LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA i GIFT OF ^ MRS. MARY WOLFSOHN IN MEMORY OF y 1+1- METHODS OF TEACHING A HAND-BOOK OF PRINCIPLES, DIRECTIONS, AND WORKING MODELS FOR COMMON-SCHOOL TEACHERS BY JOHN SWETT PRINCIPAL OF THE SAN FRANCISCO GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOL AND NORMAL CLASS " Special preparation is a prerequisite for teaching. "HORACE MANN OfTHt VNIVER8IT NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE 1888 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. AU rights reserved. PREFACE. This book is intended (1.) For use in normal schools and normal classes, as a basis for instruction in methods of teaching. (2.) For the use of those who intend to become teach- ers without taking a course of professional training. (3.) For experienced teachers who believe there is something to be learned from the suggestions of others. The characteristic features claimed for this manual are : (1.) Its strict limitation to the essentials of common- school instruction. (2.) Its condensed and specific directions. (3.) Its working models for beginners. The attempt to reduce teaching-methods to condensed statements and bird's-eye views is beset with many dif- ficulties readily appreciated by practical educators. But what the young teacher most needs is a definite direction or method: he will learn to make for himself all neces- sary qualifications and exceptions in schoolroom practice. My chief purpose has been, therefore, to make, not an ex- haustive treatise on education in general, but a volume of IV PREFACE. principles, directions, and working models for the prac- tical guidance of the rank and file in the great army of common-school teachers. In the statement of general principles in education, I have quoted from the thinkers and writers of the present rather than the past, in order fairly to present advanced ideas, and to give the young teacher occasional glimpses of a modern educational literature outside of mere hand- books and text -books. The practical directions, drawn largely from the common stock of school methods, are substantiated by opinions quoted from eminent living American teachers and superintendents. The working models are made up of exercises that were prepared for use, and were actually used for several years, in a large public school. The whole book, indeed, owes its exist- ence to the practical needs of a normal class-room. Personal experience in teaching is a good school, but a slow and costly one. Looking back over a varied experi- ence of thirty years, I deeply realize how great would have been my vantage-ground had I begun with a more thorough professional training and a wider acquaintance with educational literature. If I have failed to seize upon essentials, the failure is not from lack of opportu- nity to observe the need of them. In a new state, I have taken a part in the organization of a school system almost from the beginning. My personal experience includes actual teaching in country, city, ungraded, half-graded, PREFACE. V graded, evening, primary, grammar, high, and normal schools, and several years' service in state and city super- intendence. Though not so good as I would like to make it, this book is submitted with the hope that it may save some beginners from wasting time and efforts in un- profitable empirical experiments, and that some veteran teachers may find in it a confirmation of principles and methods arrived at in the course of their own life-work. For criticisms and suggestions I am under special obli- gations to Professor George "W". Minns, of Concord, Mass., and to John Muir. of California. J.S. CONTENTS. PART I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. CHAPTER I. SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. PAGS I. GENERAL REMARKS ..." 1 II. THE SCIENCE OF TEACHING 2 III. THE ART OF TEACHING 5 IV. THE PROFESSION OF TEACHING .10 V. THE NEXT STEP 13 VI. THE SCHOLARSHIP OF TEACHERS 16 VII. TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS .19 VIII. EDUCATIONAL POWER ,20 IX. THE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEM 21 CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL TRAINING. I. ITS IMPORTANCE .23 II. WAYS AND MEANS .27 III. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS 28 IV. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING . > 31 V. TECHNICAL EDUCATION . 32 VI. SCHOOL HYGIENE 34 VII. RULES OF HEALTH FOR PUPILS . 37 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. MORAL TRAINING. PAGE I. GENERAL REMARKS 39 II. THE SPHERE OF SCHOOL 40 III. POSSIBILITIES AND CONDITIONS 42 IV. GENERAL DIRECTIONS FROM HERBERT SPENCER. . . 44 V. PRACTICAL HINTS 45 CHAPTER IV. INTELLECTUAL TRAINING. I. CLASSIFICATION OF THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES . . 54 II. THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES 55 III. THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES 58 IV. THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES 59 CHAPTER Y. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. I. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 64 II. SELF-CONTROL 66 III. PUBLIC OPINION OF THE SCHOOL 67 IV. EMULATION 67 V. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE . 68 VI. OBSTINACY 69 VII. SCHOOL DESPOTISM 69 VIII. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FROM HERBERT SPENCER. . . 70 IX. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS 71 X. PUNISHMENT 75 CHAPTER VI. SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR SCHOOL-ROOM MANAGEMENT. I. SPECIAL DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR PRINCIPALS. 78 II. SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR ASSISTANTS . 85 CONTENTS. IX PACK III. MANAGEMENT IN GENERAL 88 IV. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR THE CLASS TEACHER . 91 V. METHODS IN RECITATIONS 95 VI. THE MINIMUM OF RULES 98 VII. SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS FOR PUPILS 98 VIII. DIRECTIONS ABOUT WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS . . 99 CHAPTER VII. THE MANAGEMENT OF UNGRADED COUNTRY SCHOOLS. I. GENERAL REMARKS 101 II. THINGS ESSENTIAL 103 III. MISCELLANEOUS THINGS 110 IV. MINOR MATTERS 113 V. ADVANTAGES OF COUNTRY SCHOOLS 115 VI. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS . 117 PART II. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING COMMON- SCHOOL ESSENTIALS. CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FROM I. JOHN STUART MILL 121 II. THOMAS H. HUXLEY 121 III. SUPERINTENDENT ELIOT 122 IV. ALEXANDER BAIN. . 122 CHAPTER II. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING READING. I. DIRECTIONS 123 II. QUOTATIONS FROM EDUCATORS 129 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING SPELLING, WORD- ANALYSIS, AND DEFINING. I. SPELLING 132 (1.) SPELLING 133 (2.) SPELLING-GAMES 134 (3.) WRITTEN EXERCISES FOR PRIMARY CLASSES . 135 (4.) WRITTEN EXERCISES FOR GRAMMAR GRADES. . 136 (5.) ORAL EXERCISES FOR GRAMMAR GRADES. . . 136 II. WORD-ANALYSIS 136 (1.) DIRECTIONS 137 (2.) WORD-MATCHES 138 III. DEFINING . 139 CHAPTER IV. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 141 CHAPTER Y. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING LANGUAGE-LES- SONS, GRAMMAR, AND COMPOSITION. I. LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR 150 II. ENGLISH COMPOSITION 155 (1.) DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHERS 155 (2.) DIRECTIONS TO BE GIVEN TO PUPILS .... 156 CHAPTER VI. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. I. DIRECTIONS 157 II. GEOGRAPHY MATCHES 161 III. GEOGRAPHICAL EXERCISES 162 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER VII. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. PAGE I. DIRECTIONS 164 II. CLASS EXERCISES 167 CHAPTER VIII. OBJECT-LESSONS AND THE ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. I. HINTS ON OBJECT-LESSONS 168 II. ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE 171 III. QUOTATIONS FROM EDUCATORS 170 CHAPTER IX. WRITING AND DRAWING. I. HINTS ON WRITING 178 II. HINTS ON DRAWING 180 III. QUOTATIONS FROM EDUCATORS . . 182 CHAPTER X. MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. I. Music 184 II. MANNERS 184 PART III. WORKING-MODELS IN ESSENTIALS. INTRODUCTORY NOTE 187 CHAPTER I. WORKING-MODELS FOR READING-LESSONS. I. LESSONS IN WORD-MAKING 189 II. LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES . . 190 Xli CONTENTS. PAGE III. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 191 IV. LESSONS FOR LOWER GRAMMAR GRADES .... 191 V. LESSONS FOR HIGHER GRAMMAR GRADES . . . .194 CHAPTER II. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. I. LESSONS FOR BEGINNERS . . . 196 II. LESSONS FOR SECOND TERM OR YEAR 207 III. LESSONS FOR THIRD TERM OR YEAR 212 IV. DRILL EXERCISES IN THE FOUR RULES 213 V. WORKING MODELS IN COMMON FRACTIONS . . . 215 VI. FRACTIONS FOR GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GRADES. . . . 219 VII. WORKING MODELS IN MENTAL ARITHMETIC . . . 224 VIII. WORKING MODELS IN THE TABLES 227 IX. THE METRIC SYSTEM 230 CHAPTER III. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. I. GLOBE LESSONS FOR BEGINNERS 233 II. SECOND SERIES OF GLOBE LESSONS 236 III. LESSONS IN LOCAL GEOGRAPHY 239 IV. CLIMATE AND THE ZONES 242 V, QUESTIONS ON LOCAL WEATHER CONDITIONS . . . 243 VI. LOCAL STATE GEOGRAPHY 244 VII. COMPOSITIONS ON GEOGRAPHY 246 VIII. FACTS ABOUT OUR OWN COUNTRY 249 IX. FACTS ABOUT THE CONTINENTS 251 X. PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE GLOBE 253 XI. GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS 255 CHAPTER IV. LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND COMPOSITION FOR BEGINNERS. (a.) COPYING SHORT STORIES 258 (b.) SENTENCE-MAKING 262 CONTENTS. Xlii PAGU (c.) LETTER-WRITING 264 (d.) SHORT COMPOSITIONS 265 CHAPTER Y. PRACTICAL COMPOSITION IN GRAMMAR GRADES. I. NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION 269 II. LETTER- WRITING 270 III. IMAGINATIVE LETTERS 270 IV. ABSTRACTS FROM MEMORY . 271 V. STORIES OF THE IMAGINATION 271 VI. SHORT DESCRIPTIONS OF TREES 272 VII. METALS AND MINERALS 272 VIII. MANUFACTURED ARTICLES 273 IX. GEOGRAPHICAL COMPOSITIONS 273 X. GENERAL EXERCISES 274 XL BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 274 XII. HISTORICAL SKETCHES 276 XIII. NATURAL HISTORY SKETCHES 277 CHAPTER VI. WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 279 II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 287 III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 293 IV. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS IN LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR 295 CHAPTER VII. PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES. I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . 300 II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 303 III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 304 IV. QUOTATION MARKS 306 XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. RULES FOB WRITING GOOD ENGLISH. FAGX I. WORDS 307 II. ORDER OF WORDS 310 III. BREVITY 313 IV. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE 314 CHAPTER IX. REVIEW QUESTIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 319 CHAPTER X. PRACTICAL HINTS IN SCHOOL ETHICS. I. LESSONS FOR YOUNGER PUPILS 322 II. LESSONS FOR OLDER PUPILS 323 III. A TEACHER'S MINIMUM LIBRARY . . , . . . . .325 METHODS OF TEACHING. PART I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION. CHAPTER I. SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. I. GENERAL REMARKS. THERE is a profession of law, of medicine, and of the- ology: is there a profession of teaching? The skilful practice of any pursuit is termed an art : is there an art of teaching? There seems to be a popular opinion handed down from the past tnat anybody who has been "educated" can teach school ; and that there is no art of teaching, no science underlying the practice of teaching, and therefore no profession of teaching. In most parts of our country, the impression prevails that anybody who can pass an examination and get a certificate is a duly qualified teacher, and, consequently, that no specific preparation for teaching is necessary other than personal experience de- rived from actual work in the schoolroom. And there is some ground for this opinion. Out of 300,000 teach- ers in the United States, not more than one in ten is a graduate of the normal school ; of the remaining nine tenths, some have fitted themselves by thorough self-cult- 2 METHODS OF TEACHING. ure to do the best kind of professional work, but more are merely unskilled school-keepers. Of this latter class, most have gained little by experience except a narrow conceit in their own empirical methods. Knowing noth- ing whatever of modern investigations in physiology, bi- ology, and sociology, they sneer at all attempts at form- ulating the principles of teaching into a science. In our educational centres, however, it is evident that the opinion is steadily gaining ground that education is based upon scientific principles, and that there ought to be a profession of teaching. The number of normal schools grows larger year by year. In several cities only normal graduates are employed as teachers ; and in many places the preference is given to professionally trained teachers. Moreover, teachers' institutes and associations are diffusing a professional spirit more and more widely ; the number of men and women who read educational journals and imbibe their progressive spirit is far in ex- cess of former times ; and, at length, some school-officers, and a few thinkers among 'citizens at large, begin to give evidence of a nebulous perception of the truth that teach- ers, as well as lawyers, doctors, clergymen, and artisans, need special training for their business. II. THE SCIENCE OF TEACHING. "In every department of human affairs," says John Stuart Mill, " practice long precedes science ; systematic inquiry into the modes of action of the powers of nature is the tardy product of a long course of efforts to use those fowers for practical ends." The science of teaching is a classification of principles derived by observation, investigation, and experience from SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 3 a knowledge of tilings to be taught, and from a study of the child to be trained.^] The object of school education is to aid the mental, moral, and physical development of the child by means of appropriate training and instruc- tion in the kinds of knowledge required by existing social conditions as an outfit for the duties of life. From age to age school instruction has been modified to meet the new wants of each succeeding generation occasioned by each successive advance in civilization. The child, too, is a variable factor. It is an old saying that human nature is the same in all ages the world over; but this proverb, despite the wisdom of our ancestors, is a fallacy. The child is not plastic clay in the hands of the potter, nor a sheet of blank paper to be written upon ; on the contrary, it is a bundle of inherited tendencies and capacities. Education merely aids development, and directs latent tendencies ; it cannot create powers, and often fails to control them. Teaching, therefore, must depend in a great measure upon the transmitted nature of the child to be taught. The child of prehistoric man, born in some cave at the close of the last glacial period, had little except form in common with children now living in New York, London, or Berlin. It is evident that the child of an Apache Indian or an Australian sav- age cannot be trained successfully by the educational processes which are adapted to the hereditary capacities of children that represent the highest type of human de- velopment. Hence no one particular age can prescribe the methods of education for succeeding ages ; no one nation for all other nations ; no one race for all other races. Schools are an organic growth of society. They represent, more 4: METHODS OF TEACHING. or less perfectly, the wants and spirit of a nation. Mod- ern methods of teaching should therefore represent the existing state of knowledge and civilization, not the obso- lete learning or methods of past ages ; but traditional cult- ure, like customs, manners, habits, and laws, too often holds sway long after the causes that organized it have ceased to act. " Like political constitutions," says Herbert Spencer, " educational systems are not made, but grow, and within brief periods growth is insensible." While it cannot be claimed as yet that teaching is a fully developed science, great progress has been made in formulating the principles that underlie the best of our present methods of instruction. Educational history is full of errors, most of which were the result of empirical methods. Experience in this field, as in every other, in order to be of any value, must be the result of experi- ments directed by the light of science, and must have for its objective point the welfare of every child in the na- tion. "No matter how limited the strictly scientific do- main of education is considered to be," says Mr. Soldan, of St. Louis, " it cannot be denied that there is such a science; and it should be mastered before the practical duties of teaching are assumed. In other pursuits the tyro may be allowed to spoil and waste the first piece of work, but in teaching the material is too precious to ad- mit of useless experiment." "Our teachers," says Mr. E. L. Youmans, Editor of the Popular Science Monthly, etc., " mostly belong to the old dispensation. Their preparation is chiefly literary. Their art is a mechanical routine ; and hence, very natural- ly, while admitting the importance of advancing views, they really cannot see what is to be done about it. When SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 5 we say that education is an affair of the laws of our being, involving a wide range of considerations involving, in short, a complete acquaintance with corporeal conditions, which science alone can give when we hint of these things, we seem to be speaking in an unknown tongue; or, if intelligible, then very irrelevant and unpractical." " The teaching method," says Professor Bain, " is arrived at in various ways. One principal mode is experience of the work : this is the inductive, or practical, source. An- other mode is education from the laws of the human mind : this is the deductive, or theoretical, source. The third and best mode is to combine the two ; to rectify em- pirical teaching by principles, and to qualify deductions from principles by practical experience." III. THE ART OF TEACHING. " Art," says Professor Joseph Le Conte, " is the result, at first, of the empirical method ; science always of the ra- tional method. Art leads upward to the comprehension of science ; but science, when sufficiently perfect, turns again and perfects art." The art of school-teaching consists in the skilful appli- cation of the great body of rules and methods deduced from science, observation, experiment, and practice;-' In other words, the art lies in teaching according to laws based upon a scientific knowledge of the nature of the child to be instructed. " Successful teaching," says Mr. Dickinson, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, " is the product of knowledge, skill, and experience. The teacher must have a good knowledge of the mind, of the facts he is to teach, of the sciences which rest upon them, and of the end to be 6 METHODS OF TEACHING. secured by school-work. He must have skill in applying his method, or he will fail to awaken right ideas, or he will do for the pupil what the pupil should do for himself, or he will talk too much, or spend time in teaching what is not worth knowing. He must have experience, or he will be liable to violate all the principles of good teaching in attempting to apply them." It is an axiom in the art of teaching that it is what the child does for himself and by himself, under wise guid- ance, that educates him. Now, the untrained and unskilled teacher, ignorant of the laws of mind, believes that children are educated mainly by what they are told, or by what they commit to memory from books. He fills all children to the brim with facts. Like Gradgrind and M'Choakumchild in Dickens, he seems "a kind of cannon, loaded to the muzzle with facts, and prepared to blow the boys and girls clean out of the regions of childhood at one discharge." His fetich is tlte school text-book. It is ugly, but he worships it, and makes his pupils bow down before it. To him the child has but one intellectual faculty, and that is memory. He en- lists pain in his service, and drives his pupils by main force. Mill says that if there is a first principle in education, it is this : " That the discipline which does good to the mind is that in which the mind is active, not passive ; the secret of developing the faculties is to give them much to do, and much inducement to do it." Tyndall says, " The ex- ercise of the mind, like that of the body, depends for its value upon the spirit in which it is accomplished." Spen- der says, " The child should be told as little as possible, and induced to discover as much as possible." But the unskilled teacher blunders along as if Mill, Spencer, Tyn- SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 7 dall, Froebel, and Pestalozzi had never lived, thought, ol> served, discovered, and written. He recognizes no educa- tional authority but himself. He teaches in the " good old way" handed down by imitation from the past a " way " still perpetuated, not only in common-schools both in the city and country, but also in not a few high-schools and colleges. Agassiz said the worst service a teacher could render a pupil was to give him a ready-made answer ; but the school- keeper tells everything in advance. Spencer, Bain, Corne- nius, and other educators agree that in every branch of study the mind should be conducted to principles through the medium of examples, and so should be led from the particular to the general, the simple to the complex, the concrete to the abstract, the indefinite to the definite, the empiricaHo the rational or scientific. But the unscientific teacher violates all these rules. In arithmetic, he begins with definitions, continues in abstractions and mechanical rules, and ends in puzzling problems. In grammar, he omits the actual use of language in expressing thought, and devotes his attention to the technicalities of parsing and analysis. In geography, he is content to have his pu- pils memorize names regardless of ideas. In history, he strings dates like wooden beads upon the thread of mem- ory. In reading, he trains pupils to call words without much reference to meaning. , In botany, he takes books before flowers, and in physics omits experiments. Object- lessons he regards with disdain. In fact, he does not edu- cate at all ; that is, he does not draw out, train, and disci- pline ; he does not awaken curiosity, nor excite inquiry, nor develop discrimination. In view of the charlatanism and empiricism so wide- 8 METHODS OF TEACHING. spread in methods of instruction, we may well be tolerant towards those who assert that there is, as yet, in our com- mon-schools, neither an art nor a science of teaching. " Our schools," said Agassiz, " are the treadmills of knowl- edge, while they might be made the living sources of knowledge." Mr. Dickinson, of Massachusetts, says, in his recent re- port, " The old methods of teaching are still generally practised. Lessons to be committed to memory are still assigned from books ; and then the teacher, by question arid answer, conducts the recitation." A state superintendent, who had made, during a four years' term of office, hundreds of visits to country schools, recently stated that he never once saw a teacher conduct- ing a recitation without a text-book in hand ; that he sel- dom saw either teacher or scholar at the blackboard ; that he never saw a school globe actually in use ; that pupils seemed to know nothing of local geography, and when asked to point north, uniformly pointed overhead to the zenith ; that he saw but one school cabinet ; that he never saw a teacher give an object-lesson ; and that he never found a school where pupils had been taught how to write a letter either of business or friendship. An examiner in one of the ten largest cities of our country says that he found many classes of children in the primary department who, after attending school three years, had never made a figure or letter upon the black- board ; that oral lessons were copied into blank-books and memorized by pupils; that the school globe was used only to show that the earth is round ; that most of the teaching consisted in hearing verbatim recitations; that in more than half the recitations written answers were SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 9 required ; that pupils were worried by frequent written ex- aminations ; and that the anxiety of teachers seemed to be not to develop the faculties of pupils, but to get them through the annual official written examination into the next higher grade. This crude teaching was the result, partly of bad supervision, and partly of untrained teachers. Such work is the natural outgrowth of the popular notion " that anybody can keep school." And it is hopeless to expect that teachers who are ignorant of their own igno- rance, who have grown wrongheaded from haphazard ex- perience, and conceited from their narrow-mindedness, will ever become anything more than machine teachers, mark- ing their pupils with a stencil-plate. It is this class of pedagogues that Carlyle has so graphically made immortal in the following paragraph : " My teachers were hide-bound pedants without knowl- edge of man's nature, or of boys, or of aught save lexi- cons. Innumerable dead vocables they crammed into us, and called it fostering the growth of the mind. How can an inanimate mechanical verb-grinder foster the growth of anything, much more of mind, which grows, not like a vegetable by having its roots littered by etymological com- post, but, like a spirit, by mysterious contact with spirit- thought kindling itself at the fire of living thought ! How shall he give kindling in whose own inward man there is no live coal but is burned out to a dead grammatical cin- der? My professors knew syntax enough, and of the hu- man soul this much that it had a faculty called memory, and could be acted on through the muscular integument by the appliance of birch-rods." The greatest waste of time and money in our school- system comes from the employment of untrained teachers i* 10 METHODS OF TEACHING. who, finally, learn how to teach after a fashion ; but who spoil a great many classes before they learn how to teach at all. The true economy of school management is the employment of professionally educated teachers, and the exclusion of itinerants and bunglers. " The chief func- tion of the normal school," says Thomas Hunter, Presi- dent of the New York Normal College, " is to prevent machine teaching." Our common-schools need not more laws, rules, and regulations, but better-trained teachers in the school-houses. " A good school," says President Eliot, of Harvard University, "is a man or a woman." IV. THE PROFESSION OF TEACHING. Except in a few colleges and universities, it cannot be said that there is in our country a, profession of teaching. There are, it is true, many men and women who have made teaching their life-work ; but they have little or no legal recognition as professional teachers. The peripatetic pedagogue is found only in the remotest rural districts on the borders of civilization, yet all teachers are still regarded by law and by custom as itinerants. In many states " the law " requires teachers to be examined annually for a cer- tificate " to teach a common-school one year." In every state of the Union, law or custom stronger than law requires that teachers shall be appointed annually " for the term of one year." But in no state does " the law " require any professional training whatever as a prereq- uisite "for teaching a common -school one year." The legal status of the teacher is strictly in accordance with the popular fallacy that anybody who can, in any way, get a certificate is fit to keep school. In a few states and cities there is a protozoic indication of an order of de- SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. H velopment higher than that of the single-cell certificate ; but, before teachers can gain a professional footing, there must be some general system of permanent diplomas au- thorized by state law, as are medical diplomas, or licenses to practise law. Have we not reached such a stage of progress that a normal-school diploma may safely be taken as prima facie evidence of fitness to teach, or that the life diploma of one state may be legally recognized in every other ? Must local exclusiveness stand forever a Chinese wall in the way of the school-teacher ? Must all teachers, when they change their residence, forever be compelled by legal en- actments to halt at every state line, or city limits, or dis- trict boundary, and submit to an " examination," in order to prove that they are not educational "tramps?" As long as " the law " requires teachers to submit to frequent and humiliating examinations, so long will school officials regard them, if not with contempt, with " a certain con- descension." The annual election or appointment of teachers is an- other legal barrier against teaching as a profession. It is not possible to dignify as a profession an occupation in which men and women are subject to an annual loss of place at the caprice of ever-changing school-boards. Even under our civil-service system, by which places are parcelled out as spoils by the victors, the tenure of position is at least four }^ears. There is need of school-service reform as well as of civil-service reform. There is only one large city in our country in which the tenure of a teacher's place is during good behavior; everywhere else appointments are made annually " for the term of one year." Among the minor influences tending to prevent the 12 METHODS OF TEACHING. recognition of teaching as a profession are the short terms of school officials, the multiplicity of state laws and city ordinances, the low rates of teachers' salaries, and the al- most total lack of any discrimination in wages between trained teachers and raw recruits. Before there can be a supply of professional teachers, there must be some de- mand for them by the people whose children go to school. There is still another stumbling-block in the way of the professional teacher in the large cities where boards of education are elected by direct vote at general elections, and that is the influence of ward politicians in securing places for friends and relatives as a reward for political or partisan services. In the days of his power, Tweed was a dictator of school appointments in New York, and in smaller cities innumerable smaller Tweeds are still dictat- ing appointments. As long as there is a public disposi- tion to regard school departments as charitable institu- tions where needy and politically useful persons can be respectably pensioned, just so long will it be impossible to secure professional teachers. People are apt to put too much faith in systems, and too little in devoted, educated, and skilled men and wom- en. " It will be a sorry day for the development of Amer- ican life," says Superintendent Hancock, "when school authorities shall come to consider organization and method in our school system, however perfect, a substitute for brains and character in the educator, or to look on me- chanic as the equal of" dynamic teaching." " If there be one profession," says Tyndall, " of paramount importance, I believe it to be that of the schoolmaster." John D. Philbrick, Ex-Superintendent of the Boston Schools, says, "We cannot too often repeat the great SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 13 fundamental maxim, 'As is the teacher, so is the school.' In the administration of a system of public instruction, therefore, it should be the first and foremost aim to select superior teachers, to retain them in service, and to insist upon constant progress in excellence. I trust the time is not far distant when no teacher will be permitted to as- sume the responsibility of conducting a primary school who has not been first thoroughly trained to the art in a model school." V. THE NEXT STEP. It must be evident that the weakest point in our school system is the very general employment of untrained teach- ers. The sheet-anchor of our hope for improvement is in the establishment by legal enactments that only those per- sons shall be eligible to secure teachers' certificates who, as a prerequisite, shall have graduated from a normal school, or shall have pursued in some other school a satis- factory course in the science and art of education, all hold- ers of existing certificates to be ranked as professionals. In the outset, this plan can be carried into full effect only in the larger cities and towns. It will be impracticable to establish such a standard of attainments, for a long time to come, in the ungraded country schools, kept open only a part of the year ; but to bring public opinion up to this point should be the objective aim of every educator. There are persons born with the natural capacities to make superior instructors, but there are no " born" teach- ers ; they are the product of technical training superadded to education. Emerson's general statement applies with special fitness to the education of the teacher : " Our arts and tools give to him who can handle them much the same advantage over the novice as if you ex- 14 METHODS OF TEACHING. tended his life ten, fifty, or a hundred years. And I think it is the part of good-sense to provide every fine soul with such culture that it shall not, at thirty or forty years, have to say, ' This which I might do is made hopeless through my want of weapons. 5 " It is true that not all graduates of medical schools be- come good physicians ; not all graduates of theological schools become eloquent preachers; not all graduates of art schools become great artists ; and not all graduates of normal schools become efficient teachers; but in all these cases there is a far greater probability of success than there would be with persons both untrained and untried. Professional schools do send out teachers with some knowl- edge derived from the experience of educators, and some conception of right methods of instruction. There are in the United States about 100 public normal schools which graduate about 2000 teachers every year. Into the standing army of 300,000 teachers there are en- listed annually at least 20,000 raw recruits who have to learn how to teach at the public expense. These facts do not indicate that the people have yet been educated up to the belief of Horace Mann, " that normal schools are a new instrumentality in the advancement of the race." We need not on this account, however, despair of the future. From the very nature of the school systems, our progress must be slow. We have a multiplicity of state laws, hundreds of city charters and city boards of educa- tion, thousands of town committees, and tens of thousands of district trustees. Uniform advancement is impossible. The school district is the unit of political organization, and every district is, in school affairs, an independent republic, or rather a local democracy. The schools are SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 15 improved only by the pressure of public opinion, and can- not rise higher than the average intelligence of the com- munity of which they are the outgrowth. But being under the direct control of the people, they are vitalized by the American spirit, and their progress is as certain as the advancement of civilization. In addition to the present system of normal schools, the colleges and universities especially those maintained by the state should establish professorships of the science and art of education, and provide postgraduate courses for those who intend to become school-teachers or super- intendents. It is true that a college course, of itself, may fit a graduate for some kinds of special teaching ; but it certainly fails to prepare one to become a good general teacher or principal of a public school. "Professors of the theory, history, and practice of education " have been appointed in the universities of Edinburgh and St. An- drew's, Scotland ; and there is a movement to establish similar chairs in some of the English universities. In our own country, this measure has been urged by many prom- inent educators who consider it essential to the future well-being of the common-school system. " Mr. William Harold Payne has been recently appointed Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan. The University of Wisconsin maintains a course of lectures in Didactics. The University of Iowa has maintained her normal department, with modifica- tions and improvements on the original plan, uninterrupt- edly since 1855. The University of Missouri established a normal professorship in 1856, and a normal college in 1867." The colleges and universities, combined with state and city normal schools, and normal classes in connection 16 METHODS OF TEACHING. with high-schools, could in twenty years supply the nation with a corps of trained and enthusiastic teachers. With a body of professional teachers under the wise supervision of trained superintendents and inspectors, the common- schools would be well equipped to educate the people. Meanwhile, in many parts of our country still under rude social conditions, we must expect the statement to hold true that was made by Roger Ascham, " seholemas- ter" to Queen Elizabeth: " And it is pity that commonly more care is had, yea, and that among very wise men, to find out rather a cun- ning man for their Horse than a cunning man for their Children. For to the one they will gladly give a Stipend of two hundred crowns by the year, and are loth to offer to the other two hundred Shillings. God that sitteth in Heaven laugheth their choice to scorn, and rewardeth their Liberality as it should. For he suffereth them to have tame and well-ordered Horses, but wild and unfortunate Children ; and, therefore, in the end they find more Pleas- ure in their Horse than Comfort in their Children." VI. THE SCHOLARSHIP OF TEACHERS. Before teaching can take rank as a profession, teachers must command respect for their scholarship. If they con- fine themselves to the schoolroom ; if they write nothing, say nothing, and do nothing society will estimate them for value received. Teachers who would stand high in public opinion must read, study, think, observe, and take an active part in the affairs of society outside of school lessons. " The hardest thing to do in the world," says Emerson, "is to think." But the true teacher must do more he SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 17 must take the step from thought to action. His work is done, not in the retirement of the closet, but in living contact with other minds. The best teacher is not the one who has devoured the most books, but he who can best kindle young hearts into enthusiasm by a spark of electric fire from his own soul. " The first principle of human culture," says Carlyle, "the foundation of all but false, imaginary culture, is that men must, before every other thing, be able to do somewhat." Mere learning is often mistaken for scholarship, and a walking library for an electric battery of thought. " No person can be called educated," says Whipple, " until he has organized his knowledge into faculty, and can wield it as a weapon." The scholarship of the teacher ought to be liberal, em- bracing some knowledge of many things ; and any teacher can make his culture liberal' if he uses rightly the leisure time which his pursuit affords. It is a good thing to be many-sided ; but the teacher must be a specialist in what- ever relates directly to the science of education. He is judged by his success as a teacher, not as a scientist, writer, lecturer, or poet. In his own profession, when he rises above his routine drudgery, he gets into the region of hard thinking. Climbing mountains is hard work, and the strain is hardest near the summit. The teacher who gets out of the sphere of imitation into that of invention and discovery will find ample scope for his powers. One reason why self-educated men so often succeed is, they concentrate their energies upon what they need to use. Like Napoleon, they fight without tents or baggage. They acquire a concentrated force of character, that stamps its impress upon everything with which it comes in contact. 18 METHODS OF TEACHING. Above all things, the true teacher should avoid recast ing everything in the mould of his own egotism. Deal- ing mostly with young and immature minds, he is in con- tinual danger of overestimating his own powers. Seldom questioned in his assertions, he is peculiarly liable to be- come dogmatic and opinionated. Everybody knows of pedantic pedagogues whose conceit is insufferable and in- effable. They look wiser than it is possible for any mor- tal to become. They gain credit, like Wouter Yan Twil- ler, for knowing a vast deal by saying nothing at all. The egotistical teacher reverses the old maxim "All men know more than one man" so that it reads "One man knows more than all men," he himself being that one man. But the true teacher will not dream his life away, like a Hindoo god, in contemplating his own perfections. It is often said that teaching school belittles a man and sours a woman. It may be "so ; it sometimes is so ; but not from any law of nature. It can never be true of any teacher made alive by keeping his intellectual and spirit- ual faculties and emotions in healthful play. " The orig- inal and proper sources of knowledge," says Blackie, " are not books, but life, experience, personal thinking, feeling, and acting." These sources are open to the teacher all his life. By imparting knowledge he enriches himself, and the freshness of childhood becomes to him a fountain of youth. " All really superior teachers," says Mr. Phil- brick, " are every day growing better." " The teacher," says Mr. William Eussell, " is himself a primary observer, authority, and reporter in the science of mind. His work is that of a living philosopher in act" Aside from the course of general reading which every teacher ought to pursue, there must be some regular study SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 19 of the science and art of teaching. For general principles in education, let him read the works of Herbert Spencer ; for rugged practical suggestions, Bain and Huxley ; for en- thusiasm, the life and works of Horace Mann. He should peruse all such good books on teaching as those of Russell, Page, Phelps, Hart, G. B. Emerson, Wickersham, and Or- cutt ; and also all the school reports he can get ; and all the educational journals he can afford to pay for. Let him critically examine all new text-books in the various branches of study ; he will glean some new method from each one. He ought to attend teachers' conventions, insti- tutes, and associations, and to take part in the proceedings. The original thinkers, the discoverers, and inventors may be few ; but the efficient workers are many, whose mission is to aid the progress of the race by earnest, skilful, intel- ligent teaching. " Be ashamed to die," said Horace Mann, " until you have won some victory for humanity." It is no wonder that the solitary teacher in some rural district, surrounded by the protoplasm of humanity, his labors unappreciated, his motives misunderstood, his ser- vices half paid it is no wonder that he sometimes be- comes moody, loses his enthusiasm, and imagines that the sky is only a vast concave blackboard upon which he is doomed to work out the problem of a bare subsistence. He needs the pleasant intercourse of professional gather- ings to make the heavens brighten with the stars of hope and glow with the aurora of enthusiasm. As well expect a hermit on a desolate island to advance in civilization as to suppose that an isolated teacher can rise far above his surroundings. Association is the motive power of prog- 20 METHODS OF TEACHING. ress in civilization, science, and art. The world's indus- trial expositions are dignifying mechanics and artisans. Farmers hold their state or district or county fairs for the purpose of improving their live-stock : they organize as " Grangers " to improve themselves socially and polit- ically. Printers, carpenters, machinists, and laborers, all have their societies and trades-unions for defence and of- fence. The lawyers, the doctors, the dentists, the clergy, the Masons, the Odd-fellows, all have their societies for charitable or protective purposes. If teachers would exert any marked influence, they must wield it through the consolidated power of organ- ized societies, associations, conventions, and institutes. VIII. EDUCATIONAL POWER. The true teacher must have the faith of martyrs. In the limited horizon of the schoolroom, he can dimly see only the beginning of the effects of his teaching upon his pupils. The solid results, the building-up of character, the creative power of motives, become evident only in the work of a lifetime in the wider circle of the world. Hence the power of the teacher, like that of the silent and invisible forces of nature, is only feebly realized. I once visited a quartz mine of fabulous richness. Deep in the bowels of the earth, rough miners were blasting out the gold-bearing rock ; above, the powerful mill was crush- ing the white quartz with its iron teeth. In the office, piles of yellow bars, ready to be sent to the mint to be poured into the channels of trade, showed the immediate returns of wisely invested capital and well-directed labor. An hour later, I stepped into a public school, not half a mile distant, where a hundred children were at work on SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL-TEACHING. 21 their lessons. What does the school yield, I asked, on the" investment of money by the State? The returns of the mine are made monthly, in solid bullion ; the school re- turns will be made in the far future, and they cannot be expressed in dollars. I go out from my school daily into the crowded streets of a great commercial city. I hear everywhere the hum of industry, and see the stir of business. The results of business are solid and tangible; but when I go back to my classes, after witnessing the mighty play of industrial forces, it seems as if the teacher were only a looker-on in the bustling life around. But when I pause to consider that intelligence is the motive power of trade ; that the steamship is navigated by means of science, and is built as a triumph of art ; that science surveyed the converg- ing lines of railroads, and that skill runs the trains freight- ed with the products of industry and art, then I begin to perceive the connection between schools and the material results of civilization. I realize that the life of a nation is made up of the mothers that guard the homes, and the men who drive the plough, build the ships, run the mills, work the mines, construct the machinery, print the papers, shoulder the musket, cast the ballots ; and it is for all these that the public schools have done, and are now do- ing, their beneficent work. IX. THE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEM. " Whatever you would have appear in the life of a na- tion you must first put into the schools," holds true pre- eminently in a republic. Our free-school system has its shortcomings and its defects ; but, taken as a whole, it is the broadest and the best ever organized. It is the duty 22 METHODS OF TEACHING. of every true teacher to strive to remedy its defects, and never to submit to them as incurable. When taxes are high and times are hard, the school system will be subject to a running fire of criticism all along the line ; but only timid and despairing souls are frightened into the belief that the foundations of society are breaking up on account of over-education in the common-schools. Neither repre- sentatives of the caste of Capital nor the caste of Cult- ure can convince the American people that vice, crime, idleness, poverty, social discontent, are the legitimate re- sults of an elementary education among the workers of society, or that the schoolmaster is a public enemy. The sentiment of most Americans is that of Daniel Webster, who once said, "If I had as many sons as old Priam, I would send them all to the public schools." If our schools fail to meet the needs of changing social conditions, the kind and quality, not the extent, of education must -be changed. Neither the free high-school nor the free state university must be lopped off. " No system of education," says Huxley, " is worthy of the name unless it creates a great educational ladder with one end in the gutter and the other in the university." It is only by means of skilled labor, wisely and intelli- gently directed, that a people can become or can remain permanently prosperous and happy; it is only by means of intelligent and honest voters that law and liberty can be preserved and maintained ; and it is only by means of a still more complete education of all classes that human- ity can rise into a higher type of social evolution. There is no slavery so oppressive as that of ignorance. PHYSICAL TRAINING. \S~RAl or THE CHAPTER IT. PHYSICAL TRAINING. I. ITS IMPORTANCE. ONE of the most hopeful features of modern education is the growing recognition of the importance of physical training in school. By thinkers and educators the neces- sity of a trained body as the instrument of a trained mind is fully recognized, though by the mass of teachers it is, as yet, feebly acted upon. " To the wise educator," says "W. T. Harris, Superin- tendent of the schools of the city of St. Louis, " nothing is more certain than that the child is an animal with the pos- sibility of reason." "To be a nation of good animals," says Spencer, " is the first condition of national prosper- ity." ^No perfect brain ever crowns an imperfectly de- veloped body," says Dr. E. II. Clarke, of BostonT7That tough old sceptic Montaigne says, " We have noFto train up a soul, nor yet a body, but a man, and we cannot di- vide him." "Physical training and drill," says Huxley, "should be a part of the regular business of school. There is no real difficulty about teaching drill and the simpler kinds of gymnastics. If something of the kind is not done, the English physique, which has been, land still is, on the whole, a grand one, will become in the great towns as extinct as the dodo." "When we have mastered the laws of physical educa- 24 METHODS OF TEACHING. tion," says Professor Yonmans, " we have the essential data for dealing with questions of mental education, and those steps are the indispensable preparation for an en- lightened moral education." It is true that the leading purpose of the public school is intellectual training, and true that physical condition depends largely upon home surroundings and inherited constitution. It may be true also that, considering education strictly as a science, phys- ical health does not fall within its domain, but is to be as- sumed as an essential prerequisite of education. Never- theless, though the teacher has no direct control over pupils in respect to diet, clothing, exercise, rest, sleep, work, or play, yet the school must not, on that account, shirk its appropriate share of responsibility in relation to bodily development. As an abstract proposition, no teach- er will deny that sound health is the true basis of mental and moral culture; the difficulty is how to secure it. There are certain negative duties which are evident and easy. Teachers_should at least protect their pupils against impure air, too long confinement, over-work, and the dead- ening effects of mental worry, caused by severe competi- tive written examinations. A great deal more than this ought to be done; but in many schools not even this is attempted. It is the duty of every teacher, whether in the primary, grammar, or high school, whether in city or country, to impress upon pupils, by emphatic iteration, the laws of health in relation to food, air, sleep, rest, exercise, play, work, and personal habits in general. Teachers should give attention to the encouragement of games, plays, and amusements, in addition to calisthenic drill. P" Play," says Froebel, " is the development of the human PHYSICAL TRAINING. 25 mind, its first effort to make acquaintance with the out- ward world. The child, indeed, recognizes no purpose in it, sees not the end that is to be reached; but it expresses its own nature, and that is human nature in its playful activity." ^j In the German schools, children are systematically trained to gymnastics, and the result is a national taste for athletic sports. English schools are noted for foot- ball and cricket, and Englishmen are famous for pluck. But in our own county, we must confess there is some truth in the remark made by a foreigner, " that the only popular recreation of the American is business." Moreover, it is a first principle in the science of educa-V tion that the best results in intellectual training can be se-/ cured only by a correlative physical development. Child-' hood is the season of animal growth. Playfulness is as much an instinct of children as of kittens or puppies. Even in the icy winters of the Arctic regions, Dr. Kane found the hardy little Esquimaux boys playing ball on the frosty snow-fields. It is a mistaken notion of some peda- gogues that the chief end of children is to go to school and study lessons from books. It is painful to witness, in many schools, how the plastic, growing bodies are cramped, how natural impulses are repressed, how the laws of nature are systematically violated. Not many children, perhaps, are killed outright by mental high-pressure ; but, now and then, some delicately organized boy, brilliant and ambi- tious, whose vitality all tends to brain instead of body, drops out of school into the grave, and his death is attrib- uted to Providence instead of to schoolmasters. High- school diplomas, not a few, are gained at the expense of sound health, and girls, not a few, are annually made lifo- 26 METHODS OF TEACHING. long invalids by over-stimulated ambition, long lessons, short hours of sleep, and a lack of healthful amusements. Physicians know this, though teachers and parents shut their eyes to the painful facts. $~ot all the girls in public schools or private seminaries have round shoulders, crook- ed spines, and dyspepsia ; but how much greater might be their physical stamina if physical training received a small share of the attention given to music and mathematics? If these girls need mental culture in order to make their future homes pleasant and attractive, do they not also need bodily culture to enable them to bear the burdens of do- mestic life ? In the struggle for existence, it is generally the strong, active, vigorous boys that come out ahead, and it is the healthy and beautiful girls that win the prizes of life. After admitting all this, it is often urged that systematic drill soon becomes irksome to children ; that boys dislike the gymnasium, and that girls find calisthenics weari- some ; that it is not natural for children to use wands and dumb-bells ; and that boys and girls should be left to fol- low their own inclinations and impulses about exercise and amusement. But school drill is designed not to supersede, but to supplement, the natural games and plays of children. If we leave physical culture wholly to natural impulse, why not leave mental culture to take care of itself ? In men- tal training, we recognize the principle that intellectual development is attained only by repeated, long-continued, and systematic exercises. Mental school gymnastics are rigidly enforced for many years. The same law holds true in physical development ; yet children are too often crowded into small rooms, and cramped in hard seats PHYSICAL TRAINING. 2T their muscles weak and relaxed, and their vital energies all concentrated on an overworked brain. Would not the physique of a class of boys under judi- cious gymnastic training for ten years be superior to that of a class left to run wild ? And would not their accumu- lated stock of trained muscular power be quite as service- able to them through life as a great deal of what is called mental discipline ? Business men, mechanics, artisans, and farmers know that success depends, not upon intel- lectual attainments so much as upon sound health and power of endurance. Sinewy frames as well as trained minds are essential to the sons of workingmen who must make their own way in the world. For them muscular power means food, clothing, and a living. Their only capital in the struggle for existence is an elementary edu- cation and a sound body. ["" Health is the first wealth," says Emerson. The plain truth is that no education is worth having at the expense of health and physical vigor/]} "I am a poor man," said a friend to me, "because in a business crisis I was sick, and did the wrong thing ; and I was sick because of neglected physical training at school." II. WAYS AND MEANS. Admitting the importance of physical training in school, how shall w r e set about it ? Doubtless, in some schools nothing whatever can be done. In city schools the need is more pressing than in country schools. After many years of experience in directing physical exercises, I am inclined to think that the possibility of doing something depends in a great measure on the interest, enthusiasm, and tact of the teacher. The pleasantest recollections of my earlier years of teaching are connected with gymnastic 28 METHODS OF TEACHING. classes of active boys who could, with me, kick foot-ball, play base-ball, lift dumb-bells, swing clubs, climb ladders, vault bars, walk twenty miles on Saturday, and roast a beefsteak on a pointed stick over an improvised camp-fire. As I meet those boys, now grown up into rugged man- hood, I know by the way they grip my hand and speak of the "splendid times we used to have," that they think of me, not as a mere schoolmaster, but as the friend who shared their sports and entered into the spirit of their boyhood. My later experience in a girls' high -school, number- ing eight hundred pupils, has convinced me of the very great value for girls of systematic calisthenic drill. In his Boston report so long ago as 1860, Superintendent Philbrick said, " The principal remedy which I would sug- gest is the introduction into all grades of our schools of a thorough system of physical training as a part of school culture." " Gymnastic exercises," says Secretary Dickin- son, "give grace and beauty to the body, and good train- ing to the mind." III. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. In every school, whether in city or country, there should be given a daily drill of five or ten minutes in free gym- nastics. Without apparatus and without music, a skilful teacher can secure very good results from what may be termed " free-arm movements," executed by counting in time. To these there may be added " breathing exercises," and concert exercises in vocal culture or in singing. Both wands and dumb-bells can be used in any school- room. Wands will cost about ten cents apiece, and light wooden dumb-bells about twenty-five cents a pair. If PHYSICAL TRAINING. 29 there is a piano in the schoolroom, the light gymnastic drill can be made quite varied and thorough with no other appliances. If there is a hall, wooden rings should be added for girls. For the larger boys, there should be some inexpensive gymnastic appliances in the yard. A movable horizontal bar, a circular swing, hanging rings, parallel bars, iron dumb-bells, and Indian clubs can all be obtained for a small expenditure. Any young lady, even if not previously trained in calis- thenics, ought to be able to lead a class after a few weeks' study of any one of several good manuals on the subject. Any man, unless superannuated, ought to be able to lead, or at least direct, gymnastic exercises in the yard, at re- cess, intermission, or after school. The man who understands boys will either join with them or will encourage and direct them in their games of ball and foot-ball ; in skating, coasting, and snow-balling ; and will take an interest in their games of marbles, in kite-flying, and top-spinning. On pleasant Saturdays, or after school in the long summer days, he will head excur- sion parties to the fields, woods, or hills after collections for the cabinet, or to see nature, or merely to have a good time. The woman who understands little children will invite them to pleasant walks with her for the same purpose. The games of the primary children must not be forgotten. By a little attention to the playground, their sports may be regulated and made delightful. Marbles, tops, kites, balls, and hoops are all a part of educational apparatus. A visit to a kindergarten and a careful study of some kindergarten manual will be very suggestive in the direc- 30 METHODS OF TEACHING. tion of play and amusements. Teachers must study vari- ety, for monotonous repetition soon becomes distasteful. Notice how marbles succeed tops, and kites follow ball, and one play another, as often as the moon changes. The cold, formal, precise, unsympathetic teacher should never set foot on the playground. An owl frightens sing' ing birds. The only teachers who succeed well in direct- ing children in calisthenics, gymnastics, or games are those who can enter into the spirit of girlhood and boyhood. " He was always a boy, and he will die one," was the re- mark I once heard made about one of the best teachers I ever knew. The indirect lessons of the playground are often more valuable and more lasting than the formal teachings of the class-room. For in the hours of play, when off duty, the teacher can best win the confidence and love of chil- dren. What man or woman would not be remembered by pupils as a sharer of their amusements, a director of their games, a sympathizer with their impulses, rather than as nothing but an expounder of text-books and a taskmaster of lessons? It is on the playground, too, that boys get their first lessons in social life outside of the family circle. "You send a boy to the schoolmaster," says. Emerson, " but it is the schoolboys who educate him. He hates the grammar and Gradus, and loves guns, fishing-rods, horses, and boats. Well, the boy is right, and you are not fit to direct his bringing up if your theory leaves out his gym- nastic training. Provided always the boy is teachable, foot-ball, cricket, climbing, fencing, riding, archery, swim- ming, skating, are lessons in the art of power which it is his main business to learn." "Moreover," says Charles PHYSICAL TRAINING. 31 Kingsley, " they know well that games conduce, not mere- Jy to physical, but to moral health; that in the playing- field boys acquire virtues that no books can give them ; not merely daring and endurance, but, better still, temper, self-restraint, fairness, honor, nnenvious approbation of another's success, and all that give and take' of life which stands a man in such good stead when he goes forth into the world ; and without which, indeed, his success is al- ways maimed and partial." IV. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. And, in connection with physical training, there is the question of industrial or technical education in the great cities. In the country, boys work on the farm half the year, and girls work in the house all the year through. The country pupils combine mental and physical work, and are the better for it. Children are not content with reading and thinking; they burn to be doing something. The kindergarten sup- plies this want with the little children ; but from the age of six to fifteen there is at present, in the city public school, little for boys but books. There is no doubt whatever that many boys get a distaste for school, and leave it as soon as they can find any work to do, and be- fore they have obtained any education beyond the ability to read, write, and cipher a little. How the combination of head-work with hand-work can be effected, if at all, is one of the educational problems of the future. It is not safe to assert that it cannot be done. On this subject, John Hancock, of Ohio, speaks as follows : "But to impart in the schools of our cities and large towns all this general knowledge and training without the 32 METHODS OF TEACHING. slightest abatement, and to add, not the knowledge of a trade, but such a knowledge of the uses of tools and ma- terials as shall enable the scholar readily to adjust himself to several trades, seems to be something worth striving for. That this can be done, and without greatly lengthening the period of school life or enormously increasing school .expenses, has been pretty well established by the experi- ments made within the last two or three years at the Bos- ton School of Technology. Indications are strong that the education of the brain and of the hand are, at no dis- tant day, to run on side by side, mutually strengthening each other in the race. To unite a thinking brain with a skilful hand is the way to make labor respectable, and any other way than this there is not under the sun." " Froebel did not value manual work for the sake mere- ly of making a better workman," says Emily Shirreff, " but for the sake of making a more complete human being. His teaching rested upon the principle that the starting- point of all we see, know, are conscious of, is action, and, therefore, that education must begin in action. Book- study, in his system, is postponed to the discipline of the mental and physical powers through observation and work." V. TECHNICAL EDUCATION. As yet, technical education can hardly be said to form a part of our common-school system, except in one state, and in some cities where a beginning has been made in the evening schools. I dismiss this part of the subject by giv- ing a few quotations to show the drift of opinion among prominent^ducators : "Technical education, in the sense in which the term is ordina- rily used, means that sort of education which is specially adapted PHYSICAL TEAINING. 33 to the needs of men whose business in life it is to pursue some kind of handicraft. . . . Moreover, those who have to live by labor must be shaped to labor early. The colt that is left at grass too long wakes but a sorry draught-horse. Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make yourself do the thing you have to do when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not: it is the first lesson that ought to be learned ; and, however early a man's training begins, it is probably the last lesson that he learns thoroughly." Huxley. "A knowledge of some form of industrial labor is as necessary as a knowledge of books, and the state which acknowledges its ob- ligation to teach children to read cannot logically deny its obliga- tion to teach them to work. . . . Do I think it possible to attach workshops to all our public schools ? Certainly not. But I do think it possible to have public workshops where boys can learn trades, as well as public schools where they can learn letters. And just as we transfer the few from the state school to the state college, where they learn to be thinkers, I would transfer the many from the city school to the city workshop, where they would learn to be work- ers." Superintendent Newell, of Maryland. " I hold it to be a correct principle that, while the common-school does not aim to make farmers or mechanics, but leaves this to the special schools, it is the business of the common-schools to teach the elements of technical knowledge, both scientific and artistic." Su- perintendent Carr, of California. "I have given what I believe a good reason for the assumption that the keeping at school of boys who are to be handicraftsmen beyond the age of thirteen or fourteen is neither practicable nor desir- able; and it is quite certain that, with justice to other and no less important branches of education, nothing more than the rudiments of science and art-teaching can be introduced into elementary schools ; and we must seek elsewhere for a supplementary training in these subjects, which may go on after the workman's life has begun. . . . The great advantage of evening technical classes is that they bring the means of instruction to the doors of the factories and work- shops." Huxley. 2* 34 METHODS OF TEACHING. r VI. SCHOOL HYGIENE. 1. " The laws of health," says Dr. Willard Parker, " are the laws of God, and are as binding as the Decalogue." " The fact is," says Spencer, " that all breaches of the laws of health are physical sins." " Nature's discipline," says Huxley, " is not even a word and a blow, and the blow first ; but the blow without the word. It is left for you to find out why your ears are boxed." 2. No education is worth the cost if gained at the ex- pense of health and cheerfulness, or under the penalty of nervous weaknesses, dyspepsia, or near-sightedness. 3. A sound body is the groundwork of sound intellect- ual faculties. A morbid condition of body leads to dul- ness of mental perceptions and weakness of the intellectual faculties. Excessive or premature mental development checks the growth of the body ; over-development is an- tagonistic to growth. 4. " The physiological motto is," says Dr. E. H. Clarke, " Educate a man for manhood, a woman for womanhood, both for humanity. In this lies the hope of the race." " Get health," says Emerson, " for sickness is a cannibal which eats up all the life and youth it can lay hold of, and absorbs its own sons and daughters." 5. " Mental labor, rightly directed," says Dr. Lincoln, of Boston, " is a most healthful occupation ; and there is no real reason why this should not be true at all periods of school life. But the difference between forced and spon- taneous action is of great consequence to the health and mental energy of the child." 6. "At college," says Horace Mann, "I was taught the motions of the heavenly bodies as if their keeping in their PHYSICAL TRAINING. 35 orbits depended upon my knowing them ; while I was in profound ignorance of the laws of health of my own body. The rest of my life was, in consequence, one long battle with exhausted energies," In most country schools the pupils throw away a great deal of time in " going through," term after term, bulky text-books on arithmetic, filled to repletion with school- masters' puzzles about things unknown in real life, and crammed with technical "rules," which are learned only to be forgotten. Concentrate your drill upon the four rules, fractions, the tables, and interest, and thus give your pupils the mental training which will enable them to do a few essential things skilfully, accurately, and readily. 104 METHODS OF TEACHING. None of your pupils need to study such schoolmasterisms as "allegation," "duodecimals," "circulating decimals," "permutation," "single and double position;" and few except the big boys who have nothing else to do need waste time upon "compound proportion," "reduction as- cending and descending," " true discount," " bonds," " ex- Change," "insurance," "equation of payments," "partner- ship," "arithmetical progression," "geometrical progres- sion," " custom-house business," " annuities," etc. Omit these, and you may find time to give short lessons in the elements of natural science, and to open the eyes of your pupils to the wonders of the world around them. It is true that many country schoolmasters still contend that the reasoning faculties of a pupil cannot be properly disciplined unless he devotes half his school-days to ab- struse logical analysis, as they choose to call it, of use- less problems, worse than Chinese puzzles, involving only blind adherence to rule, or still blinder imitation ; but the real truth is that mental discipline in the study of arith- metic is not one whit more valuable than is hard think- ing upon other school studies. No mental work of an} 7 kind, rightly done, is utterly useless; but the real question is, not what is good, but what, under the circumstances, is best, and how much, and when. " Get your discipline," says Chadbourne, " by do- ing a greater amount of work, and doing it in better style." A wealthy merchant once set his son to wheeling stones from one corner of his garden to the other, in order to train him to work. He was wiser than the man who never makes his boy work at all ; but he would have been wiser still had he kept his son at work sawing wood or laying out a garden, or weeding the onion-bed or hoeing potatoes. THE MANAGEMENT OF UNGRADED COUNT11Y SCHOOLS. 105 Now in country schools, a great many boys and girls are kept at wheeling educational stones. A teacher who keeps young pupils at work, term after term, upon com- plex or puzzling problems in mental arithmetic, repeating long-drawn-out formulas in logical analysis, including statement, solution, and conclusion, before they have ac- quired readiness and accuracy in addition and multipli- cation, is only making them wheel stones. A country teaclier who neglects " the four rules " and " the tables " in order to train big country boys upon a normal-school analytical demonstration of the reason for inverting the divisor in division of fractions is wheeling stones ; and if, added to this, he requires allegation, exchange, and pro- gression, he is wheeling glacial boulders. Avoid making a hobby of arithmetic and algebra. Two hundred years ago, Roger Ascharn, in The Scholemaster, wrote as fol- lows : " Mark all Mathematical heads, which be only and wholly bent to those Sciences, how solitary they be them- selves, how unfit to live with others, and how unapt to serve in the world." And a modern educator, Superin- tendent Eliot, of Boston, says now, " A faculty to be called out by the knowledge of numbers and their relations is too often stupefied by the drugs substituted for them." In his unsurpassed paper on Waste of Labor in the Work of Education, President Chadbourne truthfully says, " The principle of dealing with essentials mainly should prevail in all the work of education. We have too much to do to spend time fooling over complicated arithmetical puzzles which abound in some books questions which no one should undertake to solve till well versed in algebra and geometry. At the proper stage of education, such puzzles, which are a discouragement to the young scholar, XtTa"' 5* or THE ] k VNIVER8ITV ) or J 106 METHODS OF TEACHING. because he thinks them essential to the subject, will be solved in the natural progress of his work. They are an annoyance and discouragement simply because they are introduced before their time, before the study of the prin- ciples on 'which their solution depends." r~ 3. They should acquire a good general "knowledge of * geograpliyTj In order to do this, it is not at all necessary that boys and girls should be compelled, day after day, and term after term, and year after year, to memorize the dreary pages of " map questions " that crowd the three padded books in a series of geographies. If any teachers of coun- try schools, or indeed of any schools anywhere on this planet, require their pupils to learn by heart one tenth of the boundaries, cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountains, capes, bays, and microscopic bits of topography included under the head of "Map Lessons" in the books; or to learn by rote one twentieth of the stereotyped descrip- tions of countries and their inhabitants; or one hun- dredth of the dry census statistics of the States even of our own country about bushels of corn, wheat, rye, barley, oats, beans, pease, and potatoes ; or the value of the annual crops of cotton, tobacco, sugar, rice, hemp, and hay; or the value of manufactured articles, such as boots and shoes, cotton cloth, hardware ; or the annual catch of mackerel and codfish statistics in which text-books abound such teachers ought to be indicted for a lack of common-sense. No reasonable human being expects even a schoolmaster, who has studied and taught geography half a lifetime, to know, without looking on the book, the entire returns of the last census, or the exact population of every city in the world, or the length of every river, or the height THE MANAGEMENT OF UNGRADED COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 107 in feet of every mountain-peak, or the boundary-line of every State in the Union and every country in the world, or the exact distance in miles from Ujiji to Walla- Walla. Is it reasonable, then, to attempt to make boys and girls master this chaos of facts? The plain truth is that no small part of what children are forced to cram at school, not only in geography, but also in other branches, might appropriately be labelled THINGS WOETH FORGETTING ! Nature is wiser than teachers and text-book-makers ; she casts on: the dead and waste matter and saves the child. Cut out of your text-book on geography, then, all but essentials. Cross out all local State geography except that of the pupil's own State. Read the descriptive text, and mark, now and then, something to be put away in the storehouse of memory. Use the scalpel with merciless severity. " It takes a brave man," says President Chadbourne, " one merciless to him- self, to make a small, simple, but thorough text-book ; but such text-books we must have, if we use them at all." 4,_ They should be trained in writing and in speaking good English, and should learn the elements of grammar. The technical study of grammar should be preceded by a course of elementary exercises in " Language Lessons," such as are found in modern text-books, notably in Swin- ton's Language Primer. Children learn to swim by try- ing to swim, to skate by skating, to talk by talking, and to write by writing. They cannot be trained to speak or to write correctly by parsing according to Latinized for- mulas. They will never learn to construct a good sen- tence by analyzing complex or compound sentences, or by memorizing and repeating the rules of syntax, though this method be followed until they grow gray. 108 METHODS OF TEACHING. Require at least two short composition exercises a week, on slates or paper, upon subjects about which the pupils know something. Let them write about farming, about animals, birds, fishes, flowers, trees. Read them short stories, and require them to be reproduced in writing. Let them write short biographical sketches of great men. Let them make com- positions about their history and geography lessons; and then let the older pupils correct the compositions of the younger ones, and the younger ones read those of the older ones as models. "Nothing is of more value in education," says Buxton, " than this, to make a point of opening the child's eyes to take an interest in the world around him. Teach him, if a country boy, to know the birds, their nests, eggs, and notes ; the wild animals, their haunts and habits ; the do- mestic animals, their nature, peculiarities, and various breeds ; the flowers ; the trees ; the insects ; the different soils. You can do this at mere odds and ends of time, and you have opened springs of pure enjoyment in his soul." Require all pupils over eight years of age to write at least one short letter a week, until they can write it in due form, punctuate it, capitalize it, spell correctly every word they use in it, fold it neatly, and direct it. In ad- dition to this, pupils over twelve years of age ought to be able to express their thoughts in well - constructed sen- tences. After this is done, let the big boys and girls take to parsing and analysis, which are good enough exercises at the right time. From a text-book let them learn the chief "rules of syntax" and the technical distinctions of etymology. If the text-book in use is a good one, omit THE MANAGEMENT OF UNGRADED COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 109 two thirds of it, and give out the remainder in substantial lessons to be learned by heart ; if it be a poor one, of the antique Latinized type, deal it out in homoeopathic doses. I 5. They should have a good general knowledge of the *"" leading events in the history of our own country. _^ l>ut do not compel the memorizing of three or four hundred pages of dates and details which no teacher liv- ing could stow into his head in a lifetime, and which, if learned, would be next to worthless. Let your pupils read the text-book aloud in the class ; then it is your business to winnow out the three grains of wheat from the bushel of chaff, and tell them what to mark as fit to be learned. You must supplement the text-book with stories, anecdotes, incidents, and well -selected extracts. Make use of the school library as an assistant. The real spirit of history does not consist in dates and details. "My grandfather's stories about his service as a private in the Revolutionary war," said a noted teacher, " made history a living reality to me." Narrative and biography make the life of history to the young. it is evident that the main purpose of the teacher, in all the higher- grade classes, should be to train pupils to think when reading, and to gather up all the thoughts of the writerfrom the printed page. 3^"JSvstematie reading" says Russell, "is a valued means for cultivating reflective habits of mind ; reading which is study, not perusal; reading which is attentively done, carefully reviewed, exactly recorded, or orally re- counted. Memory, under such discipline, becomes thor- oughly retentive, information exact, judgment correct, conception clear, thought copious, and expression ready and appropriate.'' f 35. Every school library ought to contain several sets of school Readers, to supplement those in the hands of the pupils. When scholars have read through their own books, the new ones will excite a fresh interest. Besides, in all except the lowest classes, an intelligent child will extract most of the information worth anything, from an ordinary class-book, in less than sixty days. "No one thing," says Horace Mann, " will contribute more to in- telligent reading than a well-selected school library." II. QUOTATIONS FROM EDUCATORS. I. " If teachers will cease to require little children to 'read over 'and to ' study' beforehand their reading ex- 6* 130 METHODS OF TEACHING. ercise a task entirely unsuitable at their age and will also put an end to the absurd practice of allowing pupils to keep up, during the reading exercise, a running criticism upon each other by irritating and aggravating remarks, thus mortifying their more timid companions, and sometimes paying off old grudges; and will then confine their labors mainly to two points to making the child realize the thought of the sentence to be read, and to showing him, by example and good vocal drill, how to give a pleasant and natural expression to that thought the best part of the victory will be won." Superintendent A. P. Stone. II. "A part of the time saved by judicious manage- ment should be given to reading; not to the mere call- ing of words, nor to premature lessons in elocution, but to plain reading in good books for the sake of the infor- mation they contain. It is not creditable to our efforts as educators that so large a proportion of pupils passes from us without having acquired a taste for the reading of good books. If our system confers the ability to read without creating a desire for the right kind of reading, it surely stands in need of reformation. . . . Very little of thcj arithmetic which children learn at school can be made available in after-life. Their feats of analysis and parsing are never to be repeated in the actual contests of actual life. Nine tenths of what they have learned as geography will pass away as the morning cloud and the early dew. But a taste for good reading will last for life; will be available every day and almost every hour, and will grow by what it feeds on ; will so occupy the time of the young as to rob temptation of half its power by stealing more than half its opportunities ; and will be a refuge and a Bolace in adversity." Superintendent Newell. CONDENSED DIEECTIONS FOE TEACHING BEADING. 131 III. " We not only want more reading-books, but dif- ferent ones; not Headers, not fragments of writings, but writings, however brief a story or a history, a book of travels or a poem associated as vividly as possible with the author w r ho wrote them, not a mere book-maker who has patched together pieces of them. With such reading- books, intelligently used, the inability of our children to read at sight and w r ith expression would become less com- mon and less painful. As for grammar, it would almost develop itself from such reading as this. Familiarity with the best thoughts and expressions would lead children, with comparatively little effort, to think and express themselves in good language." Superintendent Eliot. IV. " I do not hesitate to declare my conviction that if half the school-time were devoted to reading, solely for the sake of reading; if books were put into the scholars' hands all that while, under wise direction, divested of every shadow of association with text-book work, to be perused with interest and delight inspired by their attrac- tive contents choice volumes of history, biography, trav- els, poetry, fiction there would be a far more profitable disposal of it than marks its lapse in many a schoolroom now. The ordinary reading of the schools is a pointless, starveling performance, so far as language-teaching is con- cerned." Superintendent Harrington. V. " Good reading is an art so difficult that not one in O a hundred educated persons is found to possess it to the satisfaction of others, although ninety-nine in a hundred would be offended were they told that they did not know how to read. The essential requisites are, perfect mastery of pronunciation, and the power of seizing instantaneous- ly the sense and spirit of an author." Marcel. 132 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER III. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING SPELLING, WORD ANALYSIS, AND DEFINING. I. SPELLING. 1. MAKE a judicious combination of oral spelling with written exercises. Oral spelling secures correct pronun- ciation, and awakens a keener interest in pupils ; written spelling is the more practical, but is apt to become weari- some if carried on exclusively. 2. Train primary pupils on short lists of the names of common things. 3. Kequire them to copy at least one paragraph from each reading-lesson. 4. In oral spelling, excite a spirit of emulation by allow- ing pupils to win their rank in line by "going up" when they spell a word that has been missed. 5. Allow pupils, at least once a week, to " choose sides " and have a spelling-match. 6. If a spelling-book is in the hands of your pupils, when you assign a lesson pronounce every word, and re- quire the class to pronounce in concert after you, in order to secure correct pronunciation. Then let each scholar in turn pronounce one word, going over the lesson a second time. Call special attention to words of difficult spelling, and to those containing silent letters. Occasionally call upon some pupil to dictate the spelling-lesson. Eequiro CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING SPELLING, ETC. 133 pupils to study their lessons, both oral and written, by copying the words on their slates; the act of writing will secure some attention to the lesson. 7. If a spelling-book is not used, you must supply, in some measure, the lack of one by grouping words into short lessons and dictating them to your pupils, to be copied into blank-books. There is a great waste of labor in taking up words heterogeneously, instead of by groups. 8. In written exercises, after the papers or slates are corrected, require pupils to rewrite their misspelled words. 9. Do not require pupils to commit to memory and re- peat all the words of the spelling-lesson. " How such an absurdity," says Superintendent Philbrick, "could ever enter the head of a sane teacher, it is difficult to con- ceive." 10. Require pupils to pronounce each word before spell- ing it. 11. In oral spelling, require pupils to divide words into syllables ; but, in long words, do not require the syllables to be pronounced or repronounced. 12. In all grades above the lowest, make out carefully arranged lists of words which pupils are liable to misspell ; let the pupils copy the words into blank-books, and study the lessons until they are thoroughly learned. 13. Let pupils exchange papers and correct the spelling in one another's exercises. This of itself is one of the most profitable of spelling-lessons. 14. In oral spelling, require pupils occasionally to define words, and to construct sentences showing the meaning and use of the words. 15. Give early and continued attention to the practical application of a few of the important rules of spelling, TJfTT** OF TM VER8ITY I Of / 134 METHODS OF TEACHING. such as doubling the final consonant before -ing and -ed\ dropping final 6, etc. By this means, pupils will learn to spell correctly a large class of words in current use. 16. The teaching of spelling should be so conducted as to unfold something of the meaning of words, and some^ thing of the formation of derivative from primitive words and roots. The exercise then becomes a part of good in- tellectual training, instead of a blind effort of memory. 17. Correct spelling is a conventional test of accurate scholarship. The teacher should endeavor to secure the best results by stimulating the interest of pupils by the charm of novelty, variety, emulation, and amusement. II. SPELLING-GAMES. Let the whole class stand in line. Require pupils to sit down if they fail to give a word or to spell it, or if they repeat a word given before by some other scholar. Continue until all but one are seated. 1. Give and spell the name of some article of food. 2. Give and spell the name of some animal. 3. Give and spell the name of some city. 4. Give and spell the name of some article manufact- ured of iron ; of wood. 5. Give and spell the given name of some boy ; of some girl. Other Topics for Lists. 1. Trees. 3. Countries. 5. Fishes. 2. Rivers. 4. States of the U. S. 6. Birds, etc. 6. Take long words, like incomprehensibility, and let each scholar in the line name, in order, one letter. 7. Take a similar method by letting each pupil spell one syllable. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS F0 TEACHING SPELLING, ETC. 135 8. Let each pupil dictate to the next scholar a word of two syllables. 9. Require each scholar to name and spell a word hav- ing the sound of long a in the first syllabic. Also of 1. Italian a. 4. a in ask. 7. e in her. 2. Broad a. 5. a in care. 8. Long I. 3. Short a. 6. Long e. 9. Etc. 10. Give and spell a word of three syllables. 11. Give and spell a word of four syllables: of five syllables. 12. Let the first pupil name and spell some monosyl- lable ; the next scholar, name and spell one beginning with the last letter of the previous word, and so on. Note. Words ending in x must be ruled out. 13. Let the first pupil give and spell a word of one syl- lable, and the second scholar name and spell a word that rhymes with it ; the second scholar then to name a new word, and the third to give a rhyme for it, etc. In the same way, take words of two and three syllables. III. WRITTEN EXERCISES FOR PRIMARY CLASSES. Note. Take one of the following exercises at a lesson. Let pupils exchange slates or papers, and correct one an- other's exercises. 1. Write the names of five articles of dress. 2. Of five wild animals ; five domestic animals. 3. Of five garden flowers; five w r ild flowers. 4. Of five species of birds ; five fishes. 5. Write ten given or Christian names. 6. Write the full names of ten of your schoolmates, 7. Write the names of five great men. 8. Of five of your uncles, aunts, or cousins. 136 METHODS OF TEACHING. 9. Write the names of five cities ; five rivers. 10. The names of five States; five countries. 11. The names of ten articles kept for sale in a grocery- store. 12. The names of twenty articles of food. IV. WRITTEN EXERCISES FOR GRAMMAR GRADES. 1. Bring in a list of twenty words of one syllable, to illustrate the rule for doubling the final consonant before "ing or -ed. 2. Of twenty words that do not double the final con- sonant before -ing or -ed. 3. Of twenty words of two syllables that double the final consonant before -ing and -ed ; of twenty that do not. 4. Of twenty words in which final e is dropped on add- ing a suffix beginning with a vowel. 5. Of twenty words in which final y of the primitive word is changed into i before a suffix. V. ORAL EXERCISE FOR GRAMMAR GRADES. 1. Name and spell a derivative word, to illustrate the rule for doubling the final consonant of the primitive word. 2. Ditto, the rule for not doubling it. 3. Ditto, the rule for dropping final e. 4. Ditto, the rule for changing y into L 5. Ditto, the rule for not changing y before a suffix. VI. WORD-ANALYSIS. If you teach word-analysis in classes where pupils have no text-book on this subject, taking it up as an occasional exercise. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOK TEACHING SPELLING, ETC. 137 1. Take the suffix -er, and ask each pupil in the class to give and define some word which contains it as a suffix; as, teacher, one who teaches, etc. 2. Next require each pupil to bring in a list of all such words that he can think of. 3. Take a similar exercise with the suffix -or, meaning one who. 4. Then take up in a similar way each of the Anglo- Saxon, or Teutonic, prefixes and suffixes. 5. Take the leading Romanic prefixes and suffixes in a similar manner. 6. Take a few of the leading Latin roots, such asfacere, ducere, tendere, etc., and make out lists of words derived from them. 7. Give from time to time lists of interesting words, and let pupils find out their origin and history from the dictionary; as, for example, Bible, heaven, pagan, daisy, fuchsia, agate, calico, tariff, crusade, candidate, etc. 8. "The first decided exemplification of language-les- sons on the great scale," says Bain, " is the teaching of synonymous words. The best example of this is the per- petual passing to and fro between our two vocabularies Saxon and Classical. The pupils bring with them the homely names for what they know, and the master trans- lates these into the more dignified and accurate names ; or, in reading, he makes the learned names intelligible by referring to the more familiar." 9. A thorough knowledge of words gained by a careful study of roots, definitions, and synonyms is the only solid basis for an appreciative study of the masterpieces of lit- erature, or for the formation of a good style in writing. It is said that Daniel "Webster acquired his remarkably 138 METHODS OF TEACHING. accurate use of words by studying synonyms half an hour daily for ten years. 10. " The study of English words," says Kussell, " if faithfully pursued, in the daily lessons of our schools, with anything like the application exhibited in the examina- tion and classifying and arranging and labelling of the specimens of even a very ordinary cabinet, would enrich the intellectual stores of the young, and even of the ma- ture, mind to an extent of which we can at present hardly form a conception. Nothing, however, short of such dili- gence will serve any effectual purpose." VII. WORD-MATCHES. Let the pupils choose sides and stand in line. Those who fail to give a word will be seated. A word repeated is counted as a failure. 1. Require each pupil in turn to give a word having the prefix out-. 2. Give a word with the prefix wi-. 3. A word with the suffix -er. 4. A word with the prefix in-. 5. A word with the suffix -ness ; -ion. 6. Extend the exercises by taking any suffix that is in common use. 7. Give a word derived from the Latin verb-root facere. 8. Continue the exercise with other Latin roots. 9. Let one side give out a word, and require the other eide to give a synonym. 10. Let one side give a word, and require the other side to give a word of opposite meaning. 11. Give a Romanic suffix, state its force, and give a word to illustrate. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING SPELLING, ETC. 139 12. Give a word containing the Greek root graphein, to write. 13. Give and define a word containing the Greek root logos. 14. Give and spell a word derived from the Greek. 15. Give and spell a word derived from the French. 16. Spell a word of Latin derivation. 17. Name and spell a word of Teutonic, or Anglo-Sax- on, derivation. 18. Name a Teutonic word, and give a synonymous word of Latin origin ; as brotherly, fraternal. VIII. DEFINING. 1. Never require a scholar to give formal definitions of simple words whose meaning is already well enough known. 2. Train your pupils at an early age to the habit of re- ferring to the school dictionary for definitions. 3. Mark any difficult words in the advance reading-les- son, and require pupils to find out the dictionary defini- tions. 4. Give out, once or twice a week, a list of five words to be defined at the next lesson. 5. Require each pupil to bring into the class one word, define it orally, and use it in a sentence. 6. If a spelling-book is in use, call attention in every lesson to the meaning of every word not likely to be fully understood by the class. Call for volunteer definitions by the pupils; and if they fail, give a definition yourself. Then require the word to be used in a sentence, 7. Exact and full definitions should be required, in gen- eral, only from advanced pupils when they have gained 140 METHODS OF TEACHING. the knowledge necessary to frame definitions, or to un- derstand why they are so framed. 8. A simple explanation by a pupil of the use of a word is often better than a formal dictionary definition. 9. Beware of defining a word by means of a synonym equally incomprehensible. The profound scholar who, in addressing a class of little children, made use of the word abridgment, and then explained its meaning by using epit- ome, was a poor teacher, though a classical scholar. 10. The following hints about definitions in general, in the various school ^studies, are taken from Carrie's Com- mon-school Education : "Elementary instruction should therefore not begin, but end, with definitions. But, on the other hand, since the definition of a thing is that conception of it with which alone the mind can go forward to any higher knowledge regarding it, the teacher must contemplate its use in due time. He may introduce it almost from the first, if he keep it in its proper place and within proper limits. As the pupil advances, his training should make him more and more capable of forming definitions." CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOK TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 141 CHAPTER IY. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 1. Train beginners from four to six years of age on combinations of numbers, not exceeding 10, in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Begin with counters, such as small blocks of wood, shells, corn, beans, or pebbles, and use them for two or three months, until the pupils can make the combinations without the aid of objects. [See Grube's Method in Fart III.] 2. After these combinations are thoroughly learned, whether in three months or in a year, extend the combi- nations to 20 ; then to 50 ; next, 100. 3. In connection with object-work and mental opera- tions, teach pupils how to make figures on the blackboard, and how to express operations according to the forms of written arithmetic. [See Part III., "Arithmetic."] In the beginning, proceed slowly, allow no hesitation, pass no error. Aim here, as afterwards, to form the habit of ac- curate and ready calculation, and of using rightly the reasoning powers. 4. After the first year, teach decimals in connection with whole numbers, at least to the extent of adding and subtracting; and of multiplying arid dividing them by whole numbers. Limit: first step, tenths; second, hun- dredths; third, thousandths. [See Part III., "Arithme- tic."] In the second and third years, teach common frac- tions, limited mainly to halves, thirds, fourths, etc., to METHODS OF TEACHING. twelfths. Illustrate simple operations by means of ap- ples, crayons, or lines upon the blackboard. [See Part III., "Arithmetic."] 5. Children under ten or twelve years of age should be limited mainly to operations in addition, subtraction, mul- tiplication, and division, in order to secure accuracy and readiness. Problems, analyses, and demonstrations come properly when the reasoning faculties are more fully de- veloped. " In certain respects," says Bain, " this knowl- edge [empirical] is highly scientific ; the terms are clearly conceived, the directions precisely followed, and the re- sults accurately arrived at. There is nothing slipshod, no vagueness to be corrected, nothing to be unlearned. The theory, rationale, or demonstrative connection of the steps is alone wanting; and that is a later acquirement." G. Let beginners in the four rules, fractions, and table- work learn first the mechanical process of doing things. Work an example on the blackboard before their eyes, and let them learn by imitation. Of course, in some cases, you make the reason plain by suitable explanations; but do not require your pupils to explain at this stage. Keep your long-drawn-out demonstrations, and your nor- mal-school "analyses" for pupils nearer your own age. For some parts of arithmetical work, there are no patent devices for escaping from downright memory and hard practice-work. The learning of the multiplication-table, however introduced by object-lessons, musj; mainly be an affair of memory and the result of long-continued repeti- tion, even when pupils have reached the proper age. Hence the necessity of giving pupils a much greater num- ber of drill exercises in the four rules than it is possible to put into a small text-book on arithmetic. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 143 7. Do not try to make pupils understand demonstra- tions and analyses which are beyond the comprehension of young children, though easily perceived when they are older. There are some things in arithmetic that must be learned practically as an art before the scientific principles are understood. Thomas Hill, ex-President of Harvard University, very truly says, " The great reform needed in our public schools is to postpone reasoning to the higher grammar classes and to the high-schools, and give atten- tion to the powers of perception and imagination and the acquisition of skill. It is worse than useless for a child to explain his arithmetic until he has acquired rapidity and certainty in ciphering ; it is worse than useless to study spelling and grammar before the child can read fluently and intelligently." 8. If a text-book is used by the pupils, omit complicated problems, and all questions involving very large numbers. On this point Superintendent Stone, of Springfield, re- marks, "Improbable examples, such as never occur in business, and fractional expressions of large and unusual terms, which require much time and wear of brain to handle, are not profitable work for children. It is said that in ordinary business computations, four fifths of all the fractions used, aside from decimals, are halves, fourths, eighths, thirds, and sixths. If, therefore, such examples only are given as will admit of rapid solution, time will be gained for practice greater in amount and variety.'' Superintendent Eliot, of Boston, remarks, "Instead of some conception of the simpler laws of mathematics, our scholars are misled with rules, or bewildered with puzzles, until they know neither what they are trying to learn, nor what powers they are trying to use." 144 METHODS OF TEACHING. 9. Instead of teaching the tables by merely requiring pupils to memorize and recite them, put the real measures of every kind before them, until hand and eye are famil- iar with their use. Train your scholars in actual measure- ments in long, square, and cubic measure ; borrow from some shop the ounce, half-ounce, and pound weights ; the pint and quart measures ; the peck, bushel, and half- bushel ; and experiment with them until your children know the reality as well as the words and numbers. By all means, teach what you can of the metric system in the same way. [See Part III., "Arithmetic."] 10. It is highly desirable that scholars above the pri^ mary grades should thoroughly understand all operations in common fractions. Proceed slowly, step by step, lim- iting all operations to small numbers. [For appropriate models, see Part III., " Arithmetic," sec. v.] But do not crowd analytical explanations upon children at too early an age. " Children," says Bain, " can with difficulty rationalize common and decimal fractions. The memory for the tables and for the manipulating of fractions ad- vances much faster than the comprehension of the rea- sons ; and it is not desirable to face these at the age when they are not readily intelligible. There is plenty of in- terest in the operations without the comprehending of the scheme of mathematical demonstration ; the ability to work the prescribed exercises brings its own reward." 11. Use the blackboard yourself, for the purpose of giving explanations or models. Drill your pupils at the blackboards, sending up one half the class while the oth- er half is engaged in slate-work. Give both divisions the same examples, and insist on good figures and neat work in addition to accuracy. Give frequent drill exercises CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOE TEACHING ARITHMETIC. in addition the operation in which more mistakes are made than in any other. Train pupils to consider ac- curacy as vastly more important than rapidity. Train pupils to exchange slates and correct one another's work. 12. Carry on mental and written arithmetic together. Introduce principles by mental operations with small num- bers ; then, having fixed the principle, apply the rule to larger numbers on the slate or blackboard. 13. An excellent class drill in mental arithmetic is to take a five-minute exercise as follows : Make up a set of ten practical business questions; read a question and al- low from a quarter to a half minute for the mental solution, and require the answers to be written on slates or paper; so continue with the set. Then let pupils ex- change slates, and credit the correct answers as given by the teacher. Aside from its practical business training, the disciplinary value of this exercise is that it trains to a habit of fixed attention. [For models, see Part III., " Arithmetic,"] 14:. A good method of oral drill is as follows : Let the pupils stand in line around the room, requiring any one who fails to give a correct answer to go to his seat. " Count by 2's to 50, and then backwards." The first scholar counts 2, the second 4, and so on. Continue this drill with the numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, according to the advancement of the class. The value of this exer- cise as a mental discipline is that it requires the fixed atten- tion of every member of the class, and leads to a habit of readiness and promptness. The same exercise may be taken as a concert drill. 15. Let the pupils stand and allow each scholar to give the next in line some short business example. T 146 METHODS OF TEACHING. 16. Occasionally match one class against another, or one division against another, by submitting five business ques- tions to be worked in a given time on the slate. Then compare the percentage obtained. 17. Do not take more than one hour a day for arith- metic. Depend mainly upon slate and blackboard drill in school. It is a bad plan to give out long lists of exam- ples to be solved at home. 18. The essential parts of arithmetic which all pupils should understand are the four rules, common and decimal fractions, the tables of money, weights and measures, and their application, percentage, and the principles of pro- portion. All the rest of the text-book may be omitted, without much loss, by all except high-school pupils. A great deal that passes in school-books under the name of arithmetic consists largely of conventional exercises, of no practical and of little disciplinary value. If you are al- lowed any discretion in the matter, cut out half of the text-book ; but make up and give to 3 r our class numberless sets of simple, practical, business questions, both mental and written. 19. One marked defect in most of the modern school arithmetics is that they are filled up with long "expla- nations" and "analyses," to the exclusion of drill exam- ples. The explanations, if given at all, should be given orally by the teacher ; they do not belong to a pupil's book, unless it is assumed that the teacher knows nothing what- ever about the subject. Another marked defect, arising from limited space, is the stepping from very simple ques- tions to complex ones, and a too rapid transition from one topic to another. As a teacher, it is your business to rem- edy, in some degree, these defects by adding here and in ^y no CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 147 cutting out there. Difficult problems, requiring sustained processes of reasoning, or complicated forms of analytical explanations, should be given only to the more advanced pupils whose reflective faculties are somewhat developed. In fact, what are termed " hard questions" do not come within the province of the common school at all, if, indeed, of any school. "For the large majority," says Bain, "the solution of problems is not the highest end. Nine tenths of the pu- pils derive their chief benefit from the ideas and forms of thinking which they can transfer to other regions of knowledge." 20. Review frequently by giving out short, simple prob- lems that involve a knowledge of all that the pupil has gone over in any preceding grade. Repetition will fix principles. What pupils can do they know, and they know Jittle else. 21. Take especial pains to make the pupils familiar with common business forms. See that they thoroughly understand the ordinary phraseology used in mercantile transactions. 22. Train the pupils to reason for themselves, to state not only what they do, but w T hy they do it. Let them test the truth and accuracy of their processes by proof, the only test they will have to rely upon in real business transactions. Endeavor to form in them habits of patient investigation and self-reliance, so that they will be able to or themselves whether their work is correct or not. 23. Arithmetic is a means of promoting sustained atten- tion ; of rendering the memory more tenacious by retain- ing the conditions of a question in mind during the solu- tion ; and of cultivating, to some extent, the reasoning knowfi r 23. i I tion ; o ' i_ _ Alv 148 METHODS OF TEACHING. powers. It trains to habits of accuracy. It teaches the pu- pil how to proceed from the known to the unknown, the simple to the complex, the particular to the general, ex- ample to rule. More than any other elementary study, it enables the teacher to estimate the exact amount of work actually done by pupils. The teacher must keep clearly in mind the two leading objects of the study of arithmetic : (1) for practical business in life ; (2) for mental discipline in habits of attention, and in simple processes of reasoning. 24. Teachers should bear in mind that for many pupils arithmetic is a difficult study, especially at an early age. It is not wise to assume that pupils who are dull in arith- metic are obtuse in all other studies. Benjamin Franklin, at school, was a dullard in arithmetic, but he managed to get on in the world nevertheless. "It is a very common notion," says De Morgan, "that arithmetic is easy ; and a child is called stupid who does not receive his first ideas of number with facility ; but this is a mistake. Were it otherwise, savage nations would acquire a numeration, and a power of using it, at least pro- portional to their actual wants." 25. While arithmetic is a very important study, the young teacher should avoid making it a hobby. It is well to bear in mind the caution of Bain as to what mathemat- ics does not do : " It does not teach us how to observe, how to generalize, how to classify. It does not teach us the prime art of defining by the examination of particu- lar things. It guards us against some of the snares of lan- guage, but not all ; it is no aid when statements and argu- ments are perplexed by verbiage, contortions, inversions, and ellipses. The too exclusive devotion to it gives a wrong bias of mind respecting truth generally ; and, his- CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOE TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 149 torically, it has introduced serious errors into philosophy and general thinking." " Life is not long enough," says Thomas Hill, " to spend so large a proportion of it on arithmetic as is spent in the modern system of teaching it ; and arithmetic is too valu- able an art to have our children neglect to acquire facil- ity in it, while they are being stupefied and disgusted with premature attempts to understand it as a science." 150 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER V. LANGUAGE -LESSONS, GRAMMAR, AND COMPOSITION. I. LANGUAGE- LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 1. IN considering this branch of school studies, it is well to bear in mind the following axioms : (1.) " Speech is acquired mainly l>y imitation" (2.) Imitation precedes originality. (3.) Language precedes arithmetic. (4.) Grammar comes, not before language, but af- ter it. 2. In the primary grades, teachers must give patient and persistent attention to the correction of vulgarisms, provincialisms, and current blunders in speech, without waiting for any grammatical knowledge whatever. 3. Oral and written language-lessons should precede the use of a text-book on grammar. Begin written exercises by requiring pupils to construct short simple sentences that begin with a capital and end with a period. [See Part III., Chapter IV., I.] " Teachers who take the pains to observe well," says Professor Russell, " know that there is a stage in the life of childhood when expression is a spontaneous tendency and a delight ; when to construct a sentence on his slate, or pencil a note on paper, is to the miniature ambitious student a conscious achievement, and a triumph of power." 4. For beginners in composition, after the prerequisite LANGUAGE -LESSONS, GRAMMAR, AND COMPOSITION. 151 exercises in sentence-making, write a very short, simple story on the blackboard, and let them copy it on their slates, or on paper. Continue this for a time, and then let them copy short reading-lessons from the book, or in- teresting paragraphs from the longer lessons. A few ex- ercises of this kind, taken at long intervals, are not enough ; they must be continued daily for several years of school life. " The necessity of a progressive and graduated course of training in the mother tongue," says Professor Swinton, author of "Language Lessons," etc., "extending over some years, and beginning in practice and ending in theory, is now generally recognized and acted upon." 5. One of the very best of exercises is to let children reproduce from memory, in their own words, stories told them by the teacher, or which they themselves have read or heard out of school. In this way writing becomes a pleasure instead of a task. Originality in thought must not be expected of children. " Stories," says Miss Keeler, " offer the best opportu- nity to improve the child's language and culture. You can do almost anything with children if you will only tell them stories. You can refine their feelings, touch their emotions, rouse their enthusiasm, awaken their ambition, enkindle their devotion. There is nothing in the broad sweep of noble living or noble thinking that you cannot bring to their consciousness by means of a story. As for language, the story is the very royal road to its acquisi- tion. Tell a group of children a story which awakens their interest and enchains their fancy, and then ask for it back again, and notice how accurately it will come." 6. If pupils are kept busy upon sentence-making and composition exercises up to the age of twelve, it will not 152 METHODS OP TEACHING. be necessary to waste much time in "parsing" or sen- tence-analysis. On this point Superintendent Newell re- marks, " Being an art, grammar must be learned in the beginning, as all other arts are learned, by the practice of it. We learn to draw by drawing, we learn to paint by painting, we learn to dance by dancing, and we must learn i the art of speaking and writing the English language' by writing and speaking it, not by parsing and analyzing it." 7. In all grammar grades except the highest class, lan- guage-lessons and actual composition work constitute the best means of acquiring a ready and correct use of lan- guage, which, in its turn, becomes a sound basis for the study of technical grammar. " It is constant use and prac- tice, under never-failing watch and correction," says Whit- ney, " that makes good writers and speakers." " As gram- mar was made after language," says Spencer, " so it ought to be taught after language." 8. One of the most practical of all exercises is letter- writing. As soon as a child can write at all, it ought to be trained to write a short letter. In every grade dur- ing the whole course, repeated exercises in letter-writing should be given, so that on leaving school, at any age from ten to fifteen years, every scholar should be able to write a letter neatly and correctly, to fold it, direct it properly, and to put on a postage-stamp. [For suggestions in this exercise, see Part III., Chapter IV.] 9. Require pupils to memorize a part or the whole of a short poem, and then to write it out from memory, punct- uate, and capitalize it. 10. Require pupils to write compositions drawn from their lessons in history and geography, thus utilizing their knowledge on those subjects. LANGUAGE -LESSONS, GRAMMAR, AND COMPOSITION. 153 11. Require only brief and reasonable forms of parsing, limited mainly to the construction of the word, or its office in the sentence, and its relation to some other word. The Latinized " models for parsing " in many text-books in- volve a great waste of time. "It makes one shudder," says President Chadbourne, " to think of the trash which scholars have been compelled to learn in connection with the simple studies of grammar, arithmetic, and geography." 12. Require a few essential definitions to be thoroughly learned, but first show your scholars how a definition is made up, and why it must he expressed in the words which are used, so that it may be remembered by meaning as well as in words. A comparison of the different ways of ex- pressing the same definition is an excellent class exercise for discussion and criticism. 13. Explain clearly the meaning and use of the ten lead- ing rules of syntax, and then require your pupils to get them by heart. But make sure that they first under- stand what the rules mean, and how they are practically applied. Thousands of pupils have repeated hundreds of times Rule I., " A verb must agree with its subject in number and person," without the slightest notion of its real meaning or practical application. 14. Give your older pupils some training in the analy- sis of sentences, but make use of brief and simple forms. Sentential analysis has its uses, but it must not be made a hobby of. Sentence-making is a more profitable exercise than complicated metaphysical sentence - analysis with a long array of minor modifiers. 15. Grammar is one of the most difficult of the com- mon-school studies. To teach it successfully requires the 7* 154 METHODS OF TEACHING. highest degree of skill on the part of the teacher. " It is more difficult than arithmetic," says Bain, " and is proba- bly on a par with the beginnings of algebra and geometry. It cannot be effectively taught to the mass before ten years of age." " To teach grammar without a printed text is like teaching religion without a manual or catechism : either the teacher still uses the catechism without the print, or he makes a catechism for himself. There can be no teach- ing except on a definite plan and sequence, and good in- stead of harm arises from putting the plan in print. The grammar-teacher working without books either tacitly uses some actual grammar, or else works upon a crude, untested, irresponsible grammar of his own making." 16. Bear in mind that the main object of the study of grammar is not so much to enable pupils to speak and write correctly as to enable them letter to understand what they read. A knowledge of grammar is essential to a right appreciation of the masterpieces of literature. With more advanced pupils, the right study of grammar is a means of mental discipline fully equal to that of mathematics. "I hold," says Tyndall, "that the proper study of lan- guage is an intellectual discipline of the highest kind. The piercing through the involved and inverted sentences of Paradise Lost ; the linking of the verb to its often distant nominative, of the relative to its distant antece- dent, of the agent to the object of the transitive verb, of the preposition to the noun or pronoun which it governed ; the study of variations in mood and tense ; the transforma- tions often necessary to bring out the true grammatical structure of a sentence all this was to my young mind a discipline of the highest value, and, indeed, a source of unflagging delight." LANGUAGE- LESSONS, GRAMMAR, AND COMPOSITION. 155 II. COMPOSITION. 1. DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 1. When you take charge of a class not previously trained in composition writing, set the pupils to copying short reading-lessons. Let them exchange papers, and, with open book, correct one another's exercises with ref- erence to spelling, punctuation, capitals, and paragraphs. 2. Next, let them write out an abstract of some familiar story, told or read to the class. 3. When you require a formal composition, select a subject for the entire class, and give the necessary direc- tions, explanations, and suggestions. Select subjects about which your pupils know something never abstract sub- jects, such as happiness, or knowledge, or virtue. 4. Train your pupils to correct one another's composi- tions, and require them to rewrite corrected exercises. 5. " I call that the best theme," says Thomas Arnold, " which shows that the boy has read and thought for him- self ; that the next best which shows that he has read sev- eral books and digested what he has read ; and that the worst which shows that he has followed but one book, and followed that without reflection." 6. " Training in the appropriate use of the English language ought not to be limited to the mere grammat- ical exercise of composing sentences. Even in our com- mon-schools, it should extend to the cultivation of taste by which neat as well as correct expression is acquired as a habit." Russell. 7. " I hold it as a great point in self -education that the student should be continually engaged in forming exact ideas, and in expressing them clearly by language. Such 156 METHODS OF TEACHING. practice insensibly opposes any tendency to exaggeration or mistake, and increases the sense and love of truth in every part of life. Those who reflect upon how many hours and days are devoted by a lover of sweet sounds to gain a moderate facility upon a mere mechanical instru- ment ought to feel the blush of shame if convicted of neglecting the beautiful living instrument wherein play all powers of the mind." Professor Faraday. 8. " The study of rhetoric in high - schools ought not to be completed in fourteen weeks. It should be contin- ued through the entire course, at the rate of one lesson a week, because it relates to language, which is the instru- ment used by teacher and pupil throughout the course. This method will give time to write the exercises assigned in works on rhetoric, and will not interfere with other studies relating to the English language. George W. Minns. 2. DIRECTIONS TO BE GIVEN TO PUPILS. 1. Think about the subject, and make some plan of ar- rangement. 2. l)o not run together a long string of statements con- nected by ands, fiuts, or ifs; but make short sentences^ 3. After writing the first draft, examine it critically, cross out superfluous words or phrases, interline, correct, and then rewrite. 4. In correcting, examine with reference to 1. Spelling; 2. Capitals ; 3. Punctuation ; 4. Use of words ; 5. Construc- tion of sentences. 5. Acquire the habit of crossing fs, dotting *'s, and punctuating as you write. 6. Do not put off writing until the day before you must hand in your composition. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 157 CHAPTER VI. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 1. MAKE beginners familiar with the local geography of the place where they live. Lay some kind of a basis for conception by calling attention to whatever natural features of land and water are within the limited field of the pupil's observation ; such as hill, mountain, valley, plain, spring, brook, river, pond, lake, village, city, etc. Then extend these lessons to the surrounding country, questioning pupils about all the places that they have ever seen in their short journeys. Next, connect this knowledge with the elementary lessons in the text-book, or with an outline map. [For first lessons, see Part III., Chapter III., sec. iii.] " In geography," says Agassiz, " let us not, at first, resort to books, but let us take a class into the fields, point out the hills, valleys, rivers, and lakes, and let the pupils learn out-of-doors the points of the com- pass ; and then, having shown them these things, let them compare the representations with the realities, and the maps will have a meaning to them. Then you can go on with the books, and they will understand what these things mean, and will know what is North and East and South ; and will not merely read the letters N"., E., S., "W. on a square piece of paper, and perhaps think that the United States are about as large as the paper they learn from. When I was in the College of Neufchatel, I desired to 158 METHODS OF TEACHING. introduce such a method of teaching geography. I was told it could not be done, and my request to be allowed to instruct the youngest children in the institution was refused. I resorted to another means, and took my own children my oldest a boy of six years, and my girls, four and a half and two and a half years old and invited the children of my neighbors. Some came upon the arms of their mothers ; others could already walk without assist- ance. These children, the oldest only six years old, I took upon a hill above the city of ISTeufchatel, and there showed the magnificent peaks of the Alps, and told them the names of those mountains and of the beautiful lakes opposite. I then showed them the same things on a raised map, and they immediately recognized the locali- ties, and were soon able to do the same on an ordinary map. From that day geography was no longer a dry study, but a desirable part of their education." 2. Use the school globe daily for several weeks, show- ing your pupils the grand divisions, the oceans, the equa- tor, the poles, etc. Send every pupil by turns to the globe. [See Part III., " Geography," sec. i.] 3. The method of beginning with outlines and after- wards filling in with details must, to a certain extent, be carried on paripassu with that of laying a foundation of correct notions based upon a knowledge of local geogra- phy. The extent of local lessons, however, is limited ; and, beyond the limit of personal observation by* pupils, it seems to be the better plan to begin with the grand out- lines of geography. Unless children have travelled a great deal, they can no more form a correct notion of the size of their native State than they can of the United States or of Asia. A great deal of elementary work nee- CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 159 essarily consists in getting familiar with names and maps. It must be borne in mind, too, that generalizations, in order to be of any value, must be based on a knowledge of particulars. 4. In using the school text-book, let the advance les- son be read over aloud in the class, and then direct your scholars to mark with a pencil a few leading points to be committed to memory, certainly not more than from one tenth to one fourth of an ordinary lesson of descriptive text. The following direction from the Massachusetts State Course of Instruction embodies a valuable general rule for guidance : " As travel broadens ideas, so will the study of geog- raphy, if rightly pursued ; and pupils may increase the value of their lessons by reading books of travel and sto- ries of great explorers. The teacher can afford to deal sparingly in statistics, latitudes, longitudes, areas, and heights, and to avoid dry definitions and detailed map questions that lead only to a recital of names of places destitute of associations. Such knowledge is not worth the time it takes to acquire it, though it may secure rapid and accurate recitations." 5. In the lower grades, let the "map lessons" be read aloud in the class, and answered with open book in the hands of the pupils; then select a few of the leading questions, mark them, and let the class recite them from memory at the next lesson. Supplement these lessons by short oral descriptions of places mentioned, or by some interesting facts connected with them, so that they may be remembered by the aid of association. 6. Train pupils in detail on the geography of their own State ; then, in a more general way, on their section ; and, 160 METHODS OF TEACHING. finally, on a few main points on the United States as a whole. Do not attempt to overload the memory with the local geography of all the States, as given in most of the text-books. As the school geographies are designed for use in all parts of our country, they are necessarily crowded with details to meet the wants of each State or locality. The sensible teacher will omit all that properly belongs to the local geography of States other than that in which the pupil resides. "Most of the geographies," says Superintendent Eliot, "contain an extraordinary amount of matter, not only useless to the few who can master it, but injurious to the many who cannot." 7. Do not expect your pupils to know more of a lesson than you remember without referring to the text-book. If you forget details, it is a sure sign that your pupils will, and therefore it is best not to require such details to be learned at all. 8. Having fixed on the main outlines to be learned, take frequent reviews upon them in order to fix them firmly in the memory. [See Part IIL, " Geography," sec. vii.] 9. It is almost impossible for children to remember the name and location of a place unless some association is connected with it. You must illuminate geography by means of history and descriptions. 10. If you have a good relief globe, make use of it reg- ularly, even in your higher grades. Use the outline maps also. Secure, if possible, a set of cheap German papier- mache relief maps of the grand divisions. The cost is trifling, and the value great. From these maps, the pu- pil will be able, in a few hours, to form an idea of pla- teaus, mountain-ranges, plains, and general configuration CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 161 that an ordinary map fails to give, and which no verbal descriptions can convey. 11. It will be a pleasant variation from routine work to let your pupils write short compositions about the countries included in their regular text-book descriptions, or about imaginary voyages or travels. 12. In general, blackboard map-drawing in the rough is better than labored drawings with pen or pencil. Map- drawing should not be made a hobby of; kept within due limits, the exercise is good, but it often runs into a waste of time and labor. 13. Let beginners draw first a map of the schoolroom, then of the schoolhouse and grounds. As they advance, let them draw upon the blackboard, from the open book, on a large scale, an outline map of their own State, and, if possible, of their own county. Then let them outline the grand divisions, etc. Finally, require them to outline off-hand, from memory. 14. Require every class to draw on the blackboards, at least once a year, an outline map of their own State and of the United States. 15. Relieve the monotony of daily lessons by exercises intended to stimulate and amuse. Show pupils the pict- ures, from illustrated magazines or papers, of beautiful or grand scenery, or of great natural curiosities, and read any short, vivid description of them by travellers. I. GEOGRAPHY MATCHES. Every pupil that fails, or repeats a name given before, must sit down. Continue until all but one are seated. 1. Name a city in the United States, and tell in what State it is. 162 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. Name a river in the United States, and tell into what it flows. 3. Name a city anywhere on the globe, and tell in what country it is. 4. Name any river on the globe, and tell into what it flows. 5. Name a sea, and tell where it is. 6. Name some useful vegetable production, and tell where it grows. 7. Name some manufactured article, and tell where it is made. 8. Name some cabinet curiosity, and tell where it may be found. 9. Name a town or city in our country beginning with the letter B, C, etc. 10. Name a country or a state; and give its capital city. 11. Let the first pupil name a city or town, and tell in what country or state it is; the next in order must name another beginning with the last letter of the town or city previously named ; and so on. II. CLASS EXERCISES IN GEOGRAPHY. I. Let one pupil describe some city, and the others guess the name of it. II. Let one pupil think of some city in the United States, and the others guess its name by questioning as follows : 1. Is it in the Northern, Southern, Middle, or Western States? Ans. Northern. 2. Is it a seaport, or an inland city ? Ans. A seaport. 3. Is it a large city, or a small one? Ans. A large city. CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOE TEACHING GEOGKAPHY. 163 4. Is it New York ? Ans. No. 5. Was a battle ever fought there ? Ans. Yes. 6. Is it Boston ? Ans. Yes. III. Let one scholar describe some river, and the others guess its name. IY. Let one pupil name some city situated on a river, and the others tell the name of the river. Y. Let the teacher take an imaginary voyage, exchang- ing products at various ports the pupils to guess the ports. 164: METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER VII. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1. "WHOEVER undertakes to instruct youth in history," says the German educator Niemeyer, " as the value of that science requires, must regard equally the memory, the un- derstanding, and the feelings." 2. There is no "patent method" for teaching history. In this study, more than in most other elementary school branches, the teacher, by his skill, tact, and stores of in- formation, must clothe the skeleton of facts with the flesh of imagination, and breathe into it the breath of life. But, rightly pursued, it has the two characteristics of a useful study namely, good mental exercise and useful information. 3. Let the advance lesson in the text - book be read aloud in the class. Call attention to the leading facts to be memorized, and let the pupils mark them with a pen- cil. A considerable part of the history is intended, not to be memorized, but merely to be read. 4. Of the early discoveries treated of so fully in the text-book, single out three or four to be learned, and let the remainder alone. In the period of settlements, se- lect the four great centres namely, Virginia, Massachu- setts, New York, and Pennsylvania ; the remaining settle- ments belong properly to local State history. Out of the numberless details of Indian and colonial wars, select only HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 165 half a dozen important points; let the rest go as local State history. So in the Revolutionary War, single out a very few marked events, arid have them learned so that they cannot be forgotten. Dwell at length on events that happened in the pupil's own State. 5. Do not attach much importance to chronological tables except for reference. Fix in the minds of your pupils the dates of a few great events, and fasten them there by frequent reviews. A multitude of minor dates may be temporarily learned for to-day's lesson, only to bo crowded into oblivion by to-morrow's recitation. "By means of history," says Montaigne, " the pupil enjoys in- tercourse with the great men of the best periods ; but he must learn, not so much the year and the day of the de- struction of a city, as noble traits of character; not so much occurrences, as to form a correct judgment upon them." Examination questions, unfortunately, too often run to dates, because such questions are easiest to be asked from the book, and easiest to be credited. 6. Require pupils to become familiar with the details of the history of the State in which they live. 7. Fix in the memory the causes and the results of the War of the Revolution and of 1812, of the Mexican War and the War of Secession ; but do not attempt to make pupils remember the dates of many battles. 8. Short biographical sketches of the great men in our history are both interesting and valuable, if they show how, by their character and abilities, they improved the condition of their nation ami of the w r orld. 9. In written exercises, train pupils to correct one an- other's work. 10. A comprehension of the great facts of history, of 166 METHODS OF TEACHING. their causes, results, and relations, is more important than the verbatim memorizing of pages of text-books. 11. In questions for written examinations, confine your- self strictly to leading events. Include as few dates as pos- sible. Teaching chronological tables is not teaching history. 12. As much as possible assign lessons by topics, and require pupils to recite in their own language. Close the text-book yourself, and you will be better satisfied with your scholars' answers. 13. Supplement the dry, condensed statements of the text-book by anecdotes, incidents, stories, and biographical sketches of noted men, drawn from your own memory or from good books. If you are a good story-teller, you will thus make history charming to your pupils. Under the dead mass of dates and political events, you must kindle the fire of enthusiasm by familiar narrative. "If you tell a boy," said a famous teacher, " that in a certain battle General Smith had his horse's tail shot off, he will never forget that, though all else soon becomes a blank." 14. Call the attention of pupils to the progress of the nation in the arts and sciences ; to the great inventions and discoveries that have been made ; to everything that has improved the condition of the people. Lead them to perceive that, though history is hardly anything but a rec- ord of wars and conquerors, yet "Peace hath her victories no less renowned than those of war," and that the most glorious victory of war is that which establishes an honor- able peace. 15. " To the youthful spirit," says Russell, " the great attraction of history lies in its pictures of life and action, and in the sympathies which these evoke. To the juve- nile reader all history is biography." " All history," says HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. ' 167 Emerson, "resolves itself very easily into the biography of a few stout and earnest persons." 16. " Of all departments of early teaching," says Bain, " none is so unmanageable as history. Its protean phases of information and of interest, its constant mixture of what attracts the youngest with what is intelligible only to the maturest minds, renders it especially troublesome in early teaching. Nothing comes sooner home to the child than narratives of human beings their pursuits, their passions, their successes and their disasters, their virtues and their vices, their rewards and their punishments, their enmities and their friendships, their failures and their triumphs." CLASS EXERCISES IN HISTORY. 1. Call upon each pupil in turn to name some person distinguished in the history of our country, and to state something that he did. 2. To name some important battle, and tell something about it. 3. To name some settlement, and tell who made it. 4. Let one pupil describe some noted person, and allow the class to guess the name. 5. Describe some important event, and let the class tell when and where it happened. 6. Give one or more facts as a cause ^ and let the class state one or more facts as a result. 7. Let one pupil think of some noted historical person, place, or event, and the others ask questions to ascertain what is thought of by that pupil. [See " Geography."] 8. Let one pupil think of some historical character, and then give to the class circumstance after circumstance, until some one is able to guess the name. 168 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER VIII. OBJECT-LESSONS AND THE ELEMENTS OF NATURAL .SCIENCE. I. HINTS ON OBJECT-LESSONS. 1. " THE first teaching a child wants," says Huxley, " ie an object-lesson of one sort or another ; and as soon as it is fit for systematic instruction, it is fit for a modicum of science." 2. The main purpose of object-lessons is, not to crowd the memory with facts and names, but to train children to observe, and to tell what they are able to find out about things. " Observation," says Pestalozzi, " is the absolute basis of all knowledge. The first object, then, in education must be to lead a child to observe with accuracy ; the sec- ond, to express with correctness the result of his observa- tions." 3. Begin with things that most of your pupils already know something about, adhering strictly to the principle of examining real objects, when they are procurable ; and, when not, of using pictures. Agassiz, having been asked to give some instruction on insects at a teacher's institute, says, "I thought the best way to proceed would be to place the objects in the hands of the teachers, for I knew that mere verbal instruction would not be transformed into actual knowledge. I therefore went out and collect- ed several hundred grasshoppers, brought them in, and OBJECT-LESSONS AND ELEMENTS OF NATUEAL SCIENCE. 1G9 gave one into the hands of every one present. It created universal laughter ; yet the examination of these objects had not been carried on long before every one was inter- ested, and, instead of looking at me, looked at the thing. And they began to examine, and to appreciate what it was to see, and see carefully. At first I pointed out the things which no one could see. ' We can't see them,' they said. 1 But look again,' "said 1, 4 for I can see things ten times smaller than these ;' and they finally discerned them." This, which is the true kind of object-teaching, is worth introducing into the schools, if for no other purpose than the training of the eye. There is an old proverb, " See- ing is believing," which cannot be said of the other senses. Also, " What is seen is easily remembered ;" but " what goes in at one ear generally goes out at the other." 4. Do not be over- scientific. Avoid technical terms when common names will serve your purpose. " It is not science that we want here," says Superintendent Eliot ; " much less is it the lion's skin sometimes wrapped round the pretence of science, but the simple truth." 5. Endeavor to train your scholars to observe accurately, to be sure of facts, to think for themselves, to reason cor- rectly, and not to make up their minds until they have reflected carefully upon all the facts. 6. Train your pupils to write out on slates or paper what they can remember about their oral lessons. Writ- ing leads to habits of attention, serves to fix ideas in the memory, and leads to a ready and correct use of language. 7. The uses of the object-lesson may be summed up as follows : (1.) They constitute the first efforts in gaining an em- pirical knowledge of things. 170 METHODS OF TEACHING. (2.) They train the mind to habits of connected thought (3.) They stimulate curiosity, the motive power of the youthful mind. 8. " The teacher," says Bain, " can make anything he pleases out of the object-lesson ; it may aid the conceiving faculty, or it may not. The first good effect of it is to waken up observation to things within the pupil's ken ; by asking such questions as will send them back to re-ex- amine what they have been in the habit of slurring over, or by questioning them on objects actually present." 9. " The predominant aspect of the object-lesson," says Currie, " is the mental exercises it gives ; it is meant to awaken the intelligence, and to cultivate the different phases of observation, conception, and taste, without whicli little satisfactory progress can be made in education. It is a disciplining, not a utilitarian process ; the information it gives is a means, not an end. " The range of this department of instruction is exceed- ingly comprehensive. It draws its materials from all the branches of knowledge, dealing with things which can in- terest the child or exercise his mind. Thus, it is natural history for children ; for it directs their attention to ani- mals of all classes, domestic and others, their qualities, habits, and uses ; to trees and plants and flowers ; to the metals, and other minerals which, from their properties, are in constant use. It is physical science for children ; for it leads them to observe the phenomena of the heavens sun, moon, and stars; the seasons, with the light and heat which make the changes of the weather ; and the proper- ties of the bodies which form the mass of matter around us. It is domestic economy for children ; for it exhibits to them the things and processes daily used in their homes, OBJECT-LESSONS AND ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 171 and the way to use them rightly. It is industrial and so- cial economy for children ; for it describes the various trades, processes in different walks of art, and the arrange- ments as to the division of labor which society has sanc- tioned for carrying these on in harmony and mutual de- pendence. It is physiology for children ; for it tells them of their own bodies, and the uses of the various members for physical and mental ends, with the way to use them best and to avoid their abuse. It is the science of com- mon things for children ; for it disregards nothing which can come under their notice in their intercourse with their fellows or their superiors. And, finally, it is geography for children ; since it has favorite subjects of illustration in mountain and river, forest, plain, and desert, the differ- ent climates of the earth, with their productions and the habits of their people, the populous city, and the scattered wigwams of the savage." II. THE ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 1. In most of the common -schools, instruction in the elements of natural science, if given at all, must be given in the form of oral lessons, without a text-book in the hands of pupils. Hence teachers must select for their own use the best possible science primers in the different branches of natural science, and from those, or from their own knowledge, outline their own course of instruction. 2. At the outset, train your pupils to use their eyes, to examine things, to observe phenomena, and to make ex- periments. "Experiment," says Huxley, "is the great instrument for the ascertainment of truth in physical sci- ence. Mere book learning in physical science is a sham] and a delusion ; what you teach you must first know, aucH J 172 METHODS OF TEACHING. real knowledge in science means personal acquaintance with facts, be they few or many." 3. Begin at once the collection of a school cabinet, and invite your pupils to bring in specimens. Encourage them to make collections for a home-cabinet, of minerals, shells, woods, etc. Take them on collecting tours into the fields and forests. " The elements of botany, zoology, and mineralogy," says Eussell, "afford a delightful and effective means of training to habits of observing, com- paring, and classifying." 4. By wisely put questions, set your pupils to observ- ing the habits of animals and birds, of ants, bees, wasps, flies, and butterflies. Encourage them to make collec- tions of butterflies and beetles. Let the older boys try their hand at stuffing birds. Persuade your pupils to buy a magnifying-glass or a cheap microscope, and begin ex- amining things for themselves. " For many years," says Carlyle, " it has been one of my constant regrets that no schoolmaster of mine had a knowledge of natural history, so far, at least, as to have taught me the grasses that grow by the wayside, and the little winged and wingless neigh- bors that are continually meeting me with a salutation which I cannot answer as things are. Why didn't some- body teach me the constellations, too, and make me at home in the starry heavens which are always overhead, and which I don't half know to this day." 5. If you wish to succeed, you must do the actual work of the naturalist, and must make your pupils do it. You must fit yourself to do this work by taking an inter- est in it. It is not at all necessary that you should be a specialist in botany, zoology, or natural philosophy ; but it is necessary that you should know something about the OBJECT-LESSONS AND ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 173 true methods of the specialist. Taken up in the right spirit, instruction in the natural sciences can be made one of the most effective means of education. " No subjects," says Professor Barnard, "are better suited than botany, zoology, and mineralogy to gratify the eager curiosity of the growing mind ; to satisfy its cravings after positive knowledge ; to keep alive the activity of the perceptive powers ; to illustrate the beauty and value of method, and to lead to the formation of methodical habits of thought." 6. In physics, make your experiments with the sim- plest kind of improvised apparatus. "Whenever you make an experiment, however simple, make it with great care and exactness, telling your pupils in advance what to expect and what to observe. Encourage them to make simple experiments at home by themselves. Set them to observing natural phenomena, such as rain, hail, snow, dew, frost, changes of seasons, etc. "The elements of physics," says Hotze, " are no more difficult for pupils than are the elements of arithmetic." "As a means of intellectual culture," says Tyndall, " the study of physics exercises and sharpens observation." 7. In giving the outlines of physiology, make use of real objects as far as practicable. The heart and lungs of a sheep or an ox can easily be obtained, and are always better than models or charts or pictures. If human bones cannot be obtained, take the bones of animals and make a lesson in comparative anatomy. Dissect the eye of an ox, the brain of a sheep or calf or rabbit, and exhibit the skull of any domestic or wild animal. The chief object of les- sons in anatomy and physiology is to make them the means of imparting a knowledge of the laws of health. Reiterate practical directions about cleanliness, ventila- 174: METHODS OF TEACHING. tion, food, work, rest, play, sleep, and regular habita Preach short sermons against idleness, gluttony, intem- perance, and impurity. Teach your pupils that without health life is a failure, and make them realize as fully as possible that they must themselves take care of their own health. 8. In botany, begin with collecting and examining plants, and end in classifying and naming them by referring to text-books. "Now, to learn to classify," says Bain, "is itself an education. In these natural - history branches the art has been of necessity attended to, and is shown in the highest state of advancement. Botany is the most complete in its method, which is one of the recommen- dations of the science in early education. Mineralogy and zoology have greater difficulties to contend with ; so that where they succeed, their success is all the greater." 9. First in the order of nature comes empirical knowl- edge; afterwards, scientific knowledge. Therefore, the younger the children, the less methodical should be their instruction. Beginners store up facts by items, often in an indirect and desultory manner. 10. Mere text-book study of natural science, without ob- servation and experiment by the pupil, is not knowledge. The real guide to true knowledge is a habit of observing. "Learn to make a right use of your eyes," says Hugh Miller; "the commonest things are worth looking at, even stones, and weeds, and the most familiar animals." Agassiz says, " The difficult art of thinking, of comparing, of discriminating, can be more readily acquired by exam- ining natural objects for ourselves than in any other way." 11. Skilful questioning by the teacher is the chief means of awakening thought, and of inducing pupils to OBJECT-LESSONS AND ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 175 observe for themselves. Superintendent Eliot says, " Wo teach best when we seem to teach least. . Tell the child a fact, and it is all your telling. Lead him to find it himself, and it seems to him all his finding. Because it seems so, he is interested in it, and his interest secures his mastery of it." 12. Stimulate and encourage curiosity. Faraday says, " I am indebted to curiosity for whatever progress I have made in science. There are common experiments which I perform now with as much glee at the result as when I was a boy." Lead your pupils into the practice of pro- posing questions in the class. "If not snubbed and stunted," says Huxley, "by being told not to ask foolish questions, there is no limit to the intellectual craving of a young child, nor any bounds to the slow but solid ac- cretion of knowledge, and the development of the think- ing faculty in this way." 13. As to methods in specific lessons, the following di- rections by Superintendent Harris are to the point : " Pre- pare yourself beforehand on the subject of the lesson of the week, fixing in your mind exactly what subjects you will bring up, just what definitions and illustrations you will give or draw out of the class. All must be marked and written down in the form of a synopsis. The black- board is the most valuable appliance in oral lessons : on it should be written the technical words discussed, the classification of the knowledge brought out in the recita- tion, and, whenever possible, illustrative drawings. Pains should be taken to select passages from the reference books, or from other books illustrative of the subject un- der discussion, to be read to the class with explanation and conversation. Wherever the subject is of such a nat 176 METHODS OF TEACHING. ure as to allow of it, the teacher should bring in real ol> jects illustrative of it, and encourage the children to do the same. But more stress should be laid on a direct ap- peal to their experience, encouraging them to describe what they have seen and heard, and arousing habits of reflection, and enabling the pupil to acquire a good com- mand of language. Great care must be taken by the teacher not to burden the pupil with too many new tech- nical phrases at a time, nor to fall into the opposite error of using only the loose, common vocabulary of ordinary life, which lacks scientific precision." III. QUOTATIONS FROM EDUCATORS. I. "For discipline as well as for guidance, science is of the chiefest value. In all its effects, learning the value of things is better than learning the meaning of words. Whether for intellectual, moral, or religious training, the study of surrounding phenomena is immensely superior to the study of grammars and lexicons." Spencer. II. " The processes by which truth is attained reason- ing and observation have been carried to their greatest known perfection in the physical sciences. As classical literature furnishes the most perfect types of the art of expression, so do the physical sciences those of the art of thinking. Mathematics, and its application to astronomy and natural philosophy, are the most complete example of the discovery of truths by reasoning ; experimental science, of their discovery by direct observation." John Stuart Mill. III. " In childhood there is a vast capability of accu- mulating simple facts. The higher forms of mental ac- tivity not having come into exercise, the whole plastic OBJECT-LESSONS AND ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 177 power of the brain is devoted to the storing-up of per- ceptions, while the vigor of cerebral growth insures the highest intensity of mental adhesiveness. When curios- ity is freshest and the perceptions keenest, and the mem- ory most impressible, before the maturity of the reflective powers, the opening mind should be led to the art of no- ticing the aspects, properties, and simple relations of the surrounding objects of nature." Youmans. IV. " But if scientific training is to yield its most emi- nent results, it must, I repeat, be made practical. That is to say, in explaining to a child the general phenomena of nature, you must, as far as possible, give reality to your teaching by object-lessons. In teaching him botany, he must handle the plants and dissect the flowers for him- self ; in teaching him physics and chemistry, you must not be solicitous to fill him with information, but you must be careful that what he learns, he knows of his own knowledge. Don't be satisfied with telling him that a magnet attracts iron. Let him see that it does ; let him feel the pull of the one upon the other for himself. And, especially, tell him that it is his duty to doubt, until he is compelled by the absolute authority of nature to believe, that which is written in books. Pursue this discipline carefully and conscientiously, and you may make sure that, however scanty may be the measure of information which you have poured into the boy's mind, you have created an intellectual habit of priceless value in practical life." Huxley. &* 178 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER IX. WETTING AND DKAWING. I. HINTS ON WRITING. 1. MAKE a judicious use of whatever series of copy- books is officially adopted for your school. Penmanship is essential as a mechanical means for acquiring and con- veying information. But do not make your pupils slaves to "elements," "analysis," "proportion," "harmonies," and an endless series of engraved lessons. Penmanship is learned, in the main, by imitation and practice. 2. With beginners, during the first school year, put your copies on the blackboard, and let your pupils imitate them on the blackboard. Little children like writing with chalk in large -hand, because the teacher and the class see their work. Follow these lessons by slate-work. 3. Do not drill beginners on elements, principles, or analysis, but put them at once to writing short words, and then short sentences, as in reading. In fact, reading and writing ought to be carried along pari passu. 4. Bear in mind that many of the capital letters are no harder to make than are the small letters. 5. In blackboard lessons, see that your pupils form the habit of holding a crayon properly, and give a drill lesson occasionally on large ovals to secure freedom of arm- movement. 6. In slate writing, use only long pencils, and train WRITING AND DKAWING. 179 your children to hold them as a pen is held. Give fre- quent drill movements in making ovals, running m's, etc., in order to secure freedom of arm - movements and an uasy way of holding the pencil. 7. Give attention at every lesson to the manner of placing the slate upon the desk, and to the position of the pupil in writing. It is exceedingly difficult to break up bad habits of holding a pencil, when the pencil is fol- lowed by a pen. 8. Do not sit down in a chair behind your table, as some teachers do, but go about among your scholars, place their slates or books properly, take hold of their rigid fingers, and show them how to hold a pen easily and properly. It is not enough to do this once, it must be continued for years. 9. Train pupils from the beginning to write with a free and ready movement, not the slow, constrained, rigid, snail-like tracing that is often current in school. 10. The use of engraved copy-books is indispensable in school, but they must not be relied on exclusively. Let copy-books alternate with blank-books in which to write maxims, rules of health, choice selections of prose and poetry, compositions, etc. When pupils are able to write a fair business hand, drop all copy-books, and rely on the written school exercises. Require weekly or monthly specimens from every pupil. 11. Upon the lowest line of each page of the copy-book, require the pupil to write his name and age, the name of the school and class, and the date when the page was finished. 12. Train your more advanced classes on the elements, and the analysis of forms. Point out the defects of bad 180 METHODS OF TEACHING. forms and the merits of good forms. Require your pu* pils to make on the blackboards the capital letters on a large scale, and let them criticise one another. 13. Do not attempt to make the older scholars write a uniform " copy-book hand," but let them form their own characteristic style. The main thing is to make ev- ery letter legible. 14. "Writing, like spelling and grammar, is capable of self-development, but not unless many of the books pre- pared upon purely mechanical principles give way to blank books or sheets, which our children may use with greater freedom of hand and of the will that guides it. The days of copy-setting were better than those of copy-engraving, for this reason, if for no other, that the teacher wrote for the pupils, as well as the pupils for him. If he went fur- ther, and encouraged them to write out passages in prose or verse, perhaps helping them a little in their choice, then those days were a great deal better, and we had better re- vive their practices." Superintendent Eliot. 15. " A corrupt taste in regard to writing has been for several years gradually creeping into our schools. This corruption consists in the substitution of a slender, faint, and weak kind of writing, with certain outlandish and fanciful capitals, for a good, honest, plain, neat, firm, clear, legible, strong, and regular hand." John D. Philbrick. II. HINTS ON DRAWING. 1. In schools where a series of text-books on drawing is adopted, teachers must master the instructions, require their pupils to fill out the drawing-books, and teach ac- cording to the system. 2. But there is no good reason why the "book-work," WRITING AND DRAWING. 181 often a piece of drudgery, should not be supplemented 01 introduced by exercises in harmony with the child's taste. " Send the primary children to the blackboards, and let them learn to handle a crayon by drawing anything they choose. A rude outline of a ship delights the miniature man more than a geometrical figure does. The little girl draws a rough house, but she invests it with wondrous beauties. Allow full play for what most drawing teachers are pleased to term i barbaric art.' The child is a young savage ; let him pass through the barbarian stage before entering upon the scientific and artistic." In country schools, where no regular course of drawing is adopted, the teacher has a wide field for the exercise of tact, skill, and judgment. In addition to elementary exercises previously mentioned, the first four books of Krusi's Drawing Series will furnish excellent copies which can be put upon the blackboard. Speaking of the Prussian schools, Horace Mann says, " The child is taught to draw things with which he is fa- miliar, which have some significance, and which give him pleasing ideas. The practice of beginning with making inexpressive marks bears some resemblance, in its lifeless- ness, to that of learning the alphabet. Each exhales tor- por and stupidity to deaden the vivacity of the work." 3. Supply the little ones with a "Kindergarten slate," ruled in small squares. The directions for its use are so simple that any teacher can understand them in an hour. " The simpler lessons of drawing," says Bain, " are obvi- ously easier than writing; while the making of symmetri- cal shapes is more agreeable than forming letters. Proba- bly the natural course to follow would be the method of the Kindergarten, which is to train the hand upon mould 182 METHODS OF TEACHING. ing objects in clay, followed by cutting out paper figures, and gradually leading up to elementary drawing; after which writing would come with comparative ease, but would still be a considerable step in advance, like begin- ning a trade." 4. Children prefer blackboard drawing to exercises on slates or paper, because their drawings are on a larger scale, and because their work can be seen by the other children. Direct their feeble efforts, but leave full play to individuality. One may take to ships, another to dogs, a third to horses, a fourth to flowers. 5. Violate all laws of the old-type drawing by encour- aging the children to bring in a box of paints, and then set them to work at coloring all the old picture-books and wood-cuts that you can collect. III. QUOTATIONS FROM EDUCATORS. I. " The spreading recognition of drawing as an element of education is one among many signs of the more ra- tional views on mental culture now beginning to prevail." Spencer. II. " I look to music, drawing, natural-history lessons, elementary science, and object-lessons, to protect our chil- dren from over-education, and to make them love their childish work ; and were there no other reason for the in- troduction of such subjects into our common-schools than that, it seems to me that it would be reason sufficient." Professor Walter Smith, State Director of Art Education for State of Massachusetts. III. " It is now understood by well-informed persons that drawing is an essential branch of education, and that it should be taught to every child who is taught the three WRITING AND DRAWING. 183 R's. It is indispensable as an element of general educa- tion, and it lies at tlie very foundation of all technical ed ucation. It is difficult to conceive of any human occupa- tion to which education in this branch would not prove beneficial. Everybody needs a well -trained eye and a well-trained hand. Drawing is the proper means of im- parting this needed training. Drawing, properly taught^ is calculated, even more than vocal music, perhaps, to fa cilitate instruction in all other branches of education." John D. Philbrick. IV. " Commercially speaking, the power to draw well is worth more in the market to-day than anything elso taught in the public schools ; and education in industrial art is of more importance to the development of this country, and the increase of her wealth and reputation, than any other subject of common-school education. The intelligent, well-educated draughtsman is prepared for work in the great majority of industrial occupations, and in every country of the civilized world, wherever a work- shop exists." Walter Smith. V. "Drawing," says Superintendent Dickinson, " has for its object that training of the hand and eye which lays a foundation for skill in the arts. Such training leads to that appreciation of art necessary to create a demand for its products; it leads the mind to make a more careful examination of objects of study; it furnishes the besf method of describing those objects that have form and size; it has a refining influence by cultivating the taste; and it improves morals by exciting a love for the beau- tiful." John W. Dickinson. 184 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER X. MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. I. MUSIC. L " OF all the fine arts," says Bain, " the most available and influential is music. This is perhaps the most unex- ceptionable as well as the cheapest of human pleasures." 2. Open and close your school with singing. If you cannot sing yourself, make up a small singing club, and let the leader conduct the exercises. 3. Train your pupils carefully in respect to the follow- ing points : I. The proper position in singing. II. The right management of the breath. III. Singing with open mouth. IY. Melody. II. MANNERS. I. Children are supposed to learn manners at home, or to take them on unconsciously from intercourse with their schoolmates; but it is exceedingly desirable that manners should be made the subject of definite instruction in every school. It is said that the winning manners of Henry Clay were owing, in no small degree, to the careful training of one of his early teachers. II. " A beautiful behavior is the finest of the fine arts." Emerson. III. " Give a boy address and accomplishments, and you MISCELLANEOUS MATTEES. 185 give him the mastery of palaces and fortunes where he goes." Emerson. IY. "A noble and attractive every-day bearing comes of goodness, or sincerity, of refinement; and these are bred in years, not moments. The principle that rules your life is the sure posture-master." Iluntington. Y. "I wish good behavior might enter into the curric- ulum of every school in our country. Under this head should be taught such things as how to gracefully enter a room, meet with the person upon whom the pupil is supposed to be calling, pass the compliments of the day, and peacefully and politely leave the room ; and to intro- duce parties in a proper manner ; and also under this head you may teach how to write notes of invitation and ac- ceptance." J. H. French, Principal of the State Normal School, Indiana, Pennsylvania. RULES OF POLITENESS. Not& Let your pupils copy the following rules into their blank-books. Add other directions as circumstances may require, those given here being merely a suggestive model. Make each direction the subject of a conversa- tion with your pupils. 1. True politeness consists in having and showing due re- gard for the feelings, comfort, and convenience of others. 2. Avoid giggling or tittering in school or in company. 3. Avoid loud talking or laughing in school or in com- pany. 4. Avoid the use of slang. 5. Be particularly courteous to new scholars. 6. Never laugh at the mistakes or blunders of other scholars or other persons. 186 METHODS OF TEACHING. 7. Look persons in the eye when they speak to yon, or when you speak to them. 8. Whispering at lectures, places of amusement, or in public is both rude and vulgar. 9. Be respectful to your elders in tone, look, and man- ner. 10. Be as polite to your father and mother, and your brothers and sisters, as you are to strangers. PART HI. WORKING MODELS IN ESSENTIALS, INTRODUCTORY NOTE. IT is by no means to be understood that the following "working models" in the essential school studies are the only methods by which good teachers can produce good results. The competent teacher who makes use of them will, of course, modify them to suit his own views, and use them as he may see fit to supplement the text-books in use in his school. It is hoped that they will be directly useful to inexperienced teachers by serving as model les- sons until they themselves form the habit of preparing and arranging at least a part of their work independent of the school text-book. In country schools, where the teacher is allowed a wide range of discretion in methods and matter, these lessons may be available to a consid- erable extent. All of the following exercises are the result of the needs of a large city grammar and primary school, in which, on account of unsuitable text-books, or a lack of books altogether, such lessons seemed essential in order to secure practical work. They have all been tested by use in the hands of a large number of assistants ; and, while few teachers will find time to use them all, it 188 INTKODTJCTOKY NOTE. is hoped that every teacher will find some of them avail- able for his own use. "It is a defect pertaining to all models," says Bain, " that they contain individual peculi- arities mixed up with the ideal intention." WORKING MODELS FOR BEADING-LESSONS. 189 CHAPTER I. WORKING MODELS FOR READING-LESSONS. Note. Suggestions for teaching beginners during their first year at school will be found in Sheldon's Manual of Reading, Calkins's Manual, or in any modern Primer, or First Reader. The following exercises are general in their character, and are only suggestive of what may be done by any thoughtful teacher. Whatever method teachers begin with, after a limited number of words or sentences are learned by sight, children must learn the letters and their powers, and must be trained in forming, writing, and spelling words. I. LESSONS IN WORD-MAKING. 1. Write or print on the blackboard the vowels a, e, i, o, u, giving their name sounds. Then to each of these add the letter t; thus, at, et, it, ot, ut. Next, form such words as can be made by prefixing a letter ; thus, bat, cat, fat, hat, mat, etc., and so on with each vowel. 2. Take the letter &, combine it with each of the vow- els, and then make words by prefixing letters, thus, cab, tub, etc. 3. In a similar way, take ad, ag, am, an, ap, ar, ed, id, od, etc. ; ack, eck, ick, oclc ; ass, ess, iss, uss ; all, ell, ill. 4. Continue similar construction lessons, as a relief from book or chart work. 190 METHODS OF TEACHING. II. LESSONS FOR PRIMARY GRADES. [Second and third school years.] I. Read the lesson to the class. II. Allow five minutes for pupils to study it. III. Explain any difficult words. IV. Require pupils to read singly. QUESTIONING. After the lesson is read, question the pupils about every sentence, making use of the following interrogatives : Who? What? Why? Wlwse ? Where ? How ? Whom? When? MODEL. Sentence. "The merry boys skated on the pond in winter." [Note. Require the answers to ~be in complete sentences.} 1. WJio skated on the pond in winter? Ans. The merry boys, etc. 2. What kind of boys skated, etc. ? Ans. The merry boys skated, etc. 3. What did the boys do? 4. Where did the boys skate ? 5. When did the boys skate ? REPRODUCING THE LESSON. After answering such questions as these, applied to every sentence, require pupils to write out the paragraph on slates, exchange slates with each other, and correct by comparing with the book. WORKING MODELS FOR READING-LESSONS. 191 III. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. Apply one to each reading-lesson, 1. Copy the title or heading, and the first paragraph or stanza. 2. Write the names of the things you can see in this picture. 3. Learn the first stanza by heart. 4. How many periods in this lesson ? How many question-marks ? 5. Count all the commas in this lesson. G. How many words of one syllable in the first paragraph ? Of two syllables ? IV. LESSONS FOR LOWER GRAMMAR GRADES. LESSON I. OCCUPATIONS. The farmer and gardener raise grain, vegetables, and fruit for our use. The farmer also supplies the market with milk, butter, cheese, cattle, sheep, wool, horses, poultry, and eggs. The miller grinds wheat and corn, and the baker makes bread. The butcher kills live-stock and sends to market beef, mutton, and pork. Our clothes are made by the labor of many hands. Men, women, and children in China, Italy, and France are kept busy in rearing silk-worms and reeling silk. Thousands of men are hard at work in our own country raising and picking cotton, and thousands of farmers and sheep-raisers are shearing the wool from herds of sheep. Then there is the weaver, who makes the cloth ; and the tailor or dressmaker, who makes it into clothing. The tanner makes leather for us, and the shoemaker makes our boots and shoes. The carpenter and mason build us a house, the painter paints it, and the cabinet-maker makes the furniture. The bookseller supplies us with books, and the printers sell us the news- paper. The tea which we drink at supper has been picked by busy hands in China. The coffee that we use at breakfast comes from the plantations of Brazil or Java, and the sugar with which we sweeten it was made from the sugar-cane of Louisiana. It is wonderful to think how many trades there are, and how many busy hands are at work for our comfort or convenience. /92 METHODS OF TEACHING. QUESTIONS ON THE PRECEDING LESSON. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 1. Call attention to the use of the comma in the numerous series of nouns, and then make up a rule. 2. How many commas in the whole lesson ? 3. Call attention to the proper nouns beginning with a capital. How many are there in all ? 4. How many periods in this lesson? How many sentences? With what does each begin and end ? PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. Write in columns all the nouns. How many are there ? 2. How many nouns are plural ? How many are singular ? 3. Write in columns all the verbs. How many ? 4. How many times is the article the used in this lesson ? The article a or an ? 5. How many times is the preposition of used ? The preposition inf 6. How many times is the conjunction and used? 7. How many times is the relative pronoun who used\ How rnuny times is which used ? 8. How many full sentences in this piece ? How many paragraphs \ 9. Reproduce from memory the first paragraph ; the second. 10. Compare with the original, and correct the punctuation. LESSON II. A STORY. There was once a prince who wished to marry a princess. He travelled all the world over in hopes of finding one. There were plenty of princesses, but he could not be certain that they were real ones. At last he gave up the search and went home quite cast down. One stormy evening there was a knock, and, on opening the door, a princess asked for shelter. The prince's mother went into the bedroom, took off all the bedclothes from the bed, and put three little peas on the bedstead. She then laid twenty mattresses over WORKING MODELS FOR READING-LESSONS. 193 the three peas, and put twenty feather beds over the mattresses. Then she put the princess to bed and tucked up the bt In the morning the queen asked her how she had slept. " Oh ! very badly indeed 1" she replied ; " I hardly closed my eyes all night. There was something hard in my bed, and I am black and blue all over." It was now plain to the queen that this was a real princess, be- cause she was so delicate. So the prince married her, and put the three peas in a cabinet of curiosities, where they are still to be seen, if they have not been lost. Adapted from Hans Andersen. EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDINO STORY. SENTENCES. 1. How many sentences? 2. How many paragraphs? PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. Make a list of the proper nouns. 2. Make a list of the common nouns. 3. Hpw many verbs ? 4. How many times is the verb a, or some form of it, used ? 5. Make a list of the transitive verbs. 6. How many nouns are in the nominative case ? In the objective case ? The possessive case ? 7. Make a list of the personal pronouns. How many ? 8. Make a list of the adjectives. 9. Exchange slates, and correct under the direction of the teacher. PUNCTUATION. 1. How many commas are used in this lesson ? 2. The teacher will give the reason for the use of each comma, ?f the pupil is unable to do so. 3. Reason for the use of quotation-marks. ORAL EXERCISE. Require several pupils to tell the story in their own language. 9 104: METHODS OF TEACHING. Reproduce the story from memory, exchange slates, and correct errorjjfc comparing with the printed copy. V. LESSONS FOR HIGHER GRAMMAR GRADES. INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. The mariner's compass and the galvanic battery were invented in Italy. Germany claims the honor of inventing printing, and Holland of inventing the microscope. France has contributed to the world photography, the Jacquard loom, the electro-magnet, and iron armor for ships. Great Britain has enriched the world with the steam-engine, the spinning-jenny, weaving-machines, the chronometer, the rolling-mill, the screw-propeller, iron ships, and the steam-plough. The United States has contributed the steamboat, the cotton-gin, the electric telegraph, the sewing-machine, vulcanized rubber, the steam fire-engine, revolving fire-arms, street -cars, reaping-ma- chines, pin-machines, cut-nail machines, and a great number of minor but very useful inventions. EXERCISES. GRAMMAR. 1. Make a list of the proper nouns in the above lesson. 2. Make a list of the simple subjects, and of the verbs. 3. How many simple sentences ? 4. How many complex sentences ? 5. How many compound sentences ? 6. Parse each word in the first sentence. 7. How many phrases beginning with of? GliNERAL. [Questions to be copied by a class, with directions to learn the answers.] 1. Tell the situation of each country named. 2. Who invented the galvanic battery ? J. Who invented photography ? * WORKING MODELS FOR READING-LESSONS. 195 4. Who invented or improved the steam-engine? When? 5. When and by whom was the cotton-gin invented ? 6. The sewing-machine? Steamboats? The electric tSIJrapli? Vulcanized rubber ? COMPOSITION. Reproduce from memory, exchange and correct;. PUNCTUATION. Give the reasons for the use of each comma. 196 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER II. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. SECTION I. LESSON FOR BEGINNERS ; AN ADAPTATION OF THE GRUBE SYSTEM. Grube's method consists in teaching beginners from four to six years of age, during the first year, all possible combinations and comparisons of numbers from 1 to 10. He gives, in subetance, the following PRINCIPLES. 1. "Each lesson in arithmetic must be also a lesson in language. The teacher must insist on readiness and correctness of expression. As long as the language for the number is imperfect, the idea of the number will be defective." 2. " The teacher must require the scholar to speak as much as pos- sible." 3. " Answers should be given, sometimes by the class in concert, and sometimes by the scholar individually." 4. " Every process must be illustrated by means of objects." 5. " Measure each nev/ number with the preceding ones." C. " Teachers must insist on neatness in making figures." ORDER OF STEPS. First Step. Illustrate the required combinations by means of counters in the hands of the children themselves, and by other ob- jects in the hands of the teacher. Each child must be supplied with ten small square wooden blocks, like the blocks of a checker- board. If the blocks cannot be had, use shells, corn, pebbles, pins, sticks, buttons, etc. Make use of a numeral frame, if there is one in school. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 197 Second Step. Express the same combinations on the blackboard or on slates, both with marks and with figures. Third Step. Take the same combinations mentally with abstract numbers. Fourth Step. Practical problems in applied numbers. HOW TO BEGIN. FIRST TERM OR YEAR. The time required for this work will depend upon the age of the children, as also upon their natural ability. Children from four to five years of age may require a year to complete it, while those of six years may master it in from three to five months. I. THE NUMBER ONE. 1. Hold up one counter, one hand, one finger, one slate, etc. On your slates make one straight mark, one dot, one cross, etc. On the blackboards make one mark, one dot, one cross, etc. 2. Place one counter on the middle of your desk ; take it away ; how many have you left ? Make one mark on your slate ; rub it out ; how many marks are left ? 3. Send the class to the blackboards and let them make the mark for one thus, | and also the figure thus, 1. II. THE NUMBER TWO. 1. Each of you take one counter and place it by itself on your desk; now take another and place close to it; how many counters have you? (Require the answer in a full sen- tence.) Make one straight mark on your slate ; make another close to it ; how many have you now ? Go to the blackboards; make one mark; another close to it; how many now ? 198 METHODS OF TEACHING. Clap your hands once; again; how many claps? Rap on your desks once ; again; how many raps? 2. Counting. Place one counter on your desk; a little way oil from the first one, place two counters close together; thus, * * Count, one, two; two, one. On your slates make marks thus, |, | |, and count forwards and backwards. 3. Addition. (a.} Place one counter on the desk ; place another counter close to it ; how many have you now ? Ans. I have two counters. How many counters are one counter and one counter ? Ans. One counter and one counter are two count- ers. [The teacher will further illustrate witli books, pencils, crayons, etc.] (b.) Slate and Blackboard. Make one mark ; another one near it. How many marks have you made ? [Continue with rings, dots, crosses, etc.] 4. Subtraction. (a.) Place two counters together on your desk; take one away ; how many have you left ? Ans. I have one left. One counter from two counters leaves how many? Ans. One counter from two counters leaves one counter. [Teacher will continue with fingers, hands, books, and other objects.] (&.) Slate and Blackboard. Make two marks ; rub out one ; how many are left ? Make two marks ; rub them out ; how many are left? Ans. None are left. Two taken away from two leaves how many ? 5. Multiplication. (a.) Each of you put one counter on the desk ; now put another one with it; how many times have you taken one counter ? Ans. I have taken one counter twice. Two times one counter are how many counters ? Ans. Twice one counter are two counters. (b.) Slate and Blackboard. Make one mark ; now another. How many times have you made one mark? Ans. I have made one mark twice. Then two times one mark are how many marks ? Ans. Two times one mark are two marks. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 199 6. Division. Place two counters on the desk. Call up two boys and give one counter to each. Question thus : How many counters has John ? How many has Frank ? If two boys di- vide two counters between them, how many has each boy ? Show the similarity of the expressions 2 -i- 2 = 1, and of 2 = 1. 7. Comparison. Give one counter to John and two to Frank. How many counters has John? Frank? How many has Frank more than John ? How many more is two than one ? How many counters has John less than Frank? Then one is one less than two. BlacJtboard. Illustrate the same with marks. 8. Applied Numbers. (#.) Addition. 1. John ate one apple at recess, and another apple at noon ; how many apples did he eat ? 2. Frank had one dime, and his father gave him one more ; how many dimes did he have ? 3. The teacher will make up ten similar questions. (5.) Multiplication. 1. John went a-fishing, and twice he caught one fish ; how many fishes did he catch ? The teacher will make up ten similar questions, (c.) Division. I. If two boys divide two marbles between them, how many will each have ? Dictate ten similar questions. 9. Figures and Signs. Teach the use of the five signs -{-, , X, -T-, =. Tell them that -f means "and" or "added to," and that it is read "plus;" that means "taking away" or "less," and that it is read "minus;" that X means "times," and is read "multiplied ly ;" that -r- means "con- tains," and that it is read "divided ly ;" that = means equal to, equals. -f is called the sign of addition. " " subtraction. X " multiplication. -f. " " division. = " " equality. 200 METHODS OF TEACHING. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE USE OF SIGNS. Let the children make each combination first with the counters. a. By Marks. I. By Figures. = \\ 1X2=2 2-f-2 lof2 ll-l = 10. Table to le Taught. 2 pints make 1 quart. 1 quart equals 2 pints. III. THE NUMBER THREE. 1. Measuring. First illustrate by using counters. By One. 1+1+1=3 3111=0 311=1 3 2 = 1 1X3 = 3 3X 1=3 3-7-1 = 3 By Tw9. 2 + 1 = 3 1 + 2 = 3 1x2+1=3 3 2 = 1 3-f-2 = l and 1 remainder, or of 3 = 1 and 2. Second Form of Expressing. Add. Suit. Suit. Mult. Biv. Div. 1 1 3 -1 3 2 1 X3 1)3 3 2)3 1 1 1 "6 IT ~T WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 201 Note. Read 3 -r- 1, at first, thus : " 1 is contained in 3 three times ;" 1X3 thus : " 3 times 1 equals three." The idea of " to be con tained" must precede tlie higher and more difficult conception of " dividing." 3. Practice. 1. How many are 3 1 1 + 2 divided by 1 ? 2. 1+1+1-2+1+1 2 + 1 + 1 = how many ? 4. Applied Numbers. The teacher will make up ten questions. IV. THE NUMBER FOUR. 1. Measuring. First illustrate by using counters. By One. 41111=0 4111=1 1 X4 = 4 4X1 = 4 4-f-l=4 By Two. 2 + 2 = 4 4 2 = 2 2X2 = 4 4-f-2 = 2, or By Three. 3 + 1=4 1 + 3 = 4 1x3+1=4 3x1+1=4 4 3 = 1 4 1 = 3 4-7-3 = 1 and 1 r., or Jof4=lJ 2. Second Form of Writing. Add. Add. Suit. Suit. Mult. Mult. Div. 2 + 2 3 + 1 4 2 4 3 2 X2 1 X4 *)JL 2 4 4 ~2 1 4 4 9* 202 METHODS OF TEACHING. 3. Practice. 1. 2X2 3+2X1+1 2 X 2 = how many? The teacher will give ten similar questions. 4. Combinations. 1. What number must we double to get 4 ? 2. 2 is one half of what number ? 3. 1 is the fourth part of what number ? Give similar questions. 5. Practical Illustrations. 1. Name 4 animals that have only 2 legs. 2. Name 4 animals that have 4 legs each. 3. Name a thing that has 4 legs. 4. Name a thing that has 3 legs. 6. Table to be learned. 4 gills make 1 pint. 2 pints make 1 quart. 4 quarts make 1 gallon. Pass around the class a pint measure and a quart meas- ure, and then make up numberless practical examples. V. THE NUMBER FIVE. First, combinations with counters. 1. Measuring. By One. By Two. 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 1 1 1 1 1 = 5 2 2 = 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 X 2 + 1 = 5 1 X 5 = 5 5 4- 2 = 2 and lr. 5 X 1 = 5 i of 5 = 2 i 5-f-l = 5 WORKING MODELS IN AEITHMETIC. 203 By Three. 5 2 = 3 5 3 = 2 1X3+2=5 5-r-3 = l,2r. By Four. 4 + 1 = 5 1 + 4 = 5 5 4 = 1 5 1 = 4 1x4+1=5 5-f-4 = l,lr. 2. Practice. 1.5 2 3 + 2x2 = how many ? 2. 2X2+1 3x14-2-7-4 = ? 3. Applied Numbers. The teacher will make up at least ten simple questions. VI. THE NUMBER SIX. 1. Illustration. (.) Place six counters in a row, count forwards and backwards. (&.) Make six marks on slates thus, | | j | | |. Count forwards and backwards. (c.) Make figures thus, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Count forwards and back- wards. 2. Addition. Illustrate the following combinations first with count- ers, next with marks : 1 + 5 1+1 1 + 2 1 + 3 1 + 4 2 + 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + 4 3 + 1 3 + 2 3 + 3 4 + 1 4 + 2 5 + 1 204 METHODS OF TEACHING. 3. Subtraction. Illustrate as in addition. 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 3 1 4 2 5 3 6 4 41 5 2 6 3 5 1 C 2 C 1 6 6 4. Analysis. 6 = l + l-f-l+l-fl + l 6 = 3 + 2 + 1 6 2 + 1 + 14-1 + 1 6 = 3 + 3 6=2+2+1+1 6=4+1+1 6=2+2+2 6=4+2 6=3+1+1+1 6=5+1 "Write the preceding in the second form. 5. Multiplication. ixi = ? 2X1 = ? 3 X 1 = ? 1X4 ? 1X2 = ? 2X2 = ? 3X2 = ? 1X5 = ? IX 3 = ? 2X 3 = ? 1X6 = ? 1 X4 = ? 1X5 = ? 1X6 = ? Write the preceding in the second form. 6. Division. 2-J-2 3-4-3 4-4-4 3-4-2 4 i 3 5-4-4 4-f-2 5-7-3 6-4-4 5-j-2 6-4-3 6-i-2 5-7-5 6-7-6 WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 205 7. Exercise with Counters. 1. Place two counters together; two more ; two more; how many counters ? 2. How many times two counters ? 3. How many times are two counters contained in six counters ? 4. Place three counters together; three more; how many? 5. How many times three counters ? 6. Etc. 8. Division. Another Form. of 6 = 3 Write thus : J of 4 = 1, Ir. of 5 = 1, 2 r. A of 6 = 2 9. Division. Regular Form. i of 4 = 1 } of 6 = If eta H 3 10. Comparison. 6 is 1 more than 5 6 is 2 more than 4 6 is 3 more than 3 6 is 4 more than 2 6 is 5 more than 1 1 is 5 less than 6 2 is 4 less than 6 3 is 3 less than 6 4 is 2 less than 6 5 is 1 less than 6 All these examples are to be given promiscuously as well as in regular order. [Proceed in a similar manner with the numbers seven, eight, and nine.] VII. THE NUMBER TEN. 1. Illustration. (a.) Place ten counters on the desk. (&.) Make ten marks on the slate or board. 206 METHODS OF TEACHING. (c.) Make the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. (d.) Count forwards and backwards. 2. Measurement. Measuring by counters. 1. How many twos in ten ? 2. How many threes in ten ? 3. How many fours, Jives, sixes, etc. ? 3. Combinations. Let pupils make all the combinations they can that shall equal ten thus : 3 + 3 + 3+1=10 5 + 5 = 10 4 + 4 + 2 = 10, etc. 4. Second Form of Expressing. Put the same into the regular form of addition thus: 3 Correct Way. One, four, seven, ten. Incorrect Way. One and three are four, and three are seven, and three are ten. 10 5. Multiplication. ix 1 = 1 2X1=2 3X 1 = 3 4X1=4 1 X 2 = 2 2x2=4 3X 2 = 6 4X2 = 8 1 X 3 = 3 2X3=6 3 X 3 = 9 1 X 4 = 4 2X4=8 1X5 = 5 2 X 5 = 10 etc. to 10 6. Division. 2-4-2 = ? 3- -3 = ? 4 - -4 = ? 5- -5 = ? 3-7-2 = ? 4- 3n = { 5 - -4 = ? 6- -5 = ? 4-7-2 = ? 5- 30 =3 { - -4 = ? 7- -5 = ? etc. to 10 etc. to 10 etc. to 10 etc. to 10 WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 207 7. Another Form of Division. etc. to 10 etc. to 10 8. Another Form of Division. 2 )JL 2 11 2)5 etc. to 10 etc. to 10 In the same way divide by three, four, and five. 9. Comparison. 10 is 1 more than 9 10 is 2 more than 8 10 is 3 more than 7 10 is 4 more than 6 10 is 5 more than 5 etc. to 10 1 is 9 less than 10 2 is 8 less than 10 3 is 7 less than 10 4 is 6 less than 10 5 is 5 less than 10 etc. to 10 All these comparisons are to be given promiscuously as well as in regular order. 10. Concrete Examples. Teachers will make up from ten to twenty concrete ex- amples. ______ SECTION II. SECOND TEEM OR YEAR. I. NUMBERS FROM TEN TO TWENTY. 1. Illustration with the number nineteen. 1. Place the counters on the desk. 2. Make marks on the slate or board. 3. Make the figures from one to nineteen. 4. Count forwards and backwards. 208 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. Measuring by counters. 1. How many twos in nineteen? 2. How many threes, etc., to nines f 3. Addition Table. 1 + 2 + 2, etc., to 19. 5 + 5 + 5 + 4 = 19 9+9 + 1 = 19 2 + 2 + 2, etc., + 1 to 1 9 6 + 6 + 6 + 1 = 19 3 + 3 + 3, etc., to 19 7 + 7 + 5 = 19 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 3 = 19 8 + 8 + 3 = 19 Put the preceding also into vertical columns. 4. Let scholars make as many combinations as possible equal to nineteen. 5. 'Subtraction. Reverse the tables for addition. 6. Multiplication. 1X2 1 X 3 to 19 1X2 2 X 2 to 9 1X3 2 X 3 to 6 1X4 2 X 4 to 4 1X5 2 X 5 to 3 7. Division. 19 -i- 1 ? 19 _:_ 2 ? 19 _:_ 3 ? U p to 19. 8. Miscellaneous Exercises. 8 + 4 = 12 3 + 3 + 3 8 = 1 2x3x3 = 18 7_|_5_j-G = 18 12-v-6 = 2 4x3x1 = 12 19 4 = 15 17H-4=4, 1 r. 16 8 = 2 19 9 = 10 1612 = 4 18-r-9 = 2 3X6 = 18 2X2X2 = 8 18-f-5 = 3,3r. 16^-4 = 4 17 9 + 9 = 17 19-f-4=4,3r. 5 + 9 7 = 7 9 + 9 11=7 Table to le Learned. 12 inches = 1 foot. 3 feet = 1 yard. 16 ounces = 1 pound. The inch, foot, and yard to be drawn repeatedly on the board by pupils. An ounce weight and a pound weight must be passed around in the class. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 209 II. FRACTIONS. Directions. Illustrate halves, thirds, etc., by breaking up crayons, cutting up apples, or by breaking slips of wood. Having shown your pupils how one half is made and how one half is written, send them to the blackboards, saying nothing whatever about numerator or denominator, and drill them on numberless examples like the following : 1. One Half. 2. Mixed Numbers. 21 C =58 11 4 _31_ - 31 = 31 jl -11 etc. ~6~ 21 = 21 4 21 ?. Give a great many drill examples like the pre- ceding, and keep your little scholars busy on such simple questions until they become expert in their work. Do not be in a hurry to proceed immediately, after the man- ner of text -books, to crowd a dozen new things upon them. 3. Combinations. 1+1=|=1 i+t=f t+i=|=l 8-l = l,or *-* = * |-i=i,or j _j_. i i y JL 1 JL 1 1 iv4 i A-i-A 1 ivi i 2^8 T ? "4^4" 1(J 4. Addition. 20. Send the class to the boards and give twenty similar examples. 210 METHODS OF TEACHING. Ji 12 2J *J Ji "J 5. Addition. 14 Gi 5 5 i 4 3 Ji Ji Ji 12 17| 14| . Give at least one hundred similar drill examples, in ten successive lessons. C. Multiplication. etc. etc. *xi=i etc. Second Foi'm. Mixed Numbers. 3 16 34 3 7. Division and Multiplication. Division. Multiplication. etc., to tenths. etc., to tenths. 8. Decimal Fractions. [Tent?is.] Directions. Send your pupils to the blackboards, and let them write and read examples like the following, with- out going into any philosophical explanation whatever. At this stage, the point is to do something. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 211 Addition. Subtraction. (2.) .4 .2 = .2 (3.) .3 + .3 = .6 (5.) .4 + .3 = .7 (4.) .6 .3 = .3 (6.) .7 .4 = .3 9. Addition. .5 1.2 1.3 2.2 .6 1.3 1.4 3.3 .4 1.5 1.5 4.4 Give at least ten lessons, each containing from ten to twenty similar examples. Second Form. (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (C.) .2 .3 .4 .4 .6 .7 .2 .3 .3 .2 .3 .4 ~A~ "IT ~7T ~^2 ~73 ~U .2 .3 .2 .7 L5 4X 42 9 Send the class to the boards and give similar examples. 10. Multiplication. .2 X 1 = .2 .2 X 4 = .8 .2 X 7 = 1.4 .2X2 = .4 .2X5 = 1.0 .2X8 = 1.6 .2 X 3 = .6 .2 X 6 = 1.2 .2x9 = 1.8 In the same way take .3, .4, .5. 11. Addition of Common and Decimal Fractions. (1.) (2.) (3.) \ - .5 21 = 2.5 1 J = 1.5 = .5 31= 3.5 If =1.5 JL-_^ Ji=jy. Ji=i5. 11 = 1.5 10-1 = 10.5 4 = 4.5 12. Table. 10 cents 1 dime. 10 dimes 1 dollar. Pass a dollar, a dime, and a cent around the class, arid give easy practical questions. Make the sign of dollars, and give simple questions in adding dollars. 212 METHODS OF TEACHING. 13. Decimals. Multiplication. 1. .2 X 4 = .8 3. .3 X 3 = .9 5. .4X4 = 1.0 7. .7 X 2 = 1.4, etc. Division. .8 4 = .2 .9 3 = .3 6. 1.0 4 = .4 8. 1.4 2 = .7 14. Multiplication. .3 .4 .7 .7 .6 34232 .9 1.0 1.4 2.1 1.2 The teacher will give five lessons of five examples each, similar to the above. SECTION III. THIRD TEAK OK TEEM. Adding "by tens, twenties, thirties, forties, etc. Models. (1.) 10 (2.) 20 (3.) 30 (40 40 (5.) 50 (6.) 90 10 20 30 40 50 90 10 20 30 40 50 90 30 60 90 120 150 270" Divide each amount in the preceding examples by 3 thus: 3)30 3)150 10 50 etC ' The teacher will give five similar lessons of ten exam- ples each. 2. Multiplying and dividing tens, twenties, thirties, forties, etc., two, three, etc., to ten. Model of Blackboard Work. one, Mult. Div. Mult. Div. 10 X 2 = 20 20 -f- 2 = 10 50 X 2 = 100 100 -r- 2 = 50 10 X 3 = 30 30 -7- 3 = 10 50 X 3 = 150 150 -f- 3 = 50 10 X 4 40 40-r-4rrlO 50 X 4 = 200 200 -r- 4 = 50 etc. etc. etc. etc. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 213 3. Decimals. Dollars and Cents. Dictate hundreds of simple examples like the fol- lowing : (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) $10 $25 $1.25 $4.40 $0.10 $12 $25 $2.25 $4.50 $0.25 $13 $50 $3.25 $4.60 $0.50 (10 (2.) (3.) (4.) $i = .50 $i = .25 $ -^ = .10 $| = .75 $* = .50 $i = .25 $ 1 \ F = .10 $1= .75 $1 = .50 $} = .25 $ TTT^ - 10 $f = .75 >1* = $1.50 $} = .75 $ A = .3.0 $2-1 = $2.25 4. Multiplied tion. 1. $1.25 X 3rr? 3. $2.75 X 4 = ? 5. $1.12* X 2 = ? 7. $2.37^ X 4 = ? 9. $1.05 X 3 = ? Blackboard Drill. Division. 2. $ 3.75 3 = ? 4. $11.00 4 = ? 6. $ 2.25 2 = ? 8. $ 9.50 4 = ? 10. $ 3.15 3 = ? The teacher will dictate five similar lessons of ten ex- amples each. . 5. Table of Federal Money to be Learned. SECTION IV. DRILL EXERCISES IN THE FOUR RULES. I. ADDITION. Direction. Put this table on the blackboard; with a pointer, point out successively different numbers to be combined with the number at the head of the column. As, pointing to 11, the combination will be 5 + 11 = 16, etc. Let the class answer in concert and singly. 214 METHODS OF TEACHING. Add the first column under " 5 " downwards and up- wards, until the scholar has thoroughly mastered it. Do not allow pupils to repeat five and ten are fifteen, five and six are eleven, five and eleven are sixteen, etc., but require them to point on the blackboard to each figure in the column, and give only results ; downwards thus : 15, 11, 16, 10, 9, 6, 8, 12, 17, 14, 7, 13; upwards, 13, 7, 14, 17, 12, 8, 6, 9, 10, 16, 11, 15. Add the other columns in the same manner. 5 2 8 4 G 7 8 9 10 10 12 7 5 4 12 3 9 11 6 3 9 3 9 9 2 6 4 11 6 4 6 6 11 7 12 C 5 4 8 10 10 5 8 7 10 4 9 6 4 12 10 12 11 5 1 7 12 1 7 4 10 4 3 3 2 3 11 11 6 9 10 7 7 11 5 9 3 3 11 3 12 12 5 10 12 8 2 C 1 9 9 1 1 7 5 7 5 5 2 2 8 11 2 2 1 4 8 8 8 10 2 8 1 8 1 2 1 II. SUBTRACTION. C 2 8 4 8 5 10 7 9 15 12 9 13 14 11 10 17 12 10 9 11 10 18 15 15 13 9 9 7 5 14 12 13 20 8 19 1C 11 12 12 16 9 14 7 17 14 8 10 4 13 5 1G 10 14 12 6 8 G 11 8 11 14 18 s 10 G 9 9 G 17 11 15 11 5 4 5 15 10 13 16 10 C, 3 7 8 8 7 12 12 13 18 2 3 7 10 12 19 9 11 WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 215 III. MULTIPLICATION. 4 3 6 2 5 7 8 10 11 12 9 3 6 11 8 10 8 3 10 12 12 12 4 12 10 11 12 12 6 8 1 G 10 8 7 1 10 1 10 12 12 11 1 2 12 11 4 6 4 9 9 6 4 2 11 10 9 12 5 8 4 5 1 8 4 8 5 4 2 4 9 1 4 2 C 8 7 G 10 6 1 3 3 1 4 4 3 4 11 8 8 3 7 C 8 3 5 11 6 9 3 5 9 5 5 7 9 7 7 3 7 1 7 2 2 11 10 5 10 10 5 2 5 9 7 6 2 2 11 2 5 1 1 2 3 12 11 7 11 2 4 9 IV. DIVISION. Under the head of " 7," giving only results ; down- wards thus : 5, 8, 12, 6, 1, 2, 7, 10, 3, 4, 9, 11 ; upwards, 11, 9,4,3,10,7,2,1,6,12,8,5. 7 2 3 4 5 8 6 12 9 11 10 35 10 33 44 50 72 48 36 36 11 90 56 16 27 16 35 96 18 60 18 132 60 84 24 12 24 45 56 60 108 54 33 70 42 12 15 8 60 40 12 84 90 22 50 7 2 30 4 40 88 36 132 72 121 80 14 4 21 20 25 8 24 144 108 110 40 49 14 G 32 5 32 6 96 99 44 100 70 20 3 48 10 48 66 120 9 88 30 21 6 18 36 15 16 30 72 63 55 110 28 8 36 28 30 80 42 24 81 77 20 63 18 24 40 20 24 72 48 45 66 120 77 22 15 12 55 64 54 12 27 99 10 SECTION V. WORKING MODELS IN COMMON FRACTIONS. I. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING A FRACTION BY A WHOLE NUMBER. Note. There will be no difficulty in lessons like the following, if the teacher will let technical terms alone, 216 METHODS OF TEACHING. take only one thing at a time, and drill upon it imtil it is fixed in the mind by practice. The first steps must be illustrated by broken crayons or sticks. Oral Lesson. 1. How many fourths are 2 times J? " Ans. Two times ^ are f , and = ^. 2. What is i off? Ans. . 3. What is i of ? Ans. I. ' 4. Multiply I by 3. 5. Divide f by 3. Multiply. Divide. 1. | by 5 3. f by 3 5. & by 3 7. A by 5 9. & by 2 2. by 5 4. | by 3 6. ft by 3 8. H by 5 10. fo by 3 II. MULTIPLYING BY A FRACTION. 1. Oral Questions. 1. What is one half of 4? 2. What is the product of 4 multiplied by -J- ? 3. What is one half of 12 ? 4. 12 multiplied by fc = ? 5. What is i of 5 ? 6. Multiply 5 by . EXERCISES. 1. i^ind one half of each of the even numbers from 2 to 20. 2. Multiply each of the even numbers from 2 to 20 by . 3. Find one half of each of the odd numbers from 1 to 19. 4. Multiply by J each of the odd numbers from 1 to ID. 5. Find one half of 20, 40, CO, 80, 100. 6. Multiply by $ each of the following : 20, 40, CO, 80, IOC 1 . WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 217 2. Slate and BlacJ&oard Drill. 1. The question " What is one half of 4 " is expressed thus in written arithmetic : Multiply 4 by -. Slate Work 4 X | = ? 4-5-2 = 2. Ans. Rule. Divide the number by 2. In a similar manner perform each of the following : 1. Multiply each of the even numbers from 2 to 100 by \. 2. Multiply each of the odd numbers from 3 to 99 by |. III. MULTIPLYING BY A FRACTION. 1. Oral Questions. 1. What is i of 8? 2. Multiply 8 by J. 3. What is the product of 8 multiplied by i ? 4. How do you multiply 8 by ? Ans. By dividing 8 by 4. 5. Find i of 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40. 44, 48. 6. Multiply each of the preceding numbers by . 7. Find i of 40, 80, 120, 160. 8. Find i of 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, 37, 41, 45, 49. 2. Slate and Blackboard Drill. Form of Slate Work. 1. Multiply 8 by J. 8Xi = ? 8-5-4 = 2. Rule. Divide the number by 4. EXERCISES. 1. Put each of the oral questions in the preceding lesson into slate wort? . 2. Multiply each of the even numbers from 4 to 100 by . b. Multiply each of the odd numbers from 5 to 99 by . 4. Multiply every number that ends with a cipher from 10 to 100 by*. 5. Multiply every number ending in 5 from 15 to 105 by J. 10 218 METHODS OF TEACHING. IV. DIVIDING BY A FRACTION. 1. Oral 1. How many times is contained in 2 ? 2. How can you show it ? Am. By taking 2 crayons and breaking them into halves. Do it. 3. How many times is contained in 4 ? Show it by drawing on the blackboard a line four inches long, and then dividing into half-inches. 4. Divide 2 by -J. 5. Divide 4 by . 6. What is the quotient of 2 divided by . 7. Find the quotient of 4 divided by . 8. 2-i-i = ? 4-r-l ? EXERCISES. Rule. Multiply the number by 2. 1. Divide each of the even numbers from 2 to 100 by . 2. Divide each of the odd numbers from 3 to 100 by . 3. Divide by each of the numbers ending in a cipher from 10 to 100. 4. Divide by each number from 15 to 105 ending in 5. 2. Slate and Blackboard Drill. Questions like the preceding are put into the form of written arithmetic according to the following Model 1. What is 5 times ? *X5=f. 1 -0-f-5=J. Require the class to put each of the preceding ques- tions into the form of written arithmetic, and then dictate ten examples, using larger numbers. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 219 SECTION VI. ANALYTICAL WORK IN FRACTIONS, FOR GRAM- MAR-SCHOOL GRADES. Note. In undertaking to train pupils to a clear concep- tion of analytical processes in common fractions, it is de- f sirable to proceed slowly, taking a great number of easy operations limited to small numbers upon each new proc- ess. In the following lessons the analytical method is pur- sued exclusively, and only one method is given. Teachers who desire to add other explanations can do so ; but, in the beginning, it is best not to confuse the minds of pu- pils with too many things at once. I. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING BY A FRACTION. 1. Oral Drill. 1. What is f of 20 ? Analysis. Since i of 20 is 5, f will be 3 times 5, or 15. 2. How many times is f contained in 15 ? Analysis. Since is contained 4 times 15, or 60 times, f will be contained -J- of 60, or 20 times. 3. What is the product of 20 multiplied by f ? 4. What is the quotient of 16 divided by f ? 5. Multiply 12 by f. 6. Divide 9 by f . 7. What is f times 24 ? 8. How many times is f contained in 24 ? 9. Find f of 100. 10. How many times is f contained in 20 ? 220 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. Slate and Blackboard Drill. Multiplication. Division. 20 X f = ? 20 -T- 4 = 5. 15 X 4 = 60. 5 X 3 = 15. Ans. 60 -H 3 = 20. Analysis. Divide 20 by 4 to find i, and multiply the quotient 5 by 3 to find f . Analysis. Multiply 15 by 4 to find how many times i is con- tained in 15, and divide the product 60 by 3 to find how many times f is contained in 15. Examples. 1. 900 X f 3. 1200X1 5. $1600 Xf 7. $10.000 X 9. 1728m. X 2. 600 4. 900 6. $1000 8. $8000 10. 1728 II. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF FRACTIONS. 1. Oral Drill.- 1. What is | of |? Ans. I. 2. How do you find -J- of any number ? Ans. By dividing it by 2. 3. How do you divide by 2 ? Ans. By multiplying the denominator by 2. 4. In what other way can you show this ? Ans. i = f,andiof2 = i. 5. How many times is ^ contained in J ? -4ws. a time. 6. How do you divide any number by - ? .4718. By multiplying it by 2. 7. How do you divide 1 by -^ ? Ans. By multiplying by 2, and this is done by dividing the denominator 4 by 2. 8. In what other way can you show this ? WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 221 Ans. - 5, and f is contained in J- as many times as 2 is con* tained in 1, which is i a time. 9. What is 1 of 1 ? Ans. . Why ? 10. How many times is -| contained in 1 ? -4?w. of a time. Show why. 11. What is % of ? ^. T V Show why. 12. Divide ^ by ? ^?zs. J. Show why. 2. Mental Operations. Multiplication. Division. Find the product 1. 3. . Find the quotient 2. Of i divided by |. 4. Of divided by . 6. Of & divided by t, etc. Dictate ten similar examples. 3. Blackboard Drill. Put each of the preceding examples into the form of written arithmetic. Models. (1.) iXi=r? I (2.) i-^-ir^:? i-^3 = I .4/zs. 1 I x 3 = III. MENTAL OPERATIONS. 1. What is -1 of |? yl?w. f. 2. How is the answer obtained ? Ans. By dividing f by 2, which is done by multiplying the denominator. 3. How many times is 1 contained in f ? ^4ns. | of a time. 4. How is this answer obtained ? ^Ins. By multiplying by 2, which is done by dividing the denominator. 5. What is of f ? ^4rcs. &. wll J ? 6. What part of a time is contained in ^ ? Ans. f of a time. Why? 222 METHODS OF TEACHING. 7. What is the product of multiplied by J ? Am. $. Why ? 8. What is the quotient of f divided by ? 4ws. . Why ? 9. Multiply f by ? Ans. ^. Why ? 10. Divide ^ by J ? Ans. f . Why ? IV. MENTAL MULTIPLICATION. Principle. Multiplying by a fraction gives a product less than the multiplicand. Rule. Divide the multiplicand by the denominator of the multiplier, Examples. 1. What is the product of multiplied by 1? etc. 2. Dictate ten similar examples. V. MENTAL DIVISION. Principle. Dividing by a fraction gives a quotient greater than the dividend. JKule. Multiply the dividend by the denominator of the divisor. Examples. 1. How many times is | contained in ? 2. What is the quotient off divided by -1? 3. Dictate ten similar examples. VI. SLATE AND BLACKBOARD DRILL. Multiplication. Division. (1.) SXi = ? (2.) &-** = * + * = &' An*. & X 4 - . Dictate twenty similar examples. VII. MENTAL MULTIPLICATION. 1. What is f of A ? .4?w. Since of -| is &, f will be twice or iV 2. What is | off? Why? 3. Multiply by . 4. Dictate twenty similar examples. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 223 VIII. MENTAL DIVISION. 1. How many times is ^ contained in ? Analysis. Since is contained in 4 times $, or $, of a time, ^ will be contained ^ of , or &? of a time. 2. What is the quotient of divided by ? 3. Divide f by ^. 4. What part of a time is f contained in ? 5. Dictate ten similar examples. IX. SLATE AND BLACKBOARD DRILL. Multiplication. Division. Model. A X 2 = T 8 Analysis. Divide by 3 to find , and multiply that quotient by 2, to find f . (3.) f Model. (20 T 8 5--? &X8 = |. f -f- 2 = f . Am.. Analysis. Multiply by 3 to find how many times % is contained, and divide that product by 2, to find how many times is contained. (4.) &*-* = (8.).|-T-f=f Dictate ten similar examples. X. WRITTEN MULTIPLICATION. i X | = ? Analysis. Since J of is &, | is 3 times 5 7 ff , or |J ; I x I lo which process is equivalent to multiplying the two numerators together for a numerator, and the two denominators for a denominator. Rule. Place the product of the numerators over the product of the denominators. l.fx* = ? | 2.fx=? Dictate twenty similar examples. ''ME Y \ N'VERgfTY j or 224: METHODS OF TEACHING. XI. WRITTEN DIVISION. 1. Divide by f . % -T- f- = ? Explanation. Multiply f by 4 in order to find how X 4 = many times J is contained ; and divide that result by $ -j- 3 = 2 8 7 3 in order to find how many times f is contained. XII. METHOD BY INVERTING THE DIVISOR. Analytical Model. Practical Model. f -j- 3 = . Invert the divisor, and place the product of the numerators over that of the denominators. SECTION VII. WOKKING MODELS IN MENTAL ARITHMETIC, FOE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GRADES. Directions. Read each question to the class, allow from one quarter to one half a minute for the mental so- lution, and require each pupil to write his answer on the slate. "When the ten questions have been given,-]et pupils exchange slates, and credit the work as the teacher reads the correct answers. SET I. 1. What is f of 84? 2. How many times is f contained in 6 ? 3. Divide ^ by 4. 4. Multiply f by 3. 5. Divide by $. 6. How many times is contained in $ ? 7. Multiply H by 1|. 8. Divide 5 by 5. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 225 9. Multiply the decimal .2 by .02. 10. Divide the decimal .2 by .05. SET II. 1. How many times is 2 J contained in 40 ? 2. What is 3 times 75 ? 3. How many times 6 inches is 50 feet ? 4. Sum ofi,i, and |? 5. Difference off and ? 6. 80 divided by -- ? 7. Sum of and f? 8. How many feet in 10 rods ? 9. How many square inches in f of a square foot ? 10. How many acres in f of a square mile ? SET III. 1. Bought a horse for $50 and sold for $75 ; per cent, of gain ? 2. If you answer 5 questions out of 6, what per cent, do you make? 3. What is 300 per cent, of ? 4. If 10 is 5 per cent, of a number, what is 40 per cent. ? 5. What is 500 per cent, of 25 ? 6. What is per cent, of 200 ? 7. At 12 cts. per pound, how much beefsteak can you buy for $80? 8. How many ounces in 4f Ibs. of gold ? 9. Find the product of 5x4xGxOxi. 10. 3x4-f-6 2x5 + 2-i-i = ? SET IV. 1. Square the decimal .12. 2. Square root of 625 ? 3. Square root of .0625 ? 4. $28 is 175 per cent, of what? 5. Cube root of 1728 ? 6. Cube of 9 ? 7. Cube of .6? 10* 226 METHODS OF TEACHING. 8. Cost of 6 Ibs. of beef at 121 cents ? 9. What part of 4 is f? 10. What per cent, of i is i? SET V. TEST EXAMINATION. Time: One quarter of a minute to each question. Only the answers to be written. 1. 15 + 12 + 13 + 17 + 11 + 18 -f 27 = ? 2. 21 + 24 + 32 + 45 + 24 + 25:=? 3. Divide 18 by f. 4. How many minutes in f of a clay ? 5. Cost of If yards ribbon at 20 cents ? 6. 144 is if of what ? 7. Prime factors of 144 ? 8. G. C. D. of 84 and 144 ? 9. L. C. M. of 8, 12, and 1C ? 10. How many tons in 5000 Ibs. of iron? 11. Which is the heavier, a pound of silver or a pound of cotton? 12. Which is the lighter, an ounce of iron or an ounce of gold? 13. How many cubic inches in a gallon of watei ? 14. How many rods in f of a mile ? 15. What part of a square inch in a surface f of an inch square ? 10. Acres in f of a square mile ? 17. Square of 1.2 ? 18. Square root of 1600? 19. Cube of 12? 20. Cube root of 125 ? 21. Cubic inches in a cube of wood whose edges are 8 inches ? 22. Sheets of paper in a quarter ream ? 23. Inches in the meter ? 24. How many feet of board measure in a board 18 feet long and 16 inches wide ? 25. Multiply 2.5 by 2.5. 26. Divide .25 by .0005. 27. Write in decimal form per cent. 28. 7 is what per cent, of 8 ? WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 227 29. Find 12 per cent, of $1600 ? 30. What is the amount of $48 plus 75 per cent, of itself? 31. Froui $150 take 20 per cent, of itself. 32. $15 is of what? 33. $1500 is 75 per cent, of what ? 34. What number plus i of itself equals 30 ? 35. What number increased by 25 per cent, of itself equals 3000 ? 86. Bought butter at 25 cents, and sold at 30 cents; per cent, of gain? 37. Interest on $240 for 1 year 4 months at 10 per cent. ? 38. Interest on $400 at 1 per cent, a month for 21 days ? 39. Cube root of the decimal .125. 40. Inches of surface on a cube whose edge is 10 inches. EXTRA QUESTIONS. 1. Product of $2.00 by $5.00? 2. Divide $2.00 by $5.00. 3. 25 X 4 -7- 50 2x10-4-2x5 = ? 4. 10x0^-2 + 4x5-7-2 = ? 5. Which is the larger, i an apple or a pear ? SECTION VIII. WORKING MODELS IN THE TABLES. I. LONG OR LINEAR MEASURE. Note. As introductory lessons, teachers must require pupils to measure with a rule the length of slates, books, desks, blackboards, rooms, etc. ; to draw by the eye, and afterwards to measure lines of different lengths on the blackboard, as, 6 inches, 1 foot, 2 feet, 3 feet, etc. ; to measure on the floor a rod in length, etc. Such exercises must be repeated and varied until pupils are trained to estimate length with some degree of accuracy. Pupils should also be taught how to make rough estimates by u pacing," by " hands," and by the extended arms. 228 METHODS OF TEACHING. TABLE. 12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.). 3 feet = 1 yard (yd.). IGi feet = 1 rod (rd.). 320 rods = 1 rnile (mi.). How many 1. Inches in 4| ft. ? 2. Inches in 2f ft. ? 3. Inches in 1 yd. ? 4. Feet in 2 rods ? 5. Feet in 10 yds. ? 1. Oral Questions. How many 6. Feet in 10 rods ? 7. Rods in half a mile 8. Rods in 2 miles ? 9. Feet in 10 fathoms? 10. Feet in 33^ paces ? 2. Zate a/id Blackboard. 1. How many rods in 25 miles ? 2. How many feet in 40 rods ? 3. How many inches in 97^- feet ? 4. How many geographical miles in 180 degrees of longitude on the equator ? 5. From the north to the south pole the distance is 180 degrees. How many statute miles ? 6. How many statute miles in length is the equator ? 7. London is in 50 N. L. ; how many statute miles from the equator ? 8. What part of a mile in 80 rods ? 9. How many yards in 3530 feet ? 10. How many rods in 2500 miles ? II. SQUARE MEASURE. 1. Draw on slates a figure one inch square. 2. Draw on slates a figure 2 inches square, and divide it into square inches. 3. Draw a figure 12 inches long and 4 inches wide, sub divide into square inches, and count them. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 229 4. Draw on the blackboard a figure 1 foot square, sub- divide it into square inches, and count the squares. 5. Draw on the blackboard a figure 2 feet square, and subdivide it into square feet. 1. Oral Questions. IIoio many square 1. Inches in a figure 6 inches long by 4 inches wide ? 2. Feet in a surface 9 by 4 feet ? 3. Inches in a surface 12 by C inches? 4. Inches in a surface 1C inches by -J- an inch? 5. Feet in a figure 20 by 6 feet ? Rule for Finding the Square Contents, or Area. Multiply the number representing the length by the number representing the breadth, in the same denomina- tion, and the result will be the square units of measure- ment- TABLE. 144 square inches (12x12) =1 square foot (sq. ft). 9 square feet (3x3) =1 square yard (sq. yd.). 272J- square feet (16 X 16|) = 1 square rod (sq. rd.). 160 square rods = 1 acre (a.). 640 acres = 1 square mile. 2. Practical Application. Teachers will require pupils to measure, and then find the square contents of 1. The surface of a school desk. 2. Of the teacher's platform. 3. Of a door. 4. Of a window. 5. Of a blackboard. C. Of the floor. 7. Of one side of the room 8. Of one end of the room- 9. Of the ceiling. 230 METHODS OF TEACHING. 3. Oral Questions. 1. How many square inches in ^ of a square foot? 2. How many square feet in 4f square yards ? 3. How many square inches in four square feet ? 4. How many square inches on one side of a slate 12 by 8|- inches ? 5. On both sides of a book 6 by 3 inches ? 6. On the surface of a desk 20 by 18 inches ? 7. Square feet on the floor of a room 16 by 10| feet ? 8. Square rods in a field 12 rods by 8f ? 9. Acres in 2 square miles ? 10. Acres in f of a square mile ? Teachers will require each pupil to put to the class a similar question. 4. Slate and Blackboard. 1. How many square inches on the surface of a desk 21f by 16 inches ? 2. How many square yards on a floor 33 by 27 feet ? 3. Find the square feet of surface on the ceiling and walls of a room 25 by 20 feet, and 14 feet high. 4. How many square inches of surface on both sides of a sheet of cap paper ? Measure it. 5. How many square yards of painting on one side of a house 60 by 30 feet ? 6. How many square feet of land in a lot 137 by 137 feet ? 7. How many acres in 4640 square rods ? 8. How many acres in 159,000 square miles? 9. How many acres in a piece of land 1250 rods long by 840 wide ? 10. How many square rods in a square mile ? Teachers will dictate five similar questions. SECTION IX. THE METRIC SYSTEM. 1. The Metric System, the French system of weights and measures, is based on the decimal scale. WORKING MODELS IN ARITHMETIC. 231 2. The Meter, the unit of the system, is the ten millionth part of a meridian measured from the equator to either pole. 3. The prefixes are : For Whole Numbers. For Decimal Parts. Thousands. Hundreds. Tens. Tenths. Hundredths. Thousandths. Kilo-. Hecto-. Deka-. Deci-. Centi-. Milli-. 1000 100 10 .1 .01 .001 LONG OR LINEAR MEASURE. The meter, the unit of length, is equal to 39.37 inches nearly. The decimeter is about 4 inches. Draw on the board a meter and a decimeter. Teachers can make a meter correct enough for practical purposes by taking a stick 39f inches long, and dividing it into ten equal parts, and then subdividing each part into tenths. Kequire each pupil to make one. TABLE. After each prefix supply the dash by the word meter. Ten equals one of the next higher. Prefixes . Meters . . Number . Kilo- 1000 Hecto- 100 Deka- 10 Meters. 1 Deci- .1 Centi- .01 Milli- .001 3 k 4 h 5 d 6 m 7 8 9 1. Practically, the preceding number, written below the table, is read thus : 3456 meters, 78-^ centimeters, and is written thus : 3456. 789 m ; just as we read 345 eagles, 6 dollars, 7 dimes, 8 cents, 9 mills, thus : $3456.78^, three thousand four hundred fifty - six dollars, seventy-eight and nine-tenths cents. The dollar, dime, cent, and mill correspond to the meter, decimeter, centimeter, and millimeter. 232 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. The meter (39.37 in.) is used for measuring short distances. 3. The kilometer (.6213824 mi., or about -| mi.) is used for long distances. 4. Practically, then, this table is reduced to meters and kilometers, and their decimal divisions, just as our table of currency is practi- cally expressed in dollars, cents, and decimals of the cent. Practical Questions. 1. Write 18 meters, 2 decimeters, and 5 centimeters. Ans. 13.25 rn . Note. This may be read 18^ meters, just as \ve sometimes read $18^% instead of $18 and 25 cents; or it may be read 18 meters, 25 centimeters. 2. Write 45 meters, 7 decimeters, 5 centimeters, 8 millimeters. 3. Write 85 kilometers, 9 hectometers, 7 dekameters, 6 meters. Ans. 85.976 k . 4. Read 3.00S m ; 5.0095 m ; 275.04 m . 5. Read42.38 k ; I47.3596 k ; 4.05 k . Slate and Blackboard Drill 6. Mount Everest is 29,600 feet high ; find its height in meters. 7. The Column Veudome in Paris is 40.5 m high : Mount Everest is how many times as high ? 8. Cost of 8.5 m of cloth at 5 fr. 40 c. a meter ? 9. How many feet and inches in 15.25 m ? 10. How many miles in 75 kilometers? 11. How many kilometers in the circumference of the earth 25,000 miles ? 12. The distance from New York to San Francisco, by rail, is about 3000 miles ; Low many meters ? GENERAL RULE FOR THE METP.LC SYSTEM. Measure all lengths in meters, all capacities in liters, all weights in grams, using decimal fractions onty, and saying deci for tenth, centi for hundredth, milli for thousandth, deka for ten, hesto for hundred, Tdlo for thousand, and myria for ten thousand. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 233 CHAPTER III. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. SECTION I. GLOBE LESSONS FOR BEGINNERS. Directions. Place the school globe on the table in front of the class, and require the pupils, one by one, to go up to the globe and point out with the finger what is asked for by the teacher. If one fails to find the place called for, send np another, and so on round the class. Tell the children nothing that any one in the class is able to find out for himself. The German relief globes are the best suited to these exercises. LESSON I. 1. "What is the shape of the school globe ? 2. Point out with your finger the parts that, represent laud. 3. Point out the parts that represent water. 4. Which is the larger, the land surface or the water surface? 5. Turn the globe round once : on what does it turn ? C. In what time docs the real earth turn round, or rotate once? 7. How often does the sun rise and set ? 8. Place your finger on the most northerly point on the globe: what is that point called ? 9. Place your finger on the most southerly point of the globe : what is that point called ? 10. Put your finger on the black line half-way between the two poles, and follow it all round the globe : what is it called ? 11. Find the Pacific Ocean, and turn the globe so that the class can see it. 234 METHODS OF TEACHING. LESSON II. 1. Point out the Atlantic Ocean. 2. Find the Indian Ocean. 3. Point out North America. 4. Who can point out the land on which we live? 5. Find South America. 6. Find Asia, Africa, Europe. 7. Turn the eastern hemisphere towards the class. 8. Turn the western hemisphere towards the class. 9. Find and tell the names of as many large islands as you can. LESSON III. 1. In what direction is the north pole from the south pole ? 2. The south pole from the north pole ? 3. The north pole from the equator ? 4. The south pole from the equator ? 5. North America from South America ? 6. South America from North America ? 7. Europe from Africa ? Africa from Europe ? 8. Asia from Australia ? Australia from Asia ? 9. In what direction is North America from Europe ? Europe from North America ? 10. Europe from Asia ? Asia from Europe ? 11. South America from Africa? Africa from South America? LESSON IV. 1. Put your finger on Asia ; on Europe : which is the larger ? 2. Put your finger on North America ; on South America : which seems to be the larger? 3. Which is the larger, North America or Europe ? 4. South America or Asia ? 5. South America or Africa ? 6. Africa or Australia ? 7. Africa or Europe ? WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 235 LESSON V. 1. What is the southern point of Africa named ? Of South Amer- ica? 2. Point out and read the names of four large islands between Australia and Asia. 3. Which is the largest of these ? 4. Find out the place where North America and Asia come nearly together: what separates them? 5. Which is the largest ocean ? 6. Which is the longest and narrowest ? 7. What small ocean around the north pole? 8. What ocean around the south pole ? LESSON VI. 1. Find the Amazon River, in South America. 2. Point out the Mississippi, in North America. 3. Find the Nile, in Africa ; the Niger. 4. Find some great river in Asia. 5. Find the largest river in Europe. 6. Find any other river that you have ever heard of. 7. Put your finger on the globe where the Amazon seems to begin; follow it down to the ocean : in what direction does it flow ? 8. In the same way follow the Mississippi, and tell its direction. 9. Follow down the Nile, and tell its course. LESSON VII. 1. Find the longest range of mountains in North America; read the name. 2. Follow the range with your finger : in what direction does it extend ? 3. Find the longest range in South America ; follow it with your finger over its whole length : what is its direction ? 4. Look at Asia ; see if you can find the Himalaya Mountains. 5. Find the name of any other range in Asia. 6. See what mountains you can find in Europe. 7. In Africa. 236 METHODS OF TEACHING. LESSON VIII. 1. Find a sea between North America and South America. 2. Put your finger on a sea between Europe and Africa; name it. 3. Point out a sea south of Asia. 4. Put your finger on a sea north of the island of Borneo. 5. Find a sea between Asia and the Japan isles. 6. What long and narrow sea between Africa and Asia ? 7. Find a sea north of Australia. 8. Find a great gulf south of the United States. 9. Find a great bay north of the United States. 10. Put your finger on a great bay soutli of Asia. 11. Find a gulf west of Africa, near the equator. 12. Find and name any other bay, gulf, or sea that you can. SECTION II. SECOND SERIES OF GLOBE LESSONS. LESSON I. 1. Put your finger on the equator, and follow that circle entirely round the globe : in what direction does it extend ? 2. Which point is at the greater distance from the equator, the north pole or the south pole ? 3. Make up a definition of the equator. 4. Count the small circles between the equator and the north pole; the south pole. 5. There are 360 in a circle : how many degrees is it from the equator to the north pole ? The south pole ? G. How many degrees from the equator is the first circle north of it ? The second ? The third ? etc. 7. How many degrees south of the equator is the first circle ? The second? The third? etc. 8. What is the use of these circles parallel to the equator ? Ans. To show the distance of places north or south from the equator. LESSON II. 1. Put your finger on London, the largest city in the world. WOEKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 237 2. Passing near London, north and south, you see a heavily marked black line ; follow it with your finger from the north pole to the south pole. 3. What part of the distance round the globe does this line ex- tend? 4. Where does it begin and where does it end ? 5. What is this half-circle called ? Ans. The meridian of Greenwich. 6. See if you can find any other half-circles on the globe. 7. Beginning on the equator, at the meridian of Greenwich, count the half-circles eastward round the globe : how many ? 8. i^Tow read the figures on the equator where each of these half- circles crosses it: what is the first numbered east of the meridian of Greenwich ? 9. What is the use of these half-circles or meridians ? Ans. To show how many degrees places are east or west from the meridian of Greenwich. LESSON III. Note. Teachers will now explain the use of the terms latitude and longitude. 1. You will look for the figures showing latitude on the meridian of Greenwich ; put your finger on the place named, and then follow the parallel passing through or near that place around to the meridian of Greenwich. If you have a meridian globe, bring the place to the edge of the brass meridian. The degree over the place, counted from the equator, gives the latitude. 2. In what latitude is London ? 3. In what latitude is the northern part of South America ? 4. Cape Horn ? Cape of Good Hope ? 5. The mouth of the Amazon ? 6. New York ? Philadelphia ? Cuba ? 7. The Himalaya Mountains ? The Isthmus of Suez ? 8. For the figures marking longitude, look on the equator, put your finger on the place named, and follow the meridian pass- ing through or near it to the equator, and read the figures. 238 METHODS OF TEACHING. With a meridian globe, bring the place to the edge of the brazen meridian; the degree on the equator, cut by this meridian, is the longitude of the place. 9. What is the longitude of Cape Horn ? Cape of Good Hope ? 10. Of Iceland ? Of the mouth of the Amazon ? 11. Of the Isthmus of Panama ? 12. Of the mouth of the Mississippi? 13. Of the Gulf of Mexico? 14. Of the Caribbean Sea ? 15. Of the Sandwich Islands? 16. Of the eastern point of Africa ? 17. Of the western point of South America? 18. Of the Nile River ? 19. What is the greatest latitude any place can have ? Why ? The greatest longitude ? Why ? 20. What places have no latitude ? no longitude? Why ? 21. Where is the place that has neither latitude nor longitude ? LESSON IV. 1. Point out, and follow with your finger around the globe, the dotted circle 23^ north of the equator ; find its name. 2. Point out in the same way the dotted circle 23^ south of the equator : what is it called ? 3. Add 23 to 23. 4. How wide is the equatorial, or torrid, zone ? 5. Point out and name two large islands in this belt or zone. 6. Find two grand divisions principally within this zone. 7. What great river is entirely within this zone ? 8. What important isthmus ? 9. What ocean is mainly in it ? 10. In what zone is the Niger River ? LKSSON V. 1. Find a sea, a bay, and a gulf partly in this zone. 2. Find a sea wholly in this zone. 3. Point out on the globe the dotted circle 23 south of the north pole : what is this circle named ? WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 239 4. What great island does this circle cross ? 5. What three grand divisions does it pass through ? 6. Near what straits does it pass ? 7. Find a dotted circle 23 north of the south pole : what is it called? 8. The north temperate zone lies between the arctic circle and the tropic of Cancer ; follow it around the globe with your two fingers, one on each circle. 9. Point out a great sea in this zone. LESSON VI. 1. In what zone is our country ? 2. In what zone are the Japan islands ? 3. In what zone is London ? Paris ? New York ? Boston ? San Francisco ? 4. Find the south temperate zone. 5. What great island partly in this zone ? 6. Find two cities in this zone. 7. In which zone is Cape Horn ? Cape of Good Hope ? LESSON VII. MAP EXERCISE. Note. After finishing the globe lessons, hang up an outline map of the hemispheres, ask as many of the pre- ceding globe questions as are suitable for the map, and require pupils singly to point to the places with a pointer. SECTION III. LESSONS IN LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. Note for Teachers. The following sets of questions are merely suggestive of extended lists to be asked by teachers : I. FIRST STEPS. THE SCHOOLROOM. 1. What is the part of the room over your heads called ? 2. What is the part under your feet called ? 3. How many sides has this room ? 4. How many ends ? 240 METHODS OF TEACHING. 5. How many walls ? C. Point out the right wall; the left; the front; the back. 7. How many windows arc there ? 8. Where are they ? 9. How many doors ? Where are they V 10. What stand on the floor? 11. What hang on the walls ? 12. How long is this room ? 13. Measure it by stepping. 14. How many feet do you take in one long step ? 15. How wide is this room? 16. Point to where the sun rises ; sets. 17. Face north; south; east; west. 18. Where is the sun at noon ? II. LOCAL GEOGRAPHY FOR COUNTRY CLASSES. LESSON I. 1. What is the name of the town or village in which you live? 2. In what county do you live ? 3. In what State do you live ? 4. Point to the place where the sun rises. 5. Point to the place where the sun sets. 6. Point towards the north ; the south. 7. Point towards the east ; the west. 8. In what direction is your home from the school-house ? The school-house from your home ? 9. How far from the school-house do you live ? 10. How long docs it take you to walk to school ? LESSON II. 1. Is there any river near your home ? 2. Do you know the name of any brook near us ? 3. Have you ever seen a spring ? If so, where ? 4. Have you ever seen a hill ? Where ? What is its name ? 5. Is there any mountain in your town or vicinity ? Its name ? 6. What is the name of the highest mountain you have ever seen ? WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 241 LESSON III. 1. What towns besides your own have you ever seen ? 2. What towns lie next to yours ? 3. Have you ever visited a cRy ? 4. What is its name ? And how did you travel there ? 5. How does it differ from the place in which you live ? 6. Do you know the names of any large cities in your State ? LESSON IV. 1. What farms or ranches do you know of near where you live ? 2. What kinds of grain are raised on them ? 3. What kinds of animals are raised on a farm ? 4. How are they kept during the winter ? 5. What are horses used for ? 6. Why are sheep raised ? 7. Why are cows kept ? 8. What kinds of fruit are raised on the farms that you have seen? 9. How are butter and cheese made ? 10. What kinds of trees grow in the woods or forests near where you live ? LESSON V. 1. Are there any saw-mills in your town ? 2. What kinds of trees are sawed into lumber in them ? 3. Are there any grist-mills or flour-mills in your town ? 4. Are there any factories, mills, or machine-shops in your town ? 5. Did you ever see a blacksmith's shop ? Whose? 6. How do the people in your place earn a living ? LESSON VI. 1. Have you ever been a-fishing in any of the brooks, rivers, or ponds in your town ? 2. What kinds of fish can you catch ? 3. How do you catch fish ? 4. Are there any mines in your town ? 5. What is got from them ? 11 METHODS OF TEACHING. III. LOCAL GEOGRAPHY FOR CITY CLASSES. 1. In what city do yon live ? 2. In what State is it situated ? 3. In what county is it ? 4. Is it a large city or a small one ? 5. Is it on a bay, river, or lake ? 6. What is the name of the principal street? 7. On what street is your school-house ? 8. On what street is your home ? 9. On what street is the Post-office ? City Hall ? 10. In what direction does the principal street extend ? 11. Which way does the front of your school-house face ? 12. What lies north of your city ? South ? etc. 13. What railroads, if any, pass through your city or terminate in it? 14. What city have you ever seen besides your own ? Add similar questions until all that the pupils know about their own city is exhausted. SECTION IV. CLIMATE AND THE ZONES. [Introductory oral explanations by the teacher.] Climate. The climate of a place depends on the kind of weather that prevails there, whether hot, cold, or temperate. Hot Climate. That part of the earth lying near the equator has a hot climate. It is called the Torrid Zone. Cause. The cause of this hot climate is the fact that the sun's rays at noonday fall vertically, or nearly so, upon this part of the earth. Boundaries. The torrid zone extends 23 on each side of the equator. Its boundary circles arc the tropics. Reason. These circles are 23 from the equator, because the earth's axis is inclined 23 from a perpendicular to its path around the sun. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 243 Seasons. The weather in the torrid zone is a continual summer, there being but little change, except from the dry season to the rainy season. Cold Climate. Those parts of the globe that lie near the poles have a very cold climate, and are called the Frigid Zones. Boundaries. They lie between the poles and the polar circles. These circles are 23^ from the poles, because the earth's axis is in- clined 23$. Seasons. There are only two seasons a long and freezing winter, and a short, warm summer. Reason. The sun's rays fall slantingly, or obliquely, upon these parts of the earth. Temperate Climate. Those parts of the earth that lie between the tropics and the polar circles are called the Temperate Zones. These zones have four seasons ; what are they ? Reason. These changes of seasons are owing to the different way in which the sun's rays fall upon the earth at different times during the year. The teacher will illustrate the effect of the inclination of the earth's axis by means of a globe revolving around a light. SECTION V. QUESTIONS ON LOCAL WEATHER CONDITIONS. [To be given as a basis for conversation lessons.] SET I. 1. In what country do you live ? 2. In what zone is it ? 3. In what months does the snow fall ? 4. Name the three winter months. 5. The three summer months. 6. When are the days the longer, in summer or in winter ? 7. In which month in winter are the days shortest? 8. In which month of the year are the days longest? 9. When are the days coldest? 10. When are the days hottest ? 244 METHODS OF TEACHING. SET II. {. At about what time does the sun rise and set in the shortest winter days ? 2. In the longest summer days ? 3. How long are the longest days ? 4. How long are the shortest days ? 5. How long are the longest nights ? 6. How long are the shortest nights ? 7. When is the sun more nearly over your head at noon, in sum- mer or in winter ? 8. When is the sun lowest down in the sky at noon, in winter or in summer ? 9. When does the sun shine the hottest, at morning, evening, or at noon ? Why ? 10. Does the sun rise at the same point in the horizon in summer as in winter ? 11. Does it set at the same point ? SET III. 1. In what seasons is it neither very hot nor very cold where you live? 2. What about the length of the days in spring and autumn ? 3. At what time in the year do you have the most rain ? The least ? 4. How does your climate compare with that of the frigid zones? Of the torrid zone ? SECTION VI. LOCAL STATE GEOGRAPHY, [An exercise in general information.] SET I. 1. Have you ever seen a farm or ranch ? 2. Do you know any farmers ? o. What is the work of a farmer ? 4. Are there many agriculturists in your part of the State? 5. Are there any manufactories in or near the place where you live? WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 245 6. What articles do they make ? 7. Have you ever seen a woollen-mill ? A cotton-mill ? A shoe- shop ? A machine-shop ? A flour-mill ? A saw-mill ? A blacksmith's shop? A quartz-mill? A carpenter's shop? A printing-office ? 8. Are there any traders or merchants in or near the place where you live ? 9. What articles do they keep for sale ? 10. What do they buy ? SET II. 1. Have you ever seen a gold-mine? A silver-mine? A coal- mine ? An iron-mine ? 2. What mines in your State do you know of? 3. Are there any fishermen near where you live? 4. What do they catch ? 5. What kinds of fish have you yourself ever caught ? 6. Are there any vineyards in or near the place where you live ? 7. What is made on those vineyards ? 8. How is wine made ? 9. Are there any fruit orchards near you ? 10. What kinds of fruit are raised ? SET III. 1. Are there any stock-farms, or ranches, near you ? 2. What kinds of stock are raised on them? 3. Name any seaport cities in your State. 4. Name any manufacturing cities. 5. In what parts of your State are the best farms ? 6. In what parts the richest mines ? 7. In what parts the most extensive orchards or vineyards. 8. In what parts are there lumber-mills ? 9. In what parts are the largest stock-ranches ? 10. In what parts are the largest vegetable gardens? SET IV. 1. What kinds of forest trees grow in your State? 246 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. In what parts arc the largest forests ? 3. What kiuds of wood do you burn? 4. Of what kinds of wood is your house built ? 5. Name all the kinds of trees that you have ever seen growing! 0. What wild animals are found in your State ? 7. Which of these have you ever seen? 8. What birds live in your place ? 9. Can you tell the names of any wild flowers growing in your place ? 10. What kinds of fishes can you catch in your brooks, rivers, or ponds ? SECTION VII. COMPOSITIONS ON GEOGRAPHY. Head this to the class as a, model. Let the pupils note on their slates the order of the " heads," and then repro- duce from memory, dividing into paragraphs, but omit- ting the '''headings." I. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 1. [Name.] The six Eastern States were named Neio England by the early English explorers and settlers. 2. [Surface.] Along the Atlantic coast there is a narrow belt of lowland, but, in general, the country is either hilly or moun- tainous. The White Mountains in New Hampshire are noted for picturesque scenery. 3. [Climate.} The winters are long and cold, and in the northern pails of this section snow falls to a great depth. The sum- mers are short, but hot. 4. [Lakes and Rivers.'] In Maine and New Hampshire there are numerous small lakes, filling the depressions among the hills and mountains. The principal rivers are the Penobscot, Ken- nebec, Connecticut, and Mcrrimac; but there are a great many smaller streams that supply abundant water-power for manufacturing purposes. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGEAniY. 247 5. [Sea-coast.] The long line of sea-coast lias many deep and safe harbors that afford excellent facilities for commerce. 6. [Forests.] The hills and mountains of the northern parts are covered with extensive forests, which supply great quantities of lumber. 7. [Occupations.] The soil of New England is neither fertile nor easily cultivated. The leading occupations are manufactures, commerce, ship-building, and fishing. 8. [Cities.] The largest city and chief business centre is Boston, which ranks in commerce as the second city in the Union. Among other important places are New Haven, Providence, Worcester, Portland, Lowell, Lawrence, and Manchester. Exercises on Outlines. Write short descriptions of the different sections of our country from the following outlines, slightly changed from the preceding. I. The Middle States. 1. Name. 2. Surface. 3. Climate. 4. Lakes and Rivers. 5. Facilities for Commerce. 6. Occupa- tions. 7. Mining. 8. Cities. II. The Southern States. 1. Name. 2. Surface. 3. Climate. 4. Rivers. 5. Agriculture and Products. 6. Cities. III. The Western States. 1. Name and Position. 2. Surface and Soil. 3. Rivers. 4. Agricultural Products. 5. Railroads. G. Cities. IV. The Pacific States. II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF OUR COUNTRY. Read to the class ami require an abstract from notes. Name. Our country is called the United States because it con- sists of a number of States united into one nation, under one general government. Rank. It ranks as one of the most powerful, civilized, and popu- lous nations of the globe. 248 METHODS OF TEACHING. Position. It includes the middle part of North America, and ex- tends from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Mountains. There are three great mountain systems the Rocky, the Appalachian or Alleghany, and the Sierra Nevada. Physical Features. These mountain ranges make three great nat- ural divisions the Atlantic Highlands and the Atlantic Plain, the Pacific Highlands and the Pacific Slope, and the Valley of the Mississippi. Rivers. The Mississippi is one of the great rivers of the globe. Its chief branches are the Missouri, Ohio, Platte, Arkansas, and Red rivers. The other large rivers are the Columbia, the Col- orado, and the Yukon, all of which flow into the Pacific. Lakes. Along the northern border there is a chain of great lakes which have an outlet through the St. Lawrence River into the Atlantic. Occupations. The Atlantic Slope is the manufacturing and com- mercial section ; the Mississippi Valley the agricultural section ; and the Pacific Slope the mining and grazing region. Climate. Our country, as a wholej has a temperate climate. The winters in the northern parts are long and cold ; in the south- ern parts, mild and short. The Pacific Highlands have but lit- tle rain. Products. The farm-products in the northern belt are grain, fruit, and vegetables ; in the southern, cotton, sugar, rice, and to- bacco. Mining. The minerals of the Atlantic Slope are coal and iron, and coal oil, or petroleum ; of the Pacific Slope, gold and sil- ver; of the northern part of the Mississippi Valley, iron, lead, and copper. Exports. The leading exports are cotton, tobacco, breadstufFs, pe- troleum, and manufactured articles. Cities. The chief seaports are New York, Boston, San Francisco, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Baltimore. The great inland cities arc Chicago, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. Capital. Washington, in the District of Columbia, is the seat of government. Government. The government is a federal republic. Congress WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 219 makes the laws; the President executes them; and the Supreme Court decides questions relating to the laws. Exercise on Outlines. Describe the following countries by filling up the out- lines given : I. France. 1. Rank. 2. Agricultural Products. 3. Manufact- ures. 4. Exports. 5. Paris. 6. Other cities. II. The German Empire. 1. Government. 2. Surface. 3. Riv- ers. 4. Agriculture. 5. Cities. III. Empire of Russia. 1. Size and Rank. 2. Surface. 3. Rivers. 4. Seas. 5. Resources. 6. Commerce. 7. Cities. IV. The Chinese Empire. 1. Size and Population. 2. Products and Exports. 3. Cities. 4. People. V. Empire of Japan. 1. Position. 2. Products. 3. People. 4. Cities and Commerce. SECTION VIII. FACTS ABOUT OUR OWN COUNTRY. Note. Require all pupils in the grammar grades to copy these summaries into blank-books, and then to mem- orize them. Out of the mass of text-book details it is de- sirable to fix in the mind a few leading facts, so that they will stay learned. I. PHYSICAL DIVISIONS. 1. The Mississippi Valley. 2. The Pacific Highlands and the Pacific Slope. 3. The Atlantic Highlands and the Atlantic Plain. II. MOUNTAIN RANGES. 1. The Rocky. 2. The Alleghany. 3. The Sierra Nevada. 250 METHODS OF TEACHING. III. RIVERS. 1. Mississippi. 8. Yukon. 2. Columbia. 4. Colorado. 5. Rio Grande. Chief Brandies of the Mississippi. 1. Missouri. 4. Arkansas. 2. Ohio. 5. Red. 3. Platte. 6. Tennessee. Rivers Commercially Important. 1. Mississippi. 4. Hudson. 2. Ohio. 5. Penobscot. 3. Delaware. 6. Potomac. IV. BAYS COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT. 1. New York. 4. Delaware. 2. Massachusetts. 5. Chesapeake. 3. San Francisco. G. Mobile. V. GREAT LAKES. 1. Superior. 4. Erie. 2. Michigan. 5. Ontario. 3. Huron. 6. Great Salt. VI. CAPES NOTED IN NAVIGATION. 1. Sandy Hook. 3. Cape Hatteras. 2. Cape Cod. 4. Cape Sable. VII. CHIEF SEAPORT CITIES. 1. New York. 4. Philadelphia. 2. Boston. 5. Baltimore. 3. San Francisco. 6. New Orleans. VIII. CHIEF INLAND CITIES. 1. Chicago. 3. Cincinnati. 2. St. Louis. 4. Pittsburgh. WOKKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 251 Five Largest in Population. 1. New York. 3. Brooklyn. 2. Philadelphia. 4. Chicago. 5. St. Louis. SECTION IX. FACTS ABOUT THE CONTINENTS. [For the Highest Grades.] THE OLD WOULD. TUB NEW WOULD. CONTINENTAL DIVISIONS. Three grand divisions. Contrast. Two grand divisions. COMPARATIVE SIZE. One half as large as the Old World. Twice as large as the New ) ( [ Contrast. < World. ) ( SHAPE. Compact Length and ) ( Long and narrow. Length f- Contrast. ] ,, to , breadth nearly equal. > ( three times the breadth. GREATEST LENGTH. East and west, 10,000 ) ( North and south, 9000 Contrast. (North j i miles. miles. GREATEST WIDTH. North and south, 7000 ) ( East and west, 3000 [ Contrast. < .. miles. ) ( miles. MOUNTAIN RANGES. Extend east and west. Contrast. Extend north and south. MOUNTAIN PEAKS. Highest near the Tropic of ) ( Highest near the Tropic Cancer. ' } of Capricorn. PENINSULAS. Extend southerly. Similarity. Extend southerly. 252 METHODS OF TEACHING. SOUTHERN POINTS. Cape of Good Hope. Similarity. Cape Horn. One third of the surface. PLAINS. Contrast. Two thirds of the surface. PLATEAUS. Two thirds of the surface. Contrast. One third of the surface. Continental. CLIMATE. Contrast. Oceanic. MOISTURE. Scanty rains and great des- ) ( Copious rains, great rivers erts. ) ( and lakes. LIFE. ( In the CmtraSt - I life. TYPICAL WILD ANIMALS. In the ascendant Animal ^ r f f j In the ascendant Vegetable life. The elephant, rhinoceros, \ r The buffalo, moose, griz- giraflFe, lion, tiger, hippo- > Contrast. < zly bear, sloth, and lla- potamus, and camel. ) ' ma. NATIVE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The horse, ox, sheep, goat, ^ 1C J1UIBC, UA, D11UUU, ti^ai/, J f 1 ' ' r ' / \ None except the dog and and hog ; hen, duck, 5- Contrast. \ ( ) the turkey, o-oose. and do" 1 . goose, and dog. INDIGENOUS PRODUCTS. Wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, rice, pease, and beans ; orchard fruits ; garden vegeta- bles ; spices, silk, cotton, flax, hemp, coflFee, sugar- cane. Contrast. < Maize, potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, pineapples, to- bacco, cocoa, mahogany. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 253 THF, OLD WOULD. TUB NKW WOULD. 1300 millions. Less than half Caucasian. POPULATION. Contrast. 100 millions, RAGE. Contrast. More than half Caucasian. In the temperate zone. GUEAT NATIONS. Similarity. In the temperate zone. GREAT CITIES. In the temperate zone be- tween 40 and 50 N. L. London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Constantinople, Peking, Tokio, Liver- pool. > Similarity. In the temperate zone be- tween 40 and 50 N. L. New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis, Bos- ton, San Francisco, Bal- timore, Montreal. SECTION X. PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE GLOBE. Note. Pupils in the highest class in a grammar-school ought to have the following leading facts : 1. GRAND DIVISIONS. EASTERN CONTINENT. WESTERN CONTINENT. Asia, Africa, Europe. Twice the North America, South America. Half the area of the Eastern continent. area of the Western conti- nent. 2. OCEANS. Pacific and Indian. | Atlantic. 3. CHIEF MOUNTAIN RANGES. Himalaya, Altai, Alps. Rocky, Andes, Sierra Nevada, Al- leghany. 4. HIGHEST PEAKS. Mt. Everest, Mont Blanc, Kiliman- Illampu [or Sorata], Orizaba, jaro. 254: METHODS OF TEACHING. EASTERN CONTINENT. WESTERN CONTINENT. 5. HIGHEST PLATEAUS. Thibet, Abyssinia, Iran. Pacific Highlands, Mexico, Pasco, Bolivia, Quito. G. GREAT PLAINS. 1. Russia. 2. Siberia. 3. Yansj- tee-Kiangr. 1. Amazon. 2. Mississippi. 3. La Plata. 7. CHIEF RIVERS. Yang-tse-Kiang, Lena, Nile, Con- go [or Livingstone], Volga. Amazon, Mississippi, La Plata, St. Lawrence, Columbia. 8. CHIEF LAKES. Caspian (salt), Victoria Nyanza, Albert Nyanza, Aral (salt). Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Great Bear. 9. OCEAN CURRENTS. Pacific Equatorial, Indian Equa- torial, Japan Current, Austra- lian, Mozambique. Atlantic Equatorial, Gulf Stream, Greenland Arctic, Humboldt or Peruvian. 10. CHIEF SEAS. Mediterranean, China, Arabian. | Caribbean, Behring. 11. BAYS AND GULFS. Bengal, Guinea, Carpentaria. | Mexico, Hudson, Baffin. 12. PENINSULAS. Hindostan, Arabia, Malacca, Spain, Italy, Greece, Scandina- via. Florida, Yucatan, Alaska, Cali- fornia. 13. NOTED CAPES. Good Hope, Verd, Guardafui, North, Coniorin, Palmas. Cape Horn, St. Roque, St. Lucas, Farewell, Mendocino, Barrow, Race, Hatteras. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 255 EASTERN CONTINENT. WE8TEBN CONTINENT. 14. LARGEST ISLANDS. 1. Greenland. 2. Newfoundland. I.Australia. S.Papua. S.Borneo. 4. Madagascar. 5. Sumatra. 3. Cuba. 4. Hayti. 15. MOST IMPORTANT ISLAND GROUPS. 1. The British Isles. 2. The Japan Isles. 3. The East Indies. 1. The West Indies. 2. The Sandwich. 3. Aleutian. SECTION XI. GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS. Note. For high- grade classes. Dictate one set of five questions at the beginning of the week. Let the pu- pils hunt up the answers from their text-books, and take a written examination at the end of the week, or make the recitation an oral one. SET I. 1. How is it supposed that the earth assumed the shape of an ob- late spheroid f 2. Why are the tropics and the polar circles 23-| from the equa- tor and the poles ? 3. What circles on the globe would not exist if the earth's axis were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit ? 4. If the rotation of the earth were to cease, what change would be made in the distribution of the water on the surface of the globe ? What would be the effect on ocean currents. 5. What three motions has the earth ? SET II. 1. What are the two main causes of a difference in climate ? 2. What are the causes of the unequal length of day and night! 3. How is the change of seasons caused ? 256 METHODS OF TEACHING. 4. What is the length of the longest day where you live ? At the Arctic Circle ? At the equator ? At the north pole ? 5. At what places on the earth is the sun ever vertical at noonday ? SKT III. 1. How are trade-winds caused? 2. State the two chief causes of ocean currents. 3. Why is the climate of the western coast of North America milder and more uniform than that of the eastern coast ? 4. Causes of the dense fogs that prevail off Newfoundland, the coast of Peru, and Alaska ? 5. Cause of the excellent fishing-grounds at the Grand Banks and near the Japan Isles ? SET IV. 1. Name the five chief ocean currents. 2. Describe the Gulf Stream and the Japan Current. 3. What winds chiefly supply rain in the north temperate zone ? 4. Why is the greatest rainfall in the tropics ? 5. Where arc glaciers found, and how are they produced ? SET V. 1. Name the two chief mountain ranges in each of the five grand divisions. 2. Name the highest mountain peak in each of the grand divisions. 3. Name five noted volcanoes. 4. Name the chief river of each of the grand divisions. 5. Name four great rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean ; four into the Atlantic ; four into the Pacific ; four into the Indian. SET VI. 1. Name the four chief bays or gulfs in the Eastern hemisphere ; four in the Western. 2. Name the four chief island groups in each hemisphere. 3. Name five noted capes in the track of commercial routes in the Old World. 4. Name five noted capes in the New World. 6. Name five rivers noted for great internal trade. WORKING MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY. 257 SET VII. 1. Name the five chief cities of the Old World; of the New. 2. Name four large cities in the Southern hemisphere. 3. Name the five chief seaports of the world. 4. Name the five great powers of Europe, and the three chief cities of each. SET VIII. 1. Area and population, in round numbers, of France, Germany, and Austria. 2. Area and population of China, British India, Russia. 3. Population of each of the grand divisions. 4. Population of the world. 5. Population of the five great commercial cities of the globe. SET IX. 1. By what three commercial routes can you travel round the world from London ? 2. How can a grain-ship sail from Chicago to Liverpool ? 3. How could you travel by water from Odessa to St. Petersburg? 4. What five cities would you pass on a steamboat trip from New Orleans to Pittsburgh ? 5. How could you go from New York to Melbourne ? SET X. Geography of our own country. 1. Area, population, and five chief cities. 2. Four physical divisions. 3. Five leading exports. 4. Five leading imports. 5. The five countries with which our commercial relations arc most important. 258 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER IY. LANGUAGE -LESSONS AND COMPOSITION FOR BEGINNERS. Note for Teacher*. Notwithstanding the extent to which modern elementary text-books on language-lessons have been introduced, there are still many schools where there is nothing in the hands of pupils except the old- style text-book on grammar. The following models and exercises are intended mainly for teachers who have to prepare their own work from lack of a book in the hands of pupils. SECTION I. EXERCISES FOR BEGINNERS. Direction. Write a lesson on the blackboard, and let your scholars copy it on their slates or on paper. Then let them exchange, compare with the blackboard, and correct. 1. Tlie Golden Egg. There was once a poor man who had a goose that laid a golden egg every day. This man was getting rich very fast, but he wanted to become rich still faster. So he killed his goose, expecting to find in her a whole nestful of golden eggs. He was rightly punished by finding none at all. 2. Story of Grip. Grip was a good dog that went round the streets of a great city with a poor old blind man. Grip led his master by a string. lie would hold the old man's hat in his mouth, and look wistfully at people as if he wanted to say, " Please give my poor old master a little money." LANGUAGE -LESSONS AND COMPOSITION FOR BEGINNERS. 259 Grip was always true to his master. lie often wanted to play with other clogs, but he never once, in all his life, ran away. "When the old man could no longer go out of his room, Grip used to take his master's hat in his mouth and go out on the streets to beg for inonej-, which he would joyfully carry to the helpless old blind man. 3. How to Write Names. Rule I. The particular name given to one person, place, or thing must begin with a capital letter. EXAMPLES. C George Washington. Persons. \ _ r ' ^_ . . c ( Martha Washington. ( London, Paris, Rome. Places. < AT ' '.. . . < New York, Philadelphia. C Bunker Hill Monument. Thin S -\ The Pyramids. In a similar manner write your own name ; the name of your father and your mother, and the names of five of your schoolmates. In a similar manner write 1. The name of the place in which you live. 2. The name of your county and State. 3. The name of any State near yours. 4. The name of any river you know of. 5. The names of three men and three women that you know. 4. Names of Persons. Rule II. When only the initial letter of a given name is written, put a period after each initial. When a per- son has two given names, it is customary to write only the initial of the second or middle name. i Charles Henry Rrov?n= Charles H. Brown. Models. < James Knox Polk=James K. Polk. ( Ella Maria Smith Ella M. Smith. 260 METHODS OF TEACHING. In a similar manner write the following: 1. Your own name, your father's name, and your mother's. 2. The names of your brothers and sisters. 3. The names of five of your schoolmates. 4. The name of the President ; of the Governor of your State ; and of the Superintendent of Schools in your State, city, town, or county. 5. The names of five great men. 5. Composition Exercise. Select one of the following subjects, and write all that you can remember of any story relating to it that you ever read or heard : 1. Story about a Bog. 3. Story about a Bear. 2. Story about a Lion. 4. Story about a Wolf. 6. Composition Exercise. Write any story told to you by your mother or your father. Exchange and correct. Note. If it is possible for pupils to provide themselves with a small blank-book, it is a good plan to require the most interesting of the exercises to be copied into it ; otherwise pupils should be required to preserve and file their exercises. 7. Composition Exercise. Write a short account of your last vacation; stating where you went, what you saw, what you did, and what kind of a time you had. DIRECTIONS. Begin each word of the heading of your composition with a capital thus: "My Last Vacation." Begin each new sentence with a capital and end it with a period. LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND COMPOSITION FOR BEGINNERS. 261 Exchange and correct the misspelled words, the mistakes in writing the word 7, and the errors in the use of cap- itals. 8. Criticism. Write the following child's composition on the board, and let the pupils criticise it : MY LAST VACATION. [Sixth Grade, sige 8.] I had a very plesant time in vacation. I went to a picnick and i had a very plesant time, and i went to see the Forth of July to a ladies house, i did not go to the country. Louise. 9. Apostroplie and s [']. Iiitle III. When a noun denoting but one person, place, or thing is used to express ownership, the noun must be written with the apostrophe and s added thus : Mary's book; the horse's mane. EXERCISES. Copy the following examples, and be careful to write the apostrophe and s : 1. I have Henry's slate, George's pencil, and Harriet's reading- book. 2. That is my father's horse. 3. My grandmother's pies are good. 4. I found a robin's nest in my father's orchard. 5. Everybody's business is nobody's business. Rule IV. When nouns denoting more than one per- son, place, or thing, and ending in s, are used to express possession, the nouns must be written with only an apos- trophe added thus : Horses' manes ; birds' nests. EXERCISES. Copy the following examples : 1. My sister attends the Girls' High-school. 262 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. My brother goes to the Boys' Grammar-school. 3. The girls' compositions were very good. 4. The boys 1 papers were neatly written. 5. Ladies' shoes and men's boots. EXERCISE. Copy all the nouns denoting ownership from a reading- lesson assigned for this purpose. 10. Sentence-making. Write with each of the following nouns a simple de- clarative sentence by using one verb to express the char- acteristic sound made by each of the kinds of animals named. DIRECTION. Each sentence must consist of only two words. Each Eentence must begin with a capital and end with a period. Model Sentence. Bees buzz. Bees Doves Lambs Peacocks Bears Ducks Lions Pigs Bulls Eagles Mice Robins Cats Flies Monkeys Sheep Cows Frogs Owls Snakes Chickens Hens Oxen Swallows Dogs Horses Parrots Wolves Exchange exercises and correct one another's mistakes ; then rewrite your corrected sentences. EXKUCISU. Change each of the sentences that you wrote in the preceding lesson into an interrogative sentence ; that is, one that asks a question. LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND COMPOSITION FOR BEGINNERS. 263 DIRECTION. Use only three words in each sentence. Each sentence must begin with a capital and end with, an interrogation point. Model Sentence. Do bees buzz ? EXERCISK. Change each of the sentences that you wrote in the preceding lesson into an exclamatory sentence; that is, a sentence expressing wonder or surprise. DIRECTION. Use only four words in each sentence. Each sentence must begin with the word How, and end with an exclama- tion mark. Model Sentence. How the bees buzz! 1 1 . The Cries of An imals. Make simple sentences by placing the name of the proper animal before each verb. bray caw chirp grunt hum bark squeak drum drone bay cluck croak growl howl neigh moan bellow yelp whinny twitter mew coo chatter growl purr quack baa gobble bleat scream roar snarl pipe buzz squeal sing crow croak hoot caterwaul moo cackle screech whistle low hiss talk 264: METHODS OF TEACHING. 12. Letter-writing. Require the pupils to write a short letter about their school to their father or mother. CRITICISM. Put the following first attempt, by a child nine years old, upon the blackboard, and let the pupils point out the mistakes : My Dear Mamma I am a good girl in school And I know my lessons well. This is the first time I ever wrote a letter to you. And I want to write well. I like to come to school. And get my lessons well. We write on the blackboard with chalk and we draw. I am nomber fourteen in my class. I am going to try to get promoted by Christinas. I would like to get some Christmas presence If I can. Please exquse my writing as my ink was black. Your affectionate child Emma 13. Punctuation. The Comma. Rule V. When only two nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are joined by and, they are not separated by a comma ; but when more than two are so connected, they must be marked off by commas. Copy the following examples of the rule : 1. Men and women work in the mill. [No comma.] 2. Men, women, and boys work. [Use commas.] 3. Boys run and play. [No comma.] 4. Boys run, play, jump, skate, and slide. 5. The apples are large and red. [No comma.] 6. The apples are large, red, mellow, and sweet. 7. Ilattie writes neatly and correctly. 8. Hattie writes neatly, correctly, and rapidly. LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND COMPOSITION FOE BEGINNEBS. 205 14. Composition. Subject. An Account of Myself. f 1. Begin every sentence with a capital. Directions. < 2. Begin with a capital each word of the subject, except of. ( 3. Do not string sentences together with ands. 15. Composition. 1. How to set the table. [For girls.] 2. How to behave at the table. [For boys.] 16. Composition. Write from memory a short sketch of any one of the following stories, selecting the one you like best. Teach- ers will pass the compositions to a higher grade to be corrected. 1. Tom Thumb. 3. Robinson Crusoe. 2. Children in the Wood. 4. Sindbad the Sailor. 5. Any one of Hans Andersen's Tales. 17. Composition. Write a description of the school that yon attend. Fill out the following outlines, making a paragraph out of each heading: My School. Outlines. ( In what city or town, on whalT street, or in what part 1. Situation. < . ' ( of the town or village. ( Large or small : of what material ; color : number of 2. Building. < ( rooms, etc. ( Number of classes or grades ; number of scholars : 3. The school. { . , , . ( names of teachers ; in what class you are, etc. ( State what you study; what studies you like best; m ' \ and anything else of interest. 12 200 METHODS OF TEACHING. 18. Observation and Memory. I. Write -an interesting anecdote or story about any one of the following : 1. Dogs. 2. Bears. 3. Elephants. 4. Wolves. II. Write what you know about how or where any of the follow- ing birds build their nests : 1. Swallows. 2. Crows. 3. Woodpeckers. 4. Orioles. III. Write what you know about how or where any of the follow- ing wild animals live. 1. Foxes. 2. Rabbits. 3. Squirrels. 4. Deer. IV. State where each of the following species of fish is found and how caught : 1. Shiners. 3. Pickerel. 5. Mackerel. 2. Perch. 4. Trout. 6. Cod. 19. Wild Animals. "Write a composition by answering the following ques- tions about such of the following wild animals as live in your part of the country : 1. In what places are they found ? 2. What do they eat, and how do they obtain their food ? 1. Foxes. 3. Rabbits. 5. Raccoons. 2. Woodchucks. 4. Bears. 6. Squirrels. 20. Domestic Animals. About the following animals write whatever you have observed that would lead you to think they know any- thing: 1. Dogs. 3. Horses. 5. Cattle. 2. Cats. 4. Hogs. 6. Sheep. 21. Composition. Select one of the most interesting of the following sub- LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND COMPOSITION FOE BEGINNERS. 267 jects, and write about it the best story that you ever heard or read : 1. Dogs. 3. Wolves. 5. The Lion. 7. Ants, 2. Bears. 4. Horses. 6. The Elephant. 8. Bees. 22. Composition. Write something that you yourself have observed about the actions or habits of any of the following animals : 1. Dogs. 3. Mice. 5. Crows. 7. Bees. 9. Squirrels. 2. Cats. 4. Rats. 6. Robins. 8. Swallows. 10. Foxes. 23. Composition. Write all you know about how or where the following birds build their nests : 1. Robins. 5. Bluebirds. 9. Sparrows. 2. Swallows. C. Bobolinks. 10. Humming-birds. 3. Crows. 7. Woodpeckers. 11. Nighthawks. 4. Larks. 8. Golden Robin. 12. Eagles. 24. General Exercises. I. Write a letter to your father or mother, and then compare it with the first one you wrote. II. Commit to memory, and then write, two stanzas of poetry, as- signed by your teacher. III. Write a letter to anybody you choose. IV. Write the story of Jack the Giant-killer. V. Write the story of Cinderella. VI. Write all you can remember about the " house that Jack built." VII. Write all you know about the trade or occupation of your father or mother. VIII. Write about a visit to any of your friends or relatives. IX. Write a letter to your teacher telling what you intend to do during your next vacation. X. Write a letter to your doll, telling her how to write a letter to you. [For girls.] METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER V. PRACTICAL COMPOSITION IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 1. Special Directions. I. Avoid " fine writing." II. Never use two words where one will fully express your mean- ing. III. Avoid long and complicated sentences. IV. Divide into paragraphs and punctuate as you write. V. In correcting your first rough draft, observe the following or- der : (a.) Cross out any adjectives, or other words, that can be spared. (&.) Interline any omitted words, or transpose any words, phrases, or clauses to a better position in the sentence. (c.) Substitute more exact words whenever, by so doing, you can make the sentence clearer. (d.) Go over your composition very carefully, with reference to 1. Spelling; 2. Capitals; 3. Punctuation ; 4. Grammat- ical correctness ; 5. Dot your i's and cross your t's. VI. Copy in legible hand-writing. 2. General Principles of Sentence-making. 1. Every sentence must be complete. It must contain at least one principal subject and one principal predicate, each of which must either be expressed or clearly implied. 2. Explanatory words, phrases, or clauses must be connected as closely as possible to the words which they explain or modify. 3. In simple sentences, be careful about the position of words and phrases ; in complex sentences, about the position of clauses and the use of connectives ; and in compound sentences, about the use of conjunctions of the and type. PRACTICAL COMPOSITION IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 269 4. When there are several adverbial phrases or clauses in a sen- tence, they should be distributed over the sentence, instead of being crowded together near the close. 5. Avoid writing long complex or compound sentences. It is better for beginners to write short sentences. 6. Use only words whose meaning you fully comprehend. 7. Express simple ideas in plain words. 8. Avoid the use of high-sounding adjectives and high-flown lan- guage. 9. Use only words enough clearly to express your meaning. 3. Tlie Paragraph. I. A paragraph is a closely connected series of sentences relating to the same subject, or to some particular part of a subject. Sentences are built up of words, phrases, and clauses; para- graphs are made up of simple, complex, or compound sen- tences. Composition consists of a succession of connected paragraphs. il. The art of dividing a piece of composition into paragraphs is best learned by noticing carefully the paragraphing in your readers, histories, or other books ; but the following direc- tions may be of use to beginners : 1. In general, make a new paragraph whenever you make a new turn of thought. 2. Denote a new paragraph by beginning the sentence a short space to the right of the left-hand margin. 3. The sentences included in one paragraph should all relate to the same division of the subject. 4. The line of thought should be continued between paragraphs, if necessary, by some such connectives as and, ~but, moreover, however, thus, at the same time, etc. I. NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION. Select one of the following subjects, and write an ac- count of where you went, what you did, and what you 270 METHODS OF TEACHING. saw on that occasion. Describe events in the order of their occurrence : I. 4. New-year's-day. 5. May-clay. 6. My Last Holiday. 1. The Fourth of July. 2. Thanksgiving-day. 3. Christmas-day. 1. A Picnic. 2. A Boat Excursion. '3. A Fishing Excursion. 1. My Pets. 2. My School and Teachers. 0. My Autobiography. II. 4. My Longest Journey. 5. A Sleigh-ride. 6. My Flower-garden. III. 4. My School Troubles. 5. My Favorite Studies, 6. Housekeeping. II. LETTER-WRITING. 1. Write a letter to some friend or relative, giving an account of your school^work. 2. Write a letter introducing your friend John Smith to John Brown. 3. Write a letter applying for a position as clerk or teacher. 4. Write an order to some bookseller for some books that you wish to buy. 5. Invite your friend to dine with you. 6. Write a letter of thanks for a present. III. IMAGINATIVE LETTERS. 1. To Santa Glaus. 2. To the Man in the Moon. 3. To Old Father Time. 4. To the Emperor of China. 5. To the author of any one of your school-books, criticising or commending his book. PRACTICAL COMPOSITION IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 271 IV. ABSTRACTS FROM MEMORY. Read aloud to the class, and let pupils rewrite from memory. The Ugly Duck. Towards evening the little Duck came to a miserable hut where there lived an old woman with her Tomcat and her Hen. The Tom- cat could arch his back and purr, and the Hen could lay eggs and cluck. They were both very proud of their accomplishments. In the morning, when they saw the little Ugly Duck, the Tomcat began to purr and the Hen began o" cluck. " Can you lay eggs ?" said Mistress Hen. "No," said the Ugly Duck. Then the Tom- cat, who was master of the house, said, fiercely, " Can you arch your back and purr?" "No," said the frightened Duck. "Then you must hold your tongue when sensible people arc speaking," said Master Tomcat. " I think I would like to swim," timidly said the little Duck. " Ask the Cat about it," said the Hen ; " he is the wisest animal I know ask him if he likes to swim." " Ask the old woman," said the Tomcat, " there is nobody wiser than she is; ask her if she likes to put her head under water." "You don't quite understand me," said the poor little Duck. " Don't be conceited," said both the Tomcat and the Hen, with one voice ; " only learn to lay eggs and to purr." EXERCISES. Write from memory the story of 1. Bluebeard. 2. Kobin Hood. 3. Little Red Riding-hood. 4. Cinderella. 5. The Forty Thieves. 6. Aladdin. 7. A Fairy Tale. 8. Sindbad and the Diamonds. 9. Crusoe and Friday. 10. Crusoe and his Goat. V. STORIES OF THE IMAGINATION". Select from the following subjects the one that you like best, and write a story about it : 272 METHODS OF TEACHING. 1. A Ghost Story. 2. A Witch Story. 3. A Fairy Story. 4. My Castle in Spain. 5. What I would do if I were Rich. 6. Autobiography of a Doll. 7. Autobiography of a Dollar. 8. Autobiography of a Spinning' wheel. VI. SHORT DESCRIPTIONS OF TREES. Fill out the following outlines : I. The Oak. Size; height; leaves; varieties or kinds; wood; hardness ; toughness. Uses : ships ; furniture ; farming tools ; fuel. Acorns ; bark and its uses. II. The Pine. Where found; size; height; leaves; cones; varie- ties. Uses : buildings ; furniture ; ships ; masts ; fuel, etc. EXERCISES. In a similar manner write short sketches of such of the following trees as you have seen growing in your part of the country : 1. The Maple. 4. The Birch. 7. The Spruce. 2. The Elm. 5. The Chestnut. 8. The Hemlock. 3. The Beech. 6. The Walnut. 9. The Sycamore. VII. METALS AND MINERALS. Fill out the outlines with all you know about the fol- lowing inetals and minerals: I. Iron. Where found ; how mined. Qualities : tenacity, hard- ness, etc. Kinds: cast; wrought; steel. Uses : machinery ; kitchen utensils ; implements ; cutlery, etc. II. Gold. In what countries found ; color and qualities. Uses: money ; watches ; jewelry ; gilding ; dentistry, etc. III. Granite. Where found; color; hardness; durability. Coin' position: quartz; felspar; mica. Uses. PRACTICAL COMPOSITION IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 273 EXERCISES. In a similar manner, write all you know about each of the following : 1. Silver. 3. Copper. 5. Marble. 7. Limestone. 2. Lead. 4. Coal. 6, Sandstone. 8. Quicksilver. VIII. MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. Reproduce this model from memory : A Dime. A dime is a coin made from silver with which is mixed a small quantity of copper. It is coined in the United States Mint. The solid bars of silver, called lullion, are melted, refined, and cast into smaller bars, which are then rolled out into long, thin, narrow strips like ribbons. These ribbons are passed under a powerful ma- chine, which cuts out the circular pieces of silver perfectly smooth. These smooth pieces are then stamped in a die, which gives them the ornamental impressions seen on a dime. EXERCISES. Write short descriptions of such of the following things as are made in your vicinity: 1. A Nail. 3. A Brick. 5. A Shoe. 7. Cotton Cloth. 2. A Pin. 4. A Boot. 6. A Horseshoe. 8. Woollens. IX. GEOGRAPHICAL COMPOSITIONS. My Native Place. In your description use the following outlines, making a paragraph out of each heading. Mark a new paragraph by beginning the first line half an inch to the right of the left-hand margin. At home, ask your parents about what you do not know. r Name of place ; in what State and country ; on what 1. Situation. 1 river, lake, bay, or other water ; near what large ( city or town. 12* 274: METHODS OF TEACHING. r Size, population, trade, railroads, steamers, ships, 2. Description. < mills, factories, farm-products, lumber, live-stock, ( etc. {Mention any objects of special interest, such as moun- tains, hills, forests, lakes, ponds, rivers, parks, gar- dens, buildings, etc. Close with any interesting event in the history of the place. X. GENERAL EXERCISES. I. Select your own subject, and write the best composition you can, being particularly careful about spelling, punctuation, and capitals. II. Write a letter to a friend in the city, describing the appear- ance of the country at the time you write. [For country scholars.] III. Write a letter to a friend in the country, telling what is going on in the city. [For city scholars.] IV. Write a letter to your father, telling him what you have learned during the past year. V. Composition. " Our School Games." VI. Composition. " Going a-Fishing." [For boys.] VII. Composition. "A Fairy Tale." [For girls.] VIII. Composition." How to Make Bread." [For girls.] IX. My Best Story-book. X. Write from memory the best piece of poetry you know. XI. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. Reproduce the following from memory, compare with the original, and correct errors : 1. The Boyhood of Lincoln. Abraham Lincoln, the son of a farmer, was born in Kentucky in 1809 ; but his youth was passed mainly in Indiana. His father had chosen to settle at the farthest verge of civilization. Around him was a dense forest, still wandered over by the Indians. The next PKACTICAL COMPOSITION IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 275 neighbor was two miles away. There were no roads, no bridges, no inns. Abraham had little schooling. Indeed, there was scarcely a school within his reach ; and if all the days of his school-time were added together, they would scarcely make up one year. His father was poor, and Abraham was needed on the farm. There was timber to fell, there were fences to build, fields to plough, sowing and reaping to be done. Abraham led a busy life, and knew well, while yet a boy, what hard work meant. Like all boys who come to anything great, he had a devouring thirst for knowledge. He borrowed all the books in his neighborhood, and read them by the blaze of the logs which his own axe split. He entered a small store as. clerk, then became a lawyer, next a member of the Legislature of Illinois, and, finally, in 1861, he became President of the United States. 2. Alfred the Great. [Adapted from Dickens's Child's History of England.'} This noble king possessed all the Saxon virtues. Misfortune could not subdue him, and prosperity could not spoil him. He was hopeful in defeat, and generous in success. He loved justice, free- dom, truth, and knowledge. In his care to instruct his people, he did a great deal to preserve the old Saxon tongue. He made just laws for his people. He founded schools and appointed upright judges. He left England better, wiser, happier in all ways, than he found it. Under his reign the best points of the English-Saxon character were developed. It has been the greatest character among the na- tions of the earth. Wherever the descendants of the Anglo-Saxons have gone or sailed, they have been patient and persevering. In Europe, Asia, Africa, America, the whole world over; in the desert, in the forest, on the sea, scorched by a burning sun, or frozen by ice that never melts, the Saxon blood remains unchanged. Wherever the race goes, there law, industry, and safety for life and property are certain to arise. 276 METHODS OF TEACHING. Write a short account of any one of the following persons whose biography you have read : 1. Benjamin Franklin. 8. Alexander the Great. 2. Andrew Jackson. 9. Mary Sonierville. 3. James Watt. 10. Mary Queen of Scots. 4. Horace Greeley. 11. Florence Nightingale. 5. Sir Walter Scott. 12. Empress Josephine. C. Napoleon Bonaparte. 13. Joan of Arc. 7. David Livingstone. 14. Charles Dickens. XII. HISTORICAL SKETCHES. In the two following sketches, adapted from Dickens's Child} s History of England, take notice of the short, plain, pure English words that he uses. Reproduce from memory and criticise by comparing with the original. 1. Reign of Queen Elizabeth. The reign of Queen Elizabeth was a glorious one. It is made memorable by the distinguished men that flourished in it. Apart from the great voyagers, statesmen, and scholars whom it produced, the names of Bacon, Spenser, and Shakespeare will always be re- membered with pride and veneration by the civilized world. It was a great reign for discovery, for commerce, and for English en- terprise and spirit in general. The queen was very popular, and, in her progresses or journeys about her dominions, was everywhere re- ceived with the liveliest joy. I think the truth is she was not half so good as she has been made out, and not half so bad as she has been made out. She had many fine qualities ; but she was coarse, vain, capricious, and treacherous. 2. The Great Plague of London. In 1G65 the Great Plague broke out in London. The disease soon spread so fast that it was necessary to shut up the houses in which PRACTICAL COMPOSITION IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 277 sick people were, and to cut them off from communication with the living. Every one of these houses was marked on the outside of the door with a red cross, and the words " Lord, have mercy on us !" The streets were all deserted, grass grew in the public ways, and there was a dreadful silence in the air. When night came on, dis- mal rumblings used to be heard in the streets, and these were the wheels of the death-carts, attended by men with veiled faces, who rang doleful bells, and cried, in a loud and solemn voice, " Bring out your dead !" The corpses put into these carts were buried by torch- light in great pits, without burial service. In the general fear, chil- dren ran away from their parents, and parents from their children. In four months more than one hundred thousand people had died in the close and unwholesome city. Write a short sketch of any one of the following events, selecting the one that you like best : 1. Battle of Bunker Hill. 4. Settlement of Plymouth. 2. Battle of New Orleans. 5. Settlement of Pennsylvania. 3. Paul Jones's Sea Fight. 6. Settlement of your Native State. XIII. NATURAL HISTORY SKETCHES. 1. The Mosquito. This bloodthirsty insect is common to all parts of the globe. Its noisy buzz and sharp, stinging bite are familiar to all. It lays its eggs, several hundred in number, on the surface of stagnant water. They are glued together so that they float on the surface. In a few clays the eggs hatch, and the larvae come out into the water in the shape of wrigglers. These, after a life of two or three weeks, change to the pupa form, and float on the surface. In a week more the skin of the pupa bursts open, and a full-grown mos- quito flies away into the air, hungry for blood. 2. Tlie Frog. What boy has not thrown a stone at a frog, and yet how few know anything about the wonderful transformations which this amphibious animal undergoes ! The frog begins life as a tadpole, or polliwig, hatched from an egg floating in the water. In this state it breathes, like fishes, through its gills. After several weeks it begins to undergo a metamorphosis; 278 METHODS OF TEACHING. that is, a change of form. Two hind-legs begin to grow out, like buds on a tree ; then the fore-legs burst through the skin, and the tail dwindles away. The gills are slowly changed into lungs like those of air-breathing animals. The tadpole has become a land-ani' mal, living on insects and worms. EXERCISES. Write what you know about the following insects. Exchange and correct ; then read aloud in the class : 1. The Butterfly. 2. The Silk-worm. 3. The Bumblebee. 4. The Honey-bee. 5. The Wasp. C. The Hornet. 7. The House Fly. 8. The Grasshopper. 9. The Ant. 10. The Cricket. WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE -MAKING. 279 CHAPTER VI. WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. Note for Teachers. Many of the exercises given in this chapter do not differ materially from those found in most modern text-books on language-lessons and gram- mar. But, whatever text-book is used, the teacher needs to supplement it with additional exercises and illustra- tions. Particular attention is called to the oral exercises under the head of " The Complex Sentence." SECTION I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 1. A simple sentence consists of one subject combined with one predicate, making one statement. 2. The subject of a sentence consists of a noun, or one or more words filling the place of a noun, about which a statement is made. 3. The predicate expresses a statement about the subject, and con- sists of a verb, or of a verb united with one - or more words added to complete the statement. 1. The Subject. The subject of a simple sentence may be : Subject. Predicate. 1. Children (noun) 2. They (pronoun) 3. To play (infinitive) 4. Playing in the fields (phrase) play, play. is pleasant, is pleasant. 280 METHODS OF TEAHING. EXERCISE. Write three sentences similar to 1 ; three similar to 2; to 3; to 4. Exchange and correct errors in spell- ing, punctuation, capitals, and construction. 2. The Predicate. The predicate of a simple sentence may be: Subject. Predicate. 1. Scholars 2. Bees 3. Roses 4. Ants 5. We study (verb only), make honey (verb and object), are sweet (verb and adjective), are insects (verb and noun), expect to go (verb and infinitive object). EXERCISE. Write two sentences similar to 1 ; two similar to 2 , to 3 ; to 4; to 5. Exchange, report, and correct. 3. Sentence-making. Write, with each of the following nouns for a subject, a sentence having a predicate consisting of the verb is with a noun in the predicate nominative : Model. Arabia is a peninsula. 1. The earth. 4. Italy. 7. Russia. 10. Arizona. 2. Greenland. 5. The United States. 8. Germany. 11. Vesuvius. 3. Arabia. G. New York. 9. Australia. 12. The Sahara. 4. Sentence-making. EXERCISE I. With each of the following nouns write the verb is or O are and a noun in the predicate nominative : Model. The bee is an insect. 1. The bee. 4. liorses. 7. Iron. 10. Potatoes. 2. The snake. 5. Robins. 8. Water. 11. Apples. 3. The oyster. C. Hens. 9. Coal. 12. Wheat WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 281 EXERCISE II. With eacli of the preceding nouns put a predicate ad- jective, instead of a predicate nominative. Model. The bee is busy. EXERCISE III. Make a sentence with each of the nouns under 4 by stating that each does something. Model. The bee makes honey. 5. The Enlarged Subject. The subject may be enlarged in various ways thus : Subject Enlarged. Predicate. 1. The cunning fox (adjective) 2. The lion's roar (possessive case) 3. The roar of the lion (phrase) 4. Brown the tailor (apposition) 5. Learning to spell (infinitive) was caught, is terrible, is terrible, is honest, is hard. EXERCISE I. Write a sentence with each of the possessive enlarge- ments of the subject : Model. The birds' nests were found. 1. The birds' 5. The earth's 9. Our teacher's 2. The parrot's C. The sun's 10. The sheep's 3. The ladies' 7. The moon's 11. James's 4. The girls' 8. The men's 12. Charles's EXERCISE II. Change each of the sentences that you wrote under the preceding exercise into a sentence with an adjective phrase, similar to 3. Model. The nest of the birds was built in the tree. METHODS OF TEACHING. EXERCISE III. With each of the following nouns write a sentence hav- ing a noun in apposition : Motfel. Dickens, the great novelist, is dead. 1. Smith 4. Burns 7. Washington 2. Milton 5. Whittier 8. Cicero 3. Dickens 6. Fulton 9. Daniel Webster EXERCISE IV. With each of the preceding nouns write a sentence having the verb is or was and a predicate nominative. Model. Dickens was a great novelist. EXERCISE V. With each of the following nouns write a sentence having the subject enlarged by an adjective phrase : Model. The flowers of the field are beautiful. 1. The flowers 2. The birds 3. The squirrels 4. The corn 5. The mice 6. The wood 7. The snow 8. The ice 9. The study 6. The Predicate Enlarged. The predicate of a simple sentence may be enlarged in various ways thus : Subject. 1. The sun 2. The birds 3. The teacher 4. We visited 5. The weather C. London Predicate Enlarged. shines Twightly (adverb). sing in the morning (adverbial phrase). assigned difficult lessons (adjec- tive). the capital of the United States (adjective phrase). is exceedingly cold (adverb). is the largest city on the globe (ad- jective and adj. phrase). WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 283 EXERCISE I. "Write with each of the following subjects a sentence having the predicate nominative enlarged by an adjective and an adjective phrase : Model. The Amazon is the largest river on the globe. 1. The Amazon 4. Paris 7. The Pacific 2. The Mississippi 5. New York 8. Russia 3. Mt. Everest 6. Boston 9. The Nile EXERCISE II. Complete the following sets of sentences by adding ad- verbial phrases that answer the questions where? when? how? Ask your parents about anything you do not know. Model. Cotton grows [where ?] in the Southern states. 1. Birds fly 2. Coffee grows 3. Tea grows 4. The Missouri rises 5. We export grain 6. Silk is obtained 7. Gold is found 8. Coal is found EXERCISE III. Model Plymouth was settled [when ?] in 1620. 1. Plymouth was settled 2. Jamestown was settled 3. America was discovered 4. My birthday will come 5. Independence was declared 6. Our school began EXERCISE IV. Model We travelled [how ?] by rail. 1. We travelled 2. We write 3. The rain fell 4. The soldiers fought 5. They treated us 6. America was discovered 284 METHODS OF TEACHING. EXERCISE V. ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF CAUSE. Complete the following sentences by adding phrases de- noting cause, making use of the prepositions l>y, through, far, of, from, etc. : Model. Waves are caused by winds. 1. Day and night 2. The seasons are caused 3. They perished 4. He suffered 5. The money was given G. He became sick EXERCISE VI. ADVERBIAL PHRASES or PURPOSE. In completing the following sentences, make use of the prepositions or phrases such as for, in order to, for the purpose of, for the sake of; or of an infinitive. Models. 1. We eat to live. 2. We eat for pleasure. 1. We live 2. We went 3. They study 4. The boys ran away 5. They went to Europe G. He went to California 7. The Enlarged Predicate Again. In a simple sentence the predicate may be enlarged by two or more phrases thus: "We went (1) into the woods (2) with a gun." EXERCISES. Complete the following expressions by adding two or more phrases. Exchange and correct : 1. The sun rises 2. The brook is running 3. I was born 4. I live 5. The Amazon flows G. The steamer sailed 8. Order of Phrases. When a sentence contains two or more adverbial WOEKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 285 phrases, one of them may be used to introduce the sen- tence thus : In the winter of 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with a great army. 9. Punctuation of Introductory Phrases. ftule. Introductory adverbial phrases, unless very short, are pointed off by a comma. EXERCISES. Complete and punctuate the following : 1. In the winter of 1620, Plymouth 2. In the year 1607, Jamestown 3. In the year 1492, 4. On the Fourth of July, 1776, 10. Emphatic Order. If we wish to make a phrase emphatic, we place it first in order in the sentence. ILLDSTUATIONS. 1. With a small detachment, Arnold and Allen captured Ticon- deroga. 2. Of the laboring classes we know little. 3. With the deepest interest we watched the combat. 11. Order of Parts. 1. The common or grammatical order of the main parts of a sim- ple declarative sentence is as follows : (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) Adjective. Subject. Predicate. Adverb or Adverbial Phrase. Huge whales swim in the ocean. 2. Interrogative sentences are introduced by the helping verbs ~be, do, may, can, must, shall, will, have, etc., and the subject comes 286 METHODS OF TEACHING. between the helping verb and the principal verb ; as, Do you hear? 3. The neuter verb to be, denoting present or past time, conies first in interrogative sentences ; as, 2s he sick V 4. Exclamatory sentences are introduced by such words as how and what; as, How beautiful is the rain ! What a hot day it is 1 5. In imperative sentences, the verb is placed first, and the sub- ject is, in general, understood; as, Go [you] into the house- In poetry the grammatical order is often inverted. EXERCISE I. Change into interrogative sentences : 1. We are going to-morrow. 2. We shall start in the morning. 3. He was doing wrong. EXERCISE TI. Change into interrogative from imperative : 1. Give me an apple. 2. Obey your parents. 3. Let me go with you. EXERCISE III. Change into declarative sentences; 1. How wonderful is death ! 2. How cold you look ! 3. What great eyes you have I 4. What a piece of work is man ! 5. How like a fawning publican he looks ! 6. What a charming prospect ! EXERCISE IV. Change into the grammatical order of the prose sen- tence : 1. Sweet is the voice of spring. WOKKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 287 2. Westward the course of empire takes its way. 3. In their ragged regimentals Stood the old Continentals. 4. Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth Of simple beauty and rustic health. 12. Idiomatic " There." In many English sentences the word there is used to in- troduce the sentence, the subject coming after the verb. EXERCISES. Change the following sentences into the more elegant form introduced by there: 1. A man is in the house. 2. Plenty of money is in the market. 3. No mercy is in his heart. 4. No terror is in your threats. 5. No luck is about the house. SECTION II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 1. Oral Exercise. Conjunctions. Teachers will require each pupil, in turn, around the class, to make up an oral sentence containing the con- junction if; such a sentence must be complex. In the same manner require each pupil to compose a sentence with though ; with because, that, than, as. Models. 1. If you go, I will go too. 2. I was absent, because I was sick. 3. She said that she would stay. 4. I am older than you are. 5. I will do as you direct. 288 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. Oral Exercise. Relative Pronouns. Require each pupil, in turn, to compose an oral sentence containing the relative pronoun who / a sentence with which, with what, with that. DIRECTION. Make only declarative sentences. Interrogative sen- tences may be simple sentences. Do not use any one of the co-ordinate conjunctions, and, but, or, nor, because the sentence would then become compound. 1. The man who was sick is dead. 2. I know who stole the apples. Models. 3. The horse which I bought ran away. 4. I know what you want. 5. I go to the same school tJiat you do. 3. The Relative " That." 1. The word that is a difficult part of speech to deal with, because it has a variety of uses ; as, 1. He said that I was wrong [subordinate conjunction]. 2. Please give me that book [adjective]. 3. That is my father's house [adjective pronoun], 4. He is the same man that you spoke of [relative pronoun]. 2. That is correctly used as a relative pronoun instead of who or which 1. After the adjective same. 2. After an adjective in the superlative degree. 3. To prevent the repetition of who. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. This is the same lesson that we had yesterday. 2. He is the tallest man that I ever saw. 3. It is not always the person who [that] knows most who makes the best teacher. WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 289 EXERCISE. .Require each pupil to compose an oral sentence similar to 1 ; to 2 ; to 3. 4. Oral Exercise. Relative Adverbs. Let each pupil, in turn, compose an oral sentence with each of the following relative adverbs: when; where; why ; how. DIRECTION. Do not make an interrogative sentence, because the ad- verbs would then become interrogative instead of relative, and the sentence might be a simple sentence. 1. I will go when you are ready. 2. We do not know where lie is. 3. Tell me why you are sad. 4. I know how you got it. Leading signs of the complex sentence : 1. If, because, than, that, as [subordinate conjunctions]. 2. Who, which, what, that [relative pronouns]. 3. When, where, why, while, how [relative adverbs]. Require pupils to write, with each of the signs, a com- plex sentence. Pupils will exchange papers and correct under the direction of the teacher. Note. That, as a conjunction, is used to introduce ob- jective clauses after such transitive verbs as see, hear, feel, think, wish, hope, fear, ask, say, tell, state, report, deny, di- rect, etc. 5. Order of Parts. The grammatical order of elements in the complex sentence is like 13 290 METHODS OF TEACHING. that of the simple sentence, except that the clause takes the place of the phrase. Thus : 1. Subject; 2. Adjective Clause; 3. Predicate; 4. Adverbial Clause. Point out the parts in the following sentences : 1. The swallows that live in the old barn migrate when winter comes. 2. The boys whom we met said they were going home. 3. The man who lost his horse rewarded the boy that found it. 6. The subject of a complex sentence may be a clause. Thus : 1. [He] Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. [The time] When he will go is uncertain. 3. [The fact] That you have wronged me doth appear in this. Note. Sentences like the preceding are really con- tracted complex sentences, as will be seen above where the subjects of the principal verbs are supplied in brackets. 7. The predicate may consist of a neuter verb and a nouii-clause as the complement, or predicate nominative. 1. The truth is, he knew nothing about it. 2. His excuse was that he was poor. 3. It is uncertain when he will go. 8. Emphatic It. The use of the pronoun it to introduce a sentence by standing for a clause after the predicate makes a statement emphatic, and changes a simple into a complex sentence. Simple. Complex. 1. Columbus discovered Amer- ica. 2. Caesar conquered Britain. 3. Whitney invented the cot- ton-gin. 4. Washington planned the campaign of Yorktown. 5. He did it. 1. It was Columbus who discov- ered America. 2. It was Ccesar who conquered Britain. 3. It was Whitney who invented the cotton-gin. 4. It was Washington who planned the campaign of Yorktown. 5. It was he wl^o did it. WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 291 EXERCISE. Change the following complex into simple sentences without it : 1. It was in the age of Greece that the seeds of civil strife were sown. 2. It was the Portuguese who took the lead in maritime discov- ery. 3. It is the brilliant figure of Spain that first attracts our attention at the beginning of modern history. 4. It was in midwinter that the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. 5. It was Cromwell who said, " Paint me as I am, with all my warts and wrinkles." 9. Conditional Clauses. Clauses of condition or concession are generally placed before the principal statement in order to add force to the expres- sion. APPLICATION. Copy the following sentences, and notice that the con- ditional clauses are marked off by a comma : 1. If he did that, he ought to be punished. 2. Though you have injured me, I will forgive you. 3. Where you go, I will go too. 4. When you are ready, we will start. 5. How you can talk so, I do not understand. 10. Forms of the Complex Sentence. I. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. Copy and punctuate the following, and state which are the clauses: Condition. If you do wrong, you will suffer. Concession. Though he is guilty, he will escape. * Purpose. He ran away, that he might go to sea. 292 METHODS "OF TEACHING. Cause. He prospers because he is industrious. Effect. You speak so loud that you disturb ine. Manner. You walk as if you were tired. Comparison. The water is colder than ice [is]. The ice was clear as glass [is]. Place. I will go where you do. Time. Go when you are called. II. NOUN CLAUSES. State the use of each clause, whether as subject, object^ or predicate nominative after a neuter or passive verb : 1. That the earth is globe-shaped has been proved. 2. My reason is, I am tired. 3. Is it true that the moon is made of green cheese? 4. Where the Indians came from is not known. 5. How it was done is a mystery. 6. Who he was nobody knows. 7. " Why do you eat my grass ?" said the Wolf. 8. " What long arms you have !" said she to the Wolf. 9. He said that he would try. 10. " I'll try, sir," said the brave boy. III. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. Point out each adjective or relative clause, and tell what it limits : 1. Franklin, who invented lightning-rods, was an American. 2. The snow, which fell to a great depth, blocked up the railroads, 3. He is the oldest man that I ever knew. 4. The time when [= at which] we shall start is uncertain. 5. The reasons why [=for which] he went are unknown. 6. The place where [=in which] he lives is very beautiful. 7. The ship in which they sailed was lost at sea. 8. This is the boy wlwse lesson was perfect. 9. It is the most wonderful story that I ever heard of. 10. This is the cow that worried the dog that killed the cat, etc. WOKKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 293 Write a sentence similar to each of the preceding sen- tences. Exchange and correct. 11. Contracted Complex Sentences. The clause in the complex sentence is sometimes contracted by an ellipsis of the verb, the subject, or both verb and subject. APPLICATION. Orally, in the class, point out the ellipsis, and explain the punctuation of the conditional clauses : 1. That house, when [it is] finished, will be the finest in the city. & If you go, [it is] well; if [you do] not [go], I must go alone. 3. If [it is] required, the money will be furnished. 4. Though [it was] cold, the day was glorious. 5. While [we were] going to New York, we met an old friend. 6. No wind that blew was bitterer than he [was]. SECTION III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 1. Oral Introduction. Teachers will require each pupil, in turn, to compose an oral sentence which shall contain the co-ordinate conjunc- tion and. Model. I shall go to-morrow, and you must go with me. Teachers' Note. Sentences containing and will, in gen- eral, be compound, or contracted compound, sentences. The few exceptions must be explained when given by pupils. EXERCISE. In a similar manner each pupil, in turn, will compose a compound sentence containing but; one containing or ; one with nor ; one with either or ; one with neither nor. 294 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. Exercise in Writing. A compound sentence consists of two or more princi- pal statements connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, either expressed or understood. Leading Signs of a Compound Sentence. Co-ordinate (and; or; either or; loth and. Conjunctions. ( but; nor ; neither nor ; and then. With each of the preceding signs write two compound sentences. 3. Contracted Compound Sentences. Study the changes made in the following sentences, and tell how they are made : Full Compound. 1. I can read, and I can write. 2. You must go, or I must go. 3. Mary sings, and Jane sings too. 4. The water is deep, and it is cold. 5. You must not go, and lie must not go. 6. They fought for their coun- try, and they died for their country. 7. I care not when you go, nor do I care how you go. Contracted Compound. 1. I can read and write. 2. You or I must go. 3. Both Mary and Jane sing. 4. The w T ater is deep and cold 5. Neither you nor ho must go. 6. They fought and died for their country. 7. I care not when or how you go. BLACKBOARD SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. r Simple. The Sentence 3 Complex. ( Compound. f Word : noun or pronoun. The Simple Subject. 3 Phrase : verbal noun. ' Clause : dependent statement. WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 295 f Intransitive verb. The SimpU Predicate. 1 Transitive verb and object. ( Neuter verb and complement. f Adjective : word, phrase, clause. < Nouns in apposition, with their adjective ( modifiers. j Object: words, phrases, clauses. ( Adverbial : words, phrases, clauses. Simple Sentence. Prepositions. Complex Sentence. Subordinate conjunctions, relative pronouns, and relative adverbs. Compound Sentence. Co-ordinate conjunc- tions. Subject Modifiers Predicate Modifiers... Connectives. SECTION IV. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS IN LANGUAGE-LES- SONS AND GRAMMAR. Note. The following sets of questions are given as suggestive models of practical questions to be used in oral or in written examinations : I. SECOND SCHOOL YEAR. 1. I. Write your own name. II. The name of your teacher. III. The name of your father. IV. The name of the place in which you live. 2. Write five sentences by telling what the following animals do: I. Dogs. II. Cats. III. Horses. IV. Birds. V. Flies. 3. Write five interrogative sentences by asking questions about I. Fishes. II. Lions. III. Boys. IV. Girls. 4. Make sentences out of I. My mother. II. My father. III. My teacher. IV. My home. 5. Write the correct form of these incorrect sentences : 1. 1 seen him do it. II. I done the sum wrong. III. 'Tain't right. IV. Ain't you going ? Her and me are going. 290 METHODS OF TEACHING. II. THIRD SCHOOL YEAR. 1. Write the name of (1) a person ; (2) a place ; (3) the name of a river; (4) the name of an ocean; (5) the name of the State in which you live. 2. Write five sentences, each composed of only two words a noun and a verb. 3. Change each of the sentences that you wrote above into an in- terrogative sentence. 4. Write five exclamatory sentences, and remember to punc- tuate. 5. Correct the following: I. We done wrong. II. Who seen him ? III. Does horses neigh ? IV. Was you there ? V. Does hens cackle ? 6. I. What is a name-word ? II. What is an action-word ? III. Write a sentence having a quality-word. IV. Write a sen- tence with two nouns in it. V. Write a sentence with two verbs in it. III. FOURTH SCHOOL YEAR. 1. " The bees were humming among the flowers, and the birds were singing in the trees and bushes." Point out the name- words in this sentence. 2. Write two sentences, each containing two quality-words, and draw a line under these words. 3. " The boys read well, and the girls sing sweetly." Point out the adverbs in this sentence. 4. " The girls read and write well, but they do not spell well." Point out the action-words, or verbs, in this sentence. 5. "The man, woman, and girl were busy at their lesson." Change the name-words in this sentence so that they may mean more than one. 6. " - boys - - fast." Fill the blanks in this sentence. What do you call the last word ? 7. "The boys ran from the house through the garden into the field." Point out the prepositions in this sentence. WOKKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 297 8. " The good boy speaks well, and the industrious girls read finely." Point out the adjectives. 9. Give a rule for capitals. 10. Give a rule for periods. IV. FIFTH SCHOOL YEAR. 1. Compare 1. red; 2. good; 3. lad; 4. pleasant. 2. Write the sentence " Bees are busy " in each of the six tenses of the indicative mood. 3. Give the present tense and past tense I. of two irregular verbs ; II. of two regular verbs. 4. Write two declarative sentences with the following nouns : 1. Crickets ; 2. The gun. Change them into interrogative sentences. 5. Write two exclamatory sentences. 6. Write two rules for politeness, and make them simple sen- tences. 7. Write four complex sentences, using in each one of the fol- lowing words : if, who, when, because. S. Write two compound sentences. 9. Write three rules for capitals. 10. Write two rules for the period. V. SIXTH SCHOOL YEAR. 1. What difference is there in the use of the letter s used as a noun-suffix, and a verb-suffix ? 2. Compare fore, worse, far, most, dead. 3. Punctuate and capitalize 1. The lamb said to the wolf who are you. 2. Be good said a wise man and you will be happy. 3. I cannot tell a lie said Washington. 4. In the sentence " That life is long which answers life's great end," parse 1. that ; 2. is ; 3. long ; 4. which ; 5. end. 5. Synopsis of the verb to study in the indicative mood, third per- son, singular, passive voice. 298 METHODS OF TEACHING. VI. SEVENTH SCHOOL YEAR. 1. Give the rules for the verb having two or more singular sul> jects connected by and; by or or nor. Examples of each. 2. What change is made in the root form of the verb when the subject is in the third person, singular ? When the subject is tliou ? 3. Define (1) a simple sentence; (2) a complex; (3) a com- pound sentence ; (4) a sentence. 4. Write a simple declarative sentence with " Fire " for the sub- ject ; change it, first into an interrogative sentence, next into an exclamatory sentence, and then into an imperative sen- tence. Punctuate. 5. What is the grammatical order of parts in a simple declarative sentence ? 6. Define the subject of a sentence ; the predicate. 7. Write a complex sentence with if; one with who; one with when ; one with than. 8. Rule for the punctuation of introductory or inverted adverbial phrases or clauses. 9. Rule for the semicolon in a compound sentence. 10. Rule for quotation-marks. VII. EIGHTH SCHOOL YEAR. After the answers are written, let pupils exchange pa- pers and correct under the direction of the teacher. SET I. 1. Write four rules for the use of the comma. 2. Write two rules for the sign of the possessive case. Exam- ples. 3. Rule of syntax for collective nouns. Examples. 4. Give a synopsis of the verb to teach in the indicative and po- tential moods, third person, singular. 5. Define each of the four kinds of pronouns. 6. Define a simple sentence ; subject ; predicate ; phrase ; clause. WORKING MODELS IN SENTENCE-MAKING. 299 7. Give the leading signs of the complex sentence ; the com- pound sentence. 8. Analyze the sentence " He laughs that wins." 9. Correct the sentence " I thought it was her." 10. Change into the plural form 1. axis ; 2. chimney ; 3. loss ; 4. leaf; 5. rest. SET II. 1. Analyze the sentence " You or I must go." 2. In the sentence " I supposed it to be him," parse it and him. 3. Write five rules of syntax. 4. Write a simple, a complex, and a compound sentence. 5. Write four rules of politeness, and state what kind of a sen- tence each is. 6. Write the correct forms of the following : 1. My dress fits bad. 2. 1 guess its her. 3. Who did she marry? 4. Whose there ? Its me. 7. Change the sentence "Bees are busy" into each of the tenses of the indicative mood. 8. Write from memory, and punctuate, a stanza of at least four lines of poetry. 9. Write four forms of the complimentary closing of a letter. 10. Write a sentence to show the use of the word that as a rela- tive, a conjunction, an adjective, and an adjective pronoun. or THE ^ VNlVERSfTY \ Of 300 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER VII. PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES. Note. These rules are condensed and arranged for use in grammar-school grades. I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. Rule I. Declarative and imperative sentences must end with a period ; interrogative sentences with an inter- rogation point ; and exclamatory sentences with an excla- mation point. EXAMPLES. 1. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 2. How does a verb differ from a noun ? 3. How beautiful the clouds are ! 4. Earn your own living. Rule II. Adverbial phrases, when introductory; in- verted, or very emphatic, are cut off by a comma. EXAMPLES. 1. In July, 1588, the Great Armada entered the English Channel. 2. Out in the country, close by the road, under two tall elms, there stands a white cottage. 3. Four centuries B.C., Greece was fast outgrowing her ancient faith. Teachers will require pupils to point out other exam- ples in some assigned reading-lesson. Eule ///.Participial phrases are, in general, marked off by commas. PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES. 301 EXAMPLES. 1. The birds, singing in the trees, welcomed the rising sun. 2. Disheartened by defeat, the enemy slowly retreated. 3. The British, twice driven back, carried the redoubt on the third charge. 4. The invention of movable metal types, made in 143G, was, next to that of the alphabet, the greatest of inventions. For other examples study an assigned reading-lesson. Rule IV. More than two similar parts of speech, in the same construction, are separated by commas. EXAMPLES. 1. The four fine arts are architecture, sculpture, painting, and music. 2. Verbs are divided into transitive, intransitive, and neuter. 3. Oranges, lemons, figs, olives, and grapes grow in California. For other examples study some assigned lesson. Rule V. Minor rules for the comma. 1. The words as, namely, or to wit, introducing examples or illus- trations, are followed by a comma. 2. The words " Yes, sir," or " No, sir," take a comma between them. 3. The introductory words Resolved, Ordered, Voted, must be fol- lowed by a comma. 4. Nouns in apposition, when limited by phrases, or by any adjec- tive except the, are marked off by two commas. 5. An explanatory word, following or, must be cut off by commas. EXAMPLES. 1. A noun is the name of anything; as, London. 2. Yes, sir, I will do my dutj r . 3. Resolved, That the schools be closed on Washington's birthday, 4. "Washington, the father of his country, died in 1799. 5. The atmosphere, or air, surrounds the globe. 302 METHODS OF TEACHING. Rule VI. Minor rules for the period. The period must be used 1. After abbreviated words. 2. After initial letters. 3. After a signature. 4. After the title of a book. 5. After the title of a composition. 6. After the numerals 1, 2, 3, etc., when they mark paragraphs or examples. Teachers will illustrate by examples found in the read- ers. Rule VII. Kules for capitals. A capital letter should begin 1. Every sentence, and every line of poetry. 2. Proper nouns and proper adjectives. 3. Names of the Deity. 4. The names of days and months. 5. The first word of direct quotations. 6. Sentences following Resolved, Ordered, etc. 7. The pronoun /and the interjection must be written in capi- tals. Rule VIIL Other marks. 1. The curves ( ), or marks of parenthesis, are sometimes used to enclose an explanatory word or statement. 2. The brackets [ ] are used to enclose the correction of an error, or an implied or understood word. 3. The dash marks a broken or parenthetical sentence. 4. The caret /\ is used in manuscript when an omitted letter or word is interlined. Teachers will call the attention of pupils to the use of brackets, to the use of the dash in the readers, and to the use of the caret in compositions. PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES. 303 II. PUNCTUATION OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. Rule I. Introductory adverbial clauses are, in general, cut off from the principal statement by a comma. Teachers will require pupils to copy the examples, point out the clauses, explain the punctuation, and give additional illustrations. 1. Before the storin began, we had built a camp-fire. 2. If this be treason, make the most of it. 3. When a nation wishes to make war, the opportunity is usually found. Rule II. Explanatory adjective clauses, introduced by who or which [="and he," "and it," etc.], are cut off by commas ; restrictive clauses [ = " that"] require no commas. 1. Explanatory Clauses. 1. The king, who [= and he] was a merciful ruler, forgave the of- fence. 2. The Missouri, which rises in the Rocky Mountains, is the chief tributary of the Mississippi. 3. Plutarch, whose [ and his] Lives has -been called the " Bible of Heroisms," lived A.D. 100. 2. Restrictive Clauses. 1. That is the man who aided me. 2. It is the tallest tree that I ever saw. 3. This is the book which you want. 4. He is the man whom we saw yesterday. 5. This is the flower that you spoke of. Rule III. A noun-clause introduced by a relative pronoun and used as the object of a transitive verb re- quires no comma. 1. I have told you who he is. 304 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. I know which he will buy. 3. I know who will go. Rule IV. A. noun-clause used as the subject of a verb must be cut off from the verb by a comma. 1. That the earth rotates on its axis, was denied by the ancients. 2. That illiterate electors should be intelligent voters, is not to be expected. 3. That a piece of amber will attract light bodies, was a fact well known 600 B.C. Rule V. When the sentence is introduced by the pro- noun it, and the noun -clause is put after the verb, no com- ma is required. Change each of the sentences under Rule IV. into a sentence introduced by it. Rule VI. Commas must be used to mark off a paren- thetical expression when it comes between the divided parts of a sentence. 1. He expected, it seems, to surprise the enemy. 2. The man was murdered, it is believed, by a baud of Apaches. 3. " Beautiful creature," said the cunning fox, " you sing like a nightingale." III. PUNCTUATION OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. Rule I. Unless highly contracted, the principal state- ments, when closely connected, are, in general, cut off by a comma, and are always so cut off when there are more than two principal statements. EXAMPLES TO BE COPIKD. 1. Napoleon Bonaparte was of Italian blood, and was a native of Corsica. 2. " Scrooge signed it, and Scrooge's name was good on 'Change for anything he chose to put his hand to." Dickens. PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES. 305 3. Tea comes from China, coffee from Java and Brazil, and sugar from the West Indies. 4. I came, I saw, I conquered. Study an assigned reading -lesson, and point out five cases in which the preceding rule is applied. Rule II. Principal statements, when loosely connected, when very long, or when subdivided by a comma, are separated by a semicolon. EXAMPLES TO BE COPIED. 1. The history of the Orient is the history of dynasties ; the his- tory of Greece and Rome is the history of the people. 2. The Greeks were indebted to the Phoenicians for the alphabet; the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet, with some changes ; the Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern alphabet. EXERCISE. From suitable reading -lessons, teachers will point out to their pupils the application of the preceding rule to the punctuation of the piece. Rule III. "When a compound sentence is highly ellip- tical, or contracted, the omission of the principal statement before each of a series of clauses is marked by a semicolon. APPLICATION. " England has to undergo the revolt of the colonies ; [England has] to submit to defeat and separation ; [ ? ] to shake under the volcano of the French Revolution ; [ ? ] to grapple and fight for the life with her gigantic enemy, Napoleon ; [ ? ] to gasp and rally after the tremendous struggle." Thackeray. Rule IV. Principal statements and clauses are punc- tuated according to the rules for the simple and the com- plex sentence. 306 METHODS OF TEACHING. IV. QUOTATION-MARKS. Rule I. When we use the exact words of another per- son, we mark off the expressions or sentences with quota- tion-marks at the beginning and the end. Rule 1L In general, a quoted sentence begins with a capital letter: Csesar exclaimed, "And you, too, Brutus!" Rule III. In general, a quoted sentence or expression is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, " I'll try," said General Miller. Rule IV. A very formal quotation, placed in regular order in a sentence, is marked off by a colon ; as, Remem- ber the old adage : " A stitch in time saves nine." Rule V. A quoted clause introduced by the word that is not marked off by a comma and does not begin with a capital ; as, It is said that " necessity knows no law." EXERCISE. Copy the following examples, and explain how the preceding rules are applied : 1. "Don't give up the ship," exclaimed the dying Lawrence. 2. " What great teeth you have !" said Little Red Riding-hood. " The better to eat you with," said the wolf. 3. "Vanity of vanities," saith the preacher, " all is vanity." 4. " Language," said Talleyrand, " is made to conceal thought." 5. There is a Prussian maxim as follows : " Whatever you would have appear in the life of a nation, you must put into the schools." Study an assigned reading -lesson, and explain the ap- plication of the preceding rules to any quotations you may find there. RULES FOB WRITING GOOD ENGLISH. 307 CHAPTER VIII. RULES FOR WRITING GOOD ENGLISH. Note. The following practical directions, including a combination of grammar and elementary rhetoric, are in- tended for the use of teachers in the highest classes in the grammar-school, as a supplement to text-books on grammar. Let pupils copy the rules into blank-books ; the examples may be given orally, requiring pupils to give additional illustrations. I. WORDS. 1. The leading qualities of good composition are clearness, force, and brevity. These characteristics depend mainly on the right use and right arrangement of words. 2. A knowledge of the exact meaning of words may be acquired in various ways : 1. By referring to the dictionary. 2. By studying word-analysis. 3. By reading good authors. 4. By conversing with educated persons. 5. By attention to the kind of words used in writing or in speaking. 6. By the study of synonyms. Rule I. Use the right word to express your exact meaning. Put in place of each italicized word some word accu- rately and properly used. 1. Great quantities [numbers] of people were there. 308 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. Give us this day our diurnal [?] bread. 3. The earth's daily [diurnal] rotation. 4. Hallowed be thy appellation. 5. He was banished from school. 0. Napoleon was sent to Saint Helena. 7. How dear to my soul [?] are the scenes of my infancy ! [?] 8. I admire to hear her sing. Rule II. Use words in keeping with your subject Avoid dressing up little thoughts in big words. Substitute simpler words in place of those italicized. 1. The half-drowned boy was resuscitated. 2. The conflagration of the cottage was extinguished. 3. The boys ascended an apple-tree. 4. The money was devoted to eleemosynary purposes. 5. We took a short pedestrian excursion in the garden. C. I purchased two apples. Rule III. Avoid vulgarisms and slang, whether low or fashionable. Use English expressions in preference to French or Latin. Substitute in place of each italicized word or phrase some appropriate word or phrase : 1. That resolution, Mr. President, can never be resurrected. 2. The laborer is worthy of his wage. 3. I was born and raised in Kentucky. 4. It is the neplus ultra of stoves. 5. The statue was a chfj "-d'ceuvre [masterpiece] of art. 6. In this danger, he behaved with the greatest sang-froid [cool- ness]. Rule IV. Use no redundant words or phrases; that is, do not repeat the same idea in different words. RULES FOB WRITING GOOD ENGLISH. 309 Point out the redundant expressions in the following illustrations: 1. He won the universal love of everybody. 2. She is an invalid in poor health. 3. Mr. Speaker, I desire to make a few remarks before speaking. 4. That book is mine, for I own it. 5. The enemy retreated back again to their camp. 6. In my opinion, I think you are wrong. Rule V. Avoid pairs of synonymous adjectives, strong superlatives, and exaggerated expressions. .A^te. Among the adjectives incorrectly coupled are " lovely and beautiful," " brave and courageous," " cruel and bloody ;" among the superlatives, " very," "immense," "stupendous," "enormous," "tremendous;" among exag- gerated expressions, "perfectly lovely," "elegant," etc. Reduce the following to plain English : 1. The morning is cold and chilly. 2. We were sweltering under a Tiot and burning sun. 3. That is a tremendous big apple. 4. We arrived there half starved, and the dinner was perfectly ele- gant. 5. There were millions of crows in the cornfield. 6. I have had a splendid time. 7. My hair stood on end. Rule VI. Use the right preposition and the right conjunction : 1. Your way is different to mine [from]. 2. My hat differs with yours [from]. o. I was to a large party last week [at]. 4. Are your folks to home [at] ? 5. We went in the garden [into]. 6. No other cause was known but carelessness [than]. 310 METHODS OF TEACHING. 7. You will not trust me, and he will [but]. 8. I wish I could write like you do [as], II. OEDEE OF WOEDS. Rule VII. Emphatic words should stand near the be- ginning or the end of a sentence. Note. The grammatical order is, the subject with its modifiers, verb with its object or attribute, and the modi- fiers of the predicate. Force or emphasis frequently re- quires this order to be changed ; as, 1. Proud though he was, he was at last humbled. 2. Sweet is the breath of morn. 3. Some he banished, others he put to death. Rule VIII. Inconsiderable words must be kept from the end of a sentence. Note. Among the unimportant words are prepositions, the pronoun it, a short predicate, etc. EXAMPLES. 1. My brother is the boy whom the medal was given to [to whom the medal]. 2. She is a lady whom all are pleased with [?]. 3. It is a subject which we know nothing of [?]. 4. He took the city and was afterwards made governor of it [?]. 5. They will start on a tour round the world soon [?]. 6. We shall go next week, if it does not rain, probably. Rule IX. When the relative that introduces a restric^ tive clause, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the se'ntence : 1. He is the same boy that I spoke of. 2. He is the tallest man that I know of. 3. The big boys are the ones [that] you should begin with. RULES FOR WRITING GOOD ENGLISH. 311 4. Where is the girl [that] you were speaking about ? 5. It is th<# very best use that you can put it to. Rale X. When both sexes must be specifically in- cluded, it is better, in general, to put the statement in the plural form, instead of the distributive singular, with "his "or "her." 1. Every teacher must make his or her report on the first of each month. [All teachers their reports.] 2. Every boy and girl must study their lesson. [Incorrect, be- cause evwij is singular and their plural. We may say his les- son, the pronoun standing for both sexes, or put the whole in the plural form.] 3. Every man and every woman must earn his or her living [?]. Rule XL Use the possessive -case form of the pro- noun before a verbal noun. 1. I had heard nothing about his [not him] going away. 2. What is the use of our [not us] trying to learn it ? 3. We read the account of their [not them] being lost. Rule XII. In order to secure clearness, words, phrases, or clauses should be put as near as possible to the words they limit. Rearrange the phrases or clauses so as clearly to ex- press the meaning intended : 1. These drawings were done by a boy that attended school merely for his own amusement. 2. Wanted, a servant girl to take care of a child skilled in wash- ing and ironing. 3. A pin was accidentally swallowed by a little child which had no head. ^ Rule XIII. In general, put adverbs next to the words they limit ; put the adverb only immediately before the word intended to be most affected by it. 312 METHODS OF TEACHING. Put the adverbs in the right place : 1. He was [ ] engaged in the lumber trade formerly. 2. Let us drop a tear to his memory at least. 3. I only whispered [ ] once or twice. 4. We have only to learn two lessons. 5. The two sisters nearly look alike. 6. We not only intend [ ] to go, but also to remain there. Rule XIV. Adverbial phrases or clauses are fre- quently put at the beginning of a sentence, either to make the statement more forcible, or to secure a pleasing distribution of adverbial elements. Rearrange the phrases and clauses : An old clock stopped suddenly early one summer morning be- fore the family was stirring without giving its owner any cause for complaint. Rule XV. In conditional complex sentences, put the ?y-clause first : 1. If he is a spy, he should be hanged. 2. Though you have done wrong, I will excuse you. 3. If we fail, it can be no worse for us. 4. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish,! give my heart and my hand for this vote. Rule XVI. When a participle introduces the sentence, express in the context the noun or the pronoun which the participle is intended to limit. 1. "Climbing to the summit of the mountain, the whole valley of the Sacramento was seen." This may be corrected thus: " On climbing we saw," etc. 2. Ascending in a balloon, the whole country seemed a panora- ma [?]. Rule XVII. In adjective clauses, use who or which RULES FOR WKITINO GOOD ENGLISH. 313 when the evident meaning is "and he," "and it," etc.; in other cases, use, in general, the restrictive that. Note. When who or which means and he, and it, etc., it introduces an additional or explanatory statement ; that introduces a clause without which the antecedent is in- complete, and hence is restrictive. 1. I heard the news from my friend, who [=and he] heard it from the passengers that [restrictive] arrived last night. 2. He forgot to keep his appointment, which [and this] was a great blunder. 3. We wasted our time on old-style " parsing," which [=:aud this] is English grammar " rim to seed." Note. Mark oil the 'who or which adjective clauses by a comma. Rule XVIII. In clauses introduced by than, as, a< well as, etc., repent the preposition or the verb when clearness requires it. 1. The city had more attractions for him than [for] his friend. 2. The teacher is stricter with boys than [with] girls. 3. Teachers are stricter with children than parents [are]. 4. He likes Maria better than [he likes] William. 5. He likes Maria better than William [likes her]. Rule XIX. Keep the construction uniform unless a change is unavoidable. 1. Apples are good for eating and to cook. 2. To-day is warmer and more pleasant [pleasanter] than yesterday. 3. We had good reasons for expecting him, and to suppose [for supposing] that he would come by rail. III. BREVITY. Rule XX. Use the smallest number of words needed fully to express the meaning intended. 14 314 METHODS OF TEACHING. Strike out all unnecessary words or phrases, or con- dense into briefer expressions : 1. His lecture was brief, short, concise, and condensed. 2. The morning was grand and glorious, the air was balmy and sweet with the scent and perfume of flowers and plants, and we rejoiced and exulted in the buoyance and light-hearted- ness of youth, and the strength and elasticity of youth. IV. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. [Simplified for Grammar-school Use.] " Although it is enough for the teacher to have in view the exigencies of grammar, he may also ring a few of the rhetorical changes that are of common occurrence as in- version, of subject and predicate, interrogation, metaphor, and metonymy." Bairfs Education as a Science. 1. Both force and brevity of expression are increased by the prop- er use of figures of speech. 2. The three leading figures of speech are personification, simile, and metaphor. I. PERSONIFICATION. Personification is that figure by which, animals are rep- resented as speaking like human beings, or by which in- animate things are represented as having life and action. It may be direct or indirect. 1. Direct. 1. " The better to see you with," said the "Wolf. 2. The cunning Fox said to the Crow, " Beautiful creature, what a sweet voice you have 1" 3. Once upon a time Mr. Fox invited Mr. Crane to dinner. 4. " There is a reaper whose name is Death." Longfellow. 5. " ' Death shall reap the braver harvest, 1 said the solemn-sound- ing dram." Bret Harte. 6. "I love Freedom better than Slavery ; I will speak her words ; I RULES FOR WRITING GOOD ENGLISH. 315 will listen to her music; I will stand beneath her flag; I will fight in her ranks ; and when I do so, I shall find myself sur- rounded by the good, the brave, the noble of every land."' Baker. 2. Indirect. 1. The trees waved their long arms in the air. 2. The thirsty flowers were faint ing iii the hot sun. 3. The giant mountains lift their heads into the skies. 4. The deep-mouthed cannon spoke in angry tones. 5. " No wind that blew was bitterer than he." Dickens. 6. " There poetry dips its silver oar." Baker. 7. "Near yonder copse where once the garden smiled." EXERCISE. Change into plain language the following : 1. The wind is whispering to the trees. 2. The brook came leaping down the mountain. 3. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 4. From peak to peak leaps the wild thunder. II. SIMILE. A simile is a direct comparison of one thing with an other, expressed by the words like, as, than, etc. EXERCISE. Explain the points of resemblance between the things compared in the following examples : 1. Human life is like a river. 2. " Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail." Dickens. 8. " How like a fawning publican he looks !" Shakespeare. 4. " The liberty of the press is like a great, exulting, and abounding river." Baker. III. METAPHOR. A metaphor compares two things having some resem- 316 METHODS OF TEACHING. blaiice by stating or implying that one thing is the other. Tims the metaphor is only an implied simile. EXERCISE. Point out the resemblance between things compared. 1. That man is a bear [i. e., He is as cross as a bear]. 2. An idle scholar is a butterfly. 3. "A thing of beauty is a joy forever." Keats. 4. "All the world 's a stage, and all the men and women merely players." Shakespeare. 5. " My eyes cloud up for rain." Lowell. 6. " And yet through the gloom and the light, The fate of a nation was riding that night." Longfellow. EXERCISE. Change into plain language the following metaphors : 1. The raging sea swallowed up the ship. 2. Death is the brother of sleep. 3. Spring is a beautiful maiden, but winter is an old man with whitened locks. 4. Youth is the morning of life. 5. Old age is the winter of life. Require each pupil to give and change live additional examples. IvULES FOR THE METAPHOR. 1. In forcible statements, use metaphor instead of literal statement. 1. "The ship ploughs the sea" is shorter and more striking than "The ship cleaves the waters of the sea as a plough cleaves the land." 2. The fortress is weakness itself = The fortress is very weak. 2. Do not confuse metaphors. The following is attributed to Sir Bayle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat, I see him brewing in the air ; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him in the bud." Give five additional examples. RULES Foli W KITING GOOD ENGLISH. '.} 1 7 IV. MINOR FIGURES OF SPEECH. Force, clearness, brevity, variety, or beauty of expres- sion may be attained in various other ways: 1. By contrasting things : Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent knows wJiat to do, tact knows ichen to do; talent is wealth, tact is ready money. 2. By putting the name of one thing for another : 1. I ani reading Tennyson [i. e., his writings]. 2. The pen [i.e., literature] is mightier than the sword [i.e- r military force]. 3. Gray hairs [i.e., old age] should be respected. 4. The teakettle [i. e., the water] is boiling. 5. He is fond of the bottle [i. e., liquor]. 3. By the use of particular instead of general terms: General. Particular. 1. I have neither food nor 2. I have neither a crust of bread money. nor a cent to buy one. 3. He is an uneducated man. 4. He can neither read nor write 5. A king in all his glory. G. Solomon in all his glory. 7. Behold the flowers of 8. Behold the lilies of the field. the field. 4. By empJiatic interrogation; 1. Who ever heard of a happy tyrant? 2. Who's the man would live a slave ? 5. By an exclamation instead of a statement: 1. What a glorious sunrise ! 2. ** A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse !" 6. By addressing the absent as present, tlie dead as living, or inanimatt as animate : Instance of addressing the absent as present Come, old schoolmates, dear companions, Sit around my lonely hearth, etc. Of addressing the dead as living Spirit of Washington ! again lead our armies ; again guido our counsels. 318 METHODS OF TEACUING. Or in the address to the mummy " Specak ! for thou long enough hast acted dummy ; Thou hast a tongue ; come, let us hear its tune," etc. Of addressing inanimate as animate Speak, marble lips ! Proclaim the love of liberty regulated by law. " Ye crags and peaks ! I'm with you once again." " Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll !" 7. By exaggeration : 1. The waves ran mountains high. 2. Napoleon dashed down into Italy like an avalanche. 3. He is tall as a pine and straight as an arrow. 4. I worship my father and adore my mother. 5. The very walls will cry out in its support. 8. By ridiculing under pretence of praising : 1. Pretty lords of creation ! when they can't take care of au umbrella. 2. What an honest man J to steal only half. 3. " They've built us up a noble wall, To keep the vulgar out. 4. We've nothing in the world to do But just to walk about." Holmes. UISTORY OF T11E UNITED STATES. 319 CHAPTER IX. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. QUESTIONS FOE WRITTEN. REVIEW LESSONS. Note. The following specimen sets of questions may be given, one set at a time, to the class, in advance, and the written examination required at the next recitation. They include outlines of main events, which teachers can extend at pleasure. SET I. 1. Of the five great centres of colonial settlements, state where and by whom each was settled. 1. Jamestown. 2. Plymouth. 3. New York. 4. Pennsylvania. 5. Maryland. 2. Name five important events in the colonial wars. 3. What events in the War of the Revolution were connected with each of these cities: 1. Boston? 2. New York? 3. Phila- delphia ? 4. Savannah ? 5. Trenton ? 4. Name five American victories in the Revolutionary War ; five British victories. 5. Give a short account of the most important battle of the War of 1812. SET II. 1. What part did General Scott take in the Mexican War ? 2. Name the first and last battle in the War of Secession. 3. Describe the battle of Gettysburg. 4. Name five Union victories in the War of Secession. Five Con federate victories. 5. What was the Emancipation Proclamation ? SET III. 1. What causes led to the French and Indian War? 320 METHODS OF TEACHING. 2. The Revolutionary War ? 3. The Mexican War ? 4. The War of Secession ? SET IV. 1. When and how was slavery introduced into the United States \ 2. When and how was it abolished ? 3. What was the Missouri Compromise ? 4. What is the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution ? 5. What is the Fifteenth Amendment ? SET V. 1. Name five American generals in the Revolutionary War. 2. In the War of Secession. 3. Name three leading statesmen of the Revolutionary period. 4. Of the War of Secession. 5. Name five American authors, and five American inventors, stat- ing what they invented. SET VI. 1. What resulted from these wars: 1. French and Indian? 2. Revolution? 3. Mexican? 4. Secession? 2. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence, who adopted it, and what was it ? 3. What do you know about paper money in the Revolutionary War? 4. Who was Robert Morris? 5. What connection did Alexander Hamilton have with the finan- cial measures of Congress ? SET VII. 1. Name five discoverers of the New World, and the parts of America discovered by each. 2. Name five important persons in connection with the first settle- ments of the United States. 3. Tell what causes led to the settlement of 1. Massachusetts.; 2. Rhode Island; 3. Pennsylvania; 4. Maryland; 5. Georgia. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 321 4. Name five of the most important and populous states in 177C. 5. Name one important act performed by 1. Sir Francis Drake; 2. De Soto; 3. Balboa; 4. Champlain ; 5. James Oglcthorpe. 6. What was the Stamp Act ? 7. When and where did the first Continental Congress meet ? 8. Tell \vhat important service was performed by 1. Patrick Henry; 2. John Hancock; 3. Benjamin Franklin; 4. Buie diet Arnold ; 5. Thomas Jefferson. SET VIII. 1. When and where was the first action of the Revolutionary War ? When and where the last ? 2. What was the condition of the Americans at the close of the year 1779? 3. In what year did Congress adopt the "Articles of Confedera- tion ?" In what year the Constitution ? 4. Name five battles in the Revolutionary War in which the British were successful. 5. What was the origin of " Mason and Dixon's Line ?" SET IX. 1. Who invented the cotton-gin ? What did it do ? 2. When, where, and by whom was the first steamboat run upon American waters ? Give an account of the voyage ? 3. Prior to what time were there no railroads in the United States ? Of what advantage have they been to the country ? Why is the Pacific Railroad a remarkable work ? 4. When and where was the first telegraph line built ? Who in vented the electro-magnetic telegraph ? 5. Who laid the Atlantic cable ? What does it do ? 6. Who invented or improved the sewing-machine? To what class is it a blessing ? 7. In what respects is the printing-press of to-day better than the press which Franklin used in 1725 ? How is the world ben- efited by this superiority ? 8. What is the object of American common-schools? Ought they to be well supported ? Why ? 322 METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER X. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN SCHOOL ETHICS. I. LESSONS FOR YOUNGER PUPILS. DUTIES OF CHILDREN, 1. Respect for Parents. Maxims. 1. Honor thy father and thy mother. 2. Obedience is the first duty of a child. Hints. 1. Always be polite to your parents. 2. Always obey them pleasantly and cheerfully. 3. Perform all your duties faithfully. 4. Your parents provide you with a home, with food, and -with clothing, and it is your duty to work for them whenever they ask you to do so. 5. Read or tell to your class some suitable story to illustrate the lesson. 6. Put this question to the class : " Why is it your duty to obey your parents ?" Draw out as many answers as possible, and converse about them. 2. Gratitude and Love to Parents. Maxims. 1. An ungrateful child is despised by everybody. 2. Gratitude must be expressed in acts as well as in words. 3. Duties towards Teachers. Hints. Question your pupils and find out what their ideas of school duties are. At the close of your conversation, sum up your statements into directions like the following: PRACTICAL LESSONS IN SCHOOL ETi: 323 1. Be orderly and quiet. 2. Be punctual and industrious. 3. Try to form good habits. 4. Be respectful and polite. 5. Learn your lessons as well as you can. 6. You are not studying at school merely because your teacher tells you to study, but because you go to school for your own good. 7. When you are idle and neglect your lessons, you cheat yourself, not your teacher. 4. Duties to Brothers, Sisters, and Schoolmates. I. FORBEARANCE. Maxims. 1. He is wisest that gives way. 2. In a quarrel, be the first to conciliate. 3. Offer an offender the hand of friendship when he meets you In a friendly spirit. II. COURTESY. Precepts. 1. When you do a favor, do it cheerfully and promptly. 2. Share the work as well as the play of your companions. 3. Refuse to take any part in what you think to be wrong. H. LESSONS FOE OLDER PUPILS. 1. Choice of Occupation. Precepts. 1. First consult your capacity ; your inclination will come of it- self. 2. Every occupation has its peculiar burdens and disadvantages. 3. Any lawful occupation may lead to success. 4. Whatever you undertake to do, strive to do it to the best of your ability. 5. Aspire to the highest rank in whatever occupation you engage. METHODS OF TEACHING. Note. Teachers will find many excellent extracts to be read to a class in Smiles's Self-help and Smiles's Biogra- phies. 2. Industry. Maxims. 1. Idleness is the mother of vice. 2. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 3. A young man idle is an old man needy. 4. Industry makes all things easy. Note. Teachers will find interesting extracts in Frank- O tin's Autobiography, or Parton's Life of Franklin. 3. Economy. \. Spend less than you earn. 2. Be economical, but not mean, or stingy, or avaricious. 3. Be prudent and saving in youth as a safeguard against need in old age. 4. Personal independence depends largely on the possession of a competence. 4. Order. Precepts. 1. Put everything into its proper place. 2. Have regular hours for work, study, and play. 3. Make it a point of honor to keep your appointments punctually. 5. Kindness. Precepts. 1. Kindness is the sunshine of social life. 2. When you have wronged another, do not hesitate to apologize. 3. In conversation, avoid blunt contradictions. 4. A cheerful, pleasant countenance is a good letter of introduc- tion. PRACTICAL LESSON 8 IN SCHOOL ETHICS. 325 6. Ethical Virtues. [As classified by l)r. Fricke.] I. VIRTUES OF CHARACTER. Cardinal Virtues. Justice, Love [Kindness]. 1. Justice : Out of which grow : Self-denial. ( Self-knowledge. Temperance. Sumcctwe. { ~ , ( Self-restraint. Moderation. 1 Honesty. Fidelity. Truthfulness. Obedience. Punctuality. Conscientiousness. Love [Kindness] : Whence proceed : Subjective. Self-respect. j Liberality. Kindness. Objective. < Charitableness. Forbearance. ( Friendliness. Forgiveness. Determination, Impartiality. Unselfishness. Gratitude. Patience. Frankness. II. VIRTUES OF TEMPERAMENT. f Seriousness. Desire to learn. Intrepidity. Courage. Firmness. ( Cheerfulness. Gentleness. Modesty. Discretion. Contentment, --.;. oeriousm Subjective. < . .. . \ Activity. ( CheerfulL Objective. < _. , ( Calmness. III. ^ISTHETICAL VIRTUES. Order. Decency. Courtesy. Cleanliness. Dignity. Manners. THE END. VALUABLE AND INTERESTING WORKS FOR PUBLIC & PRIVATE LIBRARIES, PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK. For a full List of Books suitable for Libraries published by HABPKE & BROTHERS, see HARPER'S CATALOGUE, which may be had gratuitously on application to the publishers personally, or by letter enclosing Ten Cents in postage stamps. 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