 gallons. From the 
 pumps the water is conveyed through a force-main 20 
 inches in diameter and 2,052 feet in length to a height 
 of 75 feet into the Reservoir. 
 
 a commanding eminence near the main 
 entrance of Prospect Park is located Mt- 
 Prospect Reservoir. Its part in the system of 
 t?j& water-distribution is to furnish, under a ser- 
 A viceable pressure, a proper supply of water to 
 that portion of the city lying south of Atlantic avenue 
 and east of Fifth avenue, which is too near to the 
 level of the Ridgewood Reservoir to conveniently 
 draw its supply from that source. The Reservoir 
 grounds cover 11 acres, three fourths of which is oc- 
 cupied by the Reservoir and its appurtenances. The 
 embankments are 20 feet wide at the top, and the 
 slopes, both inside and out, are at the rate of 1 horizon- 
 tal to 1 perpendicular. Instead of the interior puddle- 
 
31 
 
 wall of the Ridgewood Reservoir, the inner slopes, as 
 well as the bottom, are lined with a layer of puddle of 
 mixed clay and earth two feet in thickness. Upon the 
 face of this puddle an uniform bed of concrete, com- 
 posed of hydraulic mortar and gravel, is laid 3 inches 
 thick, and upon this rests the brick slope-wall 8 inches 
 in thickness. The bottom has a slope of 6 inches 
 toward the south and is covered with a paving of 
 bricks on edge, with a fine mixture of cement poured 
 into their joints. In the northern embankment nearest 
 the Engine-house the influent-chamber is built, of cut- 
 granite masonry, 12 feet high, 6 feet deep, and 10 feet 
 long. The force-main from the pumps enters this cham- 
 ber near the bottom. At a point some five feet above 
 the bottom a 30-inch pipe is placed, which passes down 
 under the inner slope. The water entering through 
 the first pipe fills the chamber until the level of the 
 30-inch pipe is reached, when it flows down the latter 
 and is delivered into the Reservoir beyond the foot of 
 the slope. The proper high -water mark is attained 
 where the water in the Reservoir is 20 feet deep, and 
 any surplus water that may be pumped into it after 
 that depth has been reached will flow out through a 
 12 inch overflow-pipe which starts from the influent- 
 chamber at that level. The high- water surface is 198 
 feet above tide, or 28 feet higher than that of the 
 Ridgewood Reservoir. Upon the southern embank- 
 ment stands the commodious Gate-House and Observa- 
 tory, the view from which, of Brooklyn, New York, and 
 their environs, is unsurpassed. On the south lies the 
 ocean, grand and still in the distance. On a clear day 
 one may count the breakers as they roll in upon the 
 
32 
 
 sandy beaches of Rockaway and Coney Island. Toward 
 the west spread the broad and fertile fields of Flatbush 
 and the quiet beauties of Prospect Park. On the north 
 is the woody summit of the Ridge, with East New York 
 and Bushwick upon either side. Here may be seen how 
 surely and insidiously the red and white hues of the 
 city are stealing in upon the green farm-lands of the 
 original settlers. On the southwest are the distant hills 
 of Staten Island and New Jersey, and below them the 
 broad expanse of the Bay, enlivened by the motions of 
 the countless craft that ply its waters for pleasure or 
 for gain. On the west the view extends over the three 
 cities of Brooklyn, New York, and Jersey City the 
 homes of more than a million of people and the centre 
 of the wealth and industry of the nation. The immense 
 value of the cities exceeds conception, though all of 
 their vast proportions are included in a glance. 
 
 The Gate-House is much more elaborately constructed 
 than its office, in the system of water-distribution, would 
 seem to require ; but it was evidently deemed the least 
 that could be done at a point where Nature had done so 
 much. From the foot of the inner slope, at the rear of 
 the Gate-House, a 30-inch main extends through a vault 
 of stone-masonry and down the outer slope, carrying 
 the water to the city. At the mouth of the main is a 
 square chamber covered by a screen of copper wire 
 upon the front and top to prevent the entrance of fish 
 and floating impurities. A 12-inch drain-pipe follows 
 the course of the main, which serves to draw off the 
 lasf remnants of water when the Reservoir is emptied 
 for cleansing or for repair. The gates controlling the 
 flow through the main and drain-pipe are located in 
 
the vault. Connected with the drain-pipe is a vertical 
 glass tube from which the height of the water in the 
 Reservoir can be accurately read. The force -main 
 through which the Reservoir is supplied has a 20-inch 
 branch connectiDg with the effluent-main. The object 
 of this arrangement is to enable the engine to deliver 
 the water directly into the mains when for any reason 
 it may be expedient to throw the Reservoir out of ser- 
 vice. In such a case the 20-inch main leading up to the 
 influent-chamber would act as a stand-pipe to regulate 
 the flow. The capacity of the Reservoir is 20,000,000 
 gallons, and the daily consumption of water from it 
 varies from 400,000 to 600,000 gallons. 
 
 interior diameters of the mains and 
 pipes at present in use are 48 inches, 36 
 inches, 30 inches, 20 inches, 12 inches, 8 inch- 
 es, 6 inches, and 4 inches. Originally the 
 term " main " was applied to all pipes of 20 
 inches diameter and upward, and these were never al- 
 lowed to be tapped for the purpose of private supply. 
 Wherever water was required upon streets in which 
 they were located, an additional pipe was laid. This 
 was eventually found to result in a needless multiplica- 
 tion of pipes, and the 20-inch mains were permitted to 
 be tapped in the same manner as the smaller pipes. At 
 the outset, the ruling length of the pieces of which the 
 mains and pipes are composed was 9 feet. They were 
 then cast horizontally, or nearly so ; and with a greater 
 length, the sagging of the core, or mould of the interior, 
 
34 
 
 would have resulted in an inequality in thickness be- 
 tween the top and bottom. This mode of casting has 
 since been changed, all of the pipes used at present 
 being cast vertically and 12 feet in length. They are 
 connected by inserting the spigot, or straight end, of one 
 pipe into the hub, or bell-shaped mouth, of another, 
 driving several strands of hemp into the annular space 
 between the spigot and hub, pouring from 2 to 2-J- 
 inches of melted lead into the space, and finishing the 
 joint by driving the lead compactly home with proper 
 tools. This kind of joint admits of considerable move- 
 ment of the pipe before it shows signs of leaking, and 
 is readily made water-tight again by a few blows of the 
 hammer. The pipes used are divided into two classes, 
 according to their thickness, and designated as A-pipe 
 and B-pipe by having these letters cast upon them. 
 The A-pipes are used upon grades higher than 50 feet 
 above tide, the B-pipe being used upon the lower grades. 
 The pipes are cast by contract, at various foundries in 
 New Jersey and Pennsylvania, among which are those 
 at Camden, Florence, Conshohocken and Phillipsburgh. 
 The Water Department invariably stations a resident 
 inspector at the foundry where the pipes are being cast. 
 It is his duty to look to the quality of the iron or ore 
 used in the furnaces, and to protest against the intro- 
 duction of improper material. When the pipes are 
 cast, they are cleaned from the adhering portions of 
 mould and core, and submitted to a preliminary ham- 
 mer-test by the inspector. This often results in the 
 discovery of cracks from unequal shrinkage or from 
 careless handling, porous cavities caused by the cooling 
 of one portion in advance of another, masses of sand 
 
35 
 
 broken loose from the core and become imbedded in the 
 iron, together with many other objectionable defects 
 sufficient to warrant him in rejecting the casting with- 
 out further trial. The pipes that are found apparently 
 free from these defects are heated and immersed in a 
 protective varnish and placed in the proving -press, 
 where they are subjected to an interior hydraulic press- 
 ure of from 250 to 300 pounds per square inch. While 
 under this pressure, they receive several sharp blows of 
 a hammer. If this test be satisfactory, they are weigh- 
 ed, marked, and forwarded to the Pipe- Yard at South 
 Brooklyn, where they are again weighed and sent out, 
 as occasion demands, to become a part of the general 
 distribution. Each pipe has its number, class-letter, 
 date, and name of maker cast upon it, beside the weight 
 marked in white paint. The average weight per foot of 
 the several sizes of pipe is as follows : 4 inches, 24 Ibs. ; 
 6 inches, 37 Ibs. ; 8 inches, 49 Ibs. ; 12 inches, 76 Ibs. ; 20 
 inches, 180 Ibs. ; 30 inches, 340 Ibs. ; 36 inches, 410 Ibs. ; 
 48 inches, 712 Ibs. The total weight of the iron pipe now 
 lying in the streets exceeds 50,000 tons. In addition to the 
 cast-iron pipe, there is about 2 miles of cement-lined 
 wrought-iron pipe in use. The limited amount of this 
 pine that was laid was due to the prevailing distrust of 
 its durability at that time. No leakage, however, in the 
 existing 2 miles of pipe has been discovered during the 
 past three years. At points where it is desirable to con- 
 nect the pipes, special castings in the form of a cross or 
 letter T are inserted ; and also where fire-hydrants are 
 located, branches for that purpose are put in. Formerly 
 the branch-pipes leading to the fire-hydrants were only 
 4 inches in diameter ; at present they are increased to 
 
6 inches, which admits of the use of several hoze-con- 
 nections on the same hydrant, and more than doubles 
 the supply of water. Seven different patterns of fire- 
 hydrant have been used upon the Works, but none have 
 proved so reliable as the original, Coffin hydrant, 
 which, notwithstanding its unsightly wooden box, has 
 given less cause of complaint, and has required less re- 
 pair than any other form that has yet been tried. The 
 total number of fire-hydrants now in position is 2,208. 
 There are also 30 surface-hydrants rising directly from 
 the mains and covered with an iron manhole- casting set 
 in the surface of the street. These hydrants have a 
 movable head containing the hose-outlets, which is kept 
 until wanted at some convenient locality near to the 
 hydrant. Drinking -hydrants, originally designed on 
 the Holly-Tree principle, to rescue the pedestrian from 
 the allurements of the bar, have latterly been erected 
 for the supply of people whose means do not permit 
 them to introduce the water into their houses. They 
 are a perpetual joy to amateur hydraulicians, and at 
 such times a terror to the passer-by. Being chronically 
 out of order, they are a prolific source of expense and 
 waste to the Water Department. The present number 
 upon the Works is 850. Along the river- front, and at 
 several points on the line of the principal mains, are 
 blow-offs, or outlets, for the purpose of drawing off the 
 water for repairs to the pipes or to free them from sedi- 
 ment. The former discharge directly into the river 
 the latter into the sewers or into basins especially con- 
 structed for that purpose. The leading design in plan- 
 ning the pipe-distribution has been to introduce into 
 the various sections of the city one, or if practicable 
 
37 
 
 two, mains from different directions, and preferably 
 from different sources, each of which, shall prove ade- 
 quate to the supply of that section when it shall have 
 been solidly built. With this arrangement, in the 
 event of an accident to either main, the other can still 
 be relied upon. The connections with the principal 
 mains are infrequent, lateral branches occurring only at 
 long intervals, and provided with gates at such points, 
 both upon the branch and upon the main. In the case 
 of the 20-inch pipes, the ramifications are increased, fre- 
 quently connecting with 6-inch pipes, which are always 
 provided with a gate near the branch. This latter size 
 is that principally laid for the general supply, while 8 
 and 12-inch pipes are interspersed at proper intervals, 
 not that the streets in which they are laid require more 
 water than others, but to facilitate the circulation and 
 to serve as feeders to convey the water around any par- 
 ticular portion of the main that may be temporarily 
 thrown out of use. The gates of the smaller pipes are 
 set in wooden boxes with iron covers, usually on the 
 -building line of the street and six feet from the curb. 
 The number of gates of all sizes now in use is 1,793. 
 The pipes are all laid at a depth of 4 feet below the 
 surface of the pavement, and where practicable, upon 
 the north or east side of the street, six feet from the 
 curb. Some few exceptions to this occur in unusually 
 wide streets and in those paved with an expensive 
 pavement, in which case a pipe is laid under the side- 
 walk on either side of the street. Each separate supply 
 is obtained by drilling a hole into the pipe and inserting 
 a brass tap. This tap is perfectly smooth upon its driv- 
 ing-point, and is not screwed, but simply driven in, re- 
 
38 
 
 taining its place by friction. It has a movable plug 
 similar to that of an ordinary faucet, and a coupling to 
 connect it with the lead pipe, four feet of which is al- 
 ways laid next to the tap, although iron pipe may be 
 used to carry the water into the premises. The water- 
 way of the taps used for the supply of private dwell- 
 ings is three eighths of an inch in diameter. Factories 
 and public buildings are supplied from half-inch and 
 five-eighths-inch taps, or from several of these con- 
 nected with a single pipe, while large manufacturing 
 establishments, as sugar-houses, breweries, etc., are 
 supplied through four-inch pipes. Many of these have 
 also an independent line of four-inch pipe, carrying the 
 water throughout the entire buildings, with hose-at- 
 tachments in every room, kept in readiness for immedi- 
 ate service in case of fire. House-services are of lead, 
 tin -lined lead, iron, galvanized iron, and cement-lined 
 pipe. None of these are without their disadvantages. 
 The lead pipe poisons the water, the tin-lined pipe is 
 difficult to connect without melting off the lining, the 
 iron pipe rapidly fills with rust, and the galvanized iron 
 is even worse than the lead, in that wherever the zinc 
 flakes off, or wherever a brass cock is placed, a galvanic 
 action ensues at the expense of the zinc, contaminating 
 the water with a metalic salt scarcely less detrimental 
 to health than are the salts of lead. The cement-lined 
 pipe has not been used sufficiently to test its qualities. 
 
 The original pipe-distribution comprised 10 miles of 
 mains and 110 miles of distribution-pipes. This amount 
 has been annually increased until at the present time 
 the total length is 16 J miles of mains and 276J miles of 
 pipe, or 292| miles in all. Four submerged lines of 
 
39 
 
 pipe have been laid, two of which are still in use. One 
 of these a 12-inch pipe supplies that portion of the 
 city which lies along the shore of Gowarius Bay, and 
 crosses the Gowanus Canal at the Penny Bridge ; the 
 other a 6-inch pipe lies in the bed of the Wallabout 
 Channel, and carries the water to the Ordnance Dock of 
 the Navy-Yard. Both were laid with a movable ball 
 and socket-joint an invention of the Water Purveyor, 
 Mr. J. H. Rhodes and have both proved water-tight 
 and reliable. 
 
 4 EAR the mouth of the Gowanus Canal is 
 the Pipe -Yard, at which the pipes and 
 other appurtenances are received, inspected 
 and kept until required for use. On Port- 
 land avenue, between Park and Myrtle, is the 
 Repair- Yard, where all of the material and implements 
 necessary to remedy any defects in the distribution are 
 stored. Here all of the water-meters are tested and re- 
 paired, and all the perishable portions of the hydrants, 
 gates, ate., kept constantly on hand. The number of 
 tools, patterns, fittings, and miscellaneous supplies is 
 immense, but all are arranged with such admirable sys- 
 tem and order that each is readily found as occasion re- 
 quires. The office of the Repair-Yard is connected by 
 telegraph with the City-Hall, the Central Police-Station, 
 the Reservoir, and the Engine-House. This Yard is the 
 headquarters of a corps of able and efficient men, who 
 stand ready at all hours of the day or night to attend to 
 any accident to the distribution. Water is popularly 
 
40 
 
 supposed to be one of the most innocent of substances ; 
 but when bursting from its confinement, with a pressure 
 equal to that ordinarily existing in steam-boilers, its ca- 
 pabilities for mischief are manifest. The veterans of 
 the Pipe- Yard tell of many scenes of excitement, if not 
 of danger, at their midnight " leaks in main." A smaller 
 establishment on North First street affords a rendezvous 
 for a similar corps of men, though fewer in number, 
 who keep the distribution of the Eastern District in a 
 thorough state of repair. 
 
 ONSUMPTION OF 
 
 the water was first generally intro- 
 duced, the average daily consumption 
 barely exceeded 4,500,000 gallons, or at the 
 rate of 25 gallons per day for each inhabi- 
 tant. This consumption has continually in- 
 creased, not alone in its total amount, but also in the 
 rate proportioned to the population, which has now 
 reached 46 gallons per capita This increase in the rate 
 per head is due in a measure to the increased facilities 
 for disposing of waste-w r ater, which the extension of 
 sewers affords, and to a growing recklessness upon the 
 part of the people in the use of an element apparently 
 so abundant. It is also in part due to the growth of 
 manufacturing industries The average daily demand 
 for water during the year 1872 was 22,700,000 gallons. 
 The demand reaches its maximum in the coldest part of 
 the Winter and in the heat of Summer. The greatest 
 use occurs on Monday and Friday ; on Sunday it is from 
 one quarter to one third less. At the different hours of 
 
the day the consumption varies widely, commencing an 
 hour before daylight, increasing steadily until, in the 
 Summer months, between 8 and 9 A. M., about one 
 tenth of the day's supply is drawn. It decreases ab- 
 ruptly with the ringing of the bells at noon ; grows 
 again to nearly its forenoon proportions at 3 P. M., and 
 gradually diminishes, with a slight quickening between 
 6 and 7 P. M., until the lowest rate of the day is 
 reached, between the hours of 12 and 1 A. M. This 
 lowest rate is never less than 200,000 gallons per hour, 
 and frequently exceeds 500,000 gallons. 
 
 The use of water for manufacturing purposes is large 
 and continually increasing. The water consumed by 
 the fourteen sugar-houses alone averages 300,000 gal- 
 lons per day, and the numerous breweries, steam-engines, 
 and steam-vessels add largely to the demand. 
 
 The use of the water as a motive power has not thus 
 far met with the extended patronage that its convenience 
 merits. The principal use that is made of the force of 
 the water at present is in the blowing of church-organs. 
 The hydraulic-engine is usually located in the cellar, 
 and a valv^ within the reach of the organist serves as a 
 more expaditious means of awakening the moving 
 power than in the case of muscular aeration. The cost 
 of producing a hymn to the tune of Old Hundred upon 
 the organ of Plymouth Church at the presen.t*price of 
 water, 2 cents per 100 gallons is 14-J- cents ; but the 
 same familiar strain, in its puritanic simplicity, can be 
 extracted from less pretentious instruments on lower 
 grades for about 10 cents. The higher a church is 
 that is, the higher above tide the more expensive is 
 its music, the water having less pressure ; more of it is 
 
required to furnish the necessary air to the organ. The 
 cost of obtaining power for manufacturing purposes 
 from the water is, within 50 feet of the tide, not far 
 from 50 cents per horse-power per hour. The pressure 
 in the business part of the city is ample, varying from 
 40 to 65 pounds per square inch, according to grade. 
 The use of these water-motors is attended with great 
 economy where the demand for power is small and 
 quite intermittent ; but for a steady work steam is much 
 the cheaper. The use of water for manufacturing and 
 for business purposes is, to a considerable extent, con- 
 trolled by meters. There are at present seven different 
 kinds of water-meters in operation upon the Works. 
 Three of these are positive measures, two of which are 
 operated by pistons and reciprocating-valves, and one 
 by diaphragm and valves ; the remaining three are in- 
 dicators, two consisting of propeller-wheels actuated by 
 the water flowing by them, and one on the paddle-wheel 
 principle urged by the impact of water against the 
 blades. The piston-meters give ordinarily the most 
 equitable measurement, the indicators invariably favor- 
 ing the consumer, as on very slow streams they fail to 
 record. The number of meters at present in use is 649. 
 
 DUALITY OF THE ^ATEf^. 
 
 HE quality of the Ridge wood water com- 
 pares very favorably with that of any 
 other water-supply in the world. It has none 
 of the hardness characteristic of the Croton, 
 which flows over a primitive foundation, or of 
 the supplies of Troy and Newburgh, derived from a 
 
43 
 
 country where calcareous and aluminous minerals 
 abound. This quality renders it more economical for 
 domestic uses in the saving of soap and for manufac- 
 turing purposes, in that it does not cause any considera- 
 ble incrustation in steam-boilers. Its inorganic impuri- 
 ties are of a sedimentary character and settle to the bot- 
 tom of the boiler in the form of fine mud instead of 
 forming a scale or incrustation, as would be the case 
 were the mineral impurities held to a greater extent in 
 solution. It does not injuriously affect the health of 
 the occasional visitor, as is frequently the case with the 
 waters of neighboring cities. The soil through which 
 it flows is composed of almost entirely insoluble mater- 
 ial, and the complete aeration that it receives at the 
 broad surfaces of the ponds and reservoirs causes the 
 precipitation of the greater part of the mineral impuri- 
 ties held in solution. The soluble inorganic matter 
 consists of the carbonates of magnesia and of lime (the 
 latter present to a greater extent in Jamaica stream 
 than in any of the others), chlorides of magnesium, 
 calcium anu. sodium, sulphates of lime and magnesia, 
 and oxide of iron, the weight of the whole not exceed- 
 ing 2 grains per gallon, or in about the proportion of 
 one ounce in six barrels of water. For the sake of 
 comparison, the analyses of the waters used in several 
 cities are added, the numbers indicating the 'grains of 
 solid matter per gallon : Brooklyn, 2.64 ; New York, 6.65 ; 
 Philadelphia, 4.26 ; Boston, 3.57 ; Albany, 4.72 ; London, 
 28 ; Paris, 9.86. This exceeding purity of the water is 
 not, however, without its objections, since it fails to at- 
 tach that protective coating to the pipes that is deposit- 
 ed by more alkaline waters, but, on the contrary, it 
 
44 
 
 actively attacks all lead and iron with which it comes 
 in contact. Small iron pipes are often closed in a few 
 years with rust, while in pipes of lead and galvanized 
 iron white, glistening particles of oxycarbonate of lead 
 or zinc are formed, which have proved in numerous 
 cases detrimental to the health of consumers. Perhaps 
 the most objectionable impurity of the Ridge wood 
 water is its organic matter, which, happily, is not pres- 
 ent in any considerable quantity. It is derived from 
 the decay of the luxurious vegetation of the country 
 through which the water flows, in part, and in part 
 from the imperfect cleansing of the beds of the streams, 
 as well as from the multitudes of fish that infest them. 
 Wherever the waters are impounded they swarm with 
 fish, the most numerous of which are the yellow perch 
 and eel ; but the trout roach, shiner, pickerel, white 
 perch, and black bass are all well represented. These 
 fish are all animal feeders, and contribute nothing 
 toward the suppression of vegetable growth. Com- 
 plaints of a disagreeable taste and smell of the water are 
 rare and local. When they occur, the difficulty is 
 speedily removed by opening a fire- hydrant in the 
 vicinity for a short time. On such occasions, the water 
 flowing from the hydrant yields, if filtered through a 
 cloth, an immense number of fine, greenish-brown con- 
 fervoid filaments, rarely branching, but much interlaced 
 and often curiously beaded with short nodes alternately 
 lighter and darker in color. Complaints of the mudiness 
 of the water are more frequent, and these arise from a 
 disturbance of the rust and sediment in the pipes by an 
 unusual velocity of the water. This difficulty it is im- 
 possible to remedy, as the opening of hydrants only 
 
45 
 
 increases the disturbance. * It occurs most frequently on 
 Monday mornings in the Summer, when, in addition to 
 the great demand for water for washing, the street- 
 sprinklers are also at work. A serious inconvenience to 
 the consumers arises from the presence of eels, which 
 find their way through the screens while they are still 
 yery small, and, passing down the mains and into the 
 smaller pipes, collect in great numbers upon the lower 
 grades. They grow to great size, often exceeding three 
 feet in length, and find a plentiful subsistence on the 
 swarms of fresh-water shrimp with which the pipes 
 abound. On the approach of Winter, usually at ftie 
 first decided fall of temperature, the trouble begins 
 from their entrance into the taps, and as many as 
 twenty consumers have had their water-supply thus 
 summarily cut off in a single day. The obstruction 
 usually defies all attempts at remedy short of digging 
 out the tap and extracting the unfortunate explorer 
 with a cork-screw. The eels taken from the pipes are 
 fat, well conditioned, and apparently not inconvenienced 
 by the pressure of from 50 to 75 pounds per square inch 
 that they have sustained. It is a singular fact that 
 these eels are almost invariably caught by the tail. 
 Where one eel has been taken from a tap the chances 
 are in favor of obtaining several more at the same tap 
 in quick succession. A contrivance has recently been 
 applied to the taps, which will prevent all trouble with 
 the new taps in the future ; but as there remain some 
 40,000 taps unguarded, the people of Brooklyn will be 
 obliged for a long time to carry on an expensive fishery. 
 Frogs of over half a pound in weight, and trout from 
 four to six inches long, have occasionally been thrown 
 
46 
 
 -out through the fire-hydrants. The eyes of the fish 
 taken from the pipes are frequently covered by a nearly- 
 opaque pellicle through which the pupil is barely to be 
 distinguished. 
 
 ^OST OF THE ^ATEF^. 
 
 ?HE cost of the Works, under the original 
 contract, was $4,625,000, and the expense 
 of extending and perfecting them during the 
 subsequent years has more than equaled this 
 amount. The total cost at present is $9,500,000, 
 and their value, or the cost of constructing them, at the 
 existing rates for land, labor, and material, has been es- 
 timated at $15,000,000. The amounts necessary for con- 
 struction and extension have been raised by the issue of 
 bonds, the interest on which, together with the cost of 
 maintenance and an annual deposit of $50,000 as a sink- 
 ing-fund for their retirement as they become due, has 
 been paid from the revenue derived from the water- 
 rates. Up to the year 1871, a large and increasing de- 
 ficiency existed, which was provided for by general 
 taxation. In that year the water rates were raised to an 
 extent that resulted in an increase of the revenue of 30 
 per cent., leaving a surplus as large as the former de- 
 ficiency. The rates have since been so adjusted as to 
 cover as nearly as possible the necessary expenses of in- 
 terest, deposit, and maintenance, and the surplus, if any, 
 is by recent legislation made a part of a special sinking- 
 fund. The water-revenue is collected in two forms as 
 regular and as extra rates. The regular rates are cal- 
 culated upon the front dimensions of the building before 
 
47 
 
 which the distributing-pipe passes, or, in the case of va- 
 cant property, upon the frontage and assessed valuation. 
 Each building is entitled to the use of one bath, one 
 water-closet, and the necessary sinks and basins for the 
 domestic uses of 12 occupants without charge further 
 than the payment of the regular rates ; all water-fixtures 
 and occupants in excess of these are subject to addi- 
 tional charge. The regular rates accrue whether the 
 water is introduced into the premises or not, and become 
 a lien upon the property in the same manner as the city 
 taxes. The extra rates are collected for the use of 
 water for other than domestic purposes, and their pay- 
 ment is enforced by the cutting off of the supply. The 
 rates are established upon the basis of a charge of 3 
 cents per 100 gallons of water used for domestic pur- 
 poses, 2| cents for a like amount of building, stabling, 
 fountain, and tavern uses, and 2 cents per 100 gallons 
 for business and manufacturing purposes, steam-engines, 
 etc. For the latter yses, the quantity taken is accurately 
 determined by meters ; but in the other cases, as there 
 is no means of limiting the quantity consumed by each, 
 the rate is far from being uniform or equitable. During 
 the year 1872, the cost of pumping alone was one eighth 
 of one cent per 100 gallons, and the total cost of deliver- 
 ing 8,250,000,000 gallons was at, very nearly, the rate of 
 1 cent per 100 gallons. Not far from 35 ,000,000* gallons 
 were used for fire and sewer purposes, and about 3,000,- 
 000,000 gallons were paid for at the rates above, leaving 
 over 5,000,000 gallons furnished gratuitously. It is evi- 
 dent that an enormous waste of water is allowed by 
 many negligent members of our community ; in fact, 
 the average consumer, who pays but $10 a year for the 
 
48 
 
 use of water, may, by leaving his faucet open, waste in 
 one year $300 worth of water, at the established rates, 
 or water that it has cost over $20 to pump into the res- 
 ervoir. A general system of supply by measurement 
 through meters would, no doubt, curb the extravagant 
 waste, but might, on the other hand, induce an economy 
 of water that would be prejudicial to the public health 
 and cleanliness, and interfere with the proper discharge 
 of the more solid portions of the sewage. A reduction 
 in the size of the taps, or the use of meters designed to 
 discontinue the flow when the amount of water paid 
 for by the rate fixed upon the premises shall have been 
 drawn, would seem a medium course and one promising 
 favorable results. 
 
 It is believed that the foregoing pages have been suf- 
 ficiently explicit to convey to the interested citizen or 
 to the inquiring observer from abroad an intelligent 
 idea of the construction and operation of the Water- 
 Works of Brooklyn. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
YA 01455