Miiiji): GN II && 0] UC-NRLF B 3 M5S 113 The NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DECEMBER, 1918 CONTENTS THE RACES OF EUROPE An Account Which Removes the Padlock of Techni- cality from the Absorbing Story of the Mixture of Peoples in the .Aost Densely Populated Continent EDWIN A. GROS .'ENOR, L. H. D.. LL. D. ■With a Map of Europe and Adjoining Portions of Asia and Africa in 19 Colors (Size, 20 y 24 Inches), Together with 62 Illus- trations of Racial Types, a Relief Map of Europe, and a Political Map of Germany PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBaRD memorial HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. A>ARopo\od^M ^^^ T^ JINTHROPOLOQY Lin-'" Y Vol. XXXIV, No. 6 WASHINGTON ANTHR0POLO&ir December, W?f TM ATEOMAL. :- GEOGIMPMIIC .GAZDNE THE RACES OF EUROPE The Graphic Epitome of a Never-ceasing Human Drama. The Aspirations, Failures, Achievements, and Conflicts of the Polyglot People of the Most Densely Populated Continent By Edwin A. Grosvenor, L. H. D., LL. D. President United Chapters, Phi Beta Kappa, and Recently Professor of Modern Government and International I^aw in Amherst College Dr. Grosvenor, the author of this article, has devoted fifty years to the study of the racial conditions of Europe. Twenty years as Professor of History in Robert College, at Constantinople, gave him unusual opportunity to observe inten- sively the subject zvith zvhich he deals, for noivhere else in the ivorld has the racial tide ebbed and flowed in such remarkable fashion as in the Balkans, and noidicre else has the teacher of history found more need for an intimate knozvledge of his subject. There is not a country in Europe zvhich he has not visited and among Zi'hose people he has not personal acquaintances and friends. He is the author of "Constantinople," tzvo volumes; "Contemporary History," "The Permanence of the Greek Type," of some three hundred articles on Eastern subjects in various cyclopedias, zvas Editor of the Reference History of the World in Webster's International Dictionary (last edition), and has translated, zvith revision, Duruy's "History of Modern Times" and "History of the World" from the French and "Andronike" (the most popular Greek novel) from the modern Greek. EUROPE is the smallest, except one, of the six continents. Of about the same size as Canada or Brazil, one might question, regarding merely ter- ritorial extent, whether Europe should be called a continent at all. Siberia exceeds it by more than a million square miles. On the map of the Eastern Hemisphere it appears insignificant. It is dwarfed on the south by the ponderous bulk of Africa, while Asia, to which it clings, thrusts it disdainfully away toward the northwest. Were it attached to Asia by a distinct isthmus, as is Africa or as are North and South America to each other, it would, as a well outlined peninsula, pos- sess an easily recognized existence of its own. Instead, an indefinite border land, more than two thousand miles in length, makes it impossible to tell where Asia ends and Europe begins. The interjec- tion of the Caspian Sea breaks this bor- der-land into two great stretches, one between the Arctic and the Caspian, and 85581'4 O Oniial.l Mcl.cish Tin; liJCK.NJiSlC OlilCiaANU: .SVVITZKKLAMJ MUUMAINS AKK nature's THWI.KING SIGN-POSTS DIRECTING THROUGH TIIIv AGES THE MIGRATIONS or RESTLESS RACES "TIic various routes of migration into Europe, the later wanderinjis of the imniiKrants, and their constant rclf)cations may l)c directly traced to geojirapliie causes, of wliicii the mountain system, the rivers, and plains had a determinative part. The hacklione and domi- nant factor of the continent is the Alps'' (see page 448 and also map on page 506). 442 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 443 one between the mountains of the Cau- casus and the Black Sea. THE ORIGIN OF THE NAME EUROPE On the map Europe is only an exten- sion or prolongation of Asia; but to this prolongation its unicjue physical features and its resultant history have given a distinct preeminence. Between Europe and Asia there is no natural boundary ; neither does any offi- cial line of demarcation exist. The Russians sometimes imagine such a line in the "crest of the Urals." But in the wide region over which the broad, low- Urals spread, no crest ever has been or can be traced. jNIoreover, the Urals them- selves traverse only a part of the space which subtends Europe from Asia. Be- cause of the arbitrary or undetermiifed nature of that eastern boundary, emi- nent authorities vary in their estimate of the total area of Europe by several hun- dred thousand square miles. The name Europe has been in use for more than twenty-five hundred years. Its origin and meaning are unknown. Perhaps it is derived, as the ancients be- lieved, from the fair maiden Europa, be- loved of Jupiter. Perhaps it comes from the word irib or crcb, found on Assyrian monuments and supposed to mean dark- ness, or the setting sun, in distinction from asit, found on the same monuments and supposed to mean the rising sun, or Asia. Let us agree, however, with He- rodotus who naively confesses that "no mortal can ever hope to find out the true meaning of this word inherited from the forefathers." WHY Europe's races are progressive Europe does not equal one-fourteenth of the land surface and is less than one- fiftieth of the entire surface of the globe ; yet upon it dwell 450,000,000 human l)eings, more than a fourth of all man- kind. Nor are all Europeans found in Europe. They and their children have occupied and populated the whole West- ern Hemisphere, of which they were the discoverers. They have partitioned and subdued to themselves nearly the whole ■of Africa. With the exception of China and Japan, they control all Asia and all the islands of all the seas. During the last twenty-five centuries, from them as from a focus have radiated the art and science and thought of the world. How has this stupendous result been • brought about? What potent causes have produced such practical monopoly of universal leadership? That the early ancestors of the present European peoples were more highly en- dowed than their kindred or contempo- raries or possessed greater capacity for development, there is no reason to be- lieve. In the physical advantages Europe possesses are revealed the causes which have given to Europeans and the de- scendants of Europeans their unques- tioned superiority. Almost the whole of Europe is situ- ated in the northern half of the North Temperate Zone. Its extreme northern point, the North Cape, is nineteen de- grees from the Pole. Tarifa, its extreme southern point, is thirty-six degrees from the Equator. Nowhere, except in the farthest boreal limits, does excessive cold stunt body and mind. Nowhere does excessive and continued heat sap energy and enervate the will. No spontaneous prodigality of Nature removes the necessity of exertion and induces sloth. Plere, where the air invigorates, man must labor if he would survive. The re- wards of labor are reasonably sure, but something more is necessary than to sat- isfy one day's needs. The periodic suc- cession, "the rhythmic swing," of the seasons, where winter invariably follows summer, compels him to take thought and make some provision of food, shelter, and clothing for the days to come. Even slight labor and little forethought, neithef of which can be escaped, force him to- ward emergence from the primitive and purely animal state toward higher exist- ence. Aluch thus far said would apply to the parallel region of North America occu- pied by the Dominion of Canada and the United States. It applies to no other portion of the globe. The greater part THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 44r of Africa and South America is included in the Torrid Zone. The vast broken plateau of continental Asia is girdled west, south, and east by hills or moun- tains which shut out the influence of the sea. The climate of western Europe is de- termined by the Gulf Stream, the mighti- est, most rapid and most beneficent of ocean currents. Its heated mass, de- flected eastward by the Banks of New- foundland, reaches the shores of Europe, creating on its way the exhaustless fish- eries of the North Sea. Its warmth breaks the force of the winter and keeps the harbors ice-free in the Norwegian fiords. It gives to Liverpool a milder climate than that of Washington, a thou- sand miles farther south, and in the British Islands, due east of Labrador, causes grass to grow throughout the year.* As no formidable barrier to breezes from the sea is interposed, the prevaihng wihds of Europe, loaded with ocean moisture, spread hundreds of miles in- land, relieving the excesses of the sea- sons and fertilizing the soil. EUROPI^'S VAST COAST-LINE The coast-line of Europe is remark- able for its length and its availability. South America is twice and Africa three times as large, and yet, although Europe is landlocked on its eastern or Asiatic side, it has a longer coast-line than that of those two continents combined. North America has double the area of Europe. But, except for what stretches along the inhospitable Arctic, the sea front of the two is nearly the same. Europe is intersected by numerous vast, narrow, half-inland gulfs and seas which endlessly break its contour and multiply its length. No other body of water rivals the in- comparable sea which forms the southern boundary of Europe, the Mediterranean. Its general direction is east and west for nearly 2,200 miles, and it is wholly in- cluded in the southern, more genial, part * See also, in the National Geographic Magazine, "The Gulf Stream," by Rear Ad- miral John E. Pillsbury (August, 1912). of the Temperate Zone. Bathing the shores of all the continents of the old world, its area of 900,000 square miles makes it seem like an inland ocean. Two great peninsulas cut half way across, one of them more than seven hundred miles in length. A succession of great islands at almost equal distances follow one another along a line rudely parallel to its general direc- tion. Innumerable other islands dot its main expanse and fringe its shores. Hence results a maze of connecting seas, which abound in deep, spacious, tideless harbors to invite the enterprise of the merchant and to provide refuge from the tempest. THE INFLUENCE OF THE .^GEAX Of all those interconnecting seas the .'Egean or Archipelago was to exert the earliest and most abiding influence. No- where else did the ancient world afford a like training school for seamanship. The dwellers on the peninsular shores of Greece and Asia Minor were impelled by the circumstances of their lot to venture upon, gradually to understand, and finally to master the sea. And the sea gave back something greater than mere ma- terial returns. Inevitably the old land kingdom^. Egypt, Assyria, Persia, India, submerged the individual in the mass. As inevita- bly, in the men who singly or in groups of twos or threes wrestled with and over- came the sea, the sense of personal in- dependence was roused. This was both achievement and revelation. It was the impelling motive at Marathon and in all the struggles for freedom since down to the present day. Classic Greece was the creation of the Mediterranean. Without the :\Iediter- ranean there would have been no Rome, of whose State it was at once the heart and the bond of union. Nor has its part in the world been less preeminent through the middle ages down to modern times. Until the sixteenth century the shifting capital of the world was located in some one of its three great peninsula? Of all these causes which have given to 4^6 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 447 Europeans their ascendency over men, none has been more powerful than the fact that Europe rises like a pyramid from the Mediterranean Sea. THE TASK OF RACE CLASSIFICATION IS MOST PERPLEXING In discussing the races of Europe we take two things for granted : ( i ) that all Europeans are descended from one original stock; (2) that the remote an- cestors of the present inhabitants of Europe came from Asia. We must acknowledge that many eminent scholars have controverted these assumptions and that neither has been absolutely proved, but learned opinion inclines more and more to recognition of their truth. A race is a great division of mankind, having in common certain distinguishing- peculiarities and thus forming a com- prehensive class, apparently derived from a distinct primitive source. Classification into races of the 1,700,- 000,000 human beings who populate the earth may seem easy. A European, a Negro, and a Chinaman differentiate themselves at a glance. Nevertheless, every attempt at classification has shown it to be a most difficult and perplexing task. Most classifications, especially of minor races, have not been comprehen- sive or have involved contradictions. During the last two hundred years many such attempts have been made. The color of the skin, the color and di- rection of the eyes, the color and texture of the hair, some anatomical character- istic such as the aspect of the nose or the length of the limbs in proportion to the trunk, peculiarities of various parts of the skeleton, thickness or thinness of the skull, capacity of the cranium as meas- ured by the quantity of sand or shot re- quired to fill it, the horizontal circum- ference of the skull, the angle made by the intersection of the axis of the face with the axis of the skull (commonly called the facial angle), the cephalic in- dex, the relative length, breadth, and height of the skull, have been among the tests employed to determine race. Lan- guage has generally been an inseparable part of the test and often the final deci- sion has been based upon it. Tireless scholars have sought to demonstrate and apply the comprehen- sive accuracy of some one or other of these tests. Their researches have re- vealed how impossible it is to indicate essential dififerences among the sons of men. Efiforts to resolve the mass of humanity into component parts have had as principal result the finding out how homogeneous mankind is. Nevertheless, in each of those tests there is a certain degree of truth and of applicability. Among the most recent and at present the most popular is the cephalic index. This is simply, "The figures that express the ratio of the greatest breadth to the greatest length of the skull, the latter being taken as one hundred." If the proportion is above 80 to TOO, the term is brachycephalic, short-headed, and hence round-headed. If below 80 to 100, it is dolichocephalic, long-headed. THE FIVE GREAT GROUPS OF RACES The number of distinct human groups or races is variously estimated from the three, Japhetic, Semitic and Hamitic of the Bible, or the three, Caucasian, ^lon- gol, and Negro, of Cuvier, to the eleven of Pickering and the sixteen of Desmou- lins. The estimate in 1781 by Dr. Blu- menbach, the father of anthropology, has best withstood the attacks of time. He finds five races, Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. It is said that, when in doubt how to name the first race, a finely typical skull was brought him from the Caucasus and hence came the idea of calling the race Caucasian. In the name is no sugges- tion that the race originated in or had any connection with the Caucasus. Bouillet indicates the physical charac- teristics oi the Caucasian as, "Head oval ; face not projecting, lips thin, eyes hori- zontal ; color white : hair long and glossy ; beard abundant ; intellectual superiority." Of the INIongolian he says, "Cheek-bones prominent ; eyelids drawn toward the temples ; skull rounded ; face flat ; nose depressed, ears long and protruding, skin 448 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE yellow and sometimes brown, beard scanty, hair straight and black." The other three races do not concern us, as they have in no way affected the history of Europe or contributed to its life. The Caucasians and Mongolians are further divided into branches or groups, distinguished by difference in language and by minor physical peculiarities. Two main divisions are at once recog- nized among the Caucasians, designated as the Indo-European or Japhetic and the Syro-Arab or Semitic. Indo-Euro- pean indicates the belief that Europeans came from the basin of the Indus. Syro- Arab means, originating in Syria and Arabia. THE IXDO-EUROPE.\X FAMILY The Indo-European includes eight branches or groups. These are : in Asia, the Aryas or Hindus of India, the Per- sians and the Armenians, the last two being often termed Iranians from the great plateau of Iran where they had their origin; in Euippe, the Greeks, Latins, Celts, Teutons, or Germans, and Slavs. Common usage treats these groups as races, so properly we speak of the Celtic race or the Slavic race or of the races of Europe. Because of the intimate rela- tions of the Greeks and Latins and the cognate nearness of their languages, the two are denoted as of the Greco-Latin race. German and Teuton are inter- changeable, being synonymous terms. The great majority oi the peoples who have invaded Europe and whose de- scendants are now settled there Ijelong to the Indo-European family. In addi- tion, about 30,000.000 persons, or one- fifteenth of the inhabitants of Europe, are Finno-Ugrians and Turks, members of the Ural-Altaic branch of the Mon- golian family. All the rest, except the Jews, Maltese, and Saracens (Syro- Arab), anfl possibly except the ]^as(|ues. are of Indo-F.uropean stock. Ural- Altaian comprehends peoples, found between the Altai and Ural moun- tains. Finno-Ugrian is specific of a western grou[) of Ural- Altaians. Tin- term is derived from Finn and Ugra, the region on both sides of the Urals. GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS DETERMIXIC R.\CE MIGRATIONS The various routes of migration into Europe, the later wanderings of the im- migrants, and their constant relocations, may be directly traced to geographic causes, of which the mountain system, the rivers and plains had a determinative part (see map, page 506). The backbone and dominant factor of the continent is the Alps. The Pyrenees and the rugged Scandinavian plateau stand isolated and apart. But the Ceven- nes, the Jura, the \'osges, the Apennines, the tri-lateral of Bohemia, the Carpa- thians, the Balkans, and the gigantic masses of ^Montenegro, Albania, and Greece, are outspurs of the Alps. West, south, and southeast their foothills touch the seas. Though the Alps loom across the con- tinent like a barrier, they are less diffi- cult to traverse than the Pyrenees. ^lore than a dozen Alpine passes were familiar to the military expeditions of the Ro- mans. A pass is not a gorge but a way, resulting from depressions in the great range to which deep-cut valleys lead from plains. Over those depressions poured not only the troops of Hannibal and Napoleon but numerous invaders both before and after Julius Caesar. In the Alps are the fountain heads of the Rhone. Rhine, and Po. and in the outspurs rise the Loire. Seine, Meuse, Elbe. Oder. X'istula. and Danube. These rivers have each limited or determined the wanderings of peoples, the march of armies, and the boundaries of States. The Danube was a natural and inevi- tal)le westward roadway of pastoral peoples from .Asia. TIIIv Al.l'S, Till-: SIGN-POST OF EUROPK's RACKS .\ line drawn from the mouth of the Truth to the mouth of the Niemen, and thence i)rolonged through the Baltic and Gulf of i'.othnia to the sources of the Toriie I'.lf. gives an approximation of real or historic Europe's eastern frontier THS MASTER ARTIST IMMORTALIZES ON CANVAS THE SPIRITUALIZED FEATURES OI? THE GRECO-LATIN TYPE Raphael, like all geniuses of the brush, employed models from among his own people to represent the Virgin and Child, and in his matchless Sistine Madonna we see a typical Greco- Latin face and figure (see page 45o)- 449 450 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and extent. West of that line and north of the Alpine system, an enormous plain, broken only by the watersheds of its rivers, extends to the Xorth Sea. When the Christian era began, all that plain was covered by forests except the marshlands in the east. That plain, as well as Scandinavia, peopled almost wholly by Teutons, was sometimes called Germania. East of that line was another still more enormous plain, Sarmatia, the home of the Slavs, a race almost un- known. The Alps, northern Italy, a part of Spain, France, and the British Islands were inhabited by Celts. The centers of the Greco-Latins were Greece and Italy. Thus, at the time of Christ the Alps are the signpost of Europe, roughly pointing out where the races are to be found: north of the Alps, the Teutons; south of the Alps, the Greco-Latins ; in the Alps and to the west, the Celts ; far cast of the Alps, little affected by them, and therefore little influenced by Europe and of as little influence in it, the Slavs and the Finno-L^grians. TAIR-IIAIRED FOLKS XORTH OF THF ALPS Since scholars have found it difficult to indicate the great races of mankind and even impossible to agree as to how many such races there are, it is not sur- prising that they have found it still harder to specify distinctive character- istics of the various subdivisions or minor races. This fact becomes evident as one seeks to indicate the peculiar phys- ical traits of the Celts, the Teutons, the Sla\'s, and the Greco-Latins. They can be described only in general terms, though such terms, never exact, merely approach exactness. The ancient Greeks applied to all fair- haired peoples living north of the Alps the cf)mnion name Keltoi, or Celts. Later these Keltoi were recognized as consist- ing of t\v(j gr(ju])s, shading olT into each other. The name Celt was then limited to the group which lived nearest the Alps and on the great western plateaus. This group is also called Al])ine. In general its peoples were of stocky build rmd me- dium height, their hea(ls round, faces broad, eyes gray or hazel, noses rather broad, complexion light, and hair light brown. This is the Celtic type. The second group had its seat in Scan- dinavia and spread out southward till it mingled with the first group. Its peoples were in general less vivacious than the Celts, and had longer heads, longer faces, narrower noses, lighter hair, blue eyes, and were taller. Their type is the Teu- ton, or German, or a less common term, the Nordic. The Slavs (as Russian pliilologists as- sert, from slava, glory, the glorious, or slova, speech, one who speaks) do not appear in history until about the fifth century A. D. They are in general less animate in appearance and facial expres- sion than either the Teuton or the Celt. In general they are stalwart, the hair and beard abundant, the hands and feet small. But, however it may have been thousands of years ago, there is no Slavic physical type today as there was and is a Teutonic and Celtic type. This fact is i)ro]jably due to the remarkable faculty in absorbing other races which the Slav possesses and to the diff'erent in- fluences of the \arious regions in which the Slav is found. Dark-complexioned and light-complexiOned. short and tall, black-bearded, red-bearded, and yellow- bearded, the Slav in physical character- istics is the most cosmopolitan of men. The Greco-Latin in its two types, the Greek and the Roman, is familiar ; the "dark whites" of Iluxley. active, demon- strative, vivacious; in politics and admin- istration, in ])hilosophy and the arts, the teacher of mankind. TIIK I!i:r.IX\I\r,S OF RACKS siiROunFn IX .M^■STI•:R^' Tlu'1)egiiiniiig and infancy of any race is unknown, shrouded in mystery which legends confuse rather than illumine. Nevertheless a record, incomplete and fragmentary, of the races of Europe is a\ ailable for the last two thousand years. This record it will be interesting to re- view briefly. Otherwise we should be imable to ajijireciate the complex situa- tion in ])resent-(lav l''iiro])e. In tlu- yvdv I 17 the Uonian Ivmpire at- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 451 FOLK OF THE SEA By V^irginia Demont-Breton -THE FAIR-HAIRED TEUTON, OR NORDIC, TYPE Here a noted artist has recorded on canvas the distinctive physical attributes of a people less vivacious than the Celts and possessing longer faces, lighter hair, and blue eyes (see page 450). tained its largest extent. It embraced all the countries on the Mediterranean as well as a strip of land entirely surround- ing the Black Sea. It also included Britain, all the region now occupied by the Rumanians in Transylvania, Ru- mania proper and Bessarabia, and a still larger territory between the Euphrates and Tigris. Its strongly fortified north- ern boundaries were the Rhine from its mouth and the Danube as far as where now stands the city of Budapest. More than any other empire mankind had seen, it was the culmination and embodiment of order, law, justice, and civilization. Beyond its northern frontiers in that northern plain was seething another and a fiercer world. It was uncivilized and incoherent, a mere disorderly mass of humanity, the direct opposite of every- thing the Roman knew. The Teutonic and Slavic tribes who occupied its un- bounded area, incessantly fighting with one another, were so constantly on the move that, except in most general terms, one cannot indicate the location of any. ^.m. r ^ M 5 c "o £ g -is, r- ~ ca "" 8 = K 0..2 Vifia- ^-^ •i* C W CO ; G a.1^; 452 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 453 THE BURSTING OF THE HUN TEMPEST Suddenly there burst upon Europe the tempest of the Huns, a Finno-Altaic people who had been long located in the great Asiatic plains beyond the Caspian. Their numbers prodigiously increasing, they expanded toward the west. In the fourth century after Christ, as if under a sudden impulse, the whole multitude, in great carts and on horse- back, carrying all their possessions, started for Europe. Crossing the Volga, they forced the Alans, a formidable peo- ple of mixed blood, to join them. The Goths, a Teutonic people from Scandinavia, at that time occupied all the territory between the Don and Theiss. Their two branches — the Visi-Goths, or Western Goths, and the Ostro-Goths, or Eastern Goths — had united, and together constituted the mightiest power in Eu- rope outside of Rome. This Empire the Huns overwhelmed. The Ostro-Goths submitted, biding their time till the tempest passed. The A' isi-Goths sought an asylum south of the Danube, in the Eastern Roman Empire, of which Constantinople was the newly founded capital. The Huns bivouacked for half a cen- tury in the center of Europe. On the Danube they founded as their capital the town of Buda, which with Pest on the opposite bank is still the capital of the Hungarians. Words cannot express the horror with which the Huns were regarded by Ro- mans and Teutons alike. Their tiny eyes piercing flat, bony faces, their low. pointed foreheads, their broad, squat noses, their immense flaring ears, their tattooed and painted skin, their gro- tesque and distorted forms, made them seem monsters rather than men. Blood- thirsty and indifferent to suffering, des- titute of human affection or feeling, they were reported to be the oft'spring of demons and witches, to have foul spirits at their command, and to be masters of infernal magic. The so-called barbarian invasions of Europe are rightly reckoned as beginning with this irruption of the Huns. Many migrations had already taken place. Many peoples had assailed the Roman provinces since Brennus and his (iauls ravaged Italy and republican Rome; but each of those invasions and attacks had been an isolated event, coming and passing, the consequences of which were relatively small. None had set the en- tire continent in commotion. DISORDER FOEEOWED THE HUNS EVERYWHERE Before the coming of the Huns, out- side the Roman Empire there had been disorder, but a disorder localized and confined. For centuries after the Huns, everywhere, from Scandinavia and the Vistula to northern Africa, continuous and ever-changing disorder reigned su- preme. Populations, incessantly dis- placed, crowded upon one another. Celts,. Slavs, Teutons, Huns, and Romans mixed and were lost in the wild confusion. Attila, King of the Huns, roused his people to resume their career of conquest in the west. His 700,000 fighting men comprised not only Huns, his chief re- liance, but contingents from all the sub- jugated peoples and such other auxili- aries as his skill could attract. The tot- tering western Empire rallied in one su- preme eft'ort under vEtius, "the last Ro- man general," and brought into the field every man whom piety or patriotism or hope of reward could enlist. The enormous hosts met on that undu- lating plain that lies between Chateau- Thierry and Chalons. At stake were not primarily the interests of a State, but the independence and civilization of the men then alive. This is rightly reckoned one of the decisive battles of the world. Though fought almost fifteen centuries ago, these last tragic years give a keen and renewed significance to that battle of Chalons, the first dread battle of the Alarne. Attila did not long survive his defeat. The subject Teutonic and Slavic tribes regained their independence. The hordes of Huns dispersed; some remained on the right bank of the Danube, in the Hungarv of today ; some settled in the Dobrudja ; some wandered back and were absorbed in the kingdoms of their kin, 454 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE then rising on the Dnieper and the \'olga. The}- left little behind except an execra- ble memory. TIIK ADVUXT OF TIIK CHRMAXS A few years after the disruption of the Huns. Odoacer, chief of the (lerman He- ruli and of tribes in alliance with them, forced the last emperor in Rome to abdi- cate the throne. Thus he extinguished the western Roman Empire, fixed the boundary between ancient and modern history, and eternalized himself as the iirst northern barbarian to rule in Italy. Indifferent to the weak Slavic tribes scat- tered in their midst and to the more nu- merous Slavs in the marshes and forests beyond, no longer hampered by awe of Rome or terror of the Huns, the Teutons were ready for the conquest of western Europe. When Theodoric, greatest of the Goths, died at his capital, Ravenna, in 526, just tift\- years after the extinction of the western Roman Empire, that con- quest had ajjparently been achieved. The definite subjugation of Britain, though not yet complete, was assured by the solid settlements of the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles. The few Celts of Armorica or Brittany, of Ireland and Scotland, the still fewer Basques in the Pyrenees, and that part of the Balkan Peninsula which the im- pregnable walls of Constantinople de- fended, had not been subdued. With those exceptions, all Europe west of the \'istula and Dneister, all from Norway and Sweden as far as and beyond the Mediterranean, was occupied by Cicrman kingdoms and ruled by German kings. The western world had become Teutonic. The con([uest seemed not only universal but permanent. The strongest of such kingdoms were those of the Ostro-Goths in Italy and the Visi-Goths in Spain. The one ruled from Sicily to the Danube; the other from the south of Si)ain to the Loire. The Goths had become Christians in the fourth century, long before any other Teutonic pe()])le. Their conversion, ac- c(tnii)lishe(l not by the sword or royal conunand, bul through the ])rcacliing of Ulfilas, their great apostle, seems to have affected their conduct and character. In the version made for them by Ulfilas in an alphabet probably of his own devising, they possessed the first translation of the Bible in any Teutonic, Celtic, or Slavic tongue. From it Ulfilas carefully omitted the four Books of the Kings, fearing they would excite further the warlike passions of his countrymen. The Goths were the least barbarous and most humane of all the early invaders. Yet neither of their kingdoms was to continue long. Residence in a southern climate sapped the vigor of the forest-bred warriors of the north. All Goths, as supporters of the Arian doctrine, met the active opposi- tion of the Church of Rome. Family quarrels wasted resources and energy. In Italy the long- wandering pagan Lom- bards, a Teutonic tribe, and the Hunnic horde of the Avars replaced the Ostro- Goths. In Spain the Visi-Goths were overthrown by the Arab invasion. So the more than 300.000 Goths disappeared, absorbed among the inhabitants of the two peninsulas. Fragments of the Gothic Bible still exist, precious relics of an otherwise extinct tongue. Even (^lOthic architecture has no connection with tlie Goths or with any structure they ever built. It was introduced by purists in the seventeenth century as a term of re- proach, meaning barbarous, and a])iilied to all styles not classic. This story of the Goths is important as aft'ording example of what went on for many, many years throughout the lands once part of the Roman Empire. States, great and small, of various de- grees of dignity, were constantly set up by various tribes and races, only to top- ])k' over, and chiefs and followers to be absorbed into the native iKiinilation. livery ])olitical division was a crucible of evershifting size wherein races were fused. .\s Britain had been a Roman prov- ince in hardly more than nanic, fallen Rome became to the P.riton a mere tradi- tion of the ])ast. and little of her majesty was left in bjigland to impress the bar- barian invader. F.lsewhere the Greco- l.atin inlluence is almost startliui: in its "the SLAV IN PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IS THE MOST COSMOl'OLITAX OF MEX" "Thanks to his remarkable faculty for absorbing other races, he is dark co"iP|f.-^VO"^d and light complexioned, short and tall, black bearded, red bearded, and yellow bearded (.ee page 450). 455 456 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4.". tenacity. Every European country over which the Roman ruled speaks some form of the Latin language and is ad- ministered by Roman law. THI5 PERIOD OF INVASION ENDS The main period of invasion and con- sequent migration begins with the irrup- tion of the Huns and ends with the Nor- man conquest of England in 1066. The Crusades, which came on later, were a gigantic episode, not of invasion or set- tlement, but of departure. Some of the Crusaders straggled back. The vast ma- jority laid their bones by the roadside or in the East and little affected the making of modern European races. The turmoil, continuous through a score of what Homer would call "genera- tions of fighting men," did not imme- diately cease, but became spasmodic. Through that period the Teuton and the Greco-Latin center attention, both be- cause they were the chief actors and be- cause of the importance of the stage on which they acted. Wherever the Celt appeared, his role is that of one who in vain bravely resists and is all the time pushed farther to the wall. THE ADVENT OF THE SLAV The Slav becomes more distinct in the sixth century, at times occupying land which the Teutons had left vacant or at times engaging in attack. The first ar- ticulate utterance of the Slavs was when the city of Novgorod, harassed by in- ternal commotions which it could not sup- press, sent in 862 the following message to the chief of the Varangians, a tribe of Northmen: "Our country is great and fertile, but everything is in disorder. Come to govern us and rule over us." There is no reason to doubt the credi- bility of this event, which, in the case of the Slav, is typical rather than sur- prising. In 1862 the whole Russian Em- pire celebrated the millennial anniversary of the coming of Ruric and his brothers in answer to this appeal as the beginning of Russian history. Lack of self-reliance or of initiative capacity, anciently as now, appeared to be a characteristic almost inseparable from the Slav. Dependence upon some heljjing or guiding hand has often resulted in his own undoing, while he himself has seemed unable to retain what his indus- try or courage had won. The story of the Slavic race is crowded with examples of this fact (see pages 450 and 460-464). A fundamental source of its strength is that, as Professor Hrdlicka remarks, "there seems to be something in the Slav make-up which favors a high birthrate. . . . The Slavs as a whole show the highest fertility among the more impor- tant European peoples." The Eastern Roman or Greek or By- zantine Empire, after an existence some- times glorious, but sometimes inglorious, through a thousand years, ended in 1453 under the strangling grip of the Ottomaii Turks, whose invasion was unlike any that preceded. The horrors of the Hunnic Empire had been alleviated by its brief continuance ; the so-called barbaric invasions wrought not only evil, but greater good by infus- ing into the veins of worn-out races their own virile blood and rendering possible all that Europe has since been and done. But the Turkish invasion is unrelieved by a single mitigating fact (see also The Ottoman Turks, page 473). NO UNMIXED RACES AFTER INVASION Tribal loyalty and personal attachment to the chief characterized the early bar- barians. Prestige of victory and hope of gain attracted volunteers and hirelings to any successful leader. The invading armies were thus heterogeneous bodies, made up of adventurers from many sources, but in after years were mis- takenly regarded as tribal kin of their leader. For instance, the men who followed William the Norman to England are usu- ally regarded as Normans. Doubtless many of them were. But. since his own barons balked at the hazardous enterprise. William "had to gather a motley host from every quarter of France." After- wards success attached the splendor of the Norman name to every man in that motley host. Most of the invasions by land and al- most all of those bv sea were made by 4S8 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 459 men only. In general, invasions solely by men left more enduring results than those by peoples. The tendency was for men, accompanied by their families, to remain apart from the conquered as a distinct class. The single man formed ties among the conquered and therefore was identified with the community. The essential fact, however, is that, after the barbaric invasions, there existed no such thing as an unmixed race. Nor does any such thing exist now. Racial purity is a figment of the imagination. THE TEST OF TOX'GUKS AA'e have seen that by this universal intermixture of mankind in Europe all racial characteristics were blended, con- fused, or lost. Therefore no physical test or combination of such tests has yet been found practicable or possible to apply. In consequence, "To the eye of modern scholarship 'language' forms the basis of ethnic distinction." Language is not an infallible guide. Sometimes it appears unsatisfactory and perhaps misleading. Sometimes it in- volves difficulties and seems to arrive at contradictions. But there is no other test that rivals it in comprehensive ac- curacy. Unsatisfactory though the guide may sometimes be, it is far more satis- factory than any other we possess. In point of fact we possess no other. Webster's New International Dictionary is correct in the definition, "Slav: a per- son who speaks Slavic as his mother tongue." The Encyclopaedia Britannica is correct in saying, "Judged by the lan- guage test, and no other is readily avail- able." The authoritative Statesman's Year Book is correct in its invariable system of determining "ethnical ele- ments on the. basis of language." In the quaint Biblical story it was by the test of speech that the men of Gilead at the passage of the Jordan detected the tribe of Ephraim. "It was so that when those Ephraimites which were escaped said, 'Let me go over,' that the men of Gilead said unto him, 'Art thou an Ephraimite?' and if he said, 'Nay;' then said they unto him, 'Say thou Shibboleth.' and he said, 'Sibboleth,' for he could not frame to pronounce it right. . Then they took him and slew him." It was a common racial language, de- spite local difference, that distinguished the Celts, Teutons, and Slavs from one another. It was the main bond connect- ing the several members of each of those same races. "Thy speech bewrayeth thee" was the identification of each tribe. Sometimes the language test .seems to fail glaringly, as when one hears the Balto-Slavic Prussian speaking German as his mother tongue, or the Celtic Irish speaking English. Yet out of the great total such anomalies are comparatively rare. A NHW AND VIT.\L IXTEREST IX EUROPE'S RACES The races of Europe are today in- vested with a vivid interest and a near- ness they never possessed for us before. Through more than four agonizing years in thought and perhaps in person we have lived in their very midst. Peoples little known have appeared on the hori- zon and peoples best known have ac- quired a fresh significance. Nor, though the hour of victory has come, will our strained attention relax. The races of Europe are now in agita- tion, less superficial but more profound and as intense as that by which they were convulsed by the Hun fifteen centuries ago. The Old Order has passed away with the millions dead. A new Europe is in the making. Neither a year nor a generation will suffice to make it. Xone of the now-living will behold it when made. The Peace Conference will ren- der its august decisions, and its members will depart, but the races will remain on the spot where on them the making of the New Europe will devolve. Europe, though so old, is _ for the greater part young and inexperienced in self-government and political duty and opportunity. The gait of more than one newly enfranchised people will resemble the uncertain walk of a just-awakened child. No marvel if its liberty seems at times license, 'and freedom for one's self a safe conduct to avenge and oppress. The progress of the most advanced na- 460 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tions to their present height has not been unattended by mistakes and falls. The moral solidarity of mankind has of late been made manifest by a demon- stration without precedent in history. The world's heart might be wrung at the exalted sacrifices of the French, Belgians, and Serbians, but it was the world's con- science which ranged all peoples, whose expression was possible, upon one side, except the four nations in which appar- ent certainty of profit calloused any con- ceivable sense of shame. The four re- sponsible for the inexpiable crime of the last war have not an ally or friend on earth. The New Europe will be built upon a more enduring foundation stone than was the Old. Force and force alone was the sanction of the Old Order. The New Eurojic will rest upon the solid rock, the sublime truth proclaimed by Mirabeau. "Right is the vSovereign of the World." To establish that truth the Entente Allies have lavished their hard-earned wealth and the priceless blood of millions of their sons. The absolute victory of arms being accomplished, their responsi- bility to mankind enters upon its second stage : to safeguard from a still strong, unrepentant, and subtle foe what has been achieved. All the Allies are one in principle, pur- pose, and idea. Yet, because of their greater strength, upon the British, French, Italian, and American democra- cies this res])onsibility rests. Many a political stumble is in store. much turbulence, perhaps bloodshed, be- fore all the enfranchised appreciate and enjov justice and order and liberty. lUit through it all let not our faith and sym- pathy waver for even the most ignorant and the longest oppressed. KXI'L.NNATION OI' TIIK RACI-; MAP CXir map .shows. ])ict()rially. the ])rin- cii)al facts regarding the distribution of the ]jeoples of luu'ope and their relation- ships, based on the researches of Deni- ker. Ilrdlicka. and many other savants. Racial boundaries differ -from the po- litical boundaries of provinces and States. The latter are definite and e.xact. de- termined ofun on mathematical lines. The former are always indefinite and elusive. Between two adjacent races there is always a neutral zone which be- longs to both and is the property of neither — a border region, where the two fade ofif into each other by invisible de- grees. For the first time in human experience, the efifort is being made by the victors after a great war to trace the new fron- tiers in accordance with the racial as- ])irations and affinities of the peoples in- volved. Because of this impossibility of defining exactly the limits of a race, many heart burnings are inevitable in the new adjustment of European boundaries. Professor Hrdlicka estimates that there are in Europe from 145 to 150 millions of people of Slavic stock, 144 to 148 mil- lions Teutonic, and 125 to 127 millions Greco-Latin. Our description of the races of Eu- rope begins farthest east. First taking up the races of the once mighty Russian Empire, we next attempt the Rumanians, then the races of the Balkan Peninsula, afterward those of the once so-called Central Empires, and thus on. following the Map of the Races, until we reach the British Islands. THE RACES OF THE RUSSIAN DOMINIONS* Taken as a whole, the Russians, as in the (lavs of Peter, are an inchoate mass. Whether the stern Tsar, who sought to knout his sub- jects into civilization, was in truth a benefac- tor to his people is a problem. At least he made it certain that, when an autocratic hand was no loiipcr felt, component parts, not welded but merely held together by brute force, would fall asunder. The spectacle i>f such disruption we behold today. Tlie principal parts, no longer component, arc the Great Russians, the Little Russians, * See al>.o. ni X.ntioxai, Gkocrai'IIu Mao.a- ziNi:. •'The Land of Unlimited Possibilities," by Gilbert Grosvenor (November, 1914) : "Rus- sia's Democrats," by Montgomery Schu\ler. and •The Russian Situation," by Stanley Wash- burn (March, iiS) ; "Russia's (iri-ban Races." by .\laynard O. Williams (Oc- tober. 1918). and "The Rebirth of Religion in Russia." bv Thomas Whittcmore (.November, loiS). TWO PICTURESQUE EXAMPLES OF UKRAINIAN WOMANHOOD The Little Russian branch of the Slav race numbers 30,000,000, residin.s: chiefl.v in the territory esteemed most sacred in Russian eyes. Kief, the Holy City of the Slav dominions, is the metropolis of the Ukraine. This region is likewise the home of Russian folk-lore. The love songs of the Little Russians are distinguished by their tenderness (see page 463). 461 462 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE LAPPS, TIIK ROUNDK i'liotograph by Uuiij .Mc;C llvADKl) PKOPLK IN EUROPE For centuries they have made their home on the permanently frozen, treeless wastes of the tundra of Norway, Sweden, and Russia. As a result, they are generally dwarfed both in body and mind. They do not average more than four feet seven inches in height, and even the children have faces which are frequently drawn and ugly, as if with age (see p. 466). the White Russians and the Cossacks, all Slavs, all speaking some form of Russian Slavit, all members or dissidents of the Eas- tern Orthodox Church, but each group of a different type from the rest (see pages 450 and 457). THE CREAT RUSSIANS The Great Russians spread extensively from Moscow as their historic center. The river .Moskwa gave its name, not only to the capital which stands upon its banks but to the Mus- covite Empire and to tlic Tsars of Muscovy. Through the East a Russian is always called a Muscov. Saint Petersburg or Petrograd. always foreign, kindled no love or devotion. Moscow delivered the people from two cen- turies of oppression by the Tatars of the Golden Horde: in r6t3 crushed the Poles and gave the nation a new birth : in its flames con- sumed the Empire of Napoleon. It is still "Holy Mf)ther .Moscow." Other Russians are merely accretions. ad(le(l by con(|Ucst or voluntary submission. The Great Russians arc the real Russians, .'\mong them are seen some of "the best examples of the Caucasian type." They are industrious, unambitious, sluggish, dreamy, patient, devout, disliking responsibility, indifferent rather than careless, impractical, pacilic. Theirs is the only n;itional lixinu wliicli breathes as its chief note a prayer for peace. Yet, when the order comes, no men more readily Hock to the colors. \'o soldiers are braver or endure longer. The Great Russians are helpless when with- out an object for their devotii')rf. I'ormerly they iiad two: God and the Tsar. The Tsar has been taken away, and in the present con- fusion, according to the Slavic proverb, 'ileayen is far otT." So they flounder for a time in a political and religious quagmire, un- able as yet to feel solid ground. Uy I'xp.msion. as the more prolilic rather than by lighting, they have pushed the h'inns, who occupied morr than Iialf the Russian pl.iin, still further north. In return their pliysi(|ue au'I ti.ini)eramen( have been pro- foundly affected by coi\st:nU blood intermix- ture with the Imiuis and in less degree with the Tatars. Their frames are well knit and mus- cular, hair and beards thick and curly, nose pronounced, eves blue or brown, complexion fl..rid. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 463 Altogether they number about 80,000,000, a homogeneous whole, numerous enough to con- stitute a great State, inland except as it touches the Arctic, with "No window upon the West." They would be probably content if a chain of buffer States from the Black Sea to the Gulf of Bothnia should shut them off from European connection. Tolstoi, Turgue- niev, Dostoievski, Vereshchagin were all Great Russians. THE UKRAINIANS ^ The Little Russians or Ukrainians number about 30,000,000. Theirs is the territory es- teemed most sacred in Russian eyes. To Kief, their principal city, Oleg, brother and successor of the Varangian Ruric, trans- ferred the royal dignity from abandoned Nov- gorod. The life of Queen Olga, "The Saintly," the subsequent conversion to Chris- tianity of the King, Saint Vladimir, and of the Russian people at Kherson, and all the heroic history of the Russian Church, were wrought in the Ukraine. INIilitant as well, expeditions thence wrested tribute from the Byzantine Empire, and Oleg, the king, suspended his shield in triumph from the Golden Gate of Constantinople. The proximity of Tatars and .Turks and the resultant strain of blood have rendered the Little Russians more warlike than their northern brethren. They are of slighter, shorter figure, and less robust. Their darker faces have more expression. They are less plodding, more volatile and imaginative, love music and are strongly attached to family and home. Gogol, born at Poltava, gives many attractive pictures of the Little Russians. Their country in 1320 was conquered and annexed by the Poles, who called it Ukraine or "barrier" against the Tatars. The part east of the Dnieper was restored to Russia in 1686 and the western part in 1793. THE WHITE RUSSIANS The White Russians derive their name from their pale faces or from the white clothes they habitually wear. They number not over 5,- 000,000 and are found usually in the neighbor- hood of the Lithuanians. They are jiot strong- bodied or forceful, seldom exhaust themselves by overwork and are generally poor. They have no towns, hardly any villages, but live in the woods. Always the victims of oppression, they show its results in appearance and habits. Their dialect differs greatly from that of the Great or Little Russians. THE RESTEESS, FAITHFUL COSSACKS The southern Ukraine is "the savage," the "boundless steppe," "The Wilderness" of * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine, "The Ukraine, Past and Present," by Nevin O. Winter (August, 1918). Sienkiewicz' masterly romance, "With Fire and Sword." Thither, when the Ukraine was Polish territory, flocked thousands of escaped serfs and outlaws, who gradually separated into groups. Their headquarters were just be- low the cataracts of the Dnieper. They were called "Kazaki" from a Tatar word meaning freebooters or adventurers. Proscribed by the Roman Catholic Polish nobility, they often allied themselves with the Tatars of the Crimea and later with the Rus- sians, Eastern Orthodox like themselves. They were the real masters of the Ukraine, which their hetman, Chmielnicki, caused to be- come again Russian. A later and traitorous hetman, the Mazeppa of Byron's poem, en- deavored in vain to deliver it to Charles XII at Poltava. Always restless but always faithful to th2 Tsar, they emigrated to the Crimea and then farther east. They were made "Guardians of the Frontiers." They now consist of ten dis- tinct bodies, of which the Cossacks of the Don. the Usuri, Orenburg and Astrakhan are the most important. Their lawlessness has abated, but not their warlike instincts or their loyalty. The fallen Empire had no more faithful soldiers than its 320,000 mounted Cossacks. In time of peace they are farmers, cattle- men, horse breeders, fishers, raisers of bees, cultivators of vines. Among them popular education stands on a higher plane than else- where in Russia. Relatively they have more schools and more children in them. Indus- trious, thrifty, domestic, they do not deserve, despite their origin, the opprobrium in which they are held by Europe. THE RACES OF THE BALTIC PROVINCES Upon the map, east of the Baltic, between the Gulf of Finland and the river Niemen, a territory of about fifty thousand square miles is indicated, inhabited mainly by Esthonians, or Esths, Letts and Lithuanians. This territory forms a natural geographic unit. Command- ing the eastern Baltic and the southern ap- proaches to the Gulf of Finland, and hence to Petrograd and interior Russia, it is of great strategic importance. Probably no part of northern Europe has seen fiercer fighting or been more often drenched with blood. This geographic unit corresponds in the main with the famous Baltic provinces, which comprised ancient Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland. It forms a deep semicircle around the historic city of Riga, its guardian and sentinel. in general the country is low and marshy, dotted with innumerable lakes and covered with dense forests wherever lake and marsh permit trees to live. Toward the middle a little scarred plateau rises a few hundred feet, which the native poets called the "Livonian Switzer- land." The entire population is not over 3,100,000, of whom there are about 1,150,000 Esths, or 464 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC iMAGAZINE A GROUP OF GREEK PEASANTS IN THE REGION OF PARNASSUS (SEE PAGE 477) Lineal descendants of men who two thousand years ago were the custodians of the world's art, culture, and science, these peasants, uncouth in appearance yet friendly and hospi- tahlc, possess the heritage of a glorious past. Ksthonians, mostly in the north; 1,500,000 Letts and Lithuanians, toward the south, in Livonia and Courland ; 200,000 Germans, and 100,000 Jews. The Russians at no time consti- tuted more than 2 per cent i>f the inhabitants. THE ESTIIS The Esths are a Finno-UgHan people, once savage and adventurous, terrifying the Baltic with their piracy, constantly attacking and at- tacked l)y tlic Danes and Swedes. Their final subjection by the Brothers of the Sword and their enforced acceptance of Christianity crushed their spirit and rendered thei;! serfs to their German masters. The Estlis outnumber the Germans in the old Province of I'sthonia twenty-nine to one; yet nine-tentlis of all the hnd is held by Ger- mans. In the former Proviiur nf Livunia the Esths constitute nearly half the population, while the Germans are less tlian oue-fiftientb. There the lantl is divided into estates averag- ing over ten thousand acres in extent, none owned by an Esth or Lett, but almost invariably by a German. Tlic Russian Government at times endeavored by agrarian laws to alleviate the condition of the peasant. Such efforts failed against tlie stolid resistance of tlie great ])roprietors. The Esths have clung devotedly to their na- tional language, the sole inheritance from their l)ast. They love poetry and song. Their phy- sical characteristics are I'innic ; their faces short, broad, beardless: their foreheads low, moutiis small, arms long, legs short. Despite tJieir extreme poverty, education is relatively advanced. .Ml but 4 per cent arc Lutheran Protestants. Since the sudden universal awakening in 1018, the Esths or the land-owners have been insistent upon natiiMial recognition. But own- ership in the land is their greatest need. nil" LETTS Tlie Letts ;ire one of three cognate tril»es, (lislinct from any otlier in Europe, which once dwell side by side on tlie eastern .sh > = 5 r, S:^ p. = -3 o-i :t: o s:: ^ , i' '-> - O r- ■ c ^ ^ o''-5 !/■ rt O o Q C u j;^ jj ^^ c 5i E .„ ^ ►^ •- n rt .T! '^ - — « « 2 ■' rs •r. ^.-5 r t :: M tc t: ■ >- *j o — o : ;.:f2'S) c.ii =* 7; ■be ^-^'^ A 470 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC AIAGAZINE 471 the Armenian has can be traced to his long subjection and his environment. Most are dark, almost swarthy, with thick, black hair, heavy brows, generous noses, mus- cular and stocky frames, but among them one finds endless variety of form and feature. Not seldom one sees an Armenian woman with the pencilled eyebrows, chiselled features, and Madonna-like beauty of the Italian; or an Ar- menian man tall, lithe, handsome, finely pro- portioned, fit model for the sculptor. In conversation the Armenian language often seems jagged and harsh, but when heard in one of their ancient churches from the lips of some eloquent! preacher, like the Patriarch Nerses, it sounds majestic and awe-compelling, like thunder among the crags. The massacres of the last four and a half years and the deportation of hundreds of thou- sands of helpless victims, all countenanced by Berlin, have been the most terrible experiences even in Armenia's tragic life. The unimpeach- able evidence of atrocities set forth in the Bryce Commission's report on this theater of war, and the testimony of Henry Morgenthau, former United States Ambassador to Turkey, comprise one of the most appalling indictments of the Prussian-directed Turk in the history of mankind. THE TURKO-TATARS The Turko-Tatars in Russia number about 4,700,000, in great part remnants from the baleful Empire of the Golden Horde, that held Russia in subjection from 1237 to 1481, and of the Khanate of the Crimea. The penniless Bashkirs, the snub-nosed Kara- Kirghiz and the Kirghiz-kazaks, the broad- eared Kalmucks, the Kipchaks of Kazan, and the more active Nogais have been restrained and tamed. Some are Moslems, some Bud- dhists, some Sheitan worshippers, some no- madic, some sedentary. The chief interest they excite is anthropological. To the ethnologist they are merely reminders of a merciless past. THE RU^IANIAXS* It is a surprising fact that, adjacent to the Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube, sur- rounded by powerful Hungarian and Slavic peoples, separated from Italy and all things Italian by five hundred miles of distance and sixteen hundred years of time, we find, in the words of Ubicini, "A people compact and homogeneous, whose features, language, monu- ments, customs and very name show its Italian origin." Two expressions in a well-known handbook condense the connection of ancient Dacia, the * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine, "Notes on Rumania" (December, 1912) ; "Rumania and Her Ambitions," by Frederick Moore (October, 1913) ; "Rumania, the Pivotal State," by James Howard Gore (October, 1915), and "Rumania and Its Rubicon," by John Oliver La Gorce (September, 1916). modern Rumania, with Rome: "A. D. 107, Dacia made a province.'' "A. D. 274, Dacia given up to barbarians."' The first suggests the settlement of thou- sands of Roman families, the universal speak- ing of "lingua rustica" by Roman soldiers, and the influx of prosperity that caused that flourishing Roman colony to be called "Dacia Felix." The second suggests the abandon- ment of Dacia to that unbroken chain of evils and misfortunes from which the people were not delivered until the middle of the last cen- tury. Nevertheless, such was the virility of the Rortian language and civilization and such the persistence of the Dacians, that from them have been evolved the Rumanians of today. The name Vlach, by which, until recently they were commonly known abroad, is the Slavic rendering of Romaioi, Romans, which the Dacian peasants call themselves but which also means robust or strong. Their numerous compatriots who inhabit the Pindus range in Greece are always spoken of as Kutzo-Vlachs or Lame Vlachs. Yet, while the Rumanians are Latin in all else, geography rendered them communicants of the Eastern Orthodox Church. More than once, when invaders held their country in subjection for generations, the peo- ple took refuge across the Danube or in the mountains. Their historian, Kogalnitchano. asserts "The Rumanians would not espouse the women of another nation," and with satis- faction quotes Gibbon as saying, "The Vlachs are surrounded by barbarians without mixing with them." After the last Tatar invasion, in the thir- teenth century, when the nomads, sated with slaughter and booty, had withdrawn eastward, the people gradually came back and settled the provinces of Wallachia on the Danube and Moldavia between the Carpathians and the Pruth. Both were conquered by the Turks two hundred years later. Turkish governors, called hospodars, exploited the provinces. The intellectual national awakening of a hundred j'ears ago hastened their deliverance. Europe guaranteed the two provinces au- tonomy in 1856. Three years afterward they were united as the Principality of Rumania. The nomination of Carol, a Hohenzollern prince, as the new ruler was approved by popular vote, 685,069 persons voting "Aye" and 224 voting "No." The choice was happy. Prince until 1881, then King until 1914. he and the Queen, "Carmen Sylva," deserved and en- joyed the love of their people. The present Queen Marie is a charming, patriotic writer. Allied with Russia, Rumania took an effec- tive part in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8, for which she was ill-requited, being obliged to cede Bessarabia to Russia in exchange for a portion of "the land of mountains, fens and iDarren steppes," called the Dobrudja. A fur- ther portion was acquired after the Balkan war of 1913. The Dobrudja, situated between the lower Danube and the Black Sea, is capable of de- 472 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 473 velopment and is of military importance, Turks, Tatars, and Circassians are numerous in its heterogeneous population. In Rumania are found a great number of Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Serbian settlers. The entire population is 7,508,000. In the adjacent provinces of Bessarabia, Buko- vina and Transylvania, Rumanians predomi- nate. In Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary proper and Serbia are many more. Their entire number, in and outside the kingdom, is prob- ably about 13,000,000. The excess at birth of males over females is greater among the Rumanians than among any other European people except the Greeks. Ten- dency to such excess is noticeable among most Greco-Latins. The Rumanians have special fondness for the French. They are not displeased when their country is spoken of as an Eastern France, and they themselves call their capital, Bucharest, "the Eastern Paris." Rumania, like) Belgium, Montenegro, and Serbia, has had her full share in the tragedy of the just-ended war. Surrounded by foes, isolated as she has always been, further strug- gle only intensifying the horrors of the defeat, she submitted for a time to her conquerors. THE RACES OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA * The Balkan Peninsula is the most eastern of the great peninsulas of southern Europe. It derives its name from the Balkan Mountains, its central and most distinctive feature. Along the Danube, its northern boundary, ran the natural route of migratory peoples, many of whom were diverted southward by the fertile and extensive plain which slopes from the Bal- kans to the river. To the west and south sharply defined mountain ranges offered abode or asylum in their limited plateaus and fos- tered the growth of individual communities. No other equal area of 185,000 square miles in Europe presents equal variety of contour and surface and natural resources and, in con- sequence, such diversity of person and occupa- tion among its inhabitants. The occupants of the peninsula could be held together only if they constituted a single peo- ple, united by common sentiments, or if all were under the control of a single supreme authority which none of them could resist. As far as history knows, no united people has ever dwelt upon it. Seldom and only for a time, has any supreme authority existed in it. In every age the Balkan Peninsula is a mael- strom of races, peoples, languages, religions, and of all conceivable ambitions and passions, dashing and breaking themselves upon one another. The Balkan Peninsula includes Turks. Alba- nians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, and Mon- tenegrins. * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine, "The Changing Map of the Balkans," by Frederick Moore (February, IQU)- The political boundaries of these States and provinces only vaguely coincide with the boun- daries of race and language. Instead, every- where there is a widely overlapping border- land, in which languages pass into one another, where adjacent States put forward extravagant but often honest claims, and where many of the inhabitants themselves do not really know who they racially are or where politically they should belong. In consequence, an active propa- ganda has been carried on for years and large sums of money expended to develop inclina- tions. THE OTTOMAN TURKS * The early life of no other Eastern people is so definitely known as that of the Ottoman Turks. Led by Ertogrul, a Tatar chief, nearly four hundred pagan nomad families wandered into Asia Minor about 1230. They had fled from Khorassan at the invasion of Jenghiz Khan. Asia Minor at that time was broken up into numerous petty States and feudal districts, of which the moribund Seljuk Sultanate of Iconium, or Roum, was the most considerable. Becoming voluntary converts to Islam and faithful allies of the Sultan Ala-Eddin, the four hundred saw their prestige and power rapidly increase. Moslems and Christian and Jewish renegades flocked to their tents. In 1281 Osman, or Othman, succeeded to leader- ship. His name, signifying "Breaker of Bones,'' was of happy omen to his ferocious followers. On the death of Ala-Eddin, last of the Sel- juks, his kingdom broke into many fragments Osman undertook to conquer them all and pro- claimed himself "Padiskhahi ali Osmani," sov- ereign of the Ottomans. Flis people have ever since called themselves Ottomans, regarding as insult or injury the name Turk or barbarian, applied to them by the Arabs and by the Euro- peans in general. The Arabs, who disdain the Turks, employ the name with design. The gradual extension of the Ottoman Em- pire was due to its first seven sultans, each succeeded by his son, all ruthless destroyers. The seventh, Mohammed II, the Conqueror, captured Constantinople in 1453. Continuous subsequent conquests, reaching from Persia to the Atlantic and the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, terrified Europe. The English prayer-book to this day, in its Good Friday Collect, makes deprecatory intercession against the "Turks." Constantly receding since the defeat at Vienna by the PoHsh John Sobieski, in 1683, * See also, in N.\tional Geographic Maga- zine, "The Young Turk," by Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester (January, 1912) : "Grass Never Grows Where the Turkish Hoof Has Trod," by Sir Edwin Pears (November, IQ12) ; "The Possible Solutions for the Eastern Prob- lem," by Viscount James Bryce (November, 1912) ; "Life in Constantinople," by H. G. Dwight (December, 1914). and "Constantinople and Sancta Sophia," by Dr. E. A. Grosvenor (May, 1915)- To unite all the Jugo-Slavs has long been tlie aspiration of IcacU-rs among the Croats an> ^"S «J o ■503 o ■- « c« u c -^•^^ E £ 476 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 477 the exercise of power, but. abject and harmless in defeat. There is no more cruel master; there is none more submissive when subdued. The Ottoman administration, always con- suming, never producing, but repressive of pro- duction, has blasted every people it controlled. Even the Turks themselves, impoverished and oppressed, diminish in numbers. The govern- ment, based solely on force, has always ruth- lessly employed any means to prolong its ex- istence. It has shrunk from no enormity of massacre or extermination. Hundreds of years ago it adopted the color of blood for its flag, and a formal title of the Sultan is "Hounkiar," or the Slayer of Men. THE ALBANIANS * The Albanians occupy a territory east of the Adriatic, roughly corresponding to ancient Epirus and southern Illyricum. Their origin and language present many difficulties. Pro- fessor Ripley believes they are "indigenous to their country." Dr. Deniker calls them "a sepa- rate Adriatic or Dinaric race." It is reasona- ble to regard them as the most ancient people of southeastern Europe, descendants of the Pelasgi. Their language is supposed to be the sole survivor of the primitive Thraco-Illyrian group. Its vocabulary is encumbered with many Greek, Latin, Italian, Slavic, and Turkish words, but the grammar is its own. The Albanians show remarkable racial te- nacity. Albanian communities in Italy and Sicily, dating from the fifteenth century and having a population of over 200,000,' have fused little with the Italians, and in marked degree retain their own language and customs. So to less extent do 200,000 Albanians domesticated in Greece. Disdain of foreigners and pride of ancestry, though ignorant of what that ancestry is, keep them apart. This pride and their mountain life have fostered a passionate love of independ- ence. Grote describes them as "poor, rapacious, fierce, and formidable in battle," but they have many virtues, are faithful, generous, and hos- pitable. Nowhere is a woman safer than in their wild mountains. Known by foreigners as Albanians, people of the snow-land, they call themselves skipe- tari, or mountaineers. At home and abroad thev number about 1,500,000. Of their numer- ous" tribes, the Catholic Mirdites, who allow no Moslem in their vicinity, are the most impor- tant and powerful. The river Shkumbi, along which may still be traced the Roman Egnatian Way, separates the Christian Albanians into two groups, north- ward, the Roman Catholic Ghegs ; southward, the Greek Orthodox Toscs. The former use the Latin alphabet, the latter the Greek alpha- * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine, "The Albanians," by Theron J. Damon (November, IQ12) ; "Recent Observations m Albania." by Brig. Gen. George P. Scnven (August, 1918). bet. They have no accepted alphabet of their own, though many attempts, some of them curious, have been made to supply the lack. At least half the Albanians are Moslems, result of conquest, who will gradually return to their former Christian faith or emigrate. George Castriota, or Scanderbeg, who de- feated the Turks continuously through twenty years, is their national hero. Marco Bozzaris, of whom Fitz-Greene Halleck wrote, "At mid- night in his guarded tent," was also an Alba- nian. So was ]\Iahomet Ali Pasha, the fore- most Moslem figure of the nineteenth century. European statecraft never showed itself more humorous than when, in 1913, it designated the timorous Prince of Weid to be king of the Albanians. THE GREEKS * A map of Greek settlements, as they existed in the sixth century before the Christian era, would serve as a map of the lands they inhabit today. Their colonists in southern France and southern Italy have merged in the modern Frenchman and Italian. Otherwise, the Greece of five hundred years before Christ and the Greece of nineteen hundred and eighteen years after Christ coincide. Torrents of invasion have flooded Greece — Goths, Venetians, Lombards, French, Germans, Ottomans, Albanians, Vlachs, many of whom have permanently remained. Constantine Por- phyrogenitus wrote, in the tenth century, "All Greece has become Slav." Henri de Valen- ciennes, in the thirteenth century, thought Greece had become French. Fallmerayer, in the nineteenth century, demonstrated that the Greeks have "hardly a drop of true Greek blood in their veins." A subject people since their conquest by the Romans, through three centuries serfs of west- ern Europe, the next three centuries slaves to Turks, the Greeks have known freedom only since those seven years of horror which we call the Greek Revolution (1821-8). Yet their civilization was able to permeate the Eastern Roman Empire, so that after the seventh century the latter is called the Greek or Byzantine. Until early in the nineteenth century all Turkish Christian subjects in the peninsula were considered Greeks. Their im- perishable language, daily heard in the ritual of their Church, was and is spoken, in however debased and corrupt a form, by Greeks every- where. Yet despite decimation and an almost unlim- ited intermingling of foreign elements, the Greek remains the same in physical features, manner of life and occupation, and personal characteristics and tastes. His face is still * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine "Greece and Montenegro" (March, 1913)- and "Greece of Today," by U. S. Senator George Higgins Moses (October, 1915), and ^'Saloniki," by H. G. Dwight (September, 1916). « u r: E ' « c: - C- O (« C ^ ' o «- <" «« fS «, <« _- n H — a > o C ^J2 c c. S ^ « , •- r. c£ := c^ tH Si 42 E in > £■0 1/1 E ;^ i$ , in Nation ai, Gi:oCRArnic Mac.a- ziNi:, "Where I'.ast Meets West." by Marian Cruger Coffin (May, iS). and "Ivast of the Adriatic," by Kenneth McKenzie (.December, 191-'). Photograph from Underwood & Underwood THE OLD CAPITAL OP A NEW NATION : PRAGUE, CZECHO-SLAVIA The Royal Castle and St. \'itus Cathedral. The palace was begun in 1344, and the first stone was laid by Charles IV. It has 711 apartments and three grand halls. It was the home of Bohemia's own rulers from medieval times until 1620, when the kingdom was crushed by allied armies in the battle of Bila Hora (White HilH, a plateau on the outskirts of the city. Since that battle the Czechs in Bohemia have sought continually to regain their freedom. In the open and in secret they have never ceased to agitate their cause. It was in the city of Prague that, sixty years ago, the Sokol, or Gymnastic Association, was started, with the secret purpose of some day throwing off the Austrian yoke (see illustration, page 488). 487 C o c bi « < "5 ^- rt 3 ^'S n •_ - c: ~ ri :: t; ^ ^ c w "^ - £i w >. '/I «y as o o ■' ^ O is rf 5 L ■- o ^ S< .i: ^ t. O N C 4^ -1-1 o tn bf o " r, t. ro « X -^ o -^ .u c >, p P £ y 2 -— ■;- -• •— THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 489 In habits and purpose they are in sharp con- trast to the Croats and Slavonians, their near kin. Constantly intermarrying with Germans, Hungarians and Italians, they have seemed until very recently little affected by racial con- cerns. They are industrious, pliant, little in- clined to resist or complain. Perhaps in con- sequence the Austrians treated them with a moderation shown to no other subject Slavs. They number about 1,350,000, are Roman Catholics and use the Latin alphabet. THE SLAVONIANS The Slavonians, people who have appro- priated the ethnic name of their race, are neighbors of the Croats on the north. In 1840 the Hungarians imposed the Magyar on both as the official language, whereupon the smoulder- ing hatred for all things Hungarian burst into flame. Everywhere insurrection broke out. After 1868 the Croatian-Slavonians enjoyed the empty honor of being entitled the King- dom of Croatia-Slavonia. Controlled directly by Hungary, their Ban or King was appointed by the Hungarian Premier and was subject to instant dismissal by him. The National As- sembly was limited to strictly local affairs, but its every enactment required the approval of the Hungarian minister for Croatia-Slavonia who was himself a member of the Hungarian cabinet. This device of "The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia" was most dexterous for soothing the pride and dictating the action of a subject people. Temporarily successful, in the end it enraged the inhabitants, as they real- ized how plausibly they had been duped. CZECHO-SLOVAKIA * The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was an anomaly, both as to its system and as to the ethnical composition of its inhabitants. A ref- erence to its method will throw some light upon present and future conditions. Austria-Hungary consisted of two equal and independent parts, Austria and Hungary. In Austria in 1910 there were 9,950,000 Austrian Germans as against 18,243,000 non-Germans of various races, mainly Slav. In Hungary in 1910 there were 10,051,000 IMagyars as against 10.836,000 non-Magyars of various races. The Germans, though but one-third the popu- lation in the one, were dominant there and the IMagyars (see page 497), though less than half the population in the other, were dominant there. To maintain this ascendancy of these two minorities summed up all the internal policy and determined most of the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary. The Austrian-Germans and the Magyars al- ways disliked each other. The Austrian was a foreigner at Buda-Pest and the Mag>'ar at =^ See also, in National Geographic Maga- zixE. "The Land of Contrast" (Austria-Hun- gary), by D. W. and A. S. Iddings (December, 1912), and "Hungary, a Land of Shepherd Kings," by C. Townley Fullani (October, 1914). Vienna. But each recognized that his own po- litical salvation depended largely on alliance with the other. To the Austrian especially it was an absolute necessity. The ascendancy of each was to be ascribed in part to long monop- oly of power and to superior cleverness in manipulation. But always it could count on jealousies and divisions among the Slavic subjects, a condi- tion always encouraged. More than once the hopes of some one of its subject Slavic peo- ples have approached realization, only to be thwarted by the opposition of other Slavs or by its own dissensions. The disruption of the Austro-Hungarian Empire left the Magyars in much the same •position as before, but broke Austria into frag- ments. The Austrian Germans still formed a compact body, but each of the subject Slavic peoples sprang to a realization of the national idea. The Germans inhabit a large territory, ex- tending from Switzerland south of Bavaria to a little east of Vienna; also a belt of German population almost surrounds the Czechs, and German enclaves are dotted like islands in the midst of neighboring Magyars and Slavs. Despite frequent usage, it must not be for- gotten that the word Austrian never was iden- tified with or represented a nation. It is a convenient distinguishing term, as in saying that the Austrian Germans have strong sym- pathies' with the Germans in the former Ger- man Empire and will ultimately unite with them. The former South Slav, or Jugo-Slav, sub- jects of Austria-Hungary, the Bosnians, Hel- vats, Croats, Slavonians, Dalmatians, and Slovenes, were described among the races of Jugo-Slavia, where they are placed by geogra- phy. The other Slavic peoples, former subjects of Austria, are the Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks, and Ruthenians. The Czechs, together with the Slovaks and Moravians, are now recognized by the United States and the Entente Allies as forming the independent Czecho-Slovak nation. On the map one remarks the broad area, inhabitated by Germans and Alagyars, which separates the Czecho-Slovaks from the Jugo-Slavs. THE CZECHS* The Czechs or Bohemians are the farthest west, surrounded except on the east by a Ger- man population. Bohemia, Czech in Slavic, de- rives its name from the Boii, a Celtic people who once occupied the country and who were succeeded by various German tribes. Long afterward the Czechs took possession, prob- ably during the great Slavic invasion of the sixth century. The Czech nobles or land-proprietors soon adopted German ways and spoke only German. Christianized by Saint Methodius, the middle * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine. "Bohemia and the Czechs," by Ales Hrdlicka (February, 1917). 490 491 492 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE classes became communicants of the Eastern Orthodox Churcli, the ritual of which in each country of its faith was always celebrated in the vernacular of the people. When after- ward they changed to Roman Catholics, Latin irt church services superseded the Cyrillic alphabet and the old Slavic ritual. The Czech language, thus excluded from the Church by Latin and from society by German, became the peculiar heritage of the common people. As long as Bohemia was an inde- pendent State, neither persuasion nor persecu- tion could force them to give it up. After Bohemia became an Austrian province, all obtainable Czech books and manuscripts were burned and the use of Czech in writing or in schools was prohibited under heavy pen- alties. But the Czech persisted in his pas- sionate devotion to his mother tongue. Lan- guage and nation became synonymous, both denoted by the same word, jacyk. The lan- guage kept the nation alive and saved it from absorption. Meanwhile it produced such wealth of early poetry as is found among no other Slavs. The political existence of the Czechs re- sembled in striking degree that of their racial kindred, the Poles. In both there was found a stjong, sound, patriotic common people. In both there was the same vacillating royalty, eventually elective, and above people and king a turbulent, over-rich nobility, the patriotism of which seemed usually subordinate to class or personal interest. But the humbler Czechs were of more independent spirit, less easily cowed, and sometimes able to force the nobles to follow instead of lead. Czech romance finds expression in its grand- est figure, John Huss ; in the blind, unconquer- able leader of Zizka; in the stirring, futile hero- isms of the Hussite wars; in Comenius, one of the foremost educators of history, author of "The Visible World," the first illustrated book for children, and even in its militant University of Prague, the most venerable school of learn- ing in Central Europe. The evil genius of the Czechs was long the House of Hapsburg. Though afterward nomi- nally existent, their kingdom was submerged at the battle of White Mountain in 1620, only its name surviving among the titles of the Au- strian Emperor. The royal history of Bohemia twice touches England in an interesting way. From tlie Bo- hemian King, I'crdinand, who lost his throne at White Mountain, was descended George I. the first English sovereign of the House of Hanover. The crest of the Prince of Wales with its three feathers and motto, "Ich Dien," was formerly borne by the Bohemian kings. After the great victory of Crccy in 1346, it was picked up by Edward the Black Prince near the body of the blind Bohemian king John, who had fallen in the battle, and has ever since been the crest of the heir to the English crown. In the former kingdom of Bohemia there are about 7,000,000 inhabitants, nearly four- fifths of whom arc Czechs, and the remainder mostly Germans. Many other Czechs live in Austrian and Prussian Silesia, among the Mo- ravians and Slovaks, and in the United States. The recent exploits of the Czecho-Slovaks in Siberia, Russia, France, and Italy won the ad- miration of the world and were no small factor in gaining from the Entente Allies the recog- nition of Czecho-Slovakia as an independent State. THK MOR.WI.XNS The Moravians, centered on the Morava, occupy a plateau of the size of Massachusetts, south of the Czechs and Slovaks, whom they much resemble. They were Christianized by Saint Methodius. In the ninth century their kingdom, which reached the Oder and the Drave, was overwhelmed by the iMagyars. Disciples of John Huss founded the Mora- vian Brethren, long a religious force in Bohe- mia and Poland. Almost destroyed in the Thirty Years War, the few survivors took refuge in Saxony. Persecuted there, many emigrated to Georgia, in America. John Wes- ley came in contact with them, and their ex- emplary, persuasive influence resulted in his conversion and that of his brother Charles. They were the first to insist on the conversion of the heathen as the duty of the Church. Since- then they have been foremost in missionary labors. In Moravia the Brethren have almost disappeared. All but four per cent of the ' 1,700,000 Moravians are Roman Catholics. In- dustrious, enterprising, intelligent, lovers of liberty, they were always restless under Aus- trian rule and deserve the freedom that now seems theirs. THE SLOVAKS The Slovaks are mostly found in the north- ern provinces of Hungary. On the east they mingle with the Ruthenians and on the west with the Czechs, on whom they are wont to depend. They are a peaceful, primitive people. Having no national church, never liavinu: known independence until iQiS, they inherit few traditions, but many popular songs. Their nobles are completely magyarized. I'ntil recently. Slovak merchants and the middle class generally wished to be taken for Germans. But the people have always resisted foreign control. Despite its sharp division into dialects, they have always cherished their lan- guage, their sole bond of union. The Mag>-ars treat them with brutal contempt. Manv have emigrated to the United States. Altogether tiicy number about 2,500.000. During the last fifty years there has been a marked awakening in education and national feeling. No longer indifferent to foreign domi- nation, they enter upon a national existence of their own. Till-: KUTIIKNIANS Ruthenian. meaning Russian, was the name given by the .Austriaiis to such of their sub- Photograph by A. \V. Cutler MORAVIAN PEASANTS IN THE VICINITY OF PRESSBURG Short skirts and Wellington boots seem to be the fashion here. Note the elaborately braided trousers and the cap made of gold cording worn by the man. The Moravians are to be found in the vicinity of the Morava River, occupying a plateau about the size of Massachusetts, directly south of the land of the Czechs and Slovaks (see page 492). 493 y A. \V. Cutler SLOVAK SISTKKS IN TIli:iR SUNDAY l-INKKV The Slovaks arc a peaceful, i)riiiiilivc' pt'tiplc, iiilurilinK few traditions, hut many popular songs. They are to be found mostly in tlie northern provinces of Hungary, mingling in the east with the Kuthenians and in the west with tiie Czeclis (see page AV-)- 494 LIKE FATHER, LIKE SON IN HUNGARY Note that the costumes are identical except that the sleeves of the garment worn by the l>ov are embroidered and not decorated with colored wools, as in the case of his lather. The long apron, worn by the young and old of both sexes, is a feature of the native costume seen in Mezokovesd, a town to the east of Buda-Pest. Only by personal inquiry could one determine whether the subjects of this photograph are Slovaks or Ruthenians. These two branches of the Slav race mingle almost indistinguishably in this section of Europe. 405 496 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE I'lvASANT TYIMCS IN II UNCAKN', NOKT I ll'.AS'l i'liulugrapU OF BUDA-l'i;sr Tlic woman on the rifilit carries lu-r ^jaiidcr in tiic same fashion that the Indian s(|ua\v carries her papoose. Tlie maid of Holland wears the distinctive badRC of her town or district on her head; the Sh>vak peasant girl sometimes wears Iiers on iier foot, as in the case of the girl to the left, whose hoot-heel, clahorately eml.roidrred, l.etokens the village from which she trami)s. jects as are Little Rnssians. Tiicre are than 3,500,000 Ruthenians in the Austrian inces of Galicia and lUikovina, territories from Poland. In iUikovina they are llnzulians. They differ in few respects from the Little Russi.ms of Russia. In Galicia tluy form nearly half the iidi.ihit.mts, the aristocracy being Polish and the middle classes German or Jewish. Though Roman Catholics, they use the Sl.ivic liturgy and the I'lastern Orthodox ceremoni.al. They were traiupiil under the Austrian rule 1 and in general manifest little sympathy for the 1 Czecho-J^lovaks or for the Poles. They natu- rally alliliate with their ne.irer kin, the IHcrai- ni.ins. or Kittle Russians (see page 4O3). They ;ire well known in the I'nited States for indus- try .ind intelligence. The Rtithenian, Zolki- evski, i)alriot and warrior, was the Chevalier li.ivard of the Slavs. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 497 lotograph by A. W. Cutler DAMES AND DAMSELS RETURNING HOME FROM IMASS ON A SUNDAY MORNING In the land of the Slovaks, north of Pressburg, the young girls (those in front) usually go bareheaded, but after marriage their hair is "done up" and placed under a cone-shaped basket at the back of the head. When the wearer is on the street, this marriage millinery is covered with a fringed silk kerchief of bright hue. THE AIAGYARS The Magyars are the dominant race in Hun- gary and the real founders of the kingdom. Finno-Ugrians, they first appear in Europe as a nomadic horde in the ninth century, crushing the ]\Ioldavian kingdom and seizing the terri- tory which they at present occupy. From this center their wild raids over Europe made them a universal terror for sixty years. Then a severe defeat at Augsburg by the German Em- peror, Otto I, showed their isolation among enemies of different race and faith, more civil- ized and more powerful than themselves. Political considerations seem to have deter- mined their leaders to adopt Christianity and enter the Roman Church. Wise sovereigns tranquilized the country and brought in many immigrants. In numerous cases special privi- leges were accorded. All others, native and foreign, except the Magyars, were treated as subject races, on whom most of the taxes were levied. The system of taxation was recently modified, but the principle of inferior races is still in force (see page 489). The Magyars consider the Golden Bull, granted by Stephen II seven years after Magna Charta, as the earliest proclamation of consti- tutional rights in continental Europe. It con- firms the excessive privileges of the great barons, the great wealth and power of whom were later, even under the ablest kings, to plunge the' nation into anarchy and reduce the masses to serfdom. The Magyars were for more than a century the buckler of Christendom against the Otto- man Turks. Their illustrious leader was Hun- yadi, "the incarnation of Christian chivalry." They have never recovered from their crushing defeat by the Turks at Mohacs in 1526. Their general condition was not improved by the fierce broils into which the Reformation plunged the JNIagyars, among whom for a time Protestantism was predominant. Through the marriage of a IMagyar princess to an Austrian Archduke, the succession passed to the House of Hapsburg, when the Magyars soon found themselves also treated as a subject race. Discontent brought about the attempted revo- lution under Louis Kossuth. Defeated, their leaders took refuge in Turkey. Combined Russia and Austria could not compel the Sultan to violate the laws of hospitality and give them up. This fact the Magyars have always grate- fully remembered. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-7S several deputations of Magyars vis- ited Constantinople to emphasize their friend- ship for their blood kindred, the Ottoman Turks. In Hungary in 1910 there were 10,051.000 498 THF. NATIONAL GF.Of^K AI'H IC MA(;\ZINH mMf Instead of seeking to amalgamate the peoples of alien blood residing within the confines of their country, the Magyars pursued the unwise policy of treating all persons not of their own kin as subject races, upon whom most of the taxes were levied. As a result, instead of being a melting pot, Hungary became a retort, confining racial elements explosively antag- fmistic one toward the f)ther (see page 407). Magyars as against 5,380,000 various Slavs, 2,0-19,000 Rumanians, j,o37,(k)o (lermans, 273.000 Gypsies, and n}3,ooo mcnibers of other races. A. glance at tin- map reveals liow ominous arc the racial influences surrounding the Magyars. West, tiiere are the Germans; also, as the i)ink enclaves on the map indicrite, mnnerous solid German communities in the very heart of the Magyars; north, the Czccho-Slovaks; east, the Rumanians; south, the Jugo-Slavs — all these like magnets attracting tliose of tlieir kin still under Magyar rule. Nor is the material outlook more reassuring. The Magyar nobles are land-poor, while the Germans anil Jews are the chief employers of lal)or, carry on the trade, and, the Jews espe- cially, control the press. Tlie Magyars are, with the exception of the I-'inns, theoidy thoroughly Europeanized Kinno- Ugrian people. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGXZINK 499 THE POLES * Next to the Russians, of whom they were long the rivals and foes, the Poles are numer- ically the most important of the Slavs. They first appeared in Great, or North, and Little, or South, Poland in the tenth century, where they found other Slavic tribes in possession. The wise policy of their kings early induced the whole nation to profess Christianity. Of medium size, with round heads and healthful faces, the blond more common than the brunet, their physical appearance has ap- parently changed little. The working classes, who constitute nine-tenths of the nation, have always been laborious, frugal, enduring, tem- perate rather than abstemious, and intensely patriotic. Those qualities distinguish the thou- sands of Poles in the United States. Their szlacta, or nobles, have shown themselves im- petuous, brave to rashness, chivalrous, insub- ordinate, emotional, artistic. During the formative period Poland was con- solidated by the dynasty of the great Lithua- nian, Jagellon, the Polish Wadislaus II — a suc- cession of princes unsurpassed in constructive ability. Union with the Lithuanians doubled the population and the natural resources. To- gether they crushed the Teutonic Knights at Tanncnberg in 1410 and half a century later at the peace of Thorn pushed them east of the Vistula. The Polish lands on the Baltic, to- gether with Danzig and Marienberg, were recovered. The Duchy of Mazovia, of which Warsaw was the center, five centuries inde- pendent, voluntarily joined the kingdom which a few years later spanned Europe from the Baltic to the Black Sea. The Reformation, regarded with suspicion as having a German origin, only for a time disturbed the country. The advantageous situation of the kingdom, the admirable qualities of its common people, and the development already attained, seemed to assure the greatness and permanence of the Polish State. Yet disappointment meets us on every page. The brilliant passages are episodes without connection or result. Nowhere else is so much valor wasted. The chasm was always widen- ing between the nobles and the common people. The people paid all the taxes. The r^obles, all equal, possessed all the wealth and power, but had no sense of obligation or responsibility. Intrepid in battle, they were ready to fight for the country only when so inclined. The system of government was oligarchic in the extreme. Succession to the powerless throne was elective, native or foreigner alike eligible. Each election was an orgy of turbu- lence and bribery. Twice the throne was put up at auction. The liberum veto, estabhshed in 1652, whereby the negative vote of a single member of the Diet nullified any act or all the * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine. "Partitioned Poland," by William J. Sho- walter (January, 1915), and "Devastated Po- land," by Frederick Walcott (May, 1917). acts of all the rest, culminated the anarchy and eventually brought about the destruction of Poland. Yet the criminal follies of a privileged class in no way excuse or palliate the iniquity of the three partitions of Poland in 1773, 1793, and 1795 by Prussia, Russia, and Austria. It must be noted that the first partition was confirmed by the Polish Diet, in which nearly all the members accepted foreign bribes. The belated heroic resistance of Kosciuszko. of a handful of nobles and of the infuriated common people glorifies the fall of the State which some historians, confused by the farce of election, still call the "Republic" of Poland. By these partitions Russia acquired iSi,ooo square miles of territory, with 6,000,000 inhab- itants ; Austria, 45,000 square miles, with 2,500,- 000 inhabitants ; Prussia, 57,000 square miles, with 2.500,000 inhabitants. The Poles under the Austrians were in the main kindly treated. Also, being Roman Cath- olics, there was no religious antipathy. Under the Russians every harsh measure was em- ployed to accomplish their russification. Those under the Prussians were the most pitiably situated of all. In the efi^ort to make them Germans there was no limit to the systematic, persistent cruelty directed against all classes and ages. Poland has enriched the world in music, art, and literature. The national dances, the polo- naise and the mazurka, were always accom- panied by singing. Copernicus is Poland's greatest name. Sienkiewicz, victim of the world war, by many considered the most bril- liant writer of the day, was a Pole, as is Pad- erewski. Situated between the upper millstone of Prus- sia and the nether millstone of Russia, and at the same time subjected to lateral pressure from Austro-Hungarian armies, the land of the Poles during the world war suffered devasta- tion which exceeds the imagination of those who have not actually witnessed the scenes of rapine, pillage, conflagration, and wanton de- struction. The restitution of a reunited Poland to its loyal common people will be among the wor- thiest achievements of the Allies. One of the most difficult problems which the restored nation's leaders will encounter is the Jewish situation. There are millions of Jews in Polish territory. It is admitted by all thought- ful statesmen that great effort and sacrifice on the part of botli the Poles and the Jews will be necessary before a satisfactory solution can je ■■cached. THE JEWS* On the Arch of Titus in Rome are carved in bold relief laurel-crowned soldiers, bearing a massive seven-branched candlestick. This rep- * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine. "An Old Jewel in the Proper Setting," by Charles W. Whitehair (October. 1918). 500 THE NATIONAL (^KOGRAFHFC MAGAZIXF «»s.^»»rsw^^. The pillows in tlie background are a familiar feature' of most well-to-do homes in Hun- gary. They form one of the chief items in a bride's trousseau; babies are carried on huge pillows: a mammoth pillow is usually the sole covering at niglit. wliile two smaller pillows frequently constitute the bed. resents the Golden Candlestick wliich once lighted the Holy Place in the Temple at Jeru- salem and which was carried directly before the con(juerr)r Titus at his triumph. The Arch commemorates the con(|uesl of Jud.ea in the year 70 and the destruction of the Temple and is contem])oraneous with the first great disper- sion of the Jews. Individuals h.id already set- tled in every city of the lMn|)ire, but there luul been no general exodus. .Now. destitute hence- forth of a religious center, their world pilgrim- age began. The Arch seems not so much a monument to a dead emperor as the perpetual reniinder of a scattered and deathless race. Sixty years after Titus, all Jerusalem was I)Iowed over and Jews were forbidden to ap- proach the spot on pain of death. The very name of the s.ured city was proscribed, the lieathen colony planted on its site being called .IClia Capit(jlina. Hundreds of thousands had I)erished in battle, massacre, and starvation. A people without a capital, coimtry, or shrine, the dispersion oi the survivors went on over all the Unown world. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 501 Photograph by A. \V. Cutler gypsies: the nomads of every land Whence they come and whither they go is a puzzle not only to the dweller in city or country whom they pass, but to the student of races as well. Their origin is lost in the mists of legend and tradition. They are to be found in many countries of Europe, chiefly in the Balkans, in Hungary, and in Spain. He who is fascinated by the romantic subject of the Gypsies tinds in the pages of George Borrow's "Lavengro" and "Romany Rye" accounts of these wanderers which are of absorbing interest. The man in the photograph is holding the silver-crowned cane which he uses when on the road. His coat is adorned with innnense silver buttons (see page 502). Rome had regarded the Jews merely as dan- gerous rebels who must be crushed. After they became powerless, they were allowed to live and prosper as they pleased. The Mishna. or Oral Law, the foundation of the Talmud, was evolved. Meanwhile a marvelous teacher, Mar Samuel, wrought into the very being of the exiles a principle that was to control their attitude and conduct. He taught that every- where "the law of the government is the bind- ing law," and that it was their religious duty, not from expediency, but from moral obliga- tion, to conform to and obey, as far as possible, the laws of any country in which they were found. They were even to pray for the peace of the place wherein they dwelt. Thus was their adaptation to any habitat made incumbent and possible. From it has come about the racial suppleness which bends but never breaks. To it Graetz, the foremost of Jewish historians, declares Judc-eism has owed "the possibility of existence in a foreign country." Through tribulation and agony, un- exampled in tlie life of any other people, it has enabled the Jewish race to survive. The nominal profession of Christianity by Europe set the Jew by himself apart. To an ignorant and brutal age every Jewish hand seemed red with the blood of the Saviour. That Jesus and the apostles were themselves Jews was sometimes denied. Under the mask of piety, every foul passion robbed and mal- treated the Jews. The laws against them were more merciless than the mobs. In Italy they were at times less harshly treated through the influence of the Popes, and sometimes a great sovereign like Cliarlemagne would shine as their open friend. Yet, with rare exceptions, injustice, persecution, and proscription were their invariable, universal lot from Constan- tine far down into modern times. The severe Moslem laws against them were laxly enforced. So they shared the brilliant prosperity of the Moors in Spain until both were expelled. 502 THF. XATIOXAL ('.F.OGRAPHIC MAl^AZINE The Jewish Year Book reckons there are to- day about 10,000,000 in Europe, 3,000,000 in the United States, and 1,000,000 in the rest of tlie world. It reckons 100,000 in I"'rance, 106,000 in the Netherlands. 230,000 in Kuniania, 257,- 000 in the United Kingdom, 615,000 in Germany, 1,300,000 in what was formerly Austria-Hun- gary, and 7,000.000 in Russia. In Ucnmark, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, and Spain there are comparativel}' few. The great number in Russia largely trace back to Casimir the Great, a Polish king. His favorite, Esther, a devoted Jewess like her namesake in the Bible, persuaded Casimir to offer the Jews a home in Poland. The Jews had multiplied, especially in that part of Poland which Russia secured in the three partitions and which, with constantly changing bound- aries, constituted tlie Russian Pale. When Casimir died, in 1370, Polish toleration ended. Instead there was often the ferocious shout, '"Hep, Hep !" with which the pogrom began. A pogrom is an organized massacre and "Hep" is supposedly derived from the initials of "Hierosolyma est perdita." The fires through which the Jews have passed only intensified their remarkable do- mestic and racial dcivotion. There is no posi- jiontfii hapQrtclr«ic!)nJidence where one does nbl^ ^ow fiM ii.^»\\'."* There is no height or distmction— j[5oljtic^l, diijfdinatic, fmancial, dra- tfi^fat.;'*'?*^tu:; ;litilrarV-^,\i*hich the sons and , ^caijAi^eK'T'i^f 4.^r?K-1*haVc' not attained. TMK GYPSIES The Gypsies are first found in the Greek islands and continental Greece early in the fourteenth century. No tradition exists as to how they arrived or whence they came. After- ward, they wandered through the Balkan Pen- insula, settling nowhere except as the greater number were seized along the way and made serfs or slaves. In 1417 they appeared in western Europe, showing a peculiar pass or safe-conduct wherein they were called Tsigani. This pass, signed by Sigismund, king of Hungary and German emperor, granted permission to go wherever they pleased in the king's dominions, ordered his subjects to show them kindness and protection, and forbade interference with them of any sort. A little later tiicir roving bands reached Italy, Francj, .ind the Britisli Islands. Believed to have come from Egypt, their English name was (iyi)sies. The French, how ever, called them Btjhemians, thinking they had originated in Bohemia. They called themselves Rom, supposed to mean nitiii. This term was possibly picked uj) in passage through south- eastern i**nrope. .'\inong their many other names were llagarenes, children of llagar. Saracens, as from Arabia, and .Xthingani, or "Touch-me-nots," from a heretical sect in Asia Minor. Restrictive laws have hami)ered and some- times entirely curtailed their former vagrancy. Most Gypsies now live in houses, though still retaining their restless propensities. Existing in every country, they have been accurately counted nowhere. There are probably not over 700,000 in Europe, of whom three- fourths are located in Hungary, Rumania, and the Balkan Peninsula, where they enjoy the same civil rights as the other inhabitants. Without coun- try or traditions or religion of their own. they readily profess whatever is nearest. The Gypsies are of wiry figure, with black, often silky, hair; large, shining, black eyes; perfect teeth, regular and white, and a glow- ing rich complexion, which early becomes tawny. Their young women often possess a brilliant but soon fading beauty. In music and dance, the untrammcled freedom of the race fmds full expression. Liszt ascribes to the Gypsies "the origin of Hungarian national music." Many of the most popular Rumanian, Serbian, and Bulgarian ballads and tunes are derived from the Gypsies. Our chief interest in the Gypsy is his lan- guage. Toward the end of the eighteenth cen- tury three scholars, working apart and un- known to one another, discovered that his "jargon" is a primitive Indo-European lan- guage, now spoken nowhere else and contained in no manuscript or book. Corrupted and de- based, yet radically the same, it has been pre- served through uncounted years and unknown wanderings on the lips of this mysterious peo- ple. An eminent Oriental investigator. Dr. Pas- pati, believed that the Romany was an ancient sister of the Sanscrit and that the Gypsy is the most ancient Indo-European in Europe. THE (GERMANS * The name German during these last years has been so blackened and befouled by its own children that it can never regain its f(^rmer place in the respect and esteem of men. But, before militarism destroyed idealism, before the Prussian virus poisoned the German soul, there was no department of research, art, or literature which the Germans did not distin- guish. Obscured from the world's thought to- day by an interposing pall are the thinkers, poets, philosophers, and reformers of Ger- many's great past. The main body of Germans has occupied the s.-ime territory from a period anted.-iting the Christian er.i. Though absorbing many Slavic rlements. they are as a people less composite than the Italians or the French, The number of inhabitants of the German F.mpire at the last census, inclusive of 1.870,000 persons in Alsace-Lorraine .ind of i.j()0.(hx) * See also, in N.\tion'ai. Gi-oi.uai'iiic M.\c..\- ziNi:, "Peasant Life in the Black iMirest," by Karl I'Vederick Geiser ( Sei)tember, 1008) ; "A Corner of Old Wurttemberg." by B. 11. Bux- ton (October. i<)ii): "The German Nation" (September, lou): "I lilde>^lieiin. the Town of Many Gables." by Florence Craig Allirecht (February, 191=;). Photo-ranli by Hrdelyi A FARMKR OF BANFFYIIUXYAD. A VILLAGE OF TRANSVLVAXLV Within the limits of Transylvania ("forest land"), an area of eastern Hungary about half the size of the State of Virginia, reside three "privileged peoples" — the Magyars, the Szeklers, kinsmen of the Magv^ars, and Saxons, descendants of German immigrants who came into the country in the twelfth century. Numerically, however, the most important clement of the population is Rumanian. In addition, there are Jews, Ruthenians, Bulgarians. Slovaks, Serbians, and Greeks. The plurality of Rumanians forms the basis of their country'sclaim to a large portion of this district, rich in m.ines, forests, pasture lands, and river-bottom farms. 503 504 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE •m- jivwisii The Jcwisli Year Book reckons the number of Jews in Europe today as 10,000,000; in the United vStales 3,000,000, and another 1,000,000 scattered tliroughout the rest of the world. In the famous painting here reproduced the Swiss artist, Burnand, depicts two of the Disci- ples, Peter and John, Inirrying to tlic Sepulchre. Tlie canvas hangs in the Museum of the Luxembourg, Paris. foreign residents, was 64,926,000. Subtracting the foreigners, the people of Alsace-Lorraine, and 3,500,000 Slavs, mostly Poles, there remain about 58,cx)0,ooo Germans. .Adjacent, strongly attached to tliem, are the 10,000,000 Austrian Germans and the nearly 300,000 in Luxemburg and Liechtenstein, m.aking a total German population in Central Europe of approximately 70,000,000. The distinction of Low Germans, dwellers in the Lowlands, and High Germans, dwellers further south, on higher ground, early indicated forms of the language and literary expression. More than any other race in Europe, the Germans in Germany have inter-bred among themselves. Tn consequence, they have devel- oped traits which in a smaller people would be termed provincial — inordinate self-satisfaction, sense of superiority to other nations, and marked incapacity as colonizers. While mak- ing good colonists under otlier flags than tlieir own, as colonizers under tluir own II.11-' thcv have failed utterlv. Despite all inducements olTered by their gov- enunent, they were tliemselves reluctant to enn"- grate to German colonies except as State func- tionaries or soldiers. In ioi-|, in the more than 1,000,000 square miles of German coUmial pos- sessions, there were less than 25.000 white resi- dents, inclusive of foreigners. Moreover, Ger- man treatment of the natives is seldom kindly, but in general brutal and inhuman. Yet German enterprise and discontent with former conditions in the fatherland carried them by hundreds of thousands all over the globe. In the Ihiited States there are over 2,500,000 persons who were born in Germany, most of them loyal and efficient .American citi- zens.* There ;ire over 2,000,000 in Hungary and 1,500,000 in Russia, long resident in those cotmtries. In South America there are more ih.an 500,000. In 11)1 I (^icrman or of German origin were * Sec in X\Tiox.\t. Gkoc.k.m'iiic M!.\c,.azink, ■ < )nr I"oreiL;n-Iiorn Citizens" (February, 1017). THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 505 JEWISH CHILDREN IN POLAND The reason for the great number of Jews now found in Poland may be traced back to the days of Casimir the Great, a Polish king, whose favorite, Esther, a devoted Jewess, per- suaded" her royal lover to offer her people a home in his dominions. When Casimir died, in 1370, Polish toleration ended, and during the succeeding centuries the lot of the Jew has been an unhappy one. ]\Iarriage vows are taken early by the Jews in Poland ; a girl scarcely ceases to play with dolls before she has babies of her own, and a woman twenty-five years old is frequently the mother of six or seven children (see page 499)- the reigning houses of Austria-Hungary, Bel- gium, Bulgaria, Denmark, the German Ern- pire, and each of its 25 States except the Slavic dynasty of the two Mecklenburgs ; Great Brit- ain, Greece, Holland, Liechtenstein, Luxem- burg, Norway, Rumania, Russia, and Sweden. In Great Britain the royal house, long thor- oughly anglicised, by royal proclamation in 1917, changed its title from "House of Saxe- Coburg and Gotha" to "House of Windsor." In Belgium and Rumania the rulers identified themselves with their people. The monarchs of the no longer existing Austro-Hungarian, German and Russian empires are either fugi- tive or dead. Until 187 1 the term German was an ethnic or geographical expression without national meaning. There had never been a real German nation. Instead had existed an indefinite num- ber of political units — kingdoms, duchies, free cities, loosely connected or not connected at all — in European wars usually taking opposite sides. The number of such units had been gradually reduced to twenty-five. This was an inheritance from the tribal system, often de- plored by German patriots and statesmen. Act- ing together for the first time in the war of 1870-71, they conquered imperial France. The proclamation of the Empire on January 18, 1871, at Versailles, in the throne room of Louis XIV, the arch foe of the German race, was iTiost spectacular. German tmion seemed achieved. On April 16 the sovereigns of the five larger German States granted the Empire a Constitution, in the making of which tlie people had no share. This Constitution rendered Prussia and her Hohenzollern King supreme in Germany. The Constitution could in no way be changed without tlie consent of the King of Prussia, who was German Emperor, except b\ revolution (see map, page 510). The revolution has now been accomplished But peoples and races remain, though thrones and empires fall. After present troubles are pacified and wrongs righted, in the very center of the continent will exist a compact, homo- 5o6 THE NATION Ai. GEOGRAPHIC AIAGAZIXE geneous, ethnic group of Germans, 70,000,000 strong. Because of the enormities of the pasL four and a half years, this group cannot h^ trusted until they have shown repentance not of a few days or months, hut by a generation or more of decent action. The nascent Slavic republics of Czecho-Slo- vakia (see page 489), Poland (see page 499), and possibly Lithuania (see page 465), to tlie east of the Germans, and of Jugo-Slavia (see pa2:e 485), on the south, could easily be honey- combed with discontent and mutual jealousies by the scheming junker class of Prussians Thereby would be created in the heart of Eu- rope another political volcano always in erup- tion, closely analogous to that which kept the Balkans in continual convulsion prior to the world v/ar. Unless from the Germans are ex- acted such guarantees of good conduct as can neither be escaped nor evaded, the world is handing over these enfranchised races to be- come the ultimate prey of men who are bound neither by justice, nor honor, nor mercy in their dealings with mankind. In the German group specially prominent are the Prussians, the Bavafians, the Saxons, and the three Free Towms of Liibeck, Hamburg, and Eremen. The Free Towns were the largest factor in the spread of German influence during the Middle Ages. These three associated with themselves for mutual protection ninety of the principal commercial cities between the Rhine and Novgorod. This association, called the Hanseatic League, or League of the Guilds, from 1241 for more than four hundred years defended tl:e rights of trade and was supreme in northern Europe. Under normal conditions ihe maritime and commercial interests of Lii- beck, Bremen, and Hamburg are immense. The citizens, proud of their self-governing tradi- tions, are democratic in sentiment. The Saxons are of almost pure Teutonic stock, with slight Slavic admixture. They oc- cup3' one of the most fertile regions of Ger- many. Formerly they were renowned for their independent spirit. For thirty-three years they stubbornly fought against Charlemagne, who finally conquered and Christianized them. Dur- ing the nineteenth century they constantly pro- gressed in constitutional liberty until the Prus- sians occupied their territory in 1866. They rank among the most highly educated people of Europe. Dresden, their capital, is a center of art and industry. More than 95 per cent of the vSaxons are Protestant. TIIE BAVARIANS The Bavarians are racially the most compos- ite people of Germany, being descended from Ciermanized Slavs, earlier Celtic settlers, and Teutonic Marcomanni and Quadi. The latter entered the country from the east and were ■-ailed Baivarii, probably from Bojer, as they had come via Bojerland or Bohemia. They inhabit an immense amphitheater, about 220 miles long and no miles broad, surrounded hv lofty mountains. No other territory of equal size in Germany is enclosed by natural boundaries so distinct; consequently the Ba- varians have developed a character of their own. Physically they are darker, smaller- boned, more natural, and less stiff than Ger- mans generally. They are conservative, re- ligious, and affable. The Passion Play has been rendered every ten years since 1634 by the Bavarian peasants of Oberammcrgau. Sovereigns and people have fostered music and the drama, and their capital, Munich, is a school of all the arts. The bronze doors of the Capitol in Washington were cast in a Bavarian foundry. Count Hum- ford, philanthropist and man of science, born in Woburn, AI::ss., and for eleven years Ba- varian Minister of War and Police, reorganized labor and reformed social conditions. Always hostile to Prussia, the Bavarians since their subjection in 1866 have of necessity sullenly submitted to Prussian control. Re- ligious differences intensify the separation, seven-tenths of the 6,000,000 Bavarians being Roman Cafliolics. the; PRUSSIAN g '■•' The Prussians derive their liame and origin from the Borussi, a fierce, large-boned people, kindred of the Lithuanians and Letts (see pages 464-465), living in the tenth century c:i the lowlands of the Oder, Vistula, and Niemen. Almost exterminated b}' the Teutonic Knights, the survivors besought the intervention of Po- land, which annexed those west of th.e Vistr.la. In 1525 Albert of Hchenzollern, grand master of the Knights, declared himself a Protestant and surrendered his lands to the King of Po- land, who thereupon created Prussia a Grand Duchy and made him Grand Duke. His remote descendant, Frederick, having bought tlie title of king from the emperor at a great price, with extraordinary pomp at Konigsburg, where he was born, crowned himself King of Prussia, January 18, 1 701. The Prussians, though completely German- ized, always differed from and were disliked and mistrusted by the other Germans. \'on Treitschke says of Prussia, "from its beginning the most hated of German States." Goethe wrote, "The Prussian was always a brute and civilization will make him ferocious." Th.e Prussians have always manifested peculiar traits, possibly derived from their common an- cestors, the merciless Knights and the ilerce Borussi. At accession Frederick possessed a kingdom of 40,000 square miles and 1,500,000 inhab- itants. A year ago Prussia comprised 140,000 square miles and 40,000,000 inhabitants. This surprising result was accomplished by a continuous, consistent policy of employing duplicity, violence, or any infamous means to acquire territory and people. While the name * See also, in Xatio.nai. Geographic ]\L\ca- ziNE, "Prussianism," by Secretary of State Robert Lansing, and '"Germany's Dream of World Domination" (June, 1918). 508 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE O Pr. = s:-!^ 1 p. X. rJ.. u p o -^g 1 ^ 5 ^'°s> ■ ''^ 5 f ^ 111 r ;^ gi o :- ^. ^'Jt B ?. -= "^"S in [•;t. she -ont Dul 9 -'-H ^ GREAT I centuri< In the e; Gener 'J r- 3 j/i ,-: "5 ^ J:^ u"^ 'c,;^ ». c-S^.-H f u, ^ c <« L' •• " — •- fc _:§! 524 525 J^hr Plu.toRiapli l>v \ \V rml.r AN IRISHMAN OF TIIIC "OIJ) SCHOOL" AltlinuRli he lias appropriated tlic ICiikIi'sIi laiiKuajie. tlic Irislinian remains a tyiMcal Celt — typical in Iiahit of mind, in disposition, cliaracter, and to a decree in personal appear- ance. The snhiect of this ilhistration. at the age of S.^. walks from his home to Oalway and return every Thursday, a distance of lo miles. He clings to the costume of a hyRone day. Many of our readers ^aw this picturesipie regalia worn hy the Irish division in thc'great 1918 I'ourth of July pageant of the foreign born, held in the National Capital. 526 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 527 THE BELGIANS* THE WALLOONS AND FLEMINGS . The Kingdom of Belgium dates from 1830, when the seven Catholic provinces revoked from distasteful union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands. A spirit of independence, of re- sentment at injustice, of determination to maintain rights, has always animated this heroic people. The ancient Belgse occupied all Gaul from north of the Seine and west of the Rhine. Rheims, Soissons, Amiens, and Beauvais per- petuate the names of the Remi, Suessiones, Ambiani, and Bellovaci, their warlike tribes who fought against Caesar. The Belgians now comprise two main fac- tors — the Walloons and the Flemings. The Walloons, from a common Teutonic word meaning foreign, are found in southern Belgium, where are Liege and Namur upon the Meuse; in the French department of Nord, with its cities of Lille, Douai. Cambrai, and Valenciennes, and in a few Rhenish villages. They speak French and have a strong attach- ment to France. The Flemings are more numerous and occupy the greater part of the kingdom and of the coast of Nord, with Dunkirk. They speak Flemish, a German dialect. Originally German in lineage, they are above all intensely national and have equalled the Walloons in courage and devotion. During the last war the Germans resorted to every artifice to alienate them from the Walloons, but without avail. Tn 1910, of the 7,571,000 Belgians, 3,221,000 spoke only Flemish, 2,833,000 only French, and 871,000 both French and Flemish. The Bel- gian Government at first opposed official use of Flemish, but in 1878 it was made equal with French in the courts and administration and in 1883 in the schools. The Flemish provinces were made bi-lingual. Full religious liberty is enjoyed. The great majority of the people are presumably Roman Catholic, but since 1891 no questions are aske4 at the census regarding communion or profes^ sion. At the beginning of the world war, in IQ14, the area of the kingdom was ii,373 square miles. A Conference of the Great Powers in 1831 determined the boundaries between Bel- gium and the Netherlands. Though obliged by circumstances to recognize Belgian inde- pendence, the Conference did not sympathize with the authors of a revolution. In conse- quence, the boundary line was traced to the disadvantage of the Belgians. To the Dutch were assigned peoples east of the Meuse, who were strongly pro-Belgian ; also both banks of the Scheldt, thus cutting off approach by sea * See also, in National Geographic Maga- zine, "Belgium the Innocent Bystander," by William Joseph Showalter (September, 1914), and "Belgium's Plight,'' by John H. Gade (May, 1917). to the great port of Antwerp except through Dutch waters. One cannot doubt that this in- justice will be rectified. ' Sixteen years ago in his "Living Races of Europe," Hutchinson said: "Bravery, intelli- gence, and energy are strong as ever in the Belgians, They excel in the arts of peace, as formerly they were proficient in the arts of war. They now present an attractive picture of a prosperous, peaceable, and thoroughly comfortable little people." The first two sentences arc still true, only intensified. The picture of the last sentence it is the privilege of Europe and America to restore. THE IRISH The word Irish is derived by successive steps from Erin, an early and now purely poetic name for Ireland. Myths and legends are handed down regard- ing the origin of the Irish, but little is known of them with certainty before the fifth century. Then they were emerging from the control of the Milesians, who had come no man can sav from where, and who apparently had long held the greater part of the island in subjection. The Irish, like the Gaelic Scotch and the few inhabitants of the Isle of Man, belong to the Goidelic or Gaelic branch of the Celtic family. This Celtic element is the permanent fact in Irish character and the controlling fact in Irish history. None the less, it is true that few peo- ples are more composite than the Irish. Into their structure are built the English, Scotch, Welsh, Danish, Norwegian, and French. Ex- terminating wars, forced expatriation, enlist- ment of more than 400,000 Irishmen in Euro- pean armies during the space of sixty years, drained the native population. Colonization, many times repeated, brought in hosts of for- eigners, and must, of necessity, have disturbed the equilibrium of racial life. And yet, the Irishman has absorbed the blood of them all and appropriated the language of his conquerors, remaining all the while a typical Celt — typical in habit of mind, disposition, char- acter, and to a great degree in personal ap- pearance. Something in the Irish nature seemed to at- tract the strangers who dwelt in his midst. During the first four centuries after the Eng- lish conquest the English settlers of the island, whether of low or high degree, adopted Irish ways, intermarried with the Irish, and adapted their own names to Irish forms. Many of the Irish names, heard most often, can' be traced back to such a source. Nor did this tendency entirely cease, even after the religious rancor ciieendered by the Protestant Reformation. The Irish were always religious. For six hundred years their country was known as "The Isle of the Saints." ' While Latinized lands seemed sinking back into pagan barba- rism, the Irish were founding schools and send- ing missionaries to Scotland, England, Wales, and over western Europe. Saint Patrick, who RBP^ -3 >.^ 7. ?l y. >. o J n U 1/1 ^ I/) _ 00 7. -=5 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 529 Christianized Ireland by persuasion, established at Armagh a school attended by seven thousand students. Saint Columba created at lona, in the Hebrides, monastic seminaries, a strong- hold of Christian teaching, thronged by foreign youth, who carried back to less favored coun- tries this light from the West. The Irish Christians, long unconnected with Rome, afterward became devout Catholics. The vigorous efforts of Henry VIII and of some of his successors to force Protestantism upon them only embittered resentment. Had the English remained Catholic or the Irish be- come Protestant the heat of later difference might have been partly prevented. The settle- ment of English and Scotch colonists in the northeast corner of the island further compli- cated the situation by the introduction of a hostile religious element. Of the Irish in Ireland, 3,243,000, or three- fourths of the entire number, are Roman Cath- olics. The more than a million Protestants are members of the Protestant Episcopal and Pres- byterian churches. The homeland of the Irish has an area of 32,586 square miles. How nearly one, geo- graphically, are the appropriately called Em- erald Isle and Great Britain few persons ap- preciate. The width of the shallow North Channel, between the Mull of Cantire (Scot- land) and Torr Head, is only 1314 miles. The Irish Sea, between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales), is less than 70 miles across, and St. George's Channel, at the southern extremity, is less than 50 miles wide. Irish, "the classic language of the Celts," is fast yielding place to English. Spoken in the middle of the last century by more than half the people, it is now spoken by less than one- seventh. The population is likewise steadily growing less. There were a million more inhabitants in Ireland in 1801 than there are today. A very careful census was taken by the British Gov- ernment on the Act of Union to determine the number of representatives in Parliament to which Ireland was entitled on a basis of popu- lation. The number thus determined was made permanent, because the government wanted the Irish to feel that they would never have less representatives than then, and also because it was believed that the Irish, being prolific, might have in time an inconveniently large number of representatives in Parliament. As it turned out, however, at present Ireland has one representative for about every 42,000 people and England one for about every 70,000 people. Scotland, with several hundred thousand more inhabitants, has about two-thirds as many members of Parliament as Ireland. "The claim of blood was the strongest which the ancient Celt knew." There is nothing finer or more Celtic than the devotion of the Irish in foreign lands to their kin at home. The exuberant nature, the sometimes flighty purpose, the impractical attempt, the daring, generous spirit, the faithful and sympathetic nature, the courtesy and the quickness, the love of poetry and song, mark alike the ancient and the modern Celt. None but a Celtic soul would liave chosen the harp as its national emblem. THE BRITISH* The names. Englishman, Scotchman, Welsh- man, are historic, each invested with precious traditions of its own. ^'ct each is a local ap- pellation, fitly associated with a limited area in an island that itself is small. Because English- men form the majority in the island, the mis- take is often made by foreigners of speaking of the "English ambassador," "the English army," "the English navy," when in fact there IS no such thing. "The meteor flag" is not the symbol of a petty insular distinction, but of the British race. In the larger personality of the Britisher the Englishman, the Scotchman, the Welshman, and many an Irishman are lost and forgotten. THC WELSH The Welsh formerly held possession of all the western coasts of Britain from the mouth of the Severn northward for three hundred miles. They are now found chieflv in the Principality of Wales. Though amalgamated with a farmore numerous people, they possess a distinct importance of their own. Together with the Bretons of Britanny in France and the Cornish, now absorbed in the main English body (the Cornish language has been unspoken for over one hundred years), they constitute the Brythonic group, or one- half of the once great Celtic family. Brython is the name under which the Welsh include themselves and the ancient Britons. in spite of the marked revival of Welsh literary effort in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Welsh language is steadily giv- ing way before the English. In 191 1 only four- tenths of the two million Welsh could speak their Celtic tongue at all. Thirty years earlier it was in daily use by seven-tenths of their people. There was no horror of invasion, no form of resistance, no phase of alternate victory and defeat, which, from the time of the Ro- mans, for centuries the Welsh did not undergo. Finally Llewelyn submitted to Edward I in 1277. The heir to the English throne was to bear the title of Prince of Wales, and the grandson of the Welshman. Owen Tudor, be- come King of England as Henry MI and found the Tudor dynasty. Shortly afterward * See also, in Nation.m. Geogr.aphic "Mac.a- ziNE, "England : The Oldest Nation of Eu- rope." by Roland G. Usher (October. 1914) ; "Channel Ports and Some Others" (Jul\-, 1915) ; "London." by Florence Craig Albrecht (September. 1915) ; "One Hundred British Sea- ports"_ (January. 1917) ; "What Great Britain is Doing." by Sydney Brooks (March. 19 17), and "What the War Has Done for Britain," by Judson C. Welliver (October, 1918). 530 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Wales was incorporated with England and its people have since enjoyed all English rights and privileges. The Welsh inherit all the higher character- istics of their indomitable ancient ancestry. They are democratic, rugged, serious, sturdy to obstinacy, insistent on education, religious in the highest sense, and uncompromising in defense of their rights. They have given the world Thomas Jefferson in the United States and David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of tlie United Kingdom. THE SCOTCH A peculiar charm attaches to the word Scot- land. No land is more the synonym of poetry and romance. Its every river and lake has swelled with the lifetide of freedom and its austere mountains are monuments of deeds as imperishable as themselves. Beyond conjecture, no information exists re- garding the origin of the Picts, its first known inhabitants, the formidable antagonists of the Romans. When the Scots, a Celtic Irish peo- ple, arrived, they found the Picts in possession. From the Scots the country, originally known as Hibernia, was called Scotland, while the name Hibernia was transferred to Scotia, which Ireland was called from the third to the tenth century. Thus, curiously, the two coun- tries exchanged names. The Scots and Picts combined in raids upon the Britons, who implored the dangerous as- sistance of the Northmen. Bands of other Northmen rushed in all along the coast. Gradually two Englands emerged ; one gen- erally corresponding to modern England as far as the Humber and one situated north of the Humber and extending far beyond the Tweed. Similar bands of invaders, speaking a like English in the making, formed both and were mutually unfriendly and suspicious. The north- ern kingdom was persistently loyal to the Pict- ish kings, who themselves paid nominal homage to the King of England. The northern kingdom, planted athwart the middle of the island and occupying its most fertile and prosperous part, was inhabited by a resolute people who were never conquered, not even by the Normans. Its position determined the subsequent events of English and Scottish history. The fierce border raids, the aggres- sions of the Ivnglish crf)wn, and the frequent wars, Sir William Wallace, Robert Bruce, P.an- nockbuni, and Elodden, were natural results. The inhabitants were early Christianized, as were the Picts, by Irish missionary monks who acknowledged no dei)endence on Rome. Thus early was imi)arted that bent toward religious independence and with it that tendency toward personal examination which have illustrated Scottish character. Though in lime they were to enter the Rf)man comnnmion, tlure never was any change, either as Catholics or later as Protestants, in the attitude of the free-thinking Scottish mind. The Highland Scots absorbed the Picts, but were harassed and weakened by repeated in- cursions of the Northmen, who forced them farther inland and themselves occupied all the coasts. They peopled also the Shetlands, Orkneys, and Hebrides. To the northern county of Scotland, as south of Norway, they gave the name of Sutherland, which it still re- tains. Except in the mountain fastnesses, Norse crowded out the Gaelic and, though no longer spoken, left many place-names and me- morials of its one-time supremacy. The sharp division of the Highlands and Lowlands has profoundly affected the life of the country. Of different race and language, the inhabitants of each section long regarded the other with condescension approaching dis- dain. Both are equally Scotch in pride of an- cestry and national feeling. Both in marked degree are of composite racial stock, though in the Highlander the Celtic element and in the Lowlander the English element predominates. The steady progress of the English language contributes to assimilation. Today less than one-twentieth of the Scotch can speak Gaelic and only one-tenth of that twentieth speak Gaelic only. In all the Shetland and Orkney islands, only I20 persons speak Gaelic at all. Gaelic is, however, predominant in the fast de- populating Hebrides. The Scotch in general are thrifty, cautious, and frugal. Piut no people are more just, more generous, more quick to imperil life or prop- erty or position at the call of duty. Nowhere are there more incisive minds. Nowhere is the reasoning faculty more developed. A Scotch name is significant of sterling qualities of heart and character. There is no high place of philanthropy, statesmanship, or world achievement that Scotchmen have not tilled — Walter Scott, Car- lyle, Hume, John Knox, Robert Louis Steven- son. .Alexander Graham Bell, Watt. Robert Burns, Gladstone, Balfour, Bryce, Haig, and Beatty. THIC KNGIJSH It is said that the Arabic words in English (such as algebra, alchemy, coffee, alcohol, etc.) have exercised more inlluence on the language than all the Celtic words in the vocabulary. However, the words, Britam and British, come from the name the Celts themselves gave the island. Names of hills and rivers in England and those ending in ford (crossing), ton or don (farm) and ham (home) are almost all Celtic. Thus the Severn, Dee. Ouse, Thames. London, Epsom (Ebba's home"), Horsham ( Horsa's home), Oxford (ford of the Ousc) are daily unheeded reminders of the Celt. Otherwise Celtic hardly exists in the English language and still less in luiglish blood. Tile utter disappearance from England of the race that withstood the Romans and produced Boadicea and Caractacus is surprising. Prob- ably the sea-kings were by nature no more cruel than the barbarians of the continent. But the Celts, or Britons, were obstinate, iiumer- THE NATIONAL CxEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 531 Phi.t.igraph l,y W iiiiain Keid A YOUNG SCOT In the race name "Scotchman" this kilt-clad boy possesses a priceless heritage, for it is synonymous with sterling qualities of heart and character. "The Scotch in general are thrifty, cautious, and frugal. But no people are more just, more generous, more quick to imperil life or property or position at the call of duty." ous, and powerful, while the bands of sea- rovers were small, not united, and in the utmost peril. Only by terrorism or extermination could they overcome the Britons. Green states that "when the conquest of the bulk of Britain was complete," one hundred and twenty-eight years after Hengist and Horsa landed at Ebbs- fleet, "not a Briton remained as subject or slave" in the conquered territory. According to the Saxon chronicler, in 800, Egbert, the first king of the country for the first time united, decreed it should henceforth be called Anglia, or England. Then followed two hundred and fifty years, filled by ever fresh invasions and by the illustrious names of Alfred the Saxon and Canute the Dane. At last, on the held of Hastings all those racial elements were in presence on which the future of England depended : the English peo- ple with its character forged by six centuries of incessant and desperate struggle; and the Normans, no less strenuous and valiant, but tempered into finer steel by two centuries of residence in France. For hours after the battle was lost the English fought on around their dead king, and for years from retreats in the forests and hills they broke forth in fierce, hopeless rebellion. Not until the Hundred Years' War with France were the English people and the Nor- man conquerors welded into one and the Norman-French replaced by English as the language of law and the court. Crowds of later immigrants, like the fugi- tives from the Netherlands and the Huguenots from France, were to increase England's in- dustrial strength, but not to impair or modify her racial stock or character. It was the forces that clashed at Hastings which, after generations of stress and struggle, culminated in the greatness of the modern Englishman. An ImikHsIi ^\y], Iuts is tlir I.uihu.'ik'-' •'• '\\" luindrcd millions of tlic world's inliah- itants ; iur forcfatlu-rs were tlic dianipions of lihcrty, winninjj tlu- Manna Cliarta on (he field of Rnnnynu'dc; Iicr brothers of the liritish Isles, of Xortli America, of Australia, Xew Zealand, and .Sonlli Africa do now and will keep the faith — defending; the weak, succorinij tiic needy, maintaining order, and advancing the day of which her i)oet lanreate sang: "One Ciod, one law, one element, And one f;ir-otT divine t'vcnt. To whicli the whole crcatitm moves." 532 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 533 It is common to speak of the English as an Anglo-Saxon people, though the expression is false and misleading. All Anglo-Saxons are English but multitudes of the English are not Anglo-Saxon. In his ode to Alexandra, Ten- nyson strikes a truer note, "Norman and Saxon and Dane are we." The main work of the Saxon was accom- plished in the occupation and populating of Greater Britain. He furnished the basic mass of a vigorous, resolute, enduring people. The Scandinavian, who was Norseman, or Norman, was the most independent and venturesome of all the early makers of modern Europe. Through the vast expanse of land and ocean, from Russia and the Black Sea to remote Ice- land and Greenland, there was no region which his passion for discovery and conquest did not attempt. The English, sprung from the loins of the Anglo-Saxon and the Xorman, inherit whatever was best in their progenitors. Unparalleled achievements on land and sea, the building of an Empire in comparison with which the Roman Empire was small, creation and development of Magna Charta and of constitutional government and law and, as basis and compeller of such achievements, the grit that brooks no defeat, are the contribu- tion of no single tribe or group of ancestors but proceed from the combined spirit of what is enduring in them all. A brilliant French- man finds the key to English character in the one word, "self-reliance." This war has not created the Englishman. He is no different now from what he was be- fore it began. It has simply afforded fresh revelation to himself and to us of what he is: Often arrogant, but seldom vain ; fair in fight and just in victory: warm-hearted vmder a cold demeanor : fundamentally conservative when most radical : insular and narrow, yet with the genius of world-rule ; seldom loved abroad, but loved and lovable at home ; despising meanness and deceit and himself loval to the last. Were the Italians, the French, and the Brit- ish to enter into comparison, no jury could be found competent to determine which stood foremost in the products of the intellectual life. There is, however, one transcendant name, an English name, though it seems not so much to belong to one race as to all races — vShakespeare, the interpreter of humanity, myr- iad-minded, and of all writers the most un- translatable and the most easily understood. From the British Isles the British race, in circles ever widening, has encompassed the earth. More than any other race in all the past, it has carried with it civilization and equal op- portunity and liberty. Under its protection in the farthest continents and seas its offspring have erected self-governing Dominions and Commonwealths, whose proudest inheritance is their British lineage and their British loyalty.* * See also, in the N.\tiox.\l Geographic Magazine, "Great Britain's Bread Upon the Waters," by ex-President William H. Taft (March, 1916). THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES Its medium of communication is the English language, spoken by well-nigh 200,000,000 per- sons as their mother tongue. Those 200,000,000 as a body are the most enterprising, most wealthy, most intelligent in the world. No other language, even in China or Hindustan, is spoken by half as many. Beside the enormous host of whom it is the birthright, its diffusion among other millions is rapidly increasing. One is startled as he hears it in the commands on Eastern steamers, or in interviews between foreign magnates, or in remote villages where presumably no British person has ever been. In the heritage of that well-nigh universal language the American has his share. In the bonds and sympathies created by it he finds his kith and kin. Eloquently were these inheritances recalled by the modest gentleman who presides over the British Dominions, in his address welcoming to Great Britain the President of the United States: "We welcome vou to the country whence came your ancestors and where stand the homes of those from whom sprang Washington and Lin- coln. . . . You come as the official head and spokesman of a mighty Commonwealth bound to us by the closest ties. Its people speak the tongue of Shakespeare and Milton. Our litera- ture is yours, as yours is also ours, and men of letters in both countries have joined in main- taining its incomparable glories. "To you, not less than to us, belong the memo- ries of our national heroes from King, Alfred down to the days of Philip Sydney and Drake, of Raleigh and Blake, and Hampden, and the days when the political life of the English stock in America was just beginning. You share with us the traditions of free self-government as old as the ]\Iagna Charta. '"We recognize the bond of still deeper signifi- cance in the common ideals which our people cherish. First among those ideals you value and we value freedom and peace. Privileged as we have been to be the exponents and the examples in national life of the principles of popular self-government based upon equal laws, it now falls to both of us alike to see how these principles can be applied beyond our own bor- ders for the good of the world." In the goodly fellowship of the Entente Allies, British and Americans, for the first time in all their history, have bared their breasts side by side against a common foe. They have bled together as champions of those who cherish their own individual rights and respect the rights of mankind. No formal parchment, however drawn up and signed, could further strengthen and hallow such alli- ance of heart and purpose. As General Pershing has well snid in his re- port after the conclusion of hostilities, "Alto- gether it has been deeply impressed on us that the ties of language and 'blood bring the British and ourselves together completelv and insep- arably." •c z z x — — r z — I- r. X M X •/. y. X •/. f. •/. •/. W) -t f 1 « C. 1.1 re o s c: .-I O I- C". c! W W -»< f •* I > ^'^ 3.2. o o o j^' o i'ni; 3 o is 5 J' = S >> US, O ■3 r-t a = "7 5 -, o c. c: o 00 c; o ■* • 1-1 C5 O ?C ■»*• W M t- iiH(r.(»o«oo«oc5 = S' ,^> w c» ac 00 OD o = rc o cc 4< I- M C 00 a tl tu I- r: -^ i> X Ti M CS « I- ^ « CO ri «■! •- ■* cc ri o L-5 w ■■»< ■<»« o »a ■'T -y. 3 J3 a C8 Hill 534 OUR MAP OF THE RACES OF EUROPE THE map accompanying this arti- cle, printed in 19 colors, gives a comprehensive picture of the gen- eral divisions of the races of Europe. In- stead of employing colors merely to represent definitive ethnographic and lin- guistic territories, an effort has been made to enable the student to determine the racial affinities of distinctive groups by the relation of the shades of color them- selves (for index see opposite page). The four great trunk branches of the 'Indo-European, or Aryan, race are pre- sented in four basic colors — brown for the Greco-Latins ; yellow for the Celts ; red for the Teutons, and green for the Slavs. The Greco - Latin subdivisions (Albanians, Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Walloons, and Ru- manians) are distinguished one from the other by the intensity of the brown shades. Likewise, the eleven families of common Teuton stock are represented by three shades of red. The great Slav group, with its eastern, southern, west- ern, and Baltic subdivisions, is shown in green of varying shades. The Basques, Pre- Aryan Caucasian people, are represented by blue, and their complete detachment from other races of Europe is emphasized by the fact that no gradations of blue are used to indicate the territorial bounds of any other people. The purple patches which clutter the face of Europe signify the presence of the Ural-Altaians ; the dark purple in- dicating the Turks, Tatars, and Kal- mucks ; the lavender marking the bounds of Magyar dominance, and the pale lav- ender showing the territory inhabited by the Finno-Ugrian Finns, Esths, and Lapps (see also page 448). The land of the Armenians in Asia is represented by diagonal rectangles in a shade between the green of the Slavs and the yellow of the Celts. ARUAS WHERE CONTIGUOUS RACES INTERMINGLE Hatchwork, of course, indicates areas where the contiguous races intermingle inseparably, as in northern and north- eastern Italy, where German and Italian reside side by side; in western Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, where the Celts and the British mingle ; in eastern Poland, where the Western Slavs (Poles) and the Eastern Slavs (Little Russians) re- side together ; on the border between eastern Lithuania and western Great Russian territory ; and where Magyars, Tatars, Finns, and Slavs form confused racial masses throughout the dominion of European Russia. This map represents a unique achieve- ment in its unusual legibility, in its sharp definition of political as well as racial boundaries, shorelines and rivers, the clarity of its color key, and, withal, in the convenience of its size. A map of twice these dimensions would not show in greater detail any facts of importance, whereas this supplement enables the reader to study it closely as a whole in- stead of by sections. An interesting feature of the map is the accuracy with which the racial islands are revealed, set amid seas of alien peo- ples. For example, it is important to note the two groups of German colonists set down in the midst of the mingled Little Russians and Rumanians in Bessa- rabia. An important colony of Germans is also shown just to the north of Fiume. Close students of events in Europe during the last few weeks will recall that shortly after the signing of the armistice these Germans, entirely surrounded by Jugo- slavs, announced that they would peti- tion the Powers to permit them to set up a separate autonomous State, fashioned after the miniature republics of San Marino and Andorra. The colors of this map show at once how extraordinary is such an appeal ; for whereas the San Marinesi are the racial brothers of the Italians who surround them, and the Andorrans are similarly of the same blood and language as the Span- iards who encircle them, the red of this Teuton colony is seen to be in clashing 535 m THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE disharmony with the dominant green of the encompassing South Slavs. In other words, the colors tell their own story of the kinship of the races which they sym- bolize. A MONOGRAPH OF PERMANENT EDUCA- TIONAL VALUE Dr. Grosvenor's text, which elaborates the facts set forth in such graphic form by the map. constitutes, with the scores of illustrations, a monograph of perma- nent educational value and ever-recurrent human interest. The entire mmiber is a htting contribution to the important monographic library which the National Geographic Society is gradually creating for its members by issuing in magazine form such noteworthy numbers as "Flags of the World," the Larger Mammals of North America, the Smaller Mammals of North America. "The Land of the Best" (a bird's-eye view in text and pictures of the resources and advantages of Amer- ica), and several numbers devoted to American birds. "The Races of Europe" not only pro- vides' material of fascinating interest to the casual reader, but contains the au- thoritative groundwork for the student of the most intricate and at the present time the most vital problem which diploma- tists, statesmen, and humanitarians have set themselves to solve. It is confidently believed that this num- ber of the Gkograpiiic will i)rove a work of lasting value; for however political boundaries in Tuiro])c may be changed by treaties or by conquest, and however cth- nogra]ihic delimitations may be affected by migration and immigration, raciah characteristics and traits are fairly con- stant from generation to generation and are materially modified only through the centuries. EAKi.iKR r,i;or,u.\pinc .Mrrici