110 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 The reader can see at a glance the lack of sul- ' 
 phuric acid in the above soil. This is the 
 reason that the application of plaster had such a 
 beneficial effect. Every other element of fertil- 
 ity was present, but without sulphuric acid it 
 was impossible for plants to come to maturity. 
 
 Hundreds of analyses of different soils might 
 be given, both fertile and barren, but they would 
 only prove the one great fact, that soils, to be 
 properly adapted to the growth of plants, must 
 contain every element that enters into their 
 composition. Plants must have the necessary 
 food to live oil, the same as animals, as they 
 cannot create an atom of any substance to sup- 
 port themselves. Hence, when there is a falling 
 off in the productiveness of a soil, the farmer 
 should first ascertain what element is necessary 
 to restore it, and then add that substance, in a 
 definite quantity, because it is only a waste of 
 money to apply what is not required. 
 
 Such a course would lead to an economy both 
 of the money of the farmer, and also of the ele- 
 ments of fertility. How many farmers buy ex- 
 pensive manufactured manures, when perhaps 
 the very things they need lie wasting at their 
 own doors. The application of lime, marl, 
 muck, wood and even coal ashes, is sometimes 
 attended with better results than the most ex- 
 pensive phosphates. When these expensive 
 
CHARACTER OF SOILS. Ill 
 
 manures are applied where something else is 
 needed, the farmer loses the money invested, the 
 labor of applying them, and oftentimes his crop, 
 by not using the substance really required. 
 
 The bulk of all soils consists of sand and day. 
 These are general terms, and have no reference 
 to the chemical properties of the different parts, 
 as all granulated bodies in soils are termed sand, 
 and all tenacious substances easily pulverized 
 are termed clay. 
 
 Two specific terms are in use to denote the 
 character of soils, viz : — alluvial and diluvial. 
 Soils that have been washed from hills and 
 mountains are termed alluvial, but if they can- 
 not be traced to such a source, and are elevated 
 plains, or the tops pf hills and mountains, they 
 are termed diluvial, and must be traced to the 
 action of glaciers or the gradual disintegration of 
 rocks by the action of the elements. 
 
 A knowledge of the chemical composition of 
 the rocks, from which the sand and clay are 
 formed, will enable us to judge correctly of the 
 kinds of minerals to be found in the soil ; and 
 of their adaptability to the wants of agriculture ; 
 hence, the study of these rocks is quite as im- 
 portant as the study of the soil itself. 
 
 The rocks essential to the formation of fertile 
 soils, and from which they are usually produced, 
 are Granite, Felspar, Limestone, Gypsum, 
 
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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
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AMERICAN MANURES 
 
 AND 
 
 FAEMEKS' AND PLANTERS' 
 
 G- U I D E. 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS AND COMPOSITION OF 
 
 PLANTS AND SOILS— THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 
 
 COMPOSTING— THE VALUE OF STABLE MANURE 
 
 AND WASTE PRODUCTS, ETC., ETC., ETC. 
 
 ALSO, 
 
 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURED 
 
 FERTILIZERS— THEIR ASSUMED AND REAL VALUE— 
 
 AND A FULL - EXPOSE OF THE 
 
 FRAUDS PRACTISED UPON PURCHASERS. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM H. BRUOKISrEE, PH. D., 
 
 ANALYTICAL AND CONSULTING CHKMIST, 
 AND 
 
 J. B. CHYNOWETH. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 WILLIAM H. BKUCKNER, 
 
 1872. 
 
3^ 
 
 y.rtered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
 
 WILLIAM H. BRUCKNER, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington, D. C. 
 
 ///c// 
 
NO. I. 
 From Philadelphia's distinguished Lawyer, Theo. Guyler : 
 
 I have examined the several pages of the book entitled 
 " American Manures and Farmers^ and Planters' Guide," pub- 
 lished at Philadelphia, by Chynoweth and Company, 1871, to 
 which you asked my attention. These pages are numbered 214, 
 216, 227, 238, 240 and 244. I have also examined the book at 
 large sufficiently to enable me to form an idea of its general 
 scope and tenor. Assuming .the statements of the book to be 
 true at the pages indicated, they do not in my opinion transcend 
 the bounds of legitimate criticism and are not libellous. The 
 language, though severe and strong, is not more strong and 
 severe than such facts justify in a book devoted to the useful 
 instruction of the people in a preeminently important depart- 
 ment of practical knowledge. I could much more easily under- 
 stand, that silence and the suppression of such information on 
 the part of those possessing it, would be an offence against 
 society, than I could that its utterance would be a legal offence 
 against the rights of an individual engaged in the perpetration 
 of such deceptions. No man has a legal right to mislead and 
 deceive the public. If he does so and injury to any individual 
 results therefrom, he is liable in damages. If he does so and is 
 exposed, he who exposes him has performed a duty, and not 
 committed a wrong. 
 
 (Signed,) THEO. GUYLER. 
 
 NO. II. 
 
 From the Author of ''''American Or ape Growers^ Guide^^'' etc. : 
 
 Your book ''American Manures and Farmers' and Planters' 
 Guide," supplies, most effectually, a want that has long existed, 
 and, no doubt, will save millions of dollars to the agricultural 
 community, not only from the fearless manner in which you 
 have exposed the frauds of the manufacturers of special fertilizers, 
 but, also, by the lucid and scientific, yet practical and readily 
 
 iii 
 
IV COMMENDATIONS. 
 
 understood explanations given. You have brought the chemis- 
 try and general science of agriculture down to so fine a point 
 that the most illiterate cultivator, if he can only read the English 
 language, cannot help but know what is wanted to improve his 
 land, and suj)ply that want at a fair money value. Forty years 
 ago, I was just arriving at manhood, and since that time, have 
 been actively employed in practical farming and horticulture, and 
 can truly state, from actual experience, that many of your deduc- 
 tions are perfectly correct. In fact, you have brought before the 
 public a greater amount of reliable information, in condensed 
 form, than is to be found in Liebig and Johnson combined, or any 
 other work of the same kind which I have yet seen. 
 
 (Signed,) WM. CHORLTOK 
 
 NO. III. 
 
 From the North American and Tlnited States Gazette, the leading 
 Commercial Paper of Philadelphia : 
 
 The authors premise that strictly scientific writers on the use 
 and composition of fertilizers are usually too technical for the 
 comprehension of practical men, and the merely practical writers 
 record results without elucidating causes or opening the philoso- 
 phy involved. They essay to unfold the frauds of manufactured 
 manures, of w^hich, it is said, 500,000 tons are sold annually in 
 this country, at a cost of $25,000,000, to the farmers. One chap- 
 ter is surrendered to an exposition of the elements of manures 
 and plants, and the action of one on the other ; another to the 
 kind and amount of fertilizer different plants need ; one to the 
 composition of soils, and others to the values of fertilizers in 
 money. The last chapter is filled with analyses. There is 
 enough in almost any ten pages treating of the patent manures 
 and fertilizers to ground as many libel suits. One fertilizer after 
 another is shown to be deficient in value, or over-priced, or 
 otherwise undesirable, and the authors state how they secured 
 the material from which their analyses w^ere made. So far as 
 the chemistry of agriculture is involved, the work is admirable. 
 "We hesitate only over the exposition made of special articles so 
 long and highly commended. But conceding the truth of the 
 statements, every farmer should use fertilizers, and telescopes 
 endless in selecting them. We fail to notice any apparent com- 
 mendation of one at the cost of the others, but do see that 
 the German fertilizers have a double per cent, of phosphates 
 over the best of our ow^n. The book proposes to enable every 
 farmer to compost for himself, and so secure a reliable fertilizer. 
 The importance of the subject cannot be over-estimated, and th( 
 capital at issue will certainly advertize this work in one way oi 
 another strongly. It seems to be thoroughly fair and reliable. 
 
COMMENDATIONS. V 
 
 NO. ly. 
 
 OUR HOME PHOSPHATES. 
 
 From the Charleston, S. (7., Courier: 
 
 The manufacture and sale of Superphosphates under theii 
 many different names and varied experimental value have become 
 of such importance in this country as to warrant steps being 
 taken, not only to protect the planter from injustice, but also iu 
 the interest of the honest dealer who does give value received 
 for money paid. The diff"erent Governments of Europe whom 
 we are in the habit of calling slow, have long ago said that 
 parties selling these articles shall afSrm the constituents of their 
 compounds and guarantee their proportions, in order that parties, 
 whose general knowledge of chemistry may be sufficient for 
 ordinary purposes shall, when they wish to use an organic or 
 mineral constituent as the food of their crop, get what they pay 
 for, or have the means of redress. 
 
 Our attention has been forcibly called to the subject by a care- 
 ful perusal of a book laid upon our table purporting to be Amer- 
 ican Manures, their moneyGalue, by James Bennett Chynoweth, 
 late Superintendent of Fertiliser Works, and William H. Bruck- 
 ner, Ph. D., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, Philadelphia. 
 A careful perusal will repay the planter aiid farmer, also those 
 interested in the sale of Superphosphates. It is written in plain 
 language and devoid of the symbols and technical character of 
 the terms of Science. It is especially due from our Charleston 
 manufacturers of Superphosphates that they give as wide a cir- 
 culation as possible to the public of the valuable information 
 conveyed in this publication. 
 
 If one-half of what is told of the many subterfuges and false 
 proportions put upon our planting community by our Northern 
 manufacturing friends is true, the market of the United States is 
 in our hands, and w^e only need to use the resources which Provi- 
 dence has committed to us and their proper development, which 
 ordinary intelligence should give, in order to obtain that con- 
 trolling influence in our markets, which the possession of in- 
 exhaustible beds of Native Bone Phosphate entitle us. In any 
 event, the natural course of trade ought in time to give us this 
 control ; but with the impetus which this description of facts, 
 properly ventilated, should produce, Charleston ought at one 
 T)ound to step to the front rank, in the United States at least, as a 
 manufacturer of fertilizers. 
 
 We have taken the money value to the consumer of fourteen 
 of the fertilizers mentioned in this publication, the names of 
 which were most familiar to us, and some of whom are as house- 
 hold words over the Cotton States, and to find it to vary from 
 four 96-100 dollars for the lowest value up, with variations to 
 thirty-six 93-100 dollars. These fertilizers are sold at the place 
 of manufacture at from forty-five to fifty-six dollars per ton of 
 
VI COMMENDATIONS. 
 
 2000 pounds. !N"ow if our planting friends experienced so much 
 benefit as their many flattering encomiums show, from so small 
 a value received in proportion to the outlay made, how much 
 more favorable would have been the reports, and how much 
 more satisfactor}^ the state of their money resources, had they 
 received a fair value for the amount paid ? These writers state 
 that there is consumed in the United States to-day five hundred 
 thousand tons of fertilizers at a cost to the consumers of twenty- 
 five millions of dollars. How bright a vista of future prosperity 
 looms up in future for us if we only use our best efforts to cen- 
 tralize this trade, so immense in its young proportion, and direct 
 its regenerating influences over our much divided low country 
 of South Carolina. The larger proportion of our community 
 do not realize how large an influence the possession of these 
 phosphate beds, properly developed, will have on our commercial 
 position, and it will well become us in the future to use some 
 efforts for home prosperity, and devote some time and capital 
 for the proper management of our home institutions. 
 
 NO. V. 
 
 From the Journal of Applied Chemistry^ publisJied simultane- 
 ously in New Tork^ Philadelphia and Boston : 
 
 They carry a steady lance and strike pretty hard blows, and 
 we should advise every farmer who proposes to buy fertilizers to 
 read this book before he makes too large an investment. An 
 accurate knowledge of the scientific part of this book would save 
 every farmer the time and expense of many useless experiments. 
 There is a large amount of information condensed into a small 
 space, and so far as we have been able to detect from a hasty 
 perusal, this information is carefully selected and correctly given 
 according to the latest and best authorities. Some controversial 
 portions of the work might, perhaps, have found a better place 
 in the columns of influential newspapers, but we do not object 
 to them as they add piquancy and spice to the feast the authors 
 have aff'orded us. It is a pity that a few dishonest manufacturers 
 of fertilizers have brought the business into such ill-repute, and 
 the only remedy would appear to be just such an exposure of 
 the tricks of the trade as is here given. We commend the book 
 to the notice of our agricultural readers. 
 
 The work will be sent by mail, postage paid, to any address, 
 by remitting the price, $1.50. 
 
 Address, WILLIAM H. BRUCKNER, 
 
 Monroe, Michigan. 
 
 J gents wanted in every Township in the United States. Liberal 
 inducements offered. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Mr. Chynoweth's connection with ^^American Ma- 
 nures '^ having ceased, it aifords the author pleasure in 
 announcing that the first edition of the work has been 
 exhausted, and thanking the public for their kind 
 patronage of the same. While he is conscious that 
 certain parties put forth all their energies to suppress 
 the work in its infancy, he is glad to say that success 
 has not crowned their efforts, as is evinced by this 
 revised edition. And it is hoped, not only by him, but 
 he trusts by all who have the welfare of their fellow- 
 beings at heart, that subsequent editions may follow in 
 quick succession. 
 
 It is the writer's intention to embrace in future 
 editions of the work analyses, not only of manures re- 
 presenting those w^hich have been examined, but of 
 others ; and judging from the following quotation of a 
 letter from a manufacturer of fertilizers, dated Nov. 
 29th, he will not be surprised to find a marked improve- 
 ment in the quality of the former. 
 
 ^' The book has exercised a great influence on the 
 fertilizing business, and has put thousands of dollars 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 into the pockets of the farmers. Every manufacturer 
 has increased the quality of his article. The State of 
 Delaware employs a State Chemist, and all manufac- 
 turers must have their fertilizers analyzed by that 
 chemist before they are allowed to sell in that State, 
 so that there was a fair chance to observe the rise of the 
 Phosphate Business.'^ 
 
 Immediately after the publication of "American 
 Manures/^ Messrs. Wattson & Clark, manufacturers of 
 Superphosphate of Lime, No. 135 North Water street, 
 Philadelphia, ichile candidly admitting the correctness 
 of analyses and fairness of criticism of their product, 
 informed the writer that they manufacture a superphos- 
 phate of lime (never found in the market in bags), 
 which they warrant to contain 10 per cent, of soluble 
 phosphoric acid (anhydrous), and which in quantity 
 they are willing to sell at the price laid down in this 
 book, namely, 12 J cents per pound, for soluble phos- 
 phoric acid; or, in other words, they charge for the 
 above superphosphate, $25 per short ton. 
 
 This statement is made, because justice demands it; 
 and farmers desirous of getting the worth of their money, 
 would do well to club together to purchase such an 
 article in quantity. Subsequent division to meet the 
 wants of each purchaser could easily be eifected. 
 
 ^ . WILLIAM H. BRUCKNER. 
 March, 18^2. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Knowledge is indispensably necessary to 
 better the condition of mankind. The posses- 
 sion of the information that will enable us to 
 procure what we need, is oftentimes more valu- 
 able than the possession of the same without 
 such knowledge; the advantages of the latter 
 are temporary, those of the former are perma- 
 nent. 
 
 To be warned of danger is better than to be 
 armed to resist it. When the wrongs and im- 
 positions practised on communities are fully 
 exposed, they have no one to blame but them- 
 selves for their continuance. It has ever been 
 considered the duty of each member of a com- 
 munity to do all in his power to expose and 
 i^edress existing wrongs, especially when those 
 wrongs affect the vital interests of all. From 
 these considerations we feel it a duty, and we 
 claim the right of giving freely the knowledge 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 we possess on the subjects treated in this book. 
 We shall unmask practices that have been 
 backed up by favorable reports, and artfully 
 designed statements, falsely claiming to be bene- 
 fits conferred on the community, and which, from 
 a want of knowledge to distinguish real from 
 imaginary good, have passed currently as such. 
 We shall not attempt to disprove the statements 
 of dishonest manufacturers of fertilizers by mere 
 reasoning; we only desire the reader closely to 
 scrutinize and compare the focts as given, and 
 make his own deductions. We challenge the 
 parties assailed to disprove them. 
 
 We expect to offend some : when wrongs are 
 exposed, thi« is inevitable; and those parties may 
 endeavor to refute the statements made. Our 
 justification is written down in the following 
 pages. In the language of Cicero, we shall 
 " Neither dare to say anything that is false, nor 
 fear to say anything that is true." 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 May Ut, isn. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 rMPOJRTANT PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. (Page 11-31.) 
 
 11, Importance of our work. — 12, Two kinds of works on 
 farming. — 13, 1st kind, and remarks — 14, 2d kind, and re- 
 marks. — 15, Operations of the farm may be intelligently per- 
 formed. — 16, Farming may be made scientific — Book knowledge 
 necessary. — 17, Progress of other arts. — 18, Terse, sayings — 
 Negligence and indifference of farmers. — 19, Effect of knowledge 
 — What we intend to show. — 20, Effect of this upon farmers — 
 Object of concentrated manures — Remark. — 21, Analyses of Dr. 
 Bruckner — How samples were obtained — Other fertilizers to be 
 examined — Made manures a special study. — 22, Secrecy and 
 frauds of manufacturers. — 24, Lying circulars. — 25, Detecti(m 
 difficult — Immense profits. — 26, Object of book. — 27, Necessity 
 of inspection. — 28, Agricultural Department at Washington re- 
 miss.— 29, All interested in agriculture. — 30, Practical experi- 
 ments to be made. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF MANURES AND PLANTS. (Page 31-77.) 
 
 31, Definition of manure — Two objects to be effected — A per- 
 fect manure. — 32, Loss of manures — Materials abundant. — 33, 
 Gaseous elements — Elements with oxygen forming acids — Bases 
 — Alkalies — Elements unite in definite proportions. — 34, Defini- 
 
 5 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 tion of element — A compound — An oxide — A salt — Chemical 
 affinity. — 35, Cohesion. — Gaseous Elements. — 35, Oxygen — Its 
 properties, etc. — One-fifth of the atmosphere — Half of animals 
 and plants — Source of, in plants — Exhaled by plants. — 37, Hy- 
 drogen — Its properties — -How existing in nature — In plants and 
 animals — Its weight — What it forms — How assimilated by 
 plants. — 38, Garhuretted Hydrogen — Where found — Marsh gas — 
 Fire damp — Present in soils. — 39, Sulphuretted Hydrogen — How 
 formed — Its properties — In marshy places — Hurtful to vegetation 
 — Effects in soils. — 41, Nitrogen — Its properties — Forms nitric 
 acid with oxygen — Forms ammonia with hydrogen. — 42, Plants 
 do not absorb it from atmosphere. — 43, Experiments of Lawes 
 and others on rain water — Conclusion therefrom. — 44, Chlorine 
 — Its properties — Sources, etc. — 45, Elements forming Acids 
 — Silicon — Its appearance — Forms silicic acid — Silicates of pot- 
 ash, lime, and magnesia — Their use. — 45, Silica — Crystallized 
 and amorphous— Its properties. — 46, Soluble silica — How formed, 
 and uses of. — 47, Value of soluble silica — Sources of it. — 48, Gar- 
 hon — Its properties. — 48, Garhonic Acid — How formed. — 49, Its 
 uses to plants — Uses of humus or mould. — 50, Phosphorus — Its 
 properties, QiQ,.-^Phosphoric Acid — Its composition and proper- 
 ties — 50, J^one Phosphate of Lime— It's, composition, etc.-— 51, 
 Neutral Phosphate of Lime — Its composition, etc. — 51, Super^ 
 phosphate of Lime — Its composition— How formed. — 52, Its ac- 
 tion in soils, and Ronna's report on its action. — 57, Sulphur — 
 Its properties, etc. — 58, Sulphuric Acid — Its composition and 
 uses — Cheapest source to farmer. — Elements fokming bases. — 
 58, Galcium — Its properties, etc. — 59, Oxide of Galcium^ or quick 
 lime— Its composition. — 59, Garhonate of Lime — Its composition, 
 etc. — How made quick lime, etc. — 59, Hydrate of Lime — Its com- 
 position.— 60, How lime should be slacked. — Marls rich in carbo- 
 nate of lime — Quick lime more valuable than carbonate. — 61, Neu- 
 tralizes acids in soils — Liberates ammonia. — 62, Effect on iron 
 pyrites — On silicates of soda and potash — On salt — Its physical 
 effects. — 63, What soils need lime. — 64, How and what quantity 
 should be applied. — 65, Sulphate of Lime — Its composition — At- 
 tracts little moisture. — 66, Its benefits due to sulphuric acid — 
 Why but little required. — 66, Magnesiuin — Its properties. — 67, 
 Magnesia — Its composition — Its action — Cheap sources of — Too 
 much hurtful. — 68, Iron — Forms two oxides— Protoxide injuri- 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 ous to vegetation. — 69, Peroxide of Iron — Its composition — Uses 
 in soils — Effect of too much — How to correct it, and effects. — 
 70, Sulphate of Iron — How formed — Too much hurtful — How 
 corrected — Iron pyrites useful. — 70, Potassimn — Its properties^ 
 Oxidizes readily — Forms caustic potash. — 71, Potash — Its proper- 
 ties — Importance to plants — How and where found in nature — 
 72, Potash from plant and wood ashes — Wood ashes as manure. — 
 78, Sodium — Its propertFes — Forms caustic soda — Soda now made 
 from common salt. — 74, Nitrate of Soda — Where found — Its 
 uses in soils — Soda in plants — Cheapest source of it — Common 
 Salt — Its composition. — 75, Action of salt in soils— Injurious to 
 some plants and trees — Exterminates insects and worms — How 
 much wheat requires. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF PLANTS, AND KINDS AND AMOUNT OF MANURES 
 
 REQUIRED. (Page 77-104.) 
 
 77, Elements vary but little in plants of same kind — Effects, if 
 not so — First lesson of farmers — Popular idea of action of ma- 
 nure. — 79, Potash^ Silicon^ and Lime Plants. — 80, Remarks on. — 
 81, Importance of studying the tables. — 82, Ta])le of composition 
 of plants. — 83, Albumen and Gluten — Their uses — >S'to?'c7i and 
 Gum — Their uses and mode of action. — 84, Woody fibre — Of no 
 use as food — Theory of fattening. — 85, Table of inorganic ele- 
 ments of plants— A key to application of fertilizers — Remarks on 
 table.— 86, Composition of wheat and straw— Remarks — Asli of 
 plants uniform, — 88, Crops on ordinary land. — 89, English far- 
 mers. — 89, Wheat — Analysis of grain and straw — Remarks.— 90, 
 Indian (7(?r7i— Analysis of — Remarks. — 91, Rye — Analysis of — 
 Remarks. — 92, Oats — Analysis of — Remarks. — 93, Barley — 
 Analysis of — Remarks, — 94, Buckwheat — Analysis of — Remarks. 
 — 94, Potatoes — Analysis of — Remarks. — 95, Clover Hay — An- 
 alysis of — Remarks. — 96, Tobacco and Cotton — Analysis of — Re- 
 mai*ks. — 98, What should be applied to each crop — Average crop 
 "In thirty States — In Pennsylvania — In South Carolina. — 99, Re- 
 marks. — 100, What reader should have learned. — 101, What 
 has been raised in four years — What was taken from the soil— * 
 What will re'store it. — 102, Bad effects of overcropping in United 
 States and West Indies. 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS, ETC. (Page 104-123.) 
 
 104, Knowledge of soils necessary — Usual considerations in 
 purchasing a farm — The true test of value. — 106, Analysis of soil 
 near the Zuyder Zee. — 107, Amount of elements in this soil — 
 Last how long — How long cropped. — 109, Analysis of a sterile 
 soil — Remarks. — 109, Analysis of supposed barren soil — How 
 benefitted. — 110, What plants must have — What farmer should 
 do. — 111, Sand and clay the bulk of soils — Alluvial soils — Dilu- 
 vial soils — Rocks that form fertile soils. — 112, Granite, quartz, 
 felspar, mica, how these become soils. — 113, Potash in felspar. — 
 114, Carbonate of Lime — Its composition and origin. — 114, Sul- 
 phate of Lime — Its office and where found. — 115, Phospliorite — 
 Its importance — Its source in soils — Found in rocks, etc. — 115, 
 Sandstones — What is found in them — Easily disintegrated. — 116, 
 Soils — How named and why — Deep red soils. — 117, Mould — 
 How formed — Remarks. — 118, A complete manure — Waste must 
 be supplied. — 119, Humus — Its office — Water and carbon the 
 bulk of vegetation — Carbon not furnished by the soil. — 120, Car- 
 bon furnished by atmosphere. — 121, Importance of heat and 
 moisture. — 121, How to benefit sandy soils. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE MONEY VALUE OF FERTILIZERS, ETC. (Page 123-163.) 
 
 124, How prices should be rated. — 125, Exorbitant prices — 
 How to lower them. — 126, Effect of high prices. — 127, No return 
 for the money. — 128, Farmers think manures must be bulky — 
 Not so. — 128-9, Poorness of some fertilizers — Insincerity of 
 manufacturers — Money made from sale of w^ater. — 130, Dishon- 
 esty and ignorance of manufacturers — Their lamentations. — 131, 
 The good old times — Eft'ects of their frauds. — 132, Our duty. — 
 133, Poor state of agriculture — Fertilizers in England — In United 
 States. — 134, Report of an English manufacturer. — 135, State of 
 manufacturers in United States. — 135-6, Mode of estimating 
 value in England and Germany — Not applicable to United States. 
 —137, Basis of value. — 138, Analysis of cattle bones, and amount 
 of phosphoric acid. — 139, Two sources of phosphoric acid — 1st 
 source — 2d source — Its extent. — 140, Report of Dr. Pratt on 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 mineral phosphates of South Carolina. — 142-3, Analysis of— - 
 Prices — Profits when merely ground— Of no value in this state. 
 — 144-5, Soluble phosphoric acid — How produced — Too little sul- 
 phuric acid used. — 146, Amount required — Amount for 100 lbs. 
 ox bones — The compounds produced. — 148, Cost of materials for 
 a ton, and the value. — 149, Profits to manufacturers — Kmd sold. 
 — 150-1, Cost and value if made of mineral phosphate — Profits 
 when sold at $50 per ton — Kind sold. — 152-3, A bogus super- 
 phosphate — Insoluble phosphoric acid no value to farmer. — 154. 
 Soluble bone phosphate fraud. — 154, Ammonia and Nitrogen — 
 Actual and potential ammonia — Actual of most value — Manufac- 
 turers make no distinction in giving analyses. — 156, Value of 
 each. — 157, Crude sulphate of ammonia — Nitrogen as pot. amm. 
 and how changed to actual. — 158, Cost of nitrogen in bones. — 
 159-60, Value of potash with tables — Deceptions of manufactu- 
 rcrs. — 161, Catechism for manufacturers. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 NATURE AND VALUE OF NATURAL MANURES, COMPOSTING, ETC. 
 
 (Page 163-192.) 
 
 163, Natural manures. — 164, These not sufficient. — 155, Stable 
 Manures — Their composition and value. — 167, Analysis of excre- 
 ment and value — City Stable Majiure — Its value — Frauds and 
 profits of dealers. — 169, Rotted and dried stable manure — Use of 
 rotting. — 170, Analysis of hquid excrement and value. — 171, 
 Total value and remarks. — 172, Swamp Muck — Its composition, 
 etc. — 173, Eff'ects of application. — 174, Composting of muck — 
 mud — dried earth. — 175, Leaves of Trees — Their value — Analysis 
 of, etc. — 175, Wood and Coal Ashes. — 176, Analysis of— Phos. 
 acid and potash in ashes — Eff*ect of coal and peat ashes. — 177. 
 Soot — Its value — Analysis of — 177, Marl — Its composition, kinds 
 and value. — 179, Green Manuring — Its value, and better than 
 what — Long root plants. — 180, How and when to green manure 
 — Benefits limited — Rest does not restore land. — 181, Liquid M<i- 
 nures — Their value, etc — 181, ComiJosting — What is necessary — 
 Incorrect method. — 183-4-5, Proper method described. — 186. 
 Substances in heap — Chemical changes effected.— 189, Ground 
 bones — Time required. — 190, Mistakes made. 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS — ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS, 
 WITH COMMENTS AND CRITICISMS — METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 (Page 192-2G0.) 
 
 192, What this chapter will show — Cure for frauds. — 193, 
 What manufacturers may object to — Our reply. — 194, Farm pro- 
 duce inspected — The golden rule. — 195, Analyses of Watson & 
 Clark's Superphosphate — Its money value.— 196, Remarks 
 on. — 197, Analyses of Rhodes' Superphosphate — Its money 
 value. — 198, Remarks on. — 199, Analyses of Berger & Butz's 
 Excelsior Superphosphate of Lime — Its money value. — 200, 
 Remarks on. — 201, Analyses of "Magnum Bonum Soluble 
 Phosphate," Dugdale & Girvin, sole proprietors, Baltimore, 
 Md. — Its money value. — 202-3, Remarks on — Their garbled an- 
 alysis. — 204, Their bombast. — 205, Evasion of law of Maryland. 
 — 206, Analyses of Whann's Raw Bone Superphosphate 
 — Its money value. — 207, Remarks — Extracts from circular. — 
 208-9, False statements. — 210, Cheated in our purchase.— 211, 
 Analyses of Soluble Pacific Guano — Its money value. — 212, 
 Remarks — Light in weight — Heavy in water, etc. — 213-14, Ex- 
 tracts from circular. — 215, Bogus chemists and garbled analysis. 
 — 216, Brag — Great cry and little wool. — 217, Analyses of 
 Baugh & Sons' Raw Bone Superphosphate — Its money value. 
 — 218-19, Remarks* on — Extracts from circular. — 220, Garbled 
 analysis. — 221, Analyses of Frank Coe's Superphosphate 
 OF Lime— Its money value — Remarks — Analysis of in 1854 and 
 1865 — Deterioration since then. — 223, Analyses of Mono Phil- 
 lips' "Phuine"— Its money value. — 224, Analyses of Moro 
 Phillips' Genuine Improved Superphosphate of Lime — Its 
 money value. — 225, Remarks on the Superphosphate and Phuine 
 . — Extracts from circular. — 227, A great blow and little show — 
 Phuine the greatest swindle. — 228, Excellenza Ammoniated 
 Soluble Phosphate — Analysis of — Its money value.— 229-30, 
 Remarks. — 231, Analyses of Bower's Complete Manure — 
 Its money value.— 232, Short weight.— 233-34, Extracts from 
 circular. — 235, The mountain in labor. — 236, Commendatory let- 
 ters. — 238, The manure a fraud. — 239, Analyses of Patapsco 
 Guano Company's Ammoniated Soluble Phosphate — Its 
 money value. — 240, Remarks on — Garbled analysis. — 241, Ex- 
 tracts from circular. — 242, Analyses of Needles' Improved 
 Superphosphate of Lime — Its money value. — 243, A fraud in 
 weight and quality. — 244, Manufacturer should be prosecuted. — 
 245, Analyses of the Bromophyte Fertilizer — I s money 
 value. — 246, Remarks and extracts. — 248, etc., Humorous certi- 
 ficates. — 252, Stealing thunder. — 252, Methods of Analysis— 
 For total nitrogen — For actual ammonia and potash — For 
 phos. acid. — 254, Concluding Remarks. — 255, Effect of certifi- 
 cates. — 256, No complaints published. — 257, 3Iistakes of farmers 
 in giving certificates. — 258, As soon give certificate to a thief — 
 Necessity for inspection. — 259, Inspection in Germany and its 
 efl'ects iu securing the manufacture of good manures. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 IMPORTANT INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Within tlie past few years, several valuable 
 additions have been made to the agricultural 
 literature of our country, by some of the most 
 practical, scientific men of the times, and we 
 suppose that the publication of another book on 
 the subject of farming, and its interests, may at 
 this time, be considered unnecessary. 
 
 But when we have stated the reasons that 
 lead us to issue this publication, and the im- 
 portant interests we intend to discuss, we think 
 the public at large, and especially our progressive 
 farmers, who desire to elevate their profession 
 and raise the largest crops with the least possible 
 outlay, without impairing the value of their 
 lands, will agree with us, that the imforma- 
 tion contained in this book has long been needed, 
 and that its publication is only the natural 
 
 working of the law of demand and supply. 
 2 11 
 
12 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 The bulk of the agricultural literature of the 
 day has two vital defects, calculated to defeat 
 the end for which it is intended. The direct 
 cause of this failure may be traced to the 
 writers themselves, who may be classified as 
 follows : 
 
 First. The purely professional, scientific man, 
 who, unfortunately, cannot divest his writings 
 of the symbols and technical characters and 
 terms of science ; as he has a reputation to sustain 
 or acquire among the savans of the world, and 
 the scientific men of the country. Their works 
 may be ever so progressive, and show great 
 originality and merit, with an amount of labor 
 and patient research deserving of the highest 
 commendation. Still they signally fail in the 
 object intended — that of giving plain, practical 
 information to our farmers — as the most of 
 them, on account of their technical character, 
 present as much difficulty to the uninstructed 
 mind of the general farmer as if they were 
 written in Greek characters. 
 
 It is not our purpose to condemn works of this 
 class ; they are needed as text books in oui 
 educational institutions, and as books of reference 
 for the scientific portion of the community. And 
 as standard works in science, they could not 
 be well given in any other form ; and the farmer, 
 had he the leisure, and the inclination, to give 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 them a thorough study, would be amply repaid. 
 But we must accept the fact, that the majority 
 of our farmers are not educated chemists, and 
 that in connection with the labors of the farm, 
 they have not the time; and it cannot be ex- 
 pected that they would have the inclination to 
 prosecute a study that requires so much patient 
 research as the science of chemistry. To be- 
 come acquainted with those intricate processes 
 which are at all times taking place in the plant, — 
 the germination of the seed, the causes that lead 
 to the formation of the complex and changing 
 compounds in the different stages of the growth 
 of the plant, the formation of the varied colors 
 and perfume of the blossoms, the changes that 
 take place in the ripening of the fruit, — is a life- 
 long study for men who have leisure^ with a 
 natural aptitude for the subject. We do not 
 question the utility of these studies. A more 
 intimate knowledge of vegetable physiology 
 will undoubtedly be of incalculable benefit, in 
 indicating the causes and cure of disease and 
 blight in plants, which often disappoints the 
 hopes of our farmers. 
 
 But the majority of those who have to take 
 hold of the handles of the plow themselves, 
 require more practical information ; and in order 
 to render it acceptable, it should be given in 
 practical terms, so that when they seek informa- 
 
14 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 tion on any subject connected with their busi- 
 ness, they shall not be discouraged by a long 
 array of (to them) meaningless symbols, or have 
 to be continually referring to a chemical dic- 
 tionary to know what the writer means. 
 
 We do not intend any one to infer, that we 
 ignore, or attempt to bring science into discredit. 
 The farmer needs all the science he can get, and 
 he would find himself greatly benefited by a 
 general application of all its discoveries. But 
 he needs an interpreter of the truths and 
 fiicts that have been demonstrated by the 
 patient research of those who have been favored 
 with opportunities, time and means to devote 
 to the subject. 
 
 And in this book we shall endeavor to give 
 all the practical knowledge, so far developed 
 and established as truths and fixed facts {not 
 speculations)^ having a particular connection 
 with agriculture, and this will be rendered in 
 such plain language that a child may read and 
 understand. 
 
 The second class of writers, whose productions 
 are commonly found in the Agricultural Journals 
 of the day, fall into the opposite extreme. 
 
 These writers are practical farmers, and write 
 with the commendable intention of giving the 
 results of their experience to benefit their 
 brethren. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 They generally give a brief description of 
 their experiments, and the benefits derived from 
 them, as shown in the improved condition and 
 fertility of their lands. The information thus 
 given is very good as far as it goes, but as these 
 experiments are generally made without a clear 
 knowledge of the defects intended to be remedied, 
 or of the nature of the materials employed, they 
 must naturally be risky : they may succeed or 
 fail. As experiments so made must naturally 
 cause a great waste of time and money, the 
 value of practical knowledge is apparent. 
 
 The farmer to work intelligently should know 
 w^hat is the best and cheapest means to effect a 
 desired end, and this cannot be done until he is 
 fully acquainted with the chemical and physical 
 defects of his soil, and the nature and properties 
 of those materials that he can procure to correct 
 them. There is no operation of the farm that 
 cannot be performed so intelligently as' the 
 burning of limestone to produce quick lime, and 
 tlie subsequent application of this lime to hasten 
 the decomposition of dead vegetable substances 
 in the soil, and give food to plants. It is not 
 our intention to insult the good sense of our 
 practical farmers by any labored defence of 
 Avhat is termed book farming. The prejudices 
 supposed to exist against valuable information 
 that can be given on this i<u+)ject in books arf* 
 
16 AMERICAN MAXUKES. 
 
 only myths, the bugbecar of those parties Avho 
 make a business of giving information, and 
 writing books on subjects of which they are 
 entirely ignorant; and the thin veil of whose 
 pretensions is so transparent that the farmer 
 soon discovers the emptiness that is within, and 
 those writers get the contempt and derision 
 they so deservedly merit. 
 
 Farming should and can be elevated to a 
 science; but in order to effect this, the farmer 
 should realize that he has more to learn than 
 the building of fences, ploughing and cultivating 
 the soil, sowing the seed and gathering the 
 harvest, with the general care of his live stock. 
 That the necessary know^ledge for the per- 
 formance of these things can be transmitted 
 orally, from father to son, without the aid of 
 books, we will admit. But if this was all that 
 Avas necessary to be known, farming would be 
 degraded to mere labor and manual dexterity, 
 not requiring as much skill and intelligence as 
 is exhibited by some of the lower animals in 
 providing for their wants. Traditional know- 
 ledge is not progressive. It is only when one 
 generation preserves the knowledge they have 
 acquired in the form of written books, that the 
 next generation are enabled to extend that 
 knowledge, and improve the arts or sciences to 
 which they are ^levoted. If we do not know 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 what has been already done, how are we to 
 know where to begin to improve ? 
 
 We might spend a lifetime in perfecting 
 some invention that had been proved to be a 
 faikire a century before. We should all have 
 to commence at the beginning, and life is too 
 short to be wasted in that manner. The suc- 
 cessive steps by which many of the arts and 
 manufactures have advanced to their present 
 perfection are fully recorded. We can profit by 
 the mistakes, as well as the discoveries, of our 
 ancestors, and these mistakes need not be again 
 repeated. We are enabled to sift what is 
 valuable from the worthless, appropriate it to 
 our use and improve on it. 
 
 These are a few of the advantages of books 
 on industrial pursuits. As far as agriculture is 
 concerned, we think the intelligent farmer will 
 admit that his business has less advantages in 
 this respect than many others, and consequently 
 is far behind the other industries of civilization. 
 
 There are many terse sayings and proverbs 
 connected with farming, that have probably been 
 handed down from father to son for hundreds of 
 years. These generally contain a good deal of 
 strong, sound common sense. One at this mo- 
 ment presents itself to our own mind. " The 
 man who makes two blades of grass grow where 
 one grew before is a benefactor to his country." 
 
i^ AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 This saying is very good as far as it goes, but it 
 seems to be incomplete, and we will make a 
 little addition to it, as follows : " But the man 
 who continually gathers from the soil, and 
 returns nothing to it until he can gather no 
 more, changing a fertile smiling land into a 
 sterile wilderness, impoverishes himself, wrongs 
 his country, and beggars his children." This 
 may seem severe, but it is none the less true. 
 How much individual poverty has been caused 
 by excessive cropping, and a total neglect or 
 an inadequate application of manures? That 
 this state of things has in a great measure been 
 caused by ignorance w^e will charitably admit, 
 but whatever be the cause of the evil, the effect 
 is the same. 
 
 In this vital principle of true and successful 
 farming, sustaining fertility by sufficient manur- 
 ing, we are as a nation shamefully ignorant and 
 criminally negligent. In this matter many of 
 our farmers seem totally indifferent, either to 
 precept or example ; and the work of deteriora- 
 tion is still going on, unchecked and unheeded 
 in all parts of the country^ while the very sub- 
 stances that would prevent and avert this 
 great national evil are allowed to go to waste 
 everywhere. Farmers often permit their stable 
 manure to lie for months exposed to the in- 
 fluence of the weather, thus losing the most 
 
INTRODUCTION. TO 
 
 valuable part of it^ namely the ammonia, and 
 the soluble salts that are dissolved and washed 
 away by the rain. Whereas all such substances 
 should be carefully stored under cover, so that a 
 certain amount of fermentation may be produced, 
 thus preparing them as an active manure when 
 needed. All the waste materials of the farm 
 should thus be prepared. The day will come 
 when this raw material of future crops will be 
 considered as worthy of a store-house as the 
 crop itself 
 
 An accurate knowledge of the value of these 
 waste products, as representing grass and butter, 
 corn, beef and bread, and the other necessaries 
 of life, will naturally lead to economy in saving 
 those materials. It is the paramount object of 
 this book, to give the former clear, comprehensive 
 views of the theory and practice of manuring, 
 so that he can, at the least possible expense, 
 raise large crops, preserve the standard fertility 
 of his lands, and leave an unimpaired inheritance 
 to his children. 
 
 In order to do this we shall show the nature, 
 properties, and source of the different elements 
 that are exhausted by cultivation, and required 
 to be renewed as manures. 
 
 The general composition of different crops and 
 plants that are cultivated on the farm, aUo tlip 
 nature source, and properties of the various 
 
20 ' AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 soils from which these plants must be pro- 
 duced. • 
 
 When the farmer is fully informed on these 
 subjects, he can realize the commercial value of 
 those elements of fertility, that are yearly re- 
 moved from his land, in the various forms of the 
 j)roduce that is sent to market ) and also, if he 
 does not add anything to his soil in the shape of 
 manure, and only realizes a bare living for his 
 labor, he can see how much poorer he is becoming 
 every year. A thorough knowledge and ap- 
 preciation of these things will at once convince 
 the farmer, that it is impossible for him to 
 preserve the fertility of his soil unimpaired, even 
 by the most economical and judicious saving and 
 application of all the waste substances produced 
 on his farm; that the portion of this produce 
 which is removed from the farm, in the shape 
 of cattle, and grain, and other produce, is a 
 constant drain on the valuable elements of 
 fertility, that should finally give his land a 
 value; and that if he wishes to preserve its 
 average productiveness, or improve it, he must 
 return an equivalent in some cheaper form. 
 
 To meet this want, concentrated manures and 
 superphosphate of lime are prepared, and the 
 farmer finds in them the most convenient means 
 at hk command to supply the wants of his land. 
 As the names and prices of these fertilizers are ' 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 no criterion of their merits or value, this book 
 will come directly to his assistance, and of the 
 many evils of fraud and deception, he will be 
 enabled to choose the least. 
 
 The manufacture of superphosphate of lime 
 will be fully reviewed, showing what it now is, 
 and what it should be. 
 
 Full analyses, with critical examinations, will 
 be given, with a money value, based on the 
 amount of the valuable constituents, solubility, 
 and mechanical condition of the different man- 
 ures. 
 
 These analyses of the different manufactured 
 manures Avere made by Dr. William H. Bruckner. 
 Samples were obtained, as follows : Packages 
 already put up for sale to the farmer were pur- 
 chased from the manufacturers or their agents. 
 Each package was opened as soon as it arrived 
 at our office, in the presence of witnesses, its 
 contents thoroughly mixed, and a sample of about 
 five pounds taken from at least fifty places of the 
 thoroughly mixed heap, thus guarding against 
 varying quality in the mass. Two analyses in 
 all cases were made of different portions of this 
 five-pound sample ; hence there cannot possibly 
 be any error in the result. 
 
 Having guarded ourselves against all possible 
 contingencies, there will be no retraction on our 
 part of anything stated about manufactured 
 
22 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 manures, however much manufacturers may he 
 offended or feel aggrieved. 
 
 We have made no invidious distinctions be- 
 tween the different manures, but have endeavored 
 to the best of our ability to deal out even-handed 
 justice to all alike. We regret very much, 
 however, that the limited time at our command 
 would not permit us to examine all the manures 
 offered in the market. We have selected the 
 most prominent ones; and hope the neglected 
 manufacturers wdll accept our want of time as 
 an apology, when we inform them that their 
 manures will receive our attention at the earliest 
 possible moment — sooner^ perhaps^ than they de- 
 sire it. 
 
 It is not our intention or desire to do an act of 
 injustice to any one, but we are not to he deterred 
 from exposing fraud and imposition. 
 
 We know that there are, or should be, some 
 conscientious capable men in this business, who 
 desire to make a good article, and give the 
 farmer a fair return for his money. Their 
 manures, as shown by Dr. Bruckner's analyses, 
 are the best tests of their comparative honesty and 
 capacity : " By their fruits ye shall know them." 
 
 One of the writers of this book has been 
 thoroughly acquainted with the manufacture of 
 fertilizers and superphosphate of lime for more 
 than ten years, and during that time has super- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 intended two of the largest establishments for 
 the manufacture of fertilizers in this country. 
 He has also made the important subject of 
 manuring an especial study, and he is thoroughly 
 acquainted with the w^hole business as now con- 
 ducted, the sources and nature of the materials 
 used, the cost to the manufiicturers and the 
 methods of manufacturing, with its entire cost 
 of production; all of which information so far 
 has been preserved as secrets from the general 
 public. The work of deception and dissimula- 
 tion has been carried on so extensively by some 
 of these manufacturers, that we need not wonder 
 when w^e see them attempting to deceive even 
 themselves. 
 
 There has also been a secrecy preserved in 
 nearly all their operations,^ with an affectation 
 of science that would rival the pretensions of the 
 alchemists of the middle age^. The similarity 
 does not stop there ; all the other characteristics 
 are preserved — unmitigated ignorance of the 
 elements with which they work, or the ends 
 they should produce. With unblushing effron- 
 tery they make a parade of science, placing 
 'themselves before the country as public bene- 
 factors, while they eat up the substance of 
 the land without giving an adequate return, and 
 are stumbling-blocks in the path of progress. 
 That they have been able to do this with 
 
24 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 impunity, is due to the fact of the secrecy with 
 which all their operations are conducted. 
 
 There is a sort of free-masonry preserved 
 among them. In securing a customer, one of 
 the standard phrases of the trade is, " We do 
 not commend our article by giving another 
 manufacturer a bad nartie." 
 
 No, dear reader. They do not speak ill of 
 each other. What other business can boast the 
 possession of this virtue in such an eminent 
 degree? But withhold your admiration a mo- 
 ment, dear reader. " When rogues fall out, 
 honest men get their due." These manufacturers 
 live in glass houses, and throwing stones might 
 endanger their own property. 
 
 This unity, and secrecy, in connection with 
 the pressing wants of our farmers, have given 
 them facilities for accumulating princely fortunes 
 by practices that may be styled anything but 
 honest, while at the same time making loud- 
 mouthed pretensions of all the liberal virtues. 
 
 This may seem unnecessarily severe ; but were 
 it less so, it might fail in awakening a proper 
 sense of the impositions that are practised upon 
 the most deserving part of the community, those 
 who furnish us bread. 
 
 One of the proofs of the dishonesty of some of 
 the manufacturers may be found in their lying 
 circulars and pamphlets, which are full of 
 
INTRODUCTION.. 25 
 
 misrepresentationSj and some even contain false 
 and garbled analyses intended, or at least 
 calculated to deceive, by giving combinations 
 of elements that are not found in their manures, 
 or, if found, in much less quantity than re- 
 presented. The arts of the charlatan are ex- 
 tensively practised to deceive and impose on 
 their customers. Many farmers are fully aware 
 of the fact that they need something to enable 
 them to raise good crops and renew their im- 
 poverished lands, and that in purchasing, they 
 are entirely at the mercy of these compounders 
 of m^^nures. And if they pay a dollar for what 
 is worth only fifty cents, it is simply because 
 they cannot help themselves in getting the full 
 value of their money. 
 
 The men who water milk, sand sugar, or sell 
 shoddy for broad cloth, are termed swindlers, 
 but the amount of their sales is comparatively 
 small ; and as we have ready means of detecting 
 such frauds, the sales of these unprincipled 
 dealers become beautifully less. 
 
 Not so, however, with manufacturers of fertil- 
 izers ; from the appearance of the article detection 
 is difficult. Hence some of the manufacturers of 
 fertilizers count their profits by the hundreds of 
 thousands of dollars yearly ; and we shall prove 
 that their practices are equally, or more culpable 
 than those of the other party. When a manu- 
 
26 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 facturer of fertilizers can realize as profits two 
 hundred thousand dollars in a year, from the 
 investment of an amount of capital that would 
 barely purchase a form of two hundred acres in 
 some parts of the country, all honest men must 
 admit that a great wrong is perpetrated, and 
 that it cannot be too soon righted. 
 
 One of the objects of this book is to place 
 this business fairly before the public ^ and, as it 
 furnishes the raw material to the farmer, this 
 raw material should have no advantage over the 
 products of the farm. It should be as closely 
 scrutinized as to quality, and its profits reduced 
 to a legitimate standard. The farmer will be 
 enabled, by the information here given, to select 
 the maflure that will yield him the largest 
 return for the money expended. 
 
 This of course will place the dishonest manu- 
 facturer of fertilizers in the same category as the 
 dishonest grocer, and he will soon discover from 
 his reduced sales, that he must improve his 
 article or quit the business. 
 
 The farmer can see at a glance the great 
 value of the information here given. The im- 
 portation and manufacture of fertilizers have 
 become a business of great magnitude. Not 
 less than five hundred thousand tons of prepared 
 manures, guanos, bone-dust, and superphosphates 
 of lime, are annually sold in this country, at a 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 cost of about twenty five millions of dollars to 
 the farmer and planter. 
 
 This fact shows that there must be a great 
 demand based on a great want of these fertilizers. 
 It also speaks w^ell for the enterprise and pro- 
 gressive spirit of our farmers, that they are 
 willing to invest this enormous amount of money. 
 We shall show that this money expended does 
 not give a commensurate return, in a propor- 
 tional increase of the crops, and that nearly one 
 half of it goes into the pockets of the manu- 
 facturers as profits. 
 
 But under present circumstances, how is the 
 farmer to know, at the time of making his 
 purchase of these manures, that he is getting a 
 good article, and the large amount he pays is a 
 good investment of his money ? As these man- 
 ures undergo no official inspection, he must 
 necessarily buy them on the strength of their 
 general reputation of being good, and the high 
 sounding recommendations of the manufacturers 
 and agents, with an array of glowing certificates 
 from farmers, who probably did not receive a 
 tithe of the benefit they should have received 
 for the amount of money expended. 
 
 How is the farmer to know that the manure 
 
 manufactured this year, is not greatly inferior to 
 
 what was made the year before ? The writers 
 
 know that the value of manures of the same 
 3 
 
28 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 manufacturers varies considerably in different 
 seasons. If a good manure is made one year, it 
 establishes a reputation that enables the manu- 
 facturer to palm off an inferior article the next 
 season. The farmer has no means of judging 
 the quality of the article by its appearance, and 
 has to rely on the honesty of the manufacturer ; 
 and this confidence, on his part, is too often 
 abused. He finds, too late, that instead of being 
 benefited as he expected, that the amount paid for 
 the manure has been a direct tax on his scanty 
 produce, involving a serious loss of time, labor 
 and capital. 
 
 Our agricultural bureau at Washington has 
 failed to give this momentous national question 
 that attention the subject deserves and requires^ 
 as any one who reads the agricultural reports 
 must admit. An ofiice or bureau of inspection 
 for these manures is imperatively demanded. 
 Every concentrated manure, fertilizer, or super- 
 phosphate of lime should be analyzed by com- 
 jpetent and honest chemists, and their processes 
 made known, and the grade of the article fixed ; 
 and there should be a law requiring a guaranteed 
 analysis to be attached to each bag or barrel of 
 the manure, and the manufacturers to be liable 
 to prosecution if their manures fall short of the 
 guaranteed standard. 
 
 This is a matter of vital importance, not only 
 
INTRODUCTION. 29 
 
 to the practical agriculturist^ but to the people 
 at large. Every one should feel an interest in 
 the productiveness of our soils ; as all are con- 
 sumers of its products, therefore all are pecunia- 
 rily interested. Moreover, when our lands fail 
 in their natural fertility, the loss injures com- 
 merce, manufactures, mechanical arts, and para- 
 lyzes all new enterprises. 
 
 It is a grave mistake to suppose that farmers 
 alone are interested in the practical results of 
 tillage. They have no more than a common 
 interest in maintaining or improving the natural 
 fruitfulness of the earth. 
 
 Hence, w^e should all unite in endeavoring to 
 impart knowledge to our farmers. If an increase 
 of knowledge should save only five cents on the 
 growing of a bushel of wheat, it would amount 
 to nearly thirteen millions of dollars on tlie 
 average wheat crop of this country. Or, if the 
 same saving could be effected on each bushel of 
 our average corn crop, it would amount to near- 
 ly fifty millions of dollars. 
 
 The writers have endeavored to impart what 
 knowledge they possess, trusting and believing 
 that their efforts will be appreciated by those 
 for whom they have been exerted — Our Far- 
 mers and Planters. 
 
 Feeling confident that we shall have the pat- 
 ronage of the farmer, and the good wishes of the 
 
30 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 community at large {dislionest manufacturers 
 excepted)^ in this new field of labor, we shall leave 
 nothing undone in this, and in future editions, to 
 render our work attractive, useful and instruc- 
 tive. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF MANURES AND PLANTS. 
 
 Manures are substances added or applied to 
 soils, to supply the wants of the different plants 
 intended for the use of man and animals. That 
 certain vegetable, animal and mineral substances 
 applied to soils will quicken the growth of vege- 
 tation and increase the amount of production, 
 are facts that have been known from the earliest 
 period. But the nature and properties of these 
 substances, called manures; the manner in 
 which they act; the best modes of applying 
 them ; and their relative value and durability, 
 are subjects still open to inquiry and discussion. 
 
 Some substances used as manures furnish 
 directly the materials that enter into the com- 
 position of plants ; while others are applied to 
 change the physical character of the soil, and 
 effect chemical changes on the insoluble materi- 
 als that it may contain, rendering them soluble, 
 and in such condition that they can be assimila- 
 ted by plants. 
 
 As every part of man and animals is originally 
 
 31 
 
32 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 derived from the plants that have served them 
 and their predecessors as food, and as no ele- 
 ment can produce itself, and nothing is lost or 
 destroyed ; it is evident that the excrements of 
 animals when living, together with their bodies 
 after death, will contain everything that is 
 necessary for the reproduction of plants. 
 
 But as these bodies are of a complex nature, 
 and in the act of putrefaction and decay resolve 
 ♦themselves into simpler forms, a valuable part 
 passing away in different gases; and as the 
 greater part of the produce of the land is con- 
 sumed in cities and towns, where the excrements 
 are in a great measure allowed to go to waste, 
 it is impossible to return the same elements in 
 their changed form to the soil to produce other 
 crops. ' Consequently, we have to look to other 
 sources for the materials to make good this loss 
 and preserve the fertility of the land. 
 
 There is no deficiency of the substances re- 
 quired for the growth of plants. A kind Provi- 
 dence has economically stored them for our use 
 in a variety of forms. Hence the importance of 
 a knowledge of the elements of manures ; also 
 where to procure them, and how to prepare and 
 apply them. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 To assist the farmer in obtaining a knowledge 
 of the elements entering into the composition of 
 
THE ELEMENTS. 33 
 
 cultivated plants, we have arranged them as 
 follows : 
 
 I. Gaseous Elements. — Oxygen, Hydrogen, 
 Nitrogen, Chlorine. 
 
 II. Elements combining with Oxygen to form 
 Acids. — Silicon, Carbon, Phosphorus, Sulphur. 
 
 III. Elements combining with Oxygen to 
 form Bases. — Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Potas- 
 sium, Sodium. 
 
 The combinations of Potassium and Sodium 
 are termed allcalies. 
 
 The elements unite in definite proportions, 
 called equivalents^ representing the smallest 
 quantity in which they enter into comtfination, 
 one with the other. The equivalents are, for 
 
 Oxygen 8 
 
 Hydrogen 1 
 
 Nitrogen 14 
 
 Chlorine 85.5 
 
 Silicon 14 
 
 Carbon 6 
 
 Phosphorus 31 
 
 Sulphur 16 
 
 Calcium 20 
 
 Magnesium 12.2 
 
 Iron 28 
 
 Potassium 39 
 
 Sodium 23 
 
 To render the above intelligible, we give a few 
 examples, viz : 8 pounds or parts of oxygen 
 unite with 1 pound or part of hydrogen, to form 
 9 pounds or parts of water. Three parts of 
 hydrogen unite with 14 parts of nitrogen, to 
 form 17 parts of ammonia; and 16 parts of sul- 
 phur unite with 24 parts of oxygen, to form 40 
 parts of anhydrous sulphuric acid. 
 
34 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 The laws that govern. these combinations are 
 arbitrary ; any excess of an element does not 
 affect the composition of the resulting com- 
 pound. 
 
 An Element contains but one kind of matter, 
 as Oxygen, Sulphur, Calcium. 
 
 A Compound is the union of two or more ele- 
 ments ) as Water, Sulphuric Acid, Oxide of Cal- 
 cium. 
 
 An Oxide is a combination of an element with 
 oxygen ; as calcium united with oxygen is called 
 the oxide of calcium, or quick lime ; or sulphur 
 united with oxygen to produce sulphuric acid, 
 is called an oxide of sulphur. The union of 
 oxygen with different elements produces both 
 acids and hases. 
 
 A Salt is the union of an acid with a base, the 
 active properties of the acid being neutralized, 
 and the compound having properties different 
 from either; as lime or the oxide of calcium 
 unites with sulphuric acid to form the sul|)hate 
 of lime, or land plaster. A salt may also be pro- 
 duced by the union of an element with an ele- 
 ment ; as chlorine uniting with sodium to form 
 common salt. The force that produces the com- 
 binations of dissimilar bodies is termed Chemical 
 Affinity, 
 
 Chemical Affinity may be defined as an 
 attraction exerted at insensible distances between 
 
GASEOUS ELEMENTS. 35 
 
 particles of matter of different kinds, the result 
 of which is the formation of new particles 
 possessed of qualities different from those of their 
 components; as quicklime combines with sul- 
 phuric acid, to form gypsum or land plaster. 
 
 This definition will show the difference be- 
 tween chemical attraction or affinity, and the 
 forces of gravitation and cohesion. Gravitation 
 is exerted at all distances between masses of 
 matter without regard to their nature, and differs 
 entirely from affinity. 
 
 ■ Cohesion differs less widely from affinity, since 
 its attraction is exerted only at minute distances. 
 This force, however, is exerted more frequently, 
 and with greater energy between similar particles 
 of matter, than between particles of different 
 kinds ; and the operation of these forces is not 
 attended with any material alteration in the 
 properties of matter. 
 
 We shall now proceed to the consideration of 
 the different elements found in plants, in the 
 order of their division. 
 
 GASEOUS ELEMENTS. 
 
 Oxygen was discovered by Priestly, in 1774. 
 It is permanent, colorless, tasteless, and odorless, 
 and is a supjoorter of combustion; any combustible 
 substance burus in oxygen with increased bril- 
 
36 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 liancy and rapidity. Some substances unite 
 with oxygen at tlie common temperature, as is 
 the case of the rusting of iron when moisture is 
 present. Oxygen unites with all the elements 
 entering into the composition of plants, in one 
 or several proportions, as in the following sub- 
 stances, viz : One equivalent of calcium unites 
 with one equivalent of oxygen to form oxide 
 of calcium, commonly called quicklime; one 
 equivalent of sulphur unites with three equiva- 
 lents of oxygen to form anhydrous sulphuric acid. 
 One equivalent of phosphorus unites with five 
 equivalents of oxygen to form anhydrous phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 Mechanically mixed with nitrogen, oxygen 
 forms about 21 per cent, by volume of the 
 atmosphere, and is heavier than common air in 
 the proportion of 11 to 10. Much more than one 
 half of the weight of plants and animals is 
 oxygen. How wonderful, that a gas should by 
 powerful affinities be bound up in such vast 
 stores in rocks and the solid mountains of the 
 earth, as well as in the ocean, pervading all 
 created matter, and being itself the essence of 
 life ; and that without it, plants and animals 
 would speedily die. 
 
 Oxygen serves both as material for the 
 production of matter in combining with other 
 substances, as with carbon, forming carbonic 
 
HYDROGEN. 37 
 
 acid ; and also as a direct agent of the chemical 
 vital processes in the plant. 
 
 The sources for the supply of oxygen to the 
 plant, are carbonic acid, water, and nitric acid. 
 These compounds offer to plants much more 
 oxygen than they require, in consequence of 
 which the most of the oxygen is again restored 
 to the atmosphere; the plant retaining the carbon, 
 a portion of the hydrogen, and the nitrogen of 
 the nitric acid. 
 
 The amount of oxygen exhaled from plants is 
 very considerable ; it is, and must be equivalent 
 to the quantity required for the purpose of 
 respiration, combustion, and decay. If it were 
 not so, the amount of this vital air in the 
 atmosphere would either be increasing or dimin- 
 ishing, either cause unfitting it for the purpose 
 of respiration. 
 
 If the law which governs the liberation of this 
 substance were but slightly changed, an extinc- 
 tion of all plants and animals would follow. 
 Increase or diminish in any sensible degree the 
 vital air, or oxygen, and all vitality must shortly 
 cease. 
 
 HYDROGEN. 
 
 Hydrogen was discovered by Cavendish, in 
 1776. It is one of the most diffused bodies, and is 
 transparent, odorless, tasteless, and inflammable. 
 
38 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 It does not exist in nature, in the free or un- 
 combined state, nor does it exist so abundantly 
 as oxygen. It forms a part of all animals and 
 plants, and one-ninth of the weight of water. 
 At the same temperature, and under like pressure, 
 it is sixteen times lighter than oxygen, and nearly 
 fourteen and a half times lighter than common air. 
 
 This gas will not support a flame or combus- 
 tion. But although hydrogen does not exist in 
 nature in the free state, it is being continually 
 formed by the decomposition of water, caused by 
 the putrefaction of organic bodies ; this liberated 
 hydrogen uniting with nitrogen, carbon or sul- 
 phur, forming ammonia, carburetted and sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen. It is generally found in 
 plants, in excess of the amount required to form 
 water, showing that water is decomposed in the 
 plant, and that the oxygen is expelled; the 
 hydrogen being possibly retained as an attractive 
 element, should there be a scarcity of moisture, 
 to again combine with more oxygen and form 
 water. 
 
 This element is assimilated by plants in 
 ammonia and water; these sources are sufficient 
 to furnish hydrogen. 
 
 CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. 
 
 Carburetted Hydrogen is found in large 
 quantities during the decay of vegetable matter 
 
SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN" 39 
 
 in 'moist places or in stagnant pools, and may 
 often be seen rising in bubbles in marshy places. 
 In warm weather, and when vegetation com- 
 mences to decay in the fall of the year, the 
 amount formed is largely increased. It is called 
 marsh gas^ and its presence is the direct cause 
 of the malaria of chills and fevers or the ague. 
 It is largely generated in the distillation of soft 
 or bituminous coal, and when mixed with atmos- 
 pheric air, is the much dreaded fire dampy the 
 explosion of which is so fatal to miners. 
 
 This gas is also given off with carbonic acid 
 during the fermentation of compost heaps, or 
 any large deposits of vegetable matter. It is 
 present in all soils containing much decaying 
 vegetable matter, and is a source of carbon and 
 hydrogen to the growing plant; but to effect this 
 a decomposition of its elements must be effected. 
 
 When it is present in large quantities, it is 
 probable that it is just as poisonous to vegetable 
 as it is to animal life, and shows insufficient 
 oxidation of the carbon. 
 
 SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen is a gaseous com- 
 pound of sulphur and hydrogen, and may be 
 readily detected by the similiarity of its odor to 
 rotten eggs. Water absorbs about three times 
 
40 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 its volume of this gas, and some sulphur springs 
 contain large quantities of it. It is colorless, 
 inflammable, and when breathed, highly poison- 
 ous. Being considerably heavier than common 
 air, it may be poured into cavities and holes, and ' 
 has been successfully used in killing vermin and 
 rats. The gas is produced in marshy stagnant 
 places, and in fish ponds, where vegetable matter 
 is undergoing decay in the presence of the 
 sulphates of the metals -in solution, as the 
 sulphate of iron, gypsum or land plaster; and in 
 old pasture lands it may be frequently detected, 
 even by the sense of smell, around the roots of 
 the sod. As in the egg, so in other decaying 
 animal matter, especially when the air is in a 
 manner excluded, this gas is formed. The 
 presence of this gas is detrimental to vegetable 
 life ; where it exists in considerable quantity it 
 prevents the free excess of oxygen, without 
 which plants as well as animals cannot live. 
 Plants have not the power of rejecting poisonous 
 substances any more than animals. The presence 
 of these gases in the soil is a proof that it is un- 
 fitted for the proper and luxuriant growth of 
 plants, and that an imperfect oxidation of the 
 soil exists, that cannot too soon be remedied by 
 cultivation and the addition of active manurial 
 substances. 
 
NITROGEN. 41 
 
 NITROGEN. 
 
 Nitrogen is a permanent gas. It has neither 
 taste, color nor smell, and is destitute of active 
 properties. It is incombustible, and will not 
 support combustion or respiration. Its most im- 
 portant function is to dilute the oxygen of the 
 atmosphere,, which contains 77 per cent, by 
 weight, or 79 per cent, by volume of nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen does not enter into direct combina- 
 tion with any elements, excepting oxygen, with 
 which it may be made to unite by subjecting the 
 mixture of the gases to a succession of powerful 
 electric shocks. The union of nitrogen witli 
 oxygen in proper proportions produces nitric 
 acid, consisting of one equivalent or 14 parts 
 of the former, with 5 equivalents or 40 parts of 
 the latter. 
 
 Nitric acid in small quantity is produced in 
 the atmosphere during thunderstorms by the 
 same agency, and is absorbed by rains, thus 
 furnishing a limited supply of this element to 
 plants. 
 
 As before stated, 14 parts of nitrogen uniting 
 with 3 parts of hydrogen, form ammonia; this 
 compound, with nitric acid, being the most im- 
 portant source of nitrogen for plants. 
 
 Nitrogen is so essential to the growth of 
 plants, that no matter if every other element 
 
42 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 was present in excess, without it they could 
 never come to maturity. 
 
 Since nitrogen is so plentifully furnished in 
 the atmosphere, a superficial observer would 
 suppose that plants would never suffer from a 
 lack of this substance. The closest investiga- 
 tions have failed to show that they can assimilate 
 nitrogen in its pure state from the atmosphere ; 
 on the contrary, some plants discharge the 
 nitrogen that is absorbed by the roots. On the 
 other hand it has been directly proved, by a 
 large amount of evidence, that it enters into 
 their roots, either as ammonia or nitric acid. 
 
 There are various opinions as to the relative 
 value of ammonia and nitric acid, in furnishing 
 nitrogen to plants; but as the application of 
 either substance is followed by direct beneficial 
 results, it may be inferred that they are nearly 
 equally valuable in proportion to the amount of 
 nitrogen contained in each, although it is very 
 probable that ammonia is more directly available. 
 
 Many persons suppose that the atmosphere 
 furnishes a sufficient amount of this substance 
 for the wants of vegetation, and that it is 
 brought down by rains and dews into the soil. 
 That ammonia is continually being formed from 
 decaying animal and vegetable matter, and that 
 it escapes into the atmosphere, we will admit; 
 and we will now examine how far this supply 
 
NITROGEN. 43 
 
 will go to supply the wants of plants, based on 
 the experiments of distinguished chemists. 
 
 In 1855 and 1856, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, 
 at Rothamstead, England, collected on a large rain 
 gauge presenting a surface of j-^^-o of an acre, 
 the entire rain-fall (with dews, etc., included), for 
 those years. Prof. Way, at that time chemist 
 to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 
 analyzed the waters, and found that the total 
 amount of ammonia contained in them was 
 equal to 71bs in 1855, and 9iVbs in 1856, for an 
 acre of surface. These amounts were yielded 
 by 663,000 and 616,000 gallons of rain w^ater 
 respectively. In the waters collected at Inster- 
 burg, during the year ending March, 1865, 
 Pincus and Roellig obtained 6.38 lbs of ammonia 
 per acre. Bretschneider found in the waters 
 collected at Ida Marienhuette, from April, 1865, 
 to April, 1866, 12ibs for an acre of surface. 
 
 One hundred pounds of wheat, with the straw", 
 require two and a half per cent, of nitrogen, 
 equal to more than three per cent, of ammonia. 
 The reader can see at a glance, how inadequate 
 this amount of ammonia is to supply an ordinary 
 crop with this element; 25 bushels of wheat, 
 with the straw, will require 45ibs of ammonia; 
 so that if the plant could assimilate all the 
 ammonia of the rain w^ater, 401bs additional 
 w^ould have to be added or applied to an 
 
44 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 acre. These facts need no further comment, 
 and conclusively prove the necessity of adding 
 ammonia or nitrogen, in some form, to the grow- 
 ing plant, to su]3ply this element. 
 
 CHLORINE. 
 
 Chlorine is a yellowish green liquefiable gas, 
 of a pungent, suffocating odor. It is incom- 
 bustible, but supports the combustion of a few 
 bodies. Chlorine is incapable of supporting 
 respiration, causing instantaneous death when 
 inhaled pure; when diluted with atmospheric 
 air, and breathed in small quantities, it excites 
 violent coughing, accompanied by an oppressive 
 choking sensation, sometimes followed by spitting 
 of blood. 
 
 Chlorine is abundantly found in nature in 
 combination with sodium, as rock salt ; it is also 
 found in sea-w^ater and marine plants. 
 
 The reader will see, by referring to the tables 
 showing the Composition of Plants, that a very 
 small amount of this element is required ; and as 
 it is always applied to the soil in alkaline 
 chlorides, we shall review this element more 
 fully under the head of Sodium. 
 
 The foregoing brief review of the gases that 
 enter into the composition of plants, and the 
 compounds they form with other elements, 
 should be well considered and understood by the 
 
SILICON. 45 
 
 reader. It is not our intention to write a 
 work on elementary chemistry; we give only 
 such general chemical fiicts as are required to be 
 known by the farmer, to render the subsequent 
 part of this book fully intelligible. 
 
 ELEMENTS COMBINING WITH OXYGEN 
 TO FORM ACIDS. 
 
 Silicon is never found as such in nature. It 
 was discovered by Humphry Davy, in 1813. It 
 presents the appearance of a brown powder, or 
 of scaly crystals resembling graphite. Silicon 
 when combined with oxygen in the proportion 
 of 53.34 of the hatter, to 46.66 of the former, 
 forms an acid known as Silicic Acid, or simply 
 Silica. This acid occurs in nature both free and 
 combined : free, as quartz, flint and pure Avhite 
 sand ; combined, as felspar, serpentine, etc. The 
 salts of silica are termed silicates, as silicates 
 of potash, lime and magnesia. These silicates 
 chemically combined with water are termed 
 hydrated silicates, which are present in all or 
 nearly all soils, and render a most valuable 
 service to vegetation, by storing up soluble plant- 
 food, and dealing it out when required. 
 
 Silica is either crystallized or amorphous. 
 When crystallized, it forms six-sided, trans- 
 parent, colorless prisms, known as rock crystal ; 
 
46 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 when amorphous, it is white, tasteless, and gritty, 
 as in flint, sand, etc. It is insoluble in water, 
 and in acids, hydrofluoric excepted. It enters 
 largely into the composition of glass, porcelain, 
 etc.; and we can safely say that the former 
 contains over half its weight of this acid. 
 
 Silica, when chemically united with water, 
 forms a transparent jelly, known as hydrated or 
 soluble silica. This is soluble in water to a 
 certain extent, and in acids, even in the feeble 
 carbonic. From it, and from alkaline silicates, 
 plants obtain their silica. This silica is prepared 
 for the use of the plant by natural agencies, 
 somewhat in the following manner. Suppose 
 w^e allow carbonic acid and water to act on a 
 combination of lime, potash, and silica, what 
 takes place? The lime and potash combine 
 with the carbonic acid to form carbonates of 
 these substances, and the silica combining with 
 water becomes plant-food. A long time, how- 
 ever, is required to effect this change, unless the 
 alkaline silicate is in a very minute state of 
 division. 
 
 The part taken by silica in natural operations is 
 chiefly a mechanical one, for which its abundance 
 and stability under ordinary circumstances pe- 
 culiarly fits it ; for it is found to constitute the 
 great bulk of the soil, and serves as a support 
 for the plant, and a reservoir for its food. 
 
SILICA. 47 
 
 Soluble silica is indispensable to the growth 
 of grasses and the straw of cereals, and forms 
 the shining outer sheath of these plants. It is 
 very abundant in the hard external coating of 
 the "Dutch rush used for polishing. 
 
 Silica as existing hi plants is united with 
 potash and soda, and may be said to be insoluble 
 in water ; but by the fermentation and decay of 
 these plants carbonic acid is liberated, which 
 uniting with the potash and soda forms car- 
 bonates of these substances, and the silica is 
 separated as hydrated or soluble silica, to supply 
 the wants of growing plants. 
 
 In the production of wheat and other cereals, 
 the presence of this element, in a soluble state, is 
 of the first importance in building up the straw 
 or stalk. 
 
 If the reader refers to the tables showing the 
 composition of the straw of the different grain 
 crops, he will see what a large amount of this 
 substance is required. 
 
 As the amount of soluble silica in the most 
 of soils is comparatively small, every farmer 
 who wishes to raise wheat or other grain, will 
 see the importance of returning every particle 
 of straw to his land to furnish this substance. 
 
 Another source of soluble silica at the com- 
 mand of the farmer are the weeds and reeds 
 that grow in swampy places or running water, 
 
48 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 which contain a considerable amount of this 
 substance. It also enters largely into the com- 
 position of the leaves of some trees, as the beech 
 and red pine. The presence of decaying veget- 
 able matter will also separate silica from its 
 insoluble compounds, as before stated. This is 
 one of the great benefits derived from green 
 manuring. The lack of soluble silica vitally 
 affects the growth of nearly all cultivated plants ; 
 but, as it can be economically manufactured and 
 applied to the soil as silicate of soda, and also 
 added in the waste products of previous crops, 
 the farmer has full supplies at command. 
 
 CARBON. 
 
 Carbon was discovered by Lavoisier in 17S0. 
 It enters largely into the composition of plants. 
 It forms the bulk of mineral coal, charcoal, lamp- 
 black, black-lead, and is exhibited in its purest 
 known state in tlie diamond. All these sub- 
 stances have the common property of uniting 
 wdth oxygen in a state of combustion, and then 
 producing carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Carbonic Acid is composed of one equivalent 
 of carbon combined with two equivalents of 
 oxygen. Its salts are termed carbonates. That 
 plants ansimilato this gas, and that it is the 
 most important source of caribou necessary to 
 
CARBON. 49 
 
 their growth, will be shown under the head of 
 Humus in Soils. Carbon forms from forty to 
 fifty per cent, by weight of the different 
 cultivated plants, so that in the economy of 
 their growth, it may be considered one of the 
 most important elements of their composition. 
 This is one of the elements the farmer need not 
 trouble himself in applying to his soil as a manure, 
 because the atmosphere furnishes an abundant 
 supply free of cost. The fact of the assimila- 
 tion of carbon by plants from the atmosphere 
 has been placed beyond doubt, by the investiga- 
 tions of eminent scientific men, from the time 
 of Priestley, who made this discovery in 1771, up 
 to the present time. 
 
 The former must not infer from the fiict that 
 the atmosphere furnishes to the plant all the 
 carbon which it requires, that the presence of a 
 mould of humus, or partially oxidized organic 
 matter, is not necessary in a soil. Its presence 
 produces beneficial jphysical effects, that tend 
 directly to their healthy growth. Its capacity 
 for absorbing fertilizing gases and giving them 
 out as they are needed by plants, also its power 
 of attracting heat and retaining moisture, are 
 advantages obtained by the presence of a large 
 amount of mould in the soil, which are not 
 possessed by soils composed simply of sand, no 
 matter how fine the state of division may be, or 
 
50 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 the amount of fertilizing elements they may 
 contain 
 
 PPIOSPHORUS. 
 
 Phosphorus as commonly met with is yellow 
 and transparent;, resembling wax in consistency. 
 Having a powerful affinity for oxygen, it never 
 occurs free in nature. It is spontaneously in- 
 flammable, and for this reason is preserved under 
 water. Phosphorus was originally prepared from 
 urine by a tedious and disagreeable process ; but 
 Gahn, a Swedish chemist, having discovered that 
 it enters largely into the composition of bones, it 
 is now prepared from this class of bodies. When 
 burnt in air or oxygen, it is converted into snow- 
 like flocks, which are called aaJiydrous phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid contains, in 100 parts, phos- 
 phorus 43.66, oxygen 56.34. This acid has a 
 great affinity for water, and by exposure to a 
 moist atmosphere is converted into lujdrated 
 phosphoric acid. There are several hydrates of 
 this acid; but only one of these enters into the 
 composition of manures, viz : tri-basic phosphoric 
 acid. A tri-basic acid is one that requires three 
 equivalents of the same or of different bases to 
 form a salt; for example : 
 
 Bone-Phosphate of Lime, known as Basic 
 Piiosphate of Lime, is composed of one equivalent 
 
PHOSPHORUS. 51 
 
 of phosphoric acid and three equivalents of lime, 
 and contains, in 100 parts, phosphoric acid 45.81, 
 lime 54.19. This is the state in which this salt 
 is naturally found in bones, coprolites, phos- 
 phorite, apatite, etc. 
 
 Neutral Phosphate of Lime contains two 
 equivalents of lime, one of water, and one of 
 phosphoric acid; in 100 parts, phosphoric acid 
 52.20, lime 41.18, water 6.62. 
 
 Superphosphate of Lime, termxcd also acid 
 and bi-phosphate of lime, contains one equiva- 
 lent of phosphoric acid, one equivalent of lime, 
 and two equivalents of water ; containing, in 100 
 parts, phosphoric acid 60.69, lime 23.93, water 
 15.38. If we remove from bone-phosphate of 
 lime the three equivalents of its base, and re- 
 place them with water, we obtain tri-basic phos- 
 phoric acid, usually in the form of a colorless, 
 syrupy liquid, very acid to the taste. Again, 
 if we remove from bone-phosphate of lime but 
 tiDo equivalents of lime, and replace them with 
 w\ater, we obtain snperpliosphate of lime. This 
 change, in either case, can be effected by sul- 
 phuric acid. This acid, having a greater affinity 
 for the lime than phosphoric acid has, unites 
 with the lime, forming gypsum or land plaster. 
 Superphosphate of lime forms white scales, 
 which are very soluble in Avater, imparting to it 
 an acid taste. 
 
52 ^ AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 On the subject of the action of superphosphate 
 of lime in soils, and its relative value compared 
 with insoluble phosphoric acid, as contained in 
 bone-dust, coprohtes or mineral guano, we can- 
 not do better than give an extract from Ronna s 
 exhaustive report on that subject, as follows : 
 
 " What takes place, in fact, when super- 
 phosphates are presented to the soil ? Coming 
 into contact with the alkalies, or the earthy 
 alkaline bases, the phosphoric acid in excess 
 combines with them, and phosphate of lime is 
 precipitated in a gelatinous condition, this being 
 the one in which a sparingly soluble substance 
 enters more freely into solution. Gelatinous 
 phosphate of lime dissolves readily even in the 
 feeble carbonic acid. When it presents itself, 
 however, in the form of coprolites, solution is 
 effected with the greatest difficulty. From this 
 it may be seen, how little profitable it is, to use 
 powdered coprolites, otherwise than upon new 
 clearings and first ploughings, or upon soils in 
 wdiich probably free acids can act upon them, so 
 that they may then be able to yield to vegeta- 
 tion by degrees a small quantity of phosphoric 
 acid. Such coprolytic powder does not satisfy 
 the demands of an advanced and progressive 
 agriculture, that is, immediate results, but only 
 effects, for which one is compelled to wait ten, 
 yea, twenty years. 
 
ronna's report. 53 
 
 ^^ Woehler and Voelcker have made some very 
 interesting experiments on the solubility of phos- 
 phates in their dry, moist, and gelatinous state, 
 on the solubility of bone-meal, of boiled bone, 
 of glue refuse, of guano, of coprolites, of phos-^ 
 phorite, and of apatite, all of which prove the 
 beneficial effect which the mechanical condition 
 of phosphates exercises upon their solubility. 
 Thus precipitated phosphate of lime, slightly 
 moistened and allowed to remain in contact 
 with water for a week, lost 1.10 gramme, while 
 Suffolk coprolites lost but 0.09 granmie, and 
 Cambridge coprolites, 0.08 gramme. The amount 
 of water used in either case was 100 litres. In 
 a solution of ammoniacal salts, in the proportion 
 of 1 to 100, precipitated phosphate of lime lost 
 4.80 grammes, Suffolk coprolites, 0.24 gramme, 
 and Cambridge coprolites, 0.33 gramme. A 
 solution containing 1 per cent, of carbonate of 
 ammonia, dissolved of precipitated phosphate of 
 lime 2.48 grammes, of coprolites 0.36 gramme. 
 Precipitated phosphate of lime afforded to a 
 solution, containing 1 per cent, of sea-salt, 0.97 
 gramme; coprolites 0.19 gramme. 
 
 " But more than all the experiments in the 
 laboratory, those of the practical agriculturist 
 have confirmed the necessity of phosphates 
 rendered soluble, and these are the experiments 
 of twenty years, and of a whole country — which 
 
54 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 country indisputcably occupies the front rank in 
 regard to agricultural productions. 
 
 " As superphosphate of lime may be viewed as 
 phosphate of lime dissolved in phosphoric acid, 
 the former (phosphate of lime), as soon as the 
 free acid is neutralized, is rendered insoluble or 
 difficultly soluble in water, and is precipitated. 
 Therefore, one of the objections made, viz., that, 
 when superphosphate of lime is applied to cer- 
 tain soils, the soluble phosphate is lost by rain, 
 is unfounded. From very careful experiments 
 of Dr. Voelcker on the transformation of soluble 
 phosphates in contact with five different soils, 
 which were first carefully analyzed, it is evident, 
 that marly or chalky soils absorb the soluble 
 phosphate more readily, that is, render it more 
 quickly insoluble, than clayey or sandy soils. 
 In the former soils, it appears that lime is the 
 only operating force in this transformation. 
 However quick absorption may take place, it is 
 never instantaneous ; for in soils containing an 
 excess of lime, from 24 to 48 hours are required. 
 
 " As no acid combination can enter the plant 
 without damaging it, and as superphosphates 
 have never proven themselves injurious to plants, 
 it follows herefrom, that phosphoric acid, wdiich 
 cannot exist in soils in a free state, is there 
 neutralized, and that, in consequence, the solu- 
 ble phosphate is converted into insoluble or 
 
ACTION OF SUPERPHOSPHATES. 55 
 
 sparingly soluble phosphate, regardless of the 
 nature of the soil. It is an unfounded idea, 
 that plants in the first stages of their growth 
 are nourished by the soluble phosphate, and, 
 during maturity, strengthened by the insoluble. 
 It would therefore be foolish, to say the least, 
 to prepare a superphosphate containing both 
 soluble and insoluble 23hosphoric acid. Exper- 
 ience has proved to satisfection, that, of two 
 manures containing the same total amount of 
 phosphoric acid, the one with the largest amount 
 of soluble phosphate, other circumstances being 
 equal, is the most effective. 
 
 " It is therefore indispensably necessary, espe- 
 cially in manufactories where mineral phos- 
 phates are worked, that the insoluble phosphate 
 be rendered as completely soluble as possible. 
 The manufacturer should at all times use every 
 effort to increase the amount of soluble phos- 
 phoric acid in his superphosphate. 
 
 " If, on coming in contact with the soil, the 
 soluble phosphate become insoluble, wliy, say 
 the champions of pulverized coprolites, treat at 
 great expense mineral matters with acid, and 
 increase their cost, merely for the sake of again 
 obtaining in the soil insoluble products? An- 
 swer : It is not the purpose of the acid alone to 
 produce soluble phosphate. The mineral first 
 of all is disintegrated by the acid, and then 
 
56 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 IDartially converted into soluble pliosph-ate, etc., 
 which, on being neutralized in the soil by lime, 
 or by sesquioxide of iron, alumina, etc., is then 
 brought into a very fine state of division. As 
 the neutralization takes place in the soil itself, 
 the phosphate is incorporated with the same in 
 the simplest and most intimate manner. How- 
 ever fine the bones may be ground by mechan- 
 ical operations, their tissue is not destroyed in 
 them, and the phosphates within them are in a 
 relatively raw condition. As to coprolites, even 
 converted into powder ever so fine, they cannot 
 have any effect on the soil, unless it contains 
 free acids. Precipitated phosphates have not 
 only a larger volume than those merely pulver- 
 ized, but they are also, as we have proved, more 
 freely soluble in water than mineral phosphates. 
 Even if their elementary composition be the 
 same, the finely divided condition of the precipi- 
 tated phosphate presents indisputable advantages. 
 The precipitated phosphate is dissolved by the 
 most dilute acetic acid, while it has little action on 
 the finest bone-meal, and still less on coprolites. 
 ^' The secret, therefore, of the efficiency of 
 superphosphates consists in the fact, that the 
 oluble phosphates of the superphosphate are 
 converted in the soil itself into an insoluble but 
 very finely divided product. If this change took 
 place before the dissemination of the fertilizer, the 
 
SULPHUR. 57 
 
 purpose of the same would be but imperfectly 
 accomiDlished. From these remarks it is plain 
 why superphosphates applied in a liquid state 
 are often more active than when used in a dry 
 state. In fact, the solution of the phosphate is 
 more perfectly disseminated, and enters more 
 quickly into the most useful state for plant 
 nourishing. The dry acid phosphate, inasmuch 
 as it quickly becomes insoluble in the soil, 
 remains, on the contrary, where it has been 
 strewn ; it may be in excess in certain places, 
 and be wholly wanting in others. If rain docs 
 not disseminate it by mechanical means, it re- 
 mains partially without producing any effect." 
 
 SULPHUR. 
 
 Sulphur, commonly called Brimstone, is a solid 
 of a yellow color, brittle, moderately hard, and 
 devoid of taste or smell. It burns in oxygen or 
 air with a blue flame, forming sulplmrous acid. 
 It is this that has the smell commonly attributed 
 to sulphur. It occurs in nature both free and 
 combined. As free, it is sublimed from the earth 
 in some parts of Italy. It also flows from volca- 
 noes. It is also very generally disseminated in 
 nature, combined witli iron, lead, copper, etc., and 
 in many soils, as in iron pyrites — a combination 
 of iron and sulpliur. Sulphur, when united with 
 oxygen and water in certain proportions, and 
 
58 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 under certain conditions, produces the hydrated 
 sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, or the Oil of Vitriol of com- 
 merce, technically termed 66° acid, contains 
 anhydrous sulphuric acid, 75 parts, and 25 parts 
 of water, in 100. This acid is extensively used 
 in the arts and manufactures, and in the pre- 
 paration of superphosphate of lime. It enters 
 into the composition of all cultivated plants, and 
 is usually found in small quantities in all soils, 
 forming gypsum or land plaster. It is also 
 found in some mineral waters. If needed by 
 soils, the cheapest source at the command of the 
 farmer is m gypsum or land plaster; every 100 
 lbs. of which, when pure, contain 46.51 lbs. of 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 ELEMENTS COMBINING WITH OXYGEN 
 TO FORM BASES. 
 
 Calcium is a solid of a light golden yellow 
 color. It is harder than lead, and very malleable. 
 It oxidizes slowly in air at the ordinary tempera- 
 ture; but when heated to redness it fuses and 
 burns with a very brilliant vfhite light, and is 
 converted into lime, this lime being an oxide of 
 calcium. This oxide occupies nearly the same 
 position among bases as sulphuric acid does 
 among acids, and is used in almost all the arts 
 and manufactures. 
 
CALCIUM. 59 
 
 Oxide of Calcium, or Quicklime, is composed 
 of one equivalent or 20 parts of calcium, com- 
 bined with one equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, or Limestone, is composed 
 of oxide of calcium, combined with carbonic 
 acid. When pure, every 100 lbs. of limestone 
 contain 44 lbs. of carbonic acid, and 56 of 
 oxide of calcium; so that one ton of pure 
 limestone contains 11 j cwt. of oxide of calcium, 
 or when burnt an equal amount of quicklime. 
 Limestones generally contain a sensible quantity 
 of mineral matter, as silica, magnesia, alumina, 
 and oxide of iron, wdth traces of phosphoric acid, 
 and sometimes potash and organic matter. This 
 foreign matter, in the best quality of limestones, 
 does not often exceed five pet cent. When lime- 
 stones are burnt, the carbonic acid is expelled, 
 and the lime is left in the caustic state, as quick- 
 lime. When water is applied to quicklime 
 great heat is developed, the lime swells and 
 cracks, and finally falls to a fine bulky white 
 powder. When quicklime is left in the open 
 air, it gradually absorbs water from tlie atmos- 
 phere, and finally falls into a fine powder. In 
 rich lime the increase of bulk by slaking may 
 be 3 to 3 i times. 
 
 Quicklime on combination with water is con- 
 verted into hydrate of lime. This hydrate 
 consists of 75.68 lbs. of lime, and 24.32 lbs. of 
 
60 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 water chemically combined; hence 75.68 lbs. of 
 quicklime, and 24.32 lbs. of water will produce 
 100 lbs. of hydrated or slaked lime. Quicklime 
 has a great tendency to reabsorb carbonic acid, 
 and, if spread on the soil and there slaked 
 by absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, 
 more than half of it would be changed back into 
 limestone. Hence, lime should be slaked in 
 large heaps, and would be still better preserved 
 if these heaps were covered with sods. Lime 
 can be applied to the soil, either in its natural 
 state, as in limestone, or as burnt lime, or as 
 hydrated or slaked lime, with beneficial results. 
 Marls are very rich in carbonate of lime, and 
 some of the best varieties contain from 50 to 75 
 per cent, of it. By appropriate machinery lime- 
 stone could be reduced to a fine powder more 
 cheaply than by burning, where fuel is scarce 
 and dear. Nevertheless, burnt lime is far 
 superior to powdered limestone or marl for the 
 purpose of agriculture ; one of the reasons being 
 that the slaking of lime reduces it to an im- 
 palpable powder, much finer than can be effected 
 by the most perfect machinery. This extreme 
 fineness of division diffuses it more uniformly 
 through the soil, and makes it more readily 
 soluble in water; 1000 lbs. of water will hold 
 1 lb. of slaked lime in solution: hence, if the 
 annual rain-fall on an acre of land be seven 
 
PROPERTIES OF LIME. 61 
 
 million pounds, seven thousand pounds of hydrate 
 )f lime would be made soluble for the use of 
 plants, if that amount were present. 
 
 Burnt lime is more beneficial tlian the car- 
 bonate, because it more readily neutralizes the 
 acids contained in the soil, and causes the de- 
 composition of the vegetable matter therein. 
 This change is effected as follows : Most soils 
 contain a considerable amount of organic or 
 vegetable matter, surrounded by and saturated 
 with an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which 
 prevents free access of oxygen, the free access 
 of which is absolutely necessary to the decom- 
 position of this organic and vegetable matter 
 Now, if burnt lime be intimately mixed with the 
 soil, it absorbs this carbonic acid, and oxygen 
 takes its place, and decomposition of this matter 
 is the result. The lime, after indirectly pro- 
 ducing this result, answers all tlie useful pur- 
 poses of carbonate of lime in the form of ground 
 limestone, and as it is found in marl ; hence its 
 greater value, independentof other considerations. 
 
 The office of lime in the liberation of nitrogen, 
 as ammonia, from organic substances, is another 
 valuable property. As nitrogen is an element 
 necessary to the healthy growth of grains and 
 plants used for food, its value herein is apparent^ 
 
 Lime has also a beneficial effect on the 
 inorganic or mineral matter in soils. Should 
 
C2 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 iron be present, as iron pyrites, a compound of 
 iron and sulphur ; the lime, by absorbing carbonic 
 acid and giving free access to the oxygen of the 
 atmosphere, causes a rapid decomposition of this 
 compound into peroxide, or rust of iron, and sul- 
 phuric acid. This acid at once unites with the 
 lime and forms land plaster or gypsum in the 
 soil. 
 
 The great source of potash and soda in soils 
 is from the disintegration of rocks, such as fel- 
 spar and granite. No matter how hue these 
 rocks may be reduced, their valuable elements 
 are scarcely at all soluble in water w^ithout 
 previous chemical action. In these rocks, known 
 to contain much potash and soda, there must be 
 a chemical decomposition before the potash and 
 soda can be available to plants. These silicates 
 are slowdy decomposed by the action of caa:bonic 
 acid, but the action is much more rapid in the 
 presence of lime ; hence its great value for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Another valuable property of lime is, that, 
 in the presence of decaying organic matter, it 
 will decompose common salt, forming carbonate 
 of soda, and chloride of calcium ; the latter being 
 the most soluble form in which lime can be pre- 
 sented to plants. 
 
 The prominent chemical effects of lime in the 
 soil being stated, w^e proceed to notice its physi- 
 
PROPERTIES OF LIME. 63 
 
 Gal effects, which are no less valuable and strik- 
 ing. It gives lightness and friability to heavy 
 clay soils, thus facilitating the circulation of 
 moisture, air and heat, as well as enabling the 
 delicate roots to penetrate readily in all direc- 
 tions. It also gives sufficient compactness to 
 loose, sandy soils, and corrects the leaching and 
 washing out of the valuable fertilizing elements 
 they contain. 
 
 The kind of spontaneous vegetation upon soils 
 is a good indicator as to whether lime is needed, 
 or may be used to advantage. In soils where 
 sorrel, or the chestnut, and pine tree grow spon- 
 taneously, application of lime is useful, and such 
 soils can seldom be cultivated profitably without 
 it. 
 
 In relation to the application of lime, we 
 would say, that it should at all times be kept as 
 near the surface as possible, because its benefi- 
 cial effects are greater in the presence of atmos- 
 pheric air, and moisture. If placed too deep in 
 the soil, these effects would be much less. The 
 practice of spreading lime before the land is 
 plowed, is not a good one, and ought to be dis- 
 continued. A better method is to apply it after 
 the land is plowed, and previous to harrowing ; 
 this places it near the surface, and conforms to 
 the conditions necessary to its maximum useful 
 action on decaying vegetable matter, viz., free 
 
64 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 access of oxygen, light and heat. As the hy- 
 drate of lime is soluble in rain water, if placed 
 near the surface, it will gradually permeate all 
 parts of the soil, and perform all its useful func- 
 tions beneath the surface, in the fixing and neu- 
 tralizing of organic acids. 
 
 There are various opinions among farmers, as 
 to whether it is more profitable to apply lime in 
 large quantities at rare intervals, or in small 
 amount yearly. There is an old saying that, 
 "Lime enriches the fathers, but impoverishes 
 the sons." This may in some cases be true. 
 Lime is a great stimulant to the soil, as already 
 shown, and if the amount added is too great for 
 the amount of organic matter present^ or the 
 actual wants of the crops grown, there will be a 
 waste of those valuable gases liberated from the 
 decaying organic matter, and the store of this 
 organic matter contained in the soil will be pre- 
 maturely exhausted. The amount of lime added 
 to an acre should not be less than forty or fifty 
 bushels, and in cases where the physical con- 
 dition of the soil requires changing, as in heavy 
 clay soils, or those that contain a large amount 
 of organic matter, from one hundred and fifty 
 to two hundred bushels may be applied with 
 advantage. The judgment of the farmer, 
 aided by experience, is his best guide in this 
 matter. 
 
SULPHATE OF LIME. 65 
 
 SULPHATE OF LIME. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime, or Gypsum, is extensively 
 applied to the soil as a manure; every 100 
 lbs. contain 46.51 lbs. of sulphuric acid, 32.56 
 lbs. of lime, and 20.93 lbs. of chemically com- 
 bined water. The value of gypsum as a 
 manure has been erroneously attributed to its 
 absorbent properties in attracting and retaining 
 moisture. Extended experiments have proved 
 that it is almost destitute of any absorbing 
 power; 100 parts of gypsum will absorb only 1 
 part of water in 12 hours, while loamy clay ab- 
 sorbs 25 parts, and ordinary soil 16 parts. These 
 experiments were extended to 72 hours, but the 
 gypsum absorbed no moisture after the first 12, 
 which demonstrated that 1 part to 100 is the 
 limit of its absorbent power ; while loamy clay 
 and ordinary soil absorbed in that time 35 and 
 23 parts, respectively. Professor Schuebler per- 
 tinently remarks, when speaking of this fact : — 
 " Thus theories which are written down, often 
 fall to nothing when tested by experiment." 
 
 The beneficial action of gypsum must be traced 
 to some other cause. As it is composed of lime 
 and sulphuric acid, the benefits resulting from 
 its application must be due to one or both of 
 these substances. Kecent experiments of distin- 
 guished chemists, seem to prove that the action 
 
66 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 of gypsum is not due to its lime^ except in a 
 slight degree. 
 
 One great benefit derived from the use of gyp- 
 sum, is in fixing the ammonia contained in the 
 oil and the atmosphere. When gypsum and 
 carbonate of ammonia are brought into contact, 
 under certain conditions, double decomposition 
 takes place, resulting in the formation of sul- 
 phate of ammonia, and carbonate of lime. These 
 facts prove that the benefits derived from the 
 application of gypsum are principally due to its 
 sulphuric acid, which we have already treated 
 under that head. 
 
 If lime is the substance needed, it can be ap- 
 plied more cheaply as quicklime. The applica- 
 tion of gypsum in small or large quantities is 
 often attended with equally beneficial results. 
 This can be explained by the fact that it requires 
 from four to five hundred pounds of water to 
 bring one pound of plaster into solution; hence 
 only a small quantity of it can become available 
 in a season, and only that amount need be ap- 
 plied. 
 
 MAGNESIUM. 
 
 Magnesium is a white, malleable solid, resem- 
 bling silver. It is not altered by dry air, at the 
 ordinary temperature, bat is tarnished when ex- 
 i:)0sed to moisture. When heated to dull red- 
 
MAGNESIUM. 67 
 
 ness in atmospheric air or oxygen^ it burns with 
 a vivid light^ and is converted into magnesia^ or 
 the oxide of magnesium. 
 
 Magnesia is the only oxide formed by magne- 
 sium; it contains in 100 lbs., 60.4 lbs. of magne- 
 sium, and 39.6 ft)s. of oxygen. Its action on soils 
 is somewhat similar to that of lime. It is uni- 
 formly present in variable quantities, in almost 
 all limestones, and when they contain a large 
 amount, they are called magnesian limestones ; 
 some varieties contain over fifty per cent, of this 
 substance. 
 
 Should soils need magnesia, and not conveni- 
 ently applicable in combination with lime as 
 magnesia limestone, Epsom salts, or sulphate 
 of magnesia, can be substituted ; and many far- 
 mers have found it profitable to apply magnesia 
 in this form. A crop of twenty-five bushels of 
 wheat, with the straw, would require about lllbs. 
 of magnesia, or 63 lbs. of Epsom salts. Little 
 more need be said about this element, and as it 
 ' is found in nearly all soils, it seldom requires to 
 be added as a fertilizer. It has been noticed by 
 farmers, that lime which contains a notable 
 amount of this substance, has a more favorable 
 effect on a wheat crop than lime containing but 
 little of it. Nevertheless, lime that contains a 
 very large quantity of magnesia may be injuri- 
 ous if the soil already contains a sufficient quan- 
 
68 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 tity ; because magnesia, in its caustic state, does 
 not absorb carbonic acid nearly so readily as burnt 
 lime, but remains in the soil in this state for a 
 much longer period ; besides, it will harden into 
 a cement beneath the surface, and lessen the 
 friability and porosity of the soil, and interfere 
 with the growth of the rootlets. 
 
 Magnesia in large quantity might be applied 
 to the soil in the form of ground magnesian 
 limestone ; the magnesia in such state would be 
 gradually liberated by the acids of the soil, and 
 rendered available for the wants of plants as it 
 is needed. 
 
 IRON. 
 
 Iron is a solid that is most widely distributed. 
 There is scarcely a rock or soil, plant or mineral, 
 but contains traces of it, and it scarcely ever be- 
 comes necessary to employ it as a manure. Iron 
 unites with oxygen in two proportions, forming 
 the protoxide and peroxide of iron. These com- 
 binations are gradually effected in a moist at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 Protoxide of Iron, when pure, is presented in 
 the form of a black powder. The scale falling 
 from heated iron is largely composed of it. Its 
 presence in a large amount in a soil is very inju- 
 rious to growing vegetation. Protoxide of iron is 
 
IRON. 69 
 
 one equivalent of iron combined with one equiva- 
 lent of oxygen. ' 
 
 Peroxide of Iron, or red rust, is composed of 
 two equivalents of iron combined with three 
 equivalents of oxygen, and is technically called 
 " sesquioxide of iron." The presence of oxidiz- 
 ing iron in a soil liberates free hydrogen, which, 
 uniting with the nitrogen contained in the soil, 
 forms ammonia. As the rust of iron has slight 
 acid properties, it has an affinity for ammonia, 
 and fixes and retains this valuable substance in 
 a soluble form in the soil. Quite probably the 
 injurious effect of the presence of a large amount 
 of iron in any cultivated soil, is due to its attrac- 
 tion of oxygen, thus interfering with the oxida- 
 tion of organic substances in the soil. Such 
 soils should be frequently cultivated, and the 
 particles pulverized as fine as possible, so as to 
 expose every part of it to the action of the oxy- 
 gen of the atmosphere, which facilitates the for- 
 mation of the peroxide or red rust of iron 5 hence 
 soils containing a large amount of iron acquire 
 a deeper red color under cultivation. Two ad- 
 vantages are gained by cultivating such soils : 
 First, The hastening of the formation of the per- 
 oxide of iron ; Second, The benefits derived by 
 the action of this oxide, in absorbing certain 
 kinds of plant-food present in the soil. Thus 
 
70 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 forming a storehouse of these substances for the 
 future use of plants. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron is formed in soils that contain 
 the elements of sulphur and iron. This com- 
 pound, when present in large amount, is injuri- 
 ous to vegetation. And there are few soils that 
 do not contain some of it ; and it is often found 
 in low, marshy lands. Soils that contain it in 
 such quantity as to be injurious, are very much 
 benefited by the addition of lime, or marl ; the 
 lime uniting with the sulphuric acid of the sul- 
 phate to form gypsum." Iron pyrites, reduced 
 to a fine powder, may be applied in small quan- 
 tity very advantageously to some soils, when 
 iron and sulphuric acid are deficient, and the soil 
 abounds in carbonate of lime. But, should the 
 soil be deficient in lime, it should be applied at 
 the same time either as quicklime or marl. The 
 application of gypsum is not necessary to soils 
 that contain iron pyrites, as by the application 
 of lime to such soils it would be formed more 
 cheaply. 
 
 POTASSIUM. 
 
 Potassium is a solid ; and was discovered by 
 Sir H. Davy, in 1807. It is silver-w^hite in 
 color, and lighter in weight than water. If a 
 globule of potassium be dropped upon the surface 
 of water, it instantly takes fire, and burns with 
 
POTASH. 71 
 
 a beautiful violet colored flame. Potassium oxi- 
 dizes readily in the air^ and in water; in the 
 latter case^ the hydrogen being liberated, and 
 the oxygen of the water uniting with the potas- 
 sium, forms the hydrate of jjotassa — the caustic 
 potash of commerce. 
 
 Potash, when strictly pure, is white and highly 
 caustic, destroying both animal and vegetable 
 substances, when brought in contact with it. It 
 melts at a red heat, and assumes a crystalline 
 appearance upon cooling. It requires half its 
 weight of water to enter into solution, which is 
 accompanied with the evolution of considerable 
 heat. It is soluble also in alcohol. Solutions of 
 potash are highly alkaline, neutralizing the 
 strongest acids. 
 
 Potash is a valuable element in the composi- 
 tion of plants. The ash of cultivated plants is 
 generally richer in this substance than is that of 
 those growing spontaneously. Potash is found 
 in most mineral waters, in most soils, and always 
 in plants. Potash is often found in nature, in 
 combination with nitric acid, forming nitre, or 
 saltpetre, which, in some hot countries, forms in- 
 crustations on the surface. Such incrustations 
 are found in India, Arabia, and South America ; 
 also in certain caverns in Ceylon, and some other 
 parts of the world. Saltpetre, as found in these 
 incrustations or deposits, is always contaminated 
 
72 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 with the nitrate of lime, magnesia, or soda, or 
 with their chlorides and sulphates. 
 
 Potash, as before stated, exists in plants ; in 
 general, combined principally with organic 
 acids. This potash may be extracted from the 
 ashes of wood and plants, by lixiviation with 
 lime and water. If the water of the caustic 
 lye thus produced be evaporated, and the resi- 
 due be calcined, in order to eliminate any organic 
 matter remaining, crude caustic of potash is pro- 
 duced. This crude substance contains about 60 
 per cent, of potash, mixed with various impuri- 
 ties, together with a considerable amount of 
 chloride of potassium (muriate of potash), and 
 sulphate and silicate of potassa. This crude 
 potash is largely used in the manufacture of 
 soap and glass ; and, until the recent discovery 
 of extensive deposits of crude potash salts at 
 Stassfurth, in Prussia, was the source of most 
 of the salts of potassa used in the arts and in 
 medicine. 
 
 The value of wood ashes as a manure was 
 known at an early period. The old Roman 
 farmers used it, and practised paring and burn- 
 ing the soil, and also burnt the stubble of their 
 wheat fields, in order to enrich the succeeding 
 crop ; a practice which was also prevalent 
 among the ancient Jews. Cato recommends the 
 burning of leaves and branches of trees, and 
 
SODIUM. * 73 
 
 spreading the ashes upon the land. According 
 to Pliny, the ancient Britons used to burn their 
 wheat straw and stubble, and scatter the ashes 
 upon the land. 
 
 On the farm, no substance containing potash 
 should be allowed to go to waste. Every parti- 
 cle of wood ashes, leached and unleached, should 
 be applied to the soil, together with the ashes of 
 dead branches of trees, of weeds and of leaves, 
 and of whatever contains potash. By this 
 means the farmer may often obtain a supply, 
 more cheaply than in any other shape. 
 
 SODIUM. 
 
 Sodium is a solid ; and was discovered by Sir 
 H. Davy, in 1807. It is lustrous, and of a yel- 
 lowish-white color, more nearly resembling silver 
 than potassium, to which, in other physical pro- 
 perties, it is similar. When heated in air or 
 oxygen, it burns with a bright yellow flame. 
 Like potassium, it is lighter than water, which 
 it decomposes with great rapidity, liberating the 
 hydrogen and combining with the oxygen, thus 
 forming soda, which, having an affinity for 
 water, combines with a certain amaunt of i(, 
 and becomes the hydrate of soda — caustic soda 
 of commerce. Soda was originally obtained from 
 the ashes of marine plants, but is now obtained 
 
74 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 in large quantities by the decomposition of com- 
 mon salt. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda, like that of potash, occurs as 
 an incrustation on the surface of the earth, in 
 some places, especially in Chili and Peru, where 
 it is found in beds of considerable thickness. 
 Large quantities of this nitrate are used as ma- 
 nure to furnish nitric acid and soda to the soil. 
 But as most soils contain soda in sufficient quan- 
 tity for the wants of vegetation, the chief value 
 of this product is due to the nitric acid which it 
 contains, and which is a source of nitrogen. 
 
 Soda enters into the composition of plants, 
 but in much less quantity than potash. Some 
 think that if there is a deficiency of potash, soda 
 may wholly take its place ; but this opinion has 
 not, so far as we are informed, been verified in 
 practice. The cheapest mode of furnishing soda 
 to soils is in the form of common salt. 
 
 Common Salt occurs abundantly in nature, 
 both in the earth and in sea water. It is com- 
 posed of cldoriiie and sodium ; 100 parts, when 
 j)ure, containing 60.68 of chlorine, and 39.32 of 
 sodium. Salt has been applied as manure in all 
 ages and countries ; and yet there is no substance 
 used as manure that has been the subject of so 
 much coi?troversy among practical fiirmers, some 
 denying that it exerts any beneficial influence, 
 while others ascribe to it wonderful manurial 
 
acTtion of salt. 75 
 
 properties. Common salt may be detected in 
 nearly all soils, and its elements are found in the 
 ash of almost all plants. 
 
 The action of Salt in small quantity in soils, 
 generally, is to assist in decomposing the vegeta- 
 ble and animal matter present. In large quan- 
 tity it is very injurious, in fact, making the land 
 completely sterile. Hence the practice in an- 
 cient times of sowing large ^quantities of salt 
 upon the land surrounding conquered cities, thus 
 indicating the will of the conqueror, that the 
 land should be desolate and the conquered city 
 no longer habitable. 
 
 Some plants and trees are injured by salt 
 much more readily than others. When applied 
 in excess to some fruit trees, as the apple, plum, 
 cherry and apricot, the leaves wdther and die 
 within a short time; the willow, poplar and 
 beech are affected in the same way. On the 
 other hand, some species of oak, the mulberry, 
 the pear, and the peach, and some other trees 
 with deep roots, do not suffer from its applicor 
 tion ; neither do asparagus, onions, celery, etc. : 
 indeed, the growth of these plants is improved 
 by its use. 
 
 Salt acts as an exterminator of some kinds of 
 insects in the soil. It has likewise been found 
 effective in destroying the wire-worm, and in 
 preventing mildew and rust. The danger of its 
 
76 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 application for the destruction of vermin is in 
 the fact that, if the solution be strong enough to 
 effect the object, it may destroy the vegetation 
 also. 
 
 If there is sufficient salt in the soil to supply 
 soda and chlorine to the plant, it is not advisable 
 to add more for any physical effect it may pro- 
 duce in the decomposition of organic substances ; 
 and generally, as an excess is very injurious, it 
 should in all cases be applied with great caution. 
 As an example of the small amount generally 
 required, we may state that a crop of 25- bushels 
 of wheat, together with the straw, contains only 
 a little more than 5 lbs. of soda, and 2i lbs. of 
 chlorine, which 10 lbs. of common salt will fur- 
 nish. 
 
 If soda alone, and not chlorine is needed, it 
 can be cheaply supplied in the form of sulphate 
 of soda or salt cake, which is a by-product in the 
 manufacture of hydrochloric acid, and in which 
 the chlorine of the salt is replaced by sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS— SHOWING ALSO THE 
 AMOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS NECES- 
 SARY TO BE ADDED AS MANURES TO PRODUCE 
 A GIYEN CROP. 
 
 Plants of the same kind have nearly a like 
 composition ; and the relative proportions of the 
 elements that enter into the composition of 
 different plants are almost always the same in 
 each particular species. The ashes of the same 
 kind of plants, though grown on different soils, 
 closely resemble each other in chemical com- 
 position. There may be a slight diminution of 
 some particular element, from a lack of it in the 
 soil; but the variation can never be Itirge 
 enough to materially affect the value of the 
 plant for food. 
 
 Wheat and Corn, if produced at all, must be 
 produced of nearly a standard quality ; that is, 
 with a certain quantity of the different elements. 
 If the grains of wheat or corn could grow and 
 
 ripen without the aid of nitrogen or ammonia, 
 
 77 
 
78 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 they would lack one of the most essential ele- 
 ments of nutrition, viz., the power of renewing 
 the blood, the nervous tissues and muscular fibre; 
 or, if the plant could grow and the seed ripen 
 without the aid of phosphoric acid, there would 
 be no substance furnished to build up the bones ; 
 or, if it lacked the three elements of nitrogen, 
 lime and phosphoric acid, it would afford scarce- 
 ly anything to the animal body, except carbon, 
 for furnishing animal heat. The wheat and 
 seeds found in the catacombs of Egypt, where 
 they have lain two or three thousand years, 
 have almost an identical composition with those 
 grown at the present time. The wheat grown 
 in this country has very nearly the same com- 
 position as that grown in other parts of the 
 world. Hence, as there can be but very little 
 variation in the composition of each species of 
 plants used for food, while the physical laws of 
 nature remain as they now are, there can, con- 
 sequently, be no variation in the kind and quan- 
 tity of the elements required by plants to enable 
 them to come to maturity. 
 
 When a knowledge of the nature of these 
 elements is acquired, and the quantity necessary 
 for a given crop ascertained, the accumulation 
 of these materials is just as simple as that of 
 furnishing the raw material for any manufacture. 
 Accurate knowledge of those substances in soils 
 
COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 79 
 
 that render them fertile when present, and 
 barren when absent, should be the first lesson 
 of the farmer who wishes to be successful in his 
 business and pursue it on a rational basis. 
 
 The methods employed for manuring and 
 cultivating lands vary in different countries, 
 and in different sections of the same country. 
 Certain local circumstances seem to control these 
 differences ; but in most cases they are only the 
 result of custom or ignorance. Hence, if we 
 inquire in what manner manure acts, we are 
 likely to receive the following answer, even 
 from otherwise intelligent men : — " Its action is 
 a mystery ; we know that we cannot raise crops 
 without it, and hence w^e use it in our soils." 
 The excrements of men and animals are supposed 
 by them to contain a mysterious something, 
 which assists the growth of plants, and increases 
 the amount of production; and the more filthy 
 and unsavory the substance, the more value it 
 is supposed to contain. 
 
 Accurate knowledge of the constituents of 
 different cultivated plants is all important ; we 
 should know what we are going to produce; 
 otherwise how can we work intelligently to 
 produce it. 
 
 All plants cultivated 'for the use of man may 
 be classified as follows : 
 
 I. Potash Plants — the ash of which contains 
 
80 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 more than half its weight of alkaline bases- 
 potash and soda. Among the cultivated potash 
 plants, are Indian corn, beets, turnips and pota- 
 toes. 
 
 II. Lime Plants — the bulk of the ash of which 
 is composed of the salts of lime and magnesia. 
 Among these are beans, peas, clover and to- 
 bacco. 
 
 III. Silica Plants— those in which silica pre- 
 dominates. Among these are wheat, rye, oats 
 and barley. 
 
 This is only a general classification. The 
 farmer should know the actual amount of each 
 of the elements of fertility required by an aver- 
 age crop of any kind of plant he cultivates. A 
 field properly prepared for culture ought to con- 
 tain a sufficient quantity of all the inorganic 
 materials required for the int-ended crop, and in 
 a form adapted for assimilation by the plant ; 
 together with a certain amount of ammoniacal 
 salts or nitrates and decaying vegetable matter. 
 For instance, if it is the intention of the farmer 
 to raise potatoes, he should know that both lime 
 and potash are required, and what quantity of 
 each; for the potatoe belongs to the lime plants, 
 as regards its leaves^ and the potasji plant as 
 regards its tubers. In raising beets, phosphate 
 of magnesia is required, and only a small quan- 
 tity of lime ; but in growing turnips much phos- 
 
ALBUMEN AND STARCH. 81 
 
 phate of lime is required, and only a small 
 quantity of magnesia. 
 
 To make this subject intelligible and of great 
 value to the farmer, we shall give tables show- 
 ing the composition of the grain and straw, and 
 the roots and tops of the plants commonly culti- 
 vated. A study of these tables will amply 
 repay him, by giving accurate hnowledge of the 
 composition of plants, which is the only hey to 
 what is needed in manures to produce them. It 
 will also, in connection with a knowledge of the 
 constituents of his soil, enable him to understand 
 the philosophy of a rotation of crops, and to select 
 that which is best suited to his land, and the 
 manures at his command ; and especially enable 
 him to estimate the value of the waste products 
 of his farm, and to apply them to the best advan- 
 tage. 
 
 All plants and seeds cultivated for food con- 
 tain albumen and starch ; the starch and sugar 
 are produced in the plant from carbonic acid and 
 water; the albumen and gluten result from the 
 mutual action of the same compounds, together 
 with ammonia, or nitric acid, and certain sulphates 
 and phosphates, but the manner by which this 
 is effected is a mystery that has not been fully 
 solved by the most laborious investigation. 
 Plants are valuable as food in proportion to the 
 amount of albumen and starch they contain. 
 
82 
 
 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 i Table showing the percentage of moisture ; of albuminous and 
 ghitinous compounds; of starch, gum, sugar and woody fibre ; 
 and of ash and nitrogen, and the equivalent in ammonia 
 contained in the different products. It also shows their 
 relative value as food : 
 
 Common Grass. . . 
 
 Clover Hay 
 
 Barley Straw^ 
 
 Oat Straw 
 
 Wheat Straw 
 
 Corn Stalks 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Peas 
 
 Beans 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 Rye 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Rice 
 
 Cotton Seed Cake 
 
 48-00 
 
 16-00 
 
 10-94 
 
 8-25 
 
 6-42 
 
 10-20 
 
 85-20 
 
 90-43 
 
 75-00 
 
 10-80 
 
 8-75 
 
 15-00 
 
 10-00 
 
 10-10 
 
 8-75 
 
 8-55 
 
 5-20 
 
 15-10 
 
 12-00 
 
 G o 
 
 2-06 
 
 8-12 
 
 1-80 
 
 2-15 
 
 1-80 
 
 1-08 
 
 1-50 
 
 1-35 
 
 2-20 
 
 23-40 
 
 22-81 
 
 11-25 
 
 10-57 
 
 14-20 
 
 14-50 
 
 19-50 
 
 9-50 
 
 6-27 
 
 35-00 
 
 ""S 
 
 2-20 
 7-50 
 5-14 
 5.10 
 5-12 
 5.50 
 0-90 
 0-50 
 0-90 
 3.10 
 3-40 
 3-00 
 2.10 
 3-50 
 3-65 
 2-85 
 2-20 
 0-40 
 4-50 
 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 100-00 
 10000 
 
 0-33 
 1-30 
 0-35 
 0-39 
 0-35 
 0-24 
 0-24 
 0-21 
 0-35 
 3-74 
 3-65 
 1-18 
 1-69 
 2-27 
 2-32 
 2-41 
 1-52 
 1-00 
 5-60 
 
 0-40 
 1-58 
 0-42 
 0-47 
 0-42 
 0-29 
 0-29 
 0-25 
 0-42 
 4-54 
 4-43 
 1-43 
 2-05 
 2-75 
 2-81 
 2-92 
 1-84 
 1-21 
 6-80 
 
ALBUMEN AND STARCH. 83 
 
 Albumen and Gluten contain nitrogen; and 
 this nitrogen renews the blood and builds up the 
 lean muscular part of the body. Besides, albu- 
 men and gluten enter into the composition of 
 the bones. 
 
 Starch and Gum contain no nitrogen, but are 
 rich in carbon. This carbon is required to 
 produce and keep up the animal heat of the 
 body. Men and animals when healthy and 
 taking plenty of exercise, by which their respira- 
 tion is quickened, and especially in cold weather, 
 require large amounts of carbon, which uniting 
 with the oxygen of the atmosphere forms carbonic 
 acid. This chemical union is, strictly speaking, 
 a combustion of the carbon, similar to that of a 
 slow fire, and produces the animal heat of the 
 body. The chemical composition of starch, gum, 
 and sugar are analogous. The fat of animals, if 
 pure, contains no nitrogen, but it is composed of 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Should an animal 
 be debarred from exercise and fed upon a sub- 
 stance rich in carbon, as indian corn or rice, it 
 would rapidly increase in fat. Carnivorous ani- 
 mals are nearly destitute of fat, while domestic 
 stall-fed animals acquire a large amount of it. 
 If the fattened animal is allowed exercise, or set 
 to work, the fat quickly disappears. 
 
 Dogs and cats, when fed on a mixed diet, 
 accumulate fat; so that by feeding them with 
 
84 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 food containing a large amount of carbon, and a 
 small amount of nitrogen, and allowing them 
 but little exercise, the increase of fat can be 
 controlled at pleasure. 
 
 Woody Fibre is rich in carbon, but it is*not in 
 a form to be readily assimilated on account of its 
 insolubility. For this reason, the carbon con- 
 tained in wheat, in corn, and in potatoes, in the 
 form of starch and gum, is the principal source 
 of supply for man. Woody fibre can be changed 
 to starch and sugar in the laboratory of the 
 chemist, but the digestive organs of men and 
 animals are inadequate to the production of this 
 result ; otherwise, animals might be fattened on 
 saw-dust or pine shavings. 
 
 The process of fattening depends upon the 
 fact, that too small an amount of oxygen is 
 taken into the system by respiration to consume 
 the carbon in the food, the unconsumed part 
 being in such case changed into fat. Hence it 
 is, that animals at rest, or taking but little 
 exercise, if fed upon food containing much starch 
 or gum, fatten rapidly ; because then respiration 
 being less frequent and full, too small an amount 
 of oxygen is taken into the lungs to consume the 
 carbon. The foregoing Table also furnishes in- 
 formation as to the relative value of the several 
 grasses and grains named for fattening. 
 
INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 
 
 85 
 
 Table showing the amount of inorganic and mineral substances 
 usually found in 100 lbs. of the plants named in their mar- 
 ketable condition : — serves as a key to the application of 
 the proper elements, as fertilizers. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat Straw 
 
 Rye 
 
 Rye Straw 
 
 Barley 
 
 Barley Straw 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oat Straw 
 
 Buckwheat ; . . 
 
 Buckwheat Straw. 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 Corn Stalks 
 
 Peas 
 
 Pea Straw 
 
 Beans 
 
 Bean Straw 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Beets 
 
 Carrots *... 
 
 Turnips 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-40 
 
 0-0 
 
 0-41 
 
 0-05 
 
 0-44 
 
 0-11 
 
 0-37 
 
 0-13 
 
 1-10 
 
 0-03 
 
 0-59 
 
 0-14 
 
 1-94 
 
 0-25 
 
 1-51 
 
 0-01 
 
 0-03 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-08 
 
 0-31 
 0-17 
 0-23 
 0-15 
 0-17 
 0-14 
 0-21 
 0-19 
 0-20 
 0-21 
 0'27 
 0-31 
 0-19 
 0-36 
 0-17 
 0-43 
 0-02 
 0-04 
 0-04 
 0-02 
 
 0-07 
 4-77 
 0-52 
 3-01 
 0-53 
 3-44 
 0-13 
 2-47 
 0-02 
 0-33 
 0-08 
 2-72 
 002 
 0-27 
 0-24 
 0-33 
 0-01 
 0-02 
 0-02 
 0-01 
 
 0-02 
 0-05 
 0-02 
 0-04 
 0-01 
 
 0-01 
 0-04 
 0-02 
 
 0-02 
 0-09 
 0-02 
 0-07 
 009 
 0-10 
 0-06 
 0-04 
 0-07 
 0-02 
 
 0-80 
 0-79 
 0-57 
 0-80 
 0-44 
 1-29 
 0-46 
 1-00 
 0-17 
 2-76 
 0-52 
 1-99 
 1-00 
 1-07 
 1-34 
 1-96 
 0-20 
 0-21 
 0-29 
 0-32 
 
 0-08 
 0-11 
 0-09 
 0-11 
 0-14 
 0-24 
 0-07 
 0-30 
 0-40 
 0-13 
 0-26 
 0-07 
 0-08 
 0-28 
 0-05 
 0-52 
 
 0-05 
 0-16 
 0-06 
 
 1-00 
 0-37 
 0-91 
 0-27 
 0-67 
 0-27 
 0-63 
 0-20 
 1-00 
 0-61 
 0-89 
 0-45 
 0-87 
 0-35 
 0-96 
 0-47 
 0-06 
 0-06 
 0-08 
 0-07 
 
 0-12 
 0-17 
 0-50 
 0-10 
 0-12 
 0-22 
 0-45 
 0-16 
 0-44 
 0-31 
 0-10 
 0-28 
 0-11 
 0-30 
 0-13 
 0-13 
 0-02 
 002 
 0-05 
 0-08 
 
 The foregoing Table exhibits the average results 
 
 of many analyses of the plants named, by the 
 most distinguished agricultural chemists of this 
 country and Europe. It must not be supposed 
 
86 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 that it gives the exact composition in every case. 
 Still it is near enough for all practical purposes, 
 and furnishes a very reliable guide to manuring. 
 
 We shall now show the different amounts of 
 inorganic and mineral substances required by a 
 good crop of different plants, on an acre of land. 
 This information will show the relative value of 
 manures and fertilizers in producing crops, and 
 the kind and amount required. 
 
 It is a fact known to farmers, that if they 
 can raise good crops of wheat on their land, 
 they can raise a good crop of almost any 
 other plant adapted to the climate and soil. 
 Hence, a study of the wheat crop will serve to 
 show all the essential elements of fertility. In 
 100 parts or pounds of wheat, about 97J are 
 combustible, being carbon and nitrogen, and the 
 elements of water — hydrogen and oxygen ; and 
 of the straw from 92 to 94 parts are also 
 combustible. 
 
 The grain and straw of wheat has the average 
 chemical composition shown in the following 
 Table: 
 
 Grain. Straw. 
 
 Carbon 46-10 48-48 
 
 Hydrogen 5-80 541 
 
 Oxygen 43^40 38*79 
 
 Nitrogen 2-29 -35 
 
 Ash 2-41 6-97 
 
 10000 lAooo . 
 
PEA STRAW AND CLOVER. 87 
 
 The greatest proportional difference in the 
 combustible part of wheat and its straw is in 
 the relative amount of nitrogen. The reader 
 \vill notice that there is in equal weights nearly 
 seven times as much nitrogen in the grain as in 
 the straw. If the farmer had to rely on decaying 
 straw to furnish the necessary amount of nitrogen^ 
 it would require 700 lbs. of straw to furnish 
 enough for 100 lbs.- of the grain of wheat, 
 and a crop of 25 bushels to the acre, or 1500 
 lbs. of wheat, would require over five tons of 
 straw to furnish the nitrogen required. On the 
 other hand, one half of this amount will furnish 
 the phosphoric acid and the other elements re- 
 quired for the grain. But, if the farmer manured 
 with pea straw, or clover, the case would be 
 different, as the following analyses of clover and 
 pea straw will show : 
 
 Pea Straw. Clover Ilay. 
 
 Carbon 45'80 47-40 
 
 Hydrogen 5-00 5-00 
 
 Oxygen 35-57 3860 
 
 Nitrogen 2-31 1-30 
 
 Ash 11-32 7-70 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Pea straw contains as much nitrogen, weight 
 for weight, as wheat ; and when cut in proper 
 time and cured properly, it makes the best of 
 fodder and the best of manure. Clover is very 
 nearly as valuable for both purposes. 
 
88 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 The ash left after carefully burning the seeds 
 and straw or stems of cultivated plants, is very 
 nearly the same in chemical composition for 
 each variety. The variations found are no 
 greater than might be expected from tbe in- 
 fluence of climate and soil. The farmer should 
 uniformly determine to raise a maximum amount 
 from each cultivated acre of his land. This 
 result is nearly as much under his command, as 
 that of the mechanic or laborer who commences 
 the work of the day with a determination of 
 performing a certain amount of work, and who 
 but for that determination, and the proper use of 
 his tools or hands, would accomplish much less. 
 
 The following amounts of different crops have 
 been year after year raised from an acre of 
 ordinary land, by the proper application of 
 manures : 
 
 Wheat 25bnshels. 
 
 Rye 30 " 
 
 Buckwheat.. 30 " 
 Potatoes.. 100 " 
 
 Corn 50 bushels. 
 
 Oats 50 '* 
 
 Barley 30 
 
 Two tons of Hay. 
 
 " What has been done can be done again ;" 
 and w4iy should it not? A determination to do, 
 and the application of the proper means, are all 
 that is required. Only when such crops are 
 raised, can farming be said to be a successful and 
 remunerative business. How common is the 
 complaint among our farmers, that after allowing 
 
WHEAT, 89 
 
 ordinary wages for their own labor, and paying 
 expenses, they do not realize legal interest on 
 the money invested in their land and improve- 
 ments. This need not and should not be the 
 case. In many parts of England, more is paid 
 yearly as rent than would purchase land equally 
 as good in this country ; yet these renters not 
 only live well, but frequently become wealthy. 
 We will now show what quantity of the ele- 
 ments that can be applied as manures the above 
 named crops contain. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Twenty-five bushels of wheat, of 60 lbs. to the 
 bushel, the estimated product of an acre, weigh 
 1500 lbs. ; the straw for this weight of grain will 
 average 3000 lbs. The wheat and straw contain 
 the following weights of the elements, which is 
 the amount of each taken from each acre of land 
 by such a crop : 
 
 Grain. Straw. Total. 
 
 ^ Ammonia 41-71 lbs. 10.18 lbs. 51-89 lbs 
 
 Phosphoric acid.. 15-00 '' ll'lO '' 26-10 '* 
 
 Sulphuric acid... 1-80 '' 5-10 '* 6-90 " 
 
 Lime 1-35 " 12-00 '^ 13-35 " 
 
 Magnesia 465 " 510 " 9*75 " 
 
 Potash 12-00 " .23-70 " 35-70 " 
 
 Silica 1-05 " 143-10 " 144-15 " 
 
 The Table shows also the relative amounts of 
 the different elements required to raise wheat. 
 
 * In this and similar cases the ** elements of ammonia" are meant. 
 
90 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 The reader will notice the large amount of silica 
 required for the straw. Too little attention has 
 been given to economizing this substance, silica, 
 by wheat growers in this country. In building 
 up the structure of the straw, soluble silica is 
 indispensable. The straw and the roots consti- 
 tute the chemical apparatus for the preparation 
 and assimilation of the different elements re- 
 quired by the grain itself. Hence it is evident, 
 that if there is not enough of soluble silica to 
 give this preliminary structure its proper de- 
 velopment, there will be only a small amount of 
 grain produced, however rich the soil may be 
 in the other elements' required. 
 
 Silica to be available to the plant must be in 
 a soluble condition; and, as the farmer must 
 wait for the slow formation or liberation of this 
 substance in the soil, the alternating of wheat 
 with other crops that require but little of it, 
 will allow time for it to accumulate in the soil 
 for the raising of wheat crops at proper intervals. 
 
 INDIAN CORN. 
 
 Fifty bushels of corn — the estimated crop of an 
 acre— of 58 lbs. to the bushel = 2900 lbs. This 
 weight of corn will require 3000 lbs. of stalk 
 and cob (when dry), and will contain : — 
 
RYE. 91 
 
 Grain. Stalk and Cob. Total. 
 
 Ammonia 34*22 lbs. 6 00 lbs. 40*22' lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric acid 25*81 '^ 13*50 '* 39*31 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 2*90 " 8*40 '' 11*30 " 
 
 Lime -87" 17*70" 18*57" 
 
 Magnesia 7*83 " 9*30 " 17*13 " 
 
 Potaph ....15-08 '' 59-70 "* 74*78 " 
 
 Silica 2*32 " 81*60 " 83*92 " 
 
 The reader will notice that Indian corn re- 
 quires much more phosphoric acid and potash 
 than wheat, while the amount of ammonia is 
 only a little more than half as much; conse- 
 quentlj, its nutritive properties as food are in 
 about the same proportion ; that is, in proportion 
 to the ammonia. Corn stalks contain a large 
 amount of potash and silica, and, when properly 
 prepared as manures, will furnish these elements 
 for other crops. From the comparatively small 
 amount of ammonia required by the corn crop, 
 it can be raised at less cost to the soil than wheat, 
 because ammonia is one of the most costly of the 
 organic elements. 
 
 EYE. 
 
 Thirty bushels — the estimated product of an 
 acre — of 50 lbs. to the bushel = 1500 lbs. ; the 
 same weight as 25 bushels of wheat. This crop 
 requires at least 3000 lbs. of straw. The grain 
 and straw contain : 
 7 
 
92 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Grain. Straw. Total. 
 
 Ammonia 34-05 lbs. 8-70 lbs. 42-75 lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 13-65 " 8-10 " 21-75 '' 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 7*50 " 3-00 " 10-50 " 
 
 Lime 1-05 " 12-30 '^ 13-35 " 
 
 Magnesia.... 2-25 " 4-50 " 6-75 " 
 
 Potash 8-55 '* 24-00 " 32-55 " 
 
 SiUca 7-80 '' 90-00 '' 97-80 " 
 
 By comparing the above Table with the one 
 giving the composition of wheat, the reader can 
 understand why larger coTitinuous crops of rye 
 than of wheat can be raised from the same soil ; 
 because rye does not require so much of those 
 elements which are first exhausted in soils as 
 wheat does. In like manner, by studying the 
 composition of different crops, and noting the 
 amounts of the different elements required to 
 produce them, we can understand why farmers 
 should have a dollar for a bushel of wheat, when 
 corn is selling at fifty cents, and rye at seventy- 
 five. Such an examination shows that the 
 quantity, and consequently the price of any crop, 
 are naturally regulated by the amount of certain 
 valuable substances required for its production. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 Fifty bushels of oats — the estimated product 
 of an acre — of 33 lbs. to the bushel = 1650 lbs. 
 This amount of grain requires about 2000 lbs. 
 of straw. The grain and straw contain : 
 
BARLEY. 93 
 
 Grain. Straw. Total. 
 
 Ammonia...., 37-45 lbs. 7*80 lbs. 45-25 lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 10-39 '' 4-00 " 14-59 " 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 6-G2 " 3-20 " 9-82 *' 
 
 Lime 1-81 " 7*40 ''' 9-21 '' 
 
 Magnesia 3-47 ^' 3-80 " 7-27 '* 
 
 V Potash 7-59 " 6*00 " 13*59 " 
 
 Silica 2-14 '^ 45-40 " 47-54 ** 
 
 The reader will note the large amount of am- 
 monia required by this crop. This accounts for 
 the nutritive properties of the grain and straw. 
 The amount of phosphoric acid and potash is 
 small compareid with that of other cereals. 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 Thirty bushels of barley — the estimated pro- 
 duct of an acre — of 48 lbs. to the bushel = 1440 
 lbs. The straw weighs 2000 lbs. The grain and 
 straw contain : 
 
 Grain. Straw. Total. 
 
 Ammonia 33-40 lbs. 7*60 lbs. 41*00 lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. 9-64 " 5*40 " 15-04 " 
 
 Sulphuric Acid... 1-73 " 4-40 '' 6-13 " 
 
 Lime -72 " 8-80 ^' 9-52 " 
 
 Magnesia 2-44 " 2-80 " 5-24 " 
 
 Potash 6-33 " 2580 ^' 32-13 " 
 
 Silica 7-63" 68-80'' 76-43" 
 
 Oat and barley straw are good manures, as 
 they are rich sources of nitrogen, containing, as 
 they do, a large percentage of ammonia. From 
 this cause also, they make good fodder for cattle. 
 Only a small amount of phosphoric acid and pot- 
 ash is required for these straws, while the amount 
 
94 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 of silica is only one half of that required for 
 wheat straw. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. 
 
 Thirty bushels of buckwheat — the estimated 
 product of an acre — of 40 lbs. to the bushel 
 = 1200 lbs. The straw weighs about 2000 lbs. 
 The grain and straw contain: 
 
 Grain. Straw. Total. 
 
 Ammonia 18-24 lbs. 1-20 lbs. 19-44 lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. 12-00 " 12-20 '' 24-20 " 
 
 Sulphuric Acid.. 5-22 '' 6-20 " 11-42 " 
 
 Lime 1-56 '' 2200 " 23-56 " 
 
 Magnesia 2-40 " 4-20 " 660 " 
 
 ^ Potash 2-04 " 55-20 " - 57-24 " 
 
 Silica 0-24 '' 6-60 " 6-84 '' 
 
 The reader will notice that this crop requires 
 a large amount of potash, while the amount of 
 ammonia and phosphoric acid is comparatively 
 small. The potash seems to take the place of 
 silica in the formation of the straw, as only a 
 small amount of that substance is required. As 
 this straw contains very little ammonia, it is 
 almost worthless as fodder ; but as manure it is 
 valuable for its phosphoric acid, lime and potash. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 One hundred bushels of potatoes, of 60 lbs. to 
 the bushel = 6000 lbs. of tubers. The tops, when 
 dry, weigh about 3000 lbs. ; and the tops and 
 tubers of such a crop contain : 
 
CLOVER HAY. 95 
 
 Tubers. Tops. Total. 
 
 Ammonia 21-00 lbs. 1-50 lbs. 22-50 lbs. v 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 3300 " 18-00 ** 51-00 '' 
 
 Sulphm-icAcid. 12-00 " 15-50 " 28-10 " 
 
 Lime 4-20" 55-00" 59-20*' 
 
 • Magnesia 7-80 *' 10-50 " 18-30 ** 
 
 Potash 109-00 " 70-00 " 179-00 " 
 
 Silica 13-00 " 30-00 " 43-00 " 
 
 Twenty bushels of wheat require 15 lbs. of 
 phosphoric acid for the grain, and 11 lbs. for the 
 straw ; while 100 bushels of potatoes require 
 double this amount. Hence^ two medium crops 
 of wheat exhaust only as much of this valuable 
 element as one crop of potatoes. Also, only one- 
 sixth the amount of potash required for potatoes 
 is necessary for the wheat crop. In raising pota- 
 toes, few farmers supply a sufficient amount of 
 phosphoric acid and potash. Hence, this plant 
 and its tubers have become constitutionally 
 deteriorated on most farms, and liable to speedy 
 decay. A bushel of potatoes contains only about 
 one-seventh the amount of nitrogen contained in 
 a bushel of wheat, and its nutritive value for the 
 production of blood and muscle is in the same 
 proportion. 
 
 CLOVER HAY. 
 
 Two tons, or 4000 lbs., of dried clover may be 
 considered an average crop per acre. This 
 amount contains : 
 
96 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Ammonia 52*00 lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid.. 19'76 " 
 {Sulphuric Acid... 7'50 " 
 
 Lime 75-00 lbs. 
 
 Magnesia . . „ 21*00 " 
 
 Potash 80-69 " 
 
 Silica 18*65 lbs. 
 
 Clover requires a large amount of potash and 
 ammonia, while the amount of silica required is 
 small. Great benefits are realized by growing 
 this crop ; it sends its roots deep into the soil, 
 and brings up the phosphate and sulphate of 
 lime, also potash and magnesia ; and when the 
 clover is plowed under, as a green manure, it 
 furnishes a large amount of the nitrogen ^re- 
 quired for a heavy crop of wheat. 
 
 All Root Crops require a rich soil to do well. 
 Twenty tons of Turnips or Carrots, with the tops, 
 — which is a large crop for an acre, — require: 
 
 Turnips. Carrots. 
 
 Ammonia 42*00 lbs. 48*00 lbs 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 45*00 " 39*00 '* 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 50*00 " 57*00 " 
 
 Lime 90*00" 197*00" 
 
 Magnesia 14*00 " 29*00 " 
 
 Potash 140*00 " 134*00 " 
 
 Silica 55*00 " 60*00 " 
 
 Tobacco and Cotton require a rich soil to 
 grow luxuriantly, as the following Table, showing 
 the amounts, in pounds, of inorganic elements 
 contained in 1000 lbs. of the stems and leaf of 
 tobacco, and the fibre, seed and stalk of cotton, 
 in their air-dried state, will show : 
 
TOBACCO AND COTTON. 97 
 
 Cotton. 
 Tobacco. Fibre. Seed. Stalk. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 8-6 8-3 14-8 5*5 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 9-3 5-6 1-6 05 
 
 Lime 88-8 25-7 2-4 7*0 
 
 Magnesia 25-0 14-5 5*6 2-2 
 
 Potash 73-7 54-0 14-4 88 
 
 Silica 23-0 1*3 34 2*5 
 
 We regret that we could not obtain reliable 
 analyses of cotton and tobacco, showing the 
 amount of nitrogen or ammonia required. The 
 reader can see that in raising tobacco, a large 
 amount of lime and potash is required, while the 
 amount of phosphoric acid is small. The cotton 
 plant requires more phosphoric acid, but either 
 crop can be raised more readily and profitably 
 from ordinary soils, where climate is suitable, 
 than either wheat or corn. 
 
 The foregoing Tables are of great value to the 
 farmer and planter, in showing them the amount 
 of the different valuable elements required by dif- 
 ferent crops ; also, how far the commercial manures 
 of a known composition are able to supply the 
 material for these crops. If the reader wishes to 
 know how much of those elements which are 
 not usually applied as principal constituents of 
 manures, such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, 
 iron, soda, and carbon, is required by plants, he 
 may refer to the Tables 6n pages 82 and 85, 
 which will show him the percentage of these 
 
98 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 substances ; and from these he can readily calcu- 
 late the amount required by different crops for 
 an acre. 
 
 Every crop should be supplied with the full 
 amount of all the substances needed to bring it 
 to maturity. That this vital principle is not 
 understood, or at least attended to, is painfully 
 evident from an examination of the statistics 
 furnished in the reports of the Agricultural De- 
 partment, at Washington. By these reports we 
 find that the average of the amounts of the 
 different crops raised on an acre in thirty States 
 of the Union is, as follows : 
 
 Wheat 11-56 bushels. 
 
 Indian Corn. 28-00 
 
 Eye. 13-30 
 
 Oats 23-95 " 
 
 Barley 19*14 bushels. 
 
 Buckwheat. 17-68 " 
 Potatoes... 93-23 
 Hay. 1-28 tons. 
 
 The above averages show conclusively that 
 there is a great necessity for a more extended 
 use of manufactured manures. 
 
 Even Pennsylvania, that boasts of her fertile 
 soils and the perfection of her system of agricul- 
 ture, produces only the following average of the 
 above named crops per acre : 
 
 Wnieat 12-8 bushels. 
 
 Rye 13-0 
 
 Barley 21-4 
 
 Potatoes 88-0 " 
 
 Indian Corn... 35*0 bushels 
 
 Oats 27-8 " 
 
 Buckwheat. . 16*5 " 
 Hay 1-3 tons 
 
 But this will favorably contrast with South 
 
AVERAGE CROPS. 99 
 
 Carolina, which shows the lowest average pro- 
 duction, as follows : 
 
 Wheat.... 
 
 . ...5*6 bushels. 
 
 Corn 
 
 .. 10-2 bushels 
 
 Rye 
 
 ....5-0 
 
 Oats 
 
 .. 9-7 
 
 Barley.... 
 
 ...9-0 
 
 Potatoes.. 
 
 . 101-0 
 
 The crop of potatoes exceeds the general aver- 
 age, but the amount of the other crops raised 
 must afford a very inadequate remuneration to 
 the farmer, barely exceeding the cost of seed, 
 cultivation, and preparation for market. The 
 principal cause of this state of things is the ig- 
 norance of the farmer of what substances he 
 needs, in kind and quantity to produce the in- 
 tended crop. A full knowledge of what and 
 how much plants need to insure their healthy 
 growth, will induce the farmer to use all care 
 and economy in saving, preparing, and applying 
 these substances. The Tables already given are 
 invaluable in giving this information. But there 
 are necessary conditions that must be complied 
 wdth. A plant contains various substances, and 
 every one of these must be present to enable it 
 to come to maturity. Besides, these substances 
 must be in a condition to become soluble in wa- 
 ter, either alone or in combination with other 
 substances with which they are brought in contact 
 in the soil, during the time that intervenes be- 
 tween the planting and the gathering of the 
 crop. This is a very intricate subject, and 
 
100 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 aJfords a broad field for speculation and research, 
 and^ when fully understood, will be a guide to 
 the fixing of the relative values of the different 
 elements essential to the growth of plants. 
 
 The reader who has carefully perused our 
 work thus far, should have acquired a general 
 knowledge of the different substances entering 
 into the growth of plants. He should know 
 why some soils will produce one crop and not 
 another, and why two crops of the same kind 
 cannot profitably be raised in succession, on the 
 same land. Also, that some crops take from the 
 land more of one substance than of another ; and 
 that wheat exhausts the soil of its most valuable 
 constituents much sooner than corn, rye or oats. 
 He should understand the true philosophy of the 
 rotation of crops ; also, why the straw of wheat 
 may flourish and not the ear, as the straw con- 
 tains comparatively little of the same ingredients 
 required for the grain ; and why good crops of 
 wheat fall to the ground for want of proper 
 strength in the straw to support the ears, as the 
 straw requires a large amount of silica, with 
 little lime, magnesia and phosphoric acid, and 
 the grain a large amount of the latter substances. 
 In a word, he should understand why some soils 
 wdll grow good straw with small ears, and other 
 soils large ears with little straw. 
 
 The amount of inorganic food required for 
 
COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 101 
 
 plants may appear trifling, as shown by the an- 
 alyses ; but its value is startling when we con- 
 sider it in the crops removed from an acre of 
 land. Tlie following case, given by Professor 
 Johnson, will illustrate this in a striking man- 
 ner : 
 
 In a four years' course of cropping, in which 
 the crops gathered amounted per acre to — 
 
 1st year, turnips, 20 tons bulbs, and 6^ tons tops; 
 2nd year, barley, 40 bushels, and 1 ton of straw; 
 3rd year, wheat, 25 bushels, and If tons of straw ; 
 4th year, clover and rye grass, 1|- tons each of straw ; 
 
 the quantity of inorganic matter carried off in 
 the four crops, supposing none to be consumed 
 on the land, is a follows : 
 
 Silica 356 lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 116 " 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 108 " 
 
 Lime 193 '^ 
 
 Magnesia , 55 " 
 
 Oxide of Iron 15 " 
 
 Potash 317 '' 
 
 Soda 54 " 
 
 Chlorine 70 '' 
 
 Total 1284 lbs. 
 
 Now, if the entire produce be carried from the 
 land, and no manures be applied in the meantime, 
 it will be necessary, to restore the land to its 
 original condition, to add to each acre : 
 
102 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Bonedust 552 lbs. 
 
 Epsom Salts 326 " 
 
 Dry Pearl Ash 465 •* 
 
 Quicklime 70 " 
 
 Common Salt 116 *' 
 
 Total 1529 lbs. 
 
 ^ The constant removal of such large quantities 
 of the inorganic food of plants must, in time, ex- 
 haust a soil and render it barren, unless restored 
 by a judicious system of manuring. The soluble 
 salts, such as potash and soda, are also liable to 
 leach through to the subsoil, and also to be 
 washed away by rains. In general, however, all 
 fertile soils contain a good store of the inorganic 
 food of plants, so that the deterioration is often 
 a slow process. In rare instances, a century 
 may elapse before the change prove such as to 
 make a sensible diminution in the rental value. 
 Such slow changes are seldom recorded. Hence 
 the practical man is occasionally led to despise 
 the clearest theoretical principles, because he 
 has not happened to see them verified in his own 
 limited experience; as well as to neglect the 
 suggestions and wise precautions which these 
 principles lay before him. Illustrations of this 
 sure, though slow decay, may be met with in 
 the agricultural history of almost every country ; 
 but in none more strikingly than in the old slave 
 States, Maryland, Virginia, North and South 
 
EFFECTS OF CROPPING. 103 
 
 Carolina — once rich and fertile. By a long con- 
 tinued system of forced and exhausting culture, 
 these lands have become unproductive, and vast 
 tracts have been abandoned to hopeless sterility. 
 Such lands it is possible to reclaim ; but at what 
 an expense of time, labor, manure, and skilful 
 management? It is to be hoped that the new 
 States will not thus sacrifice their future power 
 and prospects to present and temporary wealth; 
 that these fine lands, w^hich now yield immense 
 successive crops of Indian corn and wheat, with- 
 out intermission and without manure, will not be 
 cropped till their strength and substance is gone; 
 but that a better conducted and more skilful 
 husbandry may be adopted, which will ensure 
 unimpaired fertility to these naturally rich and 
 productive soils. 
 
 Another instance of exhaustion may be seen 
 in the West India sugar plantations. The cane, 
 after having had its saccharine juice pressed out - 
 at the mill, serves as fuel for boiling down the 
 syrup. The ash thus produced is rich in the 
 mineral ingredients necessary to the prosperity 
 .of the plant. The neglect to return this valua- 
 ble ash to the soil has not only occasioned a 
 large importation of foreign manures, but also a 
 serious deterioration of the soil. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS, SHOWING 
 THE NATURAL SOURCES OF THE ELEMENTS AS 
 CONTAINS) IN PLANTS. 
 
 An accurate knowledge of the constituents of 
 soils is equally important to the farmer and planter 
 as a knowledge of the composition of differ- 
 ent crops, and of the materials at his command 
 to produce them. Notwithstanding the im- 
 portance of this knowledge, the chemical com- 
 position of the land is rarely considered in the 
 selection and purchase of a farm ; the fact that 
 it produces crops, the location, convenience to 
 markets, and the money value of the improve- 
 ments, are the principal considerations. If the 
 land has hitherto produced good crops, it is 
 taken as a guarantee that it will continue to do 
 so ; the soil is not examined, to see how far the 
 stores of organic and mineral matter necessary 
 to fertility have been exhausted. 
 
 It requires but a superficial examination of this 
 subject, to demonstrate that lands should have a 
 commercial value, other things being equal, in pro- 
 portion to the quantity and condition of the valu- 
 able constituents of plants contained in an acre. 
 
 104 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 105 
 
 There are virgin soils that now raise large crops, 
 but which will be soon exhausted, as their fertil- 
 izing ingredients are small in amount, though in 
 an active soluble state. Other soils, probably less 
 productive, contain an almost unlimited supply 
 of fertilizing ingredients, which are being gradu- 
 ally liberated and given in soluble form to supply 
 the wants of vegetation ; the former may become 
 sterile in less than twenty years, the latter be 
 productive for centuries. The fects just stated 
 show the importance of having soils analyzed, 
 so that the farmer may know the amount of 
 fertilizing substances he has on hand. This 
 would be analogous to taking an account of stock 
 by the merchant or manufacturer, only it need 
 not be done so often. After once acquiring this 
 knowledge, the farmer may easily estimate the 
 amount of various substances removed by 
 different crops, as well as what he has added in 
 the shape of manures, and so arrive at a know- 
 ledge of the true condition and real value of his 
 lands. Millions of dollars are expended annually 
 by farmers in substances not needed, solely from 
 the foct that they do not know what they 
 already possess or need, nor the constituents of 
 what they purchase. 
 
 To illustrate this matter fully, we give analyses 
 of some fertile and sterile soils ; and as it has 
 been shown that all crops require silica, plios- 
 
106 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 phoric acid, sulphuric acid, lime, magnesia, 
 oxide of iron, potash, soda, chlorine, oxygen, 
 hydrogen, and nitrogen, with a certain amount 
 of decaying vegetable matter, the farmer can 
 see why the soils given as fertile are so, and 
 why the others are sterile. As a key to the 
 amounts of the different substances contained in 
 the soil of an acre of land, the farmer should 
 know that every inch in depth of an acre of 
 average soils, weighs about one hundred tons; 
 hence a soil ten inches deep would weigh just 
 one thousand tons. 
 
 The following is an analysis of a very fertile 
 soil, in the vicinity of the Zuyder Zee, in Holland, 
 as given by the celebrated chemist Mulder. 
 
 Insoluble sand with Alumina 57'646 
 
 Soluble Silica 2-340 
 
 Alumina, soluble 1*830 
 
 Peroxide of Iron 9*039 
 
 Protoxide of Iron 0'350 
 
 Lime 4*092 
 
 Magnesia 0*1 30 
 
 Potash 1*026 
 
 Soda 1*972 
 
 Ammonia 0*060 
 
 Phosphoric A cid 0*466 
 
 Sulphuric Acid.... 0*896 
 
 Carbonic Acid 6*085 
 
 Chlorine 1*240 
 
 Humus, or mould, vegetable re- 1 
 
 mains and water chemically com- y 12*000 
 
 bined J 
 
 Loss 0*828 
 
 Total 100-000 
 
FERTILE SOIL. 107 
 
 This is a most remarkcably rich soil, and few 
 in the world can compare with it in furnishing 
 the raw material for producing bread and meat. 
 The farmer can see at a glance^ that it contains 
 every substance necessary for the growth of 
 plants. As it would be interesting to know how 
 much of each of the elements is contained on an 
 acre of the above-mentioned soil, assuming the 
 soil to be ten inches deep, and hence weighing 
 one thousand tons, we give the result of the 
 calculation, as follows : 
 
 Silica and Alumina 576'0 tons. 
 
 Soluble Silica 23-0 " 
 
 Soluble Alumina 18'0 " 
 
 Peroxide of Iron.. 90*0 " 
 
 Protoxide of Iron 3-5 " 
 
 Lime 40-0 " 
 
 Magnesia 1-8 " 
 
 Potash 10-0 " 
 
 Soda 19-0 '' 
 
 Ammonia 1200*0 lbs. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 4*5 tons. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 9-0 *' 
 
 Carbonic Acid 61*0 " 
 
 Chlorine 12*5 " 
 
 ^ Yegetable remains and water , . . . 83*0 " 
 
 The commercial value of these quantities of 
 fertilizing elements can easily be estimated. 
 The reader will notice that the amount of lime 
 is four per cent., or forty tons to the acre. Allow- 
 ing that 200 lbs. may be washed out and ap- 
 propriated yearly by growing crops, it would 
 
 8 
 
108 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 last four hundred years; although the soil 
 would cease to be fertile long before the last 
 particle of lime was removed. The supply of 
 magnesia is small in proportion to the other sub- 
 stances, and as most crops require more magnesia 
 than lime, this compound would be the first ex- 
 hausted in this soil. It will also be seen that 
 there are four and a half tons, or 9000 lbs. of 
 phosphoric acid. Supposing this to be in the 
 shape of bone phosphate of lime, or associated 
 with other bases in an insoluble form, and worth 
 four cents a pound, we have three hundred and 
 sixty dollars as the value of that article alone. 
 
 It is very probable that this soil has been 
 cropped over a thousand years, and still contains 
 within itself sufficient of every fertilizing sub- 
 stance to last at least two hundred years or 
 more. Soils containing only a tenth in quantity 
 of these necessary elements may be equally 
 fertile, as only a given quantity can be assimi- 
 lated by each yearly crop, but the difference in 
 quantity should be an element in determining 
 the commercial value of the land. The time 
 must come, and is not very distant, when the 
 price of lands will be rated by their composition, 
 and not merely their present capacity for raising 
 crops. 
 
 The following is an analysis of a remarkably 
 sterile soil : 
 
STERILE SOIL. 109 
 
 Silica, with coarse Silicioiis Sand 95-843 
 
 Alumina 0-600 
 
 Protoxide and Peroxide of Iron 1-800 
 
 Lime in combination with Silica 0038 
 
 Magnesia 0*006 
 
 Potash and Soda 0-005 
 
 Phosphate of Iron 0-198 ; 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 0*002 
 
 Chlorine 0-006 
 
 Humus, Carbonic Acid and Water. . . . 1-502 
 
 Total 100-000 
 
 The poverty of this soil is apparent from the 
 small quantity of lime, magnesia, potash and 
 phosphoric acid found in it. The addition of 
 marl was found to have a marked effect upon it. 
 
 The following is the analysis of a soil that was 
 supposed to be very barren, but which, after the 
 application of land plaster or gypsum, produced 
 large crops of red clover, peas, beans, etc. The 
 surface is a fine-grained loamy soil. (A) is the 
 analysis of the surface, (B) of the subsoil ; 100 
 parts of each contained : 
 
 (A) (B) 
 
 Silica, with Silicious Sand 90-120 90-324 
 
 Alumina 2-106 2*262 
 
 Peroxide and Protoxide of Iron.. 3-951 2-914 
 
 Peroxide of Manganese 0*950 2-960 
 
 Lime 0-539 0-532 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 0*367 0-122 
 
 Magnesia, with Silicate of Potash. 0*750 0-340 
 
 Potash 0067 0-304 
 
 Soda 0-010 trace. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid trace. 0*010 
 
 Chlorine 0*100 0*004 
 
 Humus and decaying veg. matter.. 0*900 
 
 Loss 0-140 0*228 
 
 Total 100*000 100*000 
 
110 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 The reader can see at a glance the lack of sul- ' 
 phuric acid in the above soil. This is the 
 reason that the application of plaster had such a 
 beneficial effect. Every other element of fertil- 
 ity was present^ but without sulphuric acid it 
 was impossible for plants to come to maturity. 
 
 Hundreds of analj'Ses of different soils might 
 be given, both fertile and barren, but they would 
 only prove the one great fact, that soils, to be 
 properly adapted to the growth of plants, must 
 contain every element that enters into their 
 composition. Plants must have the necessary 
 food to live oil, the same as animals, as they 
 cannot create an atom of any substance to sup- 
 port themselves. Hence, when there is a falling 
 off in the productiveness of a soil, the farmer 
 should first ascertain what element is necessary 
 to restore it, and then add that substance, in a 
 definite quantity, because it is only a waste of 
 money to apply what is not required. 
 
 Such a course would lead to an economy both 
 of the money of the farmer, and also of the ele- 
 ments of fertility. How many farmers buy ex- 
 pensive manufactured manures, Avhen perhaps 
 the very things they need lie wasting at their 
 own doors. The application of lime, marl, 
 muck, wood and even coal ashes, is sometimes 
 attended with better results than the most ex- 
 pensive phosphates. When these exjoensive 
 
CHARACTER OF SOILS. Ill 
 
 manures are applied where something else is 
 needed, the farmer loses the money invested, the 
 labor of applying them, and oftentimes his crop, 
 by not using the substance really required. 
 
 The bulk of all soils consists of sand and day. 
 These are general terms^ and have no reference 
 to the chemical properties of the different parts, 
 as all granulated bodies in soils are termed sand, 
 and all tenacious substances easily pulverized 
 are termed clay. 
 
 Two specific terms are in use to denote the 
 character of soils, viz : — alluvial and diluvial. 
 Soils that have been washed from hills and 
 mountains are termed alluvial, but if they can- 
 not be traced to such a source, and are elevated 
 plains, or the tops pf hills and mountains, they 
 are termed diluvial, and must be traced to the 
 action of glaciers or the gradual disintegration of 
 rocks by the action of the elements. 
 
 A knowledge of the chemical composition of 
 the rocks, from which the sand and clay are 
 formed, will enable us to judge correctly of the 
 kinds of minerals to be found in the soil ; and 
 of their adaptability to the wants of agriculture ; 
 hence, the study of these rocks is quite as im- 
 portant as the study of the soil itself. 
 
 The rocks essential to the formation of fertile 
 soils, and from which they are usually produced, 
 are Granite, Felspar, Limestone, Gypsum, 
 
112 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Phosphorite, Slate and Sandstone. The relative 
 value of these rocks in soil formation can be 
 seen when we examine the nature of their con- 
 stituents. 
 
 Granite belongs to the most ancient family of 
 rocks, which appear to have originally formed 
 the basis of the solid structure of the globe. 
 This mineral derives its name from its marked 
 granular structure, and is a mixture, in variable 
 proportions, of quartz, felspar, and mica. These 
 grains vary considerably in size ; in some varie- 
 ties, the crystals are in uniform small grains, 
 while in other varieties the laminae of mica are 
 some inches across. 
 
 Quartz, which forms the transparent grains 
 in the granite, consists simply of silica (silicic 
 acid). 
 
 Felspar, the dull cream-colored opaque grains 
 in granite, generally contains silica, alumina, 
 potash, soda and lime. 
 
 Mica, so named from the glittering scales 
 which it forms in the rock, is a compound of 
 silica, alumina and potash ; but in some varieties 
 the alumina is displaced by the peroxide or rust 
 of iron, and the potash by magnesia. 
 
 . By the long continued action of the atmos- 
 phere in connection with rain, the granite rock 
 is gradually crumbled down and disintegrated, 
 an effect due to both mechanical and chemical 
 
FELSPAR. 113 
 
 causes. Mechanically, the rock is continually 
 worn b}^ strong winds loaded with minute par- 
 ticles of sand; and by the freezing of water 
 within its minute pores, small particles are split 
 off by the expansion attending such congelation. 
 Chemically, the action of rain water containing 
 carbonic acid, would remove the potash from the 
 felspar and mica, in the form of carbonate of 
 potash, which removal, breaking the bond of 
 connection between the different particles or 
 grains, the quartz and silicate of alumina, on 
 combining with a certain amount of water, 
 would form clay. Every hundred pounds of 
 granite yield about one pound of potash, which 
 is the most valuable part of the rock for the 
 purposes of vegetation. 
 
 A cubic foot of pure felspar is sufficient to 
 supply half an acre of growing oak trees with 
 the necessary potash required, for five years, if 
 it was present in a soluble form. Each 100 lbs. 
 of this pure felspar contains 16*17 lbs. of pot- 
 ash, equal to 24*52 lbs. of carbonate of potash, 
 or, 26*44 lbs. of the muriate. 
 
 Still this potash in felspar requires a long 
 time to become soluble when only acted on by 
 atmospheric agencies. 
 
 The most important mineral ingredient of fer- 
 tile soils is lime, in its different compounds of 
 
114 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime (lime and 
 sulphuric acid), and phosphate of lime. 
 
 Cabonate of Lime (common limestone) is the 
 chief constituent of the shells of fishes and egg 
 shells ; corals also consist of carbonate of lime, 
 derived from the skeletons of innumerable min- 
 ute insects. 
 
 The origin of the common limestones is very 
 remarkable. They are built up from deposits 
 of the remains of shell-fish and coral insects, 
 which lived in ancient seas, and which having 
 been raised above the surface by submarine 
 forces, have hardened into a rock by the slow 
 infiltration of water holding carbonate of lime 
 in solution, or by the rapid and more powerful 
 effect of volcanic heat. 
 
 There are few limestones, in which the shells 
 and corals cannot yet be seen in form, more or 
 less perfect. They are not found in the purest 
 and most crystalline marbles, because these 
 have clearly been subjected to the action of heat 
 with great pressure, which has obliterated the 
 forms. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime, or Gypsum, is an important 
 ingredient of fertile soils, as it furnishes two 
 elements necessary to plants. In some localities, 
 gypsum is found in immense beds or rocks, some- 
 what similar in appearance to limestone. 
 
 It is ver}^ general Ij^ distributed in small quan- 
 
SANDSTONES. 115 
 
 titles in all soils. Most spring and river waters 
 contain it, and in hard waters it is often abund- 
 ant, rendering them unfit for washing and culi- 
 nary purposes. 
 
 Phosphorite is a mineral phosphate of lime. 
 The presence of phosphoric acid in all cultivated 
 soils may be traced to this substance. Without 
 it no cultivated plants can come to perfection. 
 The source of this substance in soils must be 
 from the many generations of animals that have 
 lived on the earth, and whose bones have be- 
 come scattered and mixed with the soil. It is 
 also found in the ancient unstratified rocks, such 
 as the apatites of Canada and Northern New 
 York, the phosphatic guano beds of South Caro 
 lina, and other places. Many of these rocks 
 contain a larger amount of phosphoric acid than 
 the same weight of bones. As these rocks slow- 
 ly crumble down in the soil^ the phosphates, if 
 they become soluble, are taken up by plants. 
 
 Sandstones are a great source of the inorganic 
 materials in soils. They are of various formations, 
 and their composition is not at all arbitrary; 
 alumina, silica, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, 
 and other substances, are found in various 
 proportions in the different varieties. The co- 
 hesion of the particles is sometimes caused by a 
 sort of semi-fusion, as in the common grit or 
 burr stones, while in other varieties the cohesion 
 
116 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 is eflfected by the infiltration of some substance 
 in solution. These are the freestones, red-sand- 
 stones, etc. Most sandstones are easily dis- 
 integrated by the elements, and form soils 
 rapidly, the value of which is governed by the 
 constituent elements of the stone. 
 
 Soils are named from the relative proportions 
 of their constituents. One hundred parts of dry 
 ordinary soil, containing only ten of clay, would 
 be termed a sandy soil. If it contained from 
 ten to thirty or forty parts of clay, it would be 
 d sandy loam ; if from forty to seventy parts of 
 clay, it would be a loamy soil ; from seventy to 
 eighty-five of clay, a clay loam ; from eighty-five 
 to ninety of clay, a strong clay^ fit for making 
 bricks ; if it contains no sand it would be pure 
 agricultural clay, or pipe-clay. If a soil contains 
 more than five per cent, of lime, it is termed a 
 marly soil ; if more than twenty per cent., a 
 calcareous soil. The rust of iron forms two or 
 three per cent, of most sandy soils, and in red 
 soils much more. 
 
 Farmers must have noticed that some soils 
 assume a darker color or deeper red, under 
 cultivation. These soils contain a large amount 
 of the first oxide of iron, which is injurious to 
 vegetation. The frequent exposure of such soils 
 to the oxygen of the atmosphere, changes this 
 first oxide to the peroxide, as previously stated. 
 
MOULD. 117 
 
 The foregoing account of the sources of in- 
 organic substances in soils, shows that the soil 
 acquires from rocks alumina, silica or sand, 
 phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, lime, magnesia, 
 oxide of iron, potash, soda; all being indispensable 
 ingredients for the growth of plants. These sub- 
 stances are all termed mineral or inorganic. 
 
 Mould will now be considered. It is popu- 
 larly supposed to be the organic portion of soils. 
 If the leaves that fall from the trees, and the 
 vegetation that dies yearly on the approach of 
 winter, did not rot or decay, or become resolved 
 into their original elements, the accumulation 
 would interfere with the subsequent growth of 
 plants. The decomposition of organic remains 
 is governed by fixed laws. All plants after they 
 die undergo two processes of decomposition ; first, 
 fermentation, then putrefaction or decay. These 
 changes are somewhat analogous to those pro- 
 duced by a smouldering fire, and the product 
 of this decay is very appropriately termed mould. 
 This process of decay or mouldering is the im- 
 perceptible union of the oxygen of the air with 
 the carbon of the plant ; but it proceeds so slowly 
 that it produces only in a very slight degree the 
 effects of ordinary combustion, that is light and 
 heat; .still the results are the same, with the ex- 
 ception that it is not carried to the same extent. 
 
 Tlie completG burning of vegetation leaves 
 
118 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 nothing but the mineral or iiiorganic elements 
 in the form of ash; the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 
 and nitrogen, passing off in a gaseous form ; on the 
 contrary, the slow combustion that takes place 
 under the ordinary processes of decay, is limited 
 by the small amount of oxygen that can come 
 in contact with the carbon. A part of this 
 oxj^gen is furnished by the decomposition of the 
 water present ; the oxygen thus liberated unites 
 with the carbon to form carbonic acid, and the 
 hydrogen unites with nitrogen to form ammonia. 
 Inasmuch as the decomposed remains of all 
 the parts of any plant contain all the inorganic, 
 with a portion of the organic elements originally 
 contained in it, these remains would furnish a 
 most efficient manure for the production of other 
 plants of the same species. But if we desire to 
 grow another kind of plant, requiring a larger 
 amount of one or more of the elements, the de- 
 ficiency must be supplied, or, if a part of the 
 plants be removed from the soil, the elements 
 contained in that part must be renewed by a 
 manure. Wheat serves as an example. The 
 g?'ain, which contains the largest amount of the 
 most valuable elements of fertility, is removed ; 
 and even should all the straw be returned to the 
 soil in a decomposed state, it would evidently 
 lack the amount of the elements contained in the 
 grain. Hence the necessity of applying, in a 
 
ASSIMILATION OF CARBON. 119 
 
 cheaper form^ the substances that will furnish 
 the different elements removed in the grain is 
 apparent. 
 
 Humus is the technical term used to designate 
 the mould or brown eartliy part of soils. As this 
 substance has partially lost the power of as- 
 similating oxygen, and giving forth carbonic 
 acid gas, it is almost a fixed substance. Its 
 special oflSce is that of a mechanical medium for 
 the absorption and retention of heat, moisture, 
 and fertilizing gases ; also that of a mechanical 
 support to the structure of the plant. 
 
 The hulh or mass of vegetation is not fur- 
 nished by the soil. Generally the largest part 
 of the mass is water or its elements; a large part 
 also is carbon. Many ingenious experiments 
 have been made to determine the source of car- 
 bon in vegetation. They have resulted in estab- 
 lishing the fact that it is furnished almost en- 
 tirely, if not wholly, by the carbonic acid in the 
 atmosphere and soil. It is true that humic acid 
 — a compound of humus and oxygen, containing 
 58 per cent, of carbon — will form soluble com- 
 pounds with potash, soda and lime. Both Mal- 
 aguti and Sprengel say that 1 lb. of lime com- 
 bines with 12 lbs. of humic acid, and thus every 
 pound of lime thus combined might be the ve- 
 hicle to furnish 7 lbs. of carbon to the plant 
 But as only 15 J lbs. of lime enter into the com- 
 
120 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 position of 25 bushels of wheat, only 107 lbs. of 
 carbon could possibly be furnished in this way. 
 As there are 2377 lbs. of carbon in 25 bushek 
 of wheat and the straW;, not the one-twentieth 
 part required could be thus supplied. We will 
 ascertain what amount could be supplied by the 
 agency of rain water. The rain-fall from the 
 first of April to the first of October — the time 
 during which plants are coming to maturity — is 
 on an average about 1,000,000 lbs. to an acre. 
 Now, experiments have demonstrated that 1,000,- 
 000 lbs. will render soluble only 10 lbs. of car- 
 bon ; so that only 10 lbs. could be thus furnished, 
 even if every pound of the water is taken up by 
 the roots, which is far from being the case. The 
 trees of the forest and the grass of the meadow 
 rarely receive any carbon in the shape of ma- 
 nure ; and yet there is no lack of it, though car- 
 bon is taken away every year in the form of 
 wood and hay. From all this we conclude that 
 manures are not needed to furnish carbon, and 
 that the atmosphere is capable of furnishing all 
 that vegetation requires. 
 
 Immense quantities of carbonic acid are con- 
 stantly supplied to the atmosphere by our fires 
 and furnaces, by fermentation and the decay of 
 animal and vegetable substances, as well as by 
 the respiration of men and animals. Is it not 
 wonderful that this carbonic acid, so fatal to ani- 
 
PHYSICAL DEFECTS IN SOILS. 121 
 
 mals, though largely produced by them, is so ne- 
 cessary to plants that they may almost be said 
 to subsist upon it ; absorbing it from the air, and 
 decomposing it by their leaves in the sunshine, 
 in such a manner as to retain the carbon and 
 liberate the oxygen, which thus becomes fitted 
 for the purposes of combustion and respiration. 
 Were it not for the absorption of carbonic acid 
 by plants, the air would become unfit for respir- 
 ation, and all animal life would perish from the 
 face of the earth. 
 
 Since carbonic acid is so important as food for 
 vegetables, it is interesting to know how^ much 
 of it is available in the atmosphere — in other 
 words, to estimate the stocic on hand. The 
 amount in weight is nearly the one-thousandth 
 part of the weight of the atmosphere, and accor- 
 ding to the calculation of Liebig, the amount of 
 carbon contained is more than 3081 billions of 
 pounds — a w^eight exceeding that of all the veg- 
 etation and all the strata of mineral and brown 
 soil on the face of the earth. Nor has this vast 
 amount been perceptibly lessened since the me- 
 thod of estimating its amount was discovered, 
 because it is being constantly supplied from the 
 sources previously stated, as fast as it is appro- 
 priated by vegetation. 
 
 The physical condition of soils, and their ca- 
 pacity for retaining heat and moisture, is a sub- 
 
122 AxMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 ject too often neglected in this country. Some 
 rich soils fail to produce good crops, from a defi- 
 ciency in these properties. The addition of lime, 
 marl, clay, and swamp-muck, will greatly im- 
 prove such soils. Should there be an excess of 
 moisture, as in low swampy land, surface ajDpli- 
 cations cannot benefit it much, and the farmer 
 must resort to drainage to remove the difficulty. 
 These are important considerations, and are de- 
 serving of a more extended notice than we can 
 give them in this book. 
 
 Sandy soils have been greatly benefited by 
 the addition of even small amounts of clay, thus 
 correcting their porosity and leaching tendency, 
 and verifying the truth of the old saying, that 
 
 " Clay upon sand 
 Makes very good land." 
 
 On the contrary, very little benefit results from 
 the application of sand to heavy tenacious soils, 
 as the amount required to produce any real 
 change is so large, that the farmer could not pos- 
 sibly be repaid for his labor ; or, as expressed in 
 the following equally terse saying, 
 
 *' Sand upon clay 
 Is money thrown away." 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE MONEY VALUE OF FERTILIZERS, CALCULATED 
 FROM THE MARKET VALUE OF THE RAW MATERI- 
 ALS AND COST OF MANUFACTURING ; WITH GEN- 
 ERAL REMARKS ON THE BUSINESS. 
 
 This book^ being intended to guard the interest 
 of the farmer, and expose the frauds practised 
 by unscrupulous manufacturers and dealers in 
 commercial fertilizers, the first step towards 
 effecting this much desired object is, to show the 
 value of those essential elements of fertility, the 
 quantity and condition of which, in fertilizers, 
 should properly fix their price. 
 
 The prices of different commercial fertilizers 
 range from $30 to $75 per ton. These various 
 prices are erroneously supposed to represent their 
 value, estimated from the cost of the raw mate- 
 rial, cost of manufacturing, and a fair margin of 
 profit. There has been but little fluctuation in 
 the prices of these fertilizers. It has made no 
 difference whether wheat was worth $2.50 or 
 $1.50 per bushel, they have still maintained the 
 same prices. But as this manufactured article 
 ^ 123 
 
124 AMERICA!^ MANURES. 
 
 may properly be regarded as a raw material for 
 the production of commodities that have a flue 
 tuating price^ regulated by the general laws of 
 demand and supply, the price of this raw mate- 
 rial should be regulated by the price of the pro- 
 ducts of the farm. A little consideration will 
 convince any one of the justness of this course. 
 The price of labor naturally fluctuates with the 
 price of bread ; at one time it was customary in 
 this country to consider a bushel of wheat, or its 
 equivalent in money, a fair price for a day's labor. 
 As the price of the other necessaries of life fluc- 
 tuates in about the same proportion as farm pro- 
 duce, the condition of the laborer was unchanged 
 by any rise or fall in the price of wheat. Al- 
 though this rule is not strictly followed at the 
 present time, still the price of labor is regulated, 
 in a great degree, by the varying prices of bread. 
 Now, as there are unlimited quantities of the 
 raw material required for the manufacture of 
 fertilizers, their price when manufactured should 
 be regulated by the cost of the labor required to 
 procure and manufacture them. The earth con- 
 tains vast stores of the elements of fertility ; all 
 that is needed is labor and capital to develop 
 and utilize them. And as this business is iden- 
 tical with other mining and manufacturing en- 
 terprises, the parties engaged in it should be sat- 
 isfied with legitimate profits. But as those 
 
MINERAL PHOSPHATES. 125 
 
 engaged in the mining of these raw materials for 
 fertilizers are rarely manufacturers, justice de- 
 mands that we should state that the prices 
 demanded for them barely covers the cost of pro- 
 duction, and that the producers are in no manner 
 benefited by the exorbitant priees realized by the 
 manufacturers. The recent discoveries of phos- 
 phatic guanos in various places have led to a 
 sharp competition between the parties engaged 
 in mining this raw material. This competition 
 is a great advantage to the manufacturers, and 
 annually puts a large amount of money into 
 their pockets ; a^id besides, they are the only 
 parties benefited, as they charge just as much 
 for a superphosphate of lime manufactured from 
 Charleston guano, that costs them from eight to 
 twelve dollars a ton, as they formerly charged for 
 the same article manufactured from bones, cost- 
 ing from twenty to thirty dollars a ton. 
 
 As yet, our farmers have derived no benefit 
 from these valuable discoveries of mineral 
 guanos, which, if properly applied, will restore 
 our impoverished lands to their virgin richness 
 and fertility. But the interests of the public 
 imperatively demand a change. The farmer 
 need not pay manufacturers exorbitant prFces 
 for their manures. He should and can procure 
 the crude guanos from the miners and dealers ; 
 the grinding and subsequent preparation is easily 
 
126 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 performed. Thus, a saving of nearly fifty per 
 cent, of the money now paid to these manufac- 
 turers might be effected. The application of a 
 manufactured manure is very often considered 
 an experiment by farmers ; they use it doubt- 
 ingly, not expecting to be benefited in propor- 
 tion to the amount invested. This lack of 
 confidence is caused by the high prices charged, 
 and the suspected immense profits of the manu- 
 facturers. For these reasons many who really 
 need fertilizers, and who would be benefited by 
 their use, even as they are now made, and at 
 their present exorbitant prices, look on them 
 with distrust and try to get along without them. 
 It requires no stretch of fancy to picture the 
 condition of this country, which has not unaptly 
 been termed the granary of the world, if those 
 needed fertilizers were manufactured honestly, 
 and fair prices asked, so as to make them popu- 
 lar with all the farming community. So far 
 their use has been comparatively confined to a 
 few, and hence commercial fertilizers have not 
 that effect on the prosperity and productiveness 
 of the country they should have. Besides, if a 
 good article had been generally made, and sold at 
 a fair price, the amount used would be enormous, 
 and the aggregate amount of money made by the 
 manufacturers much greater thanitis; and the far- 
 mer, at the same time, would have been corres- 
 
SMALL AMOUNTS REQUIRED. 127 
 
 pondingly benefited. But in their haste to get rich 
 by exorbitant profits, these manufacturers have 
 displayed the wisdom of the old woman of the 
 fable, who " hilled the goose that laid the golden 
 eggsr 
 
 The reader has been shown that the elements 
 of fertility supposed to be furnished by these 
 manures, form but a small portion of the produce 
 of an acre. He has been shown that 28 lbs. of 
 phosphoric acid, 40 lbs. of potash, and 58 lbs. of 
 ammonia, are the amounts of these substances 
 needed to produce 25 bushels of wheat with the 
 straw, and if none of these substances were con- 
 tained in the soil, the above amounts must be 
 applied in some shape to insure the raising of 
 such a crop. If the reader will turn to the Tables 
 of Analyses in Chapter VII., he will there see 
 that even 800 lbs. of some of the most celebrated 
 manures of these manufactures, do not contain a 
 sufficient amount of the above substances in 
 proper condition. 
 
 But would it pay the farmer to apply 800 
 lbs. of a manure that costs $50 per ton, to 
 raise 25 bushels of wheat? Certainly not; 800 
 lbs. would cost |20, and after paying for seed 
 and labor, and allowing interest on the money 
 invested in the land, his profit would be 
 reduced to a very small amount — to nothing — 
 or less than nothing; — he would be in debt. 
 
128 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Some farmers^ being accustomed to think of man- 
 ures as a bulky article, carmot see that a large 
 crop should be expected from the application of 
 400 lbs. of so-called concentrated fertilizers to 
 an acre ; and if it perchance happens, it excites 
 their wonder. We intend to prove that the ap- 
 plication of large bulks of manure is not necessary 
 to the raising of large crops. A little of the siib- 
 stance needed is better than a good deal of ichat 
 ■is not needed, A system of intelligent manuring 
 would greatly lessen the labor of its application, 
 and save large sums of money expended in 
 transporting what is Worthless; 400 lbs. is not 
 required for an acre, if the manure is properly 
 prepared. We will show conclusively that 100 
 lbs. of bones can be made more valuable as a 
 manure, than 400 lbs. of many of the leading 
 fertilizers. But we regret to say that the 
 farmers themselves encourage these impositions ; 
 they want bulk and weight for their money, and 
 overlook the quality of the article. The manu- 
 facturers are accommodating, and they give it, 
 i.e., a good' deal {in hulk) for their money. There 
 are several manures in the market that have a 
 good reputation for quality, and the manu- 
 facturers of which have a fair reputation for 
 honesty, and yet their manures will not yield 
 10 lbs. in the 100 of the substances really 
 needed, and in proper condition to benefit the 
 
DECEPTIONS OF MANUFACTURERS. 129 
 
 growing crop. Nay, some of them, not even 6 
 lbs. to the 100, and are barely worth the price 
 of the bags and transportation ; the good results 
 that sometimes attend their use can only be ac- 
 counted for by a favorite expression of a leading 
 manufacturer of just such manures, well known 
 to the writers, viz : "Mature does a great deal 
 for tis/^ Our farmers too often give these man- 
 ures the credit for doing what is done by the 
 ingredients contained in their soil; just as the 
 patient oftentimes has far more faith in the 
 medicine than the doctor, who generally trusts 
 to nature and a strong constitution to effect a 
 cure. How much better would it be to purchase 
 the 6, 10 or 20 lbs. of the really valuable and 
 only needed part of these dilute^ milk-and-water 
 fertilizers ; and if it is desired, increase the bulk 
 at home, thus saving the cost of bags and trans- 
 portation ? 
 
 These manufacturers are very careful to tell 
 yoih how much solid)le phosphoric acid, and how 
 much insoluble that will become soluble in the 
 soil (they forget to say in ten to twenty years), 
 and how much potash and ammonia their article 
 contains, or more correctly speaking, should con- 
 tain; but they are careful 7iot to report the 
 amount of water, salt cake, and land plaster that 
 is mixed with it. Like the Pharisee, they 
 loudly proclaim their good qualities, but the 
 
130 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 much needed and appropriate invocation of the 
 Publican is never practised by them. 
 
 The writers are fully cognizant of the fact, 
 that some manufacturers have realized thousands 
 of dollars yearly, by the sale of the water alone 
 contained in their product; and that gas-lime, 
 costing four cents a bushel, has been mixed with 
 what was called superphosphate of lime, and sold 
 for two to three cents per pound. In this case, 
 it is difficult to tell whether most to condemn - 
 their consummate dishonesty, or pity their super- 
 lative ignorance. It is almost beyond belief, 
 that men in this enlightened age, should be so 
 ignorant of the requirements of their business, as 
 to spend large sums of money in the purchase of 
 sulphuric acid to render phosphoric acid soluble, 
 and also pay a high price for Peruvian Guano to 
 ammoniate; and then apply semi-caustic lime, 
 thus sending the little soluble phosphoric acid 
 produced back into its insoluble state, and at the 
 same time dissipating the ammonia, thus render- 
 ing the manure almost worthless. The reader 
 who has fully considered the theory of the manu- 
 facture or preparation of superphosphate of lime, 
 will readily see the pertinence of the above 
 remarks. 
 
 During the past two or three years, the com- 
 mon expressions of these manufacturers have 
 been, "the day of. large profits is past — the 
 
PRESENT CONDITION OF MANUFACTURERS. 131 
 
 farmers are getting more careful and cautious in 
 purchasing fertilizers — they must know what it 
 contains before they buy." We shall show the 
 reader the cost to the manufacturer, and real 
 value to the farmer, of the so called improved 
 manures, manufactured to suit the increased 
 caution of buyers, and causing, as the manu- 
 facturers say, greatly reduced profits. When we 
 have done this, one can readily imagine what 
 the profits of this fertilizing business was, in the 
 good old times of salt cake, land plaster, gas- 
 lime, marl, and even coal ashes. The reader 
 can see from the analyses of many of these im- 
 proved manures, that the greedy appetite for 
 extortionate gain manifested by manufacturers, 
 has grown by what it fed on. 
 
 But if this investigating and cautious spirit 
 exhibited by the farmer has not materially 
 benefited him, by inducing the manufacturers to 
 make a better article, it has had one good effect, 
 that of greatly reducing their sales ; thus proving 
 that though fraud and deceit may flourish for a 
 season, yet a day of reckoning will come : " The 
 mills of the gods grind slow, but exceeding fine." 
 The present condition of some of these manu- 
 facturers who, last winter, made large prepara- 
 tions for heavy sales in the South, and increased 
 sales in the Eastern and Middle States, this 
 spring, and whose factories and storehouses are 
 
132 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 now groaning under the weight of the raw and 
 manufactured material, that was expected ere 
 this to have been sold, and the profits pocketed, 
 should disarm the resentment of the heretofore 
 cheated purchasers, and leave nothing more to 
 be desired even by the most vindictive spirit. 
 
 These wholesale Peter Funks have too long 
 imposed, their bogus compounds upon a confiding 
 community. We hope and believe that the 
 information given in our book will have its 
 effect, in dejDriving them of the opportunity for 
 further wrong doing ; and we may even hope 
 against hope, that they themselves may be 
 brought to a proper sense of their dishonesty. 
 As for ourselves, we have only a common interest 
 in performing a common duty ; for when a wrong 
 is perpetrated on communities or the people at 
 large, no private person has the right to cover 
 up or condone the offence ; but it is the duty of 
 all alike, to the full extent of their knowledge 
 and ability, to aid in bringing the offenders to 
 justice and punishment, and especially is it a 
 duty in a case like this, which affects the most 
 vital interests of all — the production of the neces- 
 saries of life. And besides this, the deserved pre- 
 judices that have been produced against the use 
 of commercial fertilizers, if not intelligently 
 directed, will undoubtedly prove a national 
 calamity. 
 
A LESSON TO OUR FARMERS. 133 
 
 Our agricultural reports, showing the average 
 produce of an acre in the States, is quite a sorry 
 comment on our boasted system of agriculture. 
 What a waste of ill-requited labor ! What a 
 return on the capital invested ! It is calculated 
 that two-thirds of our population are engaged in 
 cultivating the soil, and that three-fourths of the 
 capital of the country is invested in farm lands, 
 and the stock and implements of husbandry. It 
 is of momentous national interest, that this vast 
 amount of labor and capital should be adequately 
 remunerated. How is this to be done? The 
 answer is plain : By an intelligent and economi- 
 cal system of manuring. 
 
 The reason why our lands do not produce as 
 much as those of other countries, the following 
 facts will fully explain : Last year, England, 
 that does not contain a much larger area of cul- 
 tivated land than the State of Pennsylvania, im- 
 ported, of 
 
 Peruvian Guano 150*000 tons 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 33-216 " 
 
 Bones and Bone Ash 73*231 " 
 
 Phosphatic Guano 100*000 '' 
 
 Total 356*447 tons. 
 
 In addition to the above, there were large 
 quantities of muriate of potash imported from 
 Germany. If to this we add the large amounts 
 of sulphate of ammonia produced at home, and 
 
154 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 the immense amount of concentrated manures 
 prepared from the bones, night soil, and other 
 waste products of the kingdom, it will swell the 
 grand total of commercial manures used by the 
 farmers of England, to over 800,000 tons a year — 
 a larger amount than is used in the whole 
 United States of America. That the use of this 
 large amount of the elements of fertility applied 
 to the soil amply repays the farmer, we cannot 
 question for a moment. We quote the following 
 from the last year s report of a leading manufac- 
 turer in England : 
 
 " Most wonderful strides have been made 
 within the past few years in the use of bone ma- 
 terial for manurial purposes. Manure manufac- 
 tories have sprung up in all parts of the country, 
 where formerly they were unknown ; and not- 
 withstanding that there is no decrease in the 
 average importations of the past five years, the 
 keen competition that exists among manufactur- 
 ers for supplies of the raw material, has at length 
 forced prices to the most extreme point which 
 they have yet attained. Towards the close of 
 last season, the utmost difficulty was experienced 
 in getting supplies to meet the most moderate 
 requirements, and the stocks of manufacturers 
 were entirely cleared. The new season was 
 ushered in with great excitement in the trade ; 
 fears being generally entertained that the sup- 
 
VALUATION OF MANURES. 135 
 
 plies would fall far short of the demand, and 
 consequently a large amount of business was 
 done at even higher prices than what prevailed 
 before the close of last season. This advance 
 has been fully maintained, and as there cannot 
 be a doubt that the supplies will fall far short 
 of the requirements of manufacturers, a further 
 advance is imminent before the consumptive de- 
 mand sets in." 
 
 How different is the condition of our manufac- 
 turers, whose factories are glutted with their old 
 stock, notwithstanding the extraordinary induce- 
 ments offered to purchasers. The reason of this 
 state of things may be traced to two causes : 
 First, The exorbitant prices asked ; Second, 
 The inferior quality of the fertilizers. 
 
 We shall now proceed to a discussion of the 
 value of commercial manures, estimating from 
 the amount and condition of the fertilizing sub- 
 stances contained in them. Their value has 
 commonly been estimated from the prices of the 
 same substances in Peruvian Guano. Professor 
 Way, in an article published in the Journal of 
 the Royal Agricultural Society, England, says, 
 that the money value of a ton of Peruvian Guano 
 is $58.58 ; its ammonia being worth $46.95, the 
 phosphate of lime $8.16, and the potash $1.12. 
 He says that ammonia is worth 12 cents a pound 
 for producing wheat at $1.25 a bushel. Bone- 
 
136 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 phosphate of lime is worth li cent per pound, 
 and potash 6i cents for agricultural purposes. 
 This celebrated chemist has confined his calcu- 
 lations to the amount of these materials as found 
 in Peruvian Guano. But at this time, this is too 
 limited a basis from which to estimate their 
 value, as there are other sources from which 
 these three substances can be procured ; and as 
 respects phosphoric acid and potash, more 
 cheaply than in Peruvian Guano. 
 
 Professor Way has estimated lOJ cents per 
 pound as a fair price for soluble phosphoric acid ; 
 Dr. Voelcker, of the Royal Agricultural College, 
 of England, and Dr. Stoeckhardt, the distin- 
 guished Saxon Agricultural Chemist, give it a 
 value of 12i cents per pound. These prices are 
 deduced from the prices of the best commercial 
 superphosphates. Dr. Johnson, in his essay on 
 manures, in commenting on these prices, says : 
 "This, I believe, is considerably more than it is 
 really worth, but is probably the lowest rate at 
 which it can now be purchased." This remark 
 would seem to imply an utter helplessness on 
 his part to suggest any remedy for the prices 
 demanded. We shall review these opinions re- 
 specting the value of phosphoric acid. Dr. 
 Voelcker s and Dr. Stoeckhardt's • mode of fixing 
 the price of soluble phosphoric acid, from the 
 amount of this substance contained in, and the 
 
VALUATION OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 137 
 
 prices asked for, the best commercial superphos- 
 phates, might do for Enghind and Saxony, where 
 manufacturers have done all they can to improve 
 and perfect manures and superphosphates, and 
 make as good an article as possible for ttie money. 
 But to take such a standard to estimate the value 
 of general American superphosphates, where an 
 entirely different state of things prevails, would 
 be simply ridiculous ; hence, we shall proceed to 
 estimate from a different basis. 
 
 At the present time the valuable materials 
 used in the manufacture of commercial manures 
 and superphosphate of lime, are Bones, Mineral 
 Guanos or Phosphorite, Peruvian Guano, Crude 
 Sulphate of Ammonia, Muriate and Sulphate of 
 Potash. 
 
 There are only three substances that serve as 
 a basis for fixing the value of commercial man- 
 ures. These are Phosphoric Acid, Ammonia 
 and Potash. Most of the other substances used, 
 such as Salt Cake, Gypsum, etc., are a source 
 of actual loss to the former, because he has to 
 pay 2 J cents or more per lb. for them when 
 mixed with superphosphate of lime; whereas, 
 if he needs them, he can buy them unmixed for 
 i of a cent per lb. : hence, every pound of them 
 in the superphosphate, involves a loss of at 
 least II cent. They are added by the manu- 
 facturer only to give bulk and increase \\h 
 
138 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 profits. As to organic substances, such as blood, 
 fish scraps, horns, hair, etc., in these manures, 
 they have a value proportioned to the amount 
 of nitrogen or ammonia contained in them ; but 
 as they are usually mixed with a considerable 
 amount of water and other ingredients, of 7io 
 value^ that costs the buyer as much as the 
 nitrogen or ammonia is worth, they may be left 
 out of the estimate ; thus leaving only phos- 
 phoric acid, ammonia and potash as a basis of 
 value. We shall examine them in the following 
 order : Phosphoric Acid — insoluble and soluble ; 
 Ammonia — actual and potential ; Potash — 
 the Muriate and Sulphate. 
 
 Insoluble Phosphoric Acid, or Bone Phos- 
 phate of Lime, enters largely into the composi- 
 tion of bones, as the following analysis of cattle 
 bones, in their natural dry state, will show. 
 
 G elatin 30"58 lbs. contain nitrogen 5*00 lbs. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime. . .58-30 " " Phosphoric Acid 26-71 " 
 
 Carbonate of Lime.... 7*07 " 
 
 Fluoride of Calcium.. 1*96 " 
 
 Phosphate of Mag.... 2-09 '* " " *' 1-13" 
 
 100-00 lbs. Total Phosphoric Acid 27-84 lbs. 
 
 A ton of such bones contains 556 lbs. of phos- 
 phoric acid, and lOl) lbs. of nitrogen. If this 
 insoluble phosphoric acid be estimated at 4 J cents 
 per lb., and the nitrogen at 15 cents, we have 
 $10.02 a the real value of these bones. Such 
 
SOURCES OF PHOSPPIORIC ACID. 139 
 
 bones usually cost, in their rough state, from 1 
 to $25 per ton ; the grinding costs about |5. 
 The above value of $40.02 given to a ton of 
 ground bones, allows a profit of from $10 to $15 
 per ton to the manufacturers. 
 
 There are only two available sources of phos- 
 phoric acid: First, the bones of animals; Second, 
 mineral guanos, known as Phosphorite, Apatite, 
 tod Coprolites. The use of bones as a source 
 of phosphoric acid is limited; the trouble and 
 expense of collecting them, and the general 
 ignorance of their value, will at all times render 
 them an uncertain supply, as raw material for 
 the manufacture of fertilizers. Bat with the 
 second source — mineral phosphates — the case is 
 different. There seems to be scarcely any limit 
 to the amount. 
 
 As a raw material for the manufacture of 
 soluble pliosplioric acid or superphosphate of lime, 
 it is very valuable. If it is as free from the car- 
 bonates of lime and magnesia, and of other foreign 
 matter, as bones are, equal amounts of sulphuric 
 acid will liberate the same amount of soluble phos- 
 phoric acid from it, as from bones. Hence, other 
 things being equal, this mineral guano is fullj^ 
 as valuable as bones for preparing soluble phos- 
 phates. As before remarked, there is scarcely 
 any limit to the supply of these mineral plws- 
 phates. The largest known deposit on this 
 
 10 
 
140 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 continent, and perhaps in the world, is near 
 Charleston, in South Carolina. The country is 
 indebted to Dr. N. A. Pratt, of that city, for 
 discovering the value, and aiding in the develop- 
 ment of this great source of national wealth. 
 He says, in his report on this subject : " This bed 
 has long been known in the history of the geolo- 
 gy of South Carolina, as the ' Fish bed of the 
 Charleston Basin/ on account of the abundant 
 remains of marine animals found in it — Profes- 
 sor Holmes, of Charleston, having not less than 
 60,000 sharks' teeth alone, some of them of 
 enormous size, weighing from two to two and a 
 half pounds each. The bed outcrops on the banks 
 of the Ashley, Cooper, Stono, Edisto, Ashepoo, 
 and Combahee rivers; but is developed most 
 richly and heavily on the former, and has been 
 found inland forty or fifty miles. Near the 
 Ashley river, it paves the public highways for 
 miles ; it seriously impedes and obstructs the 
 cultivation of the land, afibrding scarcely soil 
 enough to hill up the cotton rows; and the 
 phosphates have for years past been thrown into 
 piles on the lawns and into the causeways over 
 ravines, to get them out of the reach of the 
 plows. It underlies many square miles of sur- 
 face continuously, at a depth ranging from six 
 inches to twelve or more feet, and in such quanti- 
 ties, that from five hundred to a thousand tons 
 
DR. pratt's report. 141 
 
 underlie each acre. In fact, it Kseems there are 
 no rocks in this section which are not phos- 
 phates. 
 
 " The area of this bed, containing phosphates 
 of good quahty and in workable quantity, so far 
 as known and examined by the writer in person, 
 is not less than 40 to 50 square miles, though, 
 from samples I have examined from beyond these 
 limits, I am led to believe that the rock will be 
 found of good or indifferent quality, and in 
 greater or less quantity, over an area of several 
 hundred square miles. When of inferior quality, 
 they contain more sand, carbonate of lime, oxide 
 of iron, and phosphate of iron and alumina, and 
 proportionately less pure phosphate of lime." 
 
 As the amount of this material is so large, it 
 will doubtless be the chief source of supply for 
 many years to come, and there will probably be 
 little variation in its price ; and as there are no 
 drawbacks or checks to the mining and economi- 
 cal transportation of it to all parts of the Atlantic 
 coast, we will estimate the value of insoluble 
 phosphoric acid from it. We give the following 
 table from Dr. Pratt's interesting pamphlet on 
 the " History of the Discovery and Development 
 of the Native Bone Phosphates of the Charleston 
 Basin," giving analyses of different samples of 
 this guano, and of some other leading commercial 
 guanos, for comparison. 
 
142 
 
 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 si 
 
 o ^ 
 CO < 
 
 il 
 
 "5 a 
 
 6| 
 
 li 
 
 o ^ 
 
 i 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 No 
 
 1 
 
 34-40 
 
 
 
 
 29-32 
 
 ti 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 55-52 
 
 1-50 
 
 10-33 
 
 6-50 
 
 10-31 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ii 
 
 3 
 
 63-30 
 
 1-32 
 
 8-20 
 
 
 901 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 68-03 
 
 5-02 
 
 8-03 
 
 7-50 
 
 9-91 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 6 
 
 66-36 
 
 3-01 
 
 
 
 11-70 
 
 it 
 
 (( 
 
 6 
 
 61-93 
 
 1-04 
 
 11-21 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 ti 
 
 1 
 
 64-07 
 
 •84 
 
 11-00 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 ti 
 
 8 
 
 69-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 ti 
 
 9 
 
 59-07 
 
 •65 
 
 5-68 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 10 
 
 49-35 
 
 1-84 
 
 25-70 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 li 
 
 11 
 
 49-87 
 
 •86 
 
 4-73 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 
 12 
 
 5007 
 
 -69 
 
 10-14 
 
 
 
 Navassa Guano, 
 
 
 
 49-12 
 
 12-00 
 
 
 
 
 Swan Island Guano, 
 mean of two analyc 
 
 J 
 
 
 53-08 
 
 12-33 
 
 
 20-60 
 
 15-40 
 
 Bolivian, 
 
 
 
 53-20 
 
 9-23 
 
 
 18-24 
 
 4-08 
 
 Patagonian, 
 Chilian, 
 
 
 
 44-00 
 31-00 
 
 fphos. iron 
 ' and alum' a 
 [combined. 
 
 
 18-30 
 18-60 
 
 35-60 
 43-17 
 
 The average amount of bone phosphate of 
 lime in the twelve analyses, is 57*58. The 
 writers have been informed that the company 
 who have control of this deposit have adopted 
 the following tariff, viz : Twenty cents for each 
 unit or per centage of bone phosphate contained 
 in 100 lbs. represents the value of a ton. The 
 average per centage by above Table is 57*58, 
 which at 20 cents per unit would make the price 
 
COST OF THE RAW MATERIAL. 143 
 
 of this quality of the article $11.51 per ton. 
 The reader can appreciate the justice and fair- 
 ness of a business conducted on such an equitable 
 basis ; and the farmer should refuse to purchase 
 the manufactured article, until a similar honest 
 arrangement for fixhig its price is adopted by 
 the manufacturers. One ton of mineral phos- 
 phate containing 57.58 per cent, of bone phos- 
 phate of lime, contains 527 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 
 costing 2.16 cents per lb. to the manufacturer, 
 as delivered in its rough state. When ground, 
 assuming it to be worth 4 J cents per lb. (the 
 price claimed), the following statement will show 
 the actual cost and profits, if put up in bags and 
 sold in that state : 
 
 One ton of Mineral Fliosphate $11.50 
 
 Cartage, grinding and labor 5.00 
 
 Bags 2.00 
 
 Total cost, $18.50 
 
 This article in its ground state is sold for 
 $25.00 per ton to farmers, at a profit of $6.50 per 
 ton. But its use, as we will now show, gives no 
 return for the money expended. 
 
 Manures, no matter what they contain, are 
 valuable only in proportion to the solubility of 
 their fertilizing constituents. There is absolutely 
 no proof that this mineral phosphMe, which has 
 been exposed to the action of water for thousands 
 of years, has parted with any of its phosphoric 
 
144 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 acid through this agency. On the contrary, it is 
 more rich in phosphoric acid tlian ordinary 
 bones, which fact is accounted for by the removal 
 of the gelatin originally contained in the bones 
 of marine animals of which the mineral phos- 
 phate is made up. Again, we do not find that 
 this mineral phosphate has any noticeable effect 
 upon the vegetation of the soils in which it is 
 found, in such immense quantities as to require 
 removal in order that the land may be cultivated. 
 The above facts are in strict accordance with the 
 results attained by the experiments of celebrated 
 chemists uipon mineral phosphates. These ex- 
 periments have demonstrated that pure water 
 has no appreciable effect on them, and that 
 solutions of salts of ammonia and of soda, mucli 
 stronger than can be found in soils, have but a 
 very slight effect upon them. Hence, as organic 
 and mineral acids exist only ,as traces in soils, 
 we may safely assert that they have no ap- 
 preciable effect upon them, but that crude ground 
 mineral phosphates must remain inert and useless 
 in the soil ; their only possible value in the crude 
 insoluble state consists in the carbonate of lime 
 they contain, which can be purchased at one 
 tenth the price paid for in mineral phosphates. 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric Acid is produced by the 
 action of sulphuric acid on bone phosphate of 
 lime, phosphate of magnesia, and phosphates 
 
SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID. 145 
 
 of iron and alumina. As carbonate of lime and 
 fluoride of calcium are always found in bones 
 and mineral phosphates, the sulphuric acid first 
 decomposes these substances and produces sul- 
 phate of lime, before any phosphoric acid is 
 liberated or rendered soluble, because the above 
 named compounds are held together by a feebler 
 affinity than phosphoric acid with its base. 
 Hence, if an insufficient amount of acid is used 
 to effect both, the phosphoric acid is left in its 
 inert insoluble state. Through the cupidity and 
 ignorance of the' manufacturers in purchasing 
 mineral phosphates that contain a large amount 
 of these substances, this is often the case, and 
 thus they neglect their own, as well as the 
 interest of the farmer. Again, as all mineral 
 phosphates contain peroxide of iron and alumina, 
 some as much as 15 per cent., a much larger 
 amount of sulphuric acid is required to render 
 the phosphoric acid soluble than otherwise, be- 
 cause the phosphoric acid first liberated combines 
 with the peroxide of iron and alumina and be- 
 comes insoluble, and an additional amount of 
 acid is required to again liberate it from this 
 peroxide of iron and alumina. Hence, the im- 
 portance of the buyer knowing the percentage of 
 these substances in the mineral phosphate, and 
 the amount of sulphuric acid used. Here again 
 buyers are defrauded, in consequence of the 
 
146 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 manufacturer using an insufficient quantity of 
 acid. (See page 55.) 
 
 Sulphuric acid being the agent used to render 
 phosphoric acid soluble, we shall now show how 
 much is required. Oil of vitriol, or the strongest 
 sulphuric acid of commerce, known as 66° acid, 
 contains 75 per cent, of anhj^drous sulphuric 
 acidr. 
 
 Each per cent, of the following compounds 
 will require, to render them soluble, the follow- 
 ing amounts of 66° acid, or oil of vitriol : 
 
 1-00 Carbonate of Lime requires 1*066 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 1-00 Bone Phosphate of lime 0-688 
 
 1-00 Basic Phosphate of Magnesia. 0-810 
 
 1-00 Fluoride of Calcium 1*367 
 
 1-00 Alumina 3-110 
 
 1-00 Protoxide of Iron 1*480 
 
 1-00 Peroxide of Iron 2-000 
 
 The above Table is very valuable both to the 
 manufacturer and the farmer. The manufacturer 
 can readily calculate how much acid is required 
 by bones or any mineral phosphates, of a known 
 composition, to render all the phosphoric acid 
 soluble. And when a superphosphate of lime is 
 represented to contain a certain percentage of 
 soluble phosphoric acid, the farmer can very 
 nearly estimate the amount of sulphuric acid 
 used, and also the expense incurred by the 
 manufacturers. The application of sulphuric 
 acid to carbonate of lime or fluoride of calcium, 
 
VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS. 147 
 
 dissipates the carbonic acid and fluorine gases^ 
 causing a loss of weight, as follows : 
 
 I'OO Carbonate of lime loses 0*44 Carbonic Acid. 
 
 I'OO Fluoride of Calcium 0*512 Hydrofluoric Acid. 
 
 To illustrate this matter fully, we will take 
 for example 100 lbs. of ox bones, which have the 
 following composition : 
 
 Gelatin 30*58 lbs. Sulphuric Acid. Loss in gas. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime 58*30 " require 40-165 lbs. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime.... 7*07 " '' 7*536 " 3*11 lbs. 
 
 Fluoride of Calcium.... 1*96 " " 2*689 " 1*00 " 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia. 2*09 " " 1*692 *' 
 
 100-00 lbs. 52*082 lbs. 4*11 lbs. 
 
 The resulting compounds, formed by the addi- 
 tion of the sulphuric acid, are as follows : 
 
 Hydrated Sulphate of Lime or Plaster 81*17 lbs. 
 
 Superphosphate of Lime 44*00 " 
 
 Superphosphate of Magnesia 1*73 " 
 
 Hydrated Sulphate of Magnesia 3*91 " 
 
 Gelatin 30-58 '' 
 
 Carbonic Acid gas liberated and lost 3*11 " / £ I .?)1 
 
 Hydrofluoric Acid "• " " 1*00 " 
 
 The above fully explains the theory of con- 
 verting insoluble phosphates into superphos- 
 phates. 
 
 The following Table shows the average cost 
 of the materials, and the weight produced. As 
 the sulphate of lime produced requires two 
 equivalents of water for its formation, if the 
 bones be perfectly dry, it would be necessary to 
 add water in about the proportion shown below. 
 
148 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 This water should be thoroughly mixed with the 
 bones before the acid is applied. 
 
 100 lbs. Bones, at 1^ cents per lb $1.25 
 
 52 *' Sulphuric Acid, at 2J cents 1.30 
 
 25 ** Water 
 
 177 *' $2.55 
 
 4-11 " Loss in Gases. 
 
 172.89 *' 
 
 From the above Table we find that the mate- 
 rial of one ton of such superphosphate of lime 
 costs the manufacturer $29.50. As the 100 lbs. 
 of bones contain 28.05 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 
 the 172.89 lbs. of the combination would contain 
 the same with 5 lbs. of nitrogen ; and one ton 
 would contain 324 lbs. of soluble phosphoric 
 acid, and 57 lbs. of nitrogen, showing the ton of 
 superphosphate to be worth to the farmer as fol- 
 lows (?issuming 12} and 15 cents, per lb. as the 
 value of soluble phosphoric acid and nitrogen) : 
 
 324 lbs. of Soluble Phosphoric Acid, at 12^ cents $40.5C 
 
 57 " of Nitrogen in organic matter, at 15 cents 8.55 
 
 Bags 2 00 
 
 $51.05 
 
 The cost to the manufacturer is, as follows : 
 
 1157 lbs. of Bones, at 1| cents $14.47 
 
 Grinding, at $5 per ton 2.89 
 
 602 lbs. Sulphuric Acid, at 2^ cents 15.05 
 
 288 '' VS^ater 
 
 2047 " Labor and Bags 5.00 
 
 47 *' Loss in Gases 
 
 2000 " Total cost $37.41 
 
PROFITS OF MANUFACTURERS. 149 
 
 This superphosphate of lime would show, by 
 analysis, the following percentage of the substan 
 ces named below : 
 
 Nitrogen in organic matter 2-85 
 
 Soluble Phosporic Acid 16*20 
 
 Equal Superphosphate of Lime 26*70 
 
 Equal to Bone-phosphate rendered sol.. .35*37 
 
 The reader will observe that a superphosphate 
 of the above quality can be manufactured at a 
 cost of $37.41 per ton, and is worth $51.05 to 
 the farmer ; and if sold at $50, allows a profit 
 of 334 per cent, on its cost — quite enough for 
 any honest business. He will also observe that 
 12i^ cents per lb. for soluble phosphoric acid (the 
 value we have assumed in our calculations), is a 
 fair valuation, inasmuch as that assumed value 
 allows a large profit. We shall show hereafter 
 that 15 cents per lb. is a fair valuation for 
 nitrogen in organic matter ; and further, he will 
 observe by turning to the analyses of leading 
 manures given in Chap. VII., and comparing 
 the percentage of valuable ingredients in them, 
 Avith that of the phosphate above described, that 
 one ton of the latter is really worth two tons of 
 any of them, which are sold at from $50 to $55 
 per ton. How great then are the profits of 
 manufacturers, and the imposition upon pur- 
 chasers ! 
 
150 AMEBIC AN MANURES. 
 
 We shall now show what soluble phosphoric 
 acid costs the manufacturer, when he uses South 
 Carolina mineral phosphate as a raw material. 
 To illustrate this, w^e will take for example No. 
 12 on the Table of Analyses, page 142. This an- 
 alysis is very near the general average, and 100 
 lbs. of such phosphate w411 require the following 
 amount of sulphuric acid 3 the amount of gas 
 liberated is also shown. 
 
 These analyses are very imperfectly rendered, 
 the carbonates of lime and magnesia, and the 
 phosphates of iron a,nd alumina being given alto- 
 gether, with no statement of the amount of phos- 
 phoric acid combined with them. As these gu- 
 anos contain but a small amount of magnesia, 
 we shall estimate the carbonates as carbonate of 
 lime, and estimate the phosphate of iron and alu- 
 mina given, as phosphate of iron. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. Gas liberated, 
 
 50'07 lbs. Phosphate of Lime, require 34-448 
 0-69 " '' " Iron, '' -730 
 
 10-14 " Carbonate of Lime, " 10-819 4-46 
 39'10 " Organic matter, Sand, etc., 
 
 100-00 " 45-997 
 
 A ton of superphosphate of lime manufactured 
 from this guano, would cost, as follows; as in the 
 case of dry bones, should this guano be in a very 
 dry state, about the same amount of water should 
 be used : 
 
SUPERPHOSPHATES. 151 
 
 1207 lbs. of Mineral Phosphate, at 20 cents per unit $5.62 
 
 553 " of Sulpliuric Acid, at 2^ cents 13.45 
 
 289 '' of Water 
 
 Cost of Grinding and other labor, at $5 per ton.. . 3.01 
 Labor of mixing, and Bags 5.00 
 
 2049 " $27.08 
 
 49 " Loss in Carbonic Acid Gas. 
 
 2000 " 
 
 This ton of superphosphate of lime contains 
 280 lbs., or 14 per cent, of soluble phosphoric 
 acid; and estimating the value of the ton from 
 the value of this article at 12 J cents per Ib.^ gives 
 
 280 lbs. of Soluble Phosphoric Acid, at 12^ cents... .$35.00 
 Bags 2.00 
 
 Value to farmer $37.00 
 
 This value allows a profit of $9.92 per ton to 
 the manufacturer, which is nearly 33 per cent., 
 if it is sold to the farmer at its real value. But 
 if sold at $50 per ton, the usual price, the man- 
 ufacturer makes $22.92, which is a profit of 84 J 
 per cent, on the cost of the article ; and the pur- 
 chaser is cheated out of $13 on every ton he 
 purchases, because the manufacturer exacts for 
 it $13 more than it is really worth. 
 
 But the real state of the case is much worse 
 than this. The above shows what are the pro- 
 fits to the manufacturer when the .hest possible 
 article is made^ and the loss to the farmer when 
 he pays $50 per ton for it. The manufacturers 
 
152 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 make an article much inferior to the above, by 
 using an insufficient amount of sulphuric acid, 
 and as much water as possible. 
 
 For the sake of illustration, we will show the 
 value of a superphosphate of the following com- 
 position, which is a better one than is usually fur- 
 nished by manufacturers, as a comparison of the 
 analysis we give of it, with that of the analyses 
 of celebrated manures given in Chap. VII., will 
 show. 
 
 1512 lbs. Mineral Phosphate, at $10 per ton $ 7.31 
 
 250 " Sulphuric Acid, at 2 J cents per lb 6.25 
 
 300 " Water 
 
 2062 '' 
 
 Grinding, Labor, Bags, etc 8.50 
 
 62 " Loss in Gas. — 
 
 Total cost .$22.06 
 
 2000 '' 
 
 This attempt at making a superphosphate 
 would, on analysis, show very nearly the follow- 
 ing composition : 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric Acid 6-32 per cent. 
 
 Equal to Superphosphate of Lime 10*41 *' *' 
 
 Insoluble Phosphoric Acid .10-97 " " 
 
 Equal to Bone Phosphate 24*00 " '* 
 
 A ton of this contains 346 lbs. of phosphoric 
 acid, 126 i lbs. of which is soluble and 219 i lbs. 
 insoluble ; and the value of a ton to the farmer 
 would be as follows ; 
 
DECEPTIONS OF THE BUSINESS. 153 
 
 126J lbs. Soluble Phosphoric Acid, @ 12J cents $15.81 
 
 21 9|- " Insoluble, of no value as shown, (see page 1^5) 
 
 Bags 2.00 
 
 $17.81 
 
 Here we have an article of absolutely less 
 value than the materials and labor used in pre- 
 paring it — the cost being $23.06^ and the real 
 value, only $17.81. But the manufacturer in 
 selling it at $50 per ton, more than double the 
 cost, makes $27.94, which is a profit of 1111 
 per cent.; and the farmer who pays $50 for it, 
 and to whom it is worth only $17.81, is cheated 
 to the amount of $32.19 in every ton he pur- 
 chases. The farmer must bear in mind that he 
 gets in many cases, as the analyses in Chap. VII. 
 show, even a poorer article than the above, and 
 hence, is cheated to a still greater extent. 
 
 Most of the superphosphates (so called) that 
 are now in the market contain only from a tenth 
 to one-half of the phosphoric acid in a soluble 
 condition, because an insufficient amount of 
 sulphuric acid is used ; the balance, being insolu- 
 ble, is of no value to the farmer, if it is contained 
 in mineral phosphate, though it may have a 
 value of 4 J cents per lb. to the manufacturer, as a 
 raw material to make soluble phosphoric acid 
 from. They would fain make the farmer be- 
 lieve that it is worth 4 J cents per lb. to him ; but 
 if we did not attempt to correct this idea, we 
 
154 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 should consider ourselves a party to the frauds 
 of the manufacturers in their attempts to reap 
 enormous profits by statements which both 
 science, experiments and observation prove to 
 be false. Insoluble phosphoric acid, exceeding 
 3 or 4 per cent, in any manufactured superphos- 
 phate, is proof positive of ignorance of the re- 
 quirements of his business, cupidity or dis- 
 honesty, or it may be all three, on the part of 
 the manufacturer. 
 
 Some manufacturers in giving analyses of their 
 fertilizers, use the term " Soluble Bone Phos- 
 phate." There is no such substance as soluble 
 bone phosphate. There is Bone Pliospliate^ and 
 14 parts of it equal only 6*41 parts of phos- 
 phoric acid. B}^ using the term '' Soluble Bone 
 Phosphate," they desire to convey the impression 
 that the purchaser gets more than double the 
 amount of soluble phosphoric acid that he really 
 does. If the manufacturer uses the term ^'Solu- 
 ble Bone Phosphate," 51 cents is the measure of 
 value for it per lb., instead of 12 2^ cents, as for 
 phosphoric acid, and the farmer should be care- 
 ful in purchasing to note this. No honest 
 manufacturer who understands his business uses 
 the term. 
 
 Ammonia and Nitrogen, as found in manures, 
 are technically called Actual Ammonia and Poten- 
 tial Ammonia. In most manures, and especially 
 
SOURCES OF AMMONIA. 155 
 
 those manufactured from organic substances^ the 
 amount of actual ammonia is very small. It 
 requires no reasoning to prove that actual am- 
 monia is far more vakiable than nitrogen in the 
 form of so-called potential ammonia, as the first 
 named as found in Peruvian Guano, fermented 
 dung, and urine has a marked effect upon the 
 growth of plants, while other substances that are 
 not quickly and readily decomposed, such as 
 wool, horns, hoofs, etc., may contain an equal 
 amount of nitrogen, and yet have no apparent 
 effect upon the growth of vegetation. 
 
 Manufacturers in giving analyses of their 
 manures make no distinction between nitrogen 
 as actual ammonia, and nitrogen in organic 
 matter ; but both are given as actual ammonia. 
 But as we have determined the amount of each ' 
 in the manures analyzed (Chap. VII.), we shall 
 give them a value as nearly in accordance with 
 the condition in which they are found as possi- 
 ble. We shall be guided by the same rule in 
 the valuation of this article, as we were with 
 phosphoric acid, viz :— the cost of production and 
 preparation, and its value in the different mater- 
 ials from which the manufacturers obtain it. 
 Nitrogen is usually procured from the following 
 sources of supply : — Peruvian Guano, bones, 
 hoofs, horns, blood, and other organic remains, 
 
 also from the crude sulphate of ammonia. All 
 11 
 
156 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 the salts of ammonia are soluble in water, and 
 are directly available as plant food. Ammonia 
 is contained in Jb'eruvian Guano, as actual and 
 potential, in about equal proportions. 
 
 Professor Johnson says, "^^ Peruvian Guano is 
 genuine and good when it contains 15 per cent, 
 of ammonia, and the same amount of phosphoric 
 acid." About one-third of this acid is soluble in 
 water; it also contains an average of 3 per cent, 
 of potash ; and at the prices quoted below a ton 
 would show a value, as follows : — 
 
 ' 7^ per cent. 
 
 of Potential Ammonia, = 150 lbs 
 
 . @ 15 cents,.. 
 
 ..$22.50 
 
 7i " « 
 
 Actual Ammonia, = 150 " 
 
 @ 25 " ■ .. 
 
 .. 37.50 
 
 5 " " 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric Acid ■= 100 " 
 
 @ 12i « .. 
 
 .. 12.50 
 
 10 " 'f 
 
 Insoluble, as in bones, = 200 " 
 
 @ 4i « .. 
 
 .. 9.00 
 
 3 " " 
 
 Potash ^ 60 " 
 
 @ 8 " .. 
 
 .. 4.80 
 
 6.30 
 
 The price of the first grades of Peruvian Guano 
 is now from $70 to $75 per ton; but as that 
 which is now offered in the market contains 
 about 3 per cent, less of ammonia than the above, 
 this difference in the percentage of ammonia 
 would lessen the value $12 per ton, thus mak- 
 ing the calculated value, and the present price 
 asked by dealers, very nearly the same. But 
 when farmers pay $75 per ton for Peruvian 
 Guano, they should be very careful to know the 
 amount of ammonia, phosphoric acid and pot- 
 ash it contains; and from the amount of these, 
 
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. 157 
 
 calculate its real value, in order to know whether 
 they are getting the worth of their money. 
 
 Crude Sulphate of Ammonia is sold at about 
 6 cents per lb., and contains, on an average, about 
 25 per cent, of actual ammonia, ^vhich would 
 cost for actual ammonia per lb., in this form, 
 about the same as in Peruvian Guano. But it 
 has advantages in this shape. As sulphate of 
 ammonia is a fixed neutral salt, there is no loss 
 b}^ volatilization, as is the case with the guano ; 
 it also becomes fixed in the soil, and can be as- 
 similated by plants in the proper proportions 
 needed ; and there is no unnatural stimulation, 
 as is often the case with Peruvian Guano. 
 
 These are the most important sources of actual 
 ammonia, and are the most convenient and 
 economical medium of applying it as a manure ; 
 and from these deductions we shall fix the 
 price of nitrogen, as contained in bones, blood, 
 fish scrap, etc., at 15 cents per lb., and the actual 
 ammonia that is found in commercial manures, 
 guano, or in sulphate of ammonia, at 25 cents per 
 lb. The justness of these prices will be readily 
 admitted by any one who will give the matter a 
 little thought. 
 
 Nitrogen, as potential ammonia, is contained 
 in all manures that are prepared from organic 
 substances, such as bones, dried meat, hoofs and 
 horns, wool, hair, etc. The nitrogen contained 
 
158 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 in these substances is given out during their de- 
 composition as actual ammonia, and the value 
 of this nitrogen may be calculated by the amount 
 of time required for their decomposition. That 
 nitrogen in this shape is not immediately availa- 
 ble as food for plants, and consequently is not so 
 valuable as a manure containing ready formed 
 ammonia, is a fact that requires no reasoning on 
 our part. The decomposition of nitrogenous 
 substances, and the formation of ammonia, is a 
 work of time, and time is money ; practical ex- 
 periments have satisfactorily proved this to be 
 the case. Therefore tlii& potential ammonia can- 
 not be near so valuable as the actual. 
 
 The cost of nitrogen in green ox bones can be 
 readily ascertained; if 100 lbs. of these bones 
 contain 26*35 per cent, of insoluble phosphoric 
 acid, and 4*00 per cent, of nitrogen, as this phos- 
 phoric acid and nitrogen are the only substances 
 that give bones a value as a manure, we can 
 easily calculate the cost of nitrogen in this form. 
 According to the percentage given, each ton of 
 these bones would contain and show the following 
 value : 
 
 527 lbs. Insoluble Phosphoric Acid, at 4J cents $23.71 
 
 80" Nitrogen, at 15 cents 12.00 
 
 Total $35.71 
 
 This is a fair price for ground bones, and hence 
 15 cents per lb. should be a fair price for the ni- 
 
poTAsn. 159 
 
 trogen contained in them. Fertilizers are some- 
 times prepared from horns and hoofs ; as these 
 substances contain 12 to 15 per cent, of nitrogen, 
 such preparations would command a high price 
 if estimated on the amount contained at 15 cents 
 per lb. ; but nitrogen as contained in such sub- 
 stances is very inert, and may remain in the soil 
 for years and not become decomposed, or afford 
 any ammonia to plants. Feathers, wool, hair, 
 and similar substances, contain nitrogen in the 
 same condition. These substances are often 
 found in manures, and it would be very unjust 
 to assign the same value to the nitrogen in such 
 condition as to the actual ammonia contained in 
 Peruvian Guano, sulphate of ammonia, or even 
 the nitrogen contained in bones. From what 
 has been said, the reader can readily see that 15 
 cents per lb. for nitrogen in organic matter, 
 and 25 cents for actual ammonia, are fair prices 
 to the farmer, and remunerative to the manufac- 
 turer. 
 
 Potash is an essential ingredient of plants, and 
 recently some manufacturers have made it an 
 especial feature of their manures. It is usually 
 applied as crude muriate of potash. This salt is 
 obtained from Germany, where it is found in im- 
 mense beds similar to rock-salt. It contains 
 about 54 per cent, of actual potash, and costs 
 nearly 8 cents per pound. 
 
160 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Potasli is sometimes used in manures as a 
 crude sulphate of potash, this is generally very 
 impure, and contains only 16 to 17 per cent, of 
 potash, and can be purchased in bags for $30 
 per ton ; this would make the pure potash about 
 8 cents per pound. 
 
 Potash salts can be purchased in New York 
 for $70 per ton, guaranteed to contain 80 per 
 cent.of muriate of potash, making the price of pure 
 potash nearly the same as above ; consequently 
 we shall estimate the potash as contained in 
 fertilizers at 8 cents per pound, which price is 
 evidently remunerative to the manufacturers. 
 
 So that the prices we have adopted to estimate 
 the value of the following substances are for. 
 
 Insoluble Phosphoric Acid as in bones 4^ cents. 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric " " 12^ '' 
 
 Actual Ammonia 25 " 
 
 Nitrogen in organic matter 15 " 
 
 Potash 8 " 
 
 The above prices are for the strictly pure 
 anhydrous substances; but as many manufac- 
 turers in giving analyses of their manures give 
 the following combinations, which are calculated 
 to deceive the farmer, by producing an im- 
 pression that there is a larger amount of the 
 different substances present, the following Table 
 will be useful in showing the relative value of 
 these combinations with the above prices : 
 
manufacturer's catechism. 161 
 
 Soluble Bone Phosphate 5| cents. 
 
 Hydrated Phosphoric Acid 9^ " 
 
 Hydrate of Ammonia 12t)- " 
 
 Muriate of Potash 5 *' 
 
 Sulphate of '' 4^ " 
 
 From the difference in the relative prices of 
 the difterent substances, the farmer can realize 
 the importance of knowing what are the com- 
 binations given by the manufacturers, as a basis 
 for computing the value of their fertilizers. And 
 for his assistance, we suggest the following line 
 of questioning to the manufacturer or the dealer, 
 when the farmer intends making a purchase of 
 fertilizers : 
 
 MANUFACTURER'S CATECHISM. 
 
 First. What percentage of phosphoric acid 
 (anhydrous), soluble in cold water, do you 
 warrant your fertilizer to contain ? 
 
 Second. What percentage of insoluble phos- 
 phoric acid (anhydrous), do you warrant your 
 fertilizer to contain ? 
 
 Third. What percentage of nitrogen, as it 
 exists in raw bone, blood, etc., do you wan^ant 
 your fertilizer to contain ? 
 
 Fourth. What percentage of actual ammonia, 
 do you warrant your fertilizer to contain ? 
 
 Fifth. What percentage of potash, do you 
 warrant your fertilizer to contain? 
 
162 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Sixth. What percentage of uncombined water, 
 do you warrant your fertilizer to contain ? 
 
 Seventh. What percentage oi pure potash is 
 there in the '' salts of potash " contained in your 
 fertilizer? 
 
 Eighth. What percentage of phosphoric acid 
 is there in the " soluble phosphates " contained 
 in your fertilizer ? 
 
 If purchasers would make it a rule to pro- 
 pound these questions to manufacturers and 
 dealers, should they not succeed in acquiring 
 the information sought, they would, in most 
 cases, be fully convinced of one thing, viz., the 
 supreme ignorance of both manufacturers and 
 dealers, of the nature of the constituents of what 
 they make and sell. 
 
CHAPTER YI. 
 
 THE NATURE AND VALUE OF NATURAL MANURES 
 
 THE NECESSITY OF THIER ACCUMULATION AND 
 PREPARATION — COMPOSTING — HOW IT SHOULD BE 
 DONE — AND THE CHEMICAL ACTION NECESSARY TO 
 BE PRODUCED 
 
 There are many substances highly beneficial 
 to vegetation^ which are often neglected from ig- 
 norance of their value. The excrements and 
 litter of the animals kept on a farm, if properly 
 preserved and prepared, will afford a large 
 amount of valuable manure, and will restore to 
 the soil a considerable portion of the elements 
 of the food on which these animals were fed. 
 But as most farmers raise cattle for sale, the 
 bulk of the" most valuable elements of the plants 
 on which they were fed, is removed. Every an- 
 imal raised, fattened and sold, represents a defi- 
 nite amount of the vital elements of fertility 
 removed from the soil ; and the practical farmer 
 should, in order to preserve its average produc- 
 tiveness, return an equal amount in some other 
 form. 
 
 163 
 
164 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Stable manure and litter from the animals 
 kept on a farm, contain all the elements of 
 plants; but if all these materials were saved with 
 scrupulous care, the amount would be insufficient 
 to preserve the normal fertile condition of the 
 soil, and deterioration, with reduced crops, must 
 ensue. It is folly to suppose that the straw and 
 chaff — the least valuable portion of a crop of 
 wheat — will grow another crop of equal amount, 
 or that the excrements of a growing animal are 
 sufficient to grow enough plants to raise another 
 such animal. Therefore the prudent father, who 
 has a care for the interest and prosperity of his 
 children, should endeavor by the best and cheap- 
 est means to preserve the fertility of his land. 
 In order to effect this object, he should know the 
 value of all the materials that can be cheaply 
 accumulated on the farm and utilized as manures, 
 as well as of those he has to procure from abroad. 
 
 All organic substances contain a portion of all 
 the necessary elements of the plants cultivated ; 
 but the amount in some varieties is so small, 
 that the advantage gained would not pay for the 
 labor of collecting and preparing them. The 
 leaves of some trees are rich in some of the inor- 
 ganic elements of plants, and would amply repay 
 the farmer for collecting and applying them ; 
 while others are nearly worthless, and their use 
 as a manure would merely involve a loss of time 
 and labor. 
 
BARN-YARD MANURE. 165 
 
 The different manurial substances will be 
 discussed in the following order : Stable manure 
 and cattle dung — night soil — swamp muck — 
 leaves — wood and coal ashes — marl — green 
 manuring, and liquid manures. 
 
 Stable or Barn-Yard Manure consists of the 
 solid excrements and urine of horses and cows, 
 mixed with the substances used as bedding. 
 Like other substances used as manures, this has 
 two values : one in its natural fresh condition — 
 the other when it is properly fermented. This 
 manure in its natural condition contains every 
 thing necessary for plant food, in an insoluble 
 condition ; but as every constituent is in a finely 
 divided state, the action of the carbonic acid 
 generated during fermentation will render silica, 
 phosphoric acid and potash in a condition for 
 assimilation by plants. The nitrogen in organic 
 matter, also, becomes changed to actual am- 
 monia. The value of the straw or other litter 
 can be readily calculated from the Tables on 
 pages 82 and 85. The excrements of animals 
 when fermented, being more active as a manure 
 than when in the natural §tate, prove con- 
 clusively the advantages gained by fermentation. 
 The value of these manures is influenced by 
 other causes. If the food is very rich, the man- 
 ure will be rich in proportion. The excrements 
 of a growing animal are not nearly as valuable 
 
166 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 as those of one that is fattening, because the 
 growing animal requires nitrogen to make blood 
 and muscular fibre, also phosphoric acid for the 
 bones. On the contrary, the fattening animal 
 requires but little of these substances. Full 
 grown animals when in good condition require 
 only sufficient food to renew the waste of the 
 system. Horse manure is more valuable than 
 that of the cow, as the latter has to furnish 
 milk, which almost exhausts the food of its 
 nitrogen ; also an animal with young will nearly 
 exhaust its food, as it requires not only materials 
 for its own sustenance, but also a sufficient 
 amount to build up its young. Hence the food 
 will be exhausted not only of its nitrogen, but 
 also of phosphoric acid. In fact, the excrements 
 of animals, like other substances used as manures, 
 are valuable just in proportion to the amount of 
 ammonia, phosphoric acid and potash they con- 
 tain. The reader has been shown how varying 
 circumstances will affect the amounts of these 
 elements ; hence it is impossible to arrive at any 
 strictly correct estimate of the value of a given 
 weight of any animal manure. A general average 
 based on extended experiments is given in the 
 following Table, which shows the amount of 
 water, and of the valuable constituents only, 
 contained in 1000 lbs. in its natural undried 
 state : 
 
CITY STABLE MANURES. 167 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Phosplioric 
 
 acid. Potash. 
 
 Nitrogen. = Ammonia. 
 
 Pig Dung. 
 
 840 lbs 
 
 8-0 lbs. 5-0 lbs. 
 
 7-01bs.= 8-5 lbs. 
 
 Horse *' 
 
 743 '' 
 
 12-2 " 28-0 " 
 
 5-4 '' --= 6-5 " 
 
 Cow 
 
 864 *' 
 
 5-2 " 10-7 " 
 
 3-5 " = 4-2 " 
 
 Chicken " 
 
 850 '' 
 
 15-2 '' 5-5 " 
 
 21-5 " -=26-1 '* 
 
 Sheep '* 
 
 670 " 
 
 22-7 " 7-0 " 
 
 7-1 *' =: 8-5 " 
 
 Human " 
 
 750 " 
 
 3-3 '* ro '* 
 
 15-0 " --18-2 *' 
 
 The following Table shows the amount pro- 
 duced annually by a single animal of the kind 
 named, and its value, assuming the phosphoric 
 acid to be soluble, and the nitrogen as actual 
 ammonia. • 
 
 Pliosphoric 
 Amount. acid. Potash. Ammonia. Yalue. 
 
 Pig 200 lbs. 1-6 lbs. 1-0 lbs. 1-7 lbs.= $0.62 
 
 Horse 2000 " 24-4 " 56-0 
 
 Cow 2000 '' 10-4 " 210 
 
 Chicken 5 '' 0*076 '' 0'03 
 
 Sheep 50 " 1-27 *' 0-35 
 
 Human 100 '* 0-33 '' O'lO 
 
 13-0 " = 9.94 
 
 8-5 " =■ 5.15 
 
 0-13 '' ^ .04 
 
 0-42 " = .40 
 
 1-80 '' = .50 
 
 By the above Tables, the farmer can ascertain 
 the value of the excrements derived from the 
 stock he keeps; they will also show to some 
 farmers the money value of substances they allow 
 to go to waste, and will serve to correct the 
 extravagant ideas of others, who attribute to 
 stable manure and droppings of animals a higher 
 value than it really possesses. 
 
 City Stable Manures. — A cart load of the 
 stable manure, usually purchased by farmers 
 from the dealers in cities, and for which they 
 
168 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 pay $1, should weigh at least 1000 lbs. ; it 
 usually weighs only from 500 lbs. to 800 lbs. 
 
 The average value of 1000 lbs. of this manure, 
 if as good as ordinary barn-yard manure, wJilch 
 is not the case^ is as follows : 
 
 Pure dung 150 lbs., worth $0.70 
 
 Straw or other litter 400 '' " 0.49 
 
 Water and useless matter 450 " " 0.00 
 
 1000 " '' Yalue $1-19 
 
 If the farmer gets 1000 lbs. of a quality equal 
 to barn-yard manure, for $1, it costs him as 
 much as the same amount of the fertilizing 
 elements would in Peruvian Guano; but when 
 the greater cost of transportation and application 
 to the soil is counted, it costs him much more. 
 
 The great object of the parties engaged in this 
 dung business in cities, is to buy the largest 
 possible loads for the smallest amount of money 
 from the stable keepers, and then to sell the 
 smallest possible loads for the largest amount of 
 money to the farmers. To accomplish this, they 
 have carts of two sizes; when they buy they use 
 the large size, when they sell they use the small. 
 When they buy, they pack in as much as their 
 large carts wall hold ; when they sell, the small 
 carts are filled as lightly as possible, by trained 
 men who understand the art of filling a cart 
 with a very small amount of material. Nor is 
 this all. After collecting from the stable keepers, 
 
VALUE OF STABLE MANURE. 169 
 
 they work directly against the interest of the 
 buyer, by sprinkling their heaps with water and 
 then shaking them out to check fermentation, 
 and thus loss of bulk. This practice of watering 
 and shaking out, besides preventing fermentation, 
 lessens greatly the value of the manure by wash- 
 ing out the elements of the urine — the most 
 valuable part of it — and also by removing the 
 ammonia and soluble salts of the solid excre- 
 ment. By such means many of these dung 
 mercliants accumulate large fortunes in a few 
 years ; and the farmer in this, as in some other 
 forms of manure, confounds bulk with quality, 
 and prefers a large mass of almost worthless 
 matter to a little of what is valuable. 
 
 We shall now show the value of 1000 lbs. of 
 well-rotted and air-dried stable manure, calculated 
 from the analysis of Dr. Voelcker : 
 
 Water and organic ) ^^^ ,, 
 
 , ,., ;, \ 670 lbs. 
 
 volatile matter j 
 
 Ammonia 30'' $7.50 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 18 •' 2.25 
 
 Potash..... 20" LGO 
 
 Total .$11.35 
 
 A ton would be worth $22.70, or equal in real 
 value to a ton of many of the commercial fertil- 
 izers sold for $40 or $50. The importance of 
 the fermentation and rotting of manures, and 
 subsequent drying, cannot be overestimated. It 
 
170 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 saves in the cost of transportation and labor of 
 applying, as well as presents the valuable salts 
 in soluble form, directly available for the wants 
 of the plant to give it a vigorous and healthy 
 start ; while plants manured with unfermented, 
 unrotted manure, are deprived of what they 
 need until these operations have taken place in 
 the soil. Oftentimes by this cause they are so 
 stunted in the beginning, that no subsequent 
 application will make amends for the injury 
 then done. 
 
 We shall now give the value of the urine of 
 different animals, as shown by the fertilizing 
 salts contained in 1000 lbs. of each : 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 1. Potash. 
 
 Nitrogen. = Ammonia. 
 
 Pig Urine, 
 
 9-29 lb! 
 
 3. trace, 
 
 6-0 lbs. 
 
 11.8 lbs. = 14-3 lbs. 
 
 Horse *' 
 
 9-40 " 
 
 trace. 
 
 2-8 " 
 
 15-4 '' = 18-7 " 
 
 Cow '' 
 
 9-23 '^ 
 
 trace. 
 
 4-5 " 
 
 4-4 " = 5-3 " 
 
 Sheep " 
 
 9-65 •' 
 
 1-3 lbs. 
 
 7-2 " 
 
 13-1 " = 15-9 " 
 
 Human " 
 
 9-57 " 
 
 4-0 '' 
 
 2-0 '' 
 
 14-2 " =- 17-2 " 
 
 The following Table shows the amount pro- 
 duced annually by a single animal of the kind 
 named, and its value as manure, when fermen- 
 ted : 
 
 
 Yearly 
 amount. 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pig Urine 
 
 1000 lbs. 
 
 trace. 
 
 6-0 lbs. 
 
 14-3 lbs. 
 
 $4.00 
 
 Horse " 
 
 2000 " 
 
 trace, 
 
 5-0 '^ 
 
 37-4 '' 
 
 9.79 
 
 Cow " 
 
 2000 '' 
 
 trace, 
 
 9-0 " 
 
 8-8 '' 
 
 2.92 
 
 Sheep " 
 
 500 '' 
 
 0-6 lbs. 
 
 3-6 " 
 
 8-0 '' 
 
 2.35 
 
 lliiinan" 
 
 750 " 
 
 30 " 
 
 1-5 '' 
 
 10-7 '^ 
 
 3.16 
 
VALUE OF EXCREMENTS. 171 
 
 The solid and liquid excretions taken to- 
 gether^ will show the following annual value: 
 
 Pig Excrements, solid and liquid, $ 4.62 
 
 Horse " " *' 19.73 
 
 Cow " " " 8.07 
 
 Sheep " " " 2.75 
 
 Human " " " 3.66 
 
 From these Tables, it is plain that too much 
 care cannot be exercised in preserving the excre- 
 ments of man and animals. Every pound of 
 ammonia that is lost or evaporates, represents 
 the amount required for a bushel of corn ; and 
 every pound of the urine of a horse or man, will 
 furnish sufficient ammonia for a pound of wheat; 
 and two and a half pounds of the urine of man 
 will furnish the phosphoric acid, and more than 
 half of the potash required for a pound of wheat. 
 
 The foregoing Tables will also show the far- 
 mer the value of the manure, and its capacity 
 for raising crops, as estimated from the average 
 amount of stock kept on his farm. 
 
 When we consider the great value of the 
 excretions of man and animals, it is astonishing 
 that so little attention is paid to preserving 
 them. These substances, which are compara- 
 tively lost in our large cities and towns, repre- 
 sent a value of millions of dollars annually. If 
 the average value of the excretions of the in- 
 habitants of large cities be set down at two 
 
 12 
 
172 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 dollars for each, which is a low estimate, the 
 reader can readily see the immense value of what 
 is yearly wasted. 
 
 Swamp Muck is a deposit of vegetable matter 
 in low swampy places; it is in fact partially 
 formed peat. It is usually formed of mosses, 
 grasses, leaves, and branches of trees, partially 
 decomposed, and in a very condensed form. 
 As the most of these deposits have been accumu- 
 lating for centuries, they have become valuable 
 stores of the fertilizing elements — often much 
 more valuable than stable manure. Professor 
 Johnson gives the average potential ammonia in 
 33 samples, in the dry state, examined by him, 
 as 3*14 per cent. This alone would make the 
 dried muck worth $6.34 per ton. He did not 
 determine the valuable inorganic matters, such 
 as phosphoric acid, potash, etc. ; but it should 
 contain a large amount of them. 
 
 As many farmers have deposits of this kind 
 on their farms, they will see the importance of 
 utilizing them. Every opportunity should be 
 taken to procure and dry as much of this sub- 
 stance as j)ossible. When in a dry state, the 
 absorbent properties of dried muck is remarkable. 
 The most putrid and offensive liquids may be- 
 filtered through it, and the water will come 
 through perfectly pure and tasteless, the muck 
 absorbing all the soluble salts and volatile gases. 
 
SOURCES OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 173 
 
 This shows the advantages gained by using dried 
 muck, around stables and enclosures where 
 cattle, sheep or hogs are kept, thus absorbing 
 and deodorizing the liquid and solid excrements. 
 Sometimes the application of muck in its 
 natural state, is not followed by any beneficial 
 effects, and in some cases it has been positively 
 injurious. This may be explained as follows : 
 All vegetable substances undergoing oxidation 
 or decomposition attain a seeming inert or fixed 
 state; and without the application or action of 
 some powerful agency, such as lime, will remain 
 in that condition for long ages ; and when sub- 
 jected to certain influences, such as heat and 
 great pressure, while in that state, will eventu- 
 ally form coal. We are indebted to this pro- 
 perty of decaying vegetable matter, for the vast 
 stores of peat and coal that are stored up in the 
 earth. Without this property, all organic sub- 
 stances would be speedily dissipated, as carbonic 
 acid gas, ammonia, etc. ; and even the mould, or 
 organic portion of soils, would be resoh^ed into a 
 gaseous state and be dissipated in the atmos- 
 phere. Although this property of partially 
 decayed organic matter is the cause of its pre- 
 servation, it materially unfits it for the produc- 
 tion of cultivated plants, as it cannot, in this 
 inert condition, give out enough to support 
 them \ and it is not improbable that it imparts, 
 
174 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 to some extent^ the same property to the soils to 
 which it is applied in large amount, and besides, 
 favors the growth of many noxious weeds. A 
 similar condition exists in old meadow lands 
 that have lain fallow for years, which the farmer 
 terms sour, and which are invariably benefited 
 by the application of lime. Hence the import- 
 ance of composting swamp muck and peat, to 
 effect what may be termed the second stage of 
 decomposition, which will render it available as 
 food for cultivated plants. Some authorities 
 recommend the burning of peat, and the subse- 
 quent application of the ashes, as a manure. 
 Those who recommend such a course have but 
 a superficial knowledge of its composition ; the 
 most valuable portion of it is the nitrogen or 
 potential ammonia, Avhich would be entirely lost 
 by this process ; and besides, the value of the 
 ash in furnishing the organic elements of plants, 
 would not repay the farmer for his trouble. 
 
 Mud, as found in the bottoms of ponds, ditches, 
 and sunken places, has a very different composi- 
 tion from swamp muck. Still some deposits of 
 mud are valuable as manure, and would amply 
 repay the farmer to collect and ajDply it. As it 
 contains only a small amount of organic remains, 
 it has but little value in composting. 
 
 Dried Earth. — The absorbent and deodorizing 
 properties of dried earth, and the benefits that 
 
WOOD AND COAL ASHES. 175 
 
 would be derived from its use around stables and 
 cattle-sheds, by catching and absorbing the liquid 
 droppings of animals, is too little understood or 
 appreciated by farmers. A large amount of 
 valuable manure could be prepared yearly by 
 this means alone, without much trouble or ex- 
 pense, as the urine of animals — the most valuable 
 portion — is too often allowed to go to waste. 
 
 The Leaves of Trees, when well rotted in the 
 compost pile, is a very valuable source of fertil- 
 izing elements, as the following Table, showing 
 the amount of the substances named, contained in 
 different varieties in their dry state, demonstrates : 
 
 
 
 Phosplioric acid. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 
 Lime. 
 
 
 Mulberry 
 
 Leaves. 0*36 per 
 
 cent. 
 
 0-69 pel 
 
 • cent. 
 
 0-90] 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Horse-chestn't " 
 
 0-61 
 
 
 1-47 
 
 
 3-04 
 
 
 Walnut 
 
 " 
 
 0-28 
 
 
 1-86 
 
 
 3-76 
 
 
 Beech 
 
 (( 
 
 0-28 
 
 
 0-35 
 
 
 303 
 
 
 Oak 
 
 " 
 
 0-40 
 
 
 0-17 
 
 
 2-38 
 
 
 Fir 
 
 <' 
 
 0-23 
 
 
 0-14 
 
 
 0-58 
 
 
 Red Pine 
 
 ii 
 
 0-48 
 
 
 0-09 
 
 
 0-88 
 
 
 From the above Table the farmer can readily 
 estimate the value of these substances, and see 
 how far they will enable him to produce valuable 
 crops. To render them immediately available 
 as plant food, they should be intimately mixed 
 with the other ingredients of the compost heap. 
 
 Wood and Coal Ashes contain a variable 
 amount of potash and phosphoric acid. The 
 former would amply repay the farmer for ap- 
 
176 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 plying them ; but to render them more i^n- 
 mediately available as food for plants, they 
 should be thoroughly incorporated with the 
 compost pile, as will be shown; 100 lbs. of the 
 varieties of wood and coal ashes given, contain 
 the following amounts of potash and phosphoric 
 acid, with its value for agricultural purposes 
 annexed, estimating the phosphoric acid as in- 
 soluble, at 4 J cents per lb. 
 
 Phosphoric acid. Potash. Value of 100 lbs. 
 
 Beech 5-3 lbs. 16-1 lbs. $1.51 
 
 Birch 8-5 '^ 11-6 " 1.45 
 
 Oak 5-5 " 10-0 " 1.05 
 
 Walnut 12-2" 153 " 1.77 
 
 Poplar 13-1" 14-0 " 1.71 
 
 Apple 4-6 '* 12-0 " 1.16 
 
 RedPine 5*1 '^ 5*2 " .64 
 
 Coal Ashes [anthracite) '5 " 0-15 " .3 
 
 Peat '' .... 20 " 0-2 " .11 
 
 The phosphoric acid contained in ashes, is 
 combined Avith peroxide of iron, magnesia and 
 lime; but as it is in a finely divided state, the 
 action of the carbonic acid generated in the com- 
 post pile will liberate it from its bases, and 
 render it immediately available to plants in a 
 soluble state, worth 12 J cents per lb. The 
 leaching of wood ashes does not remove aiii/ of 
 the phosphoric acid, nor all of the potash ; this 
 fact explains the value of what is termed spent 
 ashes as a manure. Hence, formers can see the 
 importance of emptying their old ash gums and 
 
MARL. 177 
 
 barrels, and thereby getting a return for their 
 contents in the shape of wheat and corn. The 
 reader can also see, from the Table given, that 
 wood ashes is worth as much, pound for pound, 
 as many of the leading commercial fertilizers 
 that cost the farmer $50 per ton. 
 
 Coal and peat ashes do not furnish much of 
 the ingredients required as food by plants, but 
 their application would have a beneficial physical 
 effect on some heavy compact soils ; and as these 
 substances cannot possibly do injury to any soil, 
 farmers should spread them over their land, and 
 not let them lie in unsightly piles about their 
 houses and yards. 
 
 Soot from our chimneys and stove-pipes has a 
 value as manure, but it is entirely neglected in 
 this country. English farmers have derived 
 great benefit from its application. Where wood 
 and bituminous coal are used for fuel, thousands 
 of tons are yearly wasted. The following 
 Table shows the quantity of fertilizing elements 
 generally contained in 1000 lbs. of soot, and 
 their value : 
 
 Gypsum or Plaster 50 lbs. $0,75 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 7 " O.Sli- 
 
 Potash 10 '' 0.80 
 
 Ammonia.. 17 '*. 4.25 
 
 Total $6.67i 
 
 Marl is a term used to designate earthy sub- 
 stances containing a variable amount of carbonate 
 
178 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 of lime, supposed to be derived principally from 
 the shells of fishes. The amount of carbonate 
 of lime is usually from 10 to 20 per cent. There 
 is a great variety of substances designated as 
 marl, but they may all be reduced to four general 
 kinds : clay, stone, shell, and green-sand marl. 
 The first very nearly resembles clay ; this variety 
 usually contains from 10 to 20 per cent, of car- 
 bonate of lime, and its value as a manure must 
 be attributed to the action of that substance. 
 Stone marls are generally richer in carbonate of 
 lime than the clay varieties, and are a nearer 
 approach to the ordinary carbonate of lime. 
 Shell marl contains a large amount of shells 
 partially decomposed ; its action on soils is more 
 immediate, because it is more soluble than the 
 clay and stone varieties. Green-sand marl is 
 most valuable of all; it generally contains a 
 small percentage of carbonate of lime, seldom ex- 
 ceeding 5 per cent., while it contains potash in an 
 insoluble condition in amounts varying from 2 
 to 7 per cent. It is by some considered quite as 
 valuable, weight for weight, as wood ashes; it 
 also generally contains a small amount of in- 
 soluble phosphoric acid, and its application on 
 what were considered worn out lands has been 
 followed by remarkable results. Where these 
 marls abound, they are a cheap and efficient 
 manure for the farmer, and should not be 
 
GREEN MANURING. 179 
 
 neglected ; marl also forms a valuable adjunct to 
 the compost pile. 
 
 Green Manuring consists in plowing under any 
 crop that has been grown for that purpose. It 
 has been recommended and practised for cen- 
 turies. Spent or worn out soils are especially 
 benefited by this operation, and no soils can be 
 so far reduced, unless they refus.e to grow any 
 kind of vegetation, that they cannot be improved 
 by this means. The least thought devoted to 
 tlie subject will convince the reader of its su- 
 periority over paring and burning, or leaving 
 the land Mlow. In the former case, the act of 
 burning dissipates all the nitrogen, the most 
 valuable part, and the ash contains the other 
 fertilizing substance in an insoluhle condition, pot- 
 ash excepted, because the greater part of the car- 
 bonic acid formed, which is naturally the principal 
 agent in rendering them soluble, is dissipated ; 
 while, on the other hand, when plowed under, 
 the carbonic acid is slowly given out during the 
 process of decay, and so makes the elements 
 soluble. The gradual decay of vegetation on 
 the surface of the land produces a like result, 
 though in a less degree. 
 
 Hy growing plants with long roots, such as 
 clover and some kinds of grasses, and root crops, 
 such as beets, carrots, etc., the fertilizing ele- 
 ments often contained in the subsoil are broudit 
 
180 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 to the surface ; and then by plowhig the crop 
 under it soon decays, and the fertilizing elements 
 contained are stored up for future crops. In 
 practising green manuring, the farmer has to 
 sacrifice an immediate benefit for a greater future 
 good, which may sometimes be considered of 
 doubtful advantaf>:e. But when he has once 
 tried the experiment, and noted its effects on 
 future crops, he will find not only the value of the 
 crop plowed under returned to him, but a large 
 percentage in addition. Besides all this, the 
 previous plowing is paid for, in making subse- 
 quent cultivation easier, and in rendering the 
 soil in a more finely divided state, which is a 
 very important consideration in growing all 
 kinds of crops. 
 
 To derive the most benefit from green manur- 
 ing, the plowing should be performed before the 
 formation of the blossom, or seed, as the blossoms 
 give ofi* nitrogen, and the seeds may become a 
 subsequent source of trouble ; also, the plowing 
 should be shallow, so as to keep the vegetable 
 matter near the surface, and within easy access 
 of the oxygen of the atmosphere. But the 
 reader must not think for a moment that green 
 manuring alone is sufficient to keep his land in a 
 fertile condition. The benefits derived from this 
 treatment of the land can exist only for a lim- 
 ited period, and the subsoil must eventually be- 
 
COMPOSTING. 181 
 
 come exhausted as well as the surface. The 
 prudent farmer must anticipate this state of 
 things^ by the application of other manures. 
 
 Finally, we may remark that mere rest, with- 
 out plowing ; or the non-production of any vege- 
 table substances on a soil, does not benefit it. It 
 is growing vegetation that effects the needed 
 chemical changes in the soil. Hence the farmer 
 should endeavor by all means to promote the 
 growth of as many plants as possible, on the 
 land he intends to plow under for the production 
 of another crop. 
 
 Liquid Manures are held in high repute in 
 some countries, on the principle that it is better 
 to manure the plant than the soil. It may be 
 employed advantageously in truck farming, but 
 is not at all suited to the general agriculture of 
 this country. If the farmer has a valuable liquid 
 or semi-liquid fertilizing substance, it is much 
 better to mix it with dried muck, or mould, and 
 apply it in as dry a state as possible ; thus di- 
 vesting its application of its disagreeable features, 
 and preventing the escape of the most valuable 
 portion of it — the ammonia. 
 
 Composting. This highly important operation 
 is too often neglected by our farmers. This ne- 
 glect very probably results from ignorance of the 
 great benefits that can be derived from it. The 
 reader has acquired a knowledge of the value of 
 
* 182 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 the waste substances accessible to the farmer, 
 and which can be economically applied as mar 
 nures. He has also been informed of the neces- 
 sity of having these substances in a decomposed 
 state, in order to make them ellicient. 
 
 To be successful in composting, it is necessary 
 for the farmer to have correct ideas of the chem- 
 ical changes and effects to be produced, and of 
 the means and appliances by which these changes 
 can be economically effected; he should also 
 know the conditions that promote or impede 
 these changes. In the proper management of a 
 compost heap, two leading points are to be at- 
 tained ; First, the hastening of the decomposition 
 of the substances used ; Second, the fixing of the 
 fertilizing gases as they are formed. No offensive 
 odors should escape. When such escape, some 
 substance should be applied at once to check it. 
 
 Some persons have recommended making the 
 heap in a circular conical shape, wdth a well in 
 the centre to catch the drainage, and with a 
 common w^ooden pump set in it, so that as the 
 drainage collects, it can be pumped up and al- 
 low^ed to trickle over the top of the heap, and 
 thoroughly permeate it. There are two vital 
 disadvantages attending this method, which we 
 will point out : First, the amount of heat produced 
 is a correct index of the rapidity wdth wdiich the 
 decomposition is being effected; and any applica- 
 
COMPOSTING. 183 
 
 tion of water operates to diminish the heat already 
 generated, and consequently to retard the decompo- 
 sition. All the substances commonly used in com- 
 post heaps, contain a much larger amount of water 
 than is needed to aid decomposition ; it is the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere, not water, that is 
 most needed. The second disadvantage attend- 
 ing this pumping and sprinkling operation, is 
 the loss of the free ammonia contained in the 
 water, which escapes into the atmosphere. This 
 should not be assisted by agitating the water, 
 but should be prevented by the proper agencies. 
 We recommend the following mode of opera- 
 tion, which obviates all the disadvantages of the 
 former method, and which will recommend itself 
 by saving a great deal of labor in the subsequent 
 working : — An elevated piece of ground, as near 
 to the materials as convenient, should be select- 
 ed — the side of a gradual incline, if possible. 
 The intended compost heap should be from ten 
 to fifteen feet wide at the base, with both sides 
 regularly inclining toward the centre, like the 
 roof of a house; the heap to extend lengthwise, 
 as far as needed, up and down the incline. This 
 arrangement prevents any accumulation of water 
 around the heap, and also lessens the labor of 
 turning over, as the heap may be turned down- 
 hill. The next consideration is to prepare the 
 bottom, or the drainage. Of course none of the 
 
184 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 fertilizing moisture contained in the material 
 should be lost, neither should there be any addi- 
 tions to it in the shape of rain water. To effect 
 this, a ditch should be dug lengthwise of the in- 
 tended heap. This drain, at the lower end, 
 should extend several feet beyond the heap, and 
 be six inches below the level of the ground. It 
 should have a gradual ascent of one or two feet, 
 according to the length of the heap. The bot- 
 tom should incline towards the ditch, the dirt 
 taken from which will generally be sufficient for 
 this purpose. The following plan is an end view 
 of the compost heap, showing the shape of the 
 bottom, and the ditch for drainage : 
 
 The sides and bottom of the centre drain 
 should be boarded, and the top covered with any 
 rough pieces of board or wood, with apertures 
 close enough to prevent the compost from falling 
 through, and still give free passage to the drain- 
 
COMPOSTING. 185 
 
 age water into the ditch. The farmer would also 
 consult his interest by having the floor of the 
 heap covered entirely with boards. 
 
 Everything being prepared for constructing 
 the heap, we will make a few suggestions about 
 the collection and depositing the materials pre- 
 paratory to mixing. Barn-yard manure and 
 muck are the principal ingredients. Every cart 
 load of barn-yard manure should be mixed with 
 two cart loads of swamp muck, or with any 
 other deposit that contains plenty of vegetable 
 matter, except weeds that have gone to seed. 
 The muck should be dug in a dry season, and 
 spread out, so that it may be deprived of a great 
 deal of its water, which will greatly lessen the 
 labor and expense of hauling it to the compost 
 heap ; and when there, it will be in much better 
 condition for fermentation and consequent de- 
 composition. The materials should be hauled 
 to the heap in the proper proportions, so that 
 they can be thoroughly mixed, and the work of 
 piling up be commenced at one end, and the 
 heap be finished to the top as fast as sufficient 
 material is procured. The advantage gained by 
 this course, over that of putting layer upon 
 layer over the whole ground plan of the heap, is 
 that if the heap is finished as you proceed, fer- 
 mentation sets in sooner; and as the pile gradu- 
 ally lengthens^ the ferijienting process passes 
 
186 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 the whole length of it; so that by the time the 
 farmer has collected all his material and finished 
 the heap, that part of it which was first com- 
 pletedj will probably be ready to turn over. The 
 heap, when finished, should be covered with a 
 temporary roof, to keep out the rain. 
 
 When the fiirmer is collecting material for his 
 compost, nothing should be overlooked. In 
 addition to his stable manure, his hog pens 
 should be thoroughly cleared, and all the night 
 soil, chicken dung, wood and coal ashes, saw- 
 dust, leaves, corn-stalks, straw, soap suds, fish or 
 meat brine, and even old mortar, should be 
 thoroughly mixed together in the heap ; and to 
 every load of material, 20 to 25 lbs. of plaster 
 or gypsum should be added, for reasons that will 
 be presently shown. When the farmer has 
 brought all together, he will astonish even him- 
 self by the amount he has procured ; and if he 
 attends to our directions, he will be far more 
 astonished at the results, as shown in greatly 
 increased crops. 
 
 The most valuable substances contained in 
 the material of the compost heap are Silicate of 
 Potash, Phosphate of Lime, and Nitrogen as 
 Potential Ammonia. The chemical changes 
 effected on these substances by fermentation 
 may be briefly stated, as follows : Fermentation 
 and putrefaction are generally considered dis- 
 
SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID. 187 
 
 tinct processes, but the chemical operation of 
 each is precisely the same ; it is simply a union 
 of the carbon contained in the dead vegetable or 
 animal matter, with the oxygen of the atmos- 
 phere, or the oxygen of the water present in the 
 substance. This chemical union of oxygen and 
 carbon produces carbonic acid gas, the properties 
 of which have been fully explained. The 
 action of this gas' on the silicate of potash, 
 separates the potash from the silica and forms 
 carbonate of potash, the silica being liberated, 
 as hydrated silica. This change renders both 
 substances immediately available, as food for 
 plants. Before the change, they were in an 
 insoluble condition, and, if contained in unrotted 
 straw, might remain in the soil a year or more, 
 without benefiting growing vegetation. As the 
 phosphate of lime contained in plants is in the 
 most finely divided state, the carbonic acid 
 attacks and decomposes this compound, forming 
 carbonate of lime, and liberating the phosphoric 
 acid in a soluble condition, for the use of the 
 plant. 
 
 There is a remarkable chemical law, namely : 
 that some elements have no affinity for each 
 other, and hence will not form compounds unless 
 one or the other is present in what is termed the 
 nascent state^ that is, the state in which it ex- 
 ists at the moment it is separated from a pre- 
 
 13 
 
188 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 vious state of combination. For example; the 
 two gases, nitrogen and hydrogen, the elements 
 of ammonia, may be mechanically mixed, but no 
 chemical combination will ensue. But should 
 nitrogen be present when water is being decom- 
 posed, the hydrogen being in the nascent state, 
 actual ammonia will at once be formed. 
 
 As sulphate of lime or land plaster — which is 
 a compound of sulphuric acid, lime and water — 
 is present in the heap, the carbonate of ammonia 
 formed, decomposes the above compound, pro- 
 ducing carbonate of lime and sulphate of am- 
 monia, which is a stable compound, very soluble 
 in water. The formation of this salt prevents 
 loss from the volatilization of the ammonia. 
 This is the object in applying it in the heap. 
 From this the farmer can realize the importance 
 of applying plaster to his compost heap. Still, 
 it must be added with discretion, and not in 
 larger quantity than we have recommended ; if 
 too much is added, it will check the fermenta- 
 tion, and thus defeat the object to be attained by 
 composting; 100 lbs. of ordinary unburnt ground 
 gypsum will fix nearly 20 lbs. of ammonia. 
 The sulphuric acid of the gypsum will also act 
 beneficially, in decomposing the mineral sub- 
 stances contained in the vegetable remains. 
 The ammonia formed in the compost heap often- 
 times undergoes another change, which may be 
 
THE COMPOST HEAP. 189 
 
 termed oxidation ; being changed from an alkali 
 to an acid, forming nitrates of potash, soda, and 
 lime, if these bases are present. Some chemists 
 hold the opinion that the nitrogen contained in 
 these compounds, is far more valuable than as it 
 is presented in ammonia ; but this is a difficult 
 matter to decide, and more extended experiments 
 are required, to enable us to give a positive 
 opinion on the subject. As far as our present 
 knowledge of the matter goes, they are equally 
 valuable, although it is proved that the ammo- 
 nia is more permanent in the soil than nitric acid. 
 
 A valuable addition to the compost heap, is 
 ground bones. This substance furnishes both 
 phosphoric acid and nitrogen ; and if the bones 
 are mixed with an equal weight of finely ground 
 gypsum, and fully incorporated with the heap, 
 the farmer will produce his own soluble phos- 
 phoric acid, at less than half the cost he would 
 have to pay for it, if purchased from the manu- 
 facturers. Again, when the pile is turned over 
 — an operation that must be attended to in order 
 to produce good results — should the farmer de- 
 tect the smell of escaping ammonia, another 
 light sprinkle of plaster must be applied. 
 
 The time required to produce fermentation, 
 varies with the season ; in summer, the heap 
 may commence heating in from six to ten days ; 
 but in winter, it will require as many weeks. 
 
190 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 When it sets in, the heat gradually increases 
 until it has reached a certain point; then it 
 decreases, until it is imperceptible. The pile 
 should then be shovelled over, and a second fer- 
 mentation will take place as before ; this cooling 
 of the pile being caused by the exhaustion of 
 available oxygen in the mass. If the farmer 
 has attended to applying gypsum as directed, 
 there will be no loss or damage produced by 
 overheating. 
 
 A great deal of vapor is formed during the 
 fermentation, and a part of it escapes into the 
 atmosphere. The farmer should be careful to 
 note whether it contains any ammonia, which 
 he can do by the smell. If it does, a light 
 sprinkle of gypsum, with a little dry earth, will 
 prevent loss. Part of the vapor condenses as it 
 approaches the surface of the heap, and will 
 gradually find its way into the drain ; and as it 
 flows out, it can be mixed with earth or muck, 
 and a little plaster, and thrown on the heap. 
 
 One great mistake commonly made by our 
 farmers, is in not allowing the compost heap a 
 sufficient time to become thoroughly decomposed, 
 before applying it. The time required to effect 
 complete decomposition is from one to two years ; 
 and should it be used before decomposition is 
 completely accomplished, the farmer does not 
 get that return for his labor in collecting, mix- 
 ing, and turning over, that he w^ould realize if 
 
BAD COMPOSTING. 191 
 
 he waited until the mass is in the most efficient 
 condition. 
 
 The practice of mixing up a mass of hetero- 
 geneous materials, and letting it stand three, 
 four, or six months, and then applying it to the 
 soil, will not pay for the labor and expense; 
 rather than compost in that manner, it would be 
 better to apply the materials at once to the soil. 
 This quick method of composting — necessarily 
 followed by unsatisfactory results — has brought 
 composting into discredit and disuse by many 
 farmers, who might derive great benefit if they 
 complied with the conditions necessary to suc- 
 cess. A still more reprehensible practice than 
 that above stated, is that of using quicklime in 
 compost heaps ; it should never be done. It has 
 the effect to dissipate the nitrogen and am- 
 monia ; besides, it absorbs the carbonic acid, 
 and leaves the organic substances in their ori- 
 ginal insoluble condition. 
 
 It is very necessary that the farmer should 
 know the value of the compost, and the amount 
 that should be applied to an acre. * In order to 
 know this, he should keep an account of the 
 loads of barn-yard manure and other substances 
 used ; and then, the Tables we have given in 
 this book will enable him to approximate very 
 nearly to the value of the heap, and the amount 
 that should be applied to an acre to produce a 
 given crop. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL 
 
 FERTILIZERS, WITH COMMENTS AND CRITICISMS 
 
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS CONCLUSION. 
 
 The general reader, and particularly far- 
 mers, should carefully note what is contained 
 in this chapter, as it vitally affects their interests. 
 It will show how unprincipled men, from selfish 
 motives, and by dishonest practices, are stripping 
 them of the hard-earned fruits of honest in- 
 dustry ; and will give a limited idea of the 
 extent of the frauds that have been unblushingly 
 practised for years, unchecked and almost un- 
 heeded. We have already indicated the cure 
 for these wrongs; and now, when we picture 
 them in their true colors, thinking men, we 
 doubt not, will at once apply the remedy by 
 preparing their own fertilizers, and leaving 
 those of dishonest manufacturers alone. 
 
 We have fully proved the justice of the values 
 assigned to the fertilizing constituents of com- 
 mercial manures by us, and have also shown 
 that the best authorities in this and other coun- 
 192 
 
GENERAL REMARKS. 193 
 
 tries have set their valuations lower than we 
 have done. 
 
 It is possible that manufacturers may object 
 to our allowing them nothing for the insoluble 
 portion of the phosphoric acid contained in their 
 so-called superphosphates. But we have shown 
 by the best authorities, that phosphoric acid as 
 contained in mineral phosphate (the chief in- 
 gredient in their phosphates), or even in bones, 
 is not available as plant food for many years, — 
 ten, twenty or more, — and the statements of the 
 manufacturers themselves on this subject show 
 that they are right in theory, if not in practice. 
 The most limited knowledge of finance will show 
 that no value should be assigned to it, because 
 if it takes only 10 years to make it available as 
 plant food, the interest would amount to as 
 much as the purchase money; and if it takes 
 15 years to make it available, the interest with 
 the purchase money amounts to more than the 
 value of phosphoric acid in soluble form. Be- 
 sides, no farmer would knowingly purchase a 
 fertilizer that requires 10 to 20 years to give 
 him a return for his money. The loss by the 
 use of such a manure is not confined to the loss 
 of the interest on the purchase money, but, in 
 addition, the farmer loses his time and the 
 profitable use of his land, which of itself involves 
 many other losses. Independent of all this, such 
 
194 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 inert substance should manifestly have no place 
 in a high-priced fertilizer, the very name of 
 which implies that it does not contain it. 
 
 The products of the farm are closely scrutin- 
 ized, and the quality graded, when they are 
 brought to the market, and from this cause many 
 a farmer has not realized from his produce as 
 much as he anticipated. No farmer is allowed 
 to sell the chaff with the wheat, nor portions of 
 the cob with the corn. Butter must be properly 
 made, as the quality fixes the price ; and should 
 there be an extra amount of salt used, dishonest 
 motives are at once attributed to the farmer, as 
 intending to make up weight; and should the 
 same butter be found a little deficient in weight, 
 it is at once confiscated. " It is a bad rule that 
 wont work both ways." Hence, should the far- 
 mer want crude mineral phosphate, it should be 
 sold to him as siicJi^ at a cost of $12 to $20 a 
 ton, and not be palmed ujDon him under the 
 false name of superphosphate at $40 to $60 per 
 ton. We have hitherto dealt in generalities. 
 Having spoken of frauds practised, in the mass, 
 we shall now treat them in detail, and we 
 hope the reader will examine the analyses, and 
 carefully compare them with the statements 
 of these manufacturers. If this be done, our re- 
 marks about their frauds will add no additional 
 force to the damning testimony which they 
 themselves have furnished. 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 195 
 
 ANALYSES OF WATSON & OLAKK'S SUPER. 
 PHOSPHATE. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 Water(expelled at "I 
 2120 Fall.) J 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen in or- ] 
 ganic matter. J 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid^ 
 (anhydrous), I 
 soluble in water { 
 atCOOto 70OF. J 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 
 phoric Acid(an- 
 hydrous.) 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 2d 
 Sample. 
 
 12-67 
 
 12-89 
 
 0-17 
 
 0-19 
 
 057 
 
 0-62 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 5-61 
 
 5-56 
 
 7-22 
 
 7-18 
 
 Mean. 
 
 12-78 
 0-18== 0-22 
 0-60 
 trace 
 
 of Actual 
 Ammonia. 
 
 C of Super- 
 5-59= 9-21 -< phosphate 
 (^ of Lime. 
 
 r of Bone 
 7-20=15-72 -] Phosphate 
 ( of Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs. 5 together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 255-60 lbs. Water. @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 
 4-40 *' Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 1.10 
 
 12-00" Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 0.15 " 1.80 
 
 111-80 lbs. Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12^ " 13.97 
 
 144-00 " Insoluble " " .... (^ 0.00 "• 0.00 
 
 Total value as Superphosphate $16.87 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $18.87 
 
 The above phosphate is sold at $45 per ton, 
 involving a loss of $26.13, or 138 per cent., to the 
 farmer on ever}^ ton he purchases. He pays for 
 it very nearly 2 J times what it is worth. 
 
196 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 WATSON & CLARK'S SUPERPHOSPHATE. 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which the samples 
 for analyses were selected, was purchased from 
 the manufacturers at their office in Philadelphia. 
 It is put up in 200 lb. bags ; the one purchased 
 weighed 201 J lbs. Its mechanical condition was 
 good; the mineral phosphate from which it 
 was manufactured had been finely ground, and 
 there were no hard lumps to interfere with its. 
 application by drilling. The circular of these 
 manufacturers is a model of its kind. They 
 frankly state the kind of material used, and the 
 source from which it is procured. They give no 
 analyses of their article, which they should do, 
 but say they manufacture a superphosphate of 
 lime — 
 
 "Under the supervision of Prof. James C. Booth of the 
 U. S. Mint, and every parcel made is analyzed by him or his 
 partner, Dr. Garrett, in order to ascertain if it comes up to 
 the required standard." 
 
 They do not inform us what this standard is, 
 but as they profess to manufacture a super- 
 phosphate^ the required standard should be that. 
 The analysis shows by the Insoluble Phosphoric 
 Acid how far they fail. But if we take the 
 price at which it is sold into account, it is one 
 of the cheapest fertilizers in the market; i. 6., 
 the farmer gets more of what he needs for his 
 money than in many other fertilizers more 
 strongly recommended. 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 197 
 
 ANALYSES OF ERODES' SUPERPHOSPHATE. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 
 Ist 
 Sample 
 
 7-67 
 
 2nd 
 Sample. 
 
 7-79 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Water (expelled at^ 
 212° Fahrenheit).) 
 
 7-73 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 trace 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 trace 
 
 Nitrogen in organic | 
 matter. j 
 
 Potash, soluble in | 
 acidulated water, j 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 •Phosphoric A c i d "^ 
 (anhydrous), sol- [ 
 uble in water at 
 60° to 70O F. 
 
 
 
 
 3-63 
 
 3-40 
 
 r S u p e r phos- 
 3-52=:5-80 \ phate of 
 (^ Lime. 
 
 Insoluble Phospho- \ 
 
 
 
 C Bone Phos- 
 
 ric Acid (anhy- v 
 
 15-16 
 
 15-34 
 
 15-25=33-29 J phate of 
 
 drous.) 3 
 
 
 II (_ Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses^ we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 Ibs.j together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 154-60 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 
 Trace Nitrogen @ 0.15 ** 0.00 
 
 70-40 lbs. Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12^ " 8.80 
 
 305-00 *' Insoluble '' " Ccb 0.00 " 0.00 
 
 Total value, as Superphosphate $8.80 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $10.80 
 
 The above phosphate is sold at $50 per ton, 
 involving a loss of $39.20, or 363 per cent, to 
 the farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
 other words, he pays for it 4| times as much as 
 it is worth. 
 
198 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 EHODES' SUPERPHOSPHATE. 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased from 
 Messrs. Yarnall & Trimble, Philadelphia. It is 
 put up in bags, marked 200 lbs; the one pur- 
 chased weighed 201 lbs. The mechanical con- 
 dition of the fertilizer was good. The manu- 
 facturer's circular gives the following analyses, 
 said to be furnished by Prof Johnson in 1859. 
 
 RHODES' SUPERPHOSPHATE OP LIME. 
 
 Water (expelled at 2120) 22-25 22*34 
 
 Matter volatile at red heat 20-17 20*00 
 
 Sand and insoluble matters 1*82 2*57 
 
 Lime 14-90 15-85 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, soluble in water 13*78 13*85 
 
 " insoluble " -64 '67 
 
 The above analyses of Prof Johnson widely 
 differ from our analyses of Rhodes Superphos- 
 phate. We do not question the correctness of 
 the analyses given by Prof Johnson in 1859, 
 but there is evidently a marked falling off in the 
 quality since that time ; and to publish these 
 analyses with his or any other eulogistic state- 
 ment, at the present time, is a great injus- 
 tice to the Professor, and shows an evident 
 disposition on the part of the manufacturer 
 or agents to deceive and defraud their customers. 
 As the fertilizer is now manufactured, in con- 
 nection with the price demanded for it, we 
 cannot characterize it as being anything short of 
 a fraud and a cheat-. 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 199 
 
 ANALYSES OF BERGER & BUI^Z'S EXCELSIOR 
 
 SUPERPHOSPHATE OP LLME. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 :} 
 
 Water (expelled at 
 2120Fahrenheit) 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen in organic " 
 matter. 
 
 Potash soluble in " 
 acidulated water. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 (anhydrous)j sol- 
 uble in water at 
 60O to 70O F. 
 
 Insoluble Phos-"^ 
 phoric Acid (an- 
 hydrous). 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 9-15 
 
 2n(i 
 Sample. 
 
 9-08 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 1-42 
 
 1-46 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 5-23 
 
 5-18 
 
 8-19 
 
 8-36 
 
 9-12 
 
 trace== Actual Ammonia 
 
 1-44 
 
 trace 
 
 I Superphos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 (BonePhos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we 
 deduce the following amounts, contained in a 
 ton, or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a 
 ton to the farmer. 
 
 182-40 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. 
 
 $ 0.00 
 
 28 80 *' Nitrogen in organic matter @ 0.15 " 
 
 4.32 
 
 104-20 " Soluble Phosphoric Acid.. @ 0.12^ " 
 
 13.03 
 
 165-60 " Insoluble Phosphoric Acid. @ 0.00 '' 
 
 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $17.35 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $19.35 
 
 The above phosphate is sold at $50 per ton, 
 involving a loss of $30.65, or nearly 159 per 
 cent, to the farmer, on every ton he purchases ; 
 or, in other words, he pays nearly 2| times as 
 much for it as it is worth. 
 
200 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 BERGER & BUTZ'S EXCELSIOR SUPER 
 PHOSPHATE or LIME. 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
 manufacturer/ office, Philadelphia. It is put up 
 in bags marked 200 lbs. ; the bag purchased 
 weighed 201 lbs. Its mechanical condition was 
 bad, the mineral phosphate from which it is 
 made had seemingly been ground fine, but the 
 finished product had dried in hard lumps in the 
 bag, which would be a great inconvenience to 
 the farmer if he wished to apply it with a drill. 
 It is strange that these manufacturers do not see 
 the importance of reducing their fertilizers to a 
 powder, before sending them to the farmer, who 
 naturally expects it fully prepared to apply to 
 tlie soil, either by drilling or by hand. When 
 the farmer has to reduce these lumps to a pow- 
 der, he is doing the work of the manufacturers 
 for Avhich he pays, and which could be done by 
 them at far less cost. 
 
 Messrs. Berger & Butz issue a very modest 
 circular. They give no analysis of their fertilizer, 
 which every manufacturer should do, as it alone 
 is the only guarantee of its quality. The amount 
 of soluble phosphoric acid and nitrogen it con- 
 tains, is far more than in some other fertilizers 
 that are more strongly recommended. 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 20] 
 
 ANALYSES OF ''THE MAGNUM BONUM SOLUBLE 
 PHOSPHATE," DUGDALE & GIRVIN SOLE PRO- 
 PRIETORS, BALTIMORE, MD. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Water (expelled at 1 
 2120 Fahrenheit), j 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Nitrogen in organic 1 
 matter. j 
 
 Potash, soluble in | 
 acidulated water. J 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 (anhydrous), sol- 
 uble in water at 
 60O to 70O F. J 
 
 Insoluble Phospho- 
 ric Acid (anhy- 
 drous). 
 
 1st 
 
 2nd 
 
 Sample. 
 
 Sample. 
 
 12-57 
 
 12-48 
 
 0-15 
 
 0-17 
 
 0-72 
 
 0-73 
 
 0-84 
 
 0-82 
 
 4-45 
 
 4-48 
 
 6-95 
 
 6-62 
 
 12-53 
 
 0-16=0-20 
 
 ( Actual Am- 
 
 0-73 
 
 683 
 
 r S u p e rphos- 
 4-47=7-37 -I phate of 
 (^ Lime. 
 
 C Bone Phos- 
 6-79=14-82-5 phate of 
 (^ Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 250-60 lbs. Water @ 
 
 4-00 " Actual Ammonia @ 
 
 14-60 " Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 
 
 16-60 '' Potash @ 
 
 89-40 '' Soluble Phosphoric Acid . . @ 
 
 135-80 " Insoluble " '' . . @ 
 
 $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 0.25 
 0.15 
 0.08 
 0.12i 
 0.00 
 
 1.00 
 2.19 
 1.33 
 IL17 
 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $15. 69 
 
 Value of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $17.69 
 
 The above named fertilizer is sold at $52 per 
 
202 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 ton, involving a loss to the farmer of $34.31, or 
 194 per cent, on every ton he purchases, or, in 
 other words, he pays for it very nearly 3 times 
 as much as it is worth. 
 
 "THE MAGNUM BONUM SOLUBLE 
 PHOSPHATE." 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
 office of Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin, Baltimore, 
 Md. It is put up in bags, marked 167 lbs. ; the 
 bag purchased weighed 170 lbs. Its mechanical 
 condition was very bad, being composed almost 
 entirely of coarse, hard lumps, that, were pul- 
 verized with considerable difficulty, and we 
 should think it would cause considerable trouble 
 to the farmer to prepare it for drilling. Messrs. 
 Dugdale & Girvin are comparatively modest in 
 recommending this fertilizer. They furnish an 
 
 analvsis as follows : 
 
 1/ 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 Made hy Prof. W. LeRoy Broun, formerly of Va. 
 
 Soluble Bone Phosphate 13*79 
 
 Bone Phosphate, soluble in the soil 27-94 
 
 Ammonia 382 
 
 Potash 4-24 
 
 Soda and Magnesia 2*79 
 
 This article contains the most valuable constituents in large 
 proportions, and I have no doubt will prove a very valuable 
 Fertilizer. W. LeRoy Broun. 
 
 December 3c?, 1870. 
 
ANALYSES. 203 
 
 We would characterize the above as a garbled 
 analysis, calculated to deceive the purchaser. 
 There is no such compound as " Soluble Bone 
 Phosphate ;" the term is absolutely hypothe- 
 tical. There is Bone Phosphate of Lime, 13*79 
 parts of which contain 6*32 parts of Phospho- 
 ric Acid. But perhaps 6*32 per cent, might 
 not so favorably impress the buyer as 13*79 
 would ; and '^ Bone Phosphate/' with the prefix 
 " Soluble/' is used by the dealer to favorably im-. 
 press the farmer (unacquainted as he generally 
 is with scientific terms) that he is getting more 
 than twice the value he actually receives. 
 
 Our analyses and that of Prof W. LeEoy 
 Broun differ widely. We do not say his is not 
 conscientiously made, because there is a possi- 
 bility, not to say probability, that manufacturers 
 and dealers submit a sample of one quality to 
 the chemist for analysis^ and palm off a greatly 
 inferior quality upon purchasers. Certain it is, 
 that the bag we bought shows no such result as 
 that given by Prof W. LeEoy Broun. 
 
 The Professor's analysis gives 27*94 per cent, 
 of " Bone Phosphate, soluble in the soil/' he does 
 not say in how long, whether it requires ten, 
 twenty, or thirty years. These indefinite state- 
 ments are calculated to deceive any one who is 
 not fully informed on the subject, and the motives 
 for giving them cannot be too strongly repre- 
 hended. 
 
 14 
 
204 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 This fertilizer is represented to be composed 
 of Dissolved Bones, Ammonia and Potash ; and 
 " entirely free from any adulterative matter." 
 The analyses show that it contains a great deal 
 of something that is not accounted for. The 
 large percentage of water might seem unneces- 
 sary to the uninitiated. The reader will notice 
 that there is for more of this substance than 
 Superphosphate of Lime, and if he compares the 
 price of this fertilizer with the value, he will 
 naturally come to the conclusion that it is the 
 " Magnum Bonum " {the great good) to the 
 manufacturers and dealers, and the " Magnum 
 Malum " {the great evil) to the farmer. 
 
 Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin say that this " Mag- 
 num Bonum is the great Generator and nour- 
 isher of Corn, Oats, Grass, Wheat, Tobacco, and 
 other crops and plants." This must be a most won- 
 derful property of this fertilizer, the inference 
 being that the farmer need not use any seed to pro- 
 duce the above crops — the manure itself being a 
 generator. 
 
 There might, however, be a great disadvan- 
 tage connected with its use ; the farmer naturally 
 would have a desire to raise a specified crop, 
 the generator might beget corn when he wanted 
 wheat, or oats when he wanted tobacco, or might 
 produce them all heterogeneously. We make 
 these suggestions for the benefit of Messrs. Dug- 
 
ANALYSES. 205 
 
 dale & Girvin, so that in future they may be 
 more careful or more specific in giving the quali- 
 ties of this wonderful manure. 
 
 " Consistency is a jewel ;" and to show that 
 the proprietors of this wonderful fertilizer are 
 slightly lacking in this virtue, we give the fol- 
 lowing analysis of the " Magnum Bonum/' as 
 given in Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin's advertise- 
 ment in the "Journal of the Farm/' which an- 
 alysis the reader is requested to compare with 
 the analysis furnished by Prof W. LeRoy 
 Broun, formerly of Va. 
 
 Soluble Bone Phosphate of Lhne 15*33 
 
 Bone .Phosphate of Lime 19*64 
 
 Ammonia (equal to 12 per cent, of Sulphate)... . 3*16 
 Potash 4-62 
 
 The laws of the State of Maryland require an 
 analysis of every fertilizer to be plainly marked 
 on each package. The bag of " Magnum Bonum" 
 purchased by us had some blurred and half 
 obliterated marks^ which we charitably supposed 
 were intended for an analysis, but we failed to 
 decipher it after expending considerable time 
 endeavoring to do so ; this showing conclusively 
 that the intention was to conform with the letter 
 and not the spirit of the law of Maryland. We 
 would suggest to Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin the 
 propriety of using larger letters and figures, thus 
 saving considerable trouble to their customers, 
 as well as saving their own credit. 
 
206 
 
 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 ANALYSES OF AVHANN'S RAW BONE SUPER- 
 
 PHOSPHATE. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 Water (expelled at 
 2120 Fahrenheit). 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen in organic 1 
 matter. j 
 
 Potash, soluble in ] 
 acidulated water. J 
 
 Phosphoric Acid ^ 
 (anhydrous), so- I 
 luble in water at ( 
 60O to 70O F. J 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 
 phoric Acid (an- 
 hydrous). 
 
 l8t 
 
 Sample. 
 
 2d 
 Sample. 
 
 9-92 
 
 10-06 
 
 0-37 
 
 0-42 
 
 0-91 
 
 0-98 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-19 
 
 3-47 
 
 3-25 
 
 14-30 
 
 14-46 
 
 Mean. 
 
 9-99 
 
 0-40-0-49|^^^"^^^"^- 
 1 monia. 
 
 0-94 
 0-20 
 
 r Superphos- 
 3-36 = 5-54 \ phate of 
 (. Lime. 
 
 C BonePhos- 
 14-38:==31-39-< phate of 
 (^ Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we deduce 
 the following amounts contained in a ton, or 2000 
 lbs., together with the value of a ton to the farmer : 
 
 199-80 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 
 9-80 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 2.45 
 
 18-80 " Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 0.15 " 2.82 
 
 4-00 " Potash @ 0.08 " 0.32 
 
 67-20 " Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12^ " 8.40 
 
 287-60 " Insoluble *' *' @ 0.00 " 0-00 
 
 Total value as Superphosphate $13.99 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $15.99 
 
 The above Phosphate is sold at $52 per ton, 
 involving a loss of $36.01, or 225 per cent., to 
 the farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
 other words, he pays 3i times what it is worth. 
 
ANALYSES. 207 
 
 WHANN'S RAW BONE SUPERPHOS- 
 PHATE. 
 
 Tlie above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased from the 
 manufacturers' agents, Messrs. Cruft and Young, 
 Philadelphia. It is put up in 200 lb. bags ; the 
 one purchased weighed 203 lbs. The mechanical 
 condition of the fertilizer was only middling ; it 
 had not that homogeneous appearance that a first- 
 class fertilizer should present. This condition 
 may be caused by a portion of the Charleston 
 Guano, or other mineral phosphate, of which it 
 is largely composed, being treated with sulphuric 
 acid, and then mixed with another portion of 
 phosphate in its crude state ; and the superphos- 
 phate, taken as a whole, did not present the ap- 
 pearance of being prepared from substances of 
 "animal oriylnr For the benefit of our readers 
 we have collated the following extracts from 
 the circulars of the manufacturers of this super- 
 phosphate. 
 
 No. 1. *' Plants during- their germination and development 
 require a constant supply of food, and it is necessary that tliis 
 nourishment be furnished in such a form as to be at once as- 
 similable, and capable of being immediately useful in sustaining 
 their growth." 
 
 No. 2. '' The experience of the most capable agriculturists 
 throughout the civilized world points to the use of concentrated 
 manures ; those which afford all the elements of plant food in a 
 readily soluble form." 
 
 No. 3. "The phosphate of lime, as it exists in bones, is in- 
 
208 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 soluble in water, although when placed in the soil it becomes 
 soluble to a very limited extent." 
 
 No. 4. '' Quick manures increase the business capital of the 
 farmer.'' 
 
 No. 5. *' Unlike Peruvian Guano, it (Whann's Raw Bone 
 Superphosphate) does not exhaust the soil, but, on the con- 
 trary, it insures a supply of valuable nutriment lasting through 
 several seasons." 
 
 No. 6. *' The ingredients which enter into the composition 
 of Whann's Raw Bone Superphosphate (raw bones, guano, 
 sulphuric acid, potash and soda), are all subjected to thorough 
 chemical analysis before they are purchased. No inert sub- 
 stances are used. The phosphate is warranted free from 
 adulteration." 
 
 No. 7. " With the exception of the sulphuric acid, potash, 
 and soda, every ingredient entering into its composition is of 
 animal origin." 
 
 No. 8. "• Our works are under the daily control and super- 
 vision of an experienced chemist, and are furnished with a 
 completely appointed analytical laboratory, where analyses are 
 made of every ingredient used in the phosphate." 
 
 No. 9. "Dollar for dollar, Whann's Raw Bone Phosphate 
 will go nearly twice as far as Peruvian the first year." 
 
 No. 10. "Instead of resorting to indiscriminate pufiBng for 
 the purpose of forcing sales, the manufacturers have contented 
 themselves with allowing it to speak for itself." 
 
 The reader is aware that the qualifying name 
 of this fertilizer is " Raw Bone." We are anxious 
 to know how much of this substance is used by 
 the manufacturers. On a careful examination 
 we found what might be styled a sprinkling of 
 hone^ but not sufficient for the most limited 
 excuse for giving it the name of " Raw Bone 
 Phosphate." From the amount of soluble phos- 
 
ANALYSES. 209 
 
 phoric acid present in a ton, the amount of sul- 
 phuric acid used must be very small. 
 
 Mr. Whann says, that guano is used, but he 
 does not state the kind or kinds, or the propor- 
 tions. We hazard the assertion that there is a 
 large amount of Charleston, with a very small 
 amount of Peruvian. 
 
 He also notifies us that potash and soda are 
 used. The reader will notice by the analyses, 
 that a ton of his superphosphate contains 4 lbs. 
 of potash, worth 32 cents. The benefits result- 
 ing from such an amount cannot be very marked, 
 as it requires 40 lbs. of potash for 25 bushels of 
 w^heat with the straw. No adulteration is said 
 to be practised in preparing this superphosphate, 
 but Mr. Whann admits to using soda. We pre- 
 sume he means salt cake or sulphate of soda, 
 usually sold for $10 per ton, or he may apply 
 salt or chloride of sodium. In either case, when 
 Mr. Whann can prove the necessity of the use 
 of soda in any^ form in a superphosphate, or that 
 a large amount of crude mineral phosphate, which 
 when ground could not possibly cost him over 
 $17 per ton, should be found in a high-priced 
 fertilizer represented to be made from '" Raw 
 Bone," and sells for $52 per ton, we will admit 
 that there has been no adulteration practised ; 
 and when he can satiefactorily account for the 
 presence of 267*60 lbs. of insoluble phosphoric 
 
210 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 acid in a ton of his " Superphosphate," and prove 
 that this large amount is of immediate benefit to 
 the farmer or to his crops, we will give Whann's 
 Raw Bone Superphosphate all the merit 
 chiimed for it ; until then we shall consider our- 
 selves as cheated in our purchase of this fertilizer, 
 and claim the right of expressing our opinion 
 freely. 
 
 Our farmers should take a lesson from Mr. 
 Whann, and use a little of his caution in making 
 their purchases, by assuring themselves of the 
 quality of what they buy. As Mr. Whann says 
 he keeps a chemist, we think it is due to him- 
 self, and to the public, that he should publish a 
 full analysis of his " Superphosphate." 
 
 Were the manufacturers of fertilizers who re- 
 sort to indiscriminate puffing to push forward 
 their products, to inform the farmer as to their 
 quality in a frank manner, by analysis we mean, 
 a different state of affairs would now exist. And 
 if the parties professing to make a Superphos- 
 phate from Raw Bones, had fully informed the 
 farmer of the value of Mineral Phosphates, and 
 candidly admitted to using the latter as a raw 
 material, they would at the present time have 
 little occasion to blush, perhaps, over their petty 
 deceits and subterfuaes. 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 211 
 
 ANALYSES OF SOLUBLE PACIFIC GUANO. 
 
 Percentage, oi' amount contained in 100. 
 
 Water, (expelled at ") 
 2120 Fahrenheit). J 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen in organic ") 
 matter. j 
 
 Potash, soluble in | 
 acidulated water. J 
 
 Phosphoric Acid ^ 
 (anhj^drous), so- 
 luble in water at 
 60O to loo Y. 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 
 phoric Acid (an- 
 hydrous). 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 2d 
 Sample. 
 
 14-20 
 
 14-26 
 
 0-83 
 
 0-87 
 
 1-58 
 
 1-44 
 
 0-46 
 
 0-49 
 
 3-87 
 
 3-74 
 
 11-03 
 
 11-23 
 
 14-23 
 
 0-85 = 1-03 I 
 
 ActualAm- 
 monia. 
 
 1-51 
 
 0-48 
 
 f Superphos- 
 3-81 = 6-28 J phate of 
 I Lime. 
 
 ( BonePhos- 
 11-13^24-30 \ pliate of 
 [ Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses^ we deduce 
 the following amounts contained m a ton, or 2000 
 lbs., together with the value of a ton to the farmer : 
 
 284-60 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 
 20-60 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 '* 5.15 
 
 30-20 " Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 0.15 *' 4.53 
 
 9-60 " Potash @ 0.08 " 0.77 
 
 76-20 *' Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12J '* 9.53 
 
 222-60 *' Insoluble '' '' @ 0.00 " 0.00 
 
 Total value as a fertilizer $19.98 
 
 Value of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $21.98 
 
 The above fertilizer is sold at $50 per ton, in- 
 volving a loss of $28.02, or 128 per cent, to the 
 farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in other 
 words, he pays more than 2i times as much as 
 it is worth. 
 
212 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 SOLUBLE PACIFIC GUANO. 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
 office of the agent of the manufacturers, Phila- 
 delphia. It is put up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; 
 the one purchased weighed 195 lbs., being 5 lbs. 
 deficient Aveight on the bag, or 50 lbs. on the 
 ton. Farmers in purchasing fertilizers should 
 pay particular attention to this matter ; as this 
 fertilizer is sold at 2 J cents per lb., this de- 
 ficiency in weight is a direct loss of $1.25. We 
 have estimated the value of a ton of 2000 lbs. ; 
 this shows a greater value than the deficient 
 weight could demand. As there is a deficiency 
 of 2i per cent, in the weight, to be just, we 
 should deduct the same from the value. The 
 mechanical condition of the fertilizer was good 
 as regards fineness, and can be easily applied 
 with a drill. It contains a large percentage of 
 water, which is a very objectionable feature; 
 every ton contains 284*60 lbs., which the farmer 
 pays 2} cents a pound for, amounting to $7.11 ; 
 to which if we add the $1.25 paid for deficient 
 weight, would make $8.36 paid for what is a 
 direct loss. As this company is represented to 
 sell 20,000 tons yearly, the reader can readily 
 calculate what is made from the sale of the 
 water alone. But this is not a strictly correct 
 i;ho\vin^' of what the fanner pays for the water. 
 
ANALYSES. 213 
 
 We have shown what 136-60 lbs. of the ton is 
 worth to the farmer, as ammonia, nitrogen, pot- 
 ash, and soluble phosphoric acid. Hence, he 
 pays $28.02 for 1863-4 lbs. of water, sand, and 
 other inert substances, which is over li cents 
 per lb. 
 
 We give the following quotations from the 
 circular of the wholesale agents of this Fertilizing 
 Company 
 
 1. **A beneficent Providence has aggregated the crude ele- 
 ments of fertility/ in exhaiistless quantities all over the world — 
 upon islands of-the sea, and in the sea and elsewhere. Nature, 
 however, does not yield her treasures without an equivalent. 
 Coal is found embedded in mountains ; the precious metals are 
 held bound in the quartz rock, and are adapted to the uses for 
 which nature designed them, only at the cost of labor, enterprise 
 and capital. So also these deposits in their natural state are 
 not in condition for practical utility, but modern science has 
 developed methods by which they are capable of the highest 
 utility to the most important of all interests. Hence, v/hile 
 nature furnishes the crude material, and science the method^ 
 still capital, skill, enterprise and labor are required to adapt 
 them to the purposes designed by nature." 
 
 2. " An intelligent pursuit of this business requires a know- 
 ledge of the science of chemistry, especially as applied to 
 agriculture; a knowledge of the physiology of plants, their vital 
 forces, their structure and organism ; a knowledge of the con- 
 stituent elements of vegetable nutrition, of their natural sources 
 of supply, as to whether they be of organic or inorganic origin ; 
 a knowledge of the constituents of the atmosphere and their 
 relations to cultivated plants, of the nature of soils and the 
 conditions in which the elements of fertility may exist; a 
 knowledge of the nature and character of the elements which 
 should enter info the composition of a concentrated fertilizer, 
 their relative proportion etc, ; .a knowledge of the difference 
 
214 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 and value and quality of certain elements which professional 
 chemists call by the same names ; for example, phosphate of 
 Hme, whether mineral or organic, is called phosphate of lime ; 
 potash, whether supphed from felspar or in soluble form, is 
 called potash. In making a report of analyses, chemists are 
 not expected and do not make note of these important differ- 
 ences. They take no note of the fact as to whether ammonia 
 in a fertilizer be in the form of salts, or bo generated from ani- 
 mal organic matter ; hence, published analyses may not give 
 a correct basis of value, for all these questions enter in the 
 consideration." 
 
 3. '' If the business be pursued without these proper qualifica- 
 tions it becomes the subject of quackery, as is the case in other 
 professions. A quack is he who pursues a profession under the 
 guidance of rules and examples, without knowledge of laivs or 
 principles, and is therefore liable to constant blunders and mis- 
 takes. No business partaking of the nature of a profession has 
 been more subject to the intrusions of quackery than this very 
 business of manufacturing fertilizers ; hence it is, that so many 
 fertilizers have been placed upon the markets which have 
 proved so nearly worthless, as on the one hand to involve loss 
 of money and time to the consumer, and on the other to create 
 distrust in their minds of those articles that are brought into 
 market by parties possessing all the requisite qualifications as 
 to knowledge of principles involved, and the facilities afforded 
 by ample material resources." 
 
 Little need be said on these stilted quota- 
 tions, they speak for themselves; and if the 
 reader will compare them with the analyses of 
 their fertilizer, he will be satisfied that they 
 know their duty, but do it not — hence the greater 
 the condemnation. 
 
 Eival manufacturers should feel obliged to 
 this company for showing them the qualifica- 
 tions requisite for a successful prosecution of 
 
ANALYSES. 215 
 
 their business ; and, of course, rather than be 
 stigmatized as quacks^ they will at once qualify 
 themselves accordingly, and then we hope they 
 will feel the additional accountability they have 
 imposed on themselves, and make a better use 
 of their knowledge than the Soluble Pacific 
 Guano Company. 
 
 Their remarks on the practices of Anlytical 
 Chemists are very exceptionable, and demand a 
 few words of explanation. We don't wish to 
 be considered apologists for these chemists — they 
 are getting all they deserve — but it is not right 
 that their profession should be made disreputa- 
 ble on their account. In too many instances 
 they have made willing tools of themselves to 
 advance the interests and further the dishonest 
 practices of these manufacturers ; but after it is 
 done, these manufacturers, in common with 
 other leading swindlers, shoulder all the re- 
 sponsibility on their subordinates. No honest 
 chemist, in rendering an analysis of a fertilizer, 
 would confound the potash as existing in the 
 sulphate or muriate with that of felspar, or with 
 felspar itself; neither would he make use of 
 the combining numbers of gaseous ammonia 
 with one equivalent of water, nor of the com- 
 bining numbers of hydrate of ammonia for those 
 of gaseous ammonia without an explanation, or 
 use such a term as " Soluble Bone Phosphate of 
 
216 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 Lime/' per se ; when this is done, it is the manu- 
 facturer or his agent, not the chemist, that 
 should be accountable. 
 
 This Company can very properly be styled the 
 ^^ Veneering s^^ of the fertilizing business. The 
 large resources of the Company ($1,000,000) 
 are prominently placed before the public; they 
 breathe in every line of their circular ; they are 
 reflected from the plate glass and gilt letters of 
 the luxurious oflBce of their principal agent ; they 
 shine on the face of the porter that handles the 
 bags ; they are on the tongue of every one em- 
 ployed by the Company. But with all these re« 
 sources, these men defraud the farmer of the fruits 
 of his labor. In speaking of the potash used, 
 they say : 
 
 ''Although the existmg war between France and Prussia 
 may interrupt commercial intercourse, supplies already re- 
 ceived by the Company are sufficient to meet its wants. 
 
 "This additional element of value is made at considerable 
 additional cost, but in pursuance of the policy to furnish the 
 best article at the lowest possible cost to consumers, there will 
 be no advance in the price of the Guano." 
 
 "A great cry, but little wool." If the reader 
 will refer to the analyses, he will see that each 
 ton contains a little over Qi lbs. of potash, worth 
 77 cents. This is only a sample of the high- 
 sounding representations of these men, and shows 
 the margin that should be allowed on their state- 
 ments. It is due to the public that they furnish 
 an analysis of their fertilizer. 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 217 
 
 ANALYSES OF BAUGH & SONS' EAW BONE 
 
 SUPERPHOSPHATE. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 2.1 
 Sample. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Water (expelled at | 
 2 120 Fahrenheit).} 
 
 7-71 
 
 7-50 
 
 7-61 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-22 
 
 0-22 :- 0-27 J ^''*''^^^'^- 
 \ monia. 
 
 1-00 
 
 Nitrogen in organic ) 
 matter. j 
 
 0-95 
 
 1-04 
 
 Potash, soluble in | 
 acidulated water, j 
 
 
 
 
 trace 
 
 trac« 
 
 trace 
 
 Phosphoric Acid"] 
 
 
 
 / Ruperphos- 
 
 (anhydrous), so- 
 
 3-36 
 
 3-34 
 
 3-35 = b -52] P^^^® ^^ 
 
 luble in water, 
 
 
 
 ( Tjime. 
 
 at 60O to 70O F. 
 
 
 
 
 Insoluble Phospho- Y 
 
 
 
 / Bone Phos- 
 
 ric Acid (ax-ihy- >• 
 
 9-25 
 
 9-46 
 
 9'36^20-43] pirate of 
 
 drous). J 
 
 
 
 ( Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, or 
 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to th<> 
 farmer : 
 
 152-20 lbs. 
 
 Water @ $0.00 per lb. 
 
 $0.00 
 
 5-40 '* 
 
 Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 
 
 1.35 
 
 20-00 " 
 
 Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 0.15 ** 
 
 3.00 
 
 (< 
 
 Trace Potash @ 0.08 " 
 
 0.00 
 
 67-00 '' 
 
 Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12^ " 
 
 8.38 
 
 187-20 *' 
 
 Insoluble " '' @ 0.00 " 
 
 0.00 
 
 Total value as a fertilizer $12.73 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $14.73 
 
 The above Superphosphate is sold at $50 per 
 ton, involving a loss of $0 5. 2 7, or more than 239 
 per cent, to the farmer on every ton he pur- 
 chases ; or, in other words, he pays more than 
 3i times what it is worth. 
 
218 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 BAUGH AND SONS' RAW BONE SUPER- 
 PHOSPHATE. 
 
 The Superphosphate, from which the sam- 
 ples for analyses were selected, was purchased at 
 the manufacturers' office, Philadelphia. This 
 fertilizer is put up in bags marked 160 lbs. ; the 
 bag purchased weighed 158 lbs. The mechani- 
 cal condition of this fertilizer was bad ; it had 
 formed in hard lumps in the bags, requiring con- 
 siderable force to pulverize. 
 
 We make the following quotations from the 
 circulars of the manufacturers, and from the 
 " Journal of the Farm," published also by them : 
 
 1 " That the standard of our Eaw Bone Superphosphate 
 has never been hnpaired, but that we have constantly sought 
 to improve its vakie as a •permanent Bone Manure by every 
 facility at our command." 
 
 2. " It is better than Peruvian Guano, because it does not 
 over-stimulate the soil. It has less Ammonia than Peruvian, 
 but it has Ammonia enough for all the purposes of a crop, and 
 more Ammonia than this does more harm than good." 
 
 3. '*It is>better than any Guano, or mixture of Guanos, or 
 any Superphosphate we are acquainted with, because being 
 made of Bone, it remains active in the soil, and continues to 
 produce crops year after year, which farmers well know is not 
 the case with other • quick-acting and easily exhausted Phos- 
 phates." 
 
 4. "It has never been the policy nor aim of the manufactu- 
 rers of Baugh's Raw Bone Phosphate to push forward their 
 article by any extraordinary means, nor by disparaging any 
 of the other excellent manures and guanos in the American 
 market." — Journal of the Farm. 
 
ANALYSES. 219 
 
 5. '' Bone is the natural fertilizer, intended by Provi- 
 dence to keep up the fertility." 
 
 6. " The best manure is the cheapest. ... At the 
 present high price of all kinds of fertilizers, it is very poor 
 economy to remain uninformed of the quality and character 
 of the manures used." 
 
 7. "The price of the article, at the present rate of the raw 
 material, is placed as low as it is possible to afford a manure of 
 like standard ; the constant desire of the manufacturers being 
 to furnish to farmers an article of a high quality, at as low 
 rate as the most prudent and economical could not object to." 
 
 8. " It is the cheapest fertilizer now before the public. — 
 This is substantiated by the careful experiments of thousands 
 of practical farmers in the United States, and the same con- 
 clusion may be arrived at by those who will compare the per- 
 centage and price of any fertilizer ofiered in the market." 
 
 9. ''It must be borne in mind, however, in making this cal- 
 culation, that Phosphate of Lime is valuable only in such form 
 or combination as will act directly and effectually upon the 
 soil. There are many fertilizers said to contain a large per- 
 centage, which are almost useless or inoperative, by reason of 
 this insolubility or connection with deleterious substances." 
 
 10. *' In Baugh's ' Kaw Bone Phosphate,' the Phosphate of 
 Lime is in its purest and most effective form, and acts imme- 
 diately and directly without any counteracting influence." 
 
 11. •' The reason of this is, -that it is made fvoin pure bones ; 
 the original animal matter being present, and not having been 
 extracted by burning, steaming, or any of the processes to 
 which nearly all the bones sold to farmers are subjected." 
 
 12. . . "In the process of manufacturing, the animal mat- 
 ter of the ' Raw Bone ' is converted into Ammonia, and the 
 Phosphate of Lime which it contains is rendered sufficiently 
 soluble to act upon the growing plant." 
 
 13. "And these two important agents begin to act at once, tho 
 Ammonia making the leaf and stalk, and the Phosphate of 
 Lime making the grain." 
 
 14. " Neither * Stable Manure' ' GuanOy nor any ' Super- 
 phosphate,' or other preparations with which we are acquainted, 
 
 15 
 
220 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 will at all compare with ' Baugh's Raw Bone Phosphate ' in 
 its lasting effects, as a crop producer and permanent improver 
 of the soil." 
 
 Messrs. Dugdale and Girvin, of Baltimore, are 
 the wholesale agents for Baugh's Raw Bone 
 Phosphate. We quote the following from their 
 circular in relation to this fertilizer : 
 
 " In again offering to the agricultural community this well 
 known Fertilizer, it is only necessary for us to say that it is 
 
 HIGHLY IMPROVED AND BETTER THAN EVER." 
 
 " The basis of its manufacture is, as formerly, pure Raw 
 Bone." 
 
 ** It has more Soluble Phosphate — hence is quicker in its 
 action.'^ 
 
 " Although second to none, and superior to many other Ferti- 
 lizers, its price is lower than most articles of similar valued 
 
 ANALYSIS! 
 
 Soluble Bone Phosphate 14-10 
 
 Sol^ble i^ the soil 19-64 
 
 Aifln^onia 3-16 
 
 The reader will notice that the chemist's sig- 
 nature is wanting; and as no honest, capable 
 chemist would make use of such terms as " Solu- 
 ble Bone Phosphate/' or " Soluble in the soil " 
 without an explanation, the above " analysis " 
 is open to very grave suspicion. 
 
 Note. — One of the authors having been in the employ of 
 Messrs. Baugh & Sons for a number of years, the authors, 
 from a feeling of delicacy, forbear criticising or censuring either 
 their circular or product ; otherwise, they might do so with 
 great propriety. 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 221 
 
 ANALYSES OF E. FRANK COE'S SUPP^RPHOS- 
 PHATE OF LIME. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contaiyied in 100. 
 
 Water (expelled at ] 
 2120 Fahrenheit), j 
 
 Nitrogen . . 
 
 Nitrogen in organic 
 matter 
 
 Potash, soluble m 
 acidulated water, 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 (anhydrous), sol- 
 uble in water at j 
 60Oto70OF J 
 
 Insoluble Phospho-") 
 ric Acid (anhy- V 
 drous) ) 
 
 lie I 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 2(i 
 S'luiple. 
 
 13-00 
 
 13-11 
 
 0-55 
 
 0-51 
 
 1-35 
 
 1-43 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 6-39 
 
 6-53 
 
 8-29 
 
 8-32 
 
 Mean. 
 
 :0-64 
 
 j Actual Am- 
 1 monia. 
 
 1306 
 0-53= 
 1-39 
 
 trace 
 
 f Superphos- 
 6-46-=10-64S phate of 
 I Lime. 
 
 [ Bone Phos- 
 8-31=18-14 j phate of 
 I Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 261-20 lbs. Water >• . . @ 
 
 12-80 " Actual Ammonia. @ 
 
 27-80 " Nitrogen in organic mat. (^ 
 
 129-20 " Soluble Phos. Acid @ 
 
 166-20 " Insoluble " " ..,, (a) 
 
 $ 0.00 per lb. $ 0.00 
 
 0.25 " 3.20 
 
 0.15 " 4.17 
 
 0.12i '* 16.15 
 
 0.00 " 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $23.52 
 
 Value of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $25.52 
 
 The above Superphosphate is sold at $52 per 
 ton, involving a loss of $26.48, or nearly 104 
 per cent, to the farmer on every ton he pur- 
 chases ; or, in other words, he pays more than 
 twice as much as it is worth. 
 
222 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 E. FRANK COE'S SUPERPHOSPHATE 
 OF LIME. 
 
 The above Superphosphate, from which sam- 
 ples for analyses were selected, was purchased 
 from Graham, Emlen & Passmore, the manufac- 
 turers agents, Philadelphia. Its mechanical con- 
 dition was good, and we should think it could be 
 easily applied with a drill. We select the fol- 
 lowing analyses from the manufacturer s circu- 
 lar ; the first was made by Dr. G. A. Liebig, Bal- 
 timore, dated August 3d, 1854. The second was 
 made by Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale Col- 
 lege, dated May 23d, 1865. If the reader will 
 compare these analyses with the analyses of this 
 Superphosphate as purchased by us, he will see 
 how this celebrated fertilizer has gradually de- 
 teriorated in value ; comment is unnecessary : 
 
 ANALYSIS BY -DR LIEBIG, GIVES : 
 
 Phosphoric Acid contained in Biphosphate of Lime, 12-11 
 
 Pliosphoric Acid free (anhydrous) 4*80 
 
 Total Phosphoric acid (soluble) 16*91 
 
 Phosphate of Iron and Ammonia 0*34 
 
 Alkaline Salts -41 
 
 Organic matter capable of producing Ammonia 3-65 
 
 "Water as Moisture and Loss 15-87 
 
 ANALYSIS BY PROFESSOR JOHNSON, GIVES : 
 
 Water expelled at 212° 12-18 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric Acid 9-43 
 
 Insoluble Phosphoric Acid 1-G5 
 
 Ammonia in organic and volatile mutters 2-76 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 223 
 
 ANALYSES OF MORO PHILLIPS' PHUINE. 
 
 Ferceyitaqe, or amount coniawed in 100. 
 
 Water (expelled at|^ 
 2120 Fahrenheit). I 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Nitrogen in organic 
 matter. 
 
 Potash, soluble in 
 acidulated water, 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 (anhydrous), sol- 
 uble in water at 
 60O to 70° F. 
 
 Insoluble Phospho- 
 ric Acid (anhy- 
 drous). 
 
 :} 
 
 1st 
 
 2iid 
 
 Sample. 
 
 Sainpltt. 
 
 7'88 
 
 7-7G 
 
 017 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-93 
 
 0-95 
 
 0-94 
 
 0-88 
 
 2-71 
 
 2-65 
 
 13-89 
 
 13-97 
 
 f Actual Am- 
 1 monia. 
 
 7-82 
 
 0-18-=0'22 
 
 0-94 
 
 0-91 
 
 Super phos- 
 2-68=4-42 \ phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 Bone Phos- 
 13-93^=30-41-^ phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses^ we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs. ^ together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 156-40 lbs. Water 
 
 4*40 " Actual Ammonia 
 
 18*80 *' Nitrogen in organic mat.. .. 
 
 18-20 *' Potash 
 
 53-60 " Soluble Phos. Acid. 
 278-60 '' Insoluble " " . 
 
 50.00 per lb. $0.00 
 0.25 " LIO 
 0.15 " 2.82 
 0.08 *' 1.46 
 0.12^ " 6.70 
 0.00 " 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $1-2.08 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $14.08 
 
 The above Fertilizer is sold at $50 per ton, in- 
 volving a loss of $35. 92, or 255 percent., to the far- 
 mer on every ton he purchases; or, in other words, 
 he pays for it 3i times as much as it is worth. 
 
224 
 
 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 ANALYSES OF MORO PHILLIPS' GENUINE 
 PROVED SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 
 
 Percentage, or mnount contained in 100. 
 
 IM- 
 
 Water(expelledat 
 2120 Fah.) 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen in or- 
 ganic matter. 
 
 Potash, soluble in ) 
 acidulated water J 
 
 Phosphoric Acid ^ 
 (anhydrous), I 
 soluble in water f 
 at 60O to 70O F. J 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 
 phoric Acid 
 (anhydrous). 
 
 l8t 
 
 Sample. 
 
 2d 
 Sample. 
 
 12-40 
 
 12-42 
 
 0-26 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-39 
 
 0-42 
 
 0-80 
 
 0-74 
 
 4-63 
 
 4-54 
 
 13-21 
 
 13-40 
 
 Mean. 
 
 12-41 
 0-24: 
 0-41 
 
 0-77 
 
 =0-29 I 
 
 Actual Am 
 inonia. 
 
 C Superphos- 
 4*59= 7*56 < phate of 
 (^ Lime. 
 
 TBonePhos- 
 13-31=:2906 -] phate of 
 (^ Lime. 
 
 • From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 248-20 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 
 .5-80 
 
 8-20 
 
 15-40 
 
 91-80 
 
 266-20 
 
 Actual Ammonia 
 
 Nitrogen in organic mat.. 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soluble Plios. Acid 
 
 Insoluble " " 
 
 @ 
 Co) 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.12^ 
 
 0.00 
 
 1.45 
 1.23 
 1.23 
 
 11.48 
 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $15-39 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $17-39 
 
 The above Superphosphate is sold at $50 per 
 ton, involving a loss of $32. 61, or 188 per cent, 
 to the farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
 other words, he pays for it nearly 2tV times as 
 much as it is worth. 
 
ANALYSES. 225 
 
 MORO PHILLIPS' GENUINE IMPROVED 
 SUPERPHOSPHATE OP LIME. 
 
 The above Superphospliate, from which the 
 samples for analyses were selected, was j)urchased 
 from the manufacturer at his office in Philadel- 
 phia. It is put up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; 
 the one purchased weighed 200 lbs. The 
 Phuine was purchased at the works of the man- 
 ufacturer in Camden. It is put up in bags 
 marked 200 lbs. ; the one purchased weighed 
 196 lbs. The mechanical condition of both the 
 Superphosphate and the Phuine was very good, 
 and we should judge that they could be easily ap- 
 plied with a drill. We give the following quo- 
 tations from the circular of the manufacturer, 
 showing what he modestly claims for his " Genu- 
 ine Improved Superphosphate of Lime." Of the 
 Phuine, he says nothing. Our analyses of the 
 latter will fully show its claims, 
 
 " l^Calling the attention of buyers to this highly concen- 
 trated genuine Superphosphate, I guarantee it to be as repre- 
 sented." 
 
 ''I CLAIM, 
 
 " First. — That it contains less moisture than any other in 
 the market. The ingredients of this Superphosphate are Bone 
 Phosphate, Sulphuric Acid and Ammonia." 
 
 "Second. — It is more uniform in quality, one bag being a fair 
 sample of 10,000 tons." 
 
 "Third. — It contains more agricultural value than any other 
 Superphosphate of Lime in the market." 
 
 " Fourth. — The desire of the manufacturer to maintain his 
 
226 AxMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 high reputation as a manufacturer of acids and other ch ?mi 
 cals, as well as the manufacturer of the best Superphosphate, 
 is a safe ground of assurance that it will ahvays be uniformly 
 excellent ; and a further guarantee of uniformity is, that it is 
 always made in the same way from one source, and that its 
 ource is unlimited in extent, and under his entire control." 
 
 " Fifth. — The consumer can depend upon always receiving a 
 uniform article." 
 
 "I recommend this article with confidence, because T know 
 what it is, and have experience as to its effects. The value of 
 a real Supherphosphate of Lime as a fertilizer is well known, 
 both in this country and Europe. In England alone, more 
 than ONE HUNDRED thousand tons are annually sold. I intro- 
 duce this article to farmers in general as a staple and standard 
 article, intending to make it a permanent trade." 
 
 " Examine carefully the brand on each barrel and bag ; by 
 paying attention to this you will never be deceived into buying 
 a worthless article." 
 
 ■ *' The proprietor had to overcome at first the great predju- 
 dice existing to Superphosphates in general, as there had been 
 so many spurious articles in the market of late years ; but he is 
 happy to say, he has succeeded in doing so, and the only way 
 now to retain the returning confidence of agriculturists, is to 
 keep true to his promise and keep his Superphosphate to its 
 standard." 
 
 " Caution to Buyers, 
 
 '* Observe that my name and place of manufacture are on 
 each and every package, none other being genuine. I will 
 guarantee the quality of every package sold by me, and if any 
 manufacturer or dealer should be induced, by the reputation 
 of my article, to palm a spurious imitation of it on the public, 
 it will be my business to detect and punish him. Should this 
 book reach any parties who have sold or used, or who may 
 hereafter use my Superphosphate, and should it not fulfil all 
 it professes to do, they have full liberty to contradict my 
 assertions, and I will cheerfully bear all the expenses of tlie 
 same." '• Moro Phillips, 
 
 *' Sole Froprietor and Manufacturer," 
 
ANALYSES. 227 
 
 This manufacturer makes great pretensions 
 of the quality and standard of his Superphos- 
 phate ; but unfortunately he has not stated in his 
 circulars what this quality and standard is, or 
 given an analysis; consequently, we are com- 
 pelled to take our analyses of his Superphosphate 
 as our guide in deciding this matter, from which 
 showing we feel compelled to state that the 
 standard is low and the quality bad, and at the 
 price at which it is sold, is a shameful imposi- 
 tion on the farmer ; and also that the manufac- 
 turer should look at home, instead of censuring 
 rival manufacturers, or, in other words, ^^ He 
 should take the beam out of his own eye, to ena- 
 ble him to see clearly to take the mote out of 
 his brother's eye." And we think the agricultural 
 community will consider it the duty of the manu- 
 facturer to elevate the standard and improve 
 the quality of his Superphosphate, if that be 
 pdssible^ rather than keep it at its present 
 grade. When he does this, he will discover that 
 it is not necessary to blow his own trumpet as 
 long and as loud as he has done. 
 
 Little need be said of the Phuine ; it is sold 
 at the same price as the Superphosphate, and 
 hence, the reader can see by the analyses, that 
 it is even a greater swindle than the latter. 
 
228 
 
 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 ANALYSES OF ''THE EXCELLENZA AMMONIATED 
 SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE." 
 
 Percentage, or amount contaiiied in 100. 
 
 Water (expelled at | 
 2120 Fahrenheit) j 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Nitrogen in or- ] 
 ganic matter . . J 
 
 Potash, soluble in ) 
 acidulated water. ) 
 
 Phosphoric Acid ^ 
 (anhydrous), sol- | 
 uble in water at j 
 60Oto 70OF... J 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 
 phoric Acid (an- 
 hydrous) 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 2d 
 Sample. 
 
 13-86 
 
 13-79 
 
 0-55 
 
 0-57 
 
 2-41 
 
 2-31 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 9-71 
 
 9-84 
 
 1-68 
 
 1-57 
 
 Mean. 
 
 13-83 
 
 0-56 -=0 
 2-36 
 
 trace 
 9-78==16' 
 
 -68 I 
 
 Actual Am- 
 monia. 
 
 ■"{ 
 
 1-63 =-3-56 
 
 Superphos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 Bone Phos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 276-60 lbs. Water. 
 13-60 
 47-20 
 
 195-60 
 32-60 
 
 Actual Ammonia (db 
 
 Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 
 Trace Potash @ 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric Acid.. @ 
 Insoluble '' " (cb 
 
 )0.00perlb. 
 
 $ 0.00 
 
 0.25 " 
 
 3.40 
 
 0.15 " 
 
 7.08 
 
 0.08 '' 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.12i " 
 
 24.45 
 
 0.00 '' 
 
 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $34.93 
 
 Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $36.93 
 
 The above fertilizer is sold at $56 per ton, in- 
 volving a loss of $19.07, or 52 per cent, to the 
 farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in other 
 words, he pays for it more than li times as 
 much as it is worth. 
 
ANALYSES. 229 
 
 THE EXCELLENZA AMMONIATED 
 SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE. 
 
 The above phosphate, from which samples 
 for analyses were selected, was purchased from 
 Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin, Baltimore. It is put 
 up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; the one purchased 
 weighed 198 lbs. Its mechanical condition was 
 good. Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin state in their 
 circular that : 
 
 " We have been at special pains in the manufacture of the ' Ex- 
 cellenza,' to produce a greater amount of soluble material for the 
 price, than any other fertilizer with which we are acquainted." 
 
 They also give an endorsement and analysis 
 of Professor Chandler, as follows : 
 
 ** School or Mines, Columbia College. 
 '' New Yokk, September 26, 1870. 
 "I have examined the 'Excellenza' ammoniated superphos- 
 phate of lime, and find it to be an excellent article, containing from 
 14 to 15 per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid, which is a veri/ 
 unusual percentage. It also contains a very good percentage 
 of ammonia, or ammonia-producing materials. li {s one of the 
 best fertilizers in the market, and is superior to most of the other 
 superphosphates. " C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., 
 
 '^Prof Analytical and Applied Chemistry ^ 
 
 CP]RTIFICATE OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 New York, August 11, 1870. 
 The sample of "Excellenza Ammoniated Soluble Phosphate," 
 submitted to me for examination, contains, 
 
 Ammonia (N.H. 4-0) 4;16 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric Acid 14*45 
 
 Equal to Soluble Bone Phosphate 31*50 
 
 Insoluble Phosphoric Acid 0*26 
 
 Equal to Insoluble Bone Phosphate, . . 0*62 
 
 Respectfully, your obedient servant, 
 (Signed), C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., 
 
 Prof. Analytical and Applied Chemistry, 
 
230 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 We are at a loss to know whether the Pro- 
 fessor, in rendering the soluble phosphoric acid, 
 has reference to the hydrated or the anJiydrous 
 acid. If we regard it as hydrated' phosphoric 
 acid, and compare the Professor's analysis with 
 our analyses, the similarity is quite striking, for 
 14*45 per cent, of hydrated phosphoric acid 
 correspond to 10*47 of the anliydrous acid, and 
 10*47 oi anliydrous phosphoric acid, or 14*45 of 
 the hydrated^ are equal to 22*86 of bone j)hosphate 
 of lime rendered soluhle^ not "31*50" (31*54). 
 If the 14*45 per cent, represent anliydrous phos- 
 phoric acid, then 31*54, representing the amount 
 of bone phosphate of lime rendered soluble^ is 
 correct, and the three analyses show conclusively 
 how the " Excellenza " during the few months 
 of its existence has depreciated in value as re- 
 gards its phosphoric acid. 
 
 Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin are deserving of all 
 credit in manufacturing and introducing this 
 fertilizer ; and there should be no necessity of any 
 subterfuge in recommending it to the public. 
 Truthful, candid statements are all that is 
 needed ; and if Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin will 
 conform to these, and discard the trickeries of 
 the fertilizing business as it now is, we doubt not 
 that their efforts will be crowned with success, 
 and they themselves will be convinced that 
 ^^ honesty " in this business, as well as in all 
 others, " is the best policy." 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 231 
 
 ANALYSES OF BOWERS COMPLETE MANURE. 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 Water (expelled at ] 
 
 2120 Fahrenheit)] 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Nitrogen in or- ] 
 ganic matter . . i 
 
 Potash, soluble in -j 
 acidulated water j 
 
 Phosphoric Acid^ 
 (anhydrous), sol- i 
 able in water at ( 
 60O to 70O F . . . J 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 
 phoric Acid (an- 
 hydrous) 
 
 l8t 
 
 Sample. 
 
 2.1 
 Sample. 
 
 7-30 
 
 7-22 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-60 
 
 0-70 
 
 0-95 
 
 0-90 
 
 2-07 
 
 1-91 
 
 20-42 
 
 20-28 
 
 7-26 
 
 0-20 == 0-24 j 
 
 0-65 
 
 0-93 
 
 1-99 ==3-28 
 
 20-35^44-43 
 
 Actual Am- 
 monia. 
 
 Superphos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 Bone Phos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
 duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 145-20 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 
 4-80 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 1.20 
 
 1300 " Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 0.15 " 1.95 
 
 18-60 " Potash.. @ 0.08 '' 1.49 
 
 39-80 " Soluble Phosphoric Acid . . @ 0.12i " 4.98 
 
 407-00 '' Insoluble " " . . @ 0.00 " 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $ 9.62 
 
 Value of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $11.62 
 
 The above manure is sold at $52 per ton, in- 
 volving a loss of $10.38, or 348 per cent, to the 
 farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, for manure 
 alone, he pays 5i times as much as it is worth. 
 
232 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 BOWER'S COMPLETE MANURE. 
 
 The above manure, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased from 
 Messrs. Dixon, Sharpless & Co.. Philadelphia. 
 It is put up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; the one pur- 
 chased weighed 190 lbs., being 10 lbs. less than 
 it sliould have weighed, or a deficiency of 100 
 lbs. to the ton. The mechanical condition of 
 the manure was good. The following quota- 
 tions from the manufacturer's circular will be 
 valuable to the reader, from which he can make 
 his own deductions 
 
 No. 1. " All will of course agree that farm-yard or stable 
 manure is a good fertilizer, yet unless it is properly rotted or 
 prepared, and kept from the washing rains, its good qualities 
 may be much impaired, and within my own experience but few 
 farmers pay enough attention to the important point of having 
 the manure in such a place as to prevent being leached out by 
 rains. Take the best stable manure, however, and make a com- 
 parison by analysis of its virtues with that of an artificial fertil- 
 izer, as the ' Complete Manure,' it is found, estimating the cost 
 (delivered) of farm-yard manure at $5.00 per' ton, and the 
 * Complete Manure ' at $60.00, (delivered,) that the actual 
 value of the ' Complete Manure ' to the farmer is more than 
 double its cost, when compared with the very best farm-yard 
 manure." 
 
 No. 2. "It must be borne in mind, that in order to achieve 
 the results obtained by the ' Complete Manure,' a consider- 
 able proportion of the constituents must be in a form to make 
 them be taken up at once by the rootlets of the plant ; that is 
 to say, they must he easily dissolved in the water contained in 
 the soil. It is true, that Nature, among all her other wonders, 
 has provided means to render soluble these constituents, but 
 the process has wisely been made a slow one ; the chemist can 
 
ANALYSES. 233 
 
 provide the means to make sufficient for the growing crop 
 dissolvable, the balance remaining in the soil to be acted upon 
 by the air and water of the soil to provide food for future crops.' 
 
 No. 3. " A benefit derived from the use of a powerful man 
 ure, such as the ' Complete Manure,' is that it forces the young 
 plant forward by reason of the large amount of soluble matter 
 it contains. 'J'he importance of this cannot well be overesti 
 mated, as the plant soon reaches that degree of strength and 
 toughness which will prevent an early frost from injuring, or 
 some insect from devouring it ; hence it may be said to be par- 
 ticularly applicable to cotton, tobacco, wheat, corn, potatoes, 
 and other root vegetables, as all the young plants of these are 
 subject to the ravages of the insect, or the blight of the frost.* 
 
 No. 4. " In manufactured manures, much of their agricultural 
 value depends upon the mechanical condition in which they are 
 supplied, the extent to which the component parts have beer, 
 pulverized and intermixed ; the richest manure, chemically speak 
 ing, will be of little use unless it is moderately dry, reduced to 
 fine powder, and its constituents thoroughly incorporated. This 
 must be borne in mind in judging of the value of a manure, and 
 a proportionate price ought to be allowed for the degree of com- 
 pleteness with which these matters have been attended to. Al- 
 though in theory the production of an artificial fertilizer is a 
 very simple matter, in practice it is found somewhat trouble- 
 some, from the difficulty of producing a manageable article, and 
 a great deal of experience and skill are required to prepare a 
 manure of the requisite chemical strength, and mechanical 
 condition." 
 
 No. 5. " In speaking with farmers during the past season, 
 many complaints have been met with of the inefficiency of some 
 superphosphates, prepared guanos, poudrettes, and other so- 
 called manures, some of them with high-sounding titles, having 
 failed to produce the results their manufacturers claimed they 
 would give. This has, no doubt, in some instances been the re- 
 sult of a bad season, or bad farming, or some untoward cause 
 which is unaccountable ; but there is good reason to fear that 
 it has been the result of adulteration.^' 
 
 No. 6. "'J'he adulteration of manures, as indeed of all other 
 articles of commerce, is a practice that cannot be too strongly 
 
234 AMERICAN xAIANURES. 
 
 condemned ; and it is much to be regretted that the laws of this 
 country afford too many chances for successfully carrying on 
 this species of fraud." 
 
 No. 7. " In the case of manures their adulteration is attended 
 with several evils besides the more direct one of robbing those 
 who purchase the adulterated article. The fact of manures 
 being known to be extensively adulterated tends to restrict 
 their use, and to withhold the good that a more extended use 
 of these materials is calculated to confer both on the farmer 
 and on the community. For the same reason the trade of 
 honest manufacturers is injured and confined. Under the 
 name of manures all kinds of mixtures are sold, often worth but 
 a fraction of the price paid for them, and in too many instances 
 altogether worthless. The frauds practised by dishonest man- 
 ure dealers consist of diluting or weakening of standard man- 
 ures — by the admixture of less valuable or worthless material, 
 as tanner's bark, road or street scrapings, old mortar, spent 
 wood-ashes, coal ashes, or other material ; and in order to give 
 them apparent value, animal matter with a horrid stench is 
 mixed with these in some instances (many persons are induced 
 to think that a manure, in order to be good, must have a vile 
 smell, than which there can be no greater mistake). Such mix- 
 tures are brought into the market as new compounds under all 
 sorts of high-flown names, which often indicate properties in 
 every way the reverse of those possessed by the so-called man- 
 ures they represent." 
 
 No. 8. '• By a rudimentary knowledge of Chemistry, manures 
 can be tested with sufficient accuracy to assure their genuine- 
 ness ; various operations upon the farm can be wonderfully im- 
 proved by studying Nature's processes, for in these we see the 
 working of the Divine hand, at once so wonderful, so simple, 
 and so well adapted to the wants of mankind. In Mechanics, 
 we have a help which is daily being increased, by the genius of 
 our people, and the farmer can, by devising various simple 
 changes in machines, no doubt increase their usefulness, or the 
 uses of them." 
 
 No. 9. " I do not forget that science is in its infancy; there 
 are numerous secrets which Nature refuses to give up, and 
 which, with all the chemical and mechanical aids available, the 
 
ANALYSES. 235 
 
 most arduous researches have not been able to get from her, 
 except by degrees ; as fresh discoveries come to Hght, I will 
 make every effort to take advantage of them in improving the 
 * Complete Manure,' while farmers can at all times rely upon 
 receiving ' the worth of their money ' when purchasing it." 
 
 After the above, a brief breathing pause should 
 be allowed to our readers. Such an extensive 
 knowledge of Chemistry, as applied to Agricul- 
 ture, should enable Mr. Bower to produce a 
 " Complete Manure." But if our readers will 
 compare these remarks of Mr. Bower with our 
 analyses of his " Complete Manure," the ap- 
 plication of the Fable of the mountain in labor^ 
 when '^ itascitur ridiculas mus'' (a miserable 
 mouse was brought forth), will be appreciated. 
 
 TESTIMONIALS. 
 
 No. 1. " Messrs. Booth & Garrett, of Philadelphia, Chemists 
 of high respectability, say, in speaking of the ' Complete Ma- 
 nure,' in a note to Messrs. Dixon, Sharpless & Co., dealers in 
 fertilizers : 
 
 " The constitution of the above indicates a decided advance 
 in the composition of a fertilizer, by the introduction of a con- 
 siderable percentage of Potassa, and countenances the claim in- 
 volved in the name ' Complete Manure.' " 
 
 No. 2. " The report upon the ' Complete ManurS,' made by 
 Messrs. "Williams & Moss, of Philadelphia, Chemists of large 
 experience in the analysis of fertilizers, says : 
 
 '* We find from an analysis of your ' Complete Manure,' that 
 the name you have given it is certainly warranted by its 
 chemical composition ; in addition to thus cordially recommend- 
 ing your fertilizer from a chemical stand point, we should state 
 that its mechanical condition is most excellent, being such as to 
 admit of its use in the drill without further preparation." 
 16 
 
236 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 No. 3. "Mining and Assay Office and Chemical Labora- 
 tory, No. 57 Broadway, opposite Exchange 
 Place, New York, October 10th, 1867. 
 " Henry Bower, Esq., Philadelphia. 
 
 " Dear Sir: — Eaclosed please find results of an analysis of a 
 sample of yonr ' Complete Manure,' taken from Dixon & 
 Sharpless' warehouse, September 25th. 
 
 " These results show at a glance the great merit your article 
 possesses as a fertilizer, and warrant the opinion that it will 
 take a leading rank among manures. The liberal proportions 
 of soluble phosphoric acid, ammonia and potash, afford to soil 
 a large amount of nutriment immediately available to growing 
 crops, while the remainder of the phosphoric acid, becoming 
 gradually soluble through atmospheric influences, assures a 
 lasting supply of plant food. 
 
 " The introduction of potash, and the nice adjustment of the 
 proportions of the- above ingredients, render the name you 
 have given your fertilizer particularly appropriate, as it con- 
 tains all the elements necessary to insure success, and I am 
 confident that wherever it is used its reputation will rapidly 
 extend. " Kespectfully yours, 
 
 " C. Elton Buck." 
 
 No. 4. " Office State Geological Survey, 
 
 New Brunswick, N. J., July 15th, 1869. 
 
 *' Dear Sir : — Your letter of May 20th was duly received. 
 The five bags of your * Complete Manure ' so generously sent 
 to the College Farm were also duly received. For this donation 
 I desire to tender the thanks of the Trustees of the College, and 
 to say that it was immediately used in trials upon corn, beets, 
 and carrots, and on potatoes ; and also it has been subjected to 
 chemical analysis. The results of these will be given in the 
 annual report upon the farm, which is made to the Legislature, 
 and is printed and circulated extensively throughout the Slate. 
 An earlier acknowledgment ought to have been made, but it 
 has been delayed so as to send the chemical analysis, and that, 
 though long expected, has but recently been completed. The 
 crops upon which the ' Manure ' was tried are looking well. The 
 results of the analysis show it to be a valuable fertilizer, and aH 
 
ANALYSES. 237 
 
 that I have heard of it is in its favor. I hope to send you fur 
 ther reports of it in the course of the season. 
 " Eespectfully yours, 
 
 *' George H. Cook, 
 " To Henry Bower, Esq. State Geologist." 
 
 No. 5. "Laboratory of thr Medical College, Queen 
 
 STREET, Charleston, S. G., December 9th, 1869. 
 
 ** This article certainly deserves the name it bears, i. e., of a 
 
 Complete Manure — furnishing to the plant all the important 
 
 elements of its food. 
 
 " Cfiarles U. Shepard, M. D. 
 Inspector of Fertilizers for South CarohnaJ* 
 
 No. 6. 'Savannah, Ga., February 1st, 1870. 
 
 " I take pleasure in saying that the accompanying analysis of 
 Bower's Complete Manure, made for Messrs. Hacker & Molony, 
 Savannah, Ga., warrants our confidence in its fertilizing proper- 
 ties. Its amount of Ammonia, and its excellent supply of 
 Phosphoric Acid, in a soluble state, will ensure the early growth 
 and development of the plant, together with a fine fruitage, to 
 which the Phosphoric Acid mainly contributes, and these re- 
 sults may be expected for the first year, while the amount of in- 
 soluble Phosphate remaining in the soil will, by slow chemical 
 reaction going on during the suceeding Fall and Winter, pre- 
 pare the land for a better crop during the year. 
 
 "A Means, Inspector." 
 
 The farmer after reading the above testimo- 
 nials and comparing them with the analyses of 
 the ^^ Complete Manure " furnished by lis, would 
 naturally be induced to ask the following ques- 
 tions : Where are the analyses of the '^ Complete 
 Manure " furnished by these gentlemen ? Is it 
 excessive modesty, or some other motive, that 
 prevents Mr. Bower from publishing them 2 Was 
 
238 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 the "Complete Manure " made of a hettei' quality^ 
 at the time these testimonials were given, than 
 it is at present ? If it was not, what are we to 
 characterize these chemists, who knowingly allow 
 their names to be used to encourage the perpetra- 
 tion of such a great fraud ? If these chemists 
 gave candid and honest statements at the time, 
 and its present deterioration is due to Mr. Bower, 
 we think it is due to those of them that are 
 honest and capable, and most of whose opinions 
 should have weight with the community, and also 
 to Mr. Bower himself, if he desires to he con- 
 sidered an honest man^ at once to withdraw these 
 testimonials, and modify his circular so as to 
 bring its statements within the bounds of truth ; 
 or, if this be distasteful to him, let him make 
 reparation to his customers, and in the future 
 manufacture a better article than was sold to us 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 239 
 
 ANALYSES OF THE PATAP8C0 GUANO COM- 
 PANY'S AMMONIATED SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE! 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 Water (expelled at ] 
 2120Fahrenheit). J 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen in organic | 
 matter. j 
 
 Potash, soluble in ") 
 acidulated water. J 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 (anhydrous), sol- 
 uble in water at 
 60O to 70O R 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 
 phoric Acid (an- 
 hydrous). 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 14-97 
 
 2ncl 
 Sample. 
 
 15-06 
 
 0-73 
 
 0-82 
 
 1-54 
 
 1-58 
 
 0-62 
 
 0-65 
 
 8-43 
 
 8-21 
 
 6-56 
 
 6-69 
 
 15-02 
 
 0-78 =0-95 .^^«*"=''^n'- 
 I monia. 
 
 1-56 
 
 0-64 
 
 8-32 r 
 
 6-63 = 14-47 
 
 I Superphos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 [ BonePhos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we 
 deduce the following amounts, contamed in a 
 ton, or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a 
 ton to the former : 
 
 300-40 lbs. Water @ $ 0.00 per lb. $ 0.00 
 
 19-00 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 4.75 
 
 31-20 " Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 0.15 " 4.08 
 
 12-80" Potash @ 0.08 '* 1.02 
 
 1G6-40 " Soluble Phosphoric Acid... @ 0.12J *' 20.80 
 132-60" Insoluble " " ...@ 0.00 " 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $31.25 
 
 Value of bags (say) ^. 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $33.25 
 
 The above phosphate is sold at $55 per ton, 
 involving a loss of $21.75, or nearly 66 per cent, 
 to the farrher on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
 other words, he pays for it nearly I3 times as 
 much as it is worth. 
 
240 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 PATAPSCO GUANO COMPANY'S AMMO- 
 NIATED SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE! 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
 company's office, Baltimore. It is put up in bags 
 marked 167 lbs.; the bag purchased weighed 
 170 lbs. Its mechanical condition was very bad. 
 We found hard lumps in it, as large as a 504b. 
 cannon ball; as the manufacturers recommend 
 this article to be drilled, we are in doubt whether 
 they meant the drill of the farmer, or the drill 
 of the quarryman. From our experience in pul- 
 verizing the article, we incline to think it was 
 the latter. This is a very objectionable feature 
 of this fertilizer, and must necessarily give the 
 farmer considerable trouble. In an attempt to 
 conform with the laws of the State of Maryland, 
 there were some lettering and figures on the bag, 
 which we are charitable enough to concede were 
 intended for an analysis. After considerable 
 trouble, we set down the following, which if not 
 correct, we shall feel under obligation to the com- 
 pany if they will notify us : 
 
 Soluble Phosphates 24-00 
 
 Insoluble Phosphates 18'00 
 
 Ammonia 4'00 
 
 Salts of Potash 7-00 
 
 This, to say the least, is a garbled analysis. 
 It states that this superphosphate contains 24 
 
ANALYSES. 241 
 
 per cent, of " Soluble Phosphates/' but as to the 
 amount of phosphoric acid in the " Soluble Phos- 
 phates " we are left entirely in the dark. Again, 
 we are informed that the superphosphate con- 
 tains 7 per cent, of " Salts of Potash/' but as 
 to the amount of potash we remain uninformed. 
 By referring to our analyses, the reader will no- 
 tice less than one per cent, of potash, and by 
 converting this potash into the sulphate or mu- 
 riate, he will obtain less than two per cent., which 
 shows a great discrepancy in the analyses. We 
 quote the following from the circular of these 
 manufacturers : 
 
 " With their increased facihties, improved machinery, and 
 skilled workmen, under the superintendence of 
 
 DR. G. A. LIEBIG, 
 
 who personally selects and tests every article used in its manu- 
 facture, and is constantly present at the works and directs 
 every department, is a sufficient guarantee that its manufac- 
 ture can be relied upon as being equal to anything which can 
 be produced. 
 
 " The company continues to use the celebrated 
 
 NAYASSA PHOSPHATE, 
 
 (the richest phosphatic guano now known) which, together 
 with the other ingredients, and its careful preparation, produce 
 those prompt and permanent effects which have uniformly been 
 shown upon all crops upon which it has been applied." 
 
242 
 
 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 ANALYSES OF NEEDLES' TMPROYED SUPERPHOS- 
 PHATE OF LIME. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 2a 
 
 Sample. 
 
 5-59 
 0-19 
 0-63 
 
 Mean. 
 
 AVater (expelled at ") 
 
 2 12° Fahrenheit)] 
 
 Nitroo'en 
 
 5-63 
 0-17 
 0-60 
 
 5-61 
 0-18 = 
 0-62 
 
 _ Q.22 1 Actual Ara- 
 1 monia. 
 
 Nitrogen in org. ) 
 matter .' J 
 
 Potash, soluble in ) 
 acidulated water ) 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 
 Phosphoric Acid' 
 
 
 
 
 
 (anhydrous), sol- 
 uble in water at 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 
 60O to 70° F . . . J 
 
 
 
 
 
 Insoluble Phos- -j 
 
 
 
 
 r Bone Phos- 
 
 phoric Acid (an- I 
 
 22-43 
 
 22-55 
 
 22-49=- 
 
 ^49-10 J phate of 
 
 hydrous) J 
 
 
 
 
 l Lime. 
 
 From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
 duce the following amounts, contained in a ton, 
 or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
 the farmer : 
 
 112-20 lbs. Water @ 
 
 4-40 " Actual Ammonia @ 
 
 12-40 " Nitrogen in org. matter @ 
 
 Trace Potash 
 
 449-80 
 
 Trace Soluble Phos. Acid . . @ 
 Insoluble Phos. Acid @ 
 
 $0.00 per lb. $0.00 
 
 0.25 ^' LIO 
 
 0.15 " 1.S6 
 
 0.08 « 0.00 
 
 0.12i *^ 0.00 
 
 0.00 '' 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $ 2.96 
 
 Value of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer 4.96 
 
 The above Phosphate is sold at $47 per ton, 
 involving a loss to the farmer of $42.04, or 847 
 per cent, on every ton he purchases ; or, taking 
 the manure alone, he pays for it nearly 16 times 
 as much as it is worth. 
 
ANALYSES 243 
 
 NEEDLES' IMPROVED SUPERPHOS- 
 PHATE OF LIME. 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
 manufacturer s office, Philadelphia. It is put up 
 in 200 lb. bags; the one purchased weighed 187 
 lbs., being 13 lbs. less than it should be with the 
 bag included, or 130 lbs. on a ton. The mechani- 
 cal condition of this fertilizer was good, and 
 could be easily applied by a drill. When we 
 have said that, we have said all that is possible 
 for us to say in its favor. Therefore we make 
 the following selections from Mr. Needles' circu- 
 lar, which show conclusively that even tritth, 
 which costs nothing but an honest intention, is 
 too valuable to waste on his worthless product : 
 
 1. "It is always of the same pure quality." 
 
 2. " It is a permanent enricher of the soil." 
 
 3. •' It loses none of its strength by exposure to the air." 
 
 4. " It is the cheapest Phosphate in the country." 
 
 5. " We were the originators of the preparation of this well 
 known manure in Philadelphia, our house having been engaged 
 for over twenty-one years in the manufacture and sale of Con- 
 
 CExN'TRATED FERTILIZERS." 
 
 In commenting on this fertilizer, and the above 
 remarks, only a few words are necessary, as the 
 fertilizer can only be characterized as a scanda- 
 lous cheat and an unmitigated swindle on the 
 community. 
 
244 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 The reader will notice from the analyses that 
 it contains only a trace of Soluble Pliosphoric 
 Acid ; consequently, it has not the least preten- 
 sion to be called a " Superphosphate." It is a 
 fraud in weight as well as in quality, and if Mr. 
 Needles has been manufacturing a similar arti- 
 cle, and giving such deficient weight for the past 
 twenty-one years, common justice, and common 
 law, should have sufficient power to restrain him 
 from continuing his criminal practices, and pun- 
 ish him according to his deservings. And if 
 twenty-one years have been devoted to such 
 practices, the remainder of his life should be de- 
 voted to making a partial atonement for the 
 wrongs perpetrated on his customers. 
 
 The article is simply ground mineral phos- 
 phate, with a possible scattering of bones, and if 
 there was any Sulphuric Acid used in its prepa- 
 ration, there was not a sufficient quantity to 
 liberate but a trace of Soluble Phosphoric Acid, 
 so that it may only be considered a raw mate- 
 rial for the manufacture of a Superphosphate. 
 Such outrageous frauds as these are calculated to 
 excite the indignation of all the community. 
 
 The fact that such frauds can be successfully 
 practised for twenty-one years, proves conclu- 
 sively the necessity of just such information as 
 is given in this book 
 
ANALYSES. 
 
 ANALYSES OF TPIE BROMOPHYTE FERTILIZER. 
 
 Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 
 
 
 1st 
 Sample. 
 
 2d 
 Sample. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Water (expelled at ) 
 • 2120 Fahrenheit), J 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen in organic | 
 matter. j 
 
 13-02 
 0-18 
 0-75 
 
 13-20 
 0-17 
 0-83 
 
 1311 
 0'18 = 
 0-79 
 
 . 0-22 1 ^^*"^^-^^- 
 1 monia. 
 
 Potash, soluble in | 
 
 
 
 
 
 acidulated water, j 
 
 0-23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phosphoric Acid ^ 
 (anhydrous), sol- 1 
 uble in water at 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 
 60O to 70° F. J 
 
 
 
 
 
 Insoluble Phos-'\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 phoric Acid (an- (- 
 
 1-51 
 
 .... 
 
 • • • ■ 
 
 
 hydrous). J 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the analyses, we deduce the following 
 amounts, contained in a ton, or 2000 lbs., together 
 with the value of a ton to the farmer : 
 
 262-20 lbs. Water @ 
 
 4'40 " Actual Ammonia @ 
 
 15-80 " Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 
 
 4-60 " Potash @ 
 
 Trace Soluble Phos. Acid @ 
 30-20 '' Insoluble '* " . ® 
 
 ;0.00perlb. 
 
 $0.00 
 
 0.25 " 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.15 " 
 
 2.37 
 
 0.08 " 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.12J '' 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.00 '' 
 
 0.00 
 
 Total value as fertilizer $ 3.84 
 
 Value of bags (say) 2.00 
 
 Total value to farmer $ 5.84 
 
 The above fertilizer is sold at $40 per ton, in- 
 volving a loss of $34.16, or 585 per cent, to the 
 farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, for the 
 manure alone, he pays $36.16, which is more 
 than 9 times as much as it is worth. 
 
246 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 THE BROMOPHYTE FERTILIZER. 
 
 The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
 analyses were selected, Avas purchased at the 
 company's office, Philadelphia. Its mechanical 
 condition Avas good, which is almost the only 
 good thing it can conscientiously boast of We 
 make the following selections from the circular 
 of this company, with the analyses of the Bro- 
 mophyte by Prof Blaney : 
 
 ** In the inaDiifacture of Bromophyte, the most scnipulous 
 regard is paid to the laws of chemistry ; and to distinguish this 
 fertilizer from all others — which we neither endorse nor con- 
 demn — we have called it Bromophyte. This term is taken 
 from two Greek words, which signify /oocZ for plants." 
 
 " The farmer and planter will see at once that his interest is 
 our interest. We cannot hope to succeed unless we make good 
 our promises. Nothing is surer than our failure if we do not 
 give the farmer the worth of his money. We can, therefore, 
 have no motive in deceiving any one." 
 
 " We otfer this fertilizer at about one-half the cost of guano, 
 while its value, we are led to believe, is equal to if not better 
 than the best Peruvian." 
 
 "The attention of the Fruit Growers' Association of Wash- 
 ington was lately called to this Bromophyte, and a member of 
 the Association, Professor Thomas Taylor, a well-known 
 chemist, at a meeting held August 3, 1869, read a paper upon 
 the subject, from which we make several extracts :" 
 
 " Mr. President and Gkntlrmen : — I have here a sample of 
 a valuable fertilizer, which is attracting much attention at this 
 time. It is known by the name of Bromophyte, which signi- 
 fies j^Zant /ood. Its base is human excreta, including urine, 
 and is submitted to a process of deodorization by which it is 
 deprived of its smell. 
 
 "The efficacy of peat, which is used, is due to the soluble 
 salts which it contains, and to its property of absorbing am- 
 monia from the atmosphere — having an absorbing power of 
 seventy-two times its own bulk. 
 
ANALYSES. 247 
 
 " Marl, one of the constituents of Broraophyte, is valuable 
 for various reasons — it is a composition of clay and shells, the 
 clay being the more important substan.ce of the two. Its very 
 valuable properties were first pointed out by Professor Way, 
 Chemist of the English Royal Agricultural Society. He says 
 that clay will decompose the salts of ammonia, potash and soda, 
 and retain their bases." 
 
 "At the close of Mr. Taylor's remarks, Mr. William Saun- 
 ders, of the Agricultural Department, proposed a vote of 
 thanks to Mr. Taylor for his valuable remarks, which was 
 unanimously carried. 
 
 *' The following statement has been received from Professor 
 Blaney, of Chicago, relative to the merits of Bromophyte : 
 
 '' Chicago, Odoler 26, 1870. 
 "This is to certify that I have examined the specimens of 
 Bromophyte submitted to me, and have found the same to be 
 composed as follows : 
 
 Volatile matter, organic matter, water and a 
 
 trace of free ammonia 59*05 
 
 Inorganic matter 40*95 
 
 The Bromophyte contains of salts 40*95 per cent., namely : 
 
 Sulphate of Lime 17*6765 
 
 Phosphate of Lime 1*4922 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia 1*1335 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 2*2613 
 
 Chloride of sodium 2*0540 
 
 Sesquioxide of Iron and Alumina 5*0790 
 
 Insoluble Silicates 11*2690 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, a tra'^e. 
 
 Total 40*9655 
 
 Gain -0155 
 
 40*9500 
 " The Bromophyte was found by organic analysis to contain 
 nitrogen, 3*92 per cent., equivalent to ammonia, 4*76 per cent. 
 
 " James V. T. BiiANRY, 
 ^^ Analytical and Consulting Chemist." 
 " P. S. — It will be seen, by comparing with analysis of guano, 
 that Bromophyte is two per cent, the stronger." 
 
248 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 After making an analysis of this " Bromo- 
 PHYTE," and knowing its composition and value, 
 we doubt whetlier the writer of the circular, or 
 even Professors Taylor and Blaney were in 
 earnest in their encomiums of this article. We 
 rather think these gentlemen have endeavored to 
 perpetrate a practical joke on the farmers. That 
 any chemist (and Prof Taylor is represented to 
 be one), should seriously recommend the use of 
 peat and marl, clay and shells in a high-priced 
 fertilizer that sells for two cents per lb., is almost 
 incredible ; or that Prof. Blaney should seriously 
 say that it is two per cent, stronger than guano, 
 is certainly beyond belief. 
 
 The farmers who have used the article seem 
 to have been in the same vein of humor, so pal- 
 pably exhibited by the facetious Professors Tay- 
 lor and Blaney, as the following specimens of 
 their certificates will show : 
 
 GREAT ON TURNIP TOPS. 
 
 ''AVashington, D. C, April 1, 1869. 
 *' Randall Fish, Esq. 
 
 ^^Sir: — In reply to your note, inquiring about your fertilizer, 
 I am happy to say that it will work wonders. 
 
 " I tried it last season on some turnips as late as the 1st of 
 October, and I never saw such a crop of tops in my life. Of 
 course, it was too late to fetch a full crop, yet some were as 
 large as hens' eggs. 
 
 " I do not hesitate to say that I think it superior to any ferti- 
 lizer in the market, as it will benefit the ground while it stimu- 
 lates the present crop. I have used it with the greatest suc- 
 cess, and have found it to be better than any other, having 
 
ANALYSES. 249 
 
 used it side by side with the Patapsco and other fertilizers, and 
 it far exceeds them. It has proven satisfactory to Dr. Nichols, 
 the Superintendent of the Insane Asylum, as lie has this spring 
 purchased five tons of it. " Samuel A. Smith, 
 
 ** Gardener at the Insane Asylum" 
 
 We should expect just such a certificate from 
 an Insane Asylum. 
 
 GREAT ON CUCUMBERS. 
 
 " Washington, D. C, August 18, 1870. 
 " Randall Fish, Esq. 
 
 " Dear Sir : — I have used your fertiHzer, called Bromophyte, 
 on three acres of cucumbers, on my farm at Mt. Yernon, and 
 can say that I beheve it to be a first-rate article. A few rows 
 I left without any fertilizer, on some I put Peruvian Guano, 
 and on some Patapsco Guano. Those without any fertilizers 
 are very poor, but where your fertilizer v^as used they are very 
 fine, and much better than the vines that were fertilized with 
 the Peruvian or Patapsco Guano. " Dr. E. P. Howland, 
 
 " iVb. 27 Four-and-a-Half Street.'' 
 
 DODGE ON BROMOPHYTE. 
 
 "Washington, D. C. 
 "I have seen the effects and examined the character of the 
 fertilizer manufactured by Randall Fish, and am satisfied it is 
 among the best now offered to the public. I have used it on 
 my strawberries and other plants, and find the effect upon their 
 growth superior to that of any other fertilizer I have ever 
 used. I shall want more. 
 
 " It effects wonders on every kind of vegetable to which I have 
 applied it, making vegetation grow on barren soil. 
 
 " Yery respectfully, 
 
 "A. T. C. Dodge." 
 
 ThiSj we think, is a very good specimen of 
 " dodge." As it makes vegetation grow on bar- 
 ren soil^ Bromophyte must contain the essence 
 of strawberries. Who will eat strawberries after 
 this? 
 
250 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 GASS ON BROMOPHYTE. 
 " Gelen, Washington Co., August 26, 1869. 
 " Mr. Randall Fish : 
 
 *' I have used your Bromophy te on tomatoes, squashes, cucum- 
 bers and on corn, and must say that it exceeds my expecta- 
 tions. I believe that it is better than any fertilizer now in use. 
 I have tried most all kinds in the market, and this is the best 
 I have ever found. I have examined the corn to-day, and find, 
 where your fertilizer was used, it was a deep green, and where 
 other fertilizers were used beside it, the great drought had 
 turned the leaves yellow, and the stocks were much smaller. 
 
 " Yery respectfully, 
 
 " John Gass." 
 
 We fear the corn was not so green as the 
 buyer of the Bromophyte. Taken altogether it 
 is a very gassy certificate. 
 
 A 20,000 POUNDER CERTIFICATE. 
 
 {The biggest gun knoion.) 
 
 " Alexandria, Ya., March 15, 1870. 
 ** Randall Fish, Esq. 
 
 " Dear Sir : — Please send me ten tons of your Bromophyte, 
 the most economical manure, which insures the quickest and 
 best returns of any I have ever used. Rely on me as a custo- 
 mer while I have any land to cultivate. 
 
 " Yours, very respectfully, 
 
 *' J. Millard.'* 
 
 If the Bromophyte Mr. Millard purchased 
 was no better than that sold to us^ and he con- 
 tinues to go it so strong on Bromophyte, he will 
 soon have no land to cultivate — it will be in the 
 hands of the sheriff. 
 
 A CERTIFICATE FROM THE " LAND OF DREAMS." 
 
 ''Norfolk, Ya., May 13, 18Y0. 
 '' C. C. Brown, Esq. 
 
 '' Dear Sir : — I have been e.xpprimenting last fall and this 
 spring with your Bromophyte. It beats any fertilizer I know 
 
iiNALYSES. 251 
 
 of. For early truck of all kinds it is all that can be desired. It 
 is destined to take the place of nearly all the so-called fertili- 
 zers, now so numerous. For radishes, it beats all I ever 
 dreamed of. I do not dare to tell how short a time it took to 
 produce for me the finest radishes I ever saw. 
 
 '' Yours, etc., 
 
 *' George S. Oldfield, 
 
 ^^ Formerly Judge of County Court." 
 
 Query, — Does the Judge often dream of 
 radishes — it must be an interesting subject for a 
 Judge. We shall next expect to hear of the 
 Judge dreaming of '^ turnip tops." 
 
 FISHING FOR DODGE. 
 
 *' Washington, D. C., June 29, 1870. 
 " Randall Fish, Esq. 
 
 " Dear Sir : — In reply to your favor of to-day, I would say 
 that I have used the Bromophyte — Fish's — in my garden in this 
 city for two years, and do not desire anything better for straw- 
 berries. In fact, it seems to impart a remarkably strong and 
 healthy growth to any and every vegetable to which I have 
 applied it, and I believe it is superior to any fertilizer in the 
 market, not excepting the Peruvian. 
 
 " Respectfully, yours, etc., 
 
 " A. T. C. Dodge." 
 
 Another specimen of '' dodge ;" being better 
 than Peruvian GuanOj, we think it slightly 
 '' fishy." 
 
 The reader will notice that these certificates 
 are given by farmers in the vicinity of Wash- 
 ington. The Bromophyte to which they have 
 reference being prepared there. We do not say 
 that excreta at Washington are richer than at 
 Philadelphia ; but it is possible that the Wash- 
 17 
 
252 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 ington manufacturers may be more honesty and 
 make a better article than their Philadelphia 
 brethren — it is almost impossible that they 
 could make a worse. The use of these certifi- 
 cates by the Philadelphia Company is literally 
 stealing the thunder of the excreta of Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 The methods of analysis employed to deter- 
 mine the amount of nitrogen, actual ammonia, 
 and potash, and of phosphoric acid in the several 
 manures, of which analyses are given in this 
 chapter, are of too intricate a nature to be un- 
 derstood by the general reader. Hence we state 
 the methods only in general terms, with such 
 remarks and particulars as will enable profes- 
 sional chemists, into whose hands our work may 
 fall, to estimate the carefulness with which they 
 have been made. 
 
 METHOD FOR TOTAL NITROGEN. 
 
 From about 30 grammes of the finely pul- 
 verized and intimately mixed substance 1 to 
 2 grammes were taken for analysis, which was 
 made according to Varrentrapp and Wills' me- 
 thod. We remark, that the actual amount of 
 Nitrogen was calculated from the actual amount 
 of metallic platinum obtained, and not from the 
 
METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 253 
 
 weight of the precipitate, as is sometimes done : 
 the former being considered the most reliable. 
 
 METHOD FOR ACTUAL AMMONIA AND POTASH. 
 
 Substance = 50 grammes. 
 
 Fluid = 250 c.c. 
 
 Fluid taken = 25 c.c. = 5 grammes substance. 
 
 The substance in an evaporating dish was 
 treated : first, with small quantities of water at 
 60° to 70°; then boiled successively in water 
 acidulated with hydrochloric acid'; and finally, 
 washed on a filter with boiling water, till the 
 filtrate measured nearly 250 c.c. 
 
 The ammonia was determined according to 
 
 SOHLOESING'S PROCESS. 
 
 strength of Soda Solution, 3.06 c.c. = 1 c.c. Normal Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 The potash was determined as potassio-bichlo- 
 ride of platinum. 
 
 METHOD FOR TOTAL PHOSPHORIC ACID. 
 Substance = 20 grammes. 
 
 Fluid = 1000 c.c. 
 
 Fluid taken = 50 c.c. = 1 gramme substance. 
 
 The hydrochloric acid solution, with the addi- 
 tion of several drops of concentrated nitric acid, 
 was evaporated completely to dryness^ and the 
 residue treated with dilute hydrochloric acid. To 
 the solution thus obtained, there was added; 
 first, citric acid, in quantity sufficient; then 
 ammonia ; then, acetic acid, each slightly in ex- 
 cess ; and finally, to the nearly boiling solution, 
 
254 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 oxalate of ammonia was added. The precipitate 
 obtained was collected at once on a double filter, 
 and to the cool and strongly ammoniacal filtrate, 
 were added, 6 to 10 c.c. of an ammoniacal ammo- 
 nio-sulphate of magnesia solution — each c.c. of 
 which corresponds to 0.0358 gramme anhydrous 
 phosphoric acid. The filtrate and wash water 
 measured 250 to 300 c.c, and for every 54c.c. of 
 the same, 0.000637 gramme phosphoric acid was 
 allowed. 
 
 METHOD FOR SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID. 
 
 Substance = 20 grammes. 
 
 Fluid = 1000 c. c. 
 
 Fluid taken = 100 c. c.= 2 grammes substance. 
 
 The substance was triturated in a mortar with 
 distilled water, at 60° or 70°,^ the powder allowed 
 to settle, and the fluid decanted. This operation 
 was repeated till S litre of fluid was obtained, 
 when the powder was collected on a filter and 
 washed with distilled water till the filtrate mea- 
 sured one litre. The phosphoric acid, as in the 
 previous instance, was determined gravimetri- 
 cally. 
 
 Note. — In one or two instances, instead of 1 to 2 grammes, 
 10 grammes of the substance were taken for the phosphoric acid 
 determination. 
 
 CONCLUDING REMAEKS. 
 
 Manufacturers of fertilizers attach great im- 
 portance to the certificates of farmers, and it is 
 considered a strong point as an evidence of the 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 255 
 
 superior quality of their products; hence they 
 procure as many of them as possible. Two ad- 
 vantages are thus gained : First. It effectually 
 closes the farmer's mouth for subsequent unfavor- 
 able criticism. Second. Every farmer's opinion 
 has weight in the circle in which he moves^ and 
 his favorable report of a fertilizer induces others 
 to give it a triah Thus the business of these 
 manufacturers is increased, and the farmer un- 
 wittingly becomes a party to their frauds, and 
 when his neighbors find that they are cheated, 
 he receives his share of blame. Hence farmers 
 should be very careful in giving these loosely 
 worded recommendations, which benefit no one 
 but the manufacturers. Those who have given 
 these certificates know how they have been pro- 
 cured ; personal friendship for the manufacturer 
 or dealer^ has led many to give favorable re- 
 ports, we doubt not against their better judg- 
 ment, while with others, perhaps, the desire of 
 seeing their name in print has its influence. 
 
 Certificates are a part of the stock in trade of 
 qiiaclceryj and no honestly conducted business 
 needs them. Besides the certificates given to 
 different manufacturers when taken collectively 
 do not amount to anything, because each man- 
 ure sold is represented by the certificates to be 
 the best. Such conflicting statements are with- 
 out value as evidence ; consequently, the farmer 
 
256 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 is as much puzzled in the selection of a good 
 manure, as he would be without seeing the 
 certificates. 
 
 If this business had been legitimately con- 
 ducted, and the price regulated by the quality 
 and condition of the valuable constituents of the 
 fertilizer, manufacturers would have no occasion 
 to resort to customers' certificates. 
 
 There is another class of certificates that, un- 
 fortunately, do not meet the public eye, namely : 
 The complaints of those who have realized that 
 they have been swindled in the purchase of these 
 manures. These certificates would present an 
 interesting sequel to the others, and in number 
 as well as in force^ would completely overshadow 
 them. If time and space j)ermitted, we could 
 give a long list of these negative certificates that 
 would be anything but interesting reading for 
 the manufacturers. An illustration of the un- 
 reliability of certificates is seen in the samples 
 we have given from the users of the Bromophyte, 
 a manure that is almost worthless. Some of its 
 users certify that it is better than Peruvian 
 Guano, or the Patapsco Ammoniated Phosphate, 
 the latter, according to our analyses, being one 
 of the best superphosphates now made in this 
 country. Many certificates are given before the 
 crop is harvested ; such premature statements 
 must be verj^ unreliable. Farmers should realize 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS, 257 
 
 the importance of knowing the source of the 
 benefits realized before giving certificates. It 
 may be due to a favorable season, to substances 
 already in the soil, or to the manure, or to all three 
 combined. If the farmer sees a favorable ap- 
 pearance in his crop, he is too apt at once to 
 attribute it exclusively to the bought fertilizer, 
 forgetting what he must have frequently seen, 
 when using stable manure alone, that one year 
 a good crop may be raised, and the next time, 
 though equally well cultivated and manured, a 
 poor one. It has been shown that the amounts 
 required of the valuable constituents of crops are 
 very small. Hence, if the so-called concentrated 
 fertilizers contain but a little of what is really 
 needed, its effect on the crop would he apparent. 
 But our farmers should bear in mind that they 
 pay exorbitant prices for the benefits received. 
 If they apply 400 lbs. of a fertilizer costing $50 
 per ton, it would be $10 to the acre, and they 
 should have clear views of the amount of any 
 crop that should be expected from such an out- 
 lay. As an illustration, 25 bushels of wheat 
 with the straw requires : 
 
 27-95 lbs. of Phosphoric Acid @ $0.12 J per lb $3.49 
 
 39-65" "Potash @ 0.08 " .... 3.17 
 
 46-60" "Nitrogen @ 0.15 " .... 6.99 
 
 '%i^\ $13.65 
 
 Hence, if an outlay of $13.65 on an acre should 
 
258 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 produce 25 bushels of wheat with the straw, an 
 outlay of $10 to an acre should produce over 18 
 bushels of wheat with the straw, in addition to 
 what could be produced without the application 
 of fertilizers, or if we allow half of the nitrogen 
 to be represented by actual ammonia at 25 cents 
 per lb., an outlay of $10 to the acre should pro- 
 duce 14 J bushels. This calculation can be 
 readily applied to other crops from the same 
 data, and from it the farmer can see how small 
 the amount of benefit, in increased crops, he has 
 derived from the use of these fraudulent manures 
 in proportion to the money invested. We are 
 quite sure if the farmer had correct views on 
 the subject, he would no more think of giving 
 certificates to these manufacturers, than he 
 would of giving a certificate of good character 
 to the burglar who had broken into his house 
 and stolen his money, but spared his life, or to 
 the thief who had stolen his horse and failed to 
 set fire to his barn. 
 
 The reader should now be fully convinced 
 from the facts stated and analyses given, of the 
 absolute necessity of National and State legisla- 
 tion to protect the farmers and the public from 
 the rapacity of manufacturers of fertilizers. 
 There are Grain, Flour, Liquor, Tobacco, Lea- 
 ther, Oil, Drug and other Inspectors, appointed 
 to protect purchasers and honest manufacturers 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 259 
 
 and dealers. Fertilizers are equal in importance 
 to any of those commercial articles mentioned, 
 while there are greater facilities for fraud. In 
 England and other European countries, the 
 prices of these fertilizers are fixed by the 
 amount and value of the fertilizing elements 
 contained in them, according to the manner in- 
 dicated in this book ; and in this matter, we are 
 far behind those countries we are accustomed to 
 style slow. In those countries, concentrated fer- 
 tilizers are inspected by government officials. As 
 the result of the rigid inspection laws of Ger- 
 many, purchasers are protected. We quote from 
 the circular of George Charles Zimmer, at Man- 
 heim, one of the largest manufacturers of fer- 
 tilizers in Germany, and give three analyses of 
 the superphosphates manufactured by him, to 
 show the operation of the law : 
 
 These fertilizers are always sold and delivered of an ap- 
 proved, uniform, superior quality, and their ingredients war- 
 ranted ; samples of the same are deposited with the Central 
 Agricultural Department of the Grand Duchy of Baden, at 
 Carlsruhe, under whose control the products of the factory are 
 placed by law. The monthly official analyses of supplies on 
 hand in the manufactory, are published from time to time in 
 the Weekly Journal of the Agricultural Society of the Grand 
 Duchy of Baden, and every purchaser of at least half a ton at 
 one time of one of these superphosphates, has the privilege to 
 transmit (free of charge) with enclosure of the original invoice, 
 a sample of the same to Doctor J. Nessler, the President of the 
 Experimental Station, at Carlsruhe, in order to be analyzed, 
 )ree of expense, to the purchaser. Furthermore, these fertilizers 
 are subject to the control of the Agricultural Societies of Hes- 
 
260 AMERICAN MANURES. 
 
 sen on the Rhine, Rhenish Prussia, etc., and the results of their 
 investigations are communicated to the public from time to 
 time, in their respective agricultural papers. 
 
 No. 1 — Analysis of Coprolite Scperphosphate. 
 
 Percentage. Equal to 
 
 Soluble Phos-| ta +^ n i^ +^ to (Superphosphate 
 
 phoric Acid, I ^^ ^^ ^^ - ^^ *^ 1^ I of Lime. 
 
 Insoluble Phos- 1 o +^ ^ c +^ o f Bone Phosphate 
 
 phoric Acid, I ^ to 4 - b to 8 I ^^ ^-^^^^^ 
 
 No. 2 — Analysis of Bone Meal Superphosphate. 
 
 Percentage. Equal to 
 
 Soluble Phos- 1 -, o +^ i^ oo +^ o/i (Superphosphate 
 
 phoric Acid, I ^^ ^^ ^^ — ^^ ^^ ^^ I of Lime. 
 
 Insoluble Phos- "I o +^ ^ ^ +^ o ( Bone Phosphate 
 
 phoric Acid, I 3 to 4 ^ 6 to 8 I ^f Lime.^- 
 Nitrogen 0*5 to 1 
 
 No. 3. — Analysis of Baker Guano Superphosphate. 
 
 Percentage. Equal to 
 
 phoric IS; } 18 to 20 = 30 to 32 { «TLt?'^'' 
 
 Insoluble Phos- "I o a o a 4. a ( Bone Phosphate 
 
 phoric Acid, I 2 to 3 = 4 to 6 I ^^ Lime. 
 
 On comparing the above analyses of super- 
 phosphates made in Germany, with those made 
 by our boastful manufacturers, the reader will 
 notice that their lowest grade superphosphates 
 contain more soluble phosphoric acid than our 
 best^ and that the insoluble phosphoric acid (3 to 
 4 per cent.) contained in those made at Man- 
 heim, is about equal to the average amount of 
 soluble phosphoric acid, in American commercial 
 manures. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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