LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 'Class Ί^Ζ 'BW'L• A GRAMMAR ATTIC AND IONIC GREEK BY FRANK COLE BABIMTT, Ph.D. (Harvari.) PROFESSOR OF THE CREEK LANGUAGE AXD LITERATURE IN TRINITY COLLEGE, HARTFORD οίΟίο NEAV YORK .:. CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY ϊ ζ^ FREDERICK DEFOREST ALLEN On August 4, 1897, occurred the sudden death of Fredekick Deforest Allen, Ph.D., Professor of Classical Philology in Harvard University. Of the loss vs^hich classical scholarship has suffered by his death I need not speak here. His thor- oughness and accuracy, his intrepid regard for the truth, and his keen, unbiased judgment are well known both to his former pupils and to the larger world which has read his published writings. Shortly before his death he invited me to join with him in compiling a small Greek Grammar. During the two weeks immediately preceding his death we had Avorked together as far as the third declension, and had discussed somewhat the general plan of the book. After his death the publishers expressed a desire that I should complete the Avork Avhich had been thus begun — a desire with Avhich I could not refuse to comply. The task has been one of sadness and of joy : of sadness, because at every turn I missed the strong coiinsel of a con- summate scholar; of joy, at the thought that I might thus, even in some slight measure, help to perpetuate the memory of a man whose name will always stand for what is highest and best in scholarship. To the memory of Frederick DeForest Allex this book is affectionately inscribed. „^.,^„ GENERAL COPTRIGIIT, li)02, BY FRANK COLE ΠΛΓ.ΒΙΤΤ. AT. AND ION. CUKFK. W. P. I PREFACE This grammar lias fur its purpose to state the essential facts and principles of the Greek language in concise form, with only so much discussion as may reasonably be demanded for a clear understanding of the subject. AVhile in recent years the ability to read a language has rightly come to be regarded as the proper test of a real knowledge of it, this point of view, so far from be- littling the study of formal grammar, more than ever insists that a thorough knowledge of the essentials of the grammar is the most important part of the equipment of him Avho would read a language with ease. By essen- tials is meant no antiquated lore about the A'ocative of ^eo? or of άδβλφο'?, but the recurrent facts of inflection and syntax, — nominative χώρα, genitive χωράς, and so forth, — with such side lights as can be brought to bear to make these facts easier of acquisition and comprehen- sion. A considerable experience in elementary teaching- has convinced me that explanations are extremely useful, even to very young pupils ; and I am persuaded that an occasional appeal to the reason rather than to the sheer memory of the pupil will not always prove futile. The work was begun in collaboration with the late Pro- fessor Frederick de Forest Allen, and, in justice to his memory, it is proper to state that pages 13—36 and 40-46 stand practically as they were composed by Professor Allen and myself working together. For the remainder I am solely responsible. 3 101646 4 PREFACE It was the intention at the beginning to prepare a grammar for use in the secondary schools. As the work progressed, however, 1 found that, Avith but a slight in- crease of bulk, it would be possible to include also as much grannnatical information as is usually required l)y students in college. With these additions, this work meets the needs of secondary schools, and at the same time is sufficient for all ordinary demands of the college course. The book incorporates the results of the more recent philological studies. The doctrine of the Ablaut is stated untechnically, and it is given proper prominence in inflec- tion and Avord formation. Due regard is paid to the fact that analogy plays an important part in language, and that the context is not to be neglected in determining the exact significance of mode and tense. Ionic forms are given in footnotes instead of being combined with Attic forms, and this arrangement is fol- lowed also in the Syntax and the verb list ; the reason for so doing is apparent to anybody Avho has ever taught Greek prose composition. Contract forms are given in tlie contracted form fol- lowed by the uncontracted form (Avhich is often purely theoretical) in parentheses, and it is hoped that pupils Avill realize that the Attic Greeks said ττο^ω, and not ττοιβω. In the examples under Inflection and Word Formation the letter or syllable to which attention is directed is made prominent by full-faced type ; in the Sj^ntax the same result is accomplished hy spacing the word. The paradigms have been written to conform to our present knowledge, although some matter has been re- tained solely because it has become so engrafted in cur- rent texts that it could not be omitted. PREFACE 5 So, also, in the matter of Homeric forms, I have, I trust, given due consideration to the vulgate. A iew things I have omitted entirely ; others I have recorded for the reason given in the preceding paragraph. Yet 1 am convinced that if our schools should adopt a fairly con- servative text of the Homeric poems like that of Cauer, from Λvhich assimilated verbs and forms like Αίολου, σττηί, and the like, have been banished, it would lighten the task of instruction, and the time given to explaining unnecessary forms could be better devoted to other purposes. In selecting examples to illustrate the chapter on Syn- tax, I have given preference to those from authors and works commonly read at the earlier stages of the pupil's progress. By printing the examples in the same type as the rest of the matter, the number of pages in the chapter on Syntax has been considerably increased, but the gain in clearness, and in the prominence of the examples, more than offsets the apparent increase in bulk. In the treatment of Syntax I have been conservative, although I have allowed myself some license in changing the conventional arrangement of the material. In addition to the books mentioned on pages 6 and 7, I have found helpful also the two Λvell-known grammars of this countr\% as well as those of Sonnenschein, Kaegi, Lattmann-AIuller, and Hahne's Crriechische Syntax. Space does not permit me to enumerate all the friends who by advice or suggestion have given me help, but I desire in particular to express my gratitude to Professor George Edwin Howes of the University of Vermont, Λνΐιο has read at least twice every portion of the proofs. To his scholarship and sound common sense I am indebted for many helpful suggestions and corrections. Likewise 6 PREFACE to Professor Clifford H. Moore and Mr. William Fen- Avick Harris of Harvard University, who have also read the proofs, I am indebted for numerous corrections and helpful suggestions. Others whom I should like to men- tion also by name I am obliged to include in a general acknowledgment. I shall be grateful for corrections and suggestions from any source. FRANK COLE BABBITT. Hartford, Conn'kcticut, March, 1901. No conscientious teacher will find answered in this book all of the many perplexing questions which will arise in his mind. The following list contains the titles of the most important modern works on Greek Grammar, in which such questions are fully discussed (and some- times answered) : KUHNER, R. Ausfiihrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache. 3te Auflage in neuer Bearbeitung besorgt von Friedrich Blass. Han- nover, 1890-1898. Svo. Teil I. 1,2. Elemental•- und Formenlehre. S. xxiii -1- 645, xi + 652. Teil II. 1. Satzlehre. In nener Bearbeitung besorgt von Bernhard Gerth. S. ix + 06G. (Tiie most comprehensive work on Greek grammar. A model of careful and accurate scholarship. Thoroughly conservative.) ΙΝΙκΥΕίί, Gi'STAv. Griechische Granuiiatik. 3te Auflage. S. xviii + 715. Leipzig, 189(3. Svo. (Bibiiothek indogermanischer Grani- matiken. Bd. III.) (Deals with the sounds and inflections only, from the point of view of Comparative (Grammar. Full, accurate, and moderately conserva- tive.) PREFACE 7 Brugmaxn, Karl. Griechische Grammatik. (Lautlehre, Stamm- bildungs- und Flexionslehre und Syntax.) ^te Auflage. S. xix + 632. Munclien, 1900. 8vo. {In Miiller, I. von. liandbuch der Klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft. Bd. II. Abt. 1.) (Written from the point of view of Comparative Grammar. Briefer than Meyer, and more radical.) Meisterhans, K. Grammatik der attischen Inschriften. 3te Auflage. S. XIV. + 288. Berlin, 1900. Svo. (Deals \vith inscriptions only. Most of the results are embodied in Kuhner-Blass.) GiLDERSLEEVE, B. L. Syntax of Classical Greek from Homer to Demosthenes. Pt. I. N. Y., 1900. Svo. (Clear and accurate in statement, and remarkable for the excellent collection and arrangement of examples.) Goodwin, Wii. AVatson. Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the (ireek A^erb. Rewritten and enlarged, pp. xxxii + 464 + 8. Boston, U.S.A., 1890. Svo. (Deals fully and thoroughly with the syntax of the verb.) Blass, Friedrich. Pronunciation of Ancient Greek. Tr. from the 3d German ed. by W. J. Purton. Cambridge, Eng., 1890. Svo. (A careful collection and consideration of the evidence relating to the pronunciation of ancient Greek.) Smyth, Herbert Weir. The Sounds and Inflections of the Greek J Dialects. Tonic, pp. xxviii + 068. Oxford, 1894. Svo. (Thoroughly accurate and reliable. Contains a full treatment of the dialect of Herodotus.) Van Leeuwen, J. Enchiridium Dictionis Epicae. pp. Ixxii + 606. Lugd. Batavorum, 1892-1894. Svo. (Entirely radical, but invaluable for the very full collection of material which it contains.) Monro, D. B. A Grammar of the Homeric Dialect. 2d ed. pp. xxiv + 436. Oxford, 1891. Svo. (Deals more particularly with Homeric syntax. Accurate, reliable, but very conservative.) CONTENTS INTRODUCTION The Greek Language WRITING AND SOUND Alphabet .... Vowels .... Diphthongs Breathings Consonants Interchange of Vowels Contraction of Vowels Omission of Vowels . Consonant Changes . Consonants with Vowels . Rejection or Transfer of Aspi ration .... Hiatus (Crasis and Elision) Movable Consonants Final Consonants Syllables and Quantity Accent .... Proclitics and Enclitics Punctuation INFLECTION Nouns .... Case Endings . Substantives Eirst Declension . Second Declension Attic Second Declension Third Declension . Consonant Stems Vowel Stems Irregular Declension Adjectives First and Second Declension Third Declension . First and Third Declensions Irregular Declension Declension of Participles Comparison of Adjectives Adverbs .... Pronouns .... Numerals .... PAGE 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 21 22 22 2•3 26 26 28 29 29 30 34 36 37 38 39 40 44 46 47 49 56 60 ()4 (i4 68 71 74 75 79 81 83 93 PAGE Verbs . . , . .96 Voice . . . . .96 Mode 97 Tense 98 Person and Number . . . 100 Personal Endings . . . 101 Inflection (-ω Form and -μι Form) .... 102 Augment ..... 105 Reduplication . . . .108 Accent of the Verb . . .110 Formation of Tense Stems . 110 The Present System . .113 The First Aorist System . 118 The Second Aorist System . 120 The Future System . . 123 The First Perfect System . 124 The Second Perfect System . 125 The Pluperfects Active . 126 The Perfect Middle System . 127 The Future Perfect . .129 The First Aorist Passive Sys- tem 129 The Second Aorist Passive . 130 The Futures Passive . .131 The Verbal Adjectives . . 132 Synopsis of τταιδεύω . . . 133 Paradigms of -ω A^erbs . . 135 Paradigms of -μι Verbs . . 145 Second Perfect without Stiffix . 151 Irregular Verbs in -μι . . 152 FORMATION OF WORDS Derivative Words . . . 158 Formation of Substantives . 161 F(M-mation of Adjectives . 16(5 Formation of Adverbs . . 168 Formation of Verbs . . 16!) Compound Words . . .171 Meaning of Compound Words 174 SYNTAX The Sentence . . . .175 Agreement .... 178 Syntax of Substantives . . 180 The Cases . . . .182 The Nominative and Vocative . 183 The Accusative . . . 184 Direct Object . . .184 8 CONTENTS The Cognate Accusative . 184 Adverbial Uses of tlie Ac- cusative . . . .186 Two Accusatives witli One Verb . . . .188 The Genitive . . . .190 The True Genitive . . 191 The Partitive Genitive . 193 The Ablative Genitive . .197 The Dative . . . .202 The True Dative . . .202 Dative of the Indirect Ob- ject .... 203 The Dative of Interest . 204 The Locative Dative . . 206 The Instrumental Dative . 207 Place and Time (Summary) . 211 Prepositions with the Cases . 212 Use and Meanings of the Prepositions . . .213 Improper Prepositions . . 224 Syntax of Adjectives . . 225 Syntax of Adverbs . . .229 The Adverbs ού and μή . 230 The Adverb &ν . ... 232 Conjunctions .... 234 The Definite Article, ό, ή, τό . 235 Position of the Article . . 238 Syntax of Pronouns . . .241 Personal and Reflexive . . 243 The Intensive Pronoun αύτόι 245 Possessive Pronouns . . 247 Demonstrative Pronouns . 248 Relative Pronouns . . 249 Interrogative Pronouns . . 252 Indefinite Pronouns . . 253 iWos and erepos . . . 253 Syntax of the A'erb . . .254 Agreement of Verbs . . 255 The Voices .... 257 Use of the Tenses . . . 263 The Tenses of the Indicative 264 Tenses of Other Modes . . 272 Uses of the Finite Modes . .277 Statements .... 281 Questions .... 286 Direct Questions . . 286 Indirect Questions . . 290 Commands and Exhortations 291 AVishes 292 PAGE Final Clauses . . ,294 Purpose .... 294 Object Clauses . . . 296 Clauses of Fearing . . 297 Result . . ^ . . 298 Causal Clauses . . . 299 Conditions .... 300 Concessive Clauses . .311 Relative and Temporal Clauses 311 The Infinitive . . . .315 Subject of the Infinitive . 315 Uses of the Infinitive . . 317 The Infinitive as a Sub.stan- tive .... 318 The Infinitive in Indirect Discourse . . . 323 The Participle .... 324 The Attributive Participle . 324 The Circumstantial Participle 325 Genitive and Accusative Absolute . . . 330 The Supplementary Participle 332 not in Indirect Discourse . 332 in Indirect Discourse . 334 The Λ'erbal Adjectives . . 336 Indirect Discourse . . . 338 APPENDICES A. A'ersification . . . 347 Trochaic Rhythms . . 352 Iambic Rhythms . . 353 Dactylic Rhythms . . 355 Anapaestic Rhythms . 357 Lyric Rhythms . . 359 Lyric Rhythms in f Time 300 Dactylo - Epitritic Rhythms . . . 364 Other Lyric Rhythms . 365 B. Table of Λ'ολν^ Contractions 367 C. The Pronunciation of Greek Proper Names in English 368 D. Some Additional Grammati- cal Terms . . . 369 E. Weights, Measures, and Time .... 372 F. List of Λ^erbs . . . 377 INDICES English Greek 422 437 10 ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ace. = accusative. act. = active, actively, adj. = adjective, advb. = adverb, aor. = aorist. cf. = compare. D = dual, dat. = dative, decl. = declension, e.g. = for example, end. = enclitic. etc. = and so forth. f., ft. = following, fem. = feminine, fut. = future, gen. = s;enitive. i.e. = that is. impf. = imperfect, impv. = imperative, indie. = indicative, infin. = infinitive. κτλ. = καΐ τα λοιττά (aiid the rest). lit. = literal, literally, masc. = masculine, mid. = middle. Mss. = manuscripts, neut. = neuter, nom. = nominative, opt. = optative. P. = plural, partic. = participle. pass. = passive, pers. = person, perf., pf. = perfect, plur., pi. = plural, plupf. = pluperfect, pres. = present, q.v. = which see. .sc. = scilicet. S. , sing. = singular, subj. = subjunctive, viz. = namely, voc. = vocative. §, §§ = section, sec- tions. ABBREVIATIOXS USED IN CITING EXAMPLES FROM GREEK AUTHORS Aesch. = Aeschylus. Ag. = Agamemnon. Pr. — Prometheus. Aeschin. = Aeschines. Ar. = Aristophanes. Ach. = Acharnenses. Eq. = Equites. Kub. = Nuhes. Ban. = Banae. V. = Vespae. Dem. = Demosthenes. Hm. = Homer; A, B, Γ, etc. are used in refer- ring to the books of the Iliad, and a, β, y, etc. in referring to the books of the Odyssey. Hdt. = Herodotus. Hes. = Hesiod. O.D. = Opera et Dies. E. = Euripides. Ale. = Alcestis. And. — Andromache. EI. = Electra. Hec. = Hecuba. Hel. = Helena. H.F.= Hercules Furens. Hipp. = Hippohjtus. I. T. — Iphigenia Tau- rica. 3Ied. = Medea. Supp. = Supplices. Tro. = Troades. Isoc. = Isocrates. Lys. = Lysias. PI, = Plato. Ap. = Apology. Crit. = Crito. Go. = Gorgias. Leg. ■= Leges. Menex. = Menexenus. Phaed. = Phaedo. Pha.edr. = Phaedrus. Bep. = Bepublic. S. = Sophocles. A). = Ajax. Ant. = Antigone. El. = Electra. O.T. = Oedipus lijran- nus. Th. = Thucydides. Xn. = Xenophon. A. — Anabasis. Ages. = Agesilaus. Cij. = Cyropaedia. Hell. = Hellcnica. Hier. = Hiero. Mem. — Memorabilia. Oec. = Oeconomicus, Symp. = Symposiu7n. GREEK GRAMMAR -isiiv.£KSiTY ] INTRODUCTION THE GREEK LANGUAGE Greek is the language of a people inhabiting not only the mainland of Greece, but also the islands of the Aegean Sea and the adjacent shores, together with a small part of Italy. The Greeks called themselves Hellenes ("Ελλϊ^ζ^ες), but the Romans called them Gf-raeci, and hence the English word Grreek. The Greek language belongs to the Indo-European group of languages, and is related to Sanskrit, Latin, Persian, Slavonic, Celtic, and Germanic. Hence comes the relation which exists between many English and Greek words. A greater number of English Avords, hoAvever, are derived directly from Greek Λvords. For example, English know is the same as Greek ηι-ηνω-σκω^ but the English words gnomic and arithmetic are derived from the Greek γνωμικός and αριθμητική. For over twenty-five hundred 3^ears Greek has been spoken and Avritten, — Avith such changes as are inevitable in the growth and development of any language, — but the masterpieces of Greek literature were written some centuries before the Christian era. In the neighborhood of 400 B.C. Greek may be said to have reached its highest development, and it is customary to take the language of that time as a sort of standard. In ancient times the Greek people did not all speak their language just alike, but each little country had its 11 12 INTRODUCTION own dialect, which often differed considerably from the dialect of a neighboring country only a iew miles away. All the dialects may be roughly divided into three dif- ferent groups ; namely, Aeolic, Doric, and Ionic. ' To the Ionic group belongs the Ionic dialect proper, together Avith the dialect of Attica, which is known as Attic. In the Ionic dialect were written, among other things, the poems of Homer and Hesiod, and the history of He- rodotus. In the Attic dialect were Avritten nearly all the other great w^rks of Gret]v literature which have come down to us, and which, either directly, on^frrough the medium of their Latin imitations, have influenced to such a vast extent the literature of the world. The dramatic poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes, the historians Thucydides and Xenophon, the orators Lysias and Demosthenes, and tlie philosopher, Plato, all wrote in the Attic dialect. Attic, the most elegant and refined of all the (ireek dialects, finally superseded the others in literary use. At the same time it began to lose some of its earlier purity and refinements, and after about 330 B.C. it is known as the κοινή or Common Greek. From this Common Greek there was evolved in the long course of years, Avith a con- siderable admixture of foreign elements, the present lan- guage of the Greek people, Romaic or Modern (ireek. Modern Greek differs so considerably from Ancient (ireek, that, although a knowledge of it is helpful, yet one can soonest learn to comprehend the great works of Greek literature by studying directly the language of Ancient Greece. This grammar deals only with the Attic and Ionic dialects of Ancient Greek. WEITING AND SOUND ALPHABET 1. Greek is written Avith the following twenty-fonr letters iCltCl a . I .ATIN Form Name Equ IVALENT A a αΧφβ alpha a Β β βήτα beta b Γ 7 •γάμμα gamma g Δ δ δέλτα delta d Ε e el (e ψΐλόν^ ei (^epsiloii) e Ζ r ζήτα zeta ζ Η ν ητα eta e -θ θ(^ θ ήτα ^theta th 1 ί Ιώτα iota 1 Κ κ κάτητα kappa c,k Λ λ ΧάβΒα (λάμβΒα ) label a (lambda^ 1 Μ μ μΰ md m Ν ν νυ nil η Ξ ξ ξβΐ φ-) xei i^xl^ - X Ο ου (ο μΙκρόν ) on (^omicron) 1 Π 7Γ 7Γ€Ϊ (ττΐ) . pel (pi) ρ ρ Ρ ρώ rho Γ ν σ 9 σί^μα Sigma s Τ τ ταυ tau t τ υ δ (υ ψΙΧόν') a (ilpsilon) y φ Φ φ€Ϊ (φΐ) phei (phi) ph χ Χ χ^\(χΌ^ chei (chi) eh ψ Ψ ■ψεί (τ/γΖ ) psei (psi) ps Ω ω ώ (ώ μέ'^α ) δ (omega') -— ^ ο 1. The names in parentheses came into use in . the^ldle Ages, but are now commonly employed. lei 14 VOWELS 2. Sigma at the end of a λνονά has the form 9 ; in any other place the form σ. Thus στάσις faction. 2. The letter F, f , called van or digmmna, early ceased to be used in Attic and Ionic Greek. It had the sound of English w, and stood in the alphabet between e and ζ. For other obsolete letters see § 156. VOWELS 3. The vowels e and are always short, η and ω are always long. The vowels a, t, u, are short in some words and long in others. In this grammar they are marked a, Ϊ, j}, when long. The unmarked a, i, v, are, therefore, understood to be short. The mark of length is omitted over circumflexed vowels (§58). 4. The Attic sounds of the vowels, at about 400 B.C., are believed to have been nearly as follows: Long Vowels Short Voavels ά as a in par. a as a in papa. η an e in French fete. e as ^ in pet. 1 as i in macln'ne. ι as i in pit. ω as in prone. as in obey. V as ύ in French suv. ν as u in French b?/tte. 2 a. Vau, althougti not written in the received text of the Ilonieric poems, must, from evidence of the metre and of early inscriptions, liave been a live sound when these poems were composed. Thus it appears to have been sounded at the beginning of about forty words, the most impor- tant of which are : άστυ town, &ναξ lord, άνδάνω please, εΐκοσ-ι tiventy (cf. Lat. viginti), to, οι, i himself, ?ξ six, root iir- (εττοί word, eiwov said), epyov work, root έσ- (βννυμι clothe, iffdrjs clothing; cf. Lat. vestis), eroj year (cf. Lat. vetus), ηδύί sioeet (see § 36 a), root ίδ- {idetv see, ο/δα knoiv ; cf. Lat. vid-ere), ohos house (cf. Lat. vicus), ohos wine (cf. Lat. i'i"«H??i), as, ?), &v his. See also § 36 a and § 172, 2. DIPHTHOIiGS • 15 1. The sounds of ϋ and υ are midway betAA^een English oo and ee. They are exemplified also in the German ii, as in Fiisse, Briicke. DIPHTHOXGS 5. A diphthong is a combination of two vowels in one syllable. The latter vowel is always c or v. The diph- thongs are αί, ei, 01, VL, av, eu, ov, a, 77, ω, ηυ. 1. In the diphthongs a, 77, ω, the t is written below the first vowel, and is called iota subscript. AVhen, however, the first vowel is written as a capital letter, t stands on the line : thus "ΆιΒψ Hades. The ancients always wrote l in these diphthongs on the line. 6. The sounds of the principal diphthongs, at about 400 B.C., Avere very nearly as follows: at like ai in aisle. αυ like ou in ouv. ei like ei in rein. ev like eu in fewd. OL like oi in toil. ου like ou in you. VL like ui in quit. 1. In a, 77, ω, the t Λvas originally sounded. But later (about 100 B.C.) it became silent, and these diphthongs have since been pronounced like simple ά, η, ω. 2. The sound of ην cannot be exemplified from English, but may be represented as eh-00, pronounced quickly to- gether. 3. In the earliest times, the diphthongs ei and ov had, in some Avords at least, actual double sounds, such as their composition would indicate, and differed in pronunciation 5 a. In Ionic (Herodotus) a diphthong ωυ occurs ; thus ωύτόί for ό auros the same. Tliis diphthong ων is ahnost unknown in Attic Greek. 16 ■ DIAERESIS from the ajjparent diplitliongs et and ου, which arise from contraction of e-e, o-o^ o-e, or e-o (see § 18, 3 and 5) or from compensative lengthening (see § 16). Thus, ei in ^evi\. is made up of e + t (see § 18, 1 and § 106), but in ^€19 for *^€ντ9 (see § 16, 1) et is merely lengthened from e. In early inscriptions the real diphthongs ei and ου Avere written EI and OT, wliile the apparent diphthongs were Avritten Avith simple Ε and O. Later (soon after 400 B.C.) both kinds of diphthongs came to be pronounced and written alike. DIAERESIS 7. The mark of diaeresis (") is sometimes written over an L or i», to show that it does not combine Avith the preceding voAvel to form a diplithong : thus βοΊ, pro- nounced in two syllables, ho-i. BREATHINGS 8. A vowel at the beginning of a Avord always has a breathing, either rough or smooth. The rough breathing (') shows that the vowel was pro- nounced with the sound of h preceding. Thus, kirra seven is pronounced heptd. The smooth breathing (*) show^s that the vowel was pronounced with no sound of h. Thus, άττο from is pro- nounced αρό. 1. The mark of breathing is written over small letters and in front of capitals : thus άΧηθής true, Άρκά^ς Ar- cadian. 2. In a diphthong, however, the breathing is written over the second vowel: thus Aiyeia? Aeneas, αύτο? self. 8 a. Ionic sometimes has a smooth breathing where Attic has the rough : tlius r\i\ios sun, Attic ήλιο? ; oipos boundary, Attic opos. CONSONANTS 17 Note. — But in the diphthongs u, y, ω, the breathing never stands over the i, even when this is written on tlie line : thus "Αιδ)^? Hades, ω8ή SOlU/. 9. The consonant ρ at the beginning of a word always has the rough breathing (p) : thus ρήτωρ orator (Lat. 7'hetor'). 10. It happens also that all words beginning with the letter υ have the rough breathing. CONSONANTS 11. The consonant! 3 were thus ] pronounced: β like b in hid. θ like th in hoi/iouse, later 7 " (/ in (/ο ( see also like th in thin. §11.1). λ ii I in ?ip. δ " d in do. At ίί m in mix. 7Γ " ρ in |>in. V a η in wow. Κ " k in keg. Ρ ίί r in red (see also Τ '' t in iop. § 11. 2). φ - ph in uj;/iill, later σ a s in see. like ph in gr •ά,ρΐήα. ζ ίί English zd., later like χ " ^7i in in^/iorn, later English z. like c7i in German ξ ii X in mia;. macAen. Ψ a ps in gyjosum. 1. Gamma (7) before «:, 7, %, |, represented the sound of η in ink, and is called gamma nasal: thus αηκων (pro- nounced ankoii) elbotv, 0776X09 (pronounced dngelos) mes- senger. 2. Rho (jo) at the beginning of a word had a sound somewhat like hr (compare § 9). Note. — Tn Greek every consonant was sounded. Thus κτίσι<; a founding, φθίσυς decay, xptv^o^ falsehood, Λvere pronounced respectively ktisis, phthisis, pseud os. babbitt's gr. gram. — 2 18 INTERCHANGE OF VOWELS 12. The consonants may be divided into three classes, Semivowels, Mutes, and Double Consonants. 1. The semivowels are, λ, /a, v^ p, σ, and γ -nasal (§ 11, 1). Of these σ is called a Sibilant, λ, μ, ν, and ρ are called Liquids, μ, V, and 7-nasal (§ 11, 1) are called Nasals. 2. The mutes may be classified as follows : Smooth Middle Rough Labial 7Γ β Φ Lingual τ δ θ Palatal κ 7 Ύ Those in the same liorizontal line are said to be Cog- nate, because they are produced by the same organ of speech (lips, tongue, or palate). Those in the same per- pendicular line are said to be Co-ordinate, because they have the same degree of aspiration (or vocalization). 3. The double consonants are ζ, f, ψ. Of these, ξ is written for «σ, <γσ, or χσ, and ψ for ττσ, βσ^ or φσ. INTEKCHANGE OF VOWELS 13. In the inflection and formation of words, short and long voAvels of similar sound often interchange : thus 8ί-8ο-μ€ν we give, 8ί-8<ύ-μι I give ; \ίμτ\ν harbor, Χιμέν-ος of a harbor. NoTK. — Tlie long \"owel corresponding to α is often η (see § 15). 13 a. In Homer a long vowel or a diphthong sometimes stands for a short vowel, especially in words which Avonld otherAvise be excluded from the verse : thus ήγά^εο? very holy for ayadeos, ονλόμεΐΌί accursed for όλό- μΐνοί. INTERCHANGE OF VOWELS 19 1, The corresponding short and long forms may be seen from the following table : Short a e ί υ Long a or η V I ω ν 14. The same root or suffix often appears with a different short vowel, as, for example, Χέ^-ω speak, \oy-o<; speech; \ύ-ο-μ€ν ice loose, λύ-ε-τε you loose. TJiree different forms of this appearance are recognized, but the same root or suffix does not always present all three forms. These forms are, (i) Avith o, (2) with e, (3) with no vowel. Thus TTOT-ayoV able to fly, ττέτ-ομαι fly, e-ir τ-όμην flew. 1. But in case the third form (without the vowel) brings together a combination of consonants hard to pro- nounce, there is developed from the adjacent consonants in pronunciation a vowel sound, a. Thus, instead of *€-τρ φ-ην, we have έτράφην was nourished, so that the series (of § 14) becomes (i) 0, (2) e, (3) a: thus τ6-τροφ-α have nourished, τρέφ-ω nourish, ε-τράφ-ην was nourished. (Compare English siny, sany, sun'y, and German sterben, starb, yestorben.^ Note. — An α sonietimes appears as the vowel-equivalent of v: thus πά,θοζ (for *7rv^05) experience, suffering. 2. In combination with ι or υ the vowels e and 0, of course, make the corresponding diphthongs, so that we seem to have, on the one hand, an interchange of (i) ol, (2) €i, and (3) i, and on the other, an interchange of (i) ου (rare), (2) ev, and (3) ν ; but it will be seen at once that this apparent " interchange " is really the same phenome- non which has been described above (§ 14) : thus λε-λοΐ7Γ-α have left λείττ-ω leave e-Xnr-ov left στΓουδ-τ^ haste σττίύδω hasten φ€ύγ-ω flee, έ'-φυγ-οι» fled 20 COMPENSATIVE LENGTHENING 3, The following table and examples may serve to make this principle clearer : ο e (a) ot Cl — ι ου €U — υ φόρ-οζ tribute φέρ-ω bear Si -φ ρ-ος chariot τρόπ-ος turning τρέτΓ-ω turn Ι-τρατΓ-όμην turned i -ττοιθ-α trust ΐΓίίθ-ω persuade IT ίθ-ανό<; p>ersiiasive *χο{ν)-ή (§ 21) t-Xi(y)-a (§ 2 ■1) i -χ ύ-θην ivas 2)0ured a pouring 2)oured 15. In Attic, original α becomes η unless it is preceded by e, i, or p. Thns, original (Doric) φοίμα report becomes φή/Αη ; but ^eveOi generation, σοφία, ivisdom, ττρα,^μα deed retain a. 1. But α arising from contraction (§ 18) or compensa- tive lengthening (§ 16) remains unchanged. COMPENSATIVE LENGTHENING 16. A short vowel is sometimes lengthened, to make u}) for the loss of a following consonant. Thus, for */ζελα^-9 we have μβΧα-ς black. 1. In this process, e becomes ei (not ?;), and ο becomes ov (not ω). Thus, *θίντ-ς gives ^€1? having placed, *Bovr-<{ gives δον? having given. INTERCHANGE OF QUANTITY 17. The combinations ao and 770 often change to εω, and ηα to ed. Thus, νοίό<ί temple becomes ΐ'€ώ?, βασί\τ\α king becomes βασιΧέα. 15 a. Ionic regularly has η for original ά, even after e, t, and ρ : thus γει-ίή, σοψίχ], πρΎ\-γμα. Not SO, however, in the cases covered by § 15, 1. CONTEACTION OF VOWELS 21 CONTRACTION OF VOWELS 18. Contraction unites into one long vowel or diphthong vowels which stand next each other in different syllables. The following are the most important rules for contrac- tion. (Many of them admit occasional exceptions, § 715.) 1. A vowel υ or ι unites with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong. Thus, jeW-'i gives ^ev^x., ττβίθό-ϊ gives Trei^OL, ττρω-ί gives ττρώ. 2. Two like vowels unite in the common long. Thus, ye'pa-a gives yepa, φίλ€-ητε gives φίΧτ\τ€. 3. But e-e gives et, and o-o gives ov (§ 6, 3). Thus, φ4λ€-€ gives φίλα, ττλό-ο? gives ττλο-Ος. 4. An sound absorbs a, e, or η, and becomes ω. Thus, όρά-ομβν gives όρωμβν, φιΧί-ωσί gives φιλωσι, 8ηΧό-τ\τ€ gives Βη\ωτ€. 5. But €-0 and o-e both give ου (§ 6, 3). Thus, ye've-o^ gives yevovi, 8ηΧο-ί. gives δτ^λου. 6. When a and e or η come together, the first in order absorbs the second, and becomes long. Thus, je'v^-a gives 7ενη, 6ρά.-Ύ[Τ6 gives ορατβ. 19. A vowel standing before a diphthong is often con- tracted Avith the first vowel of the diphthong. The last vowel of the diphthong is regularly retained in the con- tracted form, but the apparent diphthongs ei and ov (§ 6, 3) are contracted like simple e and o. Thus, τΐμά-ίΐ gives τϊμα (cf. § 5, 1), φίλ€-€ΐ gives φίλ€Ϊ, τϊμά-οιμί gives τίμωμι, λί5η-αι gives λυη, but τΐμά -iiv gives τίμαν, τΐμά-ου gives τΙμω (since ei and ov here are not real diphthongs ; see § 6, 3). 18 a. In Ionic, conti-action is ranch less frequent than in Attic. Thus, we liave ttXoos for Attic ttXovs, yeuta for Attic yivr\. Eo, eov, if contracted, give €v {ποίίνμβν loe do for ποιί-ομεν, woLtvcri they do for ποιέ-ονσι), but often remain uncontracted. 22 OMISSION OF VOWELS 1. But e or is absorbed Ijefore ot. Thus, φί\έ-οι gives φίλοι, δί^λό-οι gives Βηλοι. 2. The contraction of botli o-ei and 0-77 gives 01. Thus, 8η\ό-ίΐ and δτ^λό-η both contract into 877X01 : but Βΐ]\ό-ίΐν gives ΒηΧονν, since ei here is not a real diphthong (§ 6, 3). Note 1. — When three successive vowels are contracted, the last two are first contracted, and with the resulting diphthong the first vowel is then contracted. Thus, ΙτΙμάιο (for *€τΙμχΐΐ.-σ6) you were being honored contracts first into ΙτΙμάον, and this in turn contracts into ΙτΙμω. Note 2. — Synizesis. — Sometimes in poetry two vowels, without being regularly contracted, were so far united in pronunciation as to form one syllable. Thus, ττόλίως might be pronounced as a word of two syllables, -ea>- sounding somewhat like -yd-. This is called synizesis (^setting together). OMISSION OF A^OWELS .20. Between two consonants a short vowel is sometimes dropped. (This is called Syncope.) Thus βσται shall he, for eacTUL ; ηΧθον came., for ηΧνθον. 21. Between two vowels the vowels t and ν are some- times dropped. Thus, ττΧβί-ων more becomes ττΧέων ; *βασι- Χβυ-ων becomes βασιΧβων of kings. CONSONANT CHANGES DOUBLED CONSONANTS 22. Attic regularly lias ττ in place of Ionic σσ. The Ionic form, however, is adopted by some of the Attic poets and earlier Avriters of prose. 22 a. Doubled Consonants in Homer. — In Homer we frequently find a douliled consonant where Attic would have a single consonant: thus ΐλΧαβί took (Attic ΐΧαβΐ), ayavvi becomes avyyev^ akin, *συν-χ€ω becomes σν^γβω pour together. 33. When ν comes before λ, μ, or ρ it is assimilated. Thus, *ei;-Xet7rco becomes ελλειττω leave in, ^έν-μβνω becomes ejJL/AeW abide, *συν-ρ€ω becomes συρρέω floiv together. 34. When ν comes before σ it is dropped (likewise ντ, vS, and νθ; see § 30) and the preceding vowel is lengthened 30 a. More properly a lingual mute before σ is first assimilated to the σ, and the two sigmas later become one. In Homer we often find the older form with σσ : thus irofr-a-i feet (dat.), Attic ττοσί (from *7Γοδ-σί). DISAPPEARANCE OF σ 25 in compensation (see § 1*3)• Thus, */Μελαν-9 becomes μεΧας black, *Χνο-νσί becomes Χνουσι they loose (§ 16, 1). Cf. § 99. DISAPPEAEAXCE OF σ 35. When σ comes between two consonants, it is regu- hirly dropped, and when two sigmas are brought together by inflection one of them is dropped. Tlius, *€σταΧ-σθε becomes εσταΧθβ you have been sent, and *τ€ΐχ€σ-σί becomes τείχβσι ivalls (dat.). 36. When σ stands before a vowel at the beginning of a word, it is often changed to the rough breathing: thus ϊστημί set, for *σι-στημί (Latin sisto'). 37. When σ comes betAveen two vowels, it is reguLarly dropped : thus γε'^εος (contracted yeuov;) of a race for *γ€^6σ-09 (^Latin ye neris^. coiisoii"AKTS WITH voa^t:ls METATHESIS 38. A vowel and a liquid are sometimes transposed. Thus θάρσος and θράσος boldness. 1. Sometimes the vowel, standing after the liquid, has its long form (§ 13) : τέμ.-νω cut, perfect τε'-τ[η]-κα have cut. CONSONANTS BEFORE I 39. The vowel ι (which may sometimes have the value of a consonant), following certain consonants, gives rise to several changes. Thus : . 35 a. In Homer the older form with σ<τ is frequently kept. ThiLs eTeywv τίνων (§ 71, 4) of some words, χλωρών Τίνων of some lands. 2. If the word preceding an enclitic has the acute accent on the antepenult, or the circumflex on the penult, it adds an acute accent on the last syllable : thus άνθρω- ποι Tive'i some men, ^Χώττά τις a tongue. 3. A proclitic (§ 69) before an enclitic takes an acute accent : thus e'i ης if anybody^ ου φασί they deny (see § ^9, 1). 4. If several enclitics follow each other, the last alone remains without written accent ; each of the others re- ceives an acute accent from the following enclitic : thus et πού τι? τίνα [ΐ'δοί] if anybody [^should see^ anybody any- where. 71. Accent of Enclitics Retained. — Enclitics retain their own accent : 1. AVhen they begin a sentence, as ela\v avhpe% Voe. νίώ So also λεώ? people, κάΧως cable. 1. Observe that the genitive and dative, when they have written accent on the last syllable, take the acute, con- trary to § 77, 2. 2. Many of these words were j)roduced by an inter- change of quantity (§ 17), άο becoming εω : thus λεώ? from Χάος. In such words the long vowel at the end does not affect the position of the accent (cf. § 60): thus ΜενεΧβως Menelaus (from MeyeXao?). 3. Some words have no ν in the accusative sinsfular. Thus λαγώ? hare has ace. sing, λαγώ and λαγώ^ ; βω? daivn has only ecu. 92 a. This form of declension is confined almost wholly to Attic. In Ionic most of these words follow the ordinary second declension. So, for Attic Xews, vfws, κάλω$, λαγώ?, Ionic has Xads, vtjos, κ-άλοί, λαγωό? or Xayos. THIRD DECLENSION 47 THIRD DECLENSION 93. Words of the Third (or Consonant) Declension have stems ending in a consonant, or in a vowel (i or u) whicli may sometimes be sounded as a consonant. A few stems appear to end in ο (but see §§ 112, 113). 1. The stem of words of this declension miiy usually be found by dropping the ending -09 of the genitive singular. 94. Gender. — The gender of w^ords of the third declen- sion must usually be learned by observation, but a few general rules may be given. 1. Stems ending in a labial or a palatal mute are never neuter. 2. Masculine are stems ending in ey, ντ, ητ (except those in -τητ-), ωτ, and ρ (except those in -a/3-). 3. Feminine are stems ending in τητ, δ, θ, t (with nom. in -i'h. (stem άσ-τυ-) (stem Ιχθυ-) άστυ Ιχθΰ -s ά(ΓΤ€-ω5 Ιχθύ-08 άστίΐ (αστ€-ϊ) Ιχθύ-ϊ άστυ Ιχθΰ-ν άστυ 'X^'U άστ£ΐ (άστ£-ε) Ιχθύ -e άστί-οιν Ιχθύ-οιν άστη (αστ€-α) Ιχθύ-£5 άστ£-ων Ιχθύ-ων άστ€-σι Ιχθύ-σι άστη (αστ€-α) Ιχθΰβ 110 a. Ill Homer steins in -ι- are thus declined : sing. nora. ττόλυ, gen. TTOXios, dat. πόλϊ, rarely ττόλεί (which doubtless stands for ττόλιϊ), acc. π6\ιν, voc. τΓΟ\ι ; plur. nom. woXies, gen. πολιών, dat. ■πο\ί€σσι (§ 76 b) or (rarely) πόλβσ-ι (which perhaps stands for ττόλισι), acc. ttoMs and TroXtas. b. From noXis Homer has also four forms with η : sing. gen. π6\ηos, dat. ττόληϊ ; plur. nom. TrdXijes, acc. πόληα$. c. In Herodotus stems in -t- are thus inflected : sing. woXis, ttoXios, τΓο'λϊ (rarely iroXei), πάλιν, πάλι ; plur. πολιέ?, πολιών, πόλισι, πόλΙ$ (rarely TToXtas). d. In Ionic, words with stems in -v- regularly have the uncontracted forms: thus &στέί, άστεα, τττ^χεε?, — except that Homer sometimes con- tracts the dative singular : thus πληθυΐ to a mnUitude. In the genitive singular Ionic has always -os (not -ws): thus πήχ€-ο$, aare-os. The geni- tive plural has its regular accent (cf. § 110, 2): thus πήχεων άστέων. e. In the accusative plural Homer has -Ds or -uas, as the meter may demand: thus /χ^Οί or ίχί^ιία?. VOWEL STEMS 57 So also are declined η Βύναμί<; power, 6 μάντίς seei\ ο vre- Xe/cf? axe (like 7Γήχυ<;~), 6 or ή συς ho(/ (like Ιχθν<ς, gen. sijig. σϋ-ο'?), βότρνς cluster of grapes (like Ιχθό'ς, but \vitli short u). Most of these words are masculine or feminine ; the only neuter in frequent use is άστυ toion. Note. — It is probable that in \vovcls like ttoAis and ττηγνζ we have, as we have seen elsewhere (§ 105, 1), two forms of the same stem existing side by side, ττολι- and πολει- (see §§ 14, 2 and 73, 1). Thus the nominative is formed from the shorter stem (ttoAi-s, ττ^χυ-ϊ), but the genitive was originally from the longer stem (*πολει-ος, *ΐΓη•χΐ.ν-ο<;'). Tliese latter forms, however, are not found, for the ι or ν at once went over into the corresponding consonant form (y or ^), and disappeared (§ 21). In compensation the preceding vowel was sometimes length- ened (§ 16), and thus we have ■πόλψο<ϊ (in Homer) and *τΓηχη-οζ. Then, by an interchange of quantity (§ 17), we get the usual Attic forms πόλεως and ττήχεως. Observe that the interchange of quantity does not affect the position of the accent (§ 60). 1. Most stems in -υ- keep the υ throughout and are declined like ιχθύς. Stems of one syllable have the circumflex accent in the nominative, accusative, and vocative. 2. Proper names in -i9 usually retain the l of the stem throughout their inflection : thus Συβννβσις Syennesis•, gen. 'Συβννβσί-ο'ί, etc. So also is declined κίς weevil, gen. κΐός, etc. 3. Observe that the accent of the genitive plural is irregularly made like that of the genitive singular. 4. The accusatives plural, ττολε^? and ττηχβις, are irregu- larly made like the nominatives plural. 111. Stems ending in a diphthong lose the final vowel of the stem before all endings beginning Avith a vowel (§ 21). They are thus declined: 58 THIRD DECLENSION ό βασ-ιλβν; Icing. (stem βα<η.λ€υ-) Nom. βασ-ιλίύ -s Gen. βασιλ€'-ω8 Dat. βασιλ€ί (/3ασιλε-ϊ) Ace. βασιλί'-α Λ^οο. βασ•ιλ€ΰ N.A.V. βασ-ιλή G.D. βασιλί'-οιν N.V. Gen. Dat. Ace. βασ-ιλής later -ets ( βα<Γΐλ€-ων βασιλίΰ-σι PatriXe'-as ό, ή βοΰ5 οχ, cow. (stem βου-) SIXGULAlt βοΰ -s βο -os βο-ί βοΰ-ν βοΰ DUAL βΟ-€ βο-οϊν PLURAL ■ε-ες) βό-€5 βο-ών βου-ίτί βον$ η γραΰβ η vaiJs old icoman. ship. (stem γραυ-) (stem ναυ-) γραυ -s ναυ-ς 7pd-os ve-ws γρά-ΐ νη-'£ γραϋ-ν ναΰ-ν γραΰ ναϋ γρά-£ νή-£ γρά-οϊν vt-oiv γρά -es vf)-£S γρά-ών ν€-ών γραυ-σί ναυ -cri γραΰ8 vavs So also are declined ό ίτητενς horseman., 6 lepevf priest^ 6 χοΟ? three-quart measure (but w. ace. sing, χόα, ace. plur. χόας}. Note. — jNIany of the forms from stems in -ευ- are to be explained similarly to those from ττηχυς and πόλις. Thus, the genitive singular βασίλί-ω<; comes by an interchange of "quantity (§ 17), from βασίλη-ο? Ill a. In Ionic, words with stems in -εΐί- regularly have the uncon- tracted form. Homer has η instead of e wherever υ has disappeared (§ 111 and note). Thus, βασιληοί, βασ-ιληϊ, etc. (but βασίλβύί, /3ασιλε0σι). In proper names, however, he sometimes has e, as in IIt^X^os of Pel c us (also Uηληos). b. Eor ypavs and vavs Homer has ypvOs and νηΰί. The latter he thus declines : sing. nom. ί»:?!}?, gen. vrjos or veoi, dat. νηί, ace. νηα, via ; plur. nom. ^/^es or vies, gen. νηων or vewv, dat. νηυσί, νήβσσι or νέβσσι, acc. νηαί or νέαί. Herodotus has sing. νηϋ$, νηόί or feo's, νηί, νέα ; plur. vies, vewv, νηυσί, vias. c. For the dative plural of βοΰί Homer has βουσί and βόεσσι, and for the accusative plural βοΰί and βόα% (cf. § 110 a and e). VOWEL STEMS 59 (iu Homer), and this, in turn, is for *βασίλΎ]ρ-ο<ί (§ 21). So also the accusatives singular and plural have -e -ά and -e'-as, for earlier -^-a and -^-as• 1. Observe that the nominative, accusative, and vocative dual (/8ασίλϊ)), and the older form of the nominative plural (^βασιΧης^, are contracted from βασιΚή-ΐ and βασιΧη-βς. (See note.) 2. When the final -ev- of the stem follows a vowel or diphthong, contraction usually takes place in the genitive and accusative. Thus, Tletpaiev^ Peiraeus usually has for its genitive Πεφαίώ? (for HetpaieW), and for its accusative YieLpaLa (for HeLpaLed). 112. Stems in -oi-. — Stems ending in ol (found in the singular only) lose their final ι in all cases except the vocative (§ 21). They are thus declined: ή 'Τ€ΐθώ persuasion. (stem ΐΓίίθοι-)' Norn. trtiQia Gen. ireiGoCs (ττει^ό-ο?) Dat. ireiGoi (πει^ό-ϊ) Ace. ΊΓίΐθώ (ττειθό-α) Voc. ■miQoi So also are declined ή ηχώ echo, ή Αητώ Leto. All words which follow tliis declension have their written accent on the last syllable. 113. Stems in -ω- (or ωρ). — A few words of the third declension appear to have stems ending in ω, but this could not have been the original ending. Possibly 112 a. Herodotus often has the accusative singular of ol- stems in •ovf. thus 'loCi' ace. of 'Ιώ Ιο. 60 IRREGULAR DECLENSION such stems ended originally in -ωf-. They are thus declined ό ήρω? hero. (stem ήρω+?) • SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL Nom. ήρω? Nom, . ήρω -es, ήρω? Gen. ήρω -os Ν.ΑΛ^. ήρω-€ Gen. ήρώ-ων Dat. ήρω (ϊ')ρω-ί) G.D. ήρώ-οιν Dat. ήρω-σ-ι Ace. ήρω-α, ήρω Ace. ήρω -as, ήρω? Voc. ήρωδ A^oc. ήρω-€§, ήρω? So also are declined 6 μήτρων mother s brother., 6 ττάτρω'ζ father s brother. SUBSTANTIVES OF PECULIAR OR IRREGULAR DECLENSION 114. L The Greeks sometimes declined the same word in different ways, especially when two different stems would give the same nominati\^e singular. Thus, the stems σκοτο- and σκοτβσ- both give a nominative singu- lar σκότος darkness, genitive singular σκότου (2d decl.) or σκότους (3d decl.). So also stems of proper names in -ης, like Σωκρατβσ- (nom. sing. Σωκράτης, gen. sing. Σω- κράτους, ace. sing. Σωκράτη'), have sometimes an accusative singular in -ην (Σωκράτην), as if of the first declension. 2. Again, certain cases may have been formed from stems of wholly different words : thus ό ονβιρος dream (2d decl. 113 a. Homer has only the uncontracted forms : thus ηρωϊ, ΐφωσ (r;pw'), '^pwes, ηρωαί. 114, 2 a. So Homer has ό δeσμ6s bond, plur. ot δεσμοί and τα δέσματα. Πάτροκλο? (gen. -ου, 2d decl.) has also forms from a stem Πατροκλεβα•- : thus gen. UarpoKX^eos (Πατροκλ^οϊ?), etc. (See § 108 a.) From ήνίοχο -s charioteer, declined regularly, Homer has also ηΐΊοχηα, rjvLOXTJes (stem ήνιοχεν-, § 111); cf. Aidlowas and λίθωττηαί, acc. Jilur. of Αϊθίοψ. IKREGULAR DECLENSION 61 regular), but gen. sing, also ονβίρατος, dat. oveipari, nom. plur. oveipara, gen. ονβίράτων, dat. oveipaai. See also § 103, 1 and 2. 3. Again, words sometimes have different genders in the different numbers. Thus, σίτος grain (masc.) has for its plural σΐτα (neuter) ; το στάΒιον stade has for its plural usually oi στά8ωί. 115. The peculiarities of substantives irregularly declined can best be learned from a lexicon, but some of the more important of these will be found in the folloAving list : 1. ό "Αρη$ (stem Άρεσ-') Ares, gen. "Αρβως (poetic "Αρ€ος), dat. "Apet, voc. "Ape?. 2. [o, ή αρην\ (stem apev-, apv-, apva-^ lamb, of the same kind of declension as ττατηρ (§ 105): thus άρν-ός, άρν-ί, άρν-α, αρν-€ς, αρνά-σι. The nominative singular is supplied by αμνός, 2d decl., regular. 3. TO -γόνυ knee (Lat. genu), nom. ace. voc. sing. All other cases are formed from stem ^ονατ- (§ 73, 1) : γο- νατ-ος, ί) αργυρά (άργί'ρεα) FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 67 άπλονβ (άπλοο?) simple. SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. N.V. άιτλοΰ? (απλοο?) άιτλή (αττλεά) άιτλοΰν (αττλοοΐ') Geii. άιτλοϋ (απλοου) άττλήβ (αττλεας) άιτλον (απλοου) Dat. άιτλω (άττλοω) air\r[ (άττλβα) αιτλω (αττλοω) Ace. άττλοΰν (^άπλοον) ά-ιτλήν (άπλεαΐ') DUAL άιτλοΰν (α'τΓλοοι/) N.A.V . άπλώ (αττλοω) άιτλά (άπλε'α) άιτλώ (α'ττλόω) G.D. άπλοΐν (άπλοοιν) άπλαΐν (απλί'αιν) PLURAL άιτλοίν (απλοοιν) X.V. άιτλοΐ (ίίπλοοι) άττλαΐ (άττλεαι) άΐτλά (α'ττλοα) Gen. ά-ιτλών (άττλόων) άττλών (απλί'ων) απλών (άττλοων) Dat. άνΧοΐζ (απλόοι?) άπλαϊβ (αττλεαις) άιτλοΐδ (α'ττλόοι?) Ace. άπλοΰϊ (αττλοου?) airXas (αττλίας) άττλά (α'πλόα) 1. Observe that in contraction a short vowel before a is absorbed. Thus, χρΰσ€αί<; becomes χρνσαΐς and άττλοα άττλά. In the feminine singuh\r, hoAvever, this takes place only after ρ : apyvped, apyvpa, but aTrXea, άττΧή (cf. § 83). 2. Obser\^e that adjectives in -009 form their contracted feminine from a stem in -ea-. 3. Adjectives of material in -eo9 irregularly have their written accent on their contract syllables. Thus, χρνσζος, when contracted, becomes χρϋσον<ί. For the accent of the nominative dual (^χρνσω) ef. § 91, 2. ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDIXGS IX THE A^OWEL DECLENSION 119. B}^ an adjective of two endings we mean one that uses the masculine form also for the feminine. Thus, masc. and fem. ^συχο?, neut. ησυγον quiet. Compound adjectives, as a rule, have only two endings: so α-λθ7θ9, a-Xoyov irrational.^ eu-vovi., ev-vovv well-disposed. They are thus declined : 68 AmECTIVES ήσ•υχθ5 η uiet. SINGULAR ϊλίως prop itious. MASC. A VKM. ΧΕΓΤ. . MASC. & ΚΕΛΙ. NEUT. Nom. ήσ-υχοδ ήσυχον ϊ\(ωζ ΐλ€ων Gen. ήσυχου ήσυχου ΪΧΐω Ι'λ(ω Dat. ήσύχω ήσύχω ΐλ€ω t'Xcu) Ace. ήσ-υχον ήσυχον ϊλίων Ι'λ£ων Voc. ήσ-υχε ήσυχον DUAL Ιλίως ϊλίων N.A.V. ήσύχω ήσύχω ϊλίω ϊλίω G.D. ήσ-ύχοιν ήσύχοιν I'LUKAL ίλΐων ϊλίων N.V. ήσυχοι ήσυχα ΪΧΐω ϊλ£α Gen. ήοτΰχων ήσυχων ΐλεων ϊλίων Dat. ήσύχοΐ5 ήσύχοΐδ ϊλίωζ ϊλίω? Ace. ήσυχου? ήσυχα iketas ϊλία tSo also are declined βάρβαρος, βάρβαρον harhariany εττί-φθονος, έττί-φθονον envious, α-τ€κνος, ά-τβκνον childless : so also with contraction (see § 91, 3), ^ύ-νους (^εΰ-νοος), ev-vovv well-disposed. 1. For the accent of ΪΧβως see § 92, 2. 2. One adjective, ττΧβως full, has a feminine ττλεα. THIED DECLENSION (consonant declension) 120. Adjectives belonging wholly to the consonant declension have only two endings, the masculine being the same as the feminine. INIost of these have stems ending in ea or ov. They are thus declined : 119 a. Homer has i'Xaos and ττλβΓο? for Attic i'Xecos and ttX^ws (see § 92, a). 120 a. Iloiner rarely, if ever, contracts adjectives in -η$. Tims, δυσμ€νέ€;, noni. plur. of δυσμενΎΐ$ hostile. THIRD DECLENSION 69 άληθήξ true. «ΰδαίμων happij SIXGULAR MASr. Λ FEM. XKUT. MASC.&FEM. ΧΕΓΤ. Noiu. άληθήβ άληθ€'5 6ύ8α(μων €ΰ'δαιμον Gen. άληθοίίξ {α\.-ηθΙ-ο<;) άληθοΰξ {άΧηΘΙ-ο<;^ «ΰδαίμονοβ «ύδαίμονο? Dat. άληθίί (άλΐ7^£-ϊ) άληθίϊ (άληθί-ϊ) €νιδαίμονι «ύδαίμονι Acc. αληθή (άληθε-α) άληθίΒ £ύδαίμονα €ΰ'δαιμον Yoc. άληθ€8 άληθ€5 βύδαιμον «νδαιμον DUAL Ν.Α.Λ^. άληθίϊ (άληθί-€) άληθ€Ϊ (άληθζ-ί) «ΰδαίμονί €ΰδαίμον€ G.D. άληθοϊν {άΧηθί-Οΐν) άληθοϊν {άληθζ -OLv) «ύδαιμόνοιν «ύδαιμόνοιν PLURAL Ν. Υ. αληθίΐ? (άληθε-ες) αληθή (άληθε-α) €ΰδαίμον€5 €ΰδαίμονα Gen. αληθών {a\rj9e-wi') αληθών (άληθί-ων) €ύδαιμόνων ενδαιμόνων Dat. άληθεσι άληθίσι εΰδαίμοσί «ύδαίμοσι. Acc. άληθεί? αληθή (^άληθε-α) €ύδαίμονα8 €ΰδαίμονα So also are declined σαφψ., σαφβς clear ; ενδεής, ei^See? needy (see § 120, 3); σώφρων., σώφρον discreet ; άρρην, appev nude. For fuller information about stems in -€σ- see §§ 106-107. 1. Observe that the accent of the neuter εΰΒαιμον is recessive. 2. Compound adjectives in -τ;?, without Avritten accent on the last syllable, have recessii^e accent even in con- tracted forms : thus, masc. and fem. αυτάρκης; self -sufficient neut. αϋταρκ€<ί., gen. plur. αυταρκών (instead of αυταρκών from αύταρκ€(σ^-ων. 3. The contraction of ea folloAving an e (and sometimes an L or u) gives α (cf. § 118, 1): thus ivhea for evhee(jj^-a from ivSe^ needy. 121. Declension of Comparatives in -ων. — To this form of declension belong also comparatives in -ων, which in some cases are often formed on a stem in -οσ- (§ 73, 1) 70 ADJECTIVES (cf. Lat. mel-ior-is for *i7iel-ios-is^, and so suffer contraction. They are thus declined : β€λτΐων heller. SINGULAR MASC. & FEM. np:ut. Nom. β€λτϊων β£'λτϊθν Gen. PeXriov-os β£λτίθν-05 Dat. βίλτίον-ι β£λτΐθν-1. { βελτΐον-α, or i βίλτΐω {ίον*β€λτΙο(σ)-α) β€λτΙθν Voc. βί'λτϊον βί'λτϊον DUAL N.A.Y. β6λτΐθν-€ βίλτίον-ί G.D. βίλτίόν-οιν β€λτΐόν-οιν PLURAL• ^ β€λττον-€8, or ( βελτίον-α, or ι β€λτίου5 (for */3€λτϊο(σ)-ες) < β£λτΐω (tor * βΐλτΐο(σ)-α) Gen. β£λτϊόν-ων β£λτϊόν-ων Dat. β£λτίοσ•ι β£λτίοσ•ι \ β£λτΐον-α5, or \ β£λτίον-α, or Ace. i β£λτΐου$ i βελτίω (for *β€λτω(σ)-α) So also are declined μείζων greater (neut. μείζον')^ καΧΧίων 7nore beautiful^ θάττων swifter. 1. Observe that the neuter (^βελτίον) is recessive in accent. 2. The accusative βεΧτίους (which should properly be ββΧτίως for β€λτίο(σ)-α'ζ) is imitated from the nominative. OTHER ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDINGS IN THE CONSONANT DECLENSION Some other adjectives of two endings are made hy compounding substantives with a prefix. Such, for exam- ple, are : €ί/-€λ7Γίhere (cf. § 358), ού8αμον nowhere (cf. § 358). 2. Certain «local endings of the nature of case-endings (§ 76) are used to form adverljs of place. These are : -θι, Place Where, as in άΧλο-θί elsewhere ; -θβν, Place Whence, as in οίκο-θξ,ν from home^ ττάντο-θβν from all sides; -δε. Place Whitlier, as in οϊκα -he homeward, Άθήνάζζ (for Άθηνάς -Be^ totvard Athens. 138. Comparison of Adverbs. — Adverbs in -ω? employ for their comparative the neuter singular of the compara- tive of their adjective ; for their superlative they employ the neuter plural of the superlative. Thus, σοφώζ iviselt/, σοφώτ€ρον more wisely, σοφώτατα most ivisely ; ράΒίω<; easily, paov more easily, ραστα most easily. 1. Adverbs in -ω have the comparative and superlative ending in -ω. Thus, άνω above, ανωτέρω higher^ άνωτάτω highest. 2. The adverb μά\α very has for its comparative μάΧλον (for μάΧ-ίον, § 39, 3), and for its superlati\'e μάλιστα. 137, 2 a. The local endings are naturally much more frequent iii Homer : tlius οΐ'κοθι at home, ovpavMev from heaven, ήμ6Τίρ6νδ€ to our (house), TTOXivde to the city, etc. PRONOUNS 83 PRONOUNS 139. The Personal Pronouns. — The pronouns of the first, second, and third person are thus declined : First Person Second Person SINGULAR Third Person Norn. €γώ I <τν i/ou him, her, it Gen. Ιμοΰ; μου (enclitic) σοϋ ; σου (enclitic) ού; ου (enclitic) Uat. ίμοί ; μοι (enclitic) σοι ; σοι (enclitic) ol ; ot (enclitic) Ace. «μί ; με (enclitic) σ€ ; σ€ (enclitic) € ; € (enclitic) Voc. συ DUAL N.A.(V.) νώ we two σφώ IJOU two G.D. νων σψων PLURAL Nora. ήμ€Ϊ5 we ϋμ€Ϊ8 you σψΐΐς they Gen. ημών υμών σψών Dat. ήμϊν υμΐν σφίσι Ace. ήμάβ ύμάβ σφά5 Voc. ϋμ€ΐ$ Χοτκ. — The stems of the prononn of the first person are (ί)μ€- (the nominative εγώ being of different formation), νω-, and ήμί- (from άμμε-) ; of the second person συ- (for τυ-), σε (for *T/re-) σφω-, and νμε- (from νμμε-) ; of the third person e- (originally *σρε-, § 36 a), ee- (for *aep€-), and σφε-. From the shorter stem τν- of the second person comes only the nominative συ (cf. ττολνς, § 1'27, note). From the longer form of the stem of the third person εε- (*σερε-) comes the Homeric form ee, ace. 1. The enclitic (§ 70) forms are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun. Thus, 8οκ€Ϊ μοί it seems (to me^. But Λνΐιβη the pronoun is emphatic the forms with written accent (and in the first person the longer forms e/xoO, etc.) are employed : tlius etVe καΐ εμοί fell even me. This is regularly the case when prepositions are used with 84 PRONOUNS the pronouns : thus τταρ βμον from beside me, ττερί σου about you. 2. The pronoun of the third person ou, ot, e, when used as a direct reflexive (§ 470), is never enclitic. 139 a. Homer has the following forms of the personal pronouns : SINGULAR Nom. ("γώ, έ^ών σιί, tuct; ( έμΐΐο, έμέο, έμεν, σεΐο, σ^ο, σεΰ, eto, ?ο, έο (end.), Gen. -j μευ (end.), έμέθεν s δεινούς. 148 a. Of the interrogative and indefinite pronouns Homer and Herod- otus have the following additional forms : gen. sing, τέο, rev, reo, rev ; dat. sing, τέψ, τςφ, gen. plur. τ4ων, τεών, dat. plur. reoiai, ueut. plur. (Homer) &σσα (cf. § 148 note 1 and § 22). 90 PRONOUNS 149. Relative Pronouns. — The relative pronoun 09, η, 6 wlio^ ivhich, is thus inflected : SINGULAR MASC. FEM. Nom. OS ή Gen. οΰ ηβ Dat. ω η Ace. L ην DUAL N.A. ώ ώ G.D. οΐν οΐν PLURAL Nom. οι αϊ Gen. ών ών Dat. 0Ϊ8 αίς Ace. oiis as NEUT. οΙν ων ols α 150. The indefinite relative pronoun, δστί?, r/Vi?, 6 rt (sometimes written o, tl) wJioever, ivhichever, is made by joining- 09 and Ti9, both parts being declined. 149 a. Beside the forms given above (§ 149) Homer has also gen. sing, masc. and neut. 00 (§ 90 a), often wrongly written δον, and feni. ΐηs (!). In Homer the demonstrative pronoun, ό, ή, τό (§ 144 a), is often used as a relative referring to a definite antecedent (cf. English that). When so used the forms with τ- (τοί, ταί, § 144 a) are employed in the nomina- tive plural. b. Herodotus has from the relative the forms 6s, η, ο'ί, and αϊ. For all other forms he employs the demonstrative [ό, ή] τ6, τον, τηί, etc. (cf. § 149 a), except after certain prepositions (mostly iirepositions of two syllables, of which the last syllable may suffer elision) : thus /xer' ^s irith whom, άπ ών from which (§ 44, 4 a). 150 a. Homer has several forms of the indefinite relative in which the stem ό- is not declined: thus sing. nom. oVis, neut. ϋττι, gen. δττεο, δττΐν. and δτευ, dat. δτεφ, ace. δτινα, neut. δττι ; plur. gen. δτΐων, dat. οτέοι,σι, ace. oViyas. For the neuter plural he uses ϋσσα, nom. and ace. b. Herodotus has gen. sing. Sreu, dat. sing, δτΐψ, gen. plur. δηων, dat. plur. ότέοισι, neut. plur. nom. and ace. άσσα. PRONOUNS SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. OO-TIS ήτΐ9 δ τι Geii. ovTivos, δτου η<Γτινθ8 ουτινοξ, δτου Dat. ώτινι, δτω fjTivi ώτινι, δτω Ace. δντινα ήντινα DUAL δ τι N.A. ώτινί ώτιν€ ώτιν€ G.D. οίντινοιν οίντινοιν PLURAL οίντινοιν Nom. 01TIV€S aiTiv€s άτινα Gen. ώντινων, δτων ώντινων ώντινων, δτων Dat. οίστισι, otois αΐ(Γτισ-ι οΐστισ^ι, δτοΐ8 Ace. owTivas άσ -Tivas ίίτινα 91 1. The shorter forms δτοι», ό'τω are more common than ouTLVo'i, ωτινί. Note. — The indefinite τις may be added also to other relatives to make them more indefinite : thns όττοΓο? ns of ichatsoever kind. 151. Correlation of Pronouns. — In Greek certain pro- nominal adjectives and adverbs show a regnlar correspon- dence in form and meaning. Thus the interrogative form begins with ττο-, the indefinite has the same form but is enclitic, the demonstrative lias ro-., and the relative 6- or (general relative) otto-. This may best be seen from the followinof list : 151 a. Homer often doubles the w of the general relatives : thus όττιτοΓο?, όΐΓΊτότε, etc. (Attic oirotos, όττότε). b. Herodotus has κ instead of π at the beginning of interrogative and indefinite pronominal adjectives and adverbs: thus koo-os, κοΓοϊ, koO, KOOev, KUJs, KOT^, etc. (Attic ττόσο?, iroios, etc.); so also in the general relatives he has κ for π : thus όκόσοί, okoTos, okou, όκό^ε;', ό'κω5, etc. (Attic όιτόσο?, o-irotoy, etc.). 92 Ιντειικοοατιλέ Indefinite (enclitic) PRONOUNS Demonstrative ADJECTn'ES ττόσος hoio ποσός of some (τόσος) great. size. τοσοσδε τοσούτος τΓοΐος of ichat ποιος of some (Τ0Γ05) kind. kind. τοιόσ^ί so great. of this ki7id. πηλίκος of tvhat age. τηλίκος τηλίκόσΒί τηλικουτος of this age. Relative οσο5 \ as great όπόσος J as. οίος I of such οττοως I kind as. ■ηλίκος 1 of such όπηλίκος J age as. ΤΓου tvhere. ττόθίν whence. TTOt whither. πότε when. πηνίκα at what time. πβ which loay. πως how. ποΐι someiohere. πoθivfrom .^ome place. ποΐ to some place. τΓΟτε sometime. πτ] someway. [τόθεν (poetic) thence^ τότε then. (τ-ηνίκα) τηνικά^ε τηνικαντα τϊ]-8ε this way at this time. πως somehow. [τώς (poetic) thus.l ov, οπον where. όθεν, οπόθεν whence. oi, 07Γ01 ivhither. ore, οπότε lohen. ■ηνίκα, οπηνικα, at irhich time. ■g. όπ^ ichich loay. ώς, όπως as. 1. Observe tliat some correlative forms are lacking, having been supplanted by other words. Thus, evOahe or ενταύθα is the usual word for here; ώδε and οΰτως thus have crowded out the earlier (Epic and poetic) τώς. Note. — The indefinite relative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs may be made more indefinite by adding ovv, 8-η, or δι; ποτέ • thus όστις ovv (or όστισονν), όστισ-δι^-ττοτε, or even 6στίσ-8η-ποτ-οΐψ who- so-ever. NUMERALS 95 larly like adjectives in -o? (§ 117). The cardinal num- bers from 1 to 4 are declined as follows : one two N. «is μία €V N.A. δύο (i. ewos μιά? €VOS G.D. δυοΐν I). evi μια €vi sometimes also used A. €va μίαν •iv indecliuably three X. Tpets τρία G. τριών τριών I), τρισί τρισ-ί Α. τρ€Ϊ9 τρία four T€TTapes τί'τταρα τ€ττάρων τίττάρων τίτταρσι τί'τταρσι TtTTapas τ£'τταρα 1. Like eh are declined ούΒείς and yu.7/Sei? 7io 07ie. These are sometimes declined also in the plural : thus ouSeVe?, ουδβνων, ούδβ'σι, ouSe'pa^. 156. Notation. — Observe that in notation the letters of the alphabet (including the three obsolete letters, ς = f vau (§ 2 a), 9 = ? koppa, and J^ sampi) are employed in order, the first nine for units, the second nine for tens, and the remaining nine for hundreds. For thousands the same characters are used again but with the stroke under the letter : thus αυττα = 1481. Note. — The books of Homer are usually numbered by using the letters of the ordinary alphabet consecutively, the capitals being employed for the Iliad and the small letters for the Odyssey. Thus, Κ stands for Book 10 of the Iliad, λ for Book 11 of the Odyssey. 96 VERBS VERBS 157. The verb distinguishes in its inflection Voice, Mode, Person, Number, and Tense. 1. By its Voice it indicates whether the subject acts (active), acts for himself (middle), or is acted upon (passive). 2. By its Mode it indicates the manner in which the action is thought of : for example, as a fact or as a possibility. 3. By its Person it indicates whether its subject is tlie speaker, or some second person spoken to, or some third person or thing spoken of. 4. By its Number it indicates how many persons or things are concerned in its action. 5. By its Tense it indicates the time of the action. VOICE 158. The Greek verb has three voices. Active, Middle, and Passive (see § 236). 1. The passive voice has a separate form of inflection only in the aorist and future ; elscAvhere the middle form is used both for the middle and passive. 2. Many verbs, from their meaning, are used only in the active. 3. Deponent Verbs. — Likewise many verbs have onl} a middle (or passive) form. Such Λ^erbs are called Depo- nent. Those which have the middle form throughout are called Middle Deponents ; those which have the passive form for the aorist (and future) are called Passive Deponents. MODE 97 MODE 159. Greek has four modes : the Indicative (the mode of fact), the Subjunctive and Optative (the modes of possibility), and the Imperative (the mode of command). These modes are called the Finite jNIodes. 1. Beside the four finite modes are the Infinitive and Par- ticiple, Avhich are properly \^erbal nouns (although some- times called modes). The infinitive represents the action of the verb as a substantive : thus ehat to be, the act of being. The participle represents the action of the verb as an adjective : thus ό τταρων καιρός the present occasion. 2. To these must be added the Verbal Adjectives in -τός and -τ€ος, of which the former denotes what has been or may be done (thus \υτό<; loosed or loosable'), and the lat- ter, Avhat needs doing (thus Χυτβος needing to be loosed'). 160. Mode Suffix. — Tlie subjunctive and the optative have a special mode suffix. The subjunctive has a long vowel -ω- or -η- ; the optative has -i- or -ιη-. 1. The use of ω or η is determined by the same rules as that of ο and e (§ 169). The mode sign -ιη- is regularly used in the singular active of -μι verbs and contract verbs ; elsewhere -l- is used. In the third plural of the optative -ί€- appears as the mode sign. Note. — In the singular active of contract verbs -t- very rarely is found as mode sign, while in classical Greek -lyf- was probably never used in the optative dual or plural of any verbs. (See also § 199, note, and § 233, note.) 2. Verbs whose stem ends in a A^owel usually contract the mode suffix Avith the final vowel of the stem (§§ 170, 2-3 ; 200, 1 ; 211, 1-2 ; 233, 1-2). 160 a. Homer often forms the subjunctive with a short vowel (o or e), especially in the aorist ; never, however, in the present of -ω verbs (§ 169). babbitt's gk. gram. — 7 98 VERBS TENSE 161. Greek lias seven tenses : Present, Imjjerfect, Future, Aorist, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect. Note. — The Greek aorist corresponds closely to the English past tense : thus Ιποί-ησα did. The other tenses correspond to the same tenses in English or Latin. 1. The tenses of the indicative are divided into : (1) Primary (or Principal) tenses, expressing present or future time : the present, future, perfect, and future perfect. (2) Secondary (or Past) tenses, expressing past time : the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect. TEXSE SYSTEMS 162. The \^arious forms of the Greek verb group them- selves into certain Tense Systems, each of which is formed on a common Tense Stem. The tense systems of the Greek verb are as follows : the Present system including the Present and Imperfect, the Future system *' Future Active and Middle, the First Aorist system " 1st Aorist Active and Middle, the Second Aorist system " 2d Aorist Active and jMiddle, the First Perfect system " 1st Perf. and 1st Plup. Act., the Second Perfect system " 2d Perf. and 2d Plup. Act.,, the Perfect Middle system '' Perf., Plup., and Fut. Perf. ]Mid., the First Passive system " 1st Aor. and 1st Fut. Pass., the Second Passive system " 2d Aor. and 2d Fut. Pass. 1. The tenses called second differ from the correspond- ing first tenses in form, but they usually have like meanhig, TENSE 99 unless, as rarely happens, the same verh has both first and second forms of the same tense in use at the same time. (See § 207, note 3.) 2. Principal Parts. — The '' principal parts " of a verb are the first person singular indicative of every system used in it. Thus, τταώεύω educate, τταίδευσω, έτταίΒβυσα, ΤΓβτταίΒβυκα, ττε- τταί^βυμαί^ βτταώβύθην. See § 236. λειττω leave, λεπ/τω, eXnrov, ΧβΧοίττα, ΧβΧβιμμαι, εΧβίφθην. βονΧομαι wish, βουΧησομαι, βββονΧημαί, έβουΧήθην (pas- sive deponent, § 158, 3). ηί'^νομαί become, Ύβνήσομαί, έ'γενόμην, ^ξ^β'νημαί (middle deponent, § 158, 3). 163. Theme. — That part of the Greek verb which is common to all its forms is called the Theme (or by some the Verb Stem). From this theme the various tense-stems are formed : thus Λτελεύω order, theme iceXeu-, present stem /ceXeu?:, future stem κβΧευσ^:, aorist stem KeXevaa-, etc. For the formation of the various tense-systems see §§ 186-234. 1. According as the verb theme ends in a vowel, a mute, or a liquid (§ 12), verbs are classed as Vowel Verbs, Mute Verbs, or Licμιid Verbs. 164. Irregular Verbs. — Sometimes, when tAVO or more verbs happen to coincide in meaning, each is used only in certain tenses, usually in such a way as to supplement each other. Thus, τρέχω rim is used only in the present system ; in the other tenses another verb from the theme 8ραμ- corresponds in meaning to τρβχω ; so Βραμοΰμαι shall run, 'έ^ραμον ran, etc. In the same Avay, corresponding in 100 VERBS meaning to όρώ see (theme όρα-'), we have οψομαι shall see (theme όττ-), and elBov saw (theme 18-). Such verbs are often called Irregular Verbs. 165. Primitive and Denominative Verbs. — A Primitive verb forms its tense stems from a root ; a Denominative verb from a longer theme, originally a noun stem (§ 2(39). Thus^ τίω (root rt-) give what is due is a primitive verb, w^hile τιμώ (-αω) honor is a denominative verb, derived from a noun, τΙμή honor. XoTE. — Most primitive \^rbs Ιιαλ'β themes of one syllable. (See § 270, note.) PERSON AND NUMBER 166. There are three persons : First, Second, and Third. The Greek verb, like the Greek noun, has three nimi- bers (§ 74) : Singular, Dual, and Plural. In the inflection of the verb, the person and number are shown by certain endings, attached to tlie tense stem, which are called Personal Endings. 1. The active and the middle voice ha\^ each a different set of personal endings. The passive voice has no endings of its own, but in the aorist it employs the ending of the active, and in the future those of the middle. 2. The indicative mood has two sets of endings in each voice, one for primary tenses and the other for secondary tenses (§ 161, 1). 3. The subjunctive mood employs the same endings as the primary tenses of the indicative. 4. The optative mood has the same endings as the secondary tenses of the indicative. PERSON AND NU.MBER 101 167. The forms of the personal endings may be seen from the following table : Active Indicative Indicative Middle Indicatu'e Indicative ^jriiuary tenses) (secondaiy tenses) (iirimaiy tenses) (secondary tenses) and AND AND AND Subjunctive Optative Si lbjcxctive Optative Sing. 1. -μι -V -μαι -μην ο -S U'lJ ii- -σιί, -σ-θα, - θα -S, -σ-θα -σ-αι -ο-ο 3. -γράφω ivrite. Note. — But yv- is usually reduplicated in the perfect by means of e: thus έ'-γνωκα, perf. of γι-γι/ώσκω know. 2. Five verbs reduplicate with ei-. These are : Χαμβάνω take, perf. €Ϊ-Χηφα. Χα^χάνω get hy Jot, " €'ί-Χΐ]χα. λέγω (only in composition) collect, " et' -λοχα. (/u.e/0-) " βΐ-μαρται it is fated. (ep-, ρη-^ say " €Ϊ-ρηκα. Note. — The explanation of this reduplication is very uncertain. See, however, e'lpw and μύρομαι in the \"erb List, § 729. 3. Verbs beginning with a short vowel reduplicate by lengthening the vowel ; a diphthong lengthens the first vowel ; a long vowel remains unchanged : thus η%α, perf. REDUPLICATION 109 of αγω lead; Ύ\ρηκα^ υ1" oXpoi (-εω) take; ώφ€Χΐ]κα, of 179. 'Attic Reduplication.' — 'A few verbs beginning with a, e, or o, followed by a single consonant, reduplicate by repeating the first vowel and consonant, and length- ening the first vowel of the theme : thus ά\-ή\ιφα, άλ- ηΧιμμαί^ perf. of αΧβίφω anoint; β\-η\ακα^ €Χ-ή\αμαι, of βΧαύνω drive ; ορ-ώρνχ^α^ 6ρ-ώρυ<γμαι, of ορνττω dig. 180. Reduplication with €- before a Vowel. — The appar- ently vowel verljs, mentioned in § 172, :i, wliich originally began with a consonant reduplicate regularly, but the disappearance of the consonant leaves only e- (which is often contracted with the following vowel) : thus ed^a (originally ^pe-faya'), perf. of αηνϋμί break; εϊκα (for *σ€-σ€«:α), perf. of ιημι send, etc. 181. Reduplication of Compound Verbs. — In compound verbs, and in verbs derived from compound nouns, the reduplication has the same place as the augment (§§ 174- 175): thus άτΓΟ-κέ-κρικα., perf. of άττο-κρίνω separate; Κ€-χ€ΐροτόνηκα, perf. of χ^βιρο-τονώ (-^ω) elect. 182. Reduplication of the Present. — A few verbs redu- plicate in the present (§§ 193, ο ; 197, 1) by repeating the first consonant with i : thus γι-γι^ώσΛτω knoiv, τί-θημι put. 183. Reduplication of the Second Aorist. — Sometimes in Attic (often in Homer) the second aorist is formed by reduplication. See § 208, 1 and a. 179 a. In Homer the "Attic" reduplication is found in more verbs than in Attic, sometimes without lengthening the first vowel of the theme : thus έρ-έριτΓτο, from έρείττω overthroiv (§ 219, note 2). Cf. in Attic riyayov (infin. ά7-α7ε£;'), 2d aor. of &^ω lead. 110 VERBS ACCENT OF THE Λ^ΕΚΒ 184. The accent of verbs (both simple unci compound) is reguhxrly recessive (§ 64). 1. But in compound verbs the Λvritten accent cannot recede beyond the augment : thus ττάρβίμι be present, τταρή was present. 185. Infinitives, participles, and verbal adjectives, since they are in reality nouns (§ 159, 1 and 2), do not come under the rule of accent for verbs. 1. The accent of the infinitive and participle in each tense and voice must usually be learned by observation ; but present and future infinitives and participles of the -ω form (§ 169, 1) are recessive in accent, and all infinitives in -ναι take their written accent on the penult. 2. The verbal adjective in -τός takes its written accent on the final syllable : thus Χυτός, Χυτή, Χυτόν loosed, gen. Χυτοί), etc. The verbal adjective in -Teo4) φθζ.ρ-ω €-φθορ-α Perfect Midd LE i -φθάρ-ην ε-φθαρ-μαί 187. Vowel Verbs. — In most verbs Avhose theme ends in a vowel, this vowel is long outside of the present system. After e, i, or p, an a becomes ά, otherwise η (§ 15): thus τιμώ (-άω) Jionor, τΙμΎ\σω, ετί/^ησα, τ€-τίμ'\\κα, re- τίμχ[μαί, €τΙμχ\θην•, φιΧώ (-€ω) love, φιλήσω, εφ/λησα, etc.; δλ;λω (-όω) sJiow, ΒηΧώσω, εδτ^λωσα, etc. ; ea (-άω) iJermit., εασω, etc. ; Ζρώ (^-άω) do, δράσω, etc. 188. But some apparently ΛΌwel verbs had originally themes ending in a consonant. Such Λ■erbs naturally pre- 112 VERBS serve the short νοΛνβΙ throughout all their tenses, and, liy analogy, some real vowel verbs do the same : thus τελώ (-€&), for *τ€λ€σ-ί&), cf. reXo'i end) finish, fut. τελώ, aor. eVe- λεσα, perf. τ€-τ€Χίκα, etc. : γελώ (-άω), γελάσο/^α^, ε'γελασα. 1. A few verbs have the short vo\vel only in certain tenses : thus αΙρώ (-€&)), α//?ήσω, etc., but aor. pass, τιρίθην. 189. ]\Iost verbs which keep the short vowel in all their tenses (§ 188), and, by analogy, some others, have in the perfect middle and aorist passive (and verbals, § 235) a σ at the end of the theme : thus τελώ (-€ω) finish, perf. mid. τβτβΧβσ-μαι, aor. })ass. €τ€λ€σ-θην ; so also ακούω hear has ηκουσμαί and ηκονσθην ; κβΧενω order has κεκβΧβυσμαί and βκβΧβνσθην. Note. — As most of these verbs originally had themes ending in σ or a lingual mute (§§ 26 ; 27, 3), there is nothing strange about the σ in the perfect middle and aorist passive. 190. e in Tense Formation. — Some Λ^erbs vary betAveen themes with e (?/) and themes without ε (?;). Usually both themes are not found together in the same tense, but even this sometimes happens : thus βούΧομαι (^βουΧ-) wish, fut. βουΧΎ\σομαί (βονΧύ-), aor. €βονΧτ\θ7]ν ; μβνω (^μβΡ-) remain, perf. μ€μ€ΡΎ\κα (^μβνί-) ; αΙσθάνομαί (^αίσθ-') per- ceive, fut. αΙσθτ\σομαί (αίσθί-'), aor. γσθόμην (^αΙσθ-~) : Βοκώ (-εω) (δο«:6-), fut. Βόξω (δο/ί-). No rules in tliis matter can be laid down, but the eccentricities of such verbs may be learned from the Verb List, § 729. 191 a. θ in Tense Formation. — In Homer, and sometimes in the Attic poets (very rarely in prose), a few verbs have forms from a present (or aorist) stem made with the suffix -Θ- (-e^?: or -adt): tlius ^-διώκ-αΒο-ν (διώκω jinrsue), μ€τ-€-κί-αθο-ν (κίω go), 0λεγ-€θω (<^λ^γω burn), e-jx-tdo-v (ί'χω hold). 191 b. Iterative Forms. — In Homer and Herodotus iterative forms THE PRESENT SYSTEM 113 THE PRESENT SYSTEM (present and imperfect) 192. Verbs may be di\dded into five classes, according to the way in which they form their present stem. These classes are : (1) the simple class, (2) the τ class, (3) the L class, (4) the ν class, (δ) the σκ class. 193. The Simple Class. — ^The simple class employs for the present stem the simple theme, with or without the variable vowel (§ 1<39). Verbs Avitli the variable vowel show -ω in the first person singular of the present indica- tive active : thus λβγω (theme λεγ-, present stem Xe7°:). Verbs without the variable \Owel are -μι verbs (§ 170): thus φημί say (theme φ?;-, φα-, present stem φψ^ φα-'). 1. Primitive verbs whose themes show the interchange of long and short vowels (§ 13) usually have in the present the form Avith the long vowel (§ 186, 1): thus τήκω rnelt (tlieme τηκ- and τακ-), λϋω loose (theme λϋ-, λυ-). The -μι verbs, however, luive the long Λ^owel only in the singular of the indicative active (see § 170, 1). 2. Primitive \'erbs whose themes show the voAvel varia- tion 0, e(a) (§ 14), usually have in the present the form with e (or ei or ef, § 14, 2) : thus ττέμττω send (theme ττβμττ-, τΓομτΓ-, present stem ττβμττ":), Xcittw leave (theme λοίττ-, λειτΓ-,. λίΤΓ-, present stem Xei7r°:), φ^ύ-^ω flee (theme φει^γ-, φυγ-, present stem φεϋγ":). See § 186, 2. of the imperfect and aorist are found, to denote a repeated past action. Tliey are formed by adding? the iterative suffix -σκΤ- to the tense stem of tlie imperfect or aorist: thus μένε-σ-κο-ν kept remaininfj (μένω remain), ποίέΐ-σκο-ν kept doing (ποιώ (-^ω) do), φύ^γε-σ-κο-ν used to flee, aorist (φΐύ-γω flee) . These forms are inflected like the imperfect, and seldom have an augment (§ 171 a-b). BAnBITx's GR. ΟϋΑ.ΛΙ. 8 114 VERBS Note. — Here belong also the verbs ττλί'ω sail, χίω pour, θΐ,ω run, νίω swim, ττνεω breathe, pew /low. whose themes end in -tv- (for *7Γλ£υ-ω, *χ£ν-ω, etc. See § 21). 3. A few i^erbs, mostly -μι verbs, have reduplication in the present system (§ 182): thus τί-θημι (^e-, θψ^ put, 'γί-'γνομαί (70^-, yev-, jv-') become. (Cfc Latin gi-gno.^ 194. The τ Class. — Some verbs, with stems in ττ, β, or φ, form the present tense stem by adding -τ°: to the theme (cf. \j?ii\n flec-to'): thus τυττ-τω strike (theme τυττ-, jjresent stem τυτΓτ":), καΧνττ-τω cover (theme καΚυβ-, § 25 j, σκάττ-τω dig (theme σκαφ-, § 25). 195. The L Class. — j\iany mute and liquid verbs form their present stem by adding the suffix -i?; to the tlieme (of. Latin fac-io), but this suffix almost always combines in some way with the preceding letters. See § 39, and cf. § 292. 1. With /c, χ, τ, θ, the l unites to form ττ (Ionic σσ, § 22): thus Κ7]ρυττω proclaim (theme κηρνκ-, present stem κηρϋττΐ:^ for *κηρνκ-ιω: ταράττω disturb (theme ταραχ^-^ for *ταραγ^ίω. (See § 39, 1.) 2. With 7 and δ the l unites to form ζ (§ 39, 2): thus σφάζω slay (theme σφα^-) for *σφα7-ίω: τταίζω play (theme τταίδ-) for ^τταίΖ-ιω. Note 1. — Themes in -γγ- lose the first γ: thus κΧάζω (theme κλαγγ-) for *κλαγγ-ιω. Note 2. — In a number of verbs γ -t seems to combine into ττ : thus τάττω arrange (theme ταγ-, cf. ταγ-ος commaiiiJer), but a good many of these words can be shown to have had parallel themes in -κ-, and these probably influenced the rest. 195, 2 a. This form of the present in -f- sometimes gives rise to uncertainty about the aorist and future. In Homer verbs in -fiw not infrequently have ξ in the aorist and future: thus πολΐμί^ω (ττολεμιδ-), ποΧίμίξίύ, έποΧίμίξα. THE PRESENT SYSTEM 115 3. With λ the ί assimihites to form λλ (§ 39, 3): thus άγγβΧλω (theme άγγελ-) for *άγγε\Ηω. 4. With V and ρ the t goes over to the preceding vowel and unites with it by contraction (§ 39, 4): thus φαίνω shotv (theme φαν-) for *φαν-ιω : κρίνω distinguUh (tlieme κριν-) for *κριν-ίω : σττβίρω sow (theme σιτβρ-) for ^σττβρ-ίω. Note. — A few apparently vowel verbs form their present with this suffix: thus καίω (for *καρ-ι-ω, theme καν-, § 21) brim, κλαίω (for *κλαρ-ι-ω, theiue κλαν-, § 21) iveep. 196. The V Class. — A number of verbs form their present stem by adding to the theme a suffix containing ν (cf. Latin cer-n-o'). 1. Suffix -Ve'-. — Some verbs add ν°'- alone : thus τβμ-νω cut (theme rep,-). 2. Suffix -av°Z. — A good man}^ verbs add -avT- : thus αισθ-άνομαι perceive (theme αίσθ-). If the last syllable of the theme is short, a sympathetic nasal (y with a lingual, μ with a labial, 7 with a palatal) appears in the theme : thus μανθ-άνω learn (theme μαθ-), Χαμβ-άνω take (theme λα/3-^, λαγχ-αι^ω get hy lot (theme λαχ-). 3. Suffix -I'a-, -νη- (§ 170, 1). — A very few verbs, mostly poetic, take a suffix -ya-, -νη- ; thus ττερ-νη-μι sell (jrep-va- μβν we sell, theme Trep-) . 4. Suffix -ve°Z. — A few verbs take a suffix -ve°Z (§ 190) : thus ίκ-νοΰ-μαί (^-νβο-μαι) arrive (theme Ik-). δ. Suffix -νυ-. Several verbs have a suffix -νυ-: thus 8είκ-νϋ-μί show (theme SeiK-). Note. — After a vowel this suffix appears as -ννυ-, but in most of these cases the extra ν comes from the assimilation of another con- sonant in which the theme originally ended : thus Ινκυ/χι clothe (theme originally pea-, cf. Latin vest'is) for *ίσ-ννμι. 116 VERBS 197. The σκ Class. — Several verbs form their present stem by adding to the theme -σκ%ΐ or -ίσκ%~. (cf. Latin gno-sco) ; (regularly, vowel themes take -σκ°Ζ, and consonant themes -ισκ°Ζ): thus άρβ-σκω please (theme ape-), βυρ-ίσκω find (theme evp-}. 1. Some of these verbs have also reduplication in the present system (§ 182) : thus ^ι-^νώ-σκω knoiv (theme <^νω-'). INFLECTION OF THE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT 198. The -ω Form. — For the paradigm see § 237 ; for an explanation of some of the forms see § 170, notes 1-3. 199. Contract Verbs. — Verbs in ω (-αω, -εω, -οω) contract the final vowel of tlie stem with the variable vowel ^I; for the paradigms see §§ 248-250. 1. In the optative, contract verbs almost always have -ίψ for the mode sign in the singular and -l- in the dual and plural. Note. — Rarely -t- is found as mode sign in the singular, while -ιη- seldom, if ever, appears in the dual and plural (cf. § 160, note). 199 a. Contract Verbs in Homer. — In Homer verbs in -^ω and -άω are sometimes contracted as in Attic, but often remain uncontracted : tlius Te\iei and τελείται, from τελώ (-^ω) finish, ναιετάω divell, μενοινψί, from μενοινω (-άω) be eager. Rarely verbs in -άω have the inflection of verbs in -έω : thus μενοίνίον (from μενοινω (-άω) he eager). Cf. § 199 e. b. "Assimilation." — Verbs in -άω, when uncontracted, not infre- quently have the regular uncontracted form, as stated in § 199 a, but more often they show in the manuscripts a peculiar assimilation, an ο sound prevailing over an adjacent α sound, and an α sound over an e sound : thus ορόω for όράω, opaas for opaeu (όρώ (-άω) see). A long syllable in the original form is represented by a long vowel (or improper diphthong) in the assimilated form : thus όρόωντε? for οράοντε$, όρόωμι for οράοιμι, 6ρ6ΐύσα for όράονσα.. Two long vowels in succession are regularly avoided, unless they are necessary to preserve the meter : thus ηβώοντεί (not ■ηβύχύντε^') for ήβαοντε^, ήβώοιμι (not -ήβώωμι) for ήβά,οιμι; but μενοινώο» INFLECTION OF THE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT 117 2. Verbs of two syllables in -€ω (originally -βνω, § 193, note) contract only when the contraction will give et ; otherwise they remain uncontracted : thus ττλεω sail, ττλεΐ?, ττλεΐ, ττΧβΐτον, ιτΧβΙτον, ττΧβομβν, vrXetre, ττΧέουσί. ΧοΓΕ. — But δω (for δεω, *δ£-ιω) hind is contracted throughout, and ξΐω (for *^€σω) scrape is usually contracted thioughout. 3. A few verbs seem to have stems in -?;-, and so have η wherever the ordinary contract verbs liave a: thus ζω live, ζ^ς, ζτ), ζήτον, ζώμβν, ζητβ, ζώσι; sul)j. ζω, ζτ]<;, etc.; opt. ζωην, ζωής, etc.; impv. ζή, etc.; infin. ζην; parte, ζών. The most common of these verbs are ζω live and χρώμαι use; for the others see the Verb List, § '29. for μενοίναο), ηβώωσα for ήβάον<Γα, since otherwise the original quantities would not be preserved. 199 c. Verbs in -όω hardly ever remain uncontracted, but if uncon- tracted they show an "assimilation" precisely as if they were verbs in -άω : thus άρόωσι for άρο'ουσι (άρω (-όω) plow). Note. — There can be little doubt that these " assimilated " forms are spurious forms dating from Alexandrine times, produced from the con- tracted forms 6ρω, opas, etc., which were the only forms of such verbs in use at the time. Observe that the "assimilated" form has exactly the same quantities as the uncontracted form, and the latter can be every- where restored to the text. d. Aeolic Forms. — Homer sometimes treats contract verbs in -iu as if they were -μι verbs like τίθημι : thus φορη-ναι, φορή-μεναι (cf . § 200 a), infinitive from φορώ (-ew) hear, άπεϊΚ-ή-την (cf. § 200 a), hnperfect dual from άττειλώ (-έω) threaten. e. Contract Verbs in Herodotus. — Verbs in -άω in Herodotus are often contracted as in Attic, but sometimes when the α comes before an ο sound it is changed to e, and the form then remains uncontracted : thus όρ€ω, ορίωσι, opiovres, Attic δρω (-άω), etc. see. Verbs in -^ω are usually uncontracted except when the e is preceded by a vowel ; then eo and eov usually contract into ev (§ 18 a): thus ττοιεΟσ-ι, eiroievv (for Attic ττοιουσι, iwoiovu), from ποιώ (-^ω) do. Verbs in -όω are regularly contracted as in Attic. 118 VERBS 200. The -μι Form. — ^For tlie paradigms see §§ 251- 251. Observe tliat the end vowel of the stem is long in the singular of the indicative active (§ 170, 1) ; else- where short. 1. In the subjunctive and optative the mode sign is regularly contracted with the final vowel of the theme (§ 170, 2-3); thus τιθ^ς (subj.) for Tt^e-77?, τιθ^ίην (opt.) for τίθβ-ίην, from τίθημι j)ut. Note. — Three deponent verbs, δυνα/^αι can, ίπίσταμαι understand, κρίμχιμαι hang, are accented in the subjunctive and optative as if uncontracted : δΰνω/χαι, έττίστωμαι, κρεμωμαί ; opt. 3d sing, δυναιτο, Ιττίσταιτο, κρέμαιτο. THE FIRST AORIST SYSTEM (active and middle) 201. The first aorist stem is formed by adding -σα- to the theme : thus παώβύω educate (theme τταίδευ-), aor. έ-τταίΒξν-σα (aorist stem τταώβυσα-'). 200 a. Homer sometimes has the end voAvel of -^t verbs king in forms other than those of the singuhir of the indicative active : thus ηθη-μεναι, infinitive active of τίθημι put. b. Homer and Herodotus have in the third phiral τιθεΐσι, δίδοΰσι, etc., for * τίθΐ-νσί, * διδο-ρσι, etc. (tlie accent is irregular) ; but reguLar forms ΐάσι, from εΙμι go (§ 201), and eaai, from €ΐμί be (§ 262 a). c. Homer sometimes has -θι in the imperative: thus δίδωθι f/ire. Herodotus in the tliird plural of the middle lias forms wiih -αται, -aro (Attic -νται, -ντο, § 167 d) : τιθέαται ετίθέατο. 201 a. In Homer the first aorist (and future, § 212) of a good mnny verbs has σσ, but in nearly all such cases the theme of the verb originally ended in σ or a lingual mute (cf. § 30 a): thus έ-τέλεσ-σα, from τελώ (έω) finish (theme τελεσ-, cf. tAos end) ; έ-κόμισ-σα (for *ΐ-κομίδ-σα), from κομίζω CMrry (theme κομιδ-). b. Homer has forms of the first aorist with a variable vowel °l instead of a : thus έβήσ^το went, from βαίνω ; ΐζον came, from ϊκω ; άξίτε lead (impv.), from ay ω. THE FIRST AORIST SYSTEM 119 1. The theme of primitive verbs usiiall}* appears in the first aorist witli e or with the long vowel (see § 186, 1-2): thus €τρίψα turned, έ'τη^α melted. 202. Vowel Verbs. — ]Most vowel A^erbs show a loner vowel before the aorist suffix (§ 187): thus eco (-α'ω) αΐϊοιν, aor. €Ϊά,-σα (§ 15) ; τιμώ (-αω) honor, aor. ε-τΐ/ίη-σα (§ 15) ; ΤΓοιώ (-βω) do, aor. ε-ττοίη-σα ; δτ^λω (-οω) show, aor. β-ΒήΧω-σα. For some apparent exceptions see •§188. 203. Mute Verbs. — A hibial or palatal mute at the end of the stem combines with the σ of the suffix, and forms ψ or ξ (see §§ 28 and 29): thus €-κο\\τα, from κόπτω cut (/coTT-); έ'-7/3αψα, from 'γράφω write Ογραφ-); €-φύλα|α, from φυΧάττω guard (^φυΧακ-'); e -σφα^α, from σφάζω slay (σφαγ-)• A lingual mute is dropped before the σ of the suffix (§ 30) : thus €-7Γ€ΐσα, from it eid ω persuade (ττεί^-) ; έ'-σττείσα (see § 34), from σττβνδω pour (σττε^δ-). 204. Liquid Verbs. — Liquid verbs lose the σ of the aorist suffix, and in compensation (§ 16) lengthen the preceding vowel : thus φαίνω show (theme φαν-'), aor. €φχ\να ; στέλλω send (theme στελ-), aor. εστ€ΐλα ; κρίνω distinguish (theme κριν-), aor. 'έκρινα. Note 1. — The σ of the suffix was first assimilated to the liquid, and later, when the two liquids became one, the preceding vowel Λν33 lengthened in compensation (§ 16). Thus. *1-μίνσα became e/xcvva (which is the Aeolic form), and finally ίμ.ίΐνα.. Note 2. — After ι or ρ the lengthened form of α is always ά ; after other letters η sometimes appears, contrary to § 15, 1 : thus περαίνω (ττεραν-) finish, aor. Ιπίρανα; so also κερδαινω (κερδαν-) gain, aor. εκί'ρδανα, but φαίνω (φαν-) sJiow, aor. εφηνα. 204 a. Homer sometimes keeps σ in the aorist after a liquid : thus ^ρ-σα, from άραρίσκω (άρ-) fit ,' ί-κΐρ-σα, from κΐίρω (κερ-) shear. 120 VERBS 205. Three verbs — ΒίΒωμί (δο-, δω-) give, ΐημι (e-, ή-^ send, τίθημί {Be-, θη-) put — form the singidar of their aorists active Λvith the suffix -κα : thus βΒωκα, ηκα, 'έθηκα. See § 211, 3. Very rarely this form intrudes elsewhere : thus sometimes βΒωκαν (= e-Bo -σαν, 3cl plur.) thei/ gave. INFLECTION OF THE FIRST AORIST 206. The first aorist middle differs from the active only in the personal endings : thus active i-iraiBev-aa, middle έ-τταίΒζυ-σά-μην. For the paradigms see § 240. Note. — In the third singular of the indicative active -a changes to -£ : £παιδευσ6. The imperatives τταιδευσον, τται'δευσαΐ, and the infinitive παιδείσαι, are irregular, and cannot be satisfactorily explained. THE SECOND AORIST SYSTEM (ACTIVE AND MIDDLE) 207. A considerable number of primitive verbs form their aorists without any suffix, and employ only the simple theme of the verb. These aorists fall into two classes, — those with, and those without the variable vowel. 1. Consonant themes are inflected with the variable vowels °I; vowel themes follow the -μι form of inflection. Note 1. — A very few second aorists go oΛ'er to the inflection of the first aorist : so ε-χε-α (Ιχευα) poured (for *1χίν-ν, § 14, 1, note). Note 2. — The stem of the second aorist always differs from the present stem, since otherwise its forms would be confused with those of the imperfect. 207 a. In Homer the second aorist is found mucli more frequently than in Attic, and consonant themes are often inflected in the middle without the variable vowel : thus έ-δέΎ-μην, from δέχ-ομαι receive ; e -μικ-το, from μείγ-νϋ-μι mix. Liquid themes sometimes undergo metathesis (§ 38) : thus β\η-το icas hit, from βάλλω (theme βαλ-). THE SECOND AORIST SYSTEM 121 Note 3. — Few verbs have both a first and a second aorist in use at the same time. In such case, however, the two aoi'ists always differ in meaning, the first aorist being transitive, and tlie second intransitive: thus έ'σττ/σε caused to stand, erected, (.στψ stood. 208. Second Aorist of the -ω Form. — The second aorist of the -ω form has regularly that form of the stem with no vowel or with a (see §§ 14; 180, 2): thus έ-τττ-όμην, from 7Γ€τ-ομαί fly ; β-τραττ-όμην, from τρέττ-ω turn; so also e-XiTT-ov, from λείττ-ω leave (§ 14, 2); έ'-φυγ-οι», from φεύγ-ω flee (§ 14, 2). ^^ 1. The verb ά<γω lead has a reduplicated (§ 183) second aorist riyayov (infin. ay-ay-elv., § 179); so also elirov said., probably for *i-f€-f€7r-ov (from root feir-). 209. Second Aorist of the -μι Form. — In the second aorist of the -μί form the stem is the simple theme of the verb : thus e -στη-ν (^στα-, σττ;-) stood, β-Βο-μβν (δο-, δω-) gave (1st person plural). INFLECTION OF THE SECOND AOKIST 210. The -ω Form. — The second aorist of the -ω form is inflected with the variable vowel "Ι. For the paradigm see § 241. Note. — The following imperatives active of the second aorist have irregular accent : €ΐπί say, iXOi come, tv pi find, I8e. see, λαβε take ; but not when compounded : thus αττ-ίλθε be off"! 211. The -μι Form. — In the -μι form the endings are attached directly to the stem, the final vowel of which is long in the indicative, infinitive, and imperative (except 208, 1 a. In Homer reduplicated second aorists are rather frequent : thus έ-πέ-φραδ-ον, from φράξω declare, ττέ-πιθ-ον, from πείθω persuade, π€-φν-ον sleio (cf. φόν -os murder), etc. 210 a. In Homer the same verb sometimes has forms with and without the variable vowel : thus 'ίκλυο-ν heard, imperative κλΰ-θί. 122 VERBS the impv. 3cl plur.): thus εσττ]ν stood, €βτ\ν went, iniin. βτ]ναί, but opt. βαίην, 3d plur. inipv. βάντων. 1. The subjunctive contracts a final a, e, or ο of the theme Avith the ω or η of the mode sign (§ 170, 2): thus ^T)9 for ^£-T)S (τίθημι puf), δώ for δό-ω (δ/δω/χί give). 2. In the optative the t of the mode sign contracts Λvith the final vowel of the theme (§ 170, 3): thus θάην, θίΐμβν (τίθημί jjuf). Note. — But two deponent verbs, Ιττριάμην bought (§ 257) and ωνήμην received profit, are accented as if uncontracted (cf. § 2U0, note)^ 3. Three verbs, δίΒωμι give, ΐημι send, τίθημιρι^, keep the vowel of their stems sliort throughout the second aorist ; in the singular of the indicative active they have forms with -κα (§ 205); and in the infinitive and imperative they are slightly peculiar. For their conjugation see §§ 2δδ, 256, 260. 211 a. Properly, in the second aorist, as in the present, of -^t verbs, the long t'orni should be found only in the singular of the indicative active (see § 200). So we should have sing, ΐβην, (βηί, ΐβη, dual (βατον, etc., plur. (βάμΐν, etc. But in Attic the long vowel of the singular has crowded into the dual and plural, except in δίδωμι, ΐημι, τίθημι. In Homer, as might be expected, we sometimes find forms with the short vowel : thus βάτην they (JLioo) loent, e -χν-το loas poured (εχίυα). 211, 1 a. In Homer the subjunctive of the second aorist of -μι form is usually uncontracted : thus θέ-ωμεν, άφ-έ-τ). But in such case the root vowel usually appears in its long form: thus ^ή-τ? (Attic e^s, for Oi-Tjs), δώ-η-(τι or δώ-γι (Attic δω, for δό-?;). Before the endings -τον, -μεν, -re of the active, and in most forms of the middle, the mode vowel is then .short (§ 160 a): thus στή-ΐ-τον, δώ-ο-μΐν, β\ή-(-ται (from βάλλω throw), Φθί-ό-β€σθα (from φθίνω waste awan). 211, 1 b. In Herodotus -αω and -ew remain uncontracted in the sub- junctive, -αω as elsewhere becoming -εω (§ 199 e): thus στί-ω-μεν (for στά-ω-μΐν, Attic στωμεν), 211, 2 a. In Attic no second aorist optative of themes in -υ- or -t- happens to occur. In Homer such an optative is sometimes found : thus δϋ-η (iov *δνι-η), δΰμεν (ior *δυιμ€ν), from δύω enter, φθίμην {ίοτ ^φθαμην), φθΐτο (for *φθίίτο) fi'om φθίνω waste away, perish. THE FUTURE SYSTEM 123 THE FUTURE SYSTEM (ACTIVE AND MIDDLE) 212. The stem of the future is, in general, the same as that of the first aorist (§ 201), except that the variable vowel el appears in the suffix instead of a : thus τταώεν-ω educate, aor. ε-τται'δευ-σα, fut. τΓαώεν-σω (stem τταίδευσ^Ι). 1. Some few verbs in -ω (-βω) and -άζω drop the σ of the future and contract. This happens only when the σ of the tense sign is preceded by a short vowel (a or e) which in turn is preceded by a short syllable : thus τελώ (-ew) finish, fut. τελώ (for τελε-σω, τελεω); βίβάζω make go, fut. βίβω for (/3ί/3α-σω, βίβάω) ; so also ελω (for ελα-σω), future of €λαννω drive. These futures are usually reck- oned among the Attic futures of § 215. 213. Liquid Verbs. — Liijuid verbs form their futures Avith the suffix -εω (for -εσω, § 37); the ε is contracted with the following vowel, as in the present of φιΧώ (-εω), §§ 199, 249 : thus φαίνω show (theme φαν-), fut. φανώ, for φανβ'ω. Note. — The c here is probably a mere help vowel, generated in the pronunciation of a liquid before σ: tiius *φαν-σω (regularly formed like λυ-σω) soon became *φαν(σω, then φα,νΐω, and finally φανώ. 214. Doric Future. — A few verbs form their future with a suffix -σε°Ι, which undergoes the regular contraction. This is found only in verbs which employ the future middle in an active meaning ; such verbs have also the regular future in -σομαι : thus ττνβω hreatlie, fut. ττνβυσοΰμαί or ττνενσομαι ; φεύγω flee, fut. φβυξοΰμαι or φεύξομαί. This 213 a. A few liquid verbs in Homer and the Attic poets have a future in -σω (of. § 204 a) : thus δρννμι ?'0?iS(>, fut. ορσω. 124 VERBS is the regular form of the future in the Doric dialect, and so it is usually called the Doric Future. 215. Attic Future. — \^erbs in -ίζω also, take the future suffix -σ€εΙ, but drop the σ between the two vowels (§ 37), which then contract : thus νομίζω think, fut. νομίώ (for *νομισ€ω, *νομΐ€ω). This is usually called the Attic Future. 216. Four or five verbs haA'C no future suffix, so that their future tense lias the form of a present : thus βδομαι shall eat, ττίομαι shall drink. Note. — These forms are really old subjunctives with a sliort mode sign (§ IGO a), which have come to be used as futures (cf. § δδό, note). INFLECTION OF THE FUTURE 217. The future belongs to the -ω form of inflection ; for the paradigms see §§ 238-239. THE FIRST PERFECT SYSTEM (ACTIVE) (PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT) 218. The stem of the first perfect is formed by redu- plicating (§ 178) the theme and adding the suffix -κα : thus λε-λυ-Λτα, from Χύω loose. 1. A lingual mute is dropped before -κα: thus ire-irei-Ka, from 7Γ€ΐθ-ω persuade. A ν either disappears or is changed to 7-nasal : thus κ4-κρι-κα, from κρίνω distiuf/uish, but vre- φα^-κα, from φαίνω show. 2. \^i)wel verbs usually have a long A'owel (§ 187) before the suffix -κα: thus τ€-τίμχ\-κα. from τϊμώ (-αω) honor ; ττε-ττοίη-κα, from ττοιώ (-^ω) do. 3. Some liquid themes undergo metathesis (§ 38), and so are treated as vowel themes (§ 163, 1): thus ββ-βλη-κα, 218 a. In Homer the first perfect is found only in vowel verbs. THE SECOND PERFECT SYSTEM (ACTIVE) 125 from βάΧΧω (/3αλ-) throiu ; κέ-κμη-κα, from κάμνω (^καμ-^ labor. 4. Stems of one syllable with the vowel variation o, e, (a) (§ 14, 1) have in the first perfect the form with a, — borrowed, probably, from the perfect middle (§ 221, 1, note) : thus έ'σταλ/ία, from στέλλω (στελ-, σταΧ-^ send ; €φθαρκα, from φθβίρω (^φθορ-, φθβρ-, φθαρ-') deHtroy. THE SECOND PERFECT SYSTEM (ACTIVE) (perfect and pluperfect) 219. The stem of the second perfect (confined almost wholly to primitive verbs) is formed by reduplicating (§ 178) the theme, and adding the suffix -a : thus γραφω<ζ 'έσομαί shall have writfen (cf. in Latin the corresponding passive form scriptus ero'). But two perfects with present meaning, in frequent use, have developed a special future perfect active. These are τβθνηκα am dead (^{α'πο)θνΎ]σκ.ω die~), fut. perf. τβθνηξω shall he dead; and βστηκα stand (ΐστημί set ?/^), fut. perf. βστηξω shall stand. THE FIRST AORIST PASSIVE SYSTEM 231. The stem of the first aorist passive is formed by adding to the theme of the verb the suffix -Oe-, the e of which appears as η in the indicative, infinitive, and imper- babbitt's gr. gram. — 9 130 A^ERBS ative (except the 3d plur. impv., cf. § 211): tbuu i -Χύ-θη-ν, from λύω loose. 1. Before the θ of the suffix a labial or palatal mute (τΓ, β, κ, 7) becomes coordinate (§ 25) ; a lingual mute becomes σ (§ 26): thus β-ττράγ^-θη-ν (^Trpdy-'), from ττράττω do ; έ-\€ί^-θη-ν (λβίττ-), from λειττω leave ; έτΓβίσ-θη-ν (ττβίθ-), from ττείθω persuade. 2. \^owel verbs show a vowel of the same length as in the perfect middle : thus ί-Ύΐμ•χ\-θη-ν (perf. mid. τ€-τίμτ\-μαί), from τιμώ (-α'ω) honor; e-ho -θη-ν (perf. mid. Ββ-Βο-μαι), from ΒίΒωμι give; έ-κρί-θη-ν., perf. mid. κβ-κρι-μαί, from κρίνω distinguish. 3. For the σ before the suffix of some verbs {έτ€λ€σθΐ]ν, ήκούσθην, etc.) see § 189. 4. Primitive verbs whose themes show the vowel varia- tion 0, e, (a) (§ 14) usually have in the first aorist passive the form with e : thus €-τρίφ-θη-ν^ from τρεττω (τροττ-, τρετΓ-, τρατΓ-^ turn; €-Χίίφ-θην, from λεί'ττω (λοίττ-, λελττ-, λίτΓ-) leave. SECOND AORIST PASSI\^ 232. The stem of the second aorist passive is formed by adding the suffix -e- to the theme of the verb. This e appears as η in the indicative, infinitive, and imperative (except the 3d plur. impv., cf. § 211): thus i -φάν-η-ν, from φαίνω (^φαν-^ show. 1. Primitive verbs whose themes show the A^ariation between a short and a long voAvel (§ 13) have in the second aorist passive the form with the short vowei (§ 186, 1) : thus e -τάκ-η-ν, from τήκ-ω (τηκ-, τακ-') melt. 2. Primitive verbs whose themes show the vowel varia- tion 0, €, (a) (§ 14) have in the second aorist passive THE FUTURES PASSIVE 131 the form with α (§ 186, 2) : thus €-στάλ-η-ν, from στίΧΧω (στελ-, σταΧ-^ send. INFLECTION OF THE AORISTS PASSIVE (FiKST AND Second) 233. The first and second aorists passive are alike in their inflection. They take the active endings (§ 166, 1), and closely resemble the second aorist of the -μι form. For the paradigms see §§ 245-246. 1. The subjunctive contracts the e of the passive suffix Avith the ω or η of the mode sign (§ 160, 2): thus Χνθω for \υ-θέ-(ύ (\υω loose). 2. The optative has for mode sign -ιη- in the singular and L in the plural (§ 160, 1). The ι of the mode sign is contracted with the e of the suffix (§ 160, 2): thus Χυθάην., ΧυθξΙμεν (Χυω loose). Note. — In the dual and plural -ιψ sometimes is found as the mode sign, but there is little doubt that this is due to errors of copyists, who were influenced by the analogy of the singular. 3. The imperative ending -θί in the first aorist passive becomes -tl to avoid rough mutes at the beginning of two successive syllables (§ 40): thus Χύθη-τι (for *Χυθη-θί'). THE FUTURES PASSIVE (first and second futures passive) 234. The stem of the future passive is formed by adding -σ°: to tlie stem of the aorist passive (cf. §§ 212; 233 a. In the third plural indicative Homer often has the ending -v for -σαν, always with a short vowel preceding (§ 167 c) : thus ί-τρα,φ-ε-ν loere reared, Attic i -τράφ-η-σαν. 233, 1 a. In Homer the subjunctive of the second aorist passive has the same peculiar form as the second aorist active of the -μι form (see § 211, 1 a): thus φανή-τ] (Attic φαν^, for φανέ-τ]) from φαίνω shoic, δαμή-ετε (§ 160 a) from δάμνημι subdue. 132 VERBS 228): thus \υθή-σο-μαι (aor. pass. i -Χνθη-ν^, from Χυω loose; φανή-σο-μαι (aor. pass, i -φάνη-ν), from φαίνω show. 1. The future passive is inflected like tlie future middle. For the paradigms see §§ 245 ; 246, 1. VERBAL ADJECTIVES 235. The stems of the verbal adjectives are formed by adding -το- and -reo- to the theme, Λvhich usually has the same form as in the first aorist passive, except that a rough mute is made coordinate before the τ of the suffix (§ 25) : thus, Aorist Passiae €-\ύ-θην β-τίμη-θην €-7Γ€ίσ-θην i -κρί-θην Χυω loose τιμώ (-αω) honor ΤΓβίθω persuade κρίνω distinguish τάττω arrange (τα 7-) e τάγ^-θην τρέφω nourish βθρβφ-θην Veubals Χυ-τός, Χυ-τ€ος τίμη-τός., τίμη-τβος ττε^σ-τος•, ττεισ-τβος κρι-τό^. Κρί-Τ€Οζ τακ-τό'ί, τακ-τ€ος θρ€7Τ-τΟς, θρ€7Γ-Τ€θς 1. The verbal adjectives belong to the first and second declensions of adjectives (Χυτός., -η, -όν ; Χυτβος, -ά, -αν'). See § 11Τ. For the accent see § 185, 2. 2. The verbal in -τός expresses what has been done or may be done ; that in -τβ'ος what needs doing : thus Χυτός loosed or loosable ; Χυτβος needing to be loosed. 236. The meanings of the different persons, numbei's, modes, tenses, and voices, may l)e seen from the following paradigm and synopsis of τταίδευω educate. The meanings of the subjunctive and optative have no brief equivalent in English, and they must be learned from the chapter on Svntax. SYNOPSIS OF τταώενω 133 pRKSENT Indicative Active of iroiSevw educate SINGULAR 1. ■na.x.htvut I educate 2. iraiSiieis yoxi educate 3. παιδΐύ» he educates . , / you (two) L educate iraiSeviTOv ( thei/(tivo) I educate PLURAL •ΐΓαιδ€ύομ£ν ive educate •7rai86v€T€ you educate iraiitvov1) PLUPERFECT π€παίδ€υκα / π€'ΐΓαίδ€υμαι, / have got have educated j (ovam, ξ ijoi) educated ΙΐΓίτταιδβύκη / ΙΐΓίΐΓαιδ£νμην I had got had educated j (or u-as^^oSi) educated ΊΤίΐτα,ι,Ζίνκω \ 'π'€'ΤΓαιδ€υμ€'νο$ S> ΊΓΟταιδεύκοιμι •ΤΓ€ΤΓαιδ€υμ€νθ8 ίϊην [ΐΓίΐταίδίυκί] •ΐΓ6ΤΓαίδ€υσ•ο be educated ΐΓίπαιδευκέναι to •π•€•π•αιδ£ΰσ•θαι to have got have educated | (ortobe. S; ^>-li) educated ■π•€ΐΓαιδ€υκώ5 ■π•ίΐΓαιδ€υμ€'νθ5 having having edu-\ gtit educated, or sim-ply cated I educated (§ 534) The perfect middle is used also as passive (§ 158, 1) Active. See § 230. ττίΐταιδίυκώ? €(Γομαι / shall have educated THE FUTURE PERFECT (Middle and) Passive. See § 229. •ΐΓί•ΐΓαιδ€νσ•ομαι I shall have (got or) been educated, or shall be edu- cated (cf. § 538) ireTraieeuKcos «(τοίμην πίτταιδίυκώϊ ecr€cr0ai. to be about to have educated etc. "ΤΓίΐταιδβυσ-οίμην 'ΐΓ(ΤΓαιδ6ύσ-€σ•θαι to be about to have (got ov) J)een educated ΐΓ€ΐΓαιδ€υ(ΓΟμ€νο5 about to have (got or) been educated VERBAL ADJECTIVES ΐΓαιδ€υτ08 educated or capable of being educated ■naiitvTtos needing to be educated PARADIGMS OF -ω VERBS 135 237. Present System παιδεΰ-ω, educate Active Present Imperfect S. 1 Ίταιδίύω « -τταίδευο-ν 2 iraiSiveis « -•ΤΓαίδευε-5 > 3 iraiSevct ι -τταίδευε I) 2 τΓαιδίύί-τον -Ίταιδεύε-τον 3 irai8tv€-T0v ( -τταιδευέ-την p. 1 ΐΓαιδ€ύο-μ€ν -τταιδενο-μεν 2 -irai8eU€-T€ « -τταιδεύε-τε 3 ΤΓαιδίύουσ-ι :-παίδευο-ν 'S. 1 2 ΊταιδΕύω 'Π•αιδ€ύη8 a5 > 3 ιταιδενη +3 ο D 2 ιταιδίύη-τον 3 τταιδίύη-τον P. 1 2 3 ΐΓαιδ€ύω-μ£ν "ΐταιδίύη-τί ιταιδ€νωσ-ι ι s. 1 2 ι τΓαιδενοι-μι Ίταιδεύοι? aj 3 Ίταιδίύοι .& D 2 τταιδίύοι-τον 03 • a, 3 τταιδίνοί-την Ο P. 1 2 3 τταιδεύοι-μ-εν ΐΓαιδ€ύοι-Τ€ ΐΓαιδ€ύ|3ΐ€-ν s. 2 παίδευε > 3 τταιδευε'-τω rt D 2 ιταιδεύε-τον , Β P. 3 2 3 τταιδευε'-των τταιδενε-τε Ίταιδευό-ντων Infin. •ηταιδεύειν Part. Ίταιδεύων, -ουσ-α, -ον Middle (Passive) Present Imperfect τταιδεύο-μαι ιταιδεύη, or -ει Ίταιδεύε-ται ιταιδενε-σ-θον "ΐταιδεύε-σ-θον παιδευό-μεθα Ίταιδεύε-οτθε Ίταιδεύο-νται ιταιδεύω-μαι, ιταιδεύη ιταιδεύη -ται ιταιδεύη -σ-θο ν ιταιδεύη-σθον παιδευώ-μεθα ■π-αιδεύη-σθε ιταιδεύω-νται χαιδευοί-μην ■τταιδεύοι-ο τταιδεύοι-το τταιδεύοι-σ-θον ταιδευοί-σθην τταιδευοί-μεθα ■ιταιδεύοι-σθε ιταιδεύοι-ντο παιδενου χαιδευε'-σθω παιδεύε-σθον ΐΓαιδευε'-σ•θων ιταιδεύε-σθε παιδευέ-(Γθ«ν Ίταιδεύε-σ-θοι ιταιδευό-μενο-5, -η, -ον -ιταιδενό-μην -τταιδεύου -Ίταιδεύε-το έ-τταιδεύε-σθον Ι-ιταιδευε'-σθην -τταιδευό-μεθα -ιταιδεύε-σθε έ-Ίταιδεύο-ντο Note. — For an explanation of some of the forms see § 170, notes 1-3. 136 PARADIGMS OF -ω VERBS ί S. 1 Future System. 238. Vowel Verbs. 239. Liquid Verbs. φαίνω (φαν-) show. Active. Middle. Future (contracted). φανώ (-^ω) ψανονμαι (-^o-) φαν€Ϊ8 (-^e's) φο•"•?! "i-ei (e'r; ur-i'ei) φανεί (-^ei) φανεϊται (-ee-) iraiSeicri-TOv τταιδίύσ-ε-σ-θον φανεί-τον (-^e-) φανεϊσ-θον (-«-) ιταιδεύσ-ε-τον Ίταιδεύσ-ε-σθον φανεϊ-τον (-e'e-) φανεϊσθον (-^e-) •π-αιδεύσ-ο-μεν τταιδευσό-μεθα φανοΰ-μεν (-fo-) φανούμεθα (-εό-) τταιδεύσ-ε-τε τταιδεύσ-ε-σθε φανεί-τε (-^e-) φανείσθε (-^ε-) Ίται,δενσουσι τταιδεύσο-νται φανονοΊ, (-eoi;-) φανοΰνται (-^ο-) τταιδευ-ω educate. ΑοτίΛΈ. Middle. Future. παιδεΰσ-ω ιταιδεύσ-ο-μαι Ίταιδεύσ-ει? ιταιδεύοττ] οι-ε τταιδεύσ-ει τταιδεύσε ται No Subjunctive No Subjunctive S. 1 ιταιδενσ-οι-μι. τταιδευσ-οί-μην φανοίη-ν (-εοίην) φανοί-μην (-εοί-) 2 'Π•αιδεύ(Γ0ΐ-8 ιταιδεύίΓΟί-ο φανοίη -s (-εοίηί) φανοΐ-ο (^oto) 3 ΊΓαιδεύσοι τταιδεύσ-οι-το φανοίη (-εοίτ;) φανοί-το (^-eol-) D. 2 ΤΓαιδεύσ-οι-τον τταιδεύσοι-σθον φανοϊ-τον (-eot-) φανοΐ-σθον (-^οι-) ο τταιδευσοί-την τταιδευσ-οί-σθην φανοί-την (-εοί-) φανοί-ίτθην (-εοί-) Ρ. 1 ιταιδεύσ-οι-μεν ιταιδευσ-οί-μεθα φανοΐ-μεν (-^ι-) φανοί-μεθα (-€οί-) 2 ιταιδεύσ-οι-τε τταιδεύσ-οι-σθε φανοί-τε {-έοί-) φανοί-σθε (-6υι-) 3 ΐΓαιδενσοιε-ν Ίταιδεύσοι-ντο φανοϊε-ν (-eoi-) φανοϊ-ντο {-έοι-) No Imperative No Imperative Infin. ΐΓαι䀕ύσ•ει.ν τταιδεύσ-ε-σθαι φανεϊν {-^clv) φανεΐ-σ-θαι (-^e-) Part. ιταιδεύσ-ων, ττ-αιδευσ-ό-μενοδ, φανών (-^ωΐ'), φανού-μενθ8(-εό-), -ούσα, -ον -η, -ον -ovcra, -οΰν -η, -ον Note. — For an explanation of some of tlie forms .see § 170, notes 1-3, PARADIGMS OF -ω VERBS 137 Active. Middle. 1st Aorist. leave. 240. First Aorist System. 241. Second Aorist System, τταιδεύ-ω educate. λείπω (λοιπ-, λειττ-, λιπ-, § 14, 2) AcTivK. Middle. 2d Aorist. Ι-τταιΒευσά-μην ϊ-λιττο-ν €-ληΓΟ-μην €-•7Γαιδ£ύ(Γω e-Xiire-s ί-λίττου i-iraiSevcra-TO €-λιΐΓ€ Ι-λίΐΓ€-το Ι-Ίταιδίύσα-σ-θον €-λίΐΓ€-τον ί-λίττί-σθον f S. 1 i-iraiSevcra 2 i-iraiSiucra-s 3 ί-ΤΓαίδίυσ-ε D. 2 ί-παιδίύσ-α-τον 3 €--π•αιδ€υσ•ά-την Ρ. 1 e-irai8€vcra-|X€v 2 €-•7Γαιδ6ύ(Γα-τ€ [ 3 ί-ιταίδίυσ-α-ν ί-ιταιδίυσ-ά-σθην €-ΐΓαιδ6υσά-μ€θα Ι-•π•αιδ£ύσ•α-<Γθ€ €-τΓαιδ€ύσ•α-ντο τταιδίύσ-ω-μ,αι ΐΓαιδίΰσ-η τταιδί-ύσ-η-ται Ίταιδίύση-σθον τταιδίύσ-η-σ-θον παιδευ(Γώ-μ«θα ■7Γαιδ€ν(Γη-σ"θε τταιδίυίτω-νται Ίταιδενσ-αί-μην ί-λιττί-την €-λΐ7Γ€-σ-θην €-λίτΓ0-μ6ν έλιττό-μεθα e-Xiire-re ί-λιτΓΟ-ν λίττω λίιτη? λίιτη λίττη-τον λίττη-τον λίττω-μεν λίττη-τί λίττωσι λίτΓΟί,-μι λίΐΓΟΙ -S λίτΓΟΙ, λίτΓΟί-τον ί-λίτΓί-σθί ί-λίτΓΟ-ντο λίττω-μαι λίττΐ] λίττη-ται λίττη-σθον λίττη-σθον λΐΊτώ-μίθα λίιτη-σθε λίττω-νται λιΤΓοί-μην λ tiro ι -ο λίτΓΟΙ-ΤΟ λΙίΓΟί-σθον λιΤΓοί-την λιττοί-σθην λίτΓΟί-μίν λιτΓοί-μεθα S. 1 Ίταιδίύίτω 2 Ίταιδίύστ)? 3 ιταιδίύστ) D. 2 ιταιδεύσ-η-τον 3 τταιδεύσ-η-τον Ρ. 1 ιταιδίύσ-ω-μΕν 2 •π•αιδ6ύσ-η-τ€ 3 τταιδέύσωσ-ι ' S. 1 τταιδεΰσαι-μι 2 Ίταιδίύο-εια?, -σαΐ5 τταιδεΰσ-αι-ο 3 Ίταιδεΰσεΐί, -σαι τταιδίυ'σ-αι-το D. 2 ιταιδευσαι-τον ΐΓαιδειίσ-αι-σθον 3 ιταιδευσαί-την τταιδευσ-αί-σθην Ρ. 1 τταιδίυσαι-μίν τταιδευσ-αί-μεθα 2 Ίταιδευναι-τε τταιδευσ-αι-σ-θε [ 3 τΓαιδεΰσειαν, -αΐ€-ν Ίταιδευσαι-ντο ιταίδίυσ-αι ιταιδίυσ-ά-σ-θω ιταιδευσα-σθον Ίταιδΐυσά-σθων τταιδίύσ-α-σθί τταιδευσ-ά-σθων τταιδί^να-σθαι 'ΐΓαιδ€υ(Γά-μ£νθ5, -η, -ον Note. — For an explanation of some of the forms see § 170, notes 1-3. The first aorist infinitive active παιδεΰσ-αι is irregular in accent (§ 185). In the second aorist the 2d singular of the imperative middle, the infinitives active and middle, and the participle active are irregular in accent (§ 185). S. 2 ΐΓαίδίυσον > 3 τταιδίυσ-ά-τω "■2 D 2 ιταιδίυσ-α-τον 3 ΐΓαιδίυσά-των •Ά P. 2 Ίταιδίνο-α-τί , 3 Ίταιδίυσά-ντων Infill. Part. ιταιδεΰσ-αι Ίταιδενσ-άδ, -σ-άσ-α, - ?, -ιταιδίυθη ■ΐΓαιδ6υθή<Γ€-ται «φάνη 1 I) 2 « -τταιδευθη-τον τταιδίυθήσ-ί-σθον €-φάνη-τον 3 1 ΓΓαιδ€νθή φανή ο D 2 1 ταιδίυθή τον No φανή-τον .^ 3 1 ΐΓαιδίυθή-τον Subjunctive φανή-τον 9 «2 P. 1 ' π-αι.δ€υθώ-μ€ν φανώ-μ€ν 2 1 ιταιδευθή-τί φανή-τ€ 3 1 ιταιδίυθώσι φανώοΊ 'S. 1 1 ταιδίυθείη-ν τταιδίυθησ-οί-μην φαν€ίη-ν 2 1 ΐΓαιδίυθ€ίη-8 τταιδευθήίΓΟί-ο φαν6ίη-8 Ο 3 -1 ταιδευθείη τταιδίυθήσ-οι-το φαν£ίη > +3 . D 2 1 τ•αιδ€υθίΐ-τον [- €ίητον] ΤΓαιδίυθήσ-οι-σθον φαν€Ϊ-τον [-ίίητον] 'ρ, 3 1 ιταιδευθεί-την [ €ΐήτην] Ίταιδίνθησ-οί-σθην φανίί-την [ειήτην] Ο P. 1 1 ταιδ€υθ£ίμ£ν [- €ίημ€ν] ΊΓαιδευθησ-οί-μίθα φαν6ΐ-μ6ν [-ίίημβν] 2 1 ταιδ6υθ£Ϊ-τ6 [-ίίητί] Ίταιδευθήσοι-σ-θί φανίί-τί [-€ίητ€] ο 1 ται.δ6υθ€Ϊ€-ν [-€ ήσαν] τταιδίυθήσ-οι-ντο φαν€Ϊ€-ν [-είησαν] s. 2 1 Γαιδευθη-τι φάνη-θι > 3 1 ταιδίυθήτω φανή-τω "cS Vf 2 1 Γαιδ€υθη-τον No φάνη -τον CI, 3 1 ταιδευθή-των Imperative φανή-των ^ p. 2 1 ο 1 Γαιδ€υθη-Τ£ ταιδίυθέ'-ντων φάνη-τί φανί'-ντων luli n. ιταιδίυθή-ναι ■ΐΓαιδίυθήσ•€-σ-θαι. φανή-ναι Par t. ταιδευθίίξ, -£Ϊ(Γα, -ev ■ΐΓαιδ€υθη<ΓΟ-μ€νθ8. -η, ον φαν£ί$. -ti) τϊμα(-άρί) ίτίμά (-ae) τϊμά-τον (-ae-) ίτϊμά-τον (-ae-) τϊμά-τον (-de-) €τϊμά-την (-a^-) τΐμώ-μ6ν (-άο-) £τϊμώ-μ€ν (-άο-) τΐμά-τ£ (-ae-) €τϊμά-Τ£ (-ae-) τϊμώ(Γΐ, (-άοΐ'-) ίτΐμων (-αο;/) τιμώ (-άω) τΐμάβ (-aijs) τίμα (-ay) τϊμά-τον (-άητον) τϊμά-τον {-άητον) τϊμώ-μ€ν (-aw/xec) τϊμά-τ£ (-arjre) τϊμ«(Γΐ (-άωσί) τΐμώη-ν(-αο^-) [τϊμω-μι (-άοι-)] τϊμωη -s (-αοί-) [τϊμω3 (-dois) ] τΐμώη (-αοί-) [τϊμω (-άοι)] τϊμω-τον (-doLTOv) τϊμω-την (-αοίτην) τϊμω-μ€ν (-άοι /xei') τϊμω-τί (-aotre) τΐμωε-ν (-aoLev) τίμα (-ae) τϊμα-τω (-αέτώ) τϊμά-τον (-άΐτον) τϊμά-των (-αέτων) τϊμά-τί (-aere) τϊμώ-ντων (-αόντων) τϊμάν (-άΐ(.ν) τιμών (-άοιι*), -ώσα, -ών Middle (Passive) Present Imperfect τϊμώ-μαι (-άο-) ΐτϊμώ-μην (-αό -J τιμά (-άτ/υι-άει) €τΐμώ (-ίου) τϊμά-ται (-άε-) €τϊμά-το (-άε-) τϊμά-σ-θον (-άε-) «τϊμά-σ-θον (-ae-) τϊμά-σ-θον (-ae-) ίτϊμά-σθην (-αέ-) τϊμώ-μεθα (-ao-) «τϊμώ-μίθα (-αό-) τϊμά-σ•θ€ (-ίΐ-) ίτϊμά-σ-θί (-άε-) τΐμώ-νται (-άο-) ίτΐμώ-ντο (-άο-) τϊμώ-μαι (-άωμαι) τϊμά (-Λχι) τϊμά-ται (-άηται) τϊμά-σ•θον (-άησθον) τϊμά-σθον (-άησθον) τϊμώ-μ€θα (-αώμ(θα) τϊμά-σ-θί (-άησθε) τΐμώ-νται (-άωΐ'ταί) τϊμω-μην (-αοίμην) τϊμω-Ο (-άοίο) τϊμω-το (-άοιτο) τϊμω-σ-θον (-άοισθον) τϊμω-σ•θην (-αοίσθην) τϊμω-μίθα (-αοίμεθα) τίμω-σ-θί (-aotade) τϊμω-ντο (-aoiCTo) τϊμώ (-άον) τϊμά-σ-θω (-αέσθω) τϊμά-σθον (-άεσ^οι») τϊμά-σ-θων (-α^σθων) τΐμά-σ-θί (-άεσί^ε) τϊμά-σθων (-αέσθων) τϊμά-σ-θαι (-άΐσθαί) τϊμώ-μίνο? (-ao\ -η, -ο ν PARADIGMS OF -ω VERBS 143 249. Present System of Contract Verbs in -tu iS. D. rs. D. P. S. φι\ω (φιλε'-ω) loce Active Middlk (Passive) Present Imperfect Present Imperfect φιλώ (-^ω) Ιψίλου-ν (-eof) ψιλοΰ-μαι (-^o-) ίφιλοιί-μην (-eo-) ψιλ€ΐ$ (-^e's) ίφίλ€ΐ-5 (-ees) φιλ€Ϊ (-er) or -^ei) Ιφιλοΰ (-eov) φιλ€ί (-^ei) ίφίλίΐ (-ee) φιλίϊ-ται (-«-) Ιψιλεϊ-το (-^e-) φιλίϊ-τον (-^e-) ίφιλεί-τον (-^e-) φιλίί-σ-θον(-^ε-) ίφιλίΐ-σθον (-^e-) φιλ€Ϊ τον (-^e-) ίφιλίί-την (-e^-) φιλίΐ-σθον (-e'e-) ίφιλεί-σθην (ee-) φιλον μ,εν(-^ο-) €φιλοΰ-μ£ν(-6θ-) φιλθυ'-μ€θα(-60-) έφιλου μ€θα(-εό-) φιλίί-τε (-^e-) €φιλ€Ϊ-Τ€ (-^e-) φιλίί-σ-θί (-«-) €φιλίί-<Γθ€ (-^e-) φιλοΰσ-ι (-^u-) έφίλουν (-eoc) φιλοΰ-νται (-^ο-) έφιλοΰ-ντο (-^-) φιλώ (-^ω) φίλη? (-^Ώϊ) φιλή (-^7?) φιλή-τον (-^7;τοί') φιλή-τον (^-έτιτον) φιλώ-μεν (^-έωμεν') φιλή-Τ€ {-έητΐ) φιλώοΊ (^-έωσι) φιλώ-μαι (-έωμΛΐ) φιλή (-^7?) φιλή-ται (-βηται) φιλή-σθον (^-έησθον) φιλή-σθον (^-4ησθον) φιλώ-μεθα (-ew/xe^a) φιλή-<Γθ€ {-έησθΐ) φιλώ-νται (-^ωί'ταί) φιλοίη-ν (-eoi-) [φιλοΐ-μι (^-έοι-)^ φιλοί-μην (^-βοίμην') φιλοίη -s (-eoi-) [φιλοΐ -s (-^ots)] φιλοΐ-ο (-^oto) φιλοίη (-eoi-) [φιλοΐ (-eot)] φιλοϊ-το (-εοιτο) ^/^. ^ ^ α, Ο D.2 3 Ρ. 1 2 3 S. 2 D. 2 3 Ρ. 2 Infin. Part. φιλοί-τον (-έοιτον) φιλοί-την (^-εοίτην) φιλοί-μεν {-έοίμεν) φιλοί-τ€ (-^otre) φιλοΪ€-ν (-^otej') φίλ£ΐ. (-ee) φιλίί-τω (-eerw) φιλεί-τον (-^eroi') φιλεί-τωΐ' (-e^Twi') φιλίΐ-τί (-eere) φιλον-ντων(-εό('τω;') φιλίΐν (-έΐΐν) φιλών (-βων), -οΰσ"α, -οΰν φιλοΐ-σ•θον (^-4οισθον) φιλοί-σθην {-ΐοίσθηρ) φιλοί-μεθα {-€οίμ€θα) φιλοΐ-σθί (-eoLcrde) φιλοΐ-ντο (^-ίοιντο) φιλοΰ (-eoii) φιλίί-σθω (-e^crOw) φιλίΐ-σθον {-έΐσθον) φιλίί-σθων (-εέσθων) φιλεί-σ-θί (-^ΐσθε^ φιλίί-σ-θων (-εέσθων) φιλεί-σ-θαι {-έβσθαι) φιλου'μ£νος (-eo-), -η, -ον 144 PARADIGMS OF -ω VERBS 250. Present System of Contract Verbs in -οω Β-ηλω (^Βηλό-ω) 'manifest Active Middle (Passive) Present Imperfect Present Imperfect S. 1 δηλώ (-όω) «δήλου-ν (-ooi') δηλον-μαι (-όο-) ίδηλοΰ μην (-οό-) 2 δηλοΪ8 (-oets) έδήλου -s (-oes) δηλοΐ (-οτ;ογ -oei) «δηλοΰ (-όοι/) 3 δηλοΐ (-oet) €δήλου (-oe) δηλοΰ-ται (-oe-) έδηλοΰ-το (-oe-) D. 2 δηλοΰ-τον(-όε-) £δηλοΰ-τον(-0€-) δηλον-σθον(-όε-) €δηλοΰ-σ•θον(-ΟΕ-) 3 δηλοΰ-τον(-όε-) ίδηλο\5-την (-ο^-) δηλον-σ-θθν(-όε-) £δηλoυ-(Γθηv(-oe-) Ρ. 1 δηλον-μ€ν (-00-) €δηλοϋ-μ£ν(-όο-) δηλον-μ£θα (-οό-) €δηλον-μ€θα(-οό-) 2 δηλον-Τ£ (-06-) €δηλοΰ-Τ£ (-όε-) δηλοΰ-σ-θί (-όε-) έδηλοΰ-σθε (-όε-) 3 δηλοΰ(Γΐ (-όοιι-) έδήλουν (-οοΐ') δηλοΰ-νται (-όο-) «δηλον-ντο (-όο-) S. 1 δηλώ (-όω) δηλώ-μαι (-όω/χαί) 2 δηλοΐς (-OT/s) δηλοΐ (-ότ?) 3 δηλοΐ (-or;) δηλώ-ται (-oijTat) D. 2 δηλώ-τον (-όητοί') δηλώ-σ-θον {-όησθον) 3 δηλώ-τον (-orjToi') δηλώ-σθον (^-όησθον) Ρ. 1 δηλώ-μ£ν (-όωμε;') δηλώ-μίθο (-οώ/χε^α) 2 δηλώ-τ€ (-ότ^τε) δηλώ-σ•θ£ {-όησθε) 3 δηλώσι (-όωσι) δηλώ-νται (^-όωνται) S. 1 δηλοίη-ν (-οοί-) [δηλοΐ-μι(-όοι-)] δηλοί-μην (-οοί/χτ/ί') 2 δηλοίη -s (-οο/-) [δηλοΐ-5(-όθ£5)] δηλοΐ-ο (-όοω) 3 δηλοίη (-οοί-) [δηλοΐ (-oot)] δηλοΐ-το {-όοιτο) D. 2 δηλοϊ-τον (-όοίτοι») δηλοΐ-σθον (-όοισ^οι») 3 δηλοί-την (^-οοίτην') δηλοί-σθην (^-οοίσθην) Ο Ι Ρ. 1 δηλοΐ-μ€ν (-όοιμεί') δηλοί-μεθα {-οοίμ,ΐθα) 2 δηλοΙ-τ£ {^6οιτ€) δηλοϊ-σθε (-όοισ^ε) 3 δηλοίε-ν (^-boLev) δηλοϊ-ντο (-όοιι/το) S. 2 δήλου (-οε) δηλοΰ (-όου) 3 δηλοΰ-τω (-οε'τω) δηλον-σ•θω (^-οέσθω) D. 2 δηλοΰ-τον (-όετοί*) δηλον-σθον (-0€σθον) 3 δηλοΰ-των (-ο^τω»') δηλον-σθων (-οέσθων) Ρ. 2 δηλοΰ-τε (-όετε) δηλοΰ-σθε (-όεσ^ε) 3 δηλοΰ-ντων (-οόιτων) δηλου-(Γθων (^-οέσθων) Infill. δηλονν (-oetf) δηλον-σθαι (-όεσ^αι) Part. δηλών (-owe), -οΰσα, -οΰν 8ηλου'-μενθ5 (-οό-), -η, -ον PARADIGMS OF -μι VERBS 145 251. Active. Present. Imperfect. 1 τί-θη-μι €-τί-θη-ν 2 τί-θη -s, TiGiis ί-τί-θίΐδ Present System. τίθημι (^ε-, Θη) put. ^. \ ο τί-θη-<Γΐ D. 2 τί-θί-τον e τι-θίΐ €-τί-θ€-τον ί-τι-θ€-την €-τί-θ€-μ€ν €-τίθ€-Τ€ £-τί-θ€-σ-αν Middle (Passive). Present. Imperfect. ί-τι-θί'-μην €-τί-θε-σ-ο ί-τί-θί-το €-τί-θί-σθον €-τι-θ€-σ-θην ί-τι-θί'-μίθα €-τί-θ€-σ-θ€ €-τί-θ€-ντο ο Τ1-0€-Τθν ρ. 1 τί-θ€-μ€ν 2 τί-θ£-Τ€ 3 τι-θί'-άσ-ι S. Ι τι-θώ 2 Ti-Ofj-s 3 τι-θή D. 2 τι-θή-τον ο τι-θή-τον Ρ. 1 τι-θώ-μίν 2 ΤΙ-θή-Τ€ 3 τι-θώ-σι S. 1 τι-θ€ίη-ν 2 τι-θ€ίη-8 3 τι-θ£ίη D. 2 τι-θ£Ϊ-τον [τι-θείη-τον] 3 τι-θβί-την [τι-θ€ΐή-την] Ι Ρ. 1 τι-θεΐ-μεν [τι-θ€ίη-μ€ν] 2 τί-θ€ί-τ€ [τι-θίίη-τε] ι 3 Ti-OeU-v [τι-θίίη-σαν] Γ S. 2 τί-θ€ΐ Ι 3 τι-θί'-τω Ι D. 2 τί-θ€-τον 3 τι-θί-των Ρ. 2 Ti-0e-T£ 3 τι-θί'-ντων Infin. τι-θ€-ναι. Part. τι-θίίς, -ίΐσ-α, -ίν Note. — For an explanation of some of the forms see § 170, notes 1-3. For the contraction in the subjunctive and optative see § 200, 1. For the third person plural of the pi-esent indicative active see § 1G7, note 3. • The infinitive and participle active are irregular in accent (§ 185). For TLdeis, έτίθ€ίί, έτίθει, τίθει, and the optative τιθοίμην, see § 170, 4. babbitt's gr. gram. — 10 τί-θ£-μαι τί-θί-σαι τί-θί-ται τί-θ€-σ•θον τί-θ€-σ•θον τι-θ€-μ€θα τ(-θ€-σ•θ€ τί-θί-νται τι-θώ-μαι τι-θή τι-θή-ται τι-θή-σ•θον τι-θή-σθον τι-θώ-μίθα τι-θή σθ€ τι-θώ-νται τι-θίί-μην or τι-θοί-μην τι-θίΐ-ο τι-θοϊ-ο τι-θ6ί-το τι-θοϊ-το τι-θίΐ-σθον τι-θοΐ-σθον τι-θίί-σθην τι-θοί-σθην τι-θεί-μίθα τι-θ€ΐ-σθ£ τι-θ€Ϊ-ντο τΙ-θ€-(ΓΟ τι-θί'-οτθω τί-θ€-σ-θον τι-θ6-σθων τί-θί-σ-θί τι-θί'-σ-θων τί-θί-σθαι Τ1-θ£-μ€ν08, τι-θοί-μεθα τι-θοϊ-σθί τι-θοΐ-ντο 146 PARADIGMS OF -μι VERBS 252. Present System. 8ί8ωμι (8ο- δαι-) give. Active. RIlDDLE (Passive). Present. Im perfect. Present. Imperfect. S. 1 $(-8ω-μι ί-δί -δουν δί-δο-μαι Ι-δι-δό-μην 2 δί-δω -s €-δί -δουδ δί-δο-σ-αι €-δί-δθ-<ΓΟ ο δί-δω-σ-ι €-δί -δου δί-δο-ται €-δι-δο-το rf D 2 δί-δο-τον €-δί -δο-τον δί-δο-οτθον €-δί-δο-σ•θον 3 δί-δο-τον €-δΐ -δό-την δί-δο-σ•θον €-δι-δό-σ•θην h- 1 P. 1 δί-δο-μίν €-δΐ -δο-μίν δι-δό-μΐθα ί-δι-δό-μίθα 2 δί-δθ-Τ€ ί-δί-δο -Te δί-δο-σ-θί ί-δί-δο-σ-θί •τ •J δι-δό-άσι ί-δι -δο (ταν δί-δο-νται ί-δί-δο-ντο S. 1 2 δι-δώ δι-δω -s Si -δώ-μαι δι-δύ> 8 δι-δω δι-δώ-ται ο ■5= D 2 δι-δώ-τον δι-δώ-σ-θον 3 δι-δώ-τον δι-δώ-σθον "5 P. S. 1 2 3 1 2 δι-δώ μ€ν δΐ•δώ-Τ€ δι-δώ-σ-ι δι-δοίη-ν δι-δοίη -s δι-δώ-μίθα δι-δώ-σ-θ€ δι-δώ-νται δι-δοί-μην δι-δοϊ-ο (ϋ ο δι-δοίη δι-δοϊ-το .fc D 2 δι-δοΐ-τον [δι -δοίη- τον] δι-δοϊ-σ•θον 1 • 3 δι-δοί-την [δι -δοιή-την] δι-δοί-σ-θην ο P. 1 δι-δοί-μ€ν [δι -δοίη-μ€ν] δι-δοί-μεθα 2 δι-δοϊ-τ€ [δι -δοίη- «] δι-δοΐ-σ-θί 3 δι-δοΪ€-ν [δι -δοίη- σαν] δι-δοΐ-ντο S. 2 δί-δου δ£-δο-<Γθ > 3 δι-8ό-τω δι-δό-σ-θω "cl D 2 δί-δο-τον δί-δο-σθον .1 ΰ δι-δό-των δι-δό-σθων 1" P. 2 δί-δο-τ€ δί-δο-σ-θί 3 δι-δό-ντων δι-δό-σθων lufi 11. δι-δό-ναι δί-δο-σθαι Pai t. δι-δονβ, -οϋσ-α, -όν δι-δό-μ£νθ5, -η, -ον Note. — For an explanation of some of the forms see § 170, notes 1-3. For the contraction in the subjunctive and optative see § 200, 1. For the third person phiral of the present indicative active see § 107, note 3. Tlie infinitive and participle active are irregular in accent (§ 185). For edidovu, έδίδουί, 4δίδου, and δίδον, see § 170, 4. PARADIGMS UF -μι VERBS 14- 253. Present System. ΐστημι (στα-, στη-) set. ΑΟΤΙΛΈ. Present. Imperfect. 'S. 1 ί-στη-μι ϊ-(Γτη-ν 2 ί-(Γτη-5 ϊ-σ-τη -s > 3 ί-σ-τη-σ-ι ί'-στη rt . Ό 2 ί-σ-τα-τον t'-crra-Tov 3 ί-(Γτα-τον ί-στά-την a P. 1 ί-σ-τα-μ€ν ί'-0Γτα-μ€ν 2 ί-σ•τα-τ€ ϊ-στα-Τ€ 3 .-(Γτάσ-ι ϊ-σ-τα-σ-αν ' s. 1 (Γτώ > Ο D P. 2 3 2 1 2 3 1-0Γτή-5 ι-σττ| ι-(Γτή-τον .-(Γτή-τον ,-στώ-μ6ν ,-(ΓΤή-Τ€ ,-σ•τώ-σ"ΐ 'S. 1 2 ^-σταίη-ν ι-σ•ταίη-§ 1 D Ο 2 .-(Γταίη ,-(ΓταΙ-τον -<Γταίη-τον] 3 .-(Γταί-την -σταιή-την] Ο P. 1 ,-σταΐ-μ€ν -σ•ταίη-μ€ν] 2 ,-<ΓταΙ-τ€ -σ-ταίη-τί] . 3 ,-σ•τα.ΐΐ-ν -σταίη-σ-αν] s. 2 ί-στη 6 > 3 ι-στά-τω g D 2 ί-<Γτα-τον S 3 ί-σ-τά-των P. 2 3 ί-<Γτα-τ€ Ι-στά-ντων Infill. Part. (Γτα-ναι •CTTas, -όσα, Middle (Passive). Present. Imperfect. ι-(Γτά-μην ϊ-(Γτα-σο t -στα-το ϊ-σ-τα-σθον ί-σ•τά-(Γθην 1-στά-μ€θα ί'-σ•τα-(Γθ€ ϊ-στα-ντο ι-<Γτα-μαι ϊ-(Γτα-(Γαι ϊ-σ•τα-ται ϊ-(Γτα-σ•θον ϊ-στα-σθον 1-στά-μ€θα ϊ-στα-σ•θ€ ϊ-<Γτα-νται Ι-στώ-μαι 1-σ•ττ| 1-σ•τή-ται 1-σ"τή-σ"θον Ι-στή-σθον Ι-ίΓτώ-μίθα Ι-σ-τή-σ-θί Ι-στώ-νται 1-<Γταί-μην 1-<Γταϊ-ο 1-<Γταΐ-το Ι-σταΐ-σ-θον ί-σ"ταί-σ•θην ί-σταί-μίθα ί-σ•ταί-σ•θ£ ί-(ΓταΙ-ντο ϊ-(Γτα-<Γ0 ί-(Γτά-<Γθω ϊ-στα-σθον ί-(Γτά-(Γθων ϊ-στα-σθί 1-σ•τά-σθων ϊ-στα-σ-θαι 1-στά-μ€νο5, -η• -ον Note. — For an explanation of some of the forms see § 170. notes 1-3. For the contraction in the subjunctive and optative see § 200, 1. For the tliird person plural of the present indicative active see § 167, note 3. The infinitive and participle active are irregular in accent (§ 185). 148 PARADIGMS OF -μι VERBS 254. Present System Βείκνυμι (δεικ-, present stem heiKvv-, § 196, 5) show Active Present Imperfect ' s. 1 δΐίκνΰ-μι ί-δίίκνΰ-ν 2 δ€ίκνΰ-5 ί-δίίκνϋ-δ ο δ€ίκνϋ-σ-ι. ί-δίίκνΰ ^ 2 δίίκνυ-τον έ-δίίκνυ-τον ό δίίκνυ-τον ί-δίίκνΰ-την p. 1 δίίκνυ-μίν €-δ£ίκνυ-μ€ν 2 δίίκνυ-τί ί-δίίκνυ-τε . 3 δίίκνυ α<Γΐ Ι-δείκνυ-σαν s. 1 δ€ΐκνύω 2 δ€ΐκνΰτ)$ δ€ΐκνυη etc., from δεικνύω shoio, inflected like παιδεύω, § 237 ■ s. 1 δίίκνυοιμι 2 δ€ΐκνυΌις δίίκνυ'οι etc., from δΐίκνύω shoiii. inflected like παίδΐύω, § 237 s. 2 δ€ίκνϋ ο δίίκνΰ-τω D 2 δίίκνυ-τον ο δίίκνΰ-των P. 2 δίίκνυ-τί ο δίίκνυ-ντων Middle (Passive) Present Imperfect δίίκνυ-μαι ί-δβίκνΰ μην δίίκνυ-σ-αι ί-δίίκνυ (ΓΟ δίίκνυ-ται Ι-δίίκνν το δίίκνυ-σθον ί-δείκνυ σ-θον δίίκνυ-σ-θον ί-δίίκνυ σθην δίίκνυ-μίθα €-δ€ΐκνν μΐθα δίίκνυ-σ-θε ίδίίκνυ σ-θ€ δίίκνυ-νται e -δείκνυ -ντο δίίκνΰωμαι δίίκνυτ] δίίκνΰηται etc. from δεικνύω shoio, inflected like παιδεύω, § 237. δίίκνυοίμην δίίκνυοιο δίίκνυ'οιτο etc. from δεικνύω shoiO inflected like παιδεύω, § 237. δίίκνυ-σο δίίκνιί σ-θω δίίκνυ-σθον δίίκνΰ-σ-θων δ6ίκνυ-σθ€ δίίκνυ-σθων δίίκνυ-σθαι δ€ΐκνυ'-μ€νθ5. -η -ον Infin. δίίκνν-ναι Part. δίίκννδ, -ΰσ-α. -υν Note. — For an explanation of some of the forms see § 170, notes 1-3. For the third person plural of the present indicative active see § 167, note 3. The infinitive and participle active are irregular in accent (§ 185). PARADIGMS Οΐ -μ.ι VERBS 149 255. Second Aorist System 256. τίθημί {θί-, θψ) put 8ί8ωμί (δο-, δω-) gire Active Middle ΑΟΤΙΛ'Ε Middle s. 1 (ίθηκα) €-θ€-μην (ϊδωκα) £-δό-μην 2 (ίθηκα?) €'-θου (i'SwKas) £-δου 3 (ίθηκί) €-θ6-Τ0 (ίδωκε) £-δθ-ΤΟ Ί D 2 €-0€-TOV ί-θί-σ-θον ί-δο-τον £'-δο-σ-θον "3 3 €-θ€'-την ί-θί-σ-θην £-δό-την €-δό-σθην rt P. 1 €-θε-μ€ν €-θ€-μ€θα €-δο-μίν £-δό-μ£θα 2 €-θ€-Τ€ €-θ€-σ•θε £-δθ-Τ€ £-δθ-(Γθ£ 3 €-θ€-σαν £-θ£-νΤΟ €-δο-σαν £-δθ-νΤΟ S. 1 θώ θώ-μαι δώ δώ-μαι 2 θή-8 θτι δφ -s δω > 3 θή θή-ται δω δώ-ται a ■ D 2 θή-τον θή-σθον δώ-τον δώ-σθον 3 θή-τον θή-σθον δώ-τον δώ-σ•θον P. 1 θώ-μ€ν θώ-μίθα δώ-μ£ν δώ-μεθα 2 Θή-Τ€ θή-σθ€ δώ-τ£ δώ-σθ£ ο θώ-σι θώ-νται δώ-<Γΐ δώ-νται ' s. 1 θίίη-ν θίί-μην δοίη-ν δοί-μην 2 θίίη-δ θίΐ δοίη -s δοΐ-ο αϊ 3 θ€ίη θίί-το, θοΐτο δοίη δοΐ-το > D 2 θίϊ-τον [θίίη-τον] θίϊ-σθον δοΐ-τον [δοίη-τον] δοί-σθον 3 θεί-την [θίΐή-την] θεί-σθην δοί-την [δοιή-την] δοί-σθην Ο P. 1 Gei-uev [θίίη-μ€ν] θεί-μίθα, θοίμ εθα δοί-μ£ν [δοίη-μ£ν1 δοί-μ£θα 2 θ6Ϊ-τ£ [θ£ίη-τ£] θ£ί-σ-θ£, θοΐσ-θε δοί-τ£ [δοίη-τ£] δοΐ-σθε [ 3 β£ί£-ν [θείη-σ-αν] θεϊ-ντο, θοίντο δοΪ€-ν [δοίη-σ•αν] δοί-ντο ^ S. 2 θ£-5 θοΰ δό -s δοϋ αϊ >• 3 θί-τω θί'-σ-θω δό-τω δό-σθω 1 D 2 θ€-τον θ€-σ-θον δό-τον δό-σ-θον Ο) Ρη a 3 θ€-των θ£-σ-θων δό-των δό-σθων P. 2 θ£-Τ£ θί'-σ-θε δό-Τ£ δΟ-(Γθ€ , 3 θ£-ντων θέ-σ-θων δό-ντων δό-σθων Infin. θεί-ναι θ£ σ-θαι δοΰ-νοι δό-σ-θαι Part. 0£is, θ£Ϊ<Γα, θ€-μ£νθ5, δού?, δοΰίτα, δό-μενοξ θ£-ν -η, -ον δό-ν -η, -ον Note. — For an explanation of some of the forms see § 170, notes 1-3. For the contraction in the subjunctive and optative see § 211, 1-2. For the singular of the indicative active see §§ 205 and 211, 3. 150 PARADIGMS OF -μί VERBS Ο ,57. Second Aorist System ΐστημ,ι. (στα-, στη-) set διί-ω eriter AcTivK AcTivK S. 1 ί <Γτη-ν stood e -δϋ-ν 2 D.2 €-σ-τη-5 €-(Γτη €-<Γτη-τον ί-δϋ-5 ί-δϋ £-δϋ-τον p. 1 2 €-<Γτή-την €-(Γτη-μ€ν €-(ΓΤη-Τ€ ί-δΰ-την ί-δϋ-μίν £-δϋ-Τ€ 3 €-(Γτη-(Γαν €-δΰ-(Γαν S. 1 στώ δύω 2 ο 1).2 στή-8 ο-τή <Γτή-τον δύΐ)9 δνη δύητον ο p. 1 2 <Γτή-τον σ-τώ-μ€ν <Γτή-Τ€ (Γτώ-(Γΐ δύητον δύωμεν δύητ€ δύωσ-ι S. 1 σταίη-ν 2 σ-ταίη -s 3 σταίη D. 2 σταί-τον [σταίη-τον] 3 σταί-την [σταιή-την] Ρ. 1 σταί-μ€ν [(Γταίη-μ£ν] 2 σταΙ-τ£ [σταίη-τ€] 3 <Γταί€-ν [ο-ταίη-σαν] S. 2 στή-θι 3 στή-τ&> D. 2 (Γτή-τον 3 <Γτή-των Ρ. 2 <Γτή-Τ€ 3 (Γτά.-ντων Infill. (Γτή-ναι Part. CTTas, στάσα, στά-ν No optative is found in Attic. Cf. §211, 2 a. δν-θι δϊ5-τω δΰ-τον δύ-των δϋ-τ£ δύ-ντων δν-ναι δύδ, δΰ<Γα, δύ-ν Ιττριάμην bought Middle ί-ιτριά-μην «ιτρίω £irpia-TO ίιτρία-σθον ίΤΓριά-ίτθην €ΐΓρι.ά-μ(θα iirpia-cr9e €πρία-ντο πρ(6>-μαι ιτρίτ) ττρίη-ται -ιτρίη-σθον Ίτριη-σθον πριώ-μ(θα 'ΐΓρίη-(Γθ€ Ίτρίω-νται ιτριαί-μην Ίτρίαι-ο Ίτρίαι-το ιτρίαι-σ-θον ιτριαί-σ-θην ΤΓριαί-μ£θα •7Γρ£αι-σθ£ ττρίαι-ντο Ίτρίω •π-ριά-σθω ττρία-σ-θον •ίτριά-σθων 'Π'ρία-σ•θ£ Ίτριά-σ-θων πρία-σθαι πριά-μ£νο$ Note. — For an explanation of some of tln' forms see § 170, notes 1-3. For the contraction in tlie subjunctive and optative of ^στην see § 211, 1-2. Tlie subjunctive and optative of έπριάμην are accented as if uncontracted (§211, 2, note). PARADIGMS OF μι YETIUS 151 258. Indicative S. 1 (€(Γτηκα) stand 2 (€σ-τηκα8) 3 (€σ•τηκ€) D. 2 ί-(Γτα-τον '€-<Γτα-τον Second Perfect System without Suffix (§ 220) Ιστημι (στα-, στη-) stt Second Perfect Active Second Pluperfect ActiAe Subjunctive Indicative €(Γτώ, etc. (ίΐσ-τήκη) (like (Γτώ, § 257) (ίί<Γτήκη8) Optative (ύσ-τήκίΐ) €-σ•ταίη-ν, etc. (like σταίην. § 2-37) €-(Γτα-μ€ν ί-(Γτα-τ€ €-στά<Γΐ, Infinitive €-<Γτά-ναι Imperative S. 2 €-σ-τα-θι 3 £-σ-τά-τω, etc e -στα-τον €-σ•τά-την €-(Γτα-μ€ν £-στα-Τ€ €-(Γτα-<Γαν Participle ί-σ-τώ9, Ι-οΓτώσα, «-(ttos (§ 131, note) 259. Οΐδα (for *pot8a (§ 2 a), stem οίδ-, elS-, IB-, § 14, 2), a perfect with present meaning, is formed without redupli- cation. Its inflection (somewhat irregular) is as follows : Second Perfect Indicative Subjunctive Optative S. 1 2 3 D. 2 otSa οΐσΌα θΙδ€ ϊ(Γτον ο ϊίττον 1 ϊ(Γμ.€ν 2 ϊσ-τί 3 ϊσ•ό<Γΐ Infinitive clScvai «ιεώ ciSfjs £ίδη ί15ήτον ίΐδήτον είδώμεν ίίδήτί ((δώτι €ίδ€ίην £ίδ£ίη$ 6ΐδ6ίη (ίδίΐτον εΐδίίτην είδεΐμΐν [-ίίημίν] ίΐδίϊτί [-είητί] ϊσ•τ€ cCSeiev [-«ίησαν] ϊ(Γτων Participle €ΐδώ5, €ΐδυϊα, είδόβ ; seu. €ΐδΰτο$. etc. (§ 131) Second Pluperfect Imperative Indicative ή'δη [ή'δίΐν] 1!(γΘι ηδησ-θα ΪΟΓτω ηδ€ΐ(ν) ϊο"τον ή στον ϊσ-των η'(Γτην ήίτμεν ησ-Τ6 ήσαν. ή'δίσαν 259 a. Ionic occasionally lia.s other (regular) forms from the stem οΐδα- : thus o'lSas, οΐζαμεν. οίδάίτι. b. Homer has perf. 1st plur. ΐδμβι> ; pluperf. ηδβα, -^δησθα (ή€ίδη$), iJSee or -βδει (ήΐίδίΐ). Sd plur. ίσαν: subj. 1st sing. etSew. είδώ, ίδΐω ; plur. εΐδομΐν (§ 160 a), εϊδΐτε (§ 160a), ίίδωσι: infin. ίδμΐναι. ίδμεν (§ 167 e) : fem. participle ίδυΐα. Future ΐίσομαι and είδήσομαι. c. Herodotus has 1st plur. ιδμεν. pluperf. 1st sing. jSea, od sing, ^δεε, 2d plur. τ]δ4ατ€ ; future (ίδήσω. 152 IRREGULAR Λ^ERBS IN -μυ 260. "Ιημι (theme e-, ή-') send is inflected nearly like τίθημι (§§ 251, 255). The present and second aorist sys- tems are inflected as follows : Active present imperfect Indicative Subjunctive Indicative s 1 ϊημι ΐω ιην 2 ϊηξ, teis tf|S ifcis 3 ϊησ-ι ίτ), etc. Ϊ£ΐ 1) ^ 2 3 ϊ€Τθν ϊετον Optative ^'"°^ ί££ην "'"^^ p. 1 2 ϊίμίν t'€T€ ί€ίη5 ϊ«μ«ν ί£ίη Ϊ€Τ£ 3 ίά(Γΐ ίίίτον ϊίο-αν ίίίτην Imperative ΐΐΐμίν, etc. fc'€l ίί'τω, etc. Infinitive Participle ίί'ναι Uis, leitra, iiv SECOXD AORIST Indicative Subjunctive s. 1 (ηκα) ώ 2 (ηκα?) Ψ 3 (ηκί) η, etc. D. 2 3 ίΐτον ίϊτην Optative. €Ϊην P. 1 £Ϊμ£ν €Ϊη5 2 £ΪΤ€ ίϊη 3 €Ϊ(Γαν ίΐτον ίϊτην ] Imperative €τω, etc. ίΐμίν, etc. Infinitive Participle ilvai fl's, ίΐσ-α, iSv Middle (Passive) present imperfect Indicative Subjunctive Indicative ϊίμαι t'itrai Ιωμαι ίίμην ίή ΪίΟΓΟ ϊίται ίήται, etc. ϊίτο Ι'ίσ-θον Ι'ίσθον ίί'μίθα ί'ίσθί Optative ;'^,'^^°*' , , ίίσ-θην ΐίΐμην ίίίο ίί'μίθα ίίΐτο "σθί ϊίνται ίίίσ-θον t'evTO ίίίσθην Imperative ΐίίμίθα, etc. t'iero ίί'σ-θω, etc. Intinitive Participle ϊίσθαι ίίμενος, -η, -ον SECOND AORIST Indicative Subjunctive ίΐμην ίΐσ-ο ώμαι ίΐτο ηται, etc. ίΐσ-θον ίϊσ-θην Optative. ίΐμην ίΐμίθα €Ϊ0 ίΐσ-θί ίΐτο ιιντο ίΐσθον ίϊσθην τ.^,^„-„*;..„ ίϊμίθα, etc. ου ίο-θω, etc. Infinitive £σ-θαι Participle ίμίνο$, -η, -ον IRREGULAR VERBS IN -μί 153 In the optative, forms of the -ω iiiilectiou (iOtre, 'touv., οίτο) are some- times found (§ 170, 4). The future of Ι-ημι is τ}σω ; perfect είκα, είμαι; aorist passive εϊθ-ην. The aorists and the perfect hardly ever occur except in compounds. 261. Εΐμι (tlieme t-, el- ; Latin eo, ire^ go htis only the present system. Present. Imperfect Iiulicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative Indicative. S. 1 ei^i ϊω ϊοιμι, Ιοίην ηα [ή'€ΐν] 2 ίΐ ϊτ]5 iois ϊθι Τ|'€ΐσθα [fi'eis] 3 ίίσι ϊη ϊοι ϊτω ή'ίΐ [ή'€ΐν] D. 2 ϊτον ϊητον ϊοιτον ϊτον ητον ο ϊτον ϊητον Ιοίτην ϊτων τίτην Ρ. 1 ϊμίν ϊωμ€ν ϊοιμίν ΤΙΚ•*" 2 ΪΤ€ ϊητ€ ϊοιτί ϊτ€ ήτ€ 3 ϊάσι ϊωσ-ι ϊοΐ€ν Infinitive Uvai Participle Ιών, Ιοΰσ-α, Ιόν ; gen. tovTOS, Ιούσ-η?, etc. Ιόντων, ϊτωσαν χί"'•*''! ϋ^^^ν Verbal Adjectives Itos, It€Os (ίτητί'ο?, from Ιτώ (-άω) go 1. Compounds of βίμι have recessive accent in the pres- ent except in the infinitive and participle : thus ττάρβίμί approach, τταρεί, etc. Imperf. iraprja (§ 184, 1), etc., but infin. Trapievai, participle τταρίών. 2. The present indicative of εΙμι, in prose (and almost always in poetry), has a future meaning shall go (cf. § 524, note). 260 a. Homer almost always has ϊημι with short i. For let (3d singular) and Ίεΐσι (3d plural) see §§ 170, 4 a, and 200 b. In the aorist indicative he has ηκα and εηκα (with irregular augment). In the aorist subjunctive he has iTj and ητι (cf. § 211, 1 a). For the imperfect indicative 1st singular the Mss. give ΐειν, but this must be a mistake for ΐην. 261 a. Homer has also present indicative 2d sing, ΐΐσθα. Imperfect 1st sing, ψ'α, ηίον ; 3d sing, ψε, -rje, ϊε; .3d dual ίτην, 1st plur. χιομεν; 3d plur. ΎΐΧσαν, ϊσαν, ηϊον. Subjunctive 2d sing, ϊ-ησθα ; 3d sing. ίΊ;σι ; 1st plur. ΐομεν (§ 160 a). Optative 3d sing. ίείη. Infinitive t>ewi, ίμεν (§ 167 e). Future εί'σομαι. b. Herodotus has impf. 1st sing, ψ'α ; 3d sing, ηϊε, 3d plur. ηϊσαν. 154 IRREGULAR VERBS IN -μί 262. ΕΙμί (theme ea- ; Latin esse') be lias only the present and future systems. Present. Indicative Subjunctive Oj^tative ίϊην ίϊη? €Ϊη €Ϊτον, ίϊητον ίϊτην, €Ϊήτην £Ϊμ€ν, €Ϊημ€ν €ΪΤ€, €Ϊητ€ ίΐίν, ίϊησαν Partic. ών, ούσ-α, ον, gen. ovtos, οΰσ-ηδ, etc. (§ 129) FuTL'RE indicative Ι'σομαι, etc. (od sing, earai (§20)); optative έσοίμην, etc. ; infinitive 'ίσΐσθαι ; participle έσόμεΐΌ$, -η, -ον. Note. — The present indicative €ΐμί is for *ίσ-μι (§ 16) ; el is for *εσι (originally έσ-σί) ; Ισ-τί retains the original ending rt. The sub- junctive tu is for Ι'ω, from *εσ-ω; the optative εΐ'τ/ν is for *ζσ-ιη-ν. Tlie infinitive dvai is for *1σ-ναι; the participle ων is for «ών, from *€σ-ωΐ'. 1. All forms of the present indicative, except the second person singular el, are enclitic (§ 70). But the third person s. 1 ειμί ω 2 d TJS 3 eo-Tt ΤΙ 1), 2 Ι(Γτόν ήτον ^ €<ΓΤθν ήτον p. 1 €σ•μίν ωμεν 2 €σ-τί ητί 3 ίΐσί ω(Γΐ In fin. ίΐναν Imperfect Imperative Indicative ή,ήν ϊσ-θι ήσ-θα €(Γτω ήν ecTTOv ή(Γτον ϊστων ή στη ν ήμ€ν €στ€ ήτ6, ήστ€ €<Γτων, έ'σ-τωσ-αν ήσαν 262 a. Homer has Present indicative 2d sing, έσσί, eh; 1st pltir. ΐΊμίν; 3d plur. etV/, 4'άσι. Imperfect 1st sing, ■^a, ea, eoi' (?); 2d sing, ίησθα, ^σθα; 3d sing, ^ev, ίην, ηην, 9jv; 3d plur. ^σαρ, '4σαν. Iterative ίσκον (§ 191 b). Subjunctive 1st sing, έ'ω, -βίω; 3d sing, e^at, Ύίσι, «τ?, ei'77(?); .3d plur. ίωσι. Optative also e'ots, 4Oi. Imperative 'ίσσο (middle). Infinitive also ίμμεναι (for *eff-yuecat), (μ€ΐ'αί, 'ίμμ(ν, '4μΐν (§ 107 e). Participle έών, έοΰσα, iou, etc. Future also 'ίσ-σομαι, etc.; 3d sing, έ'σ-σβται, 'ίσεται (§ 30), ta-rai (§ 20), and (Doric future, § 214) έσσεΐται. b. Herodotus has Present indicative 2d sing, els ; 1st pi. €Ϊμ4ν. Imperfect ea; 2d sing, eos; 2d plur. eare. Iterative (σκον (191 b). Subjunctive ew, εωσι. Optative (once) iv-ioi. Participle έών. IRREGULAR VERBS IN 155 singular eVrt takes its written accent υη tiie first sj'llable (eVxi) : When it stands at the beginning of a sentence ; as έ'στί 8e τί<ί ούτος ; hut tvho is this f When it expresses existence or possibility ; as σο\ μέν βστίν Ihelv it is possible for you to see ; When it follows the conjunctions et, καί, or άλλα, or the adverbs oy/c, μη, or ώ? ; as ουκ eariv is not. Note. — In composition the participle is accented as in the simple verb : thus τταρ-ών present. In the subjunctive and optative, τταρ-ώ (for -εω, § 170, 2), τταρ-ίΐμίν, etc., the accent is not irregular. See §§ 170, 2-3 and 18.3, note. 263. Φημί (φα-, φη-; Latin /«-ri) say is inflected in the present system as folloΛvs : Present Subjunctive φώ, φτ|8. φη, etc. (like σ-τώ, § 257) Indicative s. 1 2 g φημί φτι'δ φησ-ί D 2 φατόν 3 φ ατό ν P. 1 2 ο φαμ,έν φατί φά(Γί In fiuitive φάναι OptatiΛ•e φαίην, φαίη$, etc. (like σταίην, § 257) Imperfect Indicative ϊφην ίφησθα or €φη$ ίφη ϊφατον ίφάτην €φαμ€ν €φατ€ €φασ-αν Verbal Adjectives φατ05. φατ£Ό5 Imperative. φάθι or φαθί, φάτω, etc. Participle φάξ, φάσ-α, φάν, but in Attic φάσκων is used instead. The future is ψήσω, etc. ; aorist ίφησα, etc. 1. All forms of the present indicative, except the second person singular φ^ς, are enclitic (§ TO). 263 a. Homer has subj. 3d sing, φή -g (§ 211, 1 a). For ^ψαν (imperfect 3d plural) see § 167 c. He often uses the middle forms of φημΙ, which are seldom or never found in Attic : thus imperf. ΐψάμην, ΐφατο ; impv. φάο, φάσθω, etc. ; infin. φάσθαι ; participle φάμΐνοί. b. Herodotus often uses the middle participle φάμΐνο$. 156 IRREGULAR VERBS IX -μι 264. Κίΐμαι (/cei-) lie, am laid (regularly used as the perfect passive of τίθημι inif). Present Imperfect Indicative Subjunctive Indicative S. 1 Κίΐμαι κε'ωμαι, κε'τ|, εκείμην 2 Κ€Ϊ(Γαι κε'ηται, etc. εκεισ-ο 3 κίΐται εκείτο, D.2 3 P. 1 Κ€Ϊ(Γθθν Κ€Ϊ(Γθθν Κ€ίμεθα Optative. κεοίμην, κε'οιο, κε'οιτο, etc. εκεκτθον ίκείσθην έκείμεθα 2 Κίΐσ-θί Imperative. εκεισ-θε 3 κείνται κεΐσο, κείσ-θω, etc. εκειντο Infinitive Participle κίίσθαι (so also in composition : κείμενο? κατακεΐσθα, contrary to § 184) The future is κείσομαι, etc., regular. 265. '^Ημ,αι (ησ-) sit retains the σ of its stem only before the endings -tul and -το. It is found only in the present system : Present Imperfect Indicative Indicative ή-μαι, TJcrai, ή(Γ-ται ; ήσθον, ήσθον ή'-μην, ησο, η<Γ-το ή μέθα, ήσ-θε, ή-νται ήσθον, ήσ-θην Imperative Infinitive Participle ή-μεθα, ήσθε, ή-ντο TJO"0, ήσθω, etc. ήσ•θαι η-μενοδ The subjunctive and optative of the simple verb are not found 264 a. Homer has pres. indie. 3d plur. κείνται, κ-εαται (§ 1G7 d), κείαται, κέονται ] impf. 3d j^lur. εκειντο, κέατο (§ 1(37 d), κείατο ; subj. 3d sing, κηται, iterative 3d sing. (§ 191 b) έκέ-σκετο. b. Herodotus usually has -ee- for ei- in the 3d sing. (Keerai); sometimes perhaps in εκείτο, κεΐσθαι {έκθετο, κέεσθαι). He always has κτάται (= κείνται) and ίκέατο (= εκειντο). See § 1G7 d. 265 a. For the 3d plur. Homer has ηαται (ε'ΐαται in some editions), εαται. and ηατο (εΐατο in some editions), ίατο (Attic -ηνται, ηντο). He- rodotus always has εαται, 'έατο. See § 167 d. IRREGULAR VERBS IN -μι 157 1. For ημαί, Attic almost always uses the compound κάθ-ημαι (properly sit down), which loses the σ of its stem everywhere except in the form καθήστο of the imperfect. It is inflected as follows : Present Indicative S. 1 κάθημαι 2 κάθησαι 3 κάθηται D. 2 κάθησ-θον 3 κάθησθον καθήμεθα κάθησθί κάθηνται Infinitive καθήσΌαι Subjunctive καθώμαι, καθη, καθήται, etc. Optative. καθοίμην, καθοΐο, καθοΐτο, etc. Imperative. κάθησ-ο. καθήσθω, etc. Participle καθήμ€νος BlPERFECT Indicative Ικαθήμην or καθήμην Ικάθησο €κάθητο €κάθησθον ίκαθήσθην ίκαθήμεθα ίκάθησθί ίκάθηντο καθήσο καθήστο καθήσ-θον καθήσθην καθήμεθα καθήσ-θί καθήντο For the augment {έκαθήμ-ην) see § 17-4, 1. 266. "Ήμι (of. Latin a-io^ say, is used only in present 1st singular ημι and imperfect 1st and 3d singular ην, η (jjv δ' εγώ said I, η δ' ο? said he). 267. Χρή it is necessary is really a substantive with Avhich εστί is, is to be supplied (§ -308). Outside of the present indicative it unites (cf. § 13, note 2) Λvith the forms of εΙμί into a single word : so impf. χρήν (for χρη ην), and even Avith augment έχρήνΐ subj. xprj (for χρη fj)-, opt. χρβίη (for χρη εϊη); infin. χρήναί (for χρη elvai); partic. χρβών, indeclinable (for χρη 6v, § 17). FOKMATION OF WORDS 268. Words are formed in two ways : (1) by Derivation and (2) by Composition. 1. Derived words are formed by means of suffixes (which are not themselves separate words) either from roots or from the stems of other words. Thus, ^ίκ-η right (from the root δί /c-), Βίκα-ως just (from the stem 8ίκά-) are derived words. 2. Compound words are formed by combining two or more words or stems of words into one. Thus, ίΤΓττο-δα/αο? horse-tamer^ μβ'^ά-θνμο'ί great-hearted, are compound words. Of course derived words may be formed from stems of compound Λvords. Thus, οικοδομώ (-eca) build a house^ from οίκο-δόμος house-builder, is a derived word. DERIVATIVE WORDS 269. Primitive and Denominative Words. — A Primitive Word is formed directly from a root by means of a suffix ; a Denominative AVord is formed from the stem of a noun. Thus, ζνγ-ό-ν yoke is a primitive word, being formed from the root ζυ^- by means of the suffix -o-. From the stem 158 DERIVATIVE WORDS 159 of ζν^όν (^U70-) is formed the denominative verb ζν^ώ (-00)) i/oke, join together. XoTK. — Less correctly the terra Primitive AVord is sometimes applied to a ^γord formed by means of a siitfix from the theme of a verb. 270. Roots. — The root of a word, like the perfume of a flower, has no separate, tangible existence. It merely suggests the meaning of a word or group of words. Only when united with inflectional endings (and usually a snftix as well) does it receive definite form and meaning, and become a full-blown word. XoTE. — Roots consist usually of only one syllable. From roots stems are formed by means of sufBxes, and from stems words are formed by means of intlectional endings. (Very few words are formed directly from roots without any suffix.) Thus : Rooti^^^- Stems i^^^- Words ί ^7" "^^"'^• ( λογ- ( Aoyo- { λογοϊ speech 271. Word-Groups. — The same root often appears in many different words which are formed from it in various ways. Such words are commonly said to form a Word- Group. Thus, from the root ηραφ- are derived (directly or indirectly) ηράφ-ω marl•, ivrite, ηραμ-μη(ίον*ηραφ-μη, § 27, 1) ηραφ-η ivriting, line, 'γραφ-εύ'; jjainter, ^γράμ-μα letter, 'γραφ-ίς style, pencil, ^ραμ-μαΎ€ύ<ί clerk, secretary, 'γραφ-ίκός suited for writing ηραμ-ματβνω he secretary, or painting, ^ραμ-ματικη grammar, ηραμ-ματείον luriting tablet. 160 DERIVATIVE WORDS From the root οίκ- are derived (directly or indirectly) οΐκ-ος dwelling^ οίκ-βωτης relationship^ friend- οίκ-ίά house, ship, οίκ-ίον, οίκ-ίσκοζ, οίκ-ί8ίον οΙκ-€ΐώ (-οω) make one^s οινη, (diminutives, § 283} lit- οίκ-είωσίς snaking one''s own, tie house, appropriation, θίκ-€τη<ί house-slave (masc), οίκ-ώ (-ecw) dwell, οΙκ-€τΐ'ζ house-slave (fern.), οίκ-ητό^ inhabited, οΙκ-€Τίκό<; pertainitig to οΐκ-ησί<; habitation, house-slaves, οϊκ-ημα dwelling place, oiK-eio'i belonging to the οίκ-ήτωρ inhahitant, household, οίκ-ίζω colonize, οίκ-ίστή<ϊ colonist. These examples are enough to show the importance, for a ready understanding of Greek, of a thorough knowledge of derivation. 272. Changes of Roots in Derivation. — In the formation of words from roots, Greek has a very clear method of differentiation by means of the vowel variation (o, e, (a)), spoken of in § 14 : thus \έy-ω speak, λόγ-ο? speech ; λ€ΐ7Γ-ω leave, Χοιττ-ός left; στη,ύΒ-ω hasten, σττουδ-?] haste. See below, §§ 277, 1-3 and 28U, 1. 273. Changes of Stems in Derivation. — ΛΥΊιβη suffixes are added to stems the usual euphonic changes take place ; — that is, vowels thus brought together usually contract, and consonants, and consonants and vowels, undergo the changes described in §§ 25-39. Examples are: αρχαίο? old (for *ά/?χα-ιο-9), βασίΧάά. kingdom (for */3ασ4λ€υ-ιά, § 21), αλήθεια truth (for *άλ7;^€σ-ια, § 37), 6\ίμα eye (for *6τν-μα, § 27, 1). ό'ψί? look, vision (fen- *0Tr-at9, § 28), δικαστής judge (for *δίΛ:αδ-τ?;9, § 26), ελττ/ζω hope (for *€λ7Γίδ-ιω, § 39, 2). FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES 161 274. A uoun stem may vary its final vowel before the suffix, or, before a suffix begiuning• with a Λ•ο\νβ1, may drop it altogether (cf. § 44, 3): thus οίκί-της house-slave, from οίκος (stem οίκο-') house; ουράν-ιος heavenly, f rom r ουρανός (stem ούρανο-) heaven. Note. — Before a suffix beginning with a consonant the end vowel of a stein usually, but not always, has its long form (§ 13): thus ποιη-σις a making, ττοιώ (-ε'ω) make. 275. Formation by Analogy. — In Greek, as in other languages, many words were formed by analogy. Tlius, ΙτΓΤΓβύ-ω he a horseman is formed from ίτητεύ-ς horseman; but since /τγτγ- is common to more words {ΐτητ-ος, ίτητ-ικός, etc.) than is ίτητβυ-, the letters -ευω came to be felt as a sort of suffix, Λvhich formed ΙτΓττβνω from /τγτγ-, and so could be used to form other denominative verbs from various stems : thus δουΧ-βνω be a slave Q8ovXo-^ slave'), βουΧ-βύω jjlau (^βουΧή 2^lan), τταίΒ-βύω educate (τταΐ?, τταώ-ός child). In the formation of verbs analogy plays a great part, and the important verb endings of this sort are given in § 292. So also sometimes in the formation of nouns, endings such as -αίος and -eio^, for -α-ιο-ς and >e-io-9, formed by adding the suffix -ω- to a stem ending in a- or e- (eu-, εσ-) (see § 287, 5, 'Αθηναίος, οΙκεΙος, βασιΧβΐος), are used in similar fashion : thus σκοτ-αίος (^σκότος) dark, άνΒρ-βΐος (άνηρ, άνδρ-6ς) brave (for examples of such formations see §§283, 1; 284,1; 287,5). Formation of Substantives 276. A very few substantives are formed from roots without an}^ suffix : thus φΧόξ (φΧο^-') flame (φλβγ-ω burn). babbitt's ge. gram. — 11 162 DERIVATIVE WORDS 277. The following are the most important suffixes in the formation of substantives : 1. -0-. Masculine in -09 (agent) and -09, neuter in -ov. (Roots with the vowel variation o, e, (a) (§ 14), usually show o.) τροφ-0-ς nurse (τρίφ-ω nourish) ττομτΓ-ό-ζ escort {ττίμ-π-ω send, es- λογ-0 -s speech (λεγ-ω speak) corl) ipy-o-v work (ρίζω (ρ£γ-> ^py-t po-o-s si ream {pi -ω flow) § 38) do) ζvy-ό-v yoke (^ζevy-vvμι yoke) 2. -a-. Nominative in -a or -η ; all feminine. (Roots with the vowel variation o, e, (a) (§ 14), regularly show o.) τροφ-η nurture (τρίφ-ω nourish) φορ-ά hearinr/ (φΐρ-ω hear) λοι,β-Ύ) pouring (λίίβ-ω jjour) σπονΒ-ή haste (σττεΰδ-ω hasten) 3. -€σ-. Nominative in -09 (§ 106, 1): neuter. (Roots with the vowel variation o, e, (a) (§ 14), regularly show e.) yeV-os race (γιγνο/χαι (γον-, γεν-, ξευγ-ο? pair (ζ€vy-vΰμί (ζtvy-, yv-) he born) ζ'^Ύ') yc^^^ join) tlh-o'iform (οίδ-, £ΐδ-, ϊδ- see) evp-o-ixy] opinion (yi-yvui -σκω know) γραμ-μή line (γράφ-ω jnark, § -27, 1) 281. MEANS OK INSTRUMENT 1. -τρο-. Nominative in -τρον: neuter (cf. Latin claus- tru-ni^. άρο-τρον plow (άρω (-οω) plow) φίρΐ.-7ρον bier (φίρω carry) 282. QUALITY (abstract substantives) 1. -id-. Nominative in -id : feminine (ef. Latin wiewor-ia). This sufiix (cf. § 287, 5) is the one most frequently employed to form abstract sub- stantives. σοφ-ίά ivlsdom (σοφό-ς wise) παιδεία (for *παιδευ-ια, § 21) eil- ΐνδαίμον-ία hapjjiness (ίν^αίμων ucation (παιδευ-ω educate) happij) 2. -la-. Nominative in -m : feminine (mostly from adjec- tives in -T??). αΧηθίία {^αΧηθίσ-ια, % οΊ) truth evvoLa{ci.^\Q'i) good will {ζννονς (αληθής {αΧηθίσ-) true) icell-disposed) This suffix forms also a few concrete feminines corre- sponding to masculines : thus σωτΐ,ιρα (for *σωτερ-ια. § οΠ, 4) Lipeia{iov*Lf.pf.v-La,%'i\) priestess savior (fem.) (σω-τήρ sarior, (ίερ-εΰ-5 priest, § 278, 1) § 278, 2) 3. -τητ-. Nominative in -της : feminine (cf. Latin Veritas, -tdt-is}. ταχν-τηζ swiftness (ταχν-ς swift) veo -της youth (veo-? young) FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES 165 4. -συνα-. Nominative in -σννη : feminine. hiKaLo -σννη Justice (^6ίκαίο-ς σωφρο-σύνη discretion {σώφρων, just) discreet, § 34) 283. DIMINUTIVES (Often used as pet names.) 1. -10 (-ιδ-ίο-, -ap-io-, § 275). Nominative in -ων : neuter. παώ-ίο-ν τταιδ-άριο-ν little child ou<-l8lo-v little house (οΓκο-ϊ (παΖ? (-/Γαιδ-) child) house) 2. -ισκο-, -ισκα-. Nominative in -ίσκος (masc.) or -ίσκη (fem.). οίκ-ίσκο-ς little house (οΓκο-ς παιδ-ίσκο-ς little boy'\(Trai<; (παώ) /louse) παί8-ίσκη little girl j child) 284. PLACE (ok means) 1. -10-. From substantives in -τηρ (§ 278, 2, mostly obso- lete) and -€νς (§ 278, 1). Nominative in -τήριον and -elov (for ^-ev-Lov. § 21): neuter. Βίκαστηρ-ίο-ν courthouse (8ικασ- κονρ€Ϊον barber shop (κονρ-εν-ς τηρ (= 8ίκαστης) judge) barbel•) 8ΐσμωτηρ-ιο-ν prison (*8€σμω-τηρ ©ησΐΐον temple of Theseus (@ψ = 8ΐ.σμώτ-η<; j)risoner) σεν-ς Theseus) So, by analogy (see § 275), σημ-ΐΐον signal (cf. σήμα sign) μονσ-εΐον seat of the 7nus€s (cf. ^«.ΟΓσα 7nuse) 2. -ων-. Nominative in -ων: masculine (place only). άνδρ-ών men's room (άι>ηρ (άνδρ-) Ιττπ-ών stable (ΐτητο-ς horse) man) 166 DERIVATIVE WORDS 285. PATRONYMICS {descendant of) ί-ιδα-. Nominative in -ι'δ?;? : masculine. 1-ιδ-. Nominative in -t? : feminine. MASCULINE FEMININE Ύανταλ-ίΒψς son of Tantalus Τανταλ-ι'ς Αανΐί-ί8η-ς son of Danaus Δανα -ts Ϊ1ηλί-ί8η-ς (§ 21) son of Peleus ί -αδα-. Nominative in -άΒης : masculine. 1-αδ-. Nominative in -α? : feminine. from Τά^ταλο-ς from Δαναό-ς from Πτ/λευ-? MASCULINE FEMININE Βορ€-άΒψζ son of Boreas Bope-as ®€στί-ά8ης son of T/iestius Θεστι-άς from Bopca-s from ©eVrto-? 236. GENTILE OR PLACE NAMES -€υ-. Nominative in -eu? (cf. § 278, 1): masculine. -ιδ-. Nominative in -k (cf. § 285, 1): feminine. MASCULINE Meyap-ev-q a Megarian FEMININE Meyap-t5 (Μέγαρα Megara) -τα-. Nominative in -τψ (cf. § 278, 4): masculine. -τιδ-. Nominative in -τί? (cf. § 278, 4): feminine. MASCULINE Τεγεα-ττ;-? a Tegean FEMININE Tcyea-rt? (Teyea Tegea) Formation of Adjectives 287. The folloAving are the most important sultixes forming adjectives : 1. -υ-. Nominative in -νς, -ela, -v (§ 12-3) (from roots onh). η^-ν-ζ sweet (cf. rjB-opM am ταχ-ν-ς swift (cf. τάχ-ος swift- pleased) ness) FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES 167 2. -€σ-. Nominative in -7^9, -e? (§ 120) (mostl}^ compounds). σαφ-τ/ς clea?• (σαφ-) φ€ν8-ή<; false (cf. ι/ίεΰδ-ο/χαι lie) 3. -μον-. Nominative in -μων, -μον (§ 120). μνψμαίν mindful (cf. μί-μνϊ]σκω reintnd) 4. -0-. Nominative in -09, -a (-i/), -oi^ (§ 117). λοΐ7Γ-ό-5 remaining (cf. λειττ-ω (λοιπ-, XetTr-, λιπ-) leave) 5. -10-. Nominative in -io?, -la, -ioy (sometimes -io?, -ίοι», § 119). This is the most common adjective- suffix. ονράν-ιο-ζ heavenly (oupavo-s οΐκεΓος (for *ot/. ούτοί . . . άΧΧο'•; άΧΧα Xeyet these say one one thing, another another Xii. A. 2, 1, 15. PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE 320. A substantive used as a predicate (cf. §§ 326, 341) agrees in case (often also in number and gender, cf. § 317) with the Avord it describes : thus avepe^ eVre, ψίΧοί be men, my friends Ο 734. Δαρείο? βασιΧβνς ην Darius teas king, ή ττόΧίς . . . φρούριον κατέστη the city turned itself into a fortress Th. 7, 28. αύτον σατράττην ίττοίησβ he made him satrap Xn. A. 1, 1, 2. τούτοί? γ^ρώνταί Βορυφόροις these they use as body-guards Xn. Hier. 5, 3. XoTK. — Observe the ditference between the construction of the predicate substantive and that of the direct object (§ 329). Words meaning he, become, appear, choose, regard, name, and the like, can have a predicate substantive. PECULIARITIES IN THE MEANING OF SUBSTANTIVES 321. Collectives. — A collective substantive, while sin- gular in form, may really have a plural meaning (cf. § 315) : so (ή) ΐτΓΤΓος cavalry, Βήμος people, ττΧήθος mul- titude, etc. Ύροίάν eXovTS<; ^ Αρχείων στόΧος the Argives army (ivhich had) taken Troy Aesch. Ag. 577. 322. Abstract for Concrete. — An abstract substantive is often used with concrete meaning (Antonomasia) : thus μΐσο<ζ hateful thing (lit. hate), oXeOpo'i baneftd person 182 SYNTAX UF SUBSTANTIVES (lit. destruction')^ κήΖβυμ-α relative (lit. relations1dp~) ; so, by a similar process, τα οττΧα (lit. arms) = camp, l-^dve^i (lit. fish) = fish market^ etc. THE CASES 323. In earlier times Greek (or, at any rate, its parent language) possessed three other cases besides those in regu- lar classical use. These Avere : (1) Ablative (separation), (2) Instrumental (including accompaniment), and (3) Loca- tive (place where). The ablative has become one Avith the genitive, and the instrumental has been absorbed by tlie dative. Of the locative some traces still remain (see § 76, note), but most of its forms and functions have been absorbed by the dative. 324. The Greeks had a keen sense of the finer shades of meaning conveyed by the different cases, and did not hesitate to use different constructions with the same word : thus uKovetv Xoyov to hear a speech (§ 356), aicoveiv Xoyov to hear (the Avhole of) a speech (§ 356 note 1), (iKoveiv λόγω to hearken (i.e. be obedient) to a speech (§ 376). 1. Often a combination of words may demand the use of a certain case which no one of them alone could command : as βμαυττ) 8ia \ο^ων άφΐκόμην (^^ βμαυττ} Bi- έλβχθην) I have held converse with myself (lit. come thronr/h words with myself) E. 3Ied. 872. 2. So verbs compounded with a preposition are tliereby (either Avith the help of the preposition alone, or from tlie general meaning of the compound) enabled to take a case which the simple verb could not command. (See §§ 345, 370, and 394.) THE NOMINATIVE CASE 183 3. For practical purposes it becomes necessary to clas- sify these various usages, and in the following pages the various uses of the cases are given in detail, but in the use of the cases, as elsewhere, analogy is at ΛΛ'ork, and it must be remembered that not ever}' use of a case can be put into the grammatical pigeon holes here provided. (As a rule, only the general principles are here stated, and the exact usage with any particular word is always to be learned from the lexicons.) THE NOMINATIVE 325. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case : thus ησθένβι Adpelo^ Darius was iU, όστις άφί- κνοΐτο whosoever came, μηδείς νομισάτω let nobody think. 326. A noun in the predicate (§ 320) agreeing with the subject of a finite verb is also in the nominative case : thus KO/309 βασι\€νς ην Cyrus ivas king. XoTE. — The nominative is not infrequently used in address and exclamations where we might expect the ΛΌcative : thus Ztv πάτβρ 'He'Atos θ\ OS πάντ εφορα? Father Zeus and the Sun loho looJcest on all things Γ 277, Κλέαρχε και Πρόξενε και οί άλλοι οί τταρόντε? "Ελληνας Clearchus, Proxenus, and you other Greeks here present Xn. A. 1, δ, 16, OvTos, TL ττάσχει? Here you, ichat's the matter? Ar. V. 1, '^,χί.τλιο^ hard of heart ! Ε 408. THE \^OCATIVE 327. The person (or thing) addressed stands in the vocative case, often preceded by ώ: thus άνθρωττβ, τι ττοίβΐς man, what are you doing? Xn. Cy. 2, 2, 7. ω άνΒρβς Αθηναίοι men of Athens. (Cf. § 326, note.) 184 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE THE ACCUSATIVE 328. The function of tlie Accusative is to modify closely and directly the meaning of the verb. DIRECT OBJECT 329. The direct object of a transitive verb stands in the accusative case : thus τον avSpa ορώ I see the man Xn. A. 1, 8, 26. 1. Many verbs which are transitive in Greek have no transitive equivalent in English. The following are note- worthy : ομννναι τους θβονς to swear hi/ the (/ods, \av- θάνβιν TLva to esca^ye the notice of anyhodij^ αΙΒβΐσθαί or αίσχϋνεσθαί nva to feel ashamed before anyhody. 2. On the other hand, many Greek intransitive ver])s Avhich are followed by a genitive or dative can be rendered into English by transitive verbs. See §§ 356 and 376. 330. Circumlocutions equivalent to a transitive verb may, of course, take an object in the accusative (cf. § 32-1:, 1) : thus βτΓίστημ,ονβς ήσαν τα προσήκοντα they under- stood their duties Xn. Cy. 3, 3, 9. σννθήκάς €ξαρνο<; jiyveTat he denies the agreement Dem. 23, 171. βστυ . . . τα μβτβωρα φροντιστής he is a student of things above PL Ajj. 18 b. So the verbs λέγω say and ττοιώ (-εω) do, Avith the help of an adverb or cognate accusative (§ 331), are enabled to take a direct object of the person : as eu or κακώς Xejeiv Tiva to speak good or ill of anybody (cf. § 340). THE COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 331. In Greek, almost any verb, intransitive or ti-ansi- tive, may be followed by an accusative of kindred meaning with the verb, to define it more closely: thus Βρόμον THE COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 185 Βραμβΐν to run a race^ άρίστην βουΧην βουΧεύειν to plan the best j^^i^n, I 74, ηύτύχ7)σαν τούτο το εύτύγ^ημα tliey had this good luck Xn. A. .6, 3, G, συνέφνγε την φνγην ταύτην he had his share in this banishment PL Aj). 21 a. 332. Circumlocutions equivalent to a verb may, of course, take a cognate accusative (cf. § 330) : thus σοφός ων την βκβίνων σοφίάν being wise in their unsdom PI. Ap. 22 e. 333. The Greeks AA^ere very fond of the construction of the cognate accusative, and used it with astonishing free- dom. Often the kindred meaning of the accusative is only implied in the verb. The following examples will serve better than explanation to make the matter clear : ζώ βίον μοχθηροί' I live a grievous life S. ΈΙ. 599. αττο- λωλβ κακόν μόρο ν he has jje^'ished (%) an evil fate, a 166. ή^ωνίζοντο . . . στά8ίον they competed in foot-racing Xn. A. 1, 8, 27. τα Ay /cat α βθϋσβ he celebrated by sacrifice the Lycaean (festival) Xn. A. 1, 2, 10. So βΧκος ούτάσαι to make a loound^ oSbv ττορβύβσθαι, to make a journey, Trkeiv θ άΧατταν to sail the sea, έξεΧαννει . . . σταθμούς τρεις he marches three days' journey, ττΰρ irvelv to breathe {forth) fire, TTV ρ . . . ΒβΒορκώς looking fire τ 4:4:C). η βουΧη . . . €βΧεψ€ νάττυ the Senate looked mustard Ar. Eq. 631. ^βίνός εΙμί ταύτην την τέχνη ν Ι am clever at this business (cf. § 330) Xn. Cy. 8, 4, 18. 334. A neuter adjective or pronoun is often used as a cognate accusative, since the substantive with which it would agree is already implied in the verb: thus ούΒεν ψβύΒβται he''s telling no lie (i.e. ovSev ψβΰΒος ψεύΒεται) Ar. Ach. 561. τούτο ηρώτά he asked this question (i.e. τούτο TO ερώτημα), μβ^άΧα ώφεΧβΐν to help greatly, τι 186 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE -χρήσβται, αύτω ivhat use will he make of him Ar. Ach. 935. τι κατάκ€ίμαί ; ivhy am I lying doivn? Xn. A. 3, 1, 13. 335. Accusative of the Part Affected. — Closely allied with the cognate accusative is the accusative of the Part Affected, found mostly with passive and intransitive verbs (see § 335 a) : thus βββληαί κ eve ων a you are hit in the belly Ε 281. τα<ί φ ρ ένας vytaiveiv to be sound in mind Hdt. 3, 33. aXjetv τους ττόΒας to have gout Xn. Mem. 1, 6, 6. τι TO Be ρ μ' eVa^e? tvhaC s the matter with your hide ? (lit. what have you experienced in your shin .^} Ar. Pax 746. 336. Adverbial Uses of the Accusative. — From the free use in Greek of tlie cognate accusative (§ 333), there have arisen several adverbial uses of the accusative : thus την ταχ^ίστην (sc. 686v) the shortest ivay (originally Avith a verb of motion), τούτον τον τρόττον in this manner, χ(^ρΐ-ν for the sake of (originally an accusative in apposition with a sentence, § 318; e.g. Ιμην χ^άριν for my sake^, Βίκην in the fashion of like (e.g. ττώΧου Βίκην like a coif), ού . . . αρχήν not at all (i.e. not (to make) even the begin- ning), μ^Ύα (/Λβγαλα) greatly, το iroXv (τα ττολλα) for the most part, ττρώτον at first, irpoTepov formerly, το Χοιττόν for the future, τβΧος finally, and a good many others whose 335 a. " Whole and Part " Construction'. — In Homer (and some- tiiKeg also in other poets), an accusative of the part affected often follows an accusative of the direct object : as rbv δ' άορι πλη^' αυχένα him. loith his sword, he smote (in) the neck Λ 240. η σε πόδα! vlxj/et she situll tvash (for) you your feet τ 356. This construction is often explained as "partitive apposition," but, since the word denoting the part appears in the corresf)onding passive construction in the accusative case (while the other accusative becomes a nominative, § 511), it can hardly be an appositive (see § 512). THE COGNATE ACCUSATIVE l87 meanings will readily suggest themselves. Here belong also the comparative and superlative of adverbs in -ω> (§ 138). 337. Accusative of Specification. — The accusative case of certain much used words like όνομα name, ΰψος height, evpof width, μβ^εθος size (perhaps originally cognate), very early came to be felt as adverbial, and soon other accusa- tives came to be used in the same way : thus ττοταμος Kv8vo<{ όνομα, βΰρος Βύο ττΧέθρων a river, Cydnus by name, tivo plethra in ividtJi Xn. A. 1, 2, 23. ττόδα? ωκυ<ζ Άχίλλεύ? Achilles sivift of foot, Hm. τυφλός τά τ ωτα τόν re νουν τά τ ομματ' el blind in ears, and mind, and eyes, art thou, S. O.T. 371. 338. Accusative of Extent. — The accusative (modifying a verb) is used to denote the extent of time or space : thus βμβίνβν η μ^ράς nrevTe he remained five days Xn. A. 1, 2, 11. άτΓβχ^βι η ΪΙΧάταια των &ηβών στ αδ ί ους ββΒομή- κοντα Plataea is seventy stades from Thebes Th. 2, 5. Note. — Many accusatives denoting extent can readily be seen to be cognate: thus i$e\avvei σταθμον•» τρ€Ϊς he marches (a march of) three days' journey Xn. .4. 1, 2, 5. Ιβίω ετη e$ και ivivyJKovra he lived (a life of) ninety-six years, Isaeus 6, 18. From such verbs as these the usage came to be extended to other verbs. 339. Accusative of Limit of Motion. — The limit of mo- tion in Greek is expressed by the accusative (in prose regularly with the help of a preposition) : thus e^eXauvei, . . . e/j the other icall I 210. έστίάί μΐσομφάλου €στ7}κΐν ηδη μήλα. alreadij Stand the victims at f'arth''s central shrine Aesch. Ag. 1056. b. In Homer (and sometimes in other poets) the partitive genitive of place is occasionally found with adjectives: as ενάντιοι ίσταν 'Αχαιών they took their stand over against the Achaeans A 214. More commonly such words are found with a dative (§§ 370 and 302). THE ABLATIVE GENITIVE 197 μοϋ (in some part of the space) across the river, ττΧησίον του Ββσμωτηρίου (in some part of the space) 7iear the prison, etc. Here belong also the adverbs in -ου like ττοΟ, ούΒαμοΰ., etc. (§ l:J7, 1). 359. (Partitive) Genitive of Time. — The genitive is used to denote the time within some part of which an action takes place : thus βασί\€ύ<ζ ου μαχβίται δέκα ημβρών the king ιυϊΙΙ not fight (at any time) within ten days Xn. A. 1, 7, 18 : so frequently ήμβρω; hy day, νυκτός by night, χ^€ΐμώνα in the uinter, etc. 360. Partitive Genitive with Adverbs. — Adverbs of place and time (rarely others) may be used with a parti- tive genitive (see §§ 358, 359) : thus πού yf]ecause of) llicft. On the other baud a genitive like θανάτου in θανάτου τΤμώμαί I set the penalty at death (and so by exteusion, θανάτου Kplvtiv to try for a capital crime) is almost certainly in origin a genitive of value (§ οϋ")). PARTICULAR USES OF THE GENITIVE 368. Two or More Genitives with One Word. — It may happen that more than one genitive limits the same word : thus των Ιώνων την ηΎεμονίην τον ττρος Adpetov ττ ο\€μου the leadership of the lonians in the //ver against Darius FIdt. 6, 2. PARTICULAR USES OF THE GENITIVE 201 369. The Genitive Absolute. — Λ substantive and modi- fying participle having• no grammatical connection with the rest of a sentence stand in the Genitive Absolute (see § 657). Note. — Xo doubt the Genitive Absolute (like the Accusative Abso- lute, § 343) arose from the gradual loosening of the grammatical connection of a limiting genitive and participle, until such a genitive came to be felt as an independent construction. Thus, in sentences like ov8e τι /^ί^χο? pe^^evros κακόν ίστ άκο^ ΐνρεμζν and no way is there In devise a cure for evil done (objective genitive, § 350) I "250, or ώς δ' ore καττνο^ Ιών ίΐς ovpavov eipw ικηται α.στεο<ί αίθομίνοιο as ivhen smoke rises and reaches to the broad hearens — (the smoke) of a burning cili/ (descriptive genitive, § 352) Φ 523, the genitives came to be felt as independent constructions, and to mean "evil having been done," "a city being onfre." 370. Genitive with Compound Verbs. — Many verbs com- pounded Avith prepositions which can be used with the genitive, are thus enabled to take a genitive Avhich, unaided, they could not command (§ 324, 2): thus βκβαιν άτηίνης (= βαΐν εξ άττήνης^ § 398, note 1) step fortli from the chariot Aesch. Ag. 906. ττροδραμόντβς . . . των όττΧΙτων running in advance of the hoplites (^^S98, note 1) Xn. A. 5, 2, 4. ηττείρου €7ΓίβΡ]ναί to set foot on land (= βψmL iiT rjireipou, § 408, 1) e 399. Especially κατά in the sense of against (cf. § 409, 1 B): τούτου SetXiap καταψηφιζξσθαι, {=^ψ•ηφίζ€σθα(, SeiXiav κατά τούτου^ to vote coivardice against this man (i.e. to condemn him for cowardice) Lys. 14, 11. κατεβόων των 'Αθηναίων they cried out against (i.e. decried) the Athenians Th. 1, 67. So κατη'^ορώ(^-ίω') accuse^ and similar words (cf. § 409, 1^). Note. — Observe that the genitive with compound verbs may be either a True Genitive (§ 348 ff.), or an Ablative Genitive (§ 361). 202 THE DATIVE CASE 371. Prepositions with the Genitive. — The use of the Partitive Genitive (of Phice or Time, §§ 358, 359) and tlie Genitive of Separation ( § 362) or Source (§ 365) is often made more clear and definite by the help of prepo- sitions (see § 398). The prepositions αντί instead of, αϊτό from, έξ out of\ irpo before, and almost all " improper " prepositions (§ 418) are used with the genitive only. Other prepositions used sometimes with the genitive are άμφί about, 8ίά throui/h, κατά doicn, μβτά tcith, virep above, iiri upon, τταρά beside, irepi around, ττρός by, at, υττό under. For the details of their use see §§ 400-417. 372. The Genitive of Agent. — The Agent with passive verl)s (§ 516) is regularly expressed by the genitive with υττό under, by, sometimes Avith ττ^οό? or τταρά at the hands of, less often by βκ or άττό from. THE DATIVE 373. The dative in Greek inherits most of the functions of three earlier distinct cases (see § 323) : the True Dative (§ 374), the Locative (§ 383), and the Instrumental (§ 386). A. THE TRUE DATIVE 374. The True Dative (which belongs properly with verbs or expressions equivalent to a \'erb) in general de- notes that to or/or which anything is or is done. (Hence words denoting ^ii-^'soH-s are more likely to stand in the dative than those denoting things.^ Some Avords and phrases require a dative to complete their meaning; to others a dative may be added at pleasure. THE TRUE DATIVE 203 DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT 375. The Indirect Object stands in the dative case : thus Χυβννβσις e'Sw/ce Κέρω -χ^ρήματα ττολλα Si/ennesis gave (to) Cyrus a great deal of money Xn. A. 1, 2, 27. βκβίνω αΰτη η χώρα . . . ίΖύθη to him this country had been given Xn. Hell. 3, 1, G. τω Α.σ κ\ηττ ιω οφείΧομεν ά\€κτρυόνα We oive a cock to Asclepiu.^ PI. Phaed. 118 a. θβοΐσι Be χεΐ- pa<; άΐ'βσχον and to the gods they lifted up their Itaiids Γ 318. 376. Man}• \erbs, and circumlocutions equivalent to a Λ"erb (cf. § 330), normall}' require a dative (of the indirect object) to complete their meaning: thus τοΐ'^ νόμοις ττείθονται they are obedient to the laics Xn. 3Iem. 4, 4, 15. €νανμύ'χ^€ον άνηκουστησαντ€<; τοίσι στ ρατη^οΐσι they fought, ί)ί disobedience to (the orders of) the generals Hdt. 6, 14, εττίστενον αύτω αϊ ττόλεί? the cities had confidence in him Xn. A. 1, 9, 8. τω γ^ρηστη ρίω ττίσυνος iaiv being confident in the oracle Hdt. 1, 73. ώρ^ίζοντο ισχυρώς τω ΚΧβάρχω they were mightily angry at Cle- arehus Xn. A. 1, 5, 11. eVoXe/iet τοις θραξί he ivaged war with the Thracians Xn. A. 2, 6, 5. βασιΧεΐ φίΧους elvaL to he friends to the king Xn. A. 2, 1, 20. ού μη Βυσμβ- νης €στ] φίΧοίς surely you will not be hostile to your friends E. Med. 1151. et τοΙς ττΧέοσι αρίσκοντίς eV/ier, τοΐσδ' αν μόνοις ουκ ορθώς άτταρεσκοίμβν if we are in favor with (lit. pleasing to) the majority, we could not by any rigid be in di-favor ivith these alone Th. 1, 38. τι ουν irpeireL uvhpl τΓβνητί ; now what is suitable for a poor man ? PI. Ap. 36 d. In general, verl)s (and verbal expressions) meaning please, proft, trust, aid, befit, ohei/, and their opposites (many of which are rendered in English by transitive verbs), require a dative to complete their meaning; but the exact usage with each word must be learned from the lexicons. 204 THE DATIVE CASE Note. — Only predicate adjectives regularly take a dative of the indirect object (since an attributive adjective commonly has the genitive, § 351 ) ; rarely such a dative is arrogated by an attributive adjective (or even by a substantive, § 3U.'J) : thus Αίολο? . . . φίλο? ύ^ανάτο ισι θίοίσιν Aeolus, dear to the iininorlal (jods κ 2. THE DATIVE OF INTEREST 377. A dative of the Person Interested may be added to almost any sentence. Note 1. — Observe that the dative often adds the idea of personal interest (Advantage or Disadvantage) to what might otherwise be expressed by a genitive. Thus, compare the following: Δαρείου και ϊίαρνσάτιΒος γίγνονται τταΓδες 8ΰο of Darius and Parysaiis iwo children were horn (§ 36.3) Xn. A. 1, 1, 1. ^ησαν Κροι'σω δύο τταΓδες Croesus icas blessed u'ith two cliildren (§ 37!)) Ildt. 1, 34:. Δαναών άτΓο λοιγόν ά/χΰναι to keep destruction aicay from the Dunaans Π 75. ΔαναοΓσι . . . λοιγον α/χϋνον relieve the Danaans of the pestilence A 45fj. So δε^ατό οί σκηπτρον he received the scepter at his hands Β 18G. Note 2. — It is convenient to subdivide the dative of Interest into " Advantage or Disadvantage " (§ 378), " Possession " (§ 379)•, " Agent " (§ 380), "Reference" (§ 382), and the "Ethical" dative (§ 381), but it must be remembered that no hard and fast lines can be drawn between these various uses (§ 324, 3). Thus, in δια /xevet In καΧ vvv TOis βασίλενσί η ττολυδωρια the custom of giving coytlg gifts lasts even to this day for the kings; the dative of Interest (βασιλενσι) may be explained as dative of Advantage, Possession, or Reference. 378. Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. — The dative of interest may imply Advanta,u:e or Disadvantaufe : thns ττα? άνηρ ah τ ω Travel evert/ man labors for MmseJf S. Aj. 1366. OL TO τΓαΎχρΰσον 8ερος YleXia μβτηΧθον who went to fetch the golden fleece for Pelias E. Med. 6. στβφαρον- σθαι ττάνταις τω θεω all to he erotvned in honor of the •0)η, aa-aij from (Latin ah). With the Οεχιτιλέ (of Separation or Source, §§ 362, 365) only : Place: από θαΧάσση'ί μάλλον ωκίσθησαν they were settled rather (at a distance) away from the sea Th. 1, 7. λνοντο δέ rtv^i άττ' ώ/χων and they stripped the armor from their shoulders Ρ 318. Wrjpivtv άπό Ιππον he used to hunt on horseback' (lit. from a horse, § o9S, note 3) Xn. A. 1, 2, 7. Time : άττό τούτου τον χρόνου from this time Xn. A. 7, 5. 8. Derived ^Meanings : of (remote) agency ττλουσιον γίγνεσθαι άπό της πόλεως to get rich from the state Dem. 24, 124. So, sometimes, in Thucydides : άπ' αυτών by them Th. 1, 17. In Composition: from, away from. 404. διά through (cf. Latin dis-). 1. With the Genitive (originally the Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358) through (some part of) : Place : efeXawet δια Καππαδοκίας he marched through Cappadocia Xn. .1. 1, 2, 20. Time : δίά νυκτός through the night Xn. .4. 4, 6, 22. Derived Meanings: δι' ΙτΙων είκοσι through (i.e. at the end of) twenty years Hdt. 6, IIS. Ιλεγε ... δι ίρμηνέο)'; he spoke through an interpreter Xn. ^4. 2, 3, 17. δια, ττολίμον αΰτοΓ? teVai to go through tear with them (i.e. to act in a hostile way towards them) ; so διά φίλιας ΐε'ναι to act iti friendly fashion Xn. A. S, 2, 8. δια χάρος t\eiv to hold through (the grasp of) one's hand (i.e. in one's power) Th. 2, 13. τον Κΰρον διά στόματος ίίχον they had (the name of) Cyrus on (lit. pass- ing through) their lips Xn. Cy. 1, 4, 25. διά τάχους through speed (i.e. speedily) Th. 2, 18. 2. With the Accusatia'E (of Extent, § 338) through, throughout, more often through in the sense of because of. Place and Time : βάν ρ' ι//.εν ...διά νύκτα /χελαιναν . . . δ ι ά τ εντεα και /χελαν αίμα they went on their iray through the dark night and through the weapons and the black blood Κ 2!)7. Cause: διά καύμα through (i.e. on account of) heat Xn. .4. 1, 7, 6. κακοί ^οκονμΐ,ν είναι διά τούτον we appear to be base through (i.e. because of) this man Xn. .4. 6. 6, 23. In Composition : through, also apai-t (cf. Latin dis-). 216 USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS 405. «Is (or €9, see § 405 a) itilo, to (for *ίνς : cf. § i~ and Latin in with the accusative). With the Accusative (of Limit of Motion, § 339) only: Place: ^ύβησαν es 2ικ€λι'αν theij croased orer into Sicily Th. 6, 2. So also with persons: ets υ/χαϊ dativai to come into the midst of you PI. Ap. 17 c. Ιλθα,ν eis Ά^ιλ^α to come into the presence of Achilles Ρ 709. Time : ττροπαν ημαρ i ? rjiXtov κατα8νντα 8αίννντ all day long till setting sun they feiiMed A COL e? c/xe to my time Ildt. 1, 92. ei<; την νστίραίαν ονχ ηκ€ν he didn't come the following day (§ 298, note 3). Derived Meanings: ei? τετρακόσιους up to the number of four hundred Xn. A. 3, 3, 6. £t5 ζωνην ΒεΒομέναι given for girdle-iuouey Xn. ^. 1, 4, 9. €5 τίλοζ f'lally (§ 298, note 3). Ix Composition : in, into, to. 406. «V in (Latin en-do, in). With the (Locative, § 384) Dath^e only: Place: ev ^πάρτΎ] m Sparta Th. 1, 128. iv ττολλτ; δ^ απορία ήσαν οί "Ελλην€<; the Greeks icere naturally in much perplexity Xn. .1. 3, 1, 2. ev ίμοί in me (i.e. in my power) Dem. 18, 193. ev τοι% φίλοις in (i.e. among) their friends Xn. A. δ, 4, 32. ev toTs οιτλοις in (i.e. under) arms Xn. A. i, 3, 7. Time: ev ττίντΐ. ημίραις in five days Xn. Mem. 3, 13, 5. ev ταΓ? στΓονδαΓϊ in (the time of) the truce Xn. ^4. 3, 1, 1. In Composition : in, on. 407. «I (before consonants €κ, § 47) out (f from. With the Genitive (of Separation or Source, §§ 3G2, 365) only: Place: e'/< Πύλου ελ^ών going out from Pylos A 2ti9. Time : Ik παιδο'ς from a child (i.e. since cliildhood) Xn. Q/• 5, 1, 2. €κ του αρίστου from breakfast (i.e. directly after breakfast) Xn. ^4. 4, 6,21. 405 a. In the earlier Attic prose es is more common than ei's ; Herodotus regularly uses ^s ; the poets use either form at pleasure. 406 a. Homeric and poetical forms are evi (the older form of iv, cf. ■προτί. § 414 a), and (possibly) etVi. USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS 217 Of Source: και yap τ ovap Ik Atos Ιστιν for a dreain^ too, is from Zeus A 03. So soiiietiines of the (remote) agent (§ 372) : ίκ βασίλΐω<; Βώομίναί gireii from (i.e. bv) the King Xn. ^. 1, 1, (J. Phrases: €κ δε^ια? on (\\t. from, § 398, note 3) t/ie right, Ik ττολλοΰ at (lit. from, § 398, note 3) a great distance, i$ 'ίσον on an equality. In Composition: out of, from, out. 408. «'"■i upon. 1. With the Genitive (Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358, or Time, § 359) upon (some part of) : Place: τταρελαυνων ίφ' αρματο<ϊ riding by (seated) on a chariot Xn. ^. 1, 2, 16. ετΓΐ τον ΐ,νωννμον (sc. κψω<;^ on the left wing Xn. A. 1, 8, 9. With words denoting motion, toward (some part. of), in the direction of: ainivai . . . εττι Ιωνι'α? to he going away toward Ionia Xn. .4. 2,1, 3. Time: iir' €ΐρηνη<ϊ in time of peace Β 797. iirl των ημίτίρων ττρο- γονων in the time of our forefathers Xn. Cy. 1, 6, 31. Derived Meanings: επ' όλιγωι/ τετα-γμίνοι drawn up a few deep Xn. .4.4, 8, 11. 2. With the (Locative, § 384) Dative upon, at (rarely perhaps with the True Dative (§ 374) toward, against), αντον μίμν iwl ττΰργω stay here upon the tower (i.e. at this jilace, cf. § 408, 1) Ζ 431. ίση . . . ^βασίλεια . . . evrt ταις ττηγαΐς τον Μαρσυου ττοταμοΐι there is a palace at the source (f the 3Iarsyas rirer Xn. J. 1, 2, 8. ίπ\ τη θαλάττγ] at the sea-shore Xn. τΐ. 1, 4, 1. Derived Meanings: iirl τω άδελφω in the power of his brother Xn. A. 1, 1, 4. TO iirl τοντω the thing (next) upon (i.e. immediately following) this PI. Ap. 27 b. επί τοντοΐζ . . . ομόσά^ having given an oath upon these terms Xn. A. 3, 2, 4. (So often εφ' ω, εφ' ώτε on con- dition that, § 596), ΐλαβον r^s ζώνη'; τον Όρόνταν εττί θανάτω they seized Orontas by the girdle upon (determination of) his death (i.e. as a sign of condemnation) Xn. A. 1, 6, 10. εττί τίνι μίγα φρονάζ ; on what do you pride yourself? Xn. Sym. 3, 8. In expressions like ώρσεν εττ' Άργείοισι he roused him against the Argives Μ 293, the dative seems to be in origin a True Dative (§ 374). 3. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 338) upon (or of Limit of Motion, § 339) toioard, οράων εττ άπείρονα πόντον gazing over the 218 USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS boundless deep A 350. -^λ^ε ^οας ΙττΙ νηα% he came to the swift ships A 12. CTTt τον ΐππον άναβάζ mounting upon his horse Xn. ^4. 1, 8, 3. €πί ^ασ6λ€ά teVai to he going toward (i.e. against) the king Xn. .4. 1, 3, 1. Ιζ^ρχονταΐ δέ εττι την θηράν and theij go forth to (i.e. for) the hu)it Xn. t'g. 1, l2, 11. eVt ττολυ /ο α great extent Th. 1, 0. In Composition : upon (after), ocer, against. 409. κατά down (opposed to am up). 1. With the Genitive: A. (of Sepai-ation, § Μ2) down from. Place: ωγοντο κατά των τΓ€τρων φερόμενοι theg ivere gone headlong down {from) the cliffs Xn. .4. 4, 7, 14. So κατ' άκρψ from the top down (i.e. completely) Ν 772. κατά νώτου in (lit. down from) the 7-ear Th. 4, 33. B. (Partitive Genitive of Place) down underneath some part of, down over some part of, {down) against a person (cf. § 370). κατά χθονοζ όμματα ττήξάς fixing his eyes upon (a part of) the ground Γ 217. κατά -γης opyvia<; γενέσθαι to he (buried) fathoms heneath (a part of) the earth Xn. A. 7, 1, 30. Derived Meanings: κατ εμαντον ερεΐν to he intending to speak against myself (cf . § 370) PI. Ap. 37 b. 2. With the ΑοουβΑτίΛΈ (of Extent, § 338) down over, down along (or of Limit of Motion, § 339), doion to. Place: κατά ρόον down stream Hdt. 2, Οβ. κατά πασαν την γην (down) along over the entire land Ildt. 3, 100. κατά γην και κατά θάλατταν along over (i.e. by) lantl and sen Xn. .4. 3, 2, 13. το καθ' αντοΰς the part along hi/ (i.e. opposite) themselves. Time: κατ' εκείνον τον χρόνον along (i.e. at) that time Th. 1. 139 oi κα^' ημάς those along (at) our time (i.e. our contemporaries). Derived ^Meanings : κατά πρηέιν on husiness y 72. κατά φιλίάν for friendship Th. 1, 60. κατά τον αυτόν τρόττον according to the same fashion Xn. Cy. 8, 2, .5. κατά κράτος down to (the limit of) strength (i.e. at full speed: cf. ανά κράτος. §401) Xn. A. 1, 8, 19. κατά τον νόμον according to laiv Xn. Hell. 1, 7, 5. In Comtosition : down, against (cf. § 370). USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS 219 410. μ«τά amid, among (and so often close to, close upon). 1. ^^ΊτII THE (Partitive, § 354) Genitive (probably originally of Place) among, in coinpang willi : μίτα. Βοιωτών €μάχοντο ikeg fought among the Boeotians Ν 7(•0. KOLvfj /xera σον in common along with ijou PI. Crit. 46 d. μετά ττολλών ^ιικρνων amid (i.e. witli) many tears PI. Ap. 34 c. 2. With the Accusative (of Limit of Motion, § 339) into the midst of, and so, more frequently, close upon, close after, after: ΐκοντο μ. era. Τρώας καΐ 'Αχαιούς the;/ came into the nndst of the Trojans and the Achaeans Γ 264. βη δε μετ' άλλους and he went among (i.e. close after, in pm'Suit of) others A 292. κάλλιστος μΐ,τα Πτ^λειωνα most beautiful next (after) Peleus' son Β 674. So often μίτα ταντα (close) after this. In Composition: >cilh (of sharing), among, after (in quest of). Often it denotes change (of state or position) : as /Αετα^αίνω go to a new place, μετανοώ (-ε'ω) change one's mind, repent. 411. τταρά beside. 1. With the Genitive (of Separation, § 362, or Source, § o6.'3) from beside, from the side of: τταρά δε βασιλέως ττολλοι ττροζ Krpov αττηλθον from beside the king manij came away to Cyrus Xn. ^. 1, 9, 29. φάσγανον ό$υ Ιρνσσάμενο% πάρα. μηρον drawing his sharp sivord from beside his thigh A 190. τταρ' Αιγυπτίων μίμαθηκεναι to have learned from the Egyptians Hdt. 2, 104. So of the remote agent (§ 372) : τταρά -πάντων ομολογείται it is agreed on the part of all Xn. .4. 1, 9, 1. 2. AViTH the (Locative. § 384) Dative at the side of at, with. Place: ημίνη . . . τταρ a ττατρι γψονη sitting beside her aged father A 358. τά πάρα θαλάττη χωρία the places beside the sea Xu. ^4. 7, Derived Meanings: εστραττ^γει πάρα Κίρω he icas general beside (i.e. under) Cyrus Xn. ^4. 1, 4, 3. 410 a. In Epic (and rarely in other) poetry μετά is found with the (Locative. § 384) dative : as θώ% εσκε με τ' αν5ράσι he was a god among men Ω 2ό8. 220 USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS 3. AViTn THE AccrsATivE : A. (of Limit of Motion, § 3;39) to the i before (Latin pro-). With the Genitive (of Separation, § 362) only: Place : ττρό των πυλών out in front of the gates Xn. Hell. 2, 4, 34. Time: προ της μάχης before the battle Xn. A. 1, 7, 13. Derived Meanings: ττρο ϋμων ά-γρνττνησαντα ivatching in j/our be- half (i.e. in front of vou as a protection), τον δε ττρο δέκα ρ,νών ίλοίμην αν another Γ would choose rather than ten minue Xn. Mem. 2, .5, 3. In Composition : before (so sometimes in defense of ), forward, forth. 414. irpos at, bi/, toward (properly in front of). 1. AViTH THE Οενιτιλέ (the Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358) in front o/ (some part of), toicard, over against: το προς εσπερά? τ€Ϊχος the wall in front of (i.e. toward) the west Xn. Hell. 4, 4, 18. τα υποζύγια έχοντες προς τον ποταμού with the pack animals on the side toward the river Xn. .4. 2. 2. 4. προς των Καρδοΰ;^ων uvai to go in the direction of the Canluchi Xn. A. 4, 3, 26. So bj" extension προς πατρός on the father's side Hdt. 7, 99. ονκ ην προς τον Jii'pov τρόπον it teas not in keeping with Cyrus' character Xn. .4. 1, 2, 11. προς θίων in the sight of the gods, with words of swearing. So sometimes of the remote agent (§ 272): ομολογείται προς πάντων he is acknowledged on the part of all people Xn. .4. 1, 9, 20. (Some of these genitives may be explained as Genitives of Separation, § 362.) 414 a. Homer has also irporl (another form of πρό?) and ποτί = πρό?. 222 . USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS 2. With the (Locative, § 384) Dative at: τα δε^ιά τον κέρατος (.\ων προζ τω Ευφράττ] ττοταμω with the right of the iving (resting) on the Euphrates rirer Xn. .1. 1, 8, 4. So, figuratively, irpos τοντοί^ hei^ides this (as Xu. Cij. 1, 2, 8). 3. With the Accusative (of Limit of ^Motion, § 33Π) to, toward (properly to a position in front of) : Place: υποχώρησαν ττρό? τον λόφον they retreated toward the hill Th. 4, 44. τΓ/οό? βορραν toward the north Th. 6, 2. So often of persons: άρχονται ττρυς ήμας they come to us Xn. A. 5, 7, 20. ievai προς τους πολομίονς to go toward (i.e. against) the enemy Xn. ^4. 2, 6, 10. δια^άλλ£ΐ Κυρον προς τον ά8ε\φόν he slandered Cyrus to his brother Xn. ^4. 1, 1, 3. So often of feeling toward: άθϋμουσι προς την €$o8ov they feel discouraged in regard to the expedition Xn. A. 7, 1, 9. Derived Meanings : Often προς ταύτα in view of this, προς χάριν in view of favor (i.e. with a view to please), προς βίάν with (a vieΛV to) violence, etc. In Composition : to, toward, in addition. 415. ο"ύν (also ^υν, of. Lat. cum) with, in company loith ; see § 415 a. With the Dative (of Accompaniment, § 392) only: βασιλΐ,υς συν στρατίΰματι πολΧω προσέρχεται the King is advancing with a great army Xn. ^4. 1, 8, 1. συν θίοΊ,ς icith (the help of) the gods Xn. Cy. 6, 4, 19. συν τω νόμω (in accordance) with the law Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 17. In Composition: with, together. 416. ύ'Π'ί'ρ over (Latin super). 1. With the Genitive (Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358) over (some part of), above: υπ\ρ της κώμης γήλοφος ην above the village ivas a hill Xn. A. 1, 10, 12. στη δ' άρ' ίπ^ρ κεφαλής and it stood over his head (cf. § 358 a, 3d example) Β 20. Derived Meanings : From fighting over comes the derived meaning in behalf of, on account of. ττονεΐν νπϊρ σον to toil in behalf of you Xn. A. 7, 3, 31. υπέρ της ελενθερίάς νμας ενΒαιμονίζω Ι congratulate you on account of your freedom Xn. A. 1, 7, 3. (Later, sometimes, the meaning in behalf of comes to mean little more than about, concerning.) 415 a. The form ξύν occurs in the older Attic writers ; the poets use either form ; elsewhere σύν is regularly found. USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS 223 2. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 338) over, beyond: ν-π\ρ oi'Sov ζβήσίτο he stepped over the threshold η 135. τοΐ? ΰττέρ Έλλι/σ- τΓοντον oiKovat with those who dwell beyond the Hellespont Xu. .1. 1, 1, 9. virkp 8i'vu^LV beyond one's ability. In Compusitiox: over, beyond, in behalf of. 417. '"•"■ό under (Latin sub). 1. With the Gexitiae : .4. (of Separation, § 362) from under: νττ άτημ'ης ήμωνονς tXvov they loosed the mules from under the wagon η .'). Β. (Pal•titiΛ'e Genitive of Place, § 358) under. Place: under some part of, τά έττό y^s things under the earth PI. Ap. 18 b. $ίφί8ία νττ 6 μάλη<; ίχοντας ivith daggers under their arms Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 23. ννμφας . . . δαίδων ύ'ττο λαμπομενάων ηγίν€θν ανά αστν under (the light of) torches they were leading the brides through the city 2 492. Agent : from such examples as the last came the regular usage of vTTo with the genitive to denote the Agent (§ 372), i.e. the person (or thing) under whose influence an action takes place : τηίζόμζ,νοζ υπό των οίκοι άνηστασιωτών being hard pressed by his political opponents at home Xn. A. 1, 1, 10. £υ Ιπαθον νπ Ικίίνον I was well treated by him Xn. ^. 1, 3, 4. So not infrequently of things τταντελώ? αν ύττό λϊμον άττο- Χοίμίθα. ice should utterly perish by starvation Xu. ^. 2, 2, 11. 2. With the (Locative, § 384) Dative under, beneath. Place : εΓ;^ον δέ τα δρεττανα . . . ΰττό τοΓ? ^ίφροΐζ they had their scythes beneath the chariot boxes Xn. ^4. 1, 8, 10. υπό τη άκροττόλει at the foot of the acropolis Xn. ^. 1, 2, 8. Derived Meanings (chiefly poetic) : ot . . . υπό βασιλΰ ovre? those under the power of the King Xn. Cy. 8, 1, 6. έμω νττ 6 δονρΐ Βαμίντα subdued beneath my spear Ε 653. 3. With the Accusative : A. (of Limit of Motion, § 339) to a position under. Place : αυτόν άκοντίζζί τις τταλτω υπό τόν οφθαλμόν somebody hit him with a javelin under the eye Xn. ^4. 1, 8, 27. Time: νττ ο ννκτα toward (i.e. just before) night (cf. Latin sub noctem). 22-1 USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS B. (of Extent, § ;53S) along under. Place : ά.κρωνν}(ίάν opovs, υ φ ην η κατάβασίζ yv ets το πεδ/ον α spur of the mountain, along under ivhich loas the descent into the plain Xn. yl. 3, 4, 37. €v ταΐ? νπο το opohu-al (§ 495, note) she regularly uses the masculine form of the participle : tlius άρκουμ€ν ημ€.ΐ<; οί ττ ροθντ^σ κοντά σίθίν sufficient am I (i.e. Al- cestis) Η'Λο am dyiiu/ in i/our stead E. Ale. 383. 424. Adjectives Used Substantively. — The substantive which an adjective modifies is often omitted when it is a common word like man, woman., child, thing, land, road, day, hand, etc., Avhich can be readily understood. The adjective alone then acquires the force of a substantiate : thus 6 σοφός the wise man (sc. άνθρωττος), ή καΧή the beau- tiful woman (sc. ^υνή), αηαθόν a good thing (sc. ττραημα), οί τΓοΧΧοί the many (sc. ανθρωττοι), 6 Αάρβίου the son of Partus (sc. υιός'), ή Αγαμέμνονος the daughter of Agcmem- non fsc. θυ^άτηρ), τα της ττόΧεως the affairs of State (sc. ττραι^ματα), η εμαυτοΰ my own land (sc. 7^), την εττΐ Mey apa the road to Megara (sc. oSoV), την ταχίστην the shortest way (sc. oSoV), ttj ύστερα la on the folloiving day (sc. ήμερα), ttj Βεξια ivith the right hand (sc. χειρί). THE COiMPARATIVE DEGREE " 227 XoTK. — Numerous adjectives have come thus to be used regularly as sulistantives : thus ττατρι? fatherland (so. yrj), τριήρης trireme (sc. vavs), μουσική music (sc. τίχνη), ίσπίρα evening time (sc. ωρά), and many others. 425. Adjectives with Adverbial Force. — Sometimes in Greek (as is so frequent in Latin) an adjective modifying a substantive in a sentence may have the effect of modify- ing the predicate : thus χθιζο•; ββη he tvent yesterday (i.e. χθβς} A 424, evSov ττανννχίοί they slejjt all night long Β 2, τριταίοι άφΐκοντο they arrived on the third day Th. 1. 60, κατέβαιναν . . . σκοταΐοι they came doivn in darkness Xn. A. 4, 1, 10. THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE 426. The Comparative Degree denotes more than the positive : as σοφώτερος more u'ise or iciser. The compara- tive may be used absolutely, or the person or thing with Λνΐήϋΐι comparison is made may be expressed. 1. The comparative used absolutely means rather^ some- tvhat, and sometimes (by implication) too much : thus ης\οιότ€ρον rather amusing PI. Ap. 30 e. γείρουν rather bad (i.e. rascals), Lys. 16, 3. θάττον too quickly. 2. When the word wdth which comparison is made is expressed it stands either Avith η than, or else in the geni- tive case (§ 363): thus σοφώτερος η εγώ or σοφώτερος εμού wiser than I. Note 1. — When η is used after a comparative, the two objects compared regularly stand in the same case, unless the second is the sub- ject of a Λ -erb (expressed or understood) ; then it is in the nominative : thus φιλούσα αντον μάλλον η τον βασιλενοντα'Α ρταζερζην lov- ing Jiim more than (she did) the king Artaxerxes Xn. .i. 1, 1, 4. Ιττ avopas στρατενεσθΜ πολν άμύνονα'ζ rj ^κνθάζ to march against men mucli braver than Sci/thians ("than against Scythians") Hdt. 7, 10. Rarely a feeling that the second word is the subject of a \'erb 228 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES (expressed or understood) causes it to be put in the nominative : thus av8p6•8ί among those who put aside the wearing of the sword Th. 1, 6. ev τοί•; βαρντατ αν ΙνΙ-γκαιμι I should hear it most heavily among those (who would bear it heavily) Γ1. Crit. 43 c. 428. Strengthened Superlative. — The superlative may be strengthened by ώ? or on (_less often by ^, olo'event them from being distressed PL Crit. 43 c. τι βμτΓοδών μη ούχΙ . . . άττοθανείν ; what is to jjrevent (i.e. there is nothing to prevent) our being put to death? Xn. A. 3, 1, 13. Note. — Observe that the double sympathetic negative {μη ov, which is not to be rendered at all in English) is found only with an infinitive dependent on a (IouJ>bj negative expression ; elsewhere (see the last three examples under § 434) one of the negatives {μη) always retains its negative force. THE ADVEEB άν 436. The adverb av generally serΛ^es to give a tinge of indefiniteness to the clause in which it stands. It has no equivalent in English, and often cannot be translated. (For the sake of completeness a summary of its uses is here given.) 436 a. In epic poetry Ke (enclitic), an equivalent of dc, is also foiind. THE ADVERB αν 233 437. In independent clauses av is used with the putcn- tiiil optative (§ 563) and the potential indicative (§ 565). Notp:. — For the quasi independent use of av with the infinitive and participle not in indirect discourse see §§ 647 and 602. 438. In dependent clauses av is used regularly with the sul)junctive in conditional (§§ 604, 609) and relative (§§ 623, 625) clauses. Note. — Witli et, ore, όττότε, evret, or εττειδ»/, the adverb av unites to form €άν (rjv, av), όταν, όττόταν, έττήν or έττάν (Hdt. iireav), or επειδάν (cf. § 439, note 1). 439. In indirect discourse av is retained (even though the mode is changed) where it originally stood in the direct form, except when a dependent suhjunctive with av is changed to the optative after a secondary tense ; then av disappears. See §§ 670, 2 ; 673. XoTE 1. — Position of αν. — The adverb αν never stands at the beginning of its chiuse. It may stand next to the verb it modifies, or it may stand immediately after some other prominent word in the sentence (as regularly in relative and conditional clauses, § 438). Thus it may stand with the negative (^ονκ αν) or with any emphatic word (ττώ? αν, μάλιστ αν) or even with the principal verb instead of the subordinate one with which it really belongs: as συν νμΐν /xev av οΙμ.αί eivat τΙμίο<; icith )jou I think that I fihiiuld be honored (i.e. οΐμαι av etvat) Xn. A. 1, 3, 6. Note 2. — αν Repeated. — In a long sentence av is sometimes repeated: as O/xet? δ* ί'σω? τάχ αν άχθόμ€νοι . . . κρουσαντ€ζ αν μί . . . ραδί,ωϊ αν άττοκτίίνατί hut j/ou perliups might he vexed . . . and strike me . . . and easili/ kill me PI. Ap. 31 a. Note 3. — Verb Supplied. — Sometimes the verb with which αν belongs is to be supplied from the context : as δικαιω? /xev iv ολιγαρχικά Βίκην Βόντοζ . . . SiKaLw; 8^ αν iv δημοκρατία Justlij did he siijfer punish- ment at the time of an oligarch)/, and juMlij irould he have suffered (so. δο'ντοϊ) at the time of a democracy Lys. 12, 78. 234 CONJUNCTIONS CONJUNCTIONS 440. Conjunctions may be divided into two classes : Coordinate and Subordinate. (For " Postpositives " cf. § 452, note.) 441. Coordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses which stand in the same construction. The principal coordinate conjunctions are : και and (Latin ei), re and (Latin -que'), αλλά, ά,ταρ but (Latin sed), Se but (Latin autem'), ouSe (μηΖέ) nor, not even, η or, than, apa, accordingly, so then, yap for, ovv therefore, accordingly (including ουκουν therefore and οΰκουν therefore not), ώστε so that (§ 595), καΐ . . . και, or re . . . re, or re . . . καί both . . . and, e'ire . . . etre ivhether . . . or, ούτε (^μητε) . . . ούτε (μήτε) neither . . . nor (§ 431, 4), ή ... η either . . . or, μεν ... δε on the one hand . . . on the other. Note 1. — και often has the meaning also or even. The expression όίλλω? re και means especiallj/ (literally in other ivdi/s; and also . . .). The expression τ£ . . . και δ^ και means and particularly ; thus 8l Ιρημων re τόττων ■ . • άλλων καί δ^ καί υττο yrjv tJirough other desert places and, in particular, beneath the earth PL Phaed. 112 e. Note 2. — yap (=γε + α/ο) is often used (e.g. in wishes and in questions and answers) merely to show a close relation or sequence between clauses ; it is then often best rendered by why, why then, then, etc. The expression καί yap . . . may often be conveniently translated ^ yes, for' and άλλα γαρ . . . ^ no, for'' or ^hut enough, for.' 441 a. In Epic poetry re is freely used to indicate the connection of sentences and clauses where it cannot be rendered in English (it usually marks the sentence as general or indefinite) : thus o's κε Oeoh έπιπ(ίθηται, μάλα τ ΐκΚυον αύτοΰ lohosoever obeys the gods, him they most do hear A 218. The words oUs re able (lit. of such kind as to), ware so that, ^φ' φτε on condition that, are inasmuch as, are the survivals in Attic Greek of the Epic usage. b. Homer has also -ήμΐν . . . -ήδ^ (=•^ + μ^ν or δ^) noir . . . and now, and sometimes ήδέ without a preceding ήμέν (cf. δέ, § 441). c. Homer has also ανταρ (= drap) but ; and &p and pa (end.) = άρα. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE 0, ^, to 235 442. Subordinate conjunctions connect subordinate clauses with the chiuses on Avhich they depend. The following are the more important subordinate con- junctions (most of them are really relative adverbs): οτι that, because, ώς how, as, that, el, idv ( = et + aV) if, οττως how, as, in order that, ώστ€ so that, "va ivhere, in order that, ore, oTTore ivhen, since, ήνίκα, όττηνίκα at u'hich time, when, eirei, eTreihrj (= eTret + hrf) ivhen, since, eare until, έωα? αυτοί)? ■ημαρτηκόταζ you will find that you have made a mistake Xn. Hell. 1, 7, 19. XoTE 2. — The phu'als of the reflexive pronouns sometimes have the force of a reciprocal (§ 142) pronoun: thus -ημίν αΰτοΐ? 8ίαλ£$όμ€θα toe shall concerse ivith one another (lit. witli oursclces) [Dem.] 48, 0. 470 a. In Homer the personal pronouns alone are sometimes used reflexively ; more often the reflexive meaning is made clearer by the addi- tion of avTOs in agreement Avith the pronoun: thus ί-γών έμ^ λύσομαι I will ransom myself Κ .378. ek δ' αυτόν ίποτρννΐΐ μαχέσασθαι he rovses himself to battle Τ 171. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN αύτο? 245 472. The personal pronoun of the third person (οδ, ol, etc. ) is in Attic always used as an indirect reflexive (§ 471); rarely the personal pronouns of the first and second })ersons are so used : thus Xeyerat ΆττόΧΧων εκδεΐ- pat Μ.αρσύάν νικήσαν έρίζοντά οι ττβρί σοφίά<; Apollo is mid to have flayed Marsyas when he had outdone him in a con- test with himself m skill Xn. A. 1, 2, 8. So in the phrase hoKOi μοί I seem to myself. 473. The use of the reflexive pronouns may be made more emphatic by adding avro'i (§ 475, 2) in agreement with tlie subject : thus αύτοΙ ev avroh στασίάζοντ€ς being at variance among themselves Xn. Hell. 1, 5, 9 (cf. the similar use of ipse . . . se in Latin). THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN αύτό^ 474. Agreement. — The pronoun αύτό<; is used both sub- stantively and adjectively. When used as an adjective it follows the rules of agreement for adjectives (§ 420) ; when used as a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 475, 3) it follows the rules for agreement of such pronouns (§ 462). 475. Uses of αυτό?. — There are three different uses of αύτό^ as follows : — 1. As an adjective in the attributive (§ 451) position αύτο? means same : thus 6 αύτος άνήρ the sayne man., ταύτα (§ 43) the same things (sc. ττ/ιαγ/χατα) . 472 a. Homer uses eo, οΓ, etc., also as a direct reflexive ; when so used it regularly has written accent (§ 139, 2). 475, 1 a. In Homer αυτό? without the article may mean the same : thus αύτην οδόν the same road Κ 263. 246 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 2. As an adjective in tlie predicate position (§ 453), or without the article, αύτό<; means self {myself^ yourself^ him- self^ etc.): tlms αύτος 6 ανηρ or ό ανηρ αυτός the man himself, συ αυτός you yourself, etc. Note. — Frequently in the nominative case (less often in the other cases) the substantive is to be supplied from the context, so that αυτό? appears to stand alone meaning self, αυτό? re και ol σοι πρό- γονοι (you) yourself and your ancestors PI. Crit. 50 e. αυτόν έλίησον (sc. e/Ae from the context) pity me myself Ω 503. και ^ λθψαίοι ττάΧιν is δέ έΧώρια τ€ΰχ€ κϋνεσσιν and made themselves (i.e. their bodies, in contrast with their souls) a prey for dogs A 4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 247 POSSESSR^ PRONOUNS 476. Agreement. — A possessive pronoun is an adjec- tive, agreeing in gender, number, and case, with the word it modifies, but its stem conforms to the person and num- ber of its antecedent. Thus, in ό βμο<ί πατήρ my father^ έμός agrees Avith ττατηρ in gender, number, and case, but its stem έμο- corresponds with that of the pronoun of the first person singular. 477. An equivalent of the possessive pronoun often found is the genitive of the personal pronouns μου, σου, ημών, υμών (and for the third person αυτού, αύτψ, αυτών, § 468), always in the predicate position (§ 457, 1): tlius 6 ττατηρ μου my father, 6 άΒέλφος αύτοΰ his brother, 6 αδελ- φός αύτή<ί her brother. Note. — Since a possessive pvonouu is equivalent to a genitive case, a word in the genitive may stand in apposition (§ 317) to a possessive pronoun : thus δα^ρ αντ iμ6<; εσκε κυνώττιΒος my brother by marriage irasheaho — of shameless me Γ ISO. αυτών γαρ σφίτίργισιν ατασθα- λόϊ]σιν oXovTofor by their own perversity they perished a 7 (of. § 120, note). 478. The possessive pronouns (except 09 and σφβτβρος, which are always reflexive) may or may not refer to the subject of the sentence ; usually in referring to the subject the genitive of the reflexive pronouns (βμαυτου, σβαυτοΰ, βαυτοΰ, etc.), in the attributive (§ 457, 2) posi- tion, is used. This is the regular prose usage Avith tlie third person singular, since 09 is poetic oiuy : thus \iXeap- 477 a. In Ionic ev and σφ^ων may be used where Attic would use αύτοΰ, αΰτη$, or αΰτων (cf. § 468). 478 a. In Homer o's (eos) usually refers to the subject, but sometimes to a more prominent word in the sentence (cf. § 470) : as Ύόον'Έκτορα φ ένϊ οϊκψ they moiirned for Hector in his own house Ζ δΟΟ, 248 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS χο9 Toi)? αυτού στρατίώτά<ί ββίάζζτο levai Clearehus tried to force his own soldiers to proceed Xii. Λ. 1, 3, 1. 479. A possessive pronoun is sometimes made clearly reflexive by the addition of αυτός in the genitive case (of. § 477 note); in the singidar this usage is poetic only, but in the plural it is very common: thus βμον αντον Xpeio<; iny own need Β 45. kov αύτοΰ χρεία his own need a 409. Tot9 σοΐσίν αύτοΰ to your own (^friends) S. 0. R. 416. άτΓΟ τή<ί ήμβτέράς αυτών far from our own (land) Th. 6, 21. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 480. Agreement. — The demonstrative pronouns are used both adjectively (^ 420), as οΰτος 6 ανήρ this man, and substantiΛ^ely, as ούτος this (man), εκείνη that (woman), τάδε these (things) (cf. § 459). 481. Of the demonstrative pronouns ούτος this, that, is the most general in meaning, and is most frequently used. Ooe this (here) refers to something near the speaker ; εκείνος that (over there) refers to something remote : thus ούτος y Άτρεί8ης this man (of whom you ask) is Atreus' son Γ 178. "Εκτορος η 8ε ^υνη this (woman here) is Hector's wife 7i 4(30. ει κεΐνον . . . 18οίατο if they should see that man (i.e. Odysseus, who is now far away) a 163. For the predicate position of demonstrative pronouns see § 456. 482. Generally in referring backward (to something previously mentioned) ούτος (less often εκείνος) is used, while in referring forward (to something about to be mentioned) 68ε (sometimes ούτος) is employed : as τεκμή- RELATIVE PRONOUNS 249 ρων Be τούτου καΐ τ ο δε α proof of that (wliicli 1 have said) is also this (which I am now going to state) Xn. A. 1, 9, 29. So also τοωϋτος, τοσούτος, usually refer back, while TotoaSe and τοσόσΒβ usually refer forward. ΧυτΕ. — The demonstrative οδε is often equivalent to a possessive, or even a personal, pronoun of the first person ; this use is especially common in tragedy: thus σκηπτρω τυττει? εκ τησΒε )^ειρόζ strurk hy the staff held in this hdiul (of minf) S. 0. R. Sll. ννμφίυθάσα δέ παρ ά^'δpί τώδε hut wedded with this ni'in (i.e. with 7ne) E. Med. 1337. οδε Tot ττάρίίμι Here am I, Sir Hdt. 1, 115. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 483. Agreement. — A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent (§ 460) in gender and number, but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands : as ανηρ δ 9 ηΚθβν a man ivho came, ανηρ ο ν ξ,ϊΒομβν a man luhom we satv. 484. Attraction. — 1. A relative pronoun is often at- tracted (^ 316) into the case of its antecedent, especially from the accusative into the genitive or dative : thus ci^iot της i\eu9epid^ ης κβκτησθζ ■worthij of the freedom 'which you possess ( ?;?, if not attracted, woidd be ψ>) Xn. A. 1, 7, 3. el τω η'^βμόνί ττίστβνσομβν φ αν Κΰρος δίδω //' we intend to trust the guide that Cyrus gives (ω, if not attracted, would be ov) Xn. A. 1, 3, 16. 2. Much more rarely the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: as ττάντων ων Βέονταί ττβττρά- <γότες having accomplished everytMng that they need (for ττάντα ών) Xn. Hell. 1, 4, 2 (cf. in Latin urhem quam statuo vestra est Verg. Aen. 1, 573). 485. ** Incorporation." — The antecedent is often made a part of the relative clause (usually only when the ante- cedent is indefinite). Both relative and antecedent then 250 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS stand in tlie same case: thus άΒικβΐ Σωκράτης ους μβν ή ττόΧίζ νομίζβί θβον^ ον νομίζων Socrates commits an offense in not believing in the gods ivhich (or what gods) the State believes in Xn. 3Iem. 1, 1, 1. et? δε ην άφίκοντο κώμην με^άΧη ην the village at which they arrived tvas large (i.e. ή κώμη ek ην^ Xn. Λ. 4, 4, 2. et 8e τίνα 6ρωη . . . κατα- σκβνάζοντα η<; αργρι χώρα? if Ite saiv anyone iinproving the country he governed (i.e. την χωράν ης, § 484, 2) Xn. Λ. 1, 9, 19. τούτους κ αϊ άρχοντας eiroleL ης κατεστρεφβτο χώρας these he made rulers of the territory he sia)dued (i.e. της χώρας ην, § 484, 1) Xn. Α. 1, 9, 14. eiropeveTO συν η €Ϊχ€ 8υνάμ€ί he proceeded ivith lohat force he had (i.e. συν τη Βυνάμει ην, § 484, 1) Xn. ffell. 4, 1, 23. Observe that attraction into the genitive or into the dative (§ 484) usually takes place if either antecedent or relative would stand in one of those cases. Cf. in English " he gave to what persons he could." Note 1. — Here belongs the ijhrase oi;8eis οστι? ου (lit. nobodij icho . . . not =) every one, in which oiSet's is regularly attracted to the case of the relative (ουδενό? δτον ου, ov8evl δτω ον, etc.) : thus κλαι'ων Ktti άγανακτών ου 6 e να ovrtva ου κατ€κλασε Inj his iceepinq and wailincj he broke down the fortitude of everybody PI. Phaed. 117 d. So similarly θαυμαστός οσο? lit. ivonderfid how much, θαυμαστού όσου, etc. (adverbially θαυμαστως ώ$) : as /αετό. Ιδρωτος θαυμαστού δσου icith a wonderful amount of sweat ( = θαυμαστόν Ιστι μίθ" δσου) ΓΙ. Bep. 350 d. This attraction is sometimes (rarely) found with other adjectives. Note 2. — A peculiar attraction and condensation commonly takes place with oTos, δσος, οστισονν, and a few other relatives, by which both the relative and a following nominative are attracted to the case of the antecedent : thus χαριζόμ^νον οΓω σοι αν^ρί doing favor to a man like you (the full form would be τοιοντω οίος συ ei) Xn. Mem. 2, 9, 3. την δέ γυναίκα ^ΰρον δσην τ' δρεοξ κορυφην and his icife they found as huge as a mountain peak κ 113. Sometimes even with the ai'ticle : τοΓ? οΓοις ημΐν to such as we are Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 25. So often with superlatives (see § 428). RELATIVE PRONOUNS 251 486. Antecedent not Expressed. — An antecedent denot- ing the general idea of persons or things is seldom ex- pressed, since its gender, number, and case are usually made clear by the context : thus εγώ δε . . . καΐ ών εγώ κρατώ μβνοΰμεν but Ι and those (nom. plur. masc.) whoui I command ivill remain Xn. Cy. 5, 1, 26. ατν^ών μβν η μ' eTiKTev hating her (ace. sing, fem.) who bore one E. Ala. 338. elhevaL την Βύναμιν ε'φ' ov'i αν ϊωσίν to know the strength of those (gen. plur. masc.) against ivhom they are going Xn. A. 5, 1. 8. δεΐταί σου τημερον τούτον ifCTrceiv συν οΐς μάλιστα φίλε*? he desires you to drink this up to-day in company ivith those (dat. plur. masc.) whom' you most love (§ 484, 1) Xn. A. 1, 9, 25. So with relative adverbs : αξω νμά<; evOa το ττρά'γμα έ'^ενβτο I will conduct you to the place lohere the affair occurred Xn. Cy. 5, 4, 21. Cf. in English ''he gave to whom he could." XoTE. — Here belong the phrases Ιστιν 6στί<; (or ο?) . . . there is some one tcho (i.e. somebody), ίΐσΐν OL . . . there ai-e those who (i.e. some), but in other cases in the plural regularly Ιστιν ών, Ιστιν οίς, Ιστιν ους: thus €στι δ' οστίζ κατίΧηφθη and one man zcas taken off his guard Xn. Λ. 1, 8, 20. εισί δε ot λεγουσι and some (lit. there are those tcho) .tay Hdt. 3, 45. πλην 'Ιώνων και Ά;(αιών και εστίν ών άλλων €θνων except the lonians and Achaeans and some other nations Th. 3, 92. Rarely ην {ήσαν) is found : ^v δε τούτων των σταθμών ους ττάνυ μάκρους ηλαυν^ν some of these days' mnrches he made very long Xn. ^1. 1, 5, 7. So also with relative adverbs : εστίν ου (or οττου) . . . (lit. there is ivhere) somewhere, εστίν οττω? (lit. tliere is how) somehow, ^στιν οτί (lit. there is ichen) sometimes, etc. 487. Relative not Repeated. — In a compound (§ 312) relative sentence the relatiΛ^e (pronoun or adverb) is sel- dom repeated (cf. § 312, 1) Λvith tlie succeeding verbs : thus Άριαΐος δε', ο ν ημβΙ<ζ ηθέλομβν βασιλβά καθιστάναι, καΐ έδώκαμβν καΐ ελάβομβν ττιστά but Ariaeus. tchom we wished to make king and to whom toe gave and from whom ive 252 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS received pledges Xii. A. 3, 2, 5. elirev on ovSeu αντα μβΧοι . . . €7Γ€ί8ή ΤΓοΧΧού^ μβν ^ Κθηναίων ξίδβίη τοι)ς τα όμοια Ύτραττοντας αύτω, 8οκοΰντα δε Αυσάνδρω καΐ ΑακεΒαιμουίοίς XeyoL he said that he didn't care . . ., since he knew of many Athenians who were acting in concert with him and since what he proposed was agreeable to Lysander and the Spar- tans Lys. 12, 74. Note. — Preposition not Repeated. — A preposition belonging with botli antecedent and following relative is seldom repeated with the relative. 488. Use of Relatives. — The indefinite relatives (οστί<; ό•7Γοσο9, ότΓοΐος, etc.^ are regularly used when the antece- dent is indefinite, but the simple relatives (o?, 6σο<;, etc.) not infrequently refer to an indefinite antecedent; as ά μη οίδα ov8e οϊομα,ι elhevai, wliat(ever) I dont knotv I dont even think that I knoiv PL Ap. 21 d. Note. — Relatives in Exclamations. — Relatives (οΓος, οσο';, ojs) are sometimes used in exclamations : as ω ττάτητΐ, 'όσα ττράγματα €χεΐ5 hoio much trouble you hare, r/rnndpa ! (lit. so nnicli trouble as you hare ! of. § 485) Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 4. ως καλός μοι υ πάππος how handsome grandpa is ! Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 2. INTERROGATRHi PRONOUNS 489. Agreement. — The interrogative pronouns are used both substantively and adjectively (see § 402) : as rt? ivho? r Ld), ωμωξα lament (ed), and similar words. So also sometimes in impatient questions: as τί ovv . . . oi καΐ την δυνα /xtv lAc^a? μοί why don't you tell me (lit. tvliy didn't you tell me) about their force ? Xn. Cy. 2, 1, 4. THE FUTURE 269 SPECIAL MEANINGS OF THE AOUIST FROM THE CONTEXT 530. Gnomic Aorist. — From the context the aorist indicative may often be seen to express a general truth (" once true always, true "): thus τταθων 8e re νήττιος e^vw even a fool learns hy experience Hes. O.D. 218. ην he τις τούτων τι τταραβαίντ) ζημιάν αυτοίς έττβθβσαν but if anybody transgresses any one of these laws they impose a penalty upon such persons Xn. Cy. 1, 2, 2. 531. Aorist Imagined as Future. — The time of the aorist is sometimes vividly imagined as future (§ 518): thus άττωΧόμην άρ d yue hr] Χβίψεις I perish if you leave me E. Ale. 386. THE FUTURE 532. The future denotes that an action will take place at a future time : thus ηράψω I shall write (or shall be ivriting') . Note. — For tlie second person of the future implying a permission or a mild command see § ."iSo. note 1. 533. Periphrastic Future. — A periphrastic future (de- noting a present intention) is formed by combining the various forms of μβΧλω be about to with the present or future (rarely the aorist) infinitive (§ 549, 1): thus υμάς μεΧΧω ayeiv I am going to lead you Xn. A. 5, 7, 5. μ€ΧΧω yap υμάς ΒιΒάξβιν for I am going to inform you PL Ap. 21 b. 1. So the past tenses of μβΧΧω are similarly used to express a past intention: as jropeveaOai βμεΧΧον they 530 a. Homer sometimes uses the (gnomic) aorist in similes : tlius TJpiwe δ' ώί ore tis 8pDs rjpiv€v he fell as icfien an oak falls (lit. fell). 270 THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE were intending to proceed Xn. A. 3, 5, 17. βμβΧΧβ κατά- λυαν he was about to halt for the night Xn. A. 1, 8, 1. Note. — The simple future appears from the context sometimes to be used like the periphrastic future to express a present intention : as atpe ττληκτρον, tl μο-χχ) r(ii>te your spu?• if you re going to fr/ht Ar. Av. 759. £t . . . 7Γΐστ6υσο/Α£ν if ice are going to trust Xn. .4.1, 3, 16. THE PERFECT AND THE PLUPERFECT 534. The perfect, in Greek, represents an action as completed and lasting at the present time ; the pluperfect as completed and lasting at a past time : thus 'γβ'γραφα I have ivritten (and the writing now stands), β^β'γράφη I had written (and the writing- stood completed), krv^^ave ηαρ εφ' αμάξης τΓορβυόμβνος 8ίότί erer ρωτο for he happened to he traveling on a ivagon because he had been (and still was) wounded Xn. A. 2, 2, 14. 535. Perfect with Present Meaning. — In the perfect system of many verbs the duration of the result (§ 584) rather than the completion of the act is the more promi- nent, so that the perfect is best rendered in English by the present (and the pluperfect by the English imperfect): thus βίβηκα (βαίνω) be gone or stand {have stepped) 8e8oLKa (root Sot-, δα-, δι-) be afraid (have been frightened, cf. § 494, 3) κΐκτημαί (κτωμαι) possess (have acquired) μίμνημαί (μιμιη^σκω) remember (have reminded mysef) οίδα (cf. elSov saiv) know (have seen or perceived) Ιστηκα (Ιστημι) stand (have set myself, cf. § 494, 3) ττίττοιθίί (πείθω) trust (have persuaded myself, cf. § 494, 2) ■πίφνκα (φνω) am by nature (have been produced, cf. § 494, 3), and many others. 536. Periphrastic Perfect. — 1. Other forms of the per- fect, besides those already noted (§§ 226; 227; 221, 1), THE FUTURE PERFECT 271 are sometimes found expressed periplirastically : thus ro Trpayu βίμΐ τούτο ΒβΒράκώς I am the one ti'ho has done this deed Dem. 21, 104. 2. The aorist (rarely the perfect) participle with the present or imperfect of έχω have is sometimes used as the equivalent of the perfect or pluperfect : thus o? σφε νυν άτΐμάσά'ζ έ'χεί who has now dishonored her E. 3Ied. 33. τΓολλα 'χρήματα βχομεν ανηρττακότες we have j}lu7idered much property (lit. have^ having plundered^ Xn. A. 1, 3, 14. SPECIAL MEAXI^'GS OF THE PERFECT FROM THE CONTEXT 537. Perfect Imagined as Future. — The time of the per- fect is sometimes vividly imagined as future (§ 518, 1): thus καν τοΰτ, €φη, νϊκώμεν, ττάνθ' ημίν ττβττο ίηται '"'' if ive are victorious in this,''' he said, " everything has been accom- p)lished (i.e. ivill have been accomplished^ by us'' Xn. A. 1, 8, 12. THE FUTURE PERFECT 538. The future perfect denotes that an action will be completed (and lasting) at a future time : as ^β^ραφως βσομαι I shall have written, 'γβ'γράψβταί it will have been ivritten (and will stand Avritten). For the periphrastic forms of the future perfect see § 230. Note. — The future perfect (as well as the other portions of the perfect system) may emphasize the duration of the result of an action (§ 534) ; hence a good many verbs, because of their meaning, regularly employ the future perfect instead of the future (see § 729) : as νομίζατε . . . €μ€ κατακίκόφεσθαι i/ou inust believe that I shall be cut to pieces Xn. ^4. 1, δ, 16. οτάν Βη μη σθίνω, πίττανσομαυ tcJien Ι have not strength, then shall I stop S. Aiit. 91. So also commonly with the verbs whose perfect has present meaning (§ 53.5) μεμνησομαί shall remember (μίμνημαι remember), ίστηζω shall stand {Ιστ-ηκα stand) etc. 272 TENSES OF OTHER MODES THAN THE INDICATIVE TENSES OF OTHER MODES THAN THE INDICATIVE 539. The tenses of the indicative mode only (and of other modes representing the indicative in indirect dis- course, § 551) really denote time ; in the other modes, the tenses (with the very limited exception of the future, see § 548) do not denote time, but only the manner of viewing the action, whether continued (present), or com- pleted (perfect), or simply brought to pass (aorist). Time may be implied either by the mode (see §§ 554 ; 557; 560) or by the context (see §§ 541-547, and cf. 519 note 1) but it is not denoted by the tense. THE PRESENT 540. The present tense in modes other than the indica- tive represents an action as f/oing on (at any time) ; as >γράφ€ίν to be writing, iav ηράφω if I be engaged in writing, ηράφζ be ivriting (in the future, § 5(30), γράφων writing. TIME IMPLIED BV THE CONTEXT 541. Relation of time with the principal verb may be indicated by the context (§ 539): as όττο'τε θ vol βκάλβι whenever he was engaged in sacrifice he used (i.e. at the same time) to invite his friends Xn. Mem. 2, 9, 4. el 8e TTupa ταντα 'π at ale ν, κοΧάζβιν but if they act contrary to this, to punish thein (i.e. afterwards) Xn. Cy. 1, 6, 33. ΤΗ•Ε AORIST 273 542. Present Participle. — Especially with the present participle the context usually shows that its time is the same as that of the principal verb : as 'έχων όττλιτά? άνββη he ivent up with (lit. having^ hopUtes Xn. A. 1, 1, 2. τταρων ετνγχανβ he happened to he present Xn. A. 1, 1, 2. 1. But sometimes the context shows that the present participle refers to a time prior to that of the principal verb (the so-called " Participle of the Imperfect ") : as ol }s^vpeiOL irpoaOev συν ήμΐν ταττόμενοί νυν αφβστηκάσίν the troops of Cyrus loho were formerly marshaled with us have noiv deserted Xn. A. 3, 2, 17. τταρων έρώ since I urns present^ I will tell S. Ant. 1192. THE AORIST 543. The aorist tense in modes other than the indicative represents the action simply as brought to jjass (at any time) : as 'γράψαι to ivrite, iav <γράψω if I icrite., έραψαν write (impv., § 560), ^ράψάς having written (or writing^: thus eiTre δ' €7Γ€υξάμ€νο<; he spoke in prayer 7i 475. ουτο<ί ovT€ τους θεού'; δε /σα? ourelLvpov τβθνηκότα alheaOel'; . . . ημά<ζ κακω<ί ττοιβΐν ττειράται this man, ivithout any fear of the gods, or respect for Cyrus, who is noiv dead, is trying to injure us Xn. A. 3, 2, 5. βουΧοίμην Β' αν . . . Χαθβΐν αύτον αττβΧθών Ι should like to get away without his knoivl- edge Xn. A. 1, 3, 17. TIME IMPLIED BY THE CONTEXT 544. Relation of time with the principal verb may be indicated by the context (§ 539): as τω avSpl 6v av €Χησθβ ΤΓζίσομαί I shall obey the man ivhom you choose (i.e. shall have chosen) Xn. A. 1, 3, 15. θαυμαστον babbitt's gr. gram. — 18 274 TENSES OF OTHER MODES THAN THE INDICATIVE Se φαίνεται μοι καΐ το ττβίσθήναί τινα^ it seems to me wonderful too that some people have been persuaded (lit. the being persuaded of some people^ Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 1. 545. Aorist Participle. — Especially with the aorist participle the context often shows that it refers to a time prior to that of the principal verb: as ταύτα δε 7Γ0ΐήσά<; Βιεβαίνε when he had done this he proceeded to cross Xn. A. 1, 4, 17. καταβά<; Be Βίά τούτου του ττβΒίου ηΧασε when he had come dotvn (from the mountains) he marched through this plain Xn. A. 1, 2, 23 (but cf. § 548, lust three examples). THE PERFECT 546. The perfect tense in modes other than the indica- tive represent an action as comjjleted (at any time) : as ηζ^ραφβναι to finish writing, iav γεγ/οαφω if I shall finish writing, ^β^ράφθω let it stand ivritten, 'γβ'γραφώ'ί having ivritten, τα ηβ'^ραμμένα the things written, τή<; yap εττωνσης νυκτός ττάντα ταύτα Bel ireir ραγ^θαι to-night all this must he completed PL Grit. 46 a. TIME IMPLIED BY THE CONTEXT 547. It usually happens that an action described by the perfect as completed has taken place at a time preceding that of the principal verb (cf. § 539) : thus ovBe βον- XeveaOai €tl ώρα, άλλα βεβουΧενσθαι it is time no longer to deliberate, but to decide PI. Ci'it. 46 a. e\e