OF THE 
 
 UNIX 
 
 OF 
 
 
f 
 

 Pt. o t i n Co ttb n.. 
 
A Uoofc for Every Cultivator of the Soil Adapted 
 to the Great Staples. 
 
 WALL'S 
 
 SOUTHERN UNITED STATES, 
 
 BY 
 
 MAJOR B. a. WALL, OF MISSISSIPPI, 
 \\ 
 
 PRACTICAL PLANTER, 
 
 3 raduate of the Virginia Military Institute; late Civil Engineer and Su- 
 perintendent on the Southside and the Mississippi Central 
 Railroads ; and during the late war, Major in the 
 18th Regiment of Virginia Volunteers, 
 (Gen. Lee's) Army Northern 
 Virginia. 
 
 tor MEMPHIS: 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN PUBLISHING COMPANY, 361 MAIN STREET. 
 1870. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 
 
 MAJOR E. G. WALL, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the United States Court for the District of 
 West Tennessee. 
 
5 
 
 TO THE HEADER. 
 
 ^Thc authorj in submitting this MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 
 to the people of the Southern States, hopes to meet the almost 
 Universal desire for information upon' the subject of which it 
 treats. It is due to the public, that the author should distinctly 
 state, that the facts, illustrations, experiments > and information 
 herein contained, have been drawn from the most recent and 
 reliable authorities, and from his own experience as a farmer. 
 Credit is given in the introduction to the authorities quoted, 
 and, also, to some extent, in the body of the book, Not being 
 satisfied with the best written authority, the author submitted 
 his manuscript to the inspection of Dr, E, ~W. HILGARD, 
 Professor of Chemistry at the University of Mississippi, and 
 late Geologist for the State of Mississippi, for revision and 
 correction with what result the accompanying Jitter testifies : 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI, OXFORD Miss., October 29, 1869. 
 MA*. E. G. WALLJ 
 
 Dear Sir I have perused With much pleasure the manuscript of your 
 FARMER'S MANUAL. Combining, as it does, sound theory with correct 
 practice, it cannot fail to be eminently useful to the class for whom it is 
 designated the old-time planter, as well ns the new-comer, who never 
 eaw cotton, tobacco, or sweet potatoes, grow* It is high time that all 
 agriculturists should understand that they have as much need of 
 "using their brains," as you express it, as the carpenter, the masonj 
 or any other artisan; indeed, from the more varied nature of the 1 
 materials they work, the necessity for a full understanding of the object 
 of each agricultural operation, and the exercise of a discriminating 
 judgment, is even greater, if they would not be left behind in the race of 
 progress. I trust your little book will go far towards opening the eyes of 
 
 M370460 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 the candid opponents of "Book Farming" amongst us to the fact that 
 scientific agriculture consists, not in the indiscriminate practice of Utopian 
 notions, but in working according to the best lights afforded by the 
 combined experience of past ages. And so I wish the forthcoming volume 
 
 God speed! 
 
 Very respectfully yours, 
 
 EUG. W. HILGARD. 
 
 The author is not unmindful of the ordeal through which 
 his work must pass, yet he confidently trusts its merits will, in 
 consequence, the more fully appear, whilst its faults will prove 
 such as rather to stimulate investigation, and thereby improve 
 the general stock of knowledge upon the subject of which it 
 treats. 
 
 Respectfully, etc., 
 
 E. G, WALL, Mississippi. 
 
PA.RT I 
 
 CHAP TEE I. 
 
 THE REASONS WHY A WORK OF THIS KIND SHOULD 
 BE READ. 
 
 Tho author of this MANUAL has endeavored to 
 supply a want deeply felt by himself in his first 
 experience as a farmer ; and, as far as his knowledge 
 now extends, this want still exists with many others. 
 All those who are about to enter upon the ennobling 
 pursuit of agriculture, and even those who have 
 had long experience as farmers, will find, we are 
 persuaded, embodied in the work, facts, experiments, 
 and illustrations, well worthy of their^most earnest 
 consideration. 
 
 In the present condition of the Southern States, 
 with labor fluctuating and uncertain, the high price 
 of provisions, and the thousand and one difficulties 
 which meet the farmer at every turn, renders it 
 absolutely necessary that he should call into requi- 
 sition all the aid which science, the arts, and the 
 experience of others, can yield him. 
 
 The author is aware that it is common for the 
 so-called "practical farmer" to sneer at and deride 
 the "book farmer;" with what justice one or two 
 examples will illustrate. Take, for instance, Dr. M. 
 W. Philips, of Hinds county, Mississippi. We find, 
 for thirty successive crops, made before the war, 
 that he averaged eight bales of cotton to the hand. 
 
C WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 His first crop, on freshly cleared land, was the least : 
 six bales to the hand ; his largest, thirteen bales to 
 the hand. His average per acre, throughout the 
 succession of years, was one bale to the acre of land 
 planted. Dr. Philips was a "book farmer." Now, 
 let us take another example : Mr. David Dickson, 
 from near Sparta, Georgia. Mr. Dickson, on old 
 cotton lands, by plucli and intelligence, has, since 
 the war, made an average of two thousand three 
 hundred pounds of seed cotton per acre. We say by 
 pluck, because it requires courage for any man to 
 change from the usual manner of making a crop, 
 and to spend twelve dollars per acre for fertilizers to 
 bring his land up to the point of making a bale and 
 one- fourth to the acre. We say intelligence, for it 
 requires brains in any man to so manure and work 
 his lands as to brine: about such results. He not 
 
 O 
 
 only produced these crops, but left his land in a 
 greatly improved condition for succeeding crops. 
 
 The question naturally presents itself to the mind 
 of every intelligent farmer : By what means can my 
 lands be made to produce such crops? We answer: 
 By pluck and brains ; courage to procure fertilizers, 
 and intelligence to apply them. It requires no 
 small decree of courage to face the ridicule of our 
 
 o o 
 
 neighbors, for if we should happen to fail in but one 
 experiment, although we may have succeeded in 
 twenty, we w T ill be laughed at. 
 
 For the encouragement of all who wish to try 
 experiments, we will tell how some of the greatest 
 inventors and experimenters of the world have been 
 laughed at and derided. Watt, the inventor of the 
 s'eam engine, was thought to be deranged, and his 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 friends wished to place him in a mad- house. This 
 powerful agent, steam, in a little more than a half a 
 century, is whirling people over the land at the rate 
 of from twenty to fifty miles per hour. Steamships 
 cross the Atlantic Ocean in eleven to thirteen days, 
 when in former times it took a sail- vessel from six 
 weeks to three months to make the passage from 
 ]STew York to Liverpool. Morse, the inventor of 
 the magnetic telegraph, how was he treated? He 
 appeared before the Congress of the United States 
 with his models and plans ; he informed that body of 
 statesmen that by means of a magnetic battery, an 
 insulated wire, and an instrument, he could send a 
 message by electricity from Washington City to 
 Baltimore in an instant of time. Congress gave him 
 no encouragement ; one of its sapient members said, 
 "he wished to send a message to the man in the 
 moon." In less than six months afterwards, messages 
 were flying on the " wings of the lightning " to and 
 from all our most important cities. Now, in about 
 one- fourth of a century, the world itself is belted by 
 this wonderful wire, and messages are sent from San 
 Francisco, California, to London, England, a distance 
 of six thousand miles, in two minutes. Then, why 
 fear ridicule ? You can say with Dr. Philips and Mr. 
 Dickson, " he who wins can laugh." 
 
 To the mind of every intelligent farmer, it must 
 occur that some change is necessary in our system of 
 agriculture. 
 
 It is the object of this work to collect together 
 and compile facts, experiments, and illustrations, in 
 such a form that they can be applied practically, to 
 the every day work of the farm. The time has 
 
8 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 arrived when it is cheaper and better to renovate 
 old, and comparatively worn out lands, than to clear 
 fresh lands. No country on the face of the wide 
 earth begins to improve permanently in agriculture 
 until that time has arrived. As long as fresh fields- 
 can be cleared, and wood land is cheap, the farmer 
 will abandon his old lands rather than improve 
 them ; but now, when it costs more to clear one acre 
 than improve it, we may confidently expect to see 
 great improvement in farming. 
 
 Nothing pays the farmer a better per centage on 
 the investment than manure. The best farmer is not 
 he who cultivates the largest number of acres to the 
 hand, but he who raises the best and largest crops upon 
 a given number of acres. The soil is somewhat like 
 the man or beast work it without nourishment it 
 dies, or becomes worthless. The subject of improv- 
 ing the soil is now engaging the most earnest 
 attention of our best farmers, and wherever manure 
 has been intelligently applied it has paid at least one 
 hundred per cent, upon the investment. 
 
 The farm is a great laboratory, and all those 
 changes in matter, w^hich it is the farmer's chief 
 business to produce, are of a chemical nature ; hence 
 the value of at least a limited knowledge of chemical 
 laws. The farmer breaks up and pulverizes his soil 
 with the plow, harrow, and hoe, for the same reason 
 that the practical chemist powders his minerals with 
 pestle and mortar to expose the materials more 
 perfectly to the action of chemical agents. 
 
 To determine the best method of improving the 
 soil ; to economize the natural sources of fertility ; 
 to test the purity and value of commercial manures. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 9 
 
 and beds of marl and muck ; to mingle composts, 
 and adapt them to special crops; to improve the 
 quality of grain and fruit ; and to rear and feed 
 stock in the best manner, farmers require at least a 
 degree of knowledge of chemistry* Nor can they, as 
 a class, much longer afford to be without it; for it 
 has always been found that the application of 
 scientific principles to any branch of industry puts 
 power into the hands of the intelligent, to drive 
 ignorance from the field of competition, 
 
 As an illustration of the foregoing remarks, let us 
 examine one of the investigations of Dr, Sprengel 
 in reference to rust in wheat The close and long 
 continued researches of Dr. Sprengel led to the 
 conclusion that an excess of iron- salts, and especially 
 of the phosphate of iron, greatly favored the growth 
 of red-rust on the leaves and stalks of wheat, and 
 other cereals, A soil in the vicinity of Brunswick, 
 that did not lack drainage, but lime, was remarkable 
 for growing wheat and barley, always attacked, and 
 generally blighted, by rust. A quantity of this soil 
 was taken into a field generally free from this 
 ruinous parasite, to form an artificial soil fifteen 
 inches in depth. Wheat planted in this soil was 
 badly injured by rust, while that grown all around it 
 in the same field was free from the malady. Dr. 
 Sprengel, by careful analysis, found a fraction over 
 a half per cent, of the phosphate of iron in the soil, 
 with only a trace of lime uncombined with silicic 
 acid. As free lime will take phosphoric acid away 
 from iron, and indirectly convert iron into the 
 harmless peroxide, and at the same time produce a 
 1* 
 
10 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 valuable fertilizer, the phosphate of lime liming was 
 prescribed, and ihe cure was perfect. 
 
 To decry such investigations by skillful chemists, i 
 to defy the laws of nature, an occupation which finds 
 too much favor with farmers, who do not make use 
 of the brains God has given them, 
 
 As discoveries multiply, and information becomes* 
 diffused, those farmers who decline to inquire into 
 the principles which govern their vocation, will have 
 occasion to groan more deeply than ever over the 
 unprofitableness of agriculture. 
 
 In all parts of the brief outline here given, the 
 author will aim to be as concise as is consistent with 
 clearness. Much that w r ill be written is intended as 
 merely suggestive. The leading design is to present 
 the great principles of science which are clearly 
 connected with agriculture - T and to show how these 
 principles are involved in the daily operations of 
 the farm. 
 
 It is hoped that the farmer will find many things 
 so presented to his mind as to inspire him with 
 renewed ardor in his honorable profession, and at the 
 same time enable him to pursue it with increased 
 pleasure. No profession or business can ever give 
 much mental satisfaction to the man engaged in it r 
 unless he has, first, a clear view of the principles 
 w T hich form the basis of his operations ; and secondly, 
 a distinct understanding of the relation between these 
 principles and his own practice. 
 
 The author, in writing and compiling this work, is 
 greatly indebted to Dana's Muck Manual, Camp- 
 bell's Agriculture, Waring' s Elements of Agriculture, 
 Norton's Chemistry, Youmaii's Chemistry, Rogers 7 
 
O F A G R I C U L T U R E . 11 
 
 Chemistry, and various Agricultural Reports of the 
 Patent Office. 
 
 The author hereby acknowledges his deep and 
 lasting obligation to Dr. Eugene AY. Hilgard, formerly 
 Geologist of the State of Mississippi, and now Pro- 
 fessor of Chemistry in the University of that State, 
 at Oxford, for his kindness in revising the Chemical 
 part of this work, and for the information and aid 
 received from his able and interesting Report of the 
 Geology and Agriculture of Mississippi, made in 18GO. 
 
 The author also expresses his gratitude to Dr. 
 Smith, the Analytical Chemist for the State of 
 Mississippi, for his kindness in comparing the 
 analyses of the plants contained in this work, with 
 the analyses of the same plants as published in 
 Professor Liebig's recent work on agriculture, and 
 not yet translated into the English language. 
 
 Hoping to meet the almost universal demand for 
 information on the subject of agriculture at the 
 South, the author respectfully submits this book 
 to the reading and thinking farmer, and to the 
 public at large. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SOURCES FROM WHICH PLANTS DERIVE THEIR NOURISH- 
 MENT. 
 
 It has been ascertained by analysis that plants are 
 composed of two sets of elements : the "organic ele- 
 ments," which are volatile, and disappear during com- 
 
12 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 bustion; the "inorganic, or mineral elements," which 
 remain after the burning of the plant, and constitute 
 allies. These two classes seem equally necessary to 
 the healthy growth and full development of the plant. 
 They are the food of the plant, as they are taken up 
 by it while growing. 
 
 Plants do not get ALL their food from the soil on which 
 they grow, as many suppose. The soil and the air 
 both furnish nourishment to growing crops. Through 
 its roots the plant is in constant contact with the soil, 
 and through its leaves it is in contact with the air. 
 The roots are so constructed as to be able to take up 
 from the soil such food as is required from that source, 
 whenever it is found there in proper condition. But 
 all substances absorbed by the roots must be rendered 
 soluble, as the organs can take up matter only in a 
 liquid form. 
 
 The mineral elements, being non-volatile, are not 
 found in the air; therefore, they must be derived from 
 the soil alone. Besides these, the soil must have a 
 sufficient quantity of water or acids to dissolve what- 
 ever is required by the plant. The soil also, generally, 
 contains a considerable quantity of organic er veg- 
 etable matter. This vegetable matter, when 3 well rot- 
 ted, is called " HUMUS, or MOLD." 
 
 Whence do plants obtain their organic elements ? 
 These, as we will show hereafter, are chiefly four 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The carbon 
 of plants is derived chiefly (but not entirely) from 
 carbonic acid. This gas is one of the constituents of 
 the atmosphere, whether the air is collected on the 
 top of the highest mountain or in the lowest valley. 
 Plants have the power of absorbing carbonic acid gas 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 13 
 
 through their leaves. When vegetable matter in the 
 soil undergoes decay, this gas is freely generated, and, 
 being absorbed by the water in the soil, is conveyed 
 abundantly to the roots of growing plants. As rain 
 decends through the air, it absorbs a considerable 
 quantity of carbonic acid gas, and conveys it to the 
 soil. Thus, we find both the atmosphere and the soil 
 to contain carbonaceous food for plants. Whether 
 the carbonic acid is absorbed by the roots or the 
 leaves of the plant, it circulates through the plant in 
 solution in the sap ; and under the influence of light it 
 is decomposed, the plant retaining the carbon and 
 throwing off the oxygen through its leaves. This action 
 goes on more rapidly under the direct rays of the 
 sun. 
 
 Hydrogen and oxygen are supplied to plants in the 
 form of water. All vegetable compounds contain 
 hydrogen and oxygen in the same proportion as they 
 unite in forming water. The leaves of plants can absorb 
 water from the air ; the roots always absorb it from 
 the soil. 
 
 Nitrogen is not so abundant in plants as the other 
 three organic elements ; but it is no less important, 
 and even essential, to their growth. Ammonia is, no 
 doubt, the chief source from which plants get their 
 nitrogen. Nitric acid, in the nitrates, and other 
 nitrogen compounds, are doubtless sources from which 
 this important element is often derived. Ammonia 
 is the great source of nitrogen in the vegetable world. 
 Hence the great value of Peruvian guano. 
 
 Ammonia is found both in the atmosphere and the 
 soil. From the atmosphere it is carried down by the 
 rain and snow. In the soil it is formed by the decay 
 
14 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 of sucli animal and vegetable compounds us contain 
 nitrogen. It is absorbed and retained by the clay 
 and humus or mold in the soil. Some plants are 
 believed to absorb it through their leaves, from the 
 air; but in most cases it enters through the roots 
 from the soil. 
 
 Although nitrogen is so abundant as the chief con- 
 stituent of the atmosphere, yet it rarely or never 
 enters directly, in its pure gaseous form, into the 
 plant. In contact with decaying vegetable matter in 
 the soil, nitrogen, in the form of air, unites with 
 hydrogen, forming ammonia. The ammonia formed 
 in this way, as well as that formed by the decay of 
 animal matters, are again decomposed by strong bases, 
 such as lime, potash, soda, etc. j the nitrogen becom- 
 ing oxydized, forms nitric acid (aquafortis), while the 
 hydrogen combining with oxygon, becomes water. 
 
 The nitric acid, or aquafortis, generated as above, 
 combines with whatever bases may be present in the 
 soil, forming nitrates. Thus are formed the nitrate of 
 potash, of soda, of lime, etc. Nitre, or saltpetre, is 
 thus often formed in cultivated lands, whence it passes 
 into the juices of plants. This fact can be illustrated 
 thus : it is a w T cll known fact that beets and tobacco 
 grown upon strongly manured land, and also rank 
 plants growing on manure heaps, such as henbane, 
 thorn-apple, etc., contain so much nitre, that when 
 dried they emit sparks, when burning, like paper 
 w r hich has been dipped into a solution of saltpetre. 
 
 Nitric acid is also naturally formed by the passage 
 of electricity through the atmosphere. The air con- 
 sists of nitrogen and oxygen mixed together. When 
 an electric current is passed through a quantity of 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 15 
 
 air, a portion of the two gases unite together chem- 
 ically; so that every spark that passes, a small portion 
 of nitric acid is formed. This effect can be produced 
 by an electrical machine. A flash of lightning is 
 nothing more than a large electric spark ; and hence, 
 every flash that crosses the air, produces along its 
 path nitric acid. When thunder-storms are frequent, 
 much nitric acid and some ammonia is formed in this 
 way. They are washed down by rains, in which 
 they have been frequently detected, and thus reach 
 the soil, when the acid combines with potash, soda, 
 lime, etc., and form nitrates. 
 
 The soil and the air, then, are the great fountains 
 of nourishment for the vegetable world. The soil 
 provides for the mineral matter carbonic acid, humus 
 or mold, water, ammonia and nitric acid. The air. 
 too, provides all these, except the mineral matter, 
 and humus or mold. 
 
 CHAP TEE III. 
 
 HOW PLANTS VEGETATE AND GROW. 
 
 Plants and animals constitute the two great depart- 
 ments of organic nature. They consist of those 
 organs necessary to sustain life, to promote growth, 
 and to reproduce their own species. Plants, as well 
 as animals, are endowed with vitality ; but they differ 
 from animals in not possessing sensation. Skillful 
 cultivation always increases the productiveness of 
 
1C \V A L L ; S MANUAL 
 
 plants, and in many cases improves their quality to 
 such an extent as to render what was once worthless 
 now highly valuable. Apples, potatoes, and toma- 
 toes, are examples of plants reclaimed from a wild 
 and almost worthless state, to one of the highest value 
 and importance. 
 
 GERMINATION. 
 
 The plant is first found as a germ in the seed from 
 which it springs. For example : place a bean in warm 
 water, and let it remain a few hours until it becomes 
 swollen ; then separate the two lobes of which it is 
 formed, you will discover, near what is called the 
 " eye," the germ, consisting of two parts, one to bo 
 developed into roots and the other into the stalk and 
 leaves of the plant. When a seed is placed in a moist, 
 warm soil, it soon begins to swell and absorb water, 
 and also oxygen from the air mingled with the soil. 
 A chemical change begins at once within the seed, by 
 which the material of the grain is so modified as to 
 become the food of the young plant. By fermenta- 
 tion the starch and gluten in the seed become soluble, 
 and enters into the circulation of the germ, which 
 begins to expand and soon bursts the seed. It 
 "sprouts," sending forth two branches, one of which 
 turns downward and puts forth roots; the other 
 turns upward, to seek the light and air, and is soon 
 developed into the stalk and leaves. In the mean- 
 while the grain has been consumed, the plant being 
 now able to obtain nourishment from the soil, through 
 its roots, and from the air, through its blades or 
 leaves. 
 
 The covering of the seed is called its integument 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 17 
 
 (bran); the starchy part within the "bran," and sur- 
 rounding the gemij is called the albumen. The integu- 
 ment and albumen together form the seed-lobe. When 
 
 3 
 
 a seed consists of only one lobe, it is called a one-lobed 
 plant, as Indian corn. If the seed has two lobes, as- 
 the bean, the plant is called a two-lobed plant. 
 
 The stems of plants whose seeds have only one 
 lobe, increase in size by internal growth. Such plants 
 are called endogens'. The stems of plants whose seed 
 have two lobes, generally grow by the formation of 
 layers on the outer part of the stem, immediately 
 beneath the bark, or by external growth. These are 
 called exogens. The grasses, wheat, corn, palms, and 
 plants generally having the veins of their leaves par- 
 allel, are endogens. Beans, peas, and the trees and 
 shrubs of our forests are exogens. 
 
 Tissues of Plants. The various organs of plants are 
 composed of different kinds of structure, called tissues. 
 These are made up of fibre or membrane; or both 
 together. There are five kinds of tissue : first, cellu- 
 lar tissue ; second, woody tissue ; third, vascular tis- 
 sue ; fourth, vasiform tissue; fifth, laticiferous tissue. 
 Cellular tissue is composed of minute cells, resting 
 upon and pressing against each other, so that the sidc^ 
 where they meet become flattened, and give to the 
 cell a somewhat regular form. Woody tissue lias a 
 fibrous structure, the fibres being in the form of slen- 
 der tubes overlapping each other at their extremities. 
 It is this structure which gives strength to wood, and 
 various kinds of fibrous materials used in the arts, 
 such as flax, hemp and cotton. Vascular tissue 
 resembles the woody in external form, but (lifters in 
 having a long, slender fibre coiled within it from end 
 
18 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 to end. Vasiform tissue consists of tubes much larger 
 than those of the woody fibre. These tubes may 
 be seen in the cross- section of oak wood. It is 
 chiefly through these that the sap passes in ascending 
 from the roots to the leaves. Laticiferous tissue con- 
 sists of very small tubes and cells, found most abun- 
 dantly in bark and leaves. After the sap has been 
 prepared in the leaf for nourishing the plant, it is 
 called latex. Those vessels of the leaf in which this 
 preparation or elaboration goes on, and those which 
 afterward convey the latex back to the part of the 
 plant to be nourished^ by it, arc formed of the lati- 
 eiferous (latex) tissue. 
 
 These various kinds of tissues hold and transmit 
 the fluids of the plant, the different tubes and cells 
 having no communication with each other except 
 through minute pores. These vessels are sometimes 
 charged with liquid matter, and sometimes with gases. 
 
 BarL The bark is the external covering of the 
 plant, and may be regarded as enveloping every other 
 part of it, except the extremities of the roots and the 
 stigma of the flowers. The outer bark is composed 
 chiefly of cellular tissues. The inner bark consists of 
 cellular and woody tissues. There are little openings 
 in the outer bark called stonata (mouths). These are 
 very minute, requiring the aid of the microscope to 
 see them. They are most numerous on the surface 
 of leaves on parts of the plant of recent growth. 
 These mouths perform important offices, in taking up 
 moisture and gases from the air. 
 
 Glands are minute masses of cellular tissues, of 
 various forms, and situated in various parts of the 
 plant. Their office is to elaborate and discharge the 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 19 
 
 peculiar secretions of the plant. The germs, oil, etc., 
 are secreted by glands. 
 
 ROOTS. 
 
 The roots serve the double purpose of sustaining the 
 plant in its proper position and of absorbing from the 
 soil its appropriate food. Their office being some- 
 what similar to that of the mouths of animals, they 
 take in both food and water. 
 
 Eoots have a great variety of form : first, the ramose, 
 or branching, as those of trees or shrubs ; second, the 
 spindle, as the radish or parsnip ; third, tuberous, closely 
 resembling the potato, formerly regarded a tuberous 
 root; but the proper tuberous root has no eyes or 
 buds, while the potato has, and. therefore, is properly 
 classed with the underground stems ; fourth, fibrous. 
 Wheat, corn, and most of the grasses have fibrous 
 roots; Indian corn has, in addition,, a still different 
 kind of root, called brace roots. They serve to sup- 
 port the plant, and at the same time collect nourish- 
 ment from the soil. 
 
 Parts of the Hoot. Tap root is the main body of 
 the root, generally descending vertically into the soil. 
 The fibrils are branches off from the tap root, often 
 passing into many subdivisions. The soft, spongy, 
 pulpy points of the branch roots are the mouths, 
 through which the plant absorbs its food from the 
 soil. 
 
 THE S T E M . 
 
 * The ascending of the stem, and the descending of 
 the tap root, seem to be owing chiefly to the mys- 
 terious influence of light. This can be shown by cxperi- 
 
20 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 ment, in this manner : plant seeds in a box of soil, 
 with straw or moss spread over it, and narrow strips 
 of wood placed over all, so that the contents of the 
 box will not fall out when inverted ; turn the open 
 side downward over a mirror or a bright surface of 
 tin, so that the light will reach the soil only from below, 
 and the seeds will germinate, the stem will descend 
 toward the light, whilst the roots will ascend into the 
 dark soil above it. 
 
 Functions of the Stem. These are : first, to convey 
 the sap from the roots to the leaves, where it is prepared 
 for the nutrition of the plant, and thence to carry it 
 to the various parts to be nourished by it ; second, to 
 sustain the leaves, flowers, and fruits, so as to expose 
 them properly to the action of air and light. 
 
 THE LEAF. 
 
 The leaf combines, in an eminent degree, the useful 
 and the beautiful. The almost countless shapes, 
 from the straight and slender blade of grass to the 
 deeply lobed oak leaf, and the broad palm, present to 
 the eye a wonderful variety of nature's handiwork. 
 The green color, the most pleasant to the eye, seems 
 to have been provided by a wise Providence to soften 
 the bright glare of a summer's sun, and thus pro- 
 mote the comfort of His creatures. To the plant itself 
 the leaf boars the most important relation. It is the 
 breathing organ of the plant its lungs, as also the 
 digestive organ its stomach. 
 
 Functions of the Leaf. When the pap of the plant 
 ascends from the root to the leaf, it carries with it in 
 solution a portion of the material necessary for the 
 nourishment of the growing plant, but this food is 
 
OF AGRICULTURE, 21 
 
 stili in a crude form, and too diluted to be adapted to 
 the purposes to which it is designed ; it must, there- 
 fore, undergo certain changes, These changes take 
 place in the leaves* The sap is condensed, that is, 
 the surplus moisture is thrown off, This takes place 
 through the pores of the leaf, and is similar to the 
 perspiration of animals* This is called inhalation* 
 The pores or mouth of the leaf are open in the light 
 and closed in the dark, 
 
 Plants derive a large proportion of their nourish- 
 ment from the air, through their leaves, in the form 
 of carbonic acid gas, and they at the same time 
 throw off oxygen, This inhalation of carbonic gas 
 and exhalation of oxygen is called respiration. It is 
 different from the breathing of animals, as the ani- 
 mal inhales oxygen and exhales carbonic gas. The 
 respiration of plants goes on chiefly by day, the 
 mouths or pores being opened by the influence of 
 light. When the carbonic acid gas enters the leaf it 
 is dissolved by the sap, and carried through the veins 
 of the leaf, when it is decomposed, its carbon being 
 retained by the plant, and its oxygen exhaled into 
 the air. 
 
 The food taken up by the roots of plants and car* 
 ried by the sap to the leaves, these meet the gaseous 
 food of the air, forming by their solution " crude sap.'* 
 This is changed by its circulation through the leaf, 
 if an abundant supply of light be present, The 
 changes which plant food thus undergoes is called 
 digestion, because of its resemblance to animal diges- 
 tion. When the sap has thus been prepared for 
 nourishing the plant it is called the "true sap^ It 
 is then conveyed by the circulating organs to the 
 
22 WALL'S M A N u A L 
 
 Various parts of the plant, and in some mysterious 
 way assumes the different forms of organic struc- 
 ture, producing stems and leaves, flowers and fruit. 
 
 FLOWERS AND FRUIT, 
 
 Growth, decay and death mark the history of 
 every individual upon the globe, whether plant or 
 animal. If, then, animals and plants possessed not 
 the power of reproduction, our world would become a 
 bleak and barren waste. The reproductive organs of 
 plants are found in the flower, which is the expan- 
 sion of the flower-bud. These by their combined 
 influence bring the seed to maturity, and thus pro- 
 duce the germ of the new plant. 
 
 The essential organs for the production of seed in 
 any plant are called the "stamen" and "pistil" They 
 are not always found in the same flower, They often 
 grow on different flowers on the same stalk. In 
 such cases the flowers containing the stamens are 
 called "stamenitc" and those containing the pistil are 
 called " pistilate" For example, Indian corn has its 
 stamens in the tassel, and its pistils in the ear- shoot. 
 The tassel then is stamenite flower, while the shoot 
 with its silk is the pistulato flower. The stamenite 
 is barren, the pistilate produces seed. 
 
 The end to be accomplished by the stamens and 
 pistils is to fertilize the seed. Pollen is produced in 
 the anthus of the stamens, which in the proper sea- 
 son fall upon the stigma of the pistils, Without the 
 pollen no seed would be produced. If we cut the 
 tassel off of an isolated stalk of corn before the silk 
 has appeared, no seed can be produced. But if other 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 lasaels are near at hand to provide pollen, the stalk 
 may produce an ear without a tassel of its own. 
 
 The fruit consists of two parts, the pulpy matter 
 which surrounds the seed, and the seed which con- 
 tains the germ of the new plant. In the apple, 
 peach, etc,, the pulpy matter or "pericarp" is the 
 most valuable portion of the fruit. In the cereal, or 
 grain crops, the seed is the chief value the pericarp 
 or skin, being the chaif or husk. Albumen, or the 
 white, starchy mass, constitutes the larger part of 
 cereal grains, and serves not only as food for the germ 
 of the plant, but also constitutes a large proportion 
 of the food for man and beast. 
 
 To any one wishing to study the manner in which 
 plants grow, and their different parts and structure, 
 more fully, we would recommend some good work 
 on botany.* Our space only permits us to make use 
 of this brief exposition as the part most interesting to 
 the farmer. 
 
 CHAPTEE IY. 
 
 MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF THE SOIL. 
 
 As sand, day, oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, and 
 vegetable matter make up the body of all soils, wo 
 may reduce all soils into six general classes. Other 
 ingredients, such as potash, soda, phosphates and sul- 
 phtites are no less essential to a good soil, but they 
 
 *Prof. Gray's work on "How Plants Grow," or Prof. Johnston's "How 
 Crops Grow," are both excellent works on the subject. 
 
24 WALL'S M A N u A L 
 
 generally form only a small portion of the whole 
 mass. The classes we propose are 
 
 1. Sandy soil; such as have at least seventy- five 
 per cent, of sand. The quantity of sand may be 
 determined with considerable accuracy by very simple 
 means, Dry and weigh a pound of soil, and put it 
 into a vessel which will hold a gallon or two of water-. 
 Pour clean water over it^ and stir it up thoroughly, 
 then pour the water gradually off. The sand will 
 sink on account of its weight. 33y repeating the 
 Washing with portions of clear water, Until the water 
 passes off clear, the sand alone will be left, and may 
 be dried and weighed, and the quantity of sand in a 
 pound of soil determined. 
 
 2. A sandy loam is a soil which contains fifty to 
 seventy- five per cent, of sand, which may be separated 
 and determined as above* 
 
 3. A clay loam has twenty- five to fifty per cent* of 
 sand, and the remainder chiefly clay, 
 
 4. A clay soil has less than twenty- five per cent, of 
 sand, the remainder chiefly clay. The dark red clay 
 soils have a large per cent, of oxide of iron, 
 
 5. Any soil containing ten per cent, of lime or 
 more, may be considered a limy or calcareous soil, 
 whether remainder be clay or sand, or both. To 
 determine the amount of carbonate of lime in the soil, 
 heat two ounces of well dried soil, on a piece of sheet 
 iron, or in an iron ladle, till the vegetable matter is 
 burnt out* Then pour over it a pint of water, and 
 add a fluid ounce of muriatic acid. The acid will dis- 
 solve the lime, while it will dissolve very little else 
 from the mass. Wash the earth with clear water 
 several times, take the remainder, dry and weigh it, 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 2B 
 
 and the loss will be carbonate of lime. This is but a 
 rude experiment, but near enough for practical pur- 
 poses. 
 
 6, A peaty soil is one which contains twenty per 
 cent, of dark decayed vegetable matter. Such soils 
 -are common in low, swampy places. The quantity of 
 peat may be determined by burning out the vegetable 
 matter, and ascertaining the loss of weight. 
 
 Compactness is a quality of importance in a soil. It 
 must be sufficiently firm to hold the roots of growing 
 crops firmly in place, This is especially important 
 in wheat or grass crops, which are exposed to the 
 frosts of winter j yet it must not be so compact that 
 the roots cannot readily penetrate it, 
 
 The property of absorbing and retaining moisture 
 is important Clay loams and peaty soils absorb the 
 largest quantity of moisture, and retain it best, es- 
 pecially those peaty soils which have a large excess 
 of organic matter in them. Pure clay soils are gen- 
 erally too compact, while sandy soils are too loose 
 cither to absorb or retain moisture. On level clay 
 soil the water will stand and become stagnant. This 
 as the case, also, with sandy or peaty soils, with a 
 <ilay subsoil, Under these circumstances draining is 
 necessary, 
 
 The air should be allow ed to circulate freely through 
 the soil-. It carries the elements of plant food con- 
 tained in it to the roots. Carbonic acid gas and am- 
 monia are both furnished in this way to a considera- 
 ble extent. It promotes the decay of vegetable mat- 
 ter present, and thus again provides food for plants. 
 The proper chemical changes in the mineral elements 
 of the soil are promoted by the carbonic gas and the 
 
26 W A L L ' S M A N U A L 
 
 oxygen of the air. How necessary then that the' 
 soil should be well plowed and well pulverized. 
 
 Three points must be kept distinctly in view in re- 
 ducing soils to their proper mechanical condition, viz ; 
 1st. They must be well pulverized, so as to allow the 
 roots of plants to spread and grow freely in every direc- 
 tion. 2d. They must permit a free circulation of air.- 
 3d. The water which falls upon the surface must be 
 readily absorbed, and have at the same time such free 
 circulation that any surplus moisture will pass off with- 
 out becoming stagnant., and loithout washing away the 
 surface soil. To accomplish these objects several 
 methods may be pursued, one or all of w r hich may be 
 employed, as the condition of the land, or other cir- 
 cumstances, may require. We will only describe the 
 methods best adapted to the farming operations in 
 our own "country. The most common and most eco- 
 nomical means of giving a soil its proper mechanical 
 condition, is plowing. The history of the world shows 
 that nations have prospered just in proportion to the 1 
 skillful use they have made of the plow . If two men, 
 with equal force and capital, are placed on contiguous' 
 farms of equal size and fertility, they will prosper 
 very much as they plow. The one who scratches the 
 surface to the depth of two or three inches, will soon: 
 find both his farm and himself growing poor, while 
 the one who breaks his land up to the depth of ten 
 or twelve inches, win soon find it necessary to "pull 
 down his barns and' build greater.' 7 
 
 Deep plowing is absolutely necessary on almost ev- 
 ery farm, in order to obtain the highest profit from 
 the soil. The reasons for this can be rendered plain 
 enough for any mind to understand in a few sen- 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 27 
 
 tences. 'The space in depth to which the roots of 
 crops penetrate, and from which they derive their 
 food is usually limited by the depth to which the plow 
 has run. Beneath that point, especially in clay soils, 
 the roots make, none or but little progress, The un- 
 broken subsoil which is compound of clay, is not easily 
 penetrated by rains. Hence, after the plowed masa 
 becomes saturated, the surplus water escapes over 
 the surface, carrying off the most valuable portions 
 of the soil, and leaving unsightly gullies behind. 
 Deep plowing tends to prevent washing, 
 
 A deeply broken soil is a storehouse for moisture, keep- 
 ing moisture in reserve for seasons of drought. When 
 the sun, the air and the growing crops have taken up 
 the surface moisture, some of the roots are still deep 
 down in the earth, where the supply is abundant. In 
 a deep broken soil a great deal of moisture rises to 
 the surface by capillary attraction, it brings with it 
 elements of fertility in solution, and as the evapora- 
 tion at the surface goes 011 these are left to aid in en- 
 riching the surface soil. A drought may thus improve 
 land which has been properly plowed. 
 
 The subsoil plow is designed to follow the ordinary 
 surface plow in the furrow left by the litter, By 
 this means the bottom of the furrow is broken and 
 pulverized, without being turned up. The surface plow 
 then throws its next furrow upon this loosened por- 
 tion of the subsoil, and so the process is continued 
 until the whole field is broken to the depth of from 
 twelve to fourteen inches. 
 
 There are various kinds of subsoil plows used, all 
 of which do good work. A common snakehead coul* 
 ter (so called at the South) extending fifteen inches 
 
28 w ALL'S MANUAL 
 
 below the beam, makes a very effective subsoil plow, 
 The wings of the head should be spread about four 
 inches and raised three inches* This implement will 
 do very effective work. 
 
 The benefits of subsoiling are similar to those of 
 deep plowing, already given, It also opens up a new 
 source of fertility, for the subsoil always contains 
 many substances needed as food for growing crops, 
 It gives a deeper space for the circulation and reten- 
 tion of air and moisture, It is akin to draining, if 
 the surface is level and of such character as to retain 
 too much water which falls 'on it, the broken subsoil 
 lets it pass off more freely from the surface- soil, 
 But on level land, in cases where there is a stratum 
 of stiff clay beneath the broken soil, there will be no 
 outlet for the surplus water, which will remain, as in 
 a shallow basin, Draining must precede subsoil plow- 
 ing, else the plowing will be of no avail. If land is 
 level, then subsoiling will bo of little service, unless it 
 be naturally or artificially drained* 
 
 One peculiar advantage subsoiling has over ordi- 
 nary deep plowing, is that it gives a deeply pul- 
 verized mass, without exposing upon the surface that 
 portion which is often unfit for such a purpose. If. 
 for example, the sub- soil is a tenacious clay, which 
 would quickly form a hard crust on the surface, it 
 had best not be turned up ; or if it is of lighter color 
 than the surface soil it would not absorb heat so 
 freely, and would in that respect be injurious. 
 
 In very many situations sub -soiling need not bo 
 resorted to, In very deep loamy and sandy soils it 
 is sometimes better to run two ordinary plows, the 
 one after the other in the same furrow the second 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 29 
 
 being set deeper than the first. In this way the sur- 
 face and sub -soil are inverted, to 'some extent, or at 
 least completely mingled ; and where the surface has 
 been exhausted by long tillage, its place is thus sup- 
 plied by fresh soil. Tbis method is called trench 
 plowing. 
 
 The harrow and cultivator are important aids to the 
 plow in reducing the soil to a more completely pul- 
 verized condition; in mixing fertilizers more entirely 
 with it; in giving a smooth surface to plant or sow 
 orops, and in covering the seeds of plants. The 
 roller is an important im.plem.3nt 0:1 many soils 
 When light sandy soils are cultivated in wheat or 
 other grains, the roller is frequently necessary to 
 render the surface sufficiently compact and also in 
 crushing clods. 
 
 D RAINING. 
 
 In a work of this kind a short notice only can be 
 made of this important subject. Any one wishing 
 to inform himself more thoroughly upon the subject 
 will find valuable information in the work by 
 Waring, " Draining for Profit and for Health," and 
 " Farm Drainage," by II. F. French, from both of 
 which I have derived important information herein 
 embodied. 
 
 The chief object of draining in agriculture is to 
 carry off the surplus moisture from the soil. Thou- 
 sands of acres of swamp lands have by this means 
 been reclaimed from otherwise utterly worthless con- 
 dition, and rendered extremely fertile ; while mil- 
 lions of acres lie yet unreclaimed in our Southern 
 State?, producing only loathsome reptiles and insects, 
 
30 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 together with fatal malaria, which often renders the 
 surrounding country almost uninhabited. Marshy 
 and swampy lands arc generally not fertile. First 
 Because the stagnant water excludes the air, and 
 causes the vegetable matter to be converted into 
 soluble vegetable acids in such quantities as to be 
 injurious to most plants. Such soils are said to be 
 " sour," and produce nothing but coarse, worthless 
 vegetation. Second The air is necessary to keep 
 up the proper chemical activity in the soil in order 
 to produce the necessary changes in its mineral 
 ingredients. Stagnant water prevents this by exclud 
 ing the air. Third Swampy lands are cold. Water 
 is very slowly heated, compared with soil. Hence 
 lands covered, or even saturated with water, are not 
 readily penetrated by the heat of the sun. Besides 
 this, the constant evaporation which goes on from 
 the surfrce of such lands carries off heat rapidly. 
 
 Draining, by admitting the circulation of the air, 
 promotes the proper kind of chemical changes, in 
 both vegetable and mineral substances, and thus 
 "sweetens" a "sour soil;" and by admitting heat 
 and checking evaporation, brings the soil under the 
 warming influences of the sun. 
 
 The decay of vegetable matter is hastened by 
 draining, and the soil rendered more porous. As 
 soon as drained lands become sufficiently dry for the 
 plow, they should be treated with a free dressing of 
 quick lime, or unleached ashes, to neutralize the excess 
 of vegetable acids, and then broken up to as great a 
 depth as possible to aid the circulation of air. 
 
 There are two modes of draining in common use. 
 The one by surface or open drains; the other by 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 31 
 
 blind or covered drams. The open drains consist of 
 one or more channels or ditches running through the 
 lowest part of the field. A natural channel or 
 branch often serves the purpose. The land can be 
 either bedded so as to run into these main ditches, 
 or, if necessary, cross ditches cut, emptying into the 
 main drains.. These cross drains should have as 
 much " fall " as possible on level land near their 
 mouths. The covered drains are in every respect pre- 
 ferable to the .open drains. They are constructed by 
 digging ditches from three to four feet deep, parallel 
 to one another, and leading into a larger or main 
 channel, like the open drains. But instead of being 
 left open, a tube or pipe is formed of tiles, broken 
 stones, timber or coarse brush is laid in the bottom 
 to carry off the water, and the ditch then filled up. 
 There are several points to be observed in the con- 
 struction of covered drains. If the land is level or 
 nearly so, the main channel should run along the 
 lowest part of the land to be drained, and should 
 have as much "fall" as possible toward the outlet 
 from the field. The side drains should run at right 
 angles (or as nearly so) to this, and with as much 
 "fall" as can be given them. If the land to be 
 drained is a hill side, the main drain should run along 
 the base of the hill, but have sufficient fall to carry 
 off the water freely. The smaller drains should run 
 directly down the slope into the main drain. 
 
 The distance apart that the side drains should be 
 placed depends upon the character of the subsoiL 
 In * stiff clay it would be best to place them from 
 twenty -five to thirty feet apart. But in a gravel ly, 
 platy soil, they may be often separated by a space of 
 
32 W A I, L 7 S M A N U A I* 
 
 fifty or one hundred yards. A large field, with a 
 sandy or pebbly substratem, has often been drained 
 by a single drain.. 
 
 The drains should be made as deep as the nature 
 of the soil and the "fall" will admit. Say from 
 thirty to thirty -six inches, or if possible, four or five 
 feet in depth. The great object in draining is to 
 remove the surplus water, and give free access of air- 
 to as great a depth of soil as possible. The roots of 
 crops are known to run to a great depth in soils 
 which are in a proper condition to be penetrated by 
 them. Indian corn has been known to send its roots 
 down to the depth of six feet. Clover has sent its 
 tap root down to the depth of forty-two inches. 
 These facts have been ascertained by actual experi- 
 ment. It will bo found that the tops of plants vary 
 nearly in proportion to their roots ; how necessary, 
 then, to furnish a deep, rich soil for the roots. When 
 marshy lands arc first drained they will not at once 
 be productive. Time must be allowed for the proper 
 chemical changes to take place, but these changes 
 may be greatly hastened by artificial means. The 
 application of quick lime or unleached ashes Avill help 
 to neutralize the vegetable acids always present, and 
 thus sweeten the soil. 
 
 Draining in clay soils is one of the best preventives 
 f drought. Stiff soils are generally very wet during 
 the winter and spring ;. the whole mass of plowed 
 earth is like a bed of mortar, and settles down very 
 compactly. If this land has been drained and sub- 
 soiled, the surplus water settles down at once and is 
 carried off by the drains, while during a drought 
 enough moisture soaks upward to supply the plants, 
 and keep them in a growing condition. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 33 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF THE SOIL, 
 
 Having considered the mechanical treatment of the 
 Boil, let us now take up the chemical treatment* -A 
 soil may receive all the attention possible in the way 
 of plowing, draining, etc,, and still not be productive, 
 It may lack the proper chemical elements necessary 
 to supply the wanti of the growing crop, 
 
 On the following page we give a comparative table 
 of ashes of crops, showing the exact quantity con- 
 tained in each crop : 
 
W A L L r S MANUAL 
 
 paoy 
 
 TIJOO 
 
 tl^IPPI 
 
 CC^H^ 
 
 SI 
 
 C^l 
 
 uses' oose 
 
 " 
 
 1--. r-t QO tq I- CO GS 10 i 
 
 gj ^"S ^^^ 
 
OF A G R I CULTURE. 35 
 
 From the foregoing table we can form an approx- 
 mate estimate of the mineral ingredients needed by 
 different plants. 
 
 If we examine the foregoing table, we see that the 
 mineral ingredients taken from the soil by different 
 plants are nearly all identical in kind, but vary con- 
 siderably in the proportions in which they enter into 
 the constitution of the ashes of different plants, or of 
 different parts of the same plant. That a soil may be 
 fertile for a particular crop, several chemical proper- 
 ties are essential. It must contain an excess of mineral 
 elements required by the crop, to allow the roots to 
 find an abundant supply in the limited spaces which 
 can be reached by the rootlets. This would, of course, 
 require in the whole mass of the soil much more of 
 each element than could be removed by a single crop. 
 The plant food must be in a proper chemical condition 
 to be taken up by the plant. For example : silica in 
 the form of sand cannot act as a fertilizer, because of 
 its insolubility ; but in such combinations as render it 
 soluble, it is one of the most important elements of 
 plant life. Wheat straw contains sixty- six per cent. 
 of silica or dissolved sand ; a corn- stalk, twenty- seven 
 percent. All the outer coating of wheat straw, corn- 
 stalks, oat straw, etc., is nothing but sand made soluble 
 by alkalies in the soil. 
 
 The soil must be free from an injurious excess of any 
 of the mineral elements of fertility. Too much mag- 
 nesia, or even too much carbonate of lime, may be 
 injurious ; as for instance, the chalk lands in England, 
 wjiich are among the least productive in that country, 
 and also the salty spots in various portions of the 
 Southern States. The vegetable acids are useful, but 
 
36 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 in large excess they become injurious, as, for example, 
 in a marshy, swampy piece of ground. 
 
 Vegetable matter in a state of decomposition is abso- 
 lutely essential to a high degree of fertility. In a soil 
 having the proper mineral elements alone, a plant may 
 come to maturity and bear seed, obtaining the neces- 
 sary organic food from the air, through its leaves and 
 roots; but & full crop cannot be expected in such a 
 case. A soil to be fertile, must contain both vegetable 
 matter and ammonia. 
 
 Let us place side by side the analysis of three soils 
 differing in quality. The first is fertile for all ordinary 
 crops without manure. The reason for this is manfest 
 in the presence of an abandance of those substances 
 found in the ashes of plants. The second is a soil 
 which produces well, with the application of plaster 
 er gypsum, furnishing lime and sulphuric acid, and 
 ashes furnishing potash and lime. The third is a poor 
 soil, requiring much manuring. 
 
 Fertile with 
 
 Fertile. Ashes and Plaster. Infertile. 
 
 Vegetable Matter 10.0() 5.RO 6.00 
 
 Potash 0.40 0.01 (deft) Deficient 
 
 Soda 0.20 0.20 Deficient 
 
 Lime 5.90 0.80 0.50 
 
 Magnesia 0.80 0.70 0.80 
 
 Oxide of Iron 2.10 4.00 8.00 
 
 Alumina or Clay 10.70 . 25.00 25.30 
 
 Phosphate of Lime 0.40 0.20 Deficient 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 0.30 Deficient Deficient 
 
 Carbonic Acid 0.00 0.00 Deficient 
 
 Silica or Sand C3.90 GO.OO 58.00 
 
 Chlorine 0.02 0.07 Deficient 
 
 It will be seen from the above analysis of a fertile 
 soil, that even such a soil may have but a small per 
 centage of several ingredients which are absolutely 
 necessary in the production of every crop. ~No crop, 
 for example, can be produced without potash and 
 phosphate of lime j and yet those form a very small 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 37 
 
 proportion of any ordinary soil. A single crop 
 takes away but little of any one ingredient, but still 
 repeated cultivation of similar crops for many years 
 must greatly diminish the supply of those mineral 
 elements found in the ashes of plants. Every bushel 
 of wheat, every bushel of corn, every bushel of 
 rye, &c., takes away phosphate of lime from the soil, 
 as also every bushel of cotton seed, if the seed is not 
 returned to the land as a manure for corn or cotton. 
 Then again, every fatted ox carries with him a good 
 many pounds of the phosphate of lime, to market, 
 which came from the soil upon which his food was 
 produced. Hence, this constant depletion must be 
 met by the application of bone dust, or phosphate 
 of lime. 
 
 The general experience of the world is that all 
 lands become exhausted by long continued tillage without 
 manure. The mineral elements become exhausted by 
 by improper cultivation. The vegetable matter or 
 mould in the soil is decomposed, and gradually disap- 
 pears. Unless fresh portions are supplied a deficiency 
 must result. Ammonia is still more rapidly exhausted. 
 The material supply of ammonia in the soil is not 
 abundant, while its volatility and chemical activity 
 causes it to be constantly escaping, or undergoing 
 changes of form and combination. Henue the 
 necessity of artificial fertilizers. 
 
 From what has been said of the physical and 
 chemical condition of soils, we may safely infer 
 they need fertilizers. A fertilizer is any substance 
 which, when applied to a soil, will preserve or increase 
 its productiveness. 
 
 Whenever, then, we would enrich a barren waste, 
 
38 w ALL'S M A N u A L 
 
 neutralize some unwholesome ingredient of the 
 soil, restore exhausted lands, or supply neglected 
 fertilizers, we must resort to the proper artificial 
 means. To do this intelligently, requires some 
 knowledge of the various fertilizers, their compo- 
 sition, mode of application, action, and influence. 
 This knowledge we will endeavor to embody in 
 the second part of this work, and hope we will 
 succeed in making it intelligible to every farmer. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 A STATEMENT OP LEADING FACTS. 
 
 We have found, from a chemical analysis of our 
 usual crops, the following fixed bases and acids, viz. : 
 
 Bases Potash, soda, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron, 
 and manganese 
 
 Acids Phosphoric, sulphuric, silicic, carbonic, and 
 hydrochloric (or chlorine). 
 
 These are always found in the ashes of plants. 
 They, therefore, must be in the soil in which the plant 
 grows, or in the atmosphere which surrounds the 
 plant. They are in the soil, in various combinations 
 with each other, or with matter which plants do not 
 take up. For example, some acids may exist in the 
 soil in combination with alumina, which is never 
 found in the ashes of plants. We rarely find potash 
 and soda combined with sulphuric acid ; we generally 
 find them in combination with silicic acid, from 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 39 
 
 which they arc slowly dissolved by the action of car- 
 bonic acid. 
 
 Phosphoric acid is generally found in combination 
 with lime in the soil, while in the ashes of plants 
 most of the phosphoric acid is in combination with 
 potash and soda. Sulphuric acid is found mostly 
 combined with lime in the soil. Magnesia is absorbed 
 by plants from its solution in carbonic or vegetable 
 acids. 
 
 Silicic acid is probably introduced into plants as a 
 silicate of potash or soda, or dissolved in carbonic acid 
 water. On the outer surface of all grasses or cereals, as 
 well as reeds and rattan, w r e find a layer of "silex" or 
 flint, derived, without doubt, from the solution of sand 
 or silex absorbed from the soil by these plants. These 
 plants owe their support to this flinty substance, as 
 they are wanting in woody fibre and solid heart 
 interior ; and this support is necessary to enable them 
 to bear their burden of grain and foliage, to strengthen 
 their sap vessels and protect them from the ravages 
 of mildew and insects. 
 
 On examining the usual constituents of the soil, w r e 
 find all the mineral ingredients of ashes sufficiently 
 abundant, excepting the alkalies and phosphoric acid. 
 It is safe, therefore, to mix a larger proportion of 
 these ingredients in the manure we wish to introduce 
 into the soil. They are to be found in ashes, guano, 
 and superphosphate of lime, which are ail known to 
 farmers as the most reliable of the saline manures. 
 
 A certain amount of vegetable mold, or humus, is 
 ^necessary to the formation of a good and enduring 
 soil; and, though saline manures will often, by them- 
 selves, produce a good crop on a poor and apparently 
 
40 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 exhausted soil, they do sometimes fail, owing to the 
 want of mold to retain moisture requisite to healthy 
 vegetation, as also to the production by slow decay of 
 carbonic acid gas required by the roots of the plant. 
 It is proper, on poor soils, to mix the salts with vegetable 
 composts. 
 
 When vegetable matters are allowed to undergo 
 changes in a moist soil, there are various products 
 formed during their fermentation, putrefaction, or 
 slow combustion. The first changes which take place 
 are, properly, those of fermentation, during which 
 soluble vegetable acids are formed, amongst them 
 acetic acid or vinegar, when the plants are rich in sugar. 
 During this stage of fermentation vegetable matters 
 act injuriously to plants, the soluble vegetable acids 
 being to most of them poisonous. If lime, potash or 
 soda be present in the soil, the acids unite with them, 
 and are neutralized. Hence the importance of using 
 these alkalies. 
 
 The next change is one of a different nature, in 
 which the fibre of the wood becomes brown and 
 rotten. Ulmic acid is now formed, and next humic. 
 It will thus be seen that all the processes of decay of 
 vegetable matter result in the formation of vegetable 
 acids and humus or mold, and by the action of the 
 air upon them, produces carbonic acid, which, in its 
 turn, acts upon the silicates and salts in the soil, or is 
 evolved as carbonic acid gas, which is absorbed by 
 the leaves of plants. 
 
 It is a well known fact that acid matters of all kinds 
 tend to decompose the minerals in the soil. Ulmic, 
 humic, and crenic acids readily act on rocks. This 
 has been proven by placing a piece of granite, lime- 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 41 
 
 stone, or other rock, in a peat or muck bog, where 
 these vegetable acids abound. The rocks, before 
 dark and solid, come out of the peat perfectly white ; 
 the granite has lost its felspar, and its mica is decom- 
 posed, and potash and soda extracted, while only the 
 pulverized mica remains. A rock containing lime is 
 soon deprived of the same, and cavities are left where 
 it formerly existed. In a similar manner all vegetable 
 mold acts upon the minerals in the soil, disengagign 
 from them their potash, soda, lime and magnesia. 
 
 A still further change takes place more readily in 
 cultivated soils, the slow decay of vegetable mold 
 
 J o 
 
 producing carbonic acid gas, which is also an active 
 decomposer of the silicates, freeing potash, soda and 
 lime, and is a great solvent of the carbonate of lime. 
 This decomposing agent is constantly at work during 
 the plowing of the soil; but it is not the only agent 
 operating to renovate the soil, for at the same time 
 the clay and mold arc engaged in absorbing the 
 minute quantities of ammonia which descends with 
 the falling rain or snow, or is in the air. Thus, a 
 complicated but beautiful exchange takes place among 
 the salts in the soil. 
 
 When we mix acids and alkalies together in the 
 soil, the result is neutral salts ; and since vegetable 
 acids have a great affinity for ammonia, with which 
 they readily combine, they prevent the escape of this 
 valuable gaseous manure, and preserve it in its most 
 available form as food for plants. It has been ascer- 
 tained, by experiment, that ammonia, in combination 
 with humic and other vegetable acids, is actually 
 absorbed and digested by plants. 
 
 Chemistry has verified and justified the experience 
 
42 W A L L ' S M A N U A L 
 
 of ages as to the importance of composting animal 
 and vegetable substances together in the manure heap, 
 so as to retain in proper combination the most valuble 
 fertilizers. But farmers are not generally informed as 
 to the reason for this operation, and often commit 
 grave errors by not knowing the principles involved. 
 Liquid manure from the stalls, or urine, is too often 
 allowed to escape and waste itself in drains, because 
 the farmer is not aware of the fact that it is as good 
 as a saturated solution of the best Peruvian guano, 
 containing ammonia-producing materials, phosphate 
 of lime, and all of the alkalies. It forms an excellent 
 ferment to mix with the vegetable matter of the 
 compost heap. 
 
 Caustic lime or fixed alkalies should never be intro- 
 duced into the manure heap consisting chiefly of 
 animal droppings, unless an abundance of vegetable 
 mold is ready to spread on it immediately, to absorb 
 the disengaged ammonia, by covering the heap with 
 a thick layer of it. The cases where lime is required 
 to be used are not {infrequent, as for instance, where 
 animal offal or night-soil is composted, the odor of 
 the manure heap would be insupportable; but by 
 throwing in a liberal supply of freshly slacked lime, 
 and covering the whole heap with a thick layer of 
 moist vegetable mold or rotten wood, all the ammonia 
 will be saved, and the compost be no longer offensive. 
 
 Concentrated fertilizers, such as guano, superphos- 
 phate of lime, and sulphate of ammonia, are now 
 extensively used by farmers. These concentrated 
 manures generally prove to be very efficient, but in a 
 very dry season their effects are not so valuable, unless 
 they have been composted with vegetable matter. All 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 43 
 
 stimulating, quick acting manures require vegetable 
 mold in the soil. This mold has a very great absorb- 
 ing power for moisture. 
 
 In many cases the farmer cannot obtain swamp 
 muck or peat, and hence, cannot follow the method 
 here recommended. He can, however, raise green 
 crops, say of peas, clover or buckwheat, and turn them 
 under, so as to form vegetable mold in the soil. When- 
 ever this is done, he may confidently rely upon a large 
 crop from the use of his concentrated fertilizers, since 
 the vegetable mold will retain sufficient moisture to 
 meet any ordinary drouth. 
 
 Ashes, when they can be obtained in sufficient quan- 
 tities, either fresh or leached, arc a very valuable 
 manure on sandy loams or dry soil of any kind ; but 
 they do not act so favorably on wet or cold clay soils. 
 On fine silicious sand soils, containing two or three 
 per cent, of vegetable mold, ashes alone are a perfect 
 amendment, capable of supplying food for plants for 
 a number of years. Guano and superphosphate of lime 
 would add greatly to the fertility of such a soil, with 
 an ordinary season, but would be liable to fail in one 
 of extended drouth, unless supported by an adequate 
 supply of vegetable mold. If so supported, they not 
 only make the crop grow with astonishing rapidity, 
 but hasten materially its maturity, say, often as much 
 as from fifteen to twenty-five days, in point of time. 
 
 It is a well ascertained fact that all substances which 
 will generate ammonia are known to be valuable 
 manures, for they supply nitrogen and other elements 
 wWch the plant has not the power to draw from the 
 atmosphere. Hence the advantage of, and sometimes 
 absolute necessity for, an artificial supply of nitrogen- 
 
44 w ALL'S MANUAL 
 
 ous substances to nearly all cultivated soils. We have 
 to furnish to the soil such ingredients as are needed 
 by plants, and which in many places are found quite 
 sparingly in the soil. These ingredients are phosphate 
 of lime, potash, soda, and ammonia which, with mold 
 and the other mineral manures already in the soil, 
 will produce plentiful crops. Other matters intro- 
 duced into the soil are classed as mechanical agents, 
 and effect, principally, the texture and physical 
 properties of the same. They frequently are as 
 valuable as the nutritive manures themselves, in 
 giving the soil its best mechanical qualities as to 
 structure, as dryncss or moisture, rctentiveness of 
 heat, and such a degree of porosity as to enable the 
 air to penetrate deep down into the soil. Charcoal 
 powder acts mechanically in absorbing ammonia and 
 moisture from the air, and also, by its color, in absorb- 
 ing the heat of the sun's rays, and retaining the heat 
 by imperfect conduction. Cbarcoal is undoubtedly a 
 powerful fertilizer, and one of great duration, as is 
 shown by the continued fertility of the places \\ here 
 the Indians built their camp-fires. On the banks of 
 James Eiver, in Virginia, more than two hundred 
 years ago, this evidence is strikingly shown. iSTothing 
 peculiar to these spots can be discovered, beyond the 
 admixture of large quantities of charcoal and oyster 
 shells with the soil. Carbonate of lime, shells, marl 
 or limestone, in excess, is also highly useful in any 
 soil; as it stands ready to take up any acid matter, 
 whether of vegetable or mineral origin, and on com- 
 bining with them, gives off carbonic acid, which goes 
 not only to decompose the silicates in the soil, but 
 also rises through it to nourish the foliage of plants. 
 
O F A G 11 1 C U L T U & E 45 
 
 Lime also decomposes the sand or silica directly, 
 displacing the alkalies and rendering the sand soluble* 
 Clay acts mechanically in giving consistency to the 
 soil, retaining moisture and absorbing ammonia from 
 the aii\ 
 
 CHAPTEE Til. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. 
 
 Charcoal^ in an agricultural sense, means all forms 
 of carbon, whether as peat, muck, charcoal, dust from 
 the spark- catchers of locomotives, charcoal hearths, 
 river and swamp deposits, leaf mold, decomposed 
 spent tan- bark, or saw- dust, etc> In short, if any 
 Vegetable matter is decomposed with the partial 
 exclusion of air, a portion of its carbon remains in 
 the exact condition to perform the best agricultural 
 offices of charcoal. This carbonaceous matter, when 
 properly applied to manures in compost, has the 
 following effects : it absorbs and retains the fertilizing 
 gases which evaporate from decomposing matter ; it 
 acts as a divisor, thereby reducing the intensity of 
 powerful manures, thus rendering them less likely to 
 injure the roots of plants, and also increases their bulk, 
 eo as to prevent fire-funging ; also in part prevents the 
 leaching out of the soluble parts of the ash, and keeps 
 the* compost moist, 
 
 With these advantages before us, we must sec the 
 importance of an understanding of the modes for 
 
46 W A L L ' S M A N U A L 
 
 obtaining charcoal. Many farmers are so situated 
 that they can obtain sufficient quantities of charcoal 
 dust ; and nearly all can obtain muck, or leaf mold, 
 To this we will now turn our attention, 
 
 MUCK OR VEGETABLE MOLD. 
 
 By muck, we mean the vegetable deposits of swamps 
 and rivers, It consists of decayed organic matter, 
 mixed more or less with earth. Its principal con- 
 stituent is carbon^ in different degrees of development, 
 remaining after the rotting of vegetable matter, 
 The dark, fat, arable soil, containing much partially 
 decomposed vegetable mold, is always considered the 
 best land. The farmer knows that, contrary to w T hat 
 happens in his woodlands, this vegetable matter 
 decreases in his fields, and so much the more rapidly 
 as the crops are more abundant ; he knows that fields 
 rich in vegetable mold are, as a general rule, more 
 fertile than those which are poor in the same. Accord- 
 ingly as this vegetable mold diminishes it must be 
 renewed in some way, or barrenness of soil is the 
 inevitable result. This mass of brown, decaying 
 matter is partly soluble, partly insoluble, partly acid 
 and partly neutral, which, with the uninterrupted 
 presence of air, water and heat, may be still further 
 decomposed, and carbonic acid and water thereby 
 evolved. 
 
 Carbonic acid and water are indispensable to the 
 nourishment of plants ; hence, in a soil rich in vege- 
 table mold the plants grow more vigorously, because 
 they find these ingredients ready to be absorbed by 
 their rootlets. Vegetable mold exerts a beneficial 
 influence upon vegetation in other ways. It loosens 
 
O & A G K I C U L T U R E f . 47 
 
 the soil by the development of carbonic acid; it 
 possesses the power of attracting moisture from the 
 air and of retaining it for a long time ; and by means' 
 of the acids which it contains, it is able to abstract 
 ammonia from, the air and also from manure ; hence 
 its value in the compost heap. 
 
 The way in which "muck,"' or vegetable mold, is 
 most commonly used in Virginia and the Northern 
 States is, to collect and store in a dry state, in some 
 convenient place near to the droppings of the stalls, 
 and theii, from day to day, to spread upon these" 
 droppings twice their bulk in muck. This mode of 
 preparation requires no special skill, and commends 
 itself to the practice of all. Any common laborer of 
 the farm can manipulate it; and it needs no adjuncts 
 from chemistry, nor from what are called "specific 
 manures." 
 
 Next to a compost of muck and barn manures, a 
 mixture of muck and ashes is the most common, and 
 by experienced persons is considered the most profit- 
 able. It is certainly one of the most convenient 
 mixtures, as ashes may be transported a considerable 
 distance with little expense. The farmer who does 
 not understand what the precise elements of ashes 
 are, generally accords to them the great merit as a 
 fertilizer, when really the small quantity used would 
 have but little effect if it did not act upon the 
 mold, or muck and render it available as food for 
 lants. The value of ashes to be used as muck is 
 often estimated as high as fifty cents a bushel, in 
 an imbleacbed state. About two bushels of good 
 unbleached ashes to the forty bushels of muck, is a 
 fair proportion. A compost of muck and oyster- 
 
48 w ALL'S MANUAL 
 
 shell lime has been used with much effect. If oyster- 
 shell lime cannot be obtained, the best unslaked 
 stone lime is the cheapest, because it is more effective 
 in the compost, and swells very much in bulk when 
 air-slacked for use, One bushel of lime to fifty bushels 
 of muck, with half a peck of salt dissolved in water 
 enough to slake the lime to a fine powder the lime 
 being slaked no faster than w T anted for use and 
 xspread immediately, while warm, over the layers of 
 muck, which should be a foot thick, is the best way* 
 Continue the heap in this w T ay until your materials 
 arc used up. In about three weeks a powerful decom- 
 position will be apparent, When this ceases the 
 compost is ready for use. The author has made, on 
 medium land,, forty bushels of corn to the acre, with 
 twenty wagon loads of this compost, using a shovel* 
 full of compost to the hill of corn, 
 
 A compost of twenty bushels of finely sifted muck 
 or mold, one bushel of Peruvian guano, one bushel 
 supcrphoshate of lime, the author has found to be a 
 Very active .fertilizer for corn, This amount was 
 applied to one acre of land at a cost of $7 50 per 
 acre. The land would have produced, without fer- 
 tilizing, about eighteen or twenty bushels of corn to 
 the acre. There was gathered forty- two bushels of 
 good merchantable corn from the acre by this extra 
 expenditure. About one-third of a pound of the 
 mixture was used to each hill of corn ; it was dropped 
 on the corn with a wooden scoop, so constructed as 
 to hold that amount of the mixture. 
 
 In the Southern States, where cotton seed is so 
 abundant, a compost of cotton seed, vegetable mold, 
 and land plaster (sulphate of lime) will make a rich 
 
O tf A G 11 1 'U L T "U ft . 40 
 
 and powerful fertilizer. Make the compost heap of 
 : such a size and shape to suit convenience, in the fol- 
 lowing manner-: A layer of cotton seed six inches in 
 depth, over which sow a light dressing of plaster, 
 then a layer of vegetable mold six inches in depth, 
 and so on, until the pile is as high as desired, taking 
 care to top off the heap with at least one foot of 
 mold. If the materials are very dry, the layers 
 should be dampened with a watering pot, such as 
 Used in gardens. In a few days fermentation will set 
 in, the lime and sulphuric acid in the plaster will eat 
 up the cotton seed, which, in two or three weeks, will 
 be entirely decomposed, while the vegetable mold 
 will absorb all the valuable gaseous ingredients given 
 -off by the heat of fermentation. This compost 
 should be made under shelter, but if not convenient 
 to do so, a thicker layer of mold should be placed 
 on top of the pile. Fifty bushels of this compost 
 will be equal to fifty bushels of fine cotton seed in its 
 fertilizing effect, and without the danger of killing 
 the young plants, as is often the case when cotton 
 seed alone is used. About one bushel of plaster 
 (sulphate of lime), and one bushel of ashes to twenty 
 bushels of cotton seed will be sufficient. 
 
 Dark loams or soils containing much vegetable 
 matter are but little benefited by the application of 
 muck. Such soils have long been favorable to vege- 
 tation, as they naturally abound in potash and other 
 ingredients upon which plants are lively feeders. 
 But even such land as this may be so constantly 
 cropped, and its products carried away without the 
 return of any equivalents that an application of 
 muck may become necessary. The author has known 
 
 o 
 
50 WALL'S MANTTA r, 
 
 hills and hill sides so badly treated as to become* 
 nearly barren of vegetation on the surface, and the 
 soil itself so sharp and sandy as scarcely to show a 
 vestige of vegetable matter ; but upon the applica- 
 tion of muck and . manure, muck and ashes, or muck 
 and lime composts, at the rate of fifteen to twenty 
 wagon loads per acre,, to produce again as liberal 
 crops as they did before their original fertility became 
 exhausted. 
 
 As to the quantity of muck tobe applied to the 
 acre, depends much on the circumstances of each 
 case no definite rule can be laid down. It may be 
 observed, however, that very large accumulations of 
 muck are not desirable on uplands. Ten or twelve 
 per cent, of the soil would be more beneficial than a 
 larger quantity. That amount, with the presence of 
 proper salts in the soil, would supply the plants as 
 well as if the quantity were indefinitely increased. 
 
 The time will come when the farmer will look upon 
 muck, or vegetable mold, as one of the most valuable 
 agents Nature has bestowed upon mankind. It will 
 be the most economical, and, next to charcoal dust, 
 the best absorbent '-to use in his stables, barns, sties, 
 sinks, reservoirs and cellars ; indeed it cannot be 
 dispensed with and leave any hope of profitable 
 farming. Steaming manure heaps should be covered 
 with it, to absorb^the gases ; floors of horse- stalls 
 should be sprinkled with it, as it readily absorbs 
 ammonia, and renders the air clastic and pure. 
 
 Leibig, the great German chemist, said he could 
 judge of the commercial prosperity of a nation by the 
 quantity of sulphuric acid it consumed ;. and Mr. Pusey, 
 a member of the British Parliament, said it was a good 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 51 
 
 index as to the degree of civilization of a people. So 
 we may judge of the character of an agricultural 
 nation by the amount and use of its muck heaps. These 
 muck piles are the bases of all permanent enterprise 
 in farming; they crown the hills with corn, and the 
 valleys with waving grain ; they clothe the fields 
 with grass and sprinkle the lawn with flowers ; fill 
 yielding branches with tempting fruits, freight ships, 
 load railroad cars, and cover our tables with the rich 
 productions of the earth. 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII, 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL STAPLES OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 Let us now* take Up the different crops cultivated 
 in the Southern States, and apply to each, separately, 
 the principles, facts, experiments and illustrations set 
 forth in this work. 
 
 IND IAN CORN, 
 
 As the first and most important crop, we take up 
 Indian corn, and discuss it. It may not be uninter- 
 esting to say something of the origin and history of 
 this valuable plant. There has been much written on 
 its Eastern origin. It did not grow in that part of 
 Asia watered by the Indus at the time of the expedi- 
 tion, of Alexander the Great. It is not among the 
 productions of the country mentioned by Nearchus, 
 the commander of the fleet; neither is it noticed by 
 
62 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 any of the ancient authors, and even as late as the year 
 1491 (the year before Columbus discovered America), 
 Joan de Cuba, in his "Ortus Sanatus," makes no 
 mention of it. It has never been found in any ancient 
 tumulus, sarcophagus or pyramid ; nor has it been 
 represented in any ancient painting, sculpture, or 
 work of art) except in America, But in this country, 
 according to La Vega, one of the earliest Peruvian 
 historians, the palace gardens of the Incas were 
 ornamented with maize^ in gold and silver, with all 
 the grains, spikes, stalks, and leaves, in its exact 
 and natural shape 'a proof no less of the wealth of 
 the Incas than of their veneration for the grain, In 
 further proof of the American origin of this plant, it 
 may be stated that it is found growing wild from the 
 Kocky Mountains, in North America, to the humid 
 forests of Paraguay, in South America, It is, more- 
 over, a well authenticated fact that maize was found 
 in a state of cultivation among the Aborigines on the 
 Island of Cuba at the time of its discovery by Colum* 
 bus, as well as other places in America first explored 
 by Europeans. 
 
 Analysis. We find the analysis of the ashes of the 
 grain and stalk of corn to be as follows : 
 
 Cotfn, Stalk 
 
 Grain of. of Corn. 
 
 potash 27.2 per cent, 28.G per cent. 
 
 Soda 5.3 " " 9.G " 
 
 Lime 1.4 ' 8.3 ' 
 
 Magnesia , 15.7 ' 6.6 '' 
 
 Oxide of Iron 3 of 1 per cent. 0.8 of 1 per cent. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime 47.0 per cent. 17.1 per cent. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 1.6 " " 0.7 of 1 per cent. 
 
 Silica 1.2 " " 27.0 per cent. 
 
 Chlorine 3 of 1 per cent. 
 
 100. 100. 
 
 Fertilizers Proper to its Cultivation. We can now 
 discuss intelligibly the mineral and vegetable manures 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 53 
 
 which should bo applied to the successful cultivation 
 of this important crop. 
 
 A crop of twenty bushels of corn to the acre will take 
 away from the soil a considerable quantity of the 
 "phosphate of lime;" hence at least one hundred 
 pounds of bone dust should be applied to the land 
 where this important ingredient has been partially 
 exhausted. If cotton seed is applied to corn in the 
 hill, no bone dust will be needed as the cotton seed 
 contains a large percentage of the phosphate of lime, 
 and is in itself a rich manure. The sulphate of lime, 
 or plaster, ought to be applied to corn ; it is a cheap 
 fertilizer, and acts with wonderful effect. This salt 
 is composed of: lime, thirty- three per cent. ; sulphuric 
 acid, forty-four per cent. Ashes, plaster, and cotton 
 seed, composted at the rate of two bushels of ashes, 
 one bushel of plaster, and five bushels of cotton seed per 
 acre, one handful to be applied in the hill, will have a 
 marked effect. 
 
 Of course it is not to bo understood that we recom- 
 mend mineral manures, to the exclusion of barn-yard 
 and stable manures. These valuable fertilizers con- 
 tain all the mineral ingredients in the ashes of plants, 
 and in the very best form to be taken up by growing 
 plants. But with all the care and labor the farmer 
 may bestow, he can manure annually but a small 
 portion of his land with stable or barn-yard manure; 
 hence these mineral fertilizers become a necessity, to 
 enable him to make a general and extensive appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Lime, plaster, and ashes, composted with swamp 
 mud or mold from the woods, and scrapings from the 
 ditch and creek banks, at the rate of one bushel of 
 
54 W A L L ' S M A N U A L 
 
 lime, two bushels of ashes, one bushel of plaster, to 
 twenty bushels of mold or muck to the acre, forms 
 a valuable fertilizer for corn, applied at the rate of 
 one pound to the hill of corn. 
 
 The most important point in the cultivation of this 
 crop is the preparation of the land by deep and 
 thorough plowing. Corn roots run deep enough to 
 avail themselves of the benefit of all the soil which 
 the plow can break. The earing season of corn, too, 
 is a period of frequent drouths. Deep and thorough 
 plowing, in the preparation of the land, is the best 
 preventive against drouths. The time of plowing 
 should be determined by the condition of the soil. 
 The winter frosts are of great service in stiff lands. 
 These lands should, if possible, be plowed in the fall 
 or early winter. All gross, or lands with much 
 vegetable matter growing upon them, should be 
 plowed in the autumn, so as to allow the vegetable 
 matter, which is turned under, to decay and become 
 food for plants. Bottom and all loose soils contain- 
 ing much organic matter, need not be broken until 
 near the time for planting. The weed and grass 
 seeds which have sprouted will be killed, and the corn 
 have an opportunity to get in advance of the w T eeds. 
 Soils cannot be made too mellow for corn, nor be kept 
 too mellow during its growth. 
 
 The distance apart at which corn should be planted 
 varies with the richness and physical properties of 
 the soil. A rich soil can, of course, sustain a greater 
 number of stalks than one which does not equal it in 
 strength. But of two soils, both equally fertile, the 
 one of stiff clay and the other of dark loam, the latter 
 will bear closer planting than the former, because it 
 
<0 P A G R I C U L T U R E . 55 
 
 absorbs more freely the light and heat of the HUH ; 
 but in every instance there is a limit to the number 
 of stalks -to be left on the ground. Young farmers 
 arc' more apt to -err in having their corn too thick, 
 than in having it too thin. This crop demands more 
 than simply an abundance of nutrition- from the soil ; 
 it requires a full supply of both light and heat, with 
 a free circulation of air, 
 
 Modes of Planting. There .are two modes of plant-, 
 ing practised by the best farmers, both of which have 
 their advantages under peculiar circumstances. By 
 one of these methods, the land to be planted is marked 
 off by bedding up in parallel ridges, and at the proper 
 distance apart for rows, varied according to the fertil- 
 ity of the soil. If the land is level, or nearly so, the 
 rows are generally made straight but if the land is 
 hilly, they are made to wind around the faces of the 
 hills, in such a way as to be nearly horizontal. The 
 width between the rows varies from three to five 
 feet. These ridges or beds are then split with a 
 suitable plow, and the corn dropped into the furrow, 
 a,t from one to three feet apart, and covered with a 
 harrow or the hoe, to a depth which should not exceed 
 two inches, unless the soil is very dry or sandy. 
 
 The other mode of planting differs from the fore- 
 going in the method of arranging the rows. The 
 land is laid off in two directions, at right angles to 
 each other, so that one set of furrows run lengthwise, 
 and another set run across the field, dividing the 
 whole field into little squares. At the corners of 
 these squares, where the furrows cross each other, 
 the corn is dropped. The rows must be wide enough 
 apart for a plow to run conveniently both ways 
 
56 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 between the hills of corn. In the large varieties of 
 corn cultivated in the Southern States, two stalks 
 are as many as will grow to full vigor in one hill. 
 The principal advantage from the latter method is 
 that the corn can be more thoroughly cultivated with 
 the plow, and less hoe work is necessary. The stir- 
 ring of the soil is more complete, and the grass and 
 weeds more thoroughly eradicated, than they can be 
 by running the plow only in one direction. The sun, 
 also, has more free admission to the soil. This 
 method is impracticable on steep or hilly land. 
 
 Quantity of Seed, Each hill should have two or 
 three times as many grains as there are stalks to be 
 left growing. By this means, if the seed has been 
 carefully selected and kept in a dry place, the trouble 
 of replanting may be avoided. Another great advan- 
 tage arising from an abundant application of seed is, 
 that however perfect the grains may seem to bo 
 when planted, some will produce vigorous and healthy 
 plants, while a few, at least, will produce only such 
 as arc feeble and sickly, and can never, by any after 
 culture, be made productive. Five or six grains in a 
 hill will almost always secure enough of the best 
 quality to be loft. 
 
 Every farmer should test the capacity of the differ- 
 ent parts of his land for corn, by actual experiment, 
 lie should, on different parts of the same quality of 
 soil, try the cultivation of one, two or three stalks to 
 every square yard, until he finds out the number best 
 suited to his soil. He will then know how thick to 
 plant his corn, and establish rules for himself far 
 superior to any theories he may find laid down in 
 books. The points of the first importance in the 
 
'0 ' A O ft I C \J L T tr R K . 57 
 
 of corn, after the planting has been properly 
 executed, are : first, keep the ground t-lear of every- 
 thing which has the sa.mc period of growth with the 
 crop ; second, stir the soil thoroughly, an-d to as great 
 depth as possible, during the early-stages of the growth 
 of the crop. In clay soils, where a strong grass sod 
 lias been turned under, a good plan is to run a 
 Coulter on each side of the row as soon as the corn 
 has conic up ; the middle spaces may be stirred with 
 a shovel- plow or a cultivator-. After this one deep 
 plowing will generally be sufficient. 
 
 Many farmers, especially in the Southern States, 
 prefer the plan of running a small mold- board or 
 turning plow, as near the rows as possible, at 
 the first working, in such a way as to throw the 
 earth off from the corn, following with the hoes 
 to thin the corn and cover any roots too much 
 exposed. This is followed by a second use of the 
 same plow run in an opposite direction, so as to 
 throw the earth back again toward the row. This 
 method has some advantages, and is adopted in the 
 cultivation of other crops. It gives free access of air 
 to the soil about the roots of plants, and gives the 
 portion of soil turned twice with the plow a complete 
 stirring; it destroys completely the first weeds and 
 grass which spring up near the rows. As the corn 
 approaches the period of tasseling, the roots spread 
 with great rapidity, after which deep plowing w r ill 
 result in great injury to the crop. All work after the 
 corn is large enough to bunch or tassel should be done 
 , with the cultivator or hoe. The land may thus be 
 kept clean, and the roots left to spread themselves 
 out on all sides between rows. 
 3* 
 
58 WALL'S MANTJA L 
 
 .Harvesting the Crop. There arc various rncthoxls 
 pursued in harvesting corn. For securing the fodder 
 there arc two methods extensively employed, both of 
 which are so familiar to every one living in a corn- 
 growing country that a brief notice of each, with its: 
 advantages and disadvantages, .will be all that is 
 necessary. 
 
 Bidding and Topping are performed where the 
 securing of the fodder within the smallest compass r 
 and in the most portable form, is desired. The blades 
 below the car, with the first one above, are stripped 
 off with the hands and placed between the stalks 
 standing close together, until they are sufficiently 
 cured to be tied up in small bundles and secured in a 
 stack or under a shelter. The blades are in order for 
 being tied, or in any way handled only in the morning 
 or evening, and on cloudy days. If handled in dry 
 weather, especially if it is windy, there is always 
 considerable loss from their breaking into fragments, 
 
 Topping consists in cutting off that portion of the 
 stalk above the ear. The tops thus cut are allowed to 
 lie in small heaps until partially cured ; they are then 
 tied in bundles, or put together in the form of shocks, 
 in which condition they stand until perfectly cured. 
 The next step is to secure them against the weather, 
 by stacking or putting them under shelter. Both 
 blades and tops, when secured without much exposure 
 to rain, are about equal in value to the same weight 
 of good hay. But to secure the full forage value of 
 tops they must be cut into small fragments, so that 
 the animal to which they are fed may be able to 
 masticate them easily. 
 
 When corn tops are finely cut, and mixed with a 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 51) 
 
 little meal and water, horses will consume almost 
 every fragment, and thrive remarkably well. 
 
 After topping, the corn is left on the stalks until it is 
 sufficiently dry to cut, It is then pulled off with the 
 shuck still on it, and put into a well ventilated crib, 
 This plan is adopted in most of the Southern States, 
 on account of the depredations of the weevil, and 
 because it is thought to keep in a sweeter and more 
 palatable condition. But in other States the corn is 
 shucked and then put into the crib. A Ijttle salt 
 sprinkled over the corn as it is placed into the crib 
 has a good effect. 
 
 Another method is to out the stalks off at the 
 surface of the ground, as soon as the ears have 
 become hard, and set them up in small stacks 
 (shocks), to be cured by the air which circulates 
 freely through them. In this condition the crop 
 stands till the grain is dry enough to be put into 
 cribs. It is then shucked, generally without being 
 pulled off the stalk. The fodder, including the 
 shucks, is then fed to cattle without cutting. The 
 blades, shucks, and a little of the slender part of the 
 stalks, are eaten, while the remainder is trodden 
 down, and forms valuable litter to become incorpo- 
 rated with barn- yard and stable manure. 
 
 Another plan is that of allowing the whole plant 
 to stand untouched until the corn is ready to bo 
 gathered ; when, after the crop has been removed, 
 cattle are allowed to gather what they will of the 
 standing fodder. In this case, the fodder is of little 
 value. 
 
 These respective methods have their advantages 
 and disadvantages, and the one to be pursued must 
 
60 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 be determined by the farmer himself, according to 
 the circumstances by which he is surrounded. The 
 first plan has the advantage of securing the fodder in 
 the most portabla and most valuable form. It is 
 especially desirable in places where hay is not easily 
 made; but it has the disadvantage of making a lighter 
 crop of grain. The reason of this is, that the growth 
 of the corn ceases almost entirely as soon as the 
 blades and tops are removed. The second plan, 
 cutting the stalks off at the ground, has the advantage 
 of securing the whole stalk for fodder and litter, 
 while the corn is well secured, provided the shocks 
 are made small, so that the air can circulate freely 
 and prevent molding. If the corn is to be ^suc- 
 ceeded by wheat, this is the only plan by which the 
 ground can be put in good condition for that purpose. 
 The chief disadvantage attending this plan, is the 
 heavy labor of cutting and stacking the corn, and 
 the inconvenience of handling the bulky mass of 
 fodder. The advantages of the third method are, 
 first, the saving of labor ; and secondly, of securing 
 the heaviest product of grain which the soil and 
 culture can produce. The disadvantages are, the 
 entire loss of the fodder, the greatly inferior value of 
 t\\Q stalks for improving the soil, below what would 
 r-esult from using them for litter in the barn yard. 
 
 The crop of corn should be allowed to become as 
 thoroughly dry in the field as the season and the 
 time required for gathering will admit. Every 
 experienced farmer knows how readily corn becomes 
 musty when thrown into a large bulk, in a damp 
 condition. This often takes place around the cob, 
 when the external condition of the ear indicates 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 01 
 
 entire dryness. To guard against damage from this 
 source, the cribs should be well ventilated. The 
 walls should have numerous openings for the free 
 admission of air. The floor should be elevated at 
 least twelve or eighteen inches above the ground, to 
 permit the air to circulate freely at the bottom 
 of the bulk. 
 
 In this connection it may not be inappropriate to 
 give an instance of high farming for corn, reported to 
 the North Carolina State Agricultural Society, 1858, 
 by Commissioners appointed by the Society to 
 examine the crops and award premiums. They 
 awarded a premium of one hundred dollars. 
 
 Statement of Mr. T. S. Harris' crop of corn, one 
 acre, planted and worked as follows : 
 
 Thirty-two loads (two-horse) stable manure $ 32 00 
 
 Spreading the same 2" 50 
 
 Plowing and harrowing 6 00 
 
 Planting and seed 2 00 
 
 Hoeing and cultivation 5 00 
 
 Harvesting and shucking 5 00 
 
 Interest on land and taxes 2 50 
 
 Cost of raising $ 5G 00 
 
 Value of 102 bushels of corn at $1 ................................................... $102 00 
 
 Value of li^ tons fodder at $10 ........................................................ 12 50 
 
 $114 50 
 Less cost of cultivation ................................................................... 56 00 
 
 Profit $ 58 50 
 
 The above crop was planted on the 12th day of 
 April, upon land plowed with a three- horse plow, 
 and subsoiled with a snake-head coulter. The land 
 was an average of a thirty- acre lot of upland, which 
 would have brought, without manure, about twenty 
 bftshels to the acre ; the remainder of the thirty- acre 
 field averaged eighteen and a half bushels to the acre. 
 After preparing the ground and plan ting the corn, the- 
 
62 W A L L ' S M A N U A L 
 
 crop was run over four times with the plow, and the 
 ground left level. 
 
 What is called "high farming" mil pay. The same 
 argument that holds good for a corn crop will hold 
 good for other crops. 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 THE COTTON CROP. 
 
 We take it for granted that every intelligent 
 planter would like to know something of the history 
 of the cotton plant ; and as all ma}^ not have had the 
 opportunity to read its history in WAILE'S valuable 
 report of the Geology and Agriculture of Mississippi, 
 we here insert his account as being the best that we 
 have ever seen given, and one that must- prove 
 highly interesting. 
 
 THE COTTON PLAN T 1 TS ORIGIN. 
 
 The cotton plant, to which the generic term 
 gossypiurn has been applied by botanists, is of the 
 natural order malvana), to which the holly-hock, 
 mallow and okra also belong. Although of com- 
 paratively recent introduction into the United States, 
 the cotton plant was known in the earliest ages of 
 the Old World. Herodotus describes the plant as 
 " producing in the Indies a wool of finer and better 
 quality than that of sheep." Pliny mentions certain 
 " wool -bearing trees which were known in Upper 
 Egypt, bearing fruit like a gourd, the size of a quince, 
 which, bursting when ripe, displays a ball of downy 
 
OFAGRICULTURE. 6.3 
 
 wool, from which are made costly garments resem- 
 bling linen." At the commencement of the Chris- 
 tian era it had become an article of commerce in the 
 ports of the Red Sea, and the remote provinces of 
 India had at that early period acquired a celebrity 
 for their cotton fabrics. The popular name cotton, 
 from the Italian cotone, is said to be derived from its 
 resemblance to the down which adheres to the 
 quince, termed by the Italians cotogni. Many varie- 
 ties of the plant are described, and among them the 
 perennial or cotton tree, which grows spontaneously 
 in Brazil and Peru. The annual herbaceous varieties 
 only are those cultivated in the United States. The 
 average height of the plant in land of medium 
 quality is about five feet. In very fertile soil, it 
 attains to double that height, whilst, on exhausted 
 and sterile, it becomes quite a dwarf. Its appear r 
 ance somewhat resembles that of the okra plant, but 
 is much more branched, and the leaves less in size 
 and of more uniform shape. The branches are long 
 and jointed, and bearing at each joint a boll or cap- 
 sule, containing seed and the wool. Each boll is 
 accompanied by a broad, indented leaf, springing 
 from the same joint of the branch, resting upon a 
 foot- stalk three or four inches in length. The woody 
 fibre of the plant is white, spungy and brittle, but is 
 invested with a thick brown skin or bark, which is 
 pliant and tenacious. The root is branching, with a 
 tap root penetrating deeply into the subsoil, and* is 
 less affected by drought than most other plants. The 
 blossom is cup- shaped, two or three inches in length, 
 never widely expanded, white on the first day, until 
 noon, then changing gradually to red, closing 
 
G4 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 gradually for the next day or two, with a twist over 
 the germ of the boll, by which it is speedily detached 
 in its rapid growth, when it withers and is cast off, 
 leaving the boll invested by a capacious three part, 
 dentate calyx, technically known as the square. This 
 calyx or square, when containing the germ, and 
 flower, are liable to be disjointed, and fall, from the 
 long prevalence of drought, but more so, when a 
 rainy season suddenly succeeds, occasioning a second 
 growth from the rapid elaboration of sap. 
 
 The cotton plant very often commences flowering 
 about the 1st of June, and ceases about the 1st of 
 November, when the plant is killed by the frost. 
 The bolls are egg-shaped, rather under the size of 
 the egg of the domestic fowl, pointed at the ex- 
 tremity, expanding widely when, fully mature, ex- 
 hibiting a brown, tough, woody seed-vessel, some- 
 what horny in texture, to which the locks of fibre 
 or ]jnt adhere. 
 
 The culture of cotton w r as introduced into China 
 about the thirteenth century, and has extended 
 largely ; the Nankin variety, especially produced 
 there, has acquired a wide notoriety, forming a dis- 
 tinct fabric, which is even yet imported into this 
 country. Georgia is said to have taken the lead in 
 the cultivation of this plant ; yet the first shipment 
 of cotton known was in 1784, when eight bags were 
 seized by the customhouse officers at Liverpool, it 
 not being believed that even the small quantity of 
 two thousand pounds had been raised in the United 
 States. Seed was introduced into Georgia from 
 Jamaica and Pernambuco in 1786, but the cultivation 
 of the Sea Island variety was not established until 
 
O F A G R I C U L T U R E . 65 
 
 1789. The upland or Georgia (bowed cotton) was 
 successfully introduced about the same time. Cotton 
 was doubtless indigenous to America, having been 
 found growing wild in the West India Islands when 
 
 O O 
 
 discovered by Columbus, and at the period of the 
 conquest of Mexico, by Cortes, the natives made 
 " large webs as delicate and fine as those of Holland." 
 Their other cotton fabrics were varied and beautiful, 
 and constituted their chief article of dress. "When, 
 and from whence the plant was first introduced into 
 Mississippi, is not certainly known, most probably by 
 the early French colonists from St. Domingo. It 
 would seem its cultivation there and in Louisiana, on 
 a small scale, for domestic purposes, preceded that of 
 Georgia. Charlevoix, on his visit to Natchez, in 
 1722, saw the cotton plant growing in the garden of 
 Sieur Le ISToir, the company's clerk. Bienville states 
 in one of his dispatches, dated in April, 1735, that 
 the cultivation of cotton proved advantageous. It 
 is stated that by Major Stoddard to have been culti- 
 vated in the colony in 1740, and Governor Vandrcuil 
 in a dispatch to the French minister, mentions cotton 
 among the articles which came down the river 
 annually to New Orleans. This dispatch was dated 
 in 1746. 
 
 Among the varieties of the cotton plant may be 
 enumerated the Sea Island, the Upland, the Tennessee 
 Green Seed, the Mexican, Pernambuco, Surinam, 
 Egyptian, etc. 
 
 The Sea Island is confined to a very few planta- 
 tions on our seaboard. It is superior to all others in 
 the length and fineness of its staple. It bears a high 
 price, generally thrice as much as the best upland?, 
 
CG w ALL' s M A N u A L 
 
 but from the expense of its preparation for market, 
 is not considered more profitable to cultivate than 
 the short staple. 
 
 The upland, first cultivated at the South, differs 
 from the preceding in the color of the blossom, the 
 size and form of the boll, and in the length and fine- 
 ness of the staple. Both have smooth, black, naked 
 seed. All other varieties seem to have a tendency to 
 return to this by long continued cultivation. 
 
 The Tennessee cotton has a seed invested with a 
 thick green down adhering firmly to.it. It is difficult 
 to gather, but it superseded the Hack seed for a few 
 years, from its freedom from the rot a disease with 
 which the black seed had become infected. 
 
 They both gave way to the Mexican, which is 
 now chiefly cultivated, or is the basis of all the varie- 
 ties now in favor with the planter. The superiority 
 of the Mexican variety consists in its vigorous growth, 
 the size of the boll, and its free expansion, affording 
 great facility in gathering the crop. The objections 
 to it originally were the coarsenesss of the staple 
 and loss sustained by its falling out, if not gathered 
 speedily. These defects have been, in a great degree, 
 corrected by cultivation. The Mexican seed is be- 
 lieved to have been first introduced by the late 
 Walter Burling, of Natchez, Miss. He was sent to 
 Mexico on a mission in 180G. He requested permis- 
 sion to import some of the Mexican cotton seed from 
 the Viceroy, a request which was not granted, on the 
 ground that it was forbidden by the Spanish Govern- 
 ment. But the Viceroy sportively accorded his free 
 permission to take home with him as many Mexican 
 dolls as he might fancy a permission well under* 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. C7 
 
 stood and freely accepted. Mr. Burling had these 
 dolls stuffed with cotton seed. Many accidental 
 varieties have been introduced of late years, origin- 
 ating in a promiscuous cultivation of different kinds? 
 by which the pollen became intermixed, and the 
 different qualities assimilated. Some new and ex- 
 cellent varieties have thus been produced, which have 
 been preserved and further improved by careful and 
 judicious selection of seed in the field. Many spurious 
 kinds have been palmed off upon the planter from 
 time to time. Many of them have had their day, 
 whilst others deservedly maintain the high estima- 
 tion to which their superior qualities entitle them. 
 
 CHAP TEE X, 
 
 THE DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT, 
 RUST. 
 
 Many of the most experienced planters attribute 
 this disease to tlie mineral properties of the soil. The 
 leaves, when first attacked, appear rather more yellow 
 than the rest, with red spots on the surface. These 
 leaves turn more yellow and red every day, until the 
 plant assumes a bright red color; when, finally, the 
 whole of the foliage turns to a brown color and falls 
 to the earth. When the disease attacks the bolls, it 
 assumes a different appearance, and is termed the 
 "red" or "black" rust, as the case may be. The 
 cotton, in such bolls as have been attacked by the 
 black rust, and the bolls themselves, shrivel up and 
 
G8 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 turn dark colored, arc mildewed and totally valueless. 
 There arc some planters who attribute this disease 
 solely to atmospheric changes, and not to the soil. 
 The author, from long study and reflection, is of the 
 opinion that both theories are right; the soil stands 
 the rust, and the atmosphere continues it. Mr. David 
 Dixon, of Georgia, applies with his fertilizers one 
 hundred pounds of salt to the acre, and affirms that 
 he is now never troubled w T ith the rust. 
 
 s o R E - s ii i N . 
 
 The sore-shin is sometimes occasioned by a careless 
 stroke of the hoe, scraping the outer bark from the 
 stem, while the plant is yet growing and tender. 
 Although the vigor of the plant may afterwards pro- 
 duce new bark from the the sides of the wound, and 
 the injury heal up, leaving only a scar, yet the stem 
 eventually becomes so weak, as frequently to break 
 off at or above the place first wounded. The prevent- 
 ive of this kind of sore-shin is careful hoeino-. There 
 
 O 
 
 is another kind of sore-shin occasioned, as some assert, 
 by planting too early. The cold, cutting winds blight 
 the young plant w T here it comes in contact with the 
 ground. The plant-louse, which prevail most in such 
 seasons, doubtless contribute to the injury. 
 
 THE ROT. 
 
 Mr. Troup, in the American Farmer, describes its 
 appearance with great accuracy. lie says : '' The 
 first indication is seen in a small circular spot outside 
 of the boll, exhibiting a darker green than the other 
 parts ; as if a globule of water had been dropped upon 
 it, and been absorbed. Many of these arc frequently 
 seen at the same time on the same boll. They spread 
 
V A O 11 1 ' C U L T DUE, GO 
 
 themselves faster, or slower, as if induced either by 
 the atmosphere or condition of the plant, changing 
 color as they progress, until they assume a dark 
 brown, approaching to black, and until the Avhole ex- 
 terior is in like manner affected. When the disease 
 penetrates to the centre of the boll, fermentation is 
 universal, and is seen in a frothy, white liquid thrown 
 out on the surface of the boll, Putrifaction follows, 
 and the destruction of the seed and lint thereby be- 
 comes complete," It is very difficult to find out the 
 true-cause for this disease, as it sometimes appears in 
 dry as well as wet years, although it is generally 
 more destructive during rainy seasons. The young 
 bolls are often rotted as well as the half matured and 
 old, so that the age of the fruit does not appear to 
 have anything to do w r ith it, As to the theory of a 
 defect in the soil, it has been stated by some planters 
 that barn-yard manure will often produce it ; but if 
 this is the case, it is somewhat singular that one 
 plant may be badly affected by the rot, while others 
 on each side are perfectly healthy and uninjured. 
 This fact appears to show that a great deal depends 
 upon the constitution of the plant itself, which may 
 have inherited the disease from its parent, and a 
 choice of good mature seed, from strong, healthy 
 plants, may remedy the disease. The fungoid growth 
 found on the rotted boll may, perhaps, be regarded 
 more as the result than the cause of the rot. There 
 are three glands on the inside of the outer calyn, at 
 the bottom of the boll, and three on the outside be- 
 tween the rufflle and stalk, which secrete and give 
 out a sweet substance, which ants, bees, wasps and 
 plant- bugs avail themselves of as food. I have seen 
 
TO WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 young bolls, apparently healthy, suddenly drop from 
 the plant, and on being carefully cut open, showed a 
 Wound Avhich had been pierced by the trunk of some 
 insect, in one of these glands, and a watery rot had 
 commenced where the boll had been stung. It was 
 evident that this rot had been caused by the pierce?" of 
 some insect, 
 
 BLIGHT. 
 
 It is frequently observed that fine and apparently 
 healthy cotton plants, full of forms and bolls, are 
 suddenly dying in certain spots, the leaves wither, 
 droop, and finally fall off, and the plant dies. On 
 taking the plant up no worm, insect or external injury 
 could be observed. On splitting the stem open, the 
 pith in the heart had turned black, and the sap in 
 the sap vessels seemed dried up. The only conclu- 
 sion that could be drawn was, that some of the roots 
 had penetrated into a soil totally unfitted for the life 
 of the plant. What renders this disease more singu- 
 lar is the fact that other cotton plants were growing 
 most luxuriantly within one or two feet, and even in 
 the same hill with the blighted plant. It is a fact 
 worthy of observation that this disease occurs on 
 the very best land, and to a greater degree on land 
 which has been overflowed in the spring, or where 
 water seeps out at the foot of hills. 
 
 Most of the foregoing facts in relation to the dis- 
 eases of cotton were condensed from Glover's report. 
 
LTOns:. 71 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 INSECTS BENEFICIAL AND INJURIOUS TO THE COTTON 
 PLANT, 
 
 The following account of the insects frequenting 
 the cotton plant, is from the Report of Townsend 
 Glover, a practical entomologist, sent out by the 
 United States Government for the purpose of study- 
 ing their habits and nature. Mr. Glover spent several 
 years in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and 
 Louisiana, devoting his whole time to the subject. 
 
 INSECTS FREQUENTING THE COTTON PLANT, 
 
 The cotton plant furnishes food for numerous 
 insects, some of which feed exclusively on the leaf, 
 some on the flower, while others destroy the young 
 buds and bolls. It is my purpose to describe these 
 insects, not in the order of their classification by 
 natural families, but according to the part of the 
 plant to which their ravages are chiefly confined, 
 Thus, by referring to the parts injured, one can easily 
 recognize the insect, or its larva. Many of these 
 insects at first appear in small numbers, and only do 
 much injury in their second and third generations. 
 For instance, a female boll-worm will produce five 
 hundred eggs; when hatched, one-half females, 'the 
 other half males. The next generation, if the increase 
 be in the same ratio, will be 125,000 caterpillars or 
 moths and this accomplished in the space of three 
 or four weeks. It will, therefore, be perceived that 
 their destruction depends upon prompt and timely 
 action. Planters may materially aid in the work 
 designed for their mutual benefit, by minutely observ- 
 
72 
 
 ing the habits and nature of these pests of the field^ 
 and devising means for their destruction. 
 
 Insects injurious to cotton consist of those destructive 
 to the general crops, such as the boll-- worm, cotton - 
 caterpillar, and some others ; and those which do 
 comparatively little injury, such as "the span -worm, 
 and others which feed upon petals and pollen of the 
 flowers. There are also many insects found in cotton 
 fields which do 110 damage whatever to the plant, 
 but merely feed upon the grass and weeds growing 
 between the rows* 
 
 A class of insects which is highly beneficial, compre* 
 hcnds the larva of the lady- bird, the ichneumon of 
 flies, and many others, that are ever on the search 
 for living victims amongst the noxious tribes, and 
 which serve to keep the members of the latter within 
 proper bounds. 
 
 Several methods for destroying insects are employed, 
 one of which the most eifective, tried in Florida is 
 the use of fire or burning torches* Myriads of noc- 
 turnal moths are attracted by the lights, burn their 
 wings as they hover around, arid are either destroyed 
 at once, or disabled from flying about to deposit their 
 eggs in distant parts of the field. Another plan, 
 which it is hoped will, upon experiment, prove 
 applicable to the enemies of the cotton plant, has 
 been lately reported as a means of destroying the 
 "tobacco fly " in Florida. This fly is in the habit of 
 feeding upon the nectar or honey contained in flowers, 
 They are particularly fond of the Jamestown weed, 
 A preparation of one pint of water, a gill of molasses 
 or honey, and an ounce of cobalt. This mixture is 
 put in a bottle, a quill inserted in the cork. Let fall a 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 73 
 
 few drops of this mixture into the cup of the flower, 
 about sunset. It is certain to destroy the moths. 
 
 But, while planters are looking for so many arti- 
 ficial means to destroy insects, they are apt to over- 
 look the great daily benefits derived from other 
 agents, which kind nature has provided to check their 
 increase. These agents are the birds, which constantly 
 destroy insects in their varied forms larva, pupa, or 
 perfect insect. Mocking-birds and bee martins catch 
 and destroy the boll- worm moth with great avidity. 
 If the fields were plowed in the fall, many insects 
 and chrysalides are turned to the top of the furrow 
 slice', and either fall a prey to the ever- busy bird, or 
 perish from frost and cold, 
 
 INSECTS WHICH TEED UPON THE STALK, 
 
 The Cut Wo.rm. The cotton cut worm is similar in 
 its habits and appearance to many of the cut worms 
 of the gardens ; they penetrate the earth close to the 
 plant, and at night emerge from their retreats to 
 gnaw off the plant at or near the ground. A gen- 
 tleman in Alabama, who had been troubled with this 
 pest, informed the author that a particular spot of 
 four or five acres, which had been overflowed in the 
 spring, had been litterally thronging with the cut 
 worm, threatening the loss of his whole crop. , He 
 turned into the enclosure twenty or thirty young- 
 pigs, which soon discovered the worms, rooted them 
 up in vast numbers, and fattened on this singular 
 diet. The cotton was not injured, as the pigs were 
 too ynoung to root deep enough to destroy the plants. 
 The pigs remained where the worms were to be 
 found, never troubling any other portion of the field. 
 4 
 
74 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 One bushel of salt to the acre is a .remedy for cut 
 worm, and a good fertilizer, when mixed ; one hun- 
 dred pounds Peruvian guano, one hundred pounds of 
 superphosphate of lime to the acre. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND ON THE LEAF. 
 
 The Cotton Louse (Aphis'). When the cotton plant 
 is young and tender it is subject to the attacks of the 
 aphis or cotton louse, which, by means of its piercers, 
 penetrates the outer coating of the leaf, and sucks 
 the sap from the wound. The under part of the 
 leaves or young shoots are the places mostly selected, 
 and the constant punctures and drainage of sap en- 
 feebles the plant, causing the leaf to curl up, turn 
 yellow and fall to the ground. The young lice are 
 extremely minute, and of a greenish color ; but when 
 they become older, they are about one -tenth of an 
 inch in length, and often a very dark green ; and, in 
 some instances, almost black. The female produces 
 her young alive throughout the summer, when she 
 may often be seen surrounded by her numerous pro- 
 geny, sucking the juices from the leaf, and still pro- 
 ducing young. Both males and females are said to 
 possess wings at certain seasons, but the females and 
 young, in summer, appear to be wingless. The end 
 of the abdomen of both sexes is provided with two 
 slender tubes, rising like horns from the back, from 
 which exudes the " honey dew," seen sticking to the 
 leaves, and which forms the favorite food of myr- 
 iads of ants and other insects. The principal in- 
 sects which destroy the lice are the lady bug, the 
 lace fly and the syaphus, all of which wage incessant 
 war upon them, and devour all they .iind. Another 
 
Jfc. 
 
Cotton Caterpillar. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE, 75 
 
 fly, the ichmiemon, lays an egg in the body of the 
 louse, which, hatching into a grub, devours the in- 
 side of the still living insect, until it eventually dies, 
 clinging to the leaf even in death, and the fly makes 
 its appearance from the old skin of the aphis, Hot 
 sunshine and the insects above mentioned are the 
 only remedies as yet discovered for this pest of the 
 cotton field, Dry plaster, or sulphate of lime, with 
 ashes finely ground, like flour, dusted upon the plants 
 on a damp day, would destroy many of them, and 
 perhaps coat the leaf over so as to keep others from 
 piercing it, 
 
 THE COTTON CATERPILLAR. 
 
 The leaves of the cotton plant are sometimes en- 
 tirely devoured by w T hat is known by the planters as 
 the " cotton caterpillar, or cotton army worm," It 
 does not appear every year in immense numbers, but 
 at uncertain intervals, The perfect insect or moth, 
 when at rest, is of a triangular' shape, the head form- 
 ing one, and the extremities of the wings the other 
 two angles, The color of the upper wings is reddish 
 gray, a dark spot with a whitish center appearing in 
 the middle of each, The under wings are of a dark 
 reddish gray, The moth of this caterpillar loses 
 
 uch of its grayish cast when it becomes older, and 
 
 e down has been rubbed from the wings, when it 
 assumes more of a reddish tinge, 
 
 The natural or perfect moths are easily attracted 
 by lights, and may be found resting in the day 
 time <jn the walls or ceilings of rooms, attracted 
 there, no doubt, by the lights in the room the evening 
 before-. If not molested) they will remain motionless 
 
76 W A L L ' g M A N U A L 
 
 during the day j but as night approaches, they fly off 
 with much vigor and strength. When in the open 
 air, they may be found among and under the leaves 
 of the cotton plant, as well as those of the weeds 
 which surround the field, The eggs are deposited 
 principally on the under side of the leaves, and often 
 upon the outer calyx of the boll j I have even found 
 them, when very numerous, upon the stalk itself 
 Wherever these caterpillars were very abundant, I 
 counted from ten to fifteen eggs on a single leaf, 
 which are very small and difficult to be distinguished 
 from the leaf, on account of their green color. In 
 shape, the eggs are round and flat, and, when 
 examined under a microscope, appear furrowed or 
 ribbed. The color of the eggs when first deposited, 
 is of a beautiful sea-green, They are closely attached 
 to the leaf. There is a great difference between the 
 eggs of the "caterpillar moth" and the "boll-worm 
 moth the first being, as before stated, round and 
 flattened in shape, and green in colors; whereas, those 
 of the boll- worm moth are not flat, but more of an 
 oval shape, and of a dirty, yellowish color* 
 
 The first brood of caterpillars in August were all 
 of a green color, w T ith narrow, longitudinal light 
 stripes along each side of their bodies, and two 
 broader light, yellowish stripes along each side of 
 their backs, down the center of each of which was a 
 distinct, narrow light- colored line. Each of the broader 
 bands is marked with two black spots on each 
 segment ; and on each segment of the sides there 
 were three or more dark dots, The head is yellowish 
 green, spotted with black. The caterpillars of the 
 second and third generations, all of much darker 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 77 
 
 color than those of the first. These insects appear 
 to multiply to the greatest extent in damp, cloudy 
 weather. When the older caterpillars are touched, 
 they have a habit of springing to a distance of several 
 times their length. In fifteen or twenty days after 
 the caterpillar attains its full size, it ceases to feed. 
 It then doubles down the edge of the leaf, and fastens 
 it with its own silk to the main part of the same 
 leaf, forming thereby a loosely spun cocoon. In this, 
 it transforms itself into a chrysalis, which, at first 
 green, but a short time after changes to a chesnut- 
 brown or almost black color. These worms appear 
 in successive broods, and they accomplish their cycle 
 of transformation in from twenty- one to twenty- six 
 days, according to the season. A season of moisture 
 and heat is the most favorable for their production. 
 Very dry, hot iveather, in some degree checks then- 
 ravages. 
 
 Among the many remedies recommended for this 
 moth, fires and lights in the fields have been spoken 
 of as attracting and destroying the miller. If the 
 fence corners were cleared up and burned, and the 
 woods and ranges around each plantation were 
 burned over, as in former times, I have no doubt 
 a vast number of these insects would be destroyed, 
 
 if not entirely exterminated. 
 
 % 
 
 THE BOLL- WORM. 
 
 The egg producing the boll- worm is deposited 
 by a yellowish colored moth, during the warm 
 evenings in summer and fall. This moth may be 
 seen hovering over the tops of the cotton blooms from 
 about an hour before until an hour after sunset. It 
 
78 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 flits from flower to flower, depositing a single egg on 
 each, which hatches in three or four days, and the 
 little worm immediately eats its way into the center 
 of the enclosed bloom, or boll, and, devouring the 
 interior, escapes to a leaf, where it soon casts its skin. 
 The ruined bloom, in the meantime, " flares " open 
 and falls to the ground ; and the young worm then 
 attacks another bloom or boll, in the same manner ; 
 and at length, as it acquires size and strength, it is 
 able to bore into the nearly natural bolls, which 
 become entirely destroyed by its punctures; for, at 
 this period, if the interior is not all devoured, the 
 rain penetrates the boll, and the lint becomes rotten 
 and useless. 
 
 The worm, after attaining full size, descends into 
 the earth, when it makes a silky cocoon, interwoven 
 with particles of gravel and earth, in which it 
 changes into 'a bright, chesnut-brown chrysalis, 
 Those which enter the ground in September and 
 October reappear as perfect moths by the end of 
 November. 
 
 Whenever a young bloom is seen in the field with 
 the calyx "flared" open, it may safely be concluded 
 that it has been attacked by the young boll- worm? 
 and will soon perish and fall to the ground. If the 
 fallen blooms are closely examined they will mostly 
 be found to have been pierced by the worm. ' 
 
 There is a striking similarity between this worm 
 and the corn worm, in appearance, food, and habits, 
 both in the caterpillar and perfect state. This leads 
 to the supposition that the boll- worm may be the 
 young of the corn-moth, and the eggs are deposited 
 on the young bolls, as the nearest substitute for green 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 79 
 
 corn, and placed upon thorn only when the corn has 
 become too old for their food. Col, B. A. Sorsby, of 
 Columbus, Ga., has bred both insects, and declares 
 them to be the same ; and moreover, when, according 
 to his advice, the corn was carefully wormed, on 
 three plantations, the boll- worms did not make their 
 appearance that season on the cotton ; although 
 on neighboring plantations they committed great 
 ravages. 
 
 The worms vary much in coloring and marking, 
 some being brown, while others are almost green ; 
 all are more or less spotted with black, and slightly 
 covered with short hair. These variations in color, 
 perhaps, may be caused by the food of the cater- 
 pillar, which appears in every shade between the 
 two. The chrysalis is of a bright chesnut- brown, 
 and the moths of a tawny yellowish color; the upper 
 wings are yellowish in some specimens, with a shade 
 of green, but in others, red. There is an irregular 
 dark band running across the wing, about one-eighth 
 of an inch from the margin, and a crescent- shaped 
 mark near the center of the wing. Several dark 
 spots, enclosing a white spot, are also discerned on 
 the margin. The under wings are lighter colored, 
 with a broad black border on the margin, and also 
 veined distinctly with the same color. 
 
 The destruction of these moths has been sought 
 by various expedients. Lighted fires in various 
 parts of the cotton field, at the season when the 
 insects first make their appearance, have been 
 attended with great benefit; millions, attracted by 
 the light, perish in the flames ; and if the first brood 
 of females be thus destroyed, their numbers must be 
 
80 W A L L ' S M A N U A L 
 
 thus greatl} T diminished. Some successful experi- 
 ments in killing these rnoths with molasses and 
 vinegar, were made by Col. Sorsby, the details of 
 which follow in his own words : " We procured 
 eighteen common- size dinner plates, into which we 
 put a half a gill of vinegar and molasses, previously 
 prepared, in the proportion of four parts vinegar to 
 one of molasses. These plates were set on stakes 
 driven in the ground in different parts of the cotton 
 field, with a six-inch square board tacked on top to 
 receive the plate; each plate occupying an area of 
 about three acres, and in height a little above the 
 cotton plants. These arrangements were made in 
 the evening, soon after the flies made their appear- 
 ance. When examined the next morning, we found 
 from eighteen to thirty- five flies to each plate. 
 Yv r e continued the experiment for five or six days, 
 extending the plates over the entire field, each 
 day's success decreasing, until the number was 
 reduced to two or three only to the plate, when 
 it was abandoned as not being longer worthy of 
 the trouble. The crop was but little injured by 
 the boll-worm. The flies were caught, in their 
 eagerness to feed upon the mixture, by alighting in 
 it, when they were unable, from its adhesive nature, 
 to make their escape. The plates should be visited 
 every evening, the insects taken out, and the plates 
 replenished with the mixture, as the moths feed only 
 at night." AVc have since tried the experiment, 
 with results equally satisfactory. 
 
 INSECTS BENEFICIAL TO COTTON. 
 
 Spiders. Spiders in the cotton or grain fields are 
 decidedly beneficial, as they wage perpetual war 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 81 
 
 against other insects, and are incessantly on the 
 watch to catch and destroy all which happen to be- 
 come entangled in their webs. 
 
 The Carolina Tiger Beetle. This beetle belongs to 
 Uie family, (cicindeledse), otherwise called "tiger 
 beetles," from their savage propensities, and the 
 beautiful spots and stripes with which their metallic 
 wing-cases are adorned. These beetles are always 
 hunting about the ground in search of insect food. 
 A smaller and darker species especially delight in 
 the glare of the sun, and, when disturbed, flies only 
 a short distance, alighting with its head directed to- 
 wards the object which excited its alarm. The Car- 
 olina tiger beetle is about seven- tenths of an inch in 
 length, of a most beautiful metallic blue, violet and 
 green , and when placed in certain positions, it as- 
 sumes the lustre of bronze or gold. It may also be 
 known by a yellowish curved spot on the extremity 
 of each wing-case. It is seen more frequently in the 
 cotton fields during cloudy weather, or toward even- 
 ing, than in the fervid mid- day sun. 
 
 The Predatory Beetle. A beetle belonging to the 
 genus harpahiSj is very beneficial to the cotton planter, 
 inasmuch as its food consists principally of other 
 insects, and of dead putrescent substances. Numbers 
 of them may be seen running about the surface of 
 the ground in search of food. The formation of their 
 jaws is peculiarly adapted to a predatory life ; as they 
 are very strong and hooked at the extremity, they 
 are enabled to seize and hold fast any soft- bodied 
 inject. These beetles destroy multitudes of insects 
 in the larva, pupa and perfect state. 
 
 The Devil's Coach-Horse. This insect generally 
 4* 
 
82' W A L L r S M A KT U A L 
 
 abounds in the Southern States, and is very useful in 
 destnrving caterpillars -which swarm on the shade 
 trees. When young, they have abdomens of a bright 
 'fed color, with dark or black spots on their backs. 
 The head and throat are black. When they shed 
 their skins, the}" are greyish in color, and have only 
 the rudiments of wings. It is only in the last stage 
 that they require perfect wings, when they fly with 
 great vigor. The perfect insect measures about sin 
 Inch and a quarter in length. It destroys multitudes 
 of noxious insects, in every stage of their growth y 
 and is therefore highly beneficial. A small specimen 
 experimented with, was placed in a box with ten 
 caterpillars, all of which it destroyed in the space of 
 five hours. 
 
 The Ichneumon Fly. An ichneumon fly is found in 
 the cotton fields of the South, busily employed in the 
 search of some caterpillar, in the body of which to 
 deposit its eggs, as is generally the habit of this class 
 of flies. The eggs being hatched within the cater- 
 pillar, the larva devour the fatty substance, carefully 
 avoiding all the vital parts, until they are fully 
 grown, the caterpillar, in the mean time, changed into 
 a chrysalis, with the devouring Iarva3 in its interior,, 
 the life of the unresisting victim is destroyed, and 
 the grubs change into pupa? and emerge from the 
 chrysalis skin perfect ichneumon flies, to deposit their 
 eggs in turn in otlier caterpillars. These insects are 
 generally seen running about plants infested with 
 caterpillars or worms, continually jerking their wings 
 and anxiously searching every cranny and crevice in 
 quest of. a worm, in which to form the nest and pro- 
 vide food for their young. The ichneumon -fly is 
 
per/eft fly. 
 
 '*T^NJ 
 
 magnified 
 
 ' 
 
 Sy/pftux. 1 
 
 fM/>u a/sr 
 nujfsizc MM*/'/ 
 
 j 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 83 
 
 about a half an inch in length. The body of the 
 female is black and marked witli' seven light-colored, 
 yellowish, narrow rings around it; the head is black, 
 and the eyes brown; the wings transparent, of a 
 rather yellowish tinge, veined, with black, and having 
 a distinct black mark on the outer margin of the 
 upper pair. The male presents much the same ap- 
 pearance as the female, but is more slender in form. 
 
 The Smaller Ichneumon Fly. This ichneumon fly is 
 not quite the twentieth of an inch in length. The 
 head and throat black, and the legs and abdomen of 
 a yellowish color. Although it is so extremely small 
 as to be unobserved, it is constantly engaged in exter- 
 minating the cotton lice, myriads of which they 
 destroy by preying upon their vitals. The female fly 
 lays a single egg in the body of each louse, which, 
 when hatched, becomes a grub. This grub destroys 
 the interior substance of the louse, leaving only the 
 grey and bloated skin clinging to the leaf; then the 
 grub remains until it changes to a perfect fly, when 
 it emerges from a hole gnawed through the back, 
 and issues forth, furnished with four transparent 
 wings, to recommence the beneficial work of laying 
 more eggs in the colonies of lice on the neighboring 
 plants. The number of lice destroyed in this way 
 can be appreciated by observing the multitude of 
 empty skins, having a hole in the back through which 
 the fly escaped. 
 
 The Syrphus. The young of the syrphus are found 
 wherever plant lice abound, and present the appear ^ 
 ance of small, yellowish, white, naked maggots, or 
 grubs, of about a fifth of an inch in length. Their 
 color is brown, with six distinct yellow spots on the 
 
84 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 first three segments of the body, and the sides ai'O 
 also marked on the margin with yellow j the body is 
 somewhat hairy. The head is armed with powerful 
 jaws, and gradually tapers to a point, while the tail 
 terminates abruptly, as if cut off. The parent fly 
 deposits her eggs amongst the lice in order to insure 
 a supply of food to each grub. These eggs are soon 
 hatched by the heat of the sun, and the young grub 
 immediately commences crawling about the leaf. 
 Being blind, it incessantly gropes and feels around on 
 either side in search of plant lice, its natural food. 
 When ready to change, the "syrphus" grub fastens 
 itself to a leaf or stalk by means of a glutinous secre- 
 tion from its own body, and the outer skin contract- 
 ing into a pear-shaped case soon hardens by expo- 
 sure to the air, and the pupa is formed inside. After 
 a few days, during the heat of summer, the perfect 
 fly emerges from a hole at the blunt end of the case, 
 to lay eggs amongst other colonies of lice on neigh- 
 boring plants. The perfect fly is about seven- tenths 
 of an inch across the wings, which are two in num- 
 ber and transparent. The body is, generally, more or 
 less banded brown, or black and yellow, and appears 
 like that ofa small wasp. This fly has a peculiar 
 habit of hovering on the wing, apparently without 
 motion or exertion, during the heat of the day, near 
 or over flowers. These insects are of essential aid to 
 farmers and planters, as their young materially 
 diminishes the numbers of lice which infest vegeta- 
 tion. 
 
 The Lady Bird. The lady bird is a most valuable 
 aid to the cotton planter, as it destroys the cotton 
 lice by millions, and is most plentiful, where they 
 
OF AGRICULTURE, 85 
 
 abound, always being busy at the work of destruc- 
 tion, thus proving itself one of the most beneficial of 
 insects to the planter, The larva of the lady bird is 
 a small, blueish, black, alligator-looking insect, of 
 about one- fourth of an inch in length, spotted with a 
 few orange marks on the sides and back. Whenever 
 one of them is seen among a colony of lice, the planter 
 may safely calculate that in a few days the number 
 of the lice will be greatly diminished. When about 
 to change into the pupa state, it fastens itself to the 
 tail of a leaf, the skin of the back splitting open, a 
 small, hump- back black and orange colored pupa 
 makes its appearance. After remaining in this state 
 a few days, this skin again splits, and a perfect lady 
 bird emerges, furnished at first with soft wings, 
 which afterwards harden and serve to transport it 
 to distant colonies of plant lice, in the midst of which 
 the eggs are again deposited, to form new broods for 
 the destruction of the planter's greatest pest. The 
 perfect lady bird also destroys the lice, but not in 
 such numbers as their larvae. Many planters imagine 
 that these lady birds are, in some mysterious way, 
 connected with the appearance of the cotton louse, 
 or even are the progenitors of the louse itself. This 
 erroneous impression is formed in consequence of 
 these insects being always found at the same time, 
 and abounding on plants having the' most cotton lice. 
 I have known planters to have t! em destroyed by 
 their field hands, when and wherev r found, and who 
 complained that their plants were still destroyed. 
 This result was only to be expect d, as they had 
 killed the natural enemy to the louse, ind suffered the 
 pests themselves to breed in peace and safety, There 
 
86 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 is an insect which measures nearly half an inch in 
 length, of a yellow color, with twelve large and small 
 black spots on the wing-cases, and four small black 
 spots on the thorax, which does considerable damage 
 to the cucumber, melon and squash vines, by devour- 
 ing the leaves, so as sometimes to disfigure and de- 
 stroy the plants, which should not be confounded 
 with the beneficial lady bird. The latter can easily 
 be distinguished from this destructive bug, both by 
 size and color, the useful lady bird being only one- 
 sixth or one- seventh of an inch in length, and of a 
 bright red, almost scarlet, color, with black spots ; 
 while the other, as before said, are yellow, with black 
 spots, and one-half of an inch in length. 
 
 The Lace- Wing Fly. The larva of the lace- wing 
 fly is furnished with two long and sharp jaws, by 
 means of which it seizes the cotton-louse, and, in a 
 few minutes, sucks out the juices, leaving merely the 
 white, dried skins. The eggs of this fly are very 
 singularly placed at the end of a thread-like filament, 
 fastened on the under side of the leaf, and generally 
 near a colony of lice, in clusters of a dozen or more 
 together, causing them to appear, to the casual 
 observer, like a bunch of fungi. The eggs being- 
 hatched in the midst of the cotton-lice, the young 
 larvae commence the work of extermination, seizing 
 the younger lice in their jaws, and holding them in 
 the air, sucking out their juices, and finally throwing 
 away the empty skins. The Iarva3 of this insect are 
 not quite one-fifth of an inch in length, and are 
 furnished with an apparatus at the extremity of 
 their tails, by means of which they are capable of 
 sticking to the leaf, even when all their feet aro 
 
OTAGRICULTURE. 87 
 
 detached, thus being guarded against accidental falls 
 during high winds, that might otherwise destroy 
 them. When ready to change, a thread is spun 
 from the tail, and often forming a rough sort of 
 cob-web, the insect spins a semi-transparent ovid 
 cocoon, from which emerges a beautiful bright-green 
 fly, with two brilliant eyes, which sparkle like gold, 
 and four transparent wings, of a genial cast, delicately 
 veined, and netted with nerves, resembling the most 
 beautiful lace work ; and hence the common name. 
 This splendid insect, however, emits a most nauseous 
 and fetid smell, when held in the hand. 
 
 C II A P T E E XII. 
 
 PLANTING, CULTIVATING, AND GATHERING THE COTTON 
 CROP. 
 
 There must ever be some diversity of practice in 
 the details of all agricultural operations. The char- 
 acter and situation of the land, the nature of the soil, 
 the variations of the seasons, will influence these 
 more or less. The following details, therefore, are 
 only intended as general directions, under the most 
 usual combination of circumstances. 
 
 KIND OF SOIL. 
 
 The first inquiry which presents itself is to know 
 whdt are the peculiarities of those soils which suit 
 the growth and maturity of cotton. Experience is 
 the safest and most reliable test in the settlement of 
 
88 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 this question. It is now gcnerall}" conceded that the 
 best cotton lands are those which are of deep and 
 soft mold, a sort of medium between the sandy and 
 spongy, and those soils which are hard and close ; 
 soils which can be penetrated by the warming rays 
 of the sun, and imbibe readily the stimulating gases 
 of the atmosphere, and at the same time allow the 
 excess of rain-water to settle so deep into the earth 
 as to lie at a harmless distance below the roots of the 
 young plant. These are the properties of soil needful 
 to the vigorous growth and early maturity of the 
 cotton plant, and the knowledge of this fact is of 
 great, and we might add, indispensable importance 
 to its successful cultivation. We may not find all 
 these essentials in the selection of a farm, but by the 
 aid of the plow, the spade, and the incorporation of 
 foreign substances, we may remedy many defects 
 and supply many of the peculiar demands of this 
 plant. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil The best and most import- 
 ant part of the work in cotton making consists in a 
 judicious and proper preparation of the soil for plant- 
 ing. In the varied condition in which lands are 
 
 O 
 
 found, and the diversity of soils, we can only lay 
 down general principles, and the results to be 
 obtained, and leave the planters to the selection of 
 the best means at hand for their accomplishment. 
 All lands for cotton ought, before the crop is planted, 
 to be broken deep, dose and soft ; and this to be done 
 long enough before planting to allow the rains gently 
 to settle them. It is the most common, and perhaps 
 the best plan, to prepare all lands intended for cotton, 
 in beds made by the turning-plow; and flat and wet 
 
Or AGRICULTU ft E . 89 
 
 lands, sometimes an additional elevation ought to be 
 given, by drawing up the beds with a hoe. 
 
 In this work we have often followed too much the 
 example of our neighbor, and have looked too little 
 to reason, in the indiscriminate bedding and high 
 elevation of all lands. We advocate deep, soft beds, 
 made by thorough and close plowing, but cannot 
 consent to the necessity or benefit of elevating much 
 lands which are warm and dry, and which arc not 
 subject to inundations from excessive rains. For the 
 convenience of culture, the young cotton plant should 
 stand on a slight elevation ; but when the condition 
 of the land did not require it, we should not give it 
 more. [Colonel Chambers' Essay. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 The distance to be given, is the next question to 
 be considered. This is a very important subject, and 
 one upon which we arc very dependent for success ; 
 and yet, it must be varied very much by circumstances, 
 some of which are often beyond our knowledge or 
 control. The general principles may be stated, and 
 then the best judgment of the planter must guide him 
 in their application. 
 
 When the crop is at maturity, the branches of 
 the plant ought slightly to interlock every way. It 
 would be vain to attempt to be specific in directions, 
 which must be varied always to suit the varied 
 character of the soil. 
 
 The planting should be in drills, chiefly, because 
 af the difficulty of obtaining a good stand in hills. 
 These rows ought, ordinarily, to be three and a half 
 to four feet apart, in the medium lands of the country, 
 
90 w ALL' s M A N u A L 
 
 and tlic stalks in the drill should be thinned, so as to 
 stand twelve to twenty inches from each other. The 
 width of the rows, and the distance in the drill, may 
 be increased upon better lands; arid in some cases, on 
 very thin lands, they may be decreased. The rows 
 should be run in such a direction as to give the plant 
 the greatest benefit of the sun from early morn to its 
 setting. Cotton is decidedly a sun-plant." 
 
 THE MODE OF PLANTING. 
 
 Here we have many plans, all setting up claim to 
 Borne peculiar merit. With the preparation of the 
 land we have indicated, it is not necessary to stop to 
 discuss the merits of these modes, or seek to do more 
 than to select some one which we know to answer 
 well. We, therefore, advise the use of a small and 
 very narrow opener. This should be run in the center 
 of the bed, opening a straight furrow, of uniform size 
 and depth. In this the seed should be strewed by a 
 careful hand, scattering them uniformly along the 
 furrow, and just thick enough to secure a good stand 
 the whole length of the row. These should be 
 covered with an iron roller or a good block, three or 
 four inches thick, about twenty inches broad, and 
 thirty inches long, beveled on the lower edge, and 
 notched in the middle, so as to straddle the row. This 
 wooden coverer, when drawn over the row, covers 
 the seed nicely, leaving a slight elevation to prevent 
 the settling of water, and dresses the whole surface 
 of the bed neatly for the space of twenty inches. 
 Thus, all clods and obstructions are crushed or 
 removed, and a clear space is left, wide enough for 
 the scraper in the first working of the young cotton 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 01 
 
 in rough land. This is an advantage of much import- 
 ance with a crop so tender and small as cotton, at 
 this stage. From the first to the tenth of April is 
 early enough to commence planting cotton. 
 
 CULTURE. 
 
 As soon as the young cotton is up to a good 
 stand, and the third and fourth leaves begin to 
 appear, the operation may commence. All that is 
 now proposed to be done is a very rapid working 
 with the cotton scraper and hoes, reducing the crop 
 to bunches, soon to pass over, and return again, for 
 a more careful working. The grass and weeds must 
 be kept down, and the stand of cotton reduced. 
 
 The second working should follow with as little 
 delay as practicable, the plows or sweeps, as the 
 season requires, should be pushed forward as rapidly 
 as possible, throwing or pushing back the earth to 
 the plant a process which is termed dirting or molding 
 the cotton. The hoes follow immediately, thin out to 
 a tand, leaving one or two of the most vigorous and 
 promising plants, freeing them from grass or w^eeds, 
 and drawing the loose soil well around them for their 
 better support. The young stalk is very tender, and 
 easily injured by bruises, and skins, from rough and 
 careless work. The cut- worm and louse are charged 
 with many sins which ought to be put down to care* 
 less working at this critical stage of the crop. 
 
 The hoes have much to do in the culture of this 
 crop, and planters must be prepared to devote pretty 
 much all their time to it. It is difficult in a work 
 like this to say how often, and in what manner, this 
 crop should always be worked, when the character 
 
92 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 of the seasons, and the difference in the land, must 
 have necessarily so much .to do in settling this ques- 
 tion. As a general rule, keep the earth loose and well 
 stirred ; the early workings to be deep and close, and as 
 the crop comes on, and the fruit begins to anpear, let 
 these workings be less dose and shallower, keeping 
 the soil soft and clean. 
 
 It is of great importance to work this crop late, and 
 it should not cease until the branches lock, or the 
 cotton begins to open. It is not necessary to pile 
 the earth, in large quantities, about the roots of 
 cotton, but the tendency of all the workings, to push 
 some earth under, and up to the plants. The late 
 workings should be very shallow, so as not to break the 
 roots of the plant. 
 
 SELECTION OF SEED. 
 
 The selection of seed is an interest not to be disre- 
 garded. Planters have been humbugged a great deal 
 by dealers and speculators in seed, yet we w^ould 
 greatly err to conclude no improvement could be 
 made. We should, how r ever, save ourselves from this 
 sort of imposition, and improve our own seed by 
 going into the field and picking, each year, from some 
 of the best formed and best-bearing stalks, and thus 
 keep up the improvement. Great benefit may often 
 be derived by changes of seed in the same neighbor- 
 hood, from difference of soil, and occasional changes 
 from a distant and different climate. 
 
 The picking, ginning and packing of cotton is re- 
 duced to such a speedy and scientific operation that 
 it is unnecessary to treat of them in a work of this 
 kind. 
 
O tf AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Manures) both Home-made and Artificial, suitable 
 for the Cotton Crop, Every kind of compost, green 
 crops turned in, cotton seed, and even naked leaves 
 listed and left to rot, improve this crop. But let us 
 examine an analysis of this plant before we discuss 
 the manures suitable for it ; 
 
 ANALYSIS Otf TJSE COTTON t>LANT. 
 
 Composition of 100 pounds of Ashes >... 
 
 COTTON Sl'ALK. 
 
 COTTON SEED. 
 
 ^otash ...i...i . i . .% . 
 
 15^50 
 
 25,30 
 
 Soda 
 
 10.06 
 
 18.30 
 
 Lime ..v, i..i v. .....,,%,... 
 
 22*40 
 
 5.CO 
 
 
 18 53 ' 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 10,03 
 
 18vlO 
 
 
 7 52 
 
 .30 
 
 
 9 00 
 
 27 GO 
 
 
 3.70 
 
 - 0.00 
 
 
 2.26 
 
 .90 
 
 
 LOO 
 
 .90 
 
 
 
 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 Of course all green or dry plants, and especially 
 cotton seed, stalks, and leaves, when well rotted, will 
 make a good compost for the cotton crop. When 
 planted on cotton seed, and sometimes on strong 
 stable manure, it is difficult to retain a stand, owing, 
 probably, to the stimulating effects of these strong 
 manures, So, on leaves from the woods, unless well 
 rotted, in consequence of the leaves decaying away, 
 and exposing the roots too much to the sun and rain* 
 These materials, by being composted with gypsum or 
 land plaster, and woods earth at the rate of one cart 
 load of stable manure or cotton seed, one load of 
 woods earth and two bushels of land plaster, well 
 njlixed together, will form an excellent manure, and 
 there will be no risk in the use, The plaster is the 
 sulphate of lime composed of sulphuric acid and lime, 
 
MANUAL 
 
 it therefore furnishes both the acid and lime to the 
 plant, and also eats up or 1 rots the cotton seedj and 
 the litter in the stable rnanure> The cotton seed 
 furnishes phosphate of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, 
 carbonic acid, and, in fact, all the ingredients neces- 
 sary for the planti The stable manure furnishes all 
 these also in the very best condition to be taken up 
 by the plant* 
 
 The only qestion in reference to using these 
 manures is the cost, and the time and trouble of 
 applying them; It will pay to keep one hand with 
 mule and cart constantly employed collecting and 
 composting manures^ 
 
 COTTON SEED, 
 
 Manuring with Cotton Seed, If a soil 5 equally 
 adapted to corn and cotton, will continue to produce 
 remunerative crops of corn for thirty years without 
 rotation or manure (as many of the prairie and 
 bottom lands have been known to do), then its pro- 
 ductiveness for cotton might reasonably be expected 
 to continue for more than a century j providing, 
 always, that the stalk, leaves and seed be returned to 
 the soil. In view of the fact just stated, how im* 
 provident is it that we should allow to bo wasted 
 annually hundreds of thousands bushels of cotton 
 seed. So long as cotton is our staple (and " cotton is 
 king"), we cannot afford to lose a bushel of cotton 
 seed. We. cannot afford to apply it as a manure on a 
 large scale to anything but our cotton crop. If applied 
 to corn, the interest realized will fall far short of that 
 which would have been received had it been applied) 
 in a proper manner, to the cotton field! 
 
F A G R I C U L T U II E , 05 
 
 Manner of Applying Cotton Seed, It is commonly 
 stated that the cotton seed is a better manure for 
 corn than, cotton. It is strange that cotton should 
 form an exception to a rule so well established, that 
 each plant is its own best manure, but the present maw-- 
 ner of applying the cotton seed manure may bring 
 about such a result. The young cotton plant is less 
 hardy than corn, and the contact with its roots of 
 hot, fermenting cotton seed, seems to act in the same 
 manner as an overdose of fresh stable manure would 
 in other cases. On the other hand, it is well known 
 that if fermentation or decay of cotton seed is 
 allowed to progress too far, or to terminate before 
 the seed is used as manure, the energy of its action is 
 very sensibly lessened. Probably the best method 
 of avoiding both inconveniences, would be to allow 
 the cotton seed to decay in the ground itself, intro- 
 ducing it into the soil some weeks, or even months, 
 previous to the planting of the cotton. When the seed 
 ferments, the soil above them will absorb and retain 
 the valuable gases arising, from the fermentation. 
 Thus : run a furrow in the middle of the future bed, 
 scatter the seed in it, then lap enough earth over this 
 center furrow and the cotton seed to bury them 
 thoroughly -just before planting bed up in the usual 
 manner. The tap root and its fibres will then reach 
 and assimlate the nourishment contained in the- 
 cotton seed at the period when the plant is not only 
 able to bear, without injury, the powerful stimulus^ 
 but is most particularly in need of it. Another 
 method is to compost the cotton seed, as described 
 in chapter VII, part first, of this work, with land 
 plaster or sulphate of lime, and woods mold in the 
 
l6 W A L L ' 8 M A N UAL 
 
 proportion of one bushel of plaster to twenty bushels 
 of seed, and twenty bushels of mold. If one-half of 
 a bushel of fresh slaked lime be added, the decom- 
 position of the seed will be greatly hastened. 
 
 Feeding Cotton Seed, We cannot afford to feed 
 cotton seed to our cattle, unless we keep them at home 
 and collect the manure, to be scrupulously returned to 
 the soil from which it was derived. The cotton seed 
 will take away from the soil, upon which a bale of 
 cotton has been grown, twice the amount of mineral 
 ingredients necessary to produce twenty bushels of 
 corn. Hence the absolute necessity of returning the 
 cotton seed to the land in some form, either as seed 
 or animal manure. Some planters object to using 
 cotton seed as manure, on account of the time and 
 cost of its application. But if the seed has been well 
 rotted, and in a fine state of division, one of Schofield's 
 manure distributors, or other implement of the same 
 kind (such as are now used in the State of Georgia), 
 will distribute the manure in the drill very rapidly 
 and effectively. These implements can be so regu- 
 lated as to distribute the fertilizers in large or small 
 quantities, according to the fertility of the soil. [Dr. 
 Hilgard's Geological and Agricultural Report for State 
 of Mississippi, 1860. , 
 
 Cotton seed as a manure, is one of the richest and 
 best that nature has provided for the planter suit- 
 able for any kind of crop or any kind of soil. What 
 fatal economy, then, to feed or sell the seed, and rob 
 the land. 
 
 For the application of the artificial fertilizers, we 
 will take up and examine the experiments of others 
 in their use. First upon the list, let us take Mr, 
 
OFAGRICULTURE. 97 
 
 David Dickson's plan. He says, in a letter on the 
 subject to the Southern Cultivator, December 5th, 1868: 
 " I will now give you a plan that will carry the cotton 
 crop through eight or ten weeks of drouth with 
 safety, and enable it to get ahead of the caterpillar. 
 The boll- worm may come too soon for a full crop, but 
 one need not fear the caterpillar, if they do not come 
 before the first of September. Always remember the 
 soil must be good and deep, and subsoiled six inches 
 deeper, and furnished with a good supply of Peruvian 
 guano, dissolved bones, plaster and salt (one hundred 
 pounds of each). A cotton plant, to stand two weeks' 
 drouth, must have four inches soil and six inches sub- 
 soil ; three weeks', six inches soil, and same subsoil ; 
 four weeks", eight inches soil, six inches subsoil ; and 
 to stand ten weeks' drouth, sixteen inches soil, with 
 six inches broken below. 
 
 This plan will hold the forms and bolls during 
 the whole time, and not give them up when it rains. 
 If you prepare your land and carry out this plan well, 
 you may expect from four hundred to eight hundred 
 pounds of lint per acre, according to the character of 
 the land. 
 
 Mr, Jas. H, Wilkins, of Bellemonte, Jefferson 
 county, Georgia, under date of December?, 1868, gives 
 the following statement of the relative value of the 
 different fertilizers in the production of cotton. The 
 experiment was tried on twelve acres, allowing one 
 acre to each fertilizer: 
 
98 
 
 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 KAMI OF FERTILIZER. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Costp'r 
 Acre. 
 
 Total 
 yield 
 
 Without 
 Manure. 
 
 Gain. 
 
 Peru, guano, Salt, plaster, Ches-1 
 apeak e phos., 100 pounds each, j '" 
 
 400 
 1 400 
 
 $ 10 50 
 10 00 
 
 12,65 
 750 
 
 500 
 500 
 
 765 
 250 
 
 Cotton seed, 40 bush's, 50 pounds) 
 P. g'no, salt, plas. & Ches. phos j '" 
 
 11,00 
 200 
 13 
 
 13 25 
 10 00 
 
 1,062 
 10 13 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 562 
 513 
 
 
 235 
 
 8 00 
 
 745 
 
 500 
 
 245 
 
 P. guano, salt, plaster & PO!U- ) 
 ble Pacific g., 100 pounds each/ '" 
 Soluble Pacific guano 
 
 400 
 200 
 
 10 50 
 8 50 
 
 944 
 912 
 
 500 
 500 
 
 444 
 
 412 
 
 
 240 
 
 9 00 
 
 882 
 
 500 
 
 382 
 
 Nonpariel French Poudrette 
 
 340 
 
 8 75 
 
 600 
 
 500 
 
 100 
 
 
 225 
 
 6 25 
 
 740 
 
 500 
 
 240 
 
 
 165 
 
 8 25 
 
 883 
 
 500 
 
 383 
 
 Peruvian guano, salt, plaster, Les- 
 ter's bone, 100 pounds each 
 
 400 
 
 10 25 
 
 1,182 
 
 500 
 
 682 
 
 Mr. "Wilkins writes: "I send you the result of 
 my experiments with fertilizers, on twelve acres. 
 The soil is what would be termed red, stiff land in 
 this country. The land was broken up seven (7) 
 inches deep in January, with turning plows. On the 
 2cl of May it was run off with a long six (6) inch 
 scooter plow the rows run three feet nine inches 
 apart. A wide, very long shovel plow was then run 
 in the scooter furrow, the fertilizers then applied, in 
 the furrow, and the rows bedded with a turning plow. 
 
 The seasons were favorable until the middle of 
 July then about three weeks parching, dry, hot 
 weather. Though the balance of the season, was. 
 very propitious, yet the cotton never recovered from 
 the effects of the hot weather in July. The cater- 
 pillars made their appearance in September, and did 
 some damage perhaps a loss of two hundred and 
 fifty pounds to the acre. 
 
 I manured all my cotton with fertilizers (mostly 
 the manipulations Nos. 1 and U) and am well pleased 
 with the result. My crop averaged nine hundred 
 
OP AGRICULTURE, 99 
 
 mid fifty pounds of seed cotton to the acre. I shall 
 hereafter Use none but the manipulated, commonly 
 known as ' Dickson Preparation/ M 
 
 Experiments with diiferent fertilizers, applied at 
 a cost of $10 per acre, made by James Davidson, 
 Woodville, Georgia ; reported, December 14, 1868 : 
 
 KINDS OF MANURE USED, 
 
 No. of 
 Ibs. 
 
 Yield 
 
 Seed 
 Cotton 
 Ibs. 
 
 Yield 
 no 
 Manure 
 Ibs. 
 
 Inc'd 
 yield, 
 
 No manure 
 
 200 
 231 
 357 
 415 
 333 
 500 
 286 
 286 
 440 
 
 630 
 1108 
 880 
 1018 
 916 
 972 
 794 
 760 
 796 
 632 
 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 630 
 
 478 
 250 
 388 
 286 
 342 
 164 
 130 
 166 
 2 
 
 
 Wilcox Gr. & Co., M. Guano 
 
 Peruvian, Phoenix, Plaster, Salt 
 
 Peruvian, Plaster and Salt 
 
 &ied*s Am'd Phosphate 
 
 Ried's Phosphate 
 
 Rhode's Phosphate 
 
 
 Augusta Am'd Phosphate 
 
 No. 4. Composed of % Peruvian guano, % Wilcox's, ^ Plaster, and 
 
 J4 Salt. 
 No. 5. Composed of % Peruvian guano, % Plaster, and % Salt. 
 
 These fertilizers were distributed evenly and accu- 
 rately in the drill, with "Schofield's Tin Guano 
 Distributor," and then bedded up in the usual way* 
 
 The "boll worm" made its appearance about the 
 15th of August, in great numbers* Its ravages and 
 destruction of young bolls were incredible. About 
 the 1st of September the caterpillar entered the field, 
 and literally) with the exception, now and then, of a 
 small space, stripped the whole surface. Under these 
 circumstances the crops did not average more than 
 one-third to one-half." 
 
 So, it seems, from the above experiments, that, 
 notwithstanding the ravages of the worms, two 
 hundred pounds of Peruvian guano made an increase 
 of four hunded and seventy- eight pounds of seed 
 cotton to the acre, 
 
100 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 In Mr. Wilkins' experiment, one hundred pounds of 
 Peruvian guano, one hundred pounds plaster, one 
 hundred pounds salt, one hundred pounds Chesapeake 
 phosphate of lime, made an increase of seven hundred 
 and sixty -five pounds of seed cotton to the acre 
 although he lost two hundred and fifty pounds to 
 the acre by the cotton caterpillar at a cost of ten 
 dollars and fifty cents per acre, This fertilizer is 
 usually known as Dickson's preparation, and seems, 
 from experiment, to be the best proportions to mix 
 these artificial fertilizers. 
 
 Let us examine, and see why this preparation acts 
 With such wonderful effect. By the analysis of Peru- 
 vian guano, we see it contains : organic matter, thirty- 
 six per cent. ; ammonia, seventeen per cent. ; phos- 
 phates, twenty- three and a half per cent, ; alkaline 
 salts, nine and a half per cent, [See appendix,] The 
 plaster or sulphate of lime is composed of water, 
 thirteen per cent, ; lime, thirty- three per cent, ; sul- 
 phuric acid, forty-six per cent, [See appendix,] 
 
 The Chesapeake phosphate is bone-dust, made sol- 
 uble with sulphuric acid. 
 
 Salt is muriatic acid and soda, 
 
 The Peruvian guano furnishes ammonia; organic 
 matter, which is made soluble by the sulphuric acid 
 of the plaster ; phosphate, which is acted upon by 
 sulphuric acid, and alkaline salts, which are acted 
 upon by the muriatic acid in the common salt, and 
 by the sulphuric acid. 
 
 The plaster or sulphate of lime is acted upon by the 
 muriatic acid of the salt, its sulphuric acid set free, 
 which, in turn, acts upon the bone dust or phosphate, 
 and on the organic matter of the guano, All the 
 
OP AGRICULTURE, 101 
 
 acids and salts act with powerful effect upon the 
 vegetable matter in the soil, hastening decomposition 
 and rendering soluble the vegetable mold, and also, to 
 a great degree, by freeing the alkalies, the very sand 
 in the soil. This vegetable mold and sand, in their 
 turn, yield up potash, soda, lime, carbonic acid, and 
 in the proper condition to be taken up by the roots 
 of plants. 
 
 The action of these constituent elements of 'ferti- 
 lizers is fully discussed in the appendix to this little 
 work, and the author respectfully refers the reader to 
 the deductions, experiments and illustrations therein 
 stated. 
 
 A CAUTION TO PLANTERS. 
 
 As many of the artificial fertilizers now upon the 
 market are put up for sale, and even Peruvian guano 
 is adulterated to a vast extent, it requires a great 
 degree of caution on the part of the planter in pur- 
 chasing such articles. The only safeguard is to buy 
 these manures from perfectly reliable and responsible 
 dealers, who are willing to guarantee the fertilizers 
 to be equal to the standard of value branded upon the 
 bags and barrels, and as published in their advertise- 
 ments in the public journals. 
 
 ANEXPERIMENTMADEBYTIIERAINS, IN 1868. 
 
 On the plantation of a brother of the author, in 
 Attala county, Mississippi, there is a piece of land 
 containing one and one-half acres, It is immediately 
 belojv and adjoining the horse-lot ; so situated that 
 the washings from the lot spread very equally over 
 the land below it. The rains from the cloiuls manure 
 
102 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 the land, by leaching out the ingredients from the 
 droppings of seven mules and two horses. Now for 
 the result : this acre and a half produced a bale and a 
 half of good cotton, whilst on the rest of the plantation, 
 on account of the cotton caterpillar and boll-worm, one 
 hundred and sixty acres planted, only produced forty 
 bales of cotton. The worms attacked the cotton on 
 the lot, as well as on the rest of the plantation, but 
 the fertilizers had so matured the crop on the lot as to 
 bring about the above result. This year, 18G9, the 
 same lot is planted in cotton, with the same or better 
 result. Hiyh manuring will pay on the cotton crop. 
 
 CHAP TEE XIII. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF WHEAT, RYE AND OATS. 
 PREPARATION OF SOIL. 
 
 Deep plowing is not so necessary for wheat, rye, 
 and oats, as it is for corn ; because their roots do not 
 run, naturally, deep ; nor does their season of growth 
 so frequently subject them to drouth. A point of great 
 importance in the preparation of land, for wheat 
 especially, is that it shall be as clean as possible at the 
 time of sowing. Grass and other green substances, 
 whether they are plowed down just before sowing or 
 left strewed over the surface after sowing, are often 
 more injurious than beneficial to the crop of wheat. 
 So, when straw or any kind of litter is spread over 
 wheat in autumn or early winter, more harm than 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 103 
 
 good generally results from the application. The 
 injury is supposed, by some judicious farmers, to be 
 owing, in part, to the fact, that the shading of the 
 green crop makes it too tender near the roots to 
 stand the severities of the winter and early spring ; 
 and that the litter or straw serves as a harbor for 
 chinch-buffs and other mischievous insects. 
 
 O 
 
 When green crops or unrotted manures are plowed 
 down for wh^at, it should be done in the summer, so 
 that they may be well decayed and ready to feed the 
 newly planted crop in the first stages of its growth. 
 Clover, peas, and other leguminous plants, having 
 considerable quantities of nitrogenized matter in them, 
 undergo speedy decay ; and, therefore, may be plowed 
 down at a later period than would be suitable for 
 most other crops. The time for this kind of plowing 
 in of grass and clover fields must, of course, vary to 
 some extent with the variations of climate, soil and 
 exposure. 
 
 The cultivation of such crops as cotton, tobacco 
 and potatoes, is found to be one of the best means of 
 preparing a soil for wheat. The benefit arises chiefly 
 from the clean condition in which they leave the land. 
 They also leave the soil in a favorable chemical condi- 
 tion for wheat. 
 
 The sowing of wheat after corn is regarded by the 
 best farmers in Virginia as affording a very doubtful 
 chance for a good crop. The chances after oats, aie 
 regarded as much more favorable, if the oat stubble 
 is turned down early, that it may rot, while the scat- 
 tered grains of oats left upon the ground may spring 
 up, and be killed during the seeding of the wheat. 
 
104 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Manuring the Crop* Some farmers put off the 
 application of their stable and yard manures to 
 wheat, until winter or spring. When this is done, 
 they are very poorly compensated for their labor. 
 Winter wheat has two periods of growth; the first 
 in iiutum, and the second, during the following spring 
 and summer. The vigor of the crop, in its second 
 period of growth, depends very much upon the health- 
 ful development, the roots, in the first period of 
 growth. If, then, manure is incorporated with the 
 soil at the time of seeding, the impulse given to the 
 wheat plants in autum, is almost certain to continue 
 until the crop is matured. 
 
 This always holds true, unless some physical cause 
 comes in to prevent it, such as severe drought, or the 
 depredation of insects. But when manure is spread 
 upon feeble w T heat in winter or spring, it comes too 
 late. The basis of a good crop is not there. As well 
 might you expect to make a great ox from a stinted 
 calf, as to make a good crop under such circumstances. 
 
 Modes of Sowing Wheat. There are two plans pur- 
 sued very largely in sowing wheat. First, the old 
 method of sowing wheat broadcast, by hand, is still 
 kept up on nearly all the small farms, as well as many 
 of the larger ones, and especially at the South. The 
 slovenly method of sowing the grain among the 
 standing corn crop, and covering with shovel plows 
 or cultivators, is fast losing favor. 
 
 The custom of breaking up the ground with a large 
 plow, closely, then sowing and covering with the har- 
 
 *For anatysis of grain and straw of wheat, see page 41, in table. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 105 
 
 row, cultivator or shovel plow, is still extensively 
 used, and well suited to many soils. 
 
 The second method, is "drilling" which, in the 
 past few years, has been gaining favor with the best 
 and most progressive farmers. The greatest majority 
 of those who have tried this method, would be wil- 
 ling to give it up. Some of the most important 
 results claimed for the drill system, are as follows : 
 
 1. The quantity of seed may be regulated to suit 
 the quality of the soil, 
 
 2. A smaller quantity of seed is used to the acre . 
 
 3. The depth of the seed is uniform, and the depth 
 may be suited to the soil. 
 
 4. The plants shade the soil less completely, admit 
 sunshine and air ; the wheat less liable to rust. 
 
 5. Small quantities of such fertilizers as guano, 
 plaster, ashes, bone-dust, etc., can be applied more 
 directly to the wheat, by a proper attachment to the 
 drill, and with more economy. 
 
 Harvesting the Wheat Crop. The time of wheat 
 harvest, must be determined by the condition of the 
 grain. The cutting should be done before the crop 
 is fully ripe, or, as soon as the grain has passed out 
 of the " milk state," that is, as soon as the inner 
 part has become firm, but is still soft enough to yield 
 readily to the thumb-nail when pressed into it, the 
 crop then is at its greatest value. 
 
 The straw then is of a greenish-yellow, and there 
 is still a green tinge about the head. If the wheat 
 is allowed to stand three or four days after it reaches 
 this stage, the straw and head assumes a brown 
 appearance the crop has become dead ripe. The 
 
 grain and straw have then both become less valuable. 
 5* 
 
106 w ALL'S M A N u A L 
 
 A portion of the starch of the grain has been con- 
 verted into bran ; and, according to the testimony of 
 the best millers, it will not make as much, nor as 
 good flour, as that which has been harvested w T hen 
 less perfectly ripe. 
 
 When cut in that condition, which gives the best 
 grain, the straw has more starch, and more albumin- 
 ous matter in it, and is therefore, more nutritious 
 than it would be if allowed to become dead ripe. 
 
 Long exposure to rain, has an injurious effect on 
 both grain and straw. The dark color thus produced, 
 is owing to partial decay on the surface. When this 
 takes place on the surface of the grain, the decayed 
 particles become mingled with the flour in grinding, 
 and gives it a dark shade. At the same time, 
 repeated wetting and drying, destroys the nutritive 
 substances in the straw. Wheat, therefore, should 
 be placed under shelter, or carefully stacked, as soon 
 as it has become sufficiently dry to prevent moulding 
 or heating in bulk. 
 
 RYE. 
 
 The same remarks may be applied to rye, with 
 some little variation, as the above for wheat. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 The best chance for a good crop, is to sow them 
 upon corn land, or wheat stubble, of the previous year. 
 A freshly turned soil seldom yields a full crop of this 
 grain ; but any land of tolerable fertility, which has 
 been in cultivation the previous year, will produce a 
 fine crop of oats. 
 
 Sowing. The land should be plowed in the spring, 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 107 
 
 or latter part of winter, and the sowing be done as 
 early in the spring as the weather will permit. Some 
 varieties may be sown in the fall, and will not only 
 live during the winter, but come forward more rapidly 
 in the spring. Their early progress often enables 
 them to escape droughts, by which the others are 
 cut short. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PEA CROP. 
 
 We will now take up and study the pea crop, as 
 one of the highest value in -Southern agriculture, 
 There is a large class of plants which have their seed 
 enclosed in a pod. The different kinds of bean and 
 pea are examples of this class. These are called 
 " leguminous" plants. This whole class of plants is 
 remarkable for the quantity of nitrogen they contain. 
 The " ligumen " of peas is so abundant as to place 
 them above both wheat and corn in nutritive value. 
 The stalks of this plant also abounds in protiene 
 matter, and in that respect, resembles clover hay in 
 composition and value, and hence makes excellent 
 rough forage for stock, hoth horses and cattle. When 
 the vines of peas decay, ammonia is always one of the 
 products. This has also been found to be one of the 
 most valuable ingredients in guano and stable manure. 
 If, then, pea crops are plowed into the soil at the 
 proper period of growth, that is, at the time when 
 the seeds have become firm, but not dry, considerable 
 
108 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 quantities of that valuable fertilizer ammonia will 
 be generated in the soil. Clover seed was once 
 regarded as almost the only suitable crop to be em- 
 ployed as a green manure, but experience has shown 
 that the pea plants have a similar value ; and, in 
 some climates arid soils, certain varieties of peas seem 
 to be even superior to clover, for the purpose of plow- 
 ing in as a green crop. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 Different latitudes require different varieties. Those 
 only which have a comparatively short period of 
 growth are adapted to the Northern States, Those 
 which require a longer season and more hot sun, are 
 confined chiefly to the Southern States. All the 
 varieties at the South are embraced under the gen- 
 eral names of "cornfied pea" and " Southern pea." 
 Mr. Edmund Ruffin, sr., in his valuable essays on this 
 crop, enumerates nine varieties. First The buff- 
 colored pea or cow pea. Second The bass (red) 
 pea. Third The black- eye pea. Fourth The 
 early black has perfectly black and large seeds. 
 Fifth The mottled or shinny r>eii. > iz^i j.ne 
 large black or tory (late pea). Seventh Small 
 black (late pea). Eighth Green- eye pea (white). 
 Ninth The small green or bush pea. But these are 
 by no means all the names to the varieties of " South- 
 ern pea." 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 Crops of this class will grow well on almost any 
 kind of land not deficient in lime. The best soil for 
 peas is a warm, sa^ndy loam, of medium fertility. A 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 109 
 
 very rich soil produces a most luxuriant growth of 
 vines, especially in the " Southern pea," but the 
 quantity of seed is then but small. On medium soil 
 the crop of vines is not so heavy, but the seed crop 
 abundant. Even a very poor soil will generally pro- 
 duce a crop sufficient, when turned under, to add 
 considerably to its fertility. South of 37, north 
 latitude, almost any soil may be restored to fertility 
 from the most exhausted condition, by cultivating the 
 pea, with the application of some form of lime, either 
 marl, caustic lime, plaster or ashes, attended with 
 proper rotation, and as frequent plowing as possible. 
 Plowing for the pea crop should be deep and 
 thorough. The roots penetrate a well-broken soil to 
 a great depth, and as the plant gathers mineral sub- 
 stance largely through its roots, especially lime and 
 potash, with sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid, 
 these will be transferred from a lower to the higher 
 parts of the soil, and be left by the decaying roots 
 in a good condition, to be taken up by succeeding 
 crops of grain, tobacco or cotton. 
 
 PLANTING OR SOWING PEAS. 
 
 The methods adopted for planting may vary with 
 the object to be attained. If the crop is cultivated 
 for seed and forage, the largest yield can be obtained 
 by cultivating in rows, varying in distance accord- 
 ing to the pea to be planted. The varieties which 
 grow erect (bush pea) may be sown in rows two or 
 three feet apart. Those which spread their vines, 
 like most of the Southern peas, should be in rows 
 fitmi three to four and a half feet apart. If the 
 object is to plow the pea vines under, the land should 
 
110 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 be well prepared, and the crop sown broadcast, and 
 covered with a harrow or cultivator. The Southern 
 pea has been cultivated in the Southern Atlantic 
 States from time immemorial. Some of the methods 
 pursued in Virginia and the States farther South are 
 as follows, viz : 
 
 First method " The oldest and most extended 
 culture in Virginia, is to plant the peas after and 
 among corn. When the corn is ten or twelve inches 
 high, and has been just plowed and hoed, peas are 
 planted in the drill between the hills of corn. One 
 more plowing is all that is given the corn, and is all 
 the culture required for the peas." 
 
 Second method " The next most extensive mode of 
 pea culture is also as a secondary crop amongst corn, 
 but by sowing broadcast when giving the last plow- 
 ing. This costs but the seed and labor of sowing. 
 The crop all goes for manure, and is seldom ripe 
 enough (in Virginia) for good manure." 
 
 Third mode "And one I think the best and 
 cheapest, to raise a pea crop for manuring, is to sow 
 the seed broadcast on a separate field without corn." 
 Edmund Ruffiri's Essay. 
 
 In sowing peas broadcast to be plowed under, 
 for wheat or other crops, the land should be 
 broken up deeply in winter, and about the 
 first week in June the peas sowed at the rate of 
 one bushel, or five pecks, to the acre, and either 
 harrowed in with a heavy harrow, or plowed in with 
 single plows, according to the state of the land. v 
 P. M. Edmondston, of North Carolina. 
 
 The seeds are believed to have a higher fertilizing 
 value than the vines, if they come to maturity, but 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. Ill 
 
 by tliis time the vines have lost part of their value. 
 The question as to the proper time of planting in, 
 resolves itself into this form : " When will the seed 
 and vines together generate the greatest amount of 
 ammonia in the soil ? " 
 
 Chemistry would reply : " When nearly all the 
 seeds have become firm, but not dry." At this time 
 the most forward pods will be dry, but the vines 
 still retain much of their greenness, and contain the 
 largest amount of ammomVi -producing ingredients. 
 This is the theory which science would present to the 
 inquirer. The experiments of the most successful pea 
 growers of the South confirm these simple deduc- 
 tions of science. 
 
 If the vines are to be used as forage, they may be 
 cut off close to the ground with sharp hoes, or still 
 better, w r ith short, stout scythes, and cured like clo- 
 ver hay. Another plan, is to put up tall, slender 
 shocks, supported by a small stake set in the ground, 
 to remain until cured enough to stack, or put away 
 in a house. 
 
 Mr. Edmonston, of North Carolina, says : " As an 
 article of forage or fodder, there is none superior to 
 the pea vine. Horses and cattle eat it with avidity, 
 and in preference to any other kind of fodder. The 
 difficulty of saving these vines, is the chief objection 
 to their use. The writer believes that they can 
 easily be saved, in the month of September, by 
 placing forks in the ground, in a straight line, about 
 six feet in height, and poles on the forks, then place 
 rails, with one end resting on the ground, the other 
 u^on the poles, about six or eight inches apart, after 
 the manner of an old fashioned top-stack, as it is 
 
112 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 called, leaving both ends open ; upon these rails throw 
 the vines, until about a foot deep. Throw over them 
 straw or grass, and in a short time they will be 
 cured," and a large amount of most excellent forage 
 secured. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 HAY CROPS. 
 CLOVER. 
 
 From the three divisions of its leaf, clover 
 is called " Trifolium" Thero arc several varieties cul- 
 tivated in different countries. The common red 
 clover, is considered the best for our climate (Vir- 
 ginia). This is a biennial plant. If sown in the 
 early spring, and not too much shaded by other 
 crops, it produces a few blossoms the first season. 
 When allowed to grow the next year to full matu- 
 rity, without cutting, it dies ; but if cut or pastured, 
 it lives through a third, or even a fourth summer, and 
 retains vigor enough to produce a tolerably fine crop. 
 
 Soil. Clover grows best on clay loams, having 
 a good supply of lime, in some available form ; but 
 almost any soil (not marshy) may be made to pro- 
 duce a good crop, by frequent applications of ashes 
 and plaster (gypsum). The roots of clover run deep, 
 and hence requires a deeply- broken soil. 
 
 Sowing. The spring is undoubtedly the best time 
 for securing a good stand of clover, while March and 
 April are the safest months for sowing it, in our 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 113 
 
 latitude (Virginia). January or February, farther 
 South, or perhaps in the fall, with wheat. Five or 
 six quarts of seed to the acre, or even four quarts, 
 according to the character of the soil, is enough to 
 secure a good stand. The seed should be mixed with 
 something to increase its bulk. The seed for an acre 
 may be thoroughly mixed with one bushel of ashes 
 arid a half bushel of plaster, finely ground. The seed 
 are sown upon the surface of the land, immediately 
 after a slight freeze, if sowed very early, and allowed 
 to settle in the land by rains. 
 
 Cutting, etc. If the clover is designed for hay, it 
 should be cut at the period of its growth at which it 
 has the greatest nutritive value. This occurs when 
 about one-third or one-half of the heads have com- 
 menced turning brown. After this time, the sugar 
 and starch, which abound in the green stalks, are 
 rapidly converted into woody fibre. The first crop 
 of the season is most valuable for hay, but the 
 second may be cut for this purpose. 
 
 The leaves of the clover are very abundant, and' 
 constitute a very valuable part of the hay ; but when 
 the hay is dry, they are very brittle, and liable to be 
 lost in making and stacking the crop. To prevent 
 this loss, let the clover lie in the swath until the top 
 is tolerably well cured, and then turn it over care- 
 fully with a fork, without additional tossing. 
 
 The hay may be packed away in mows, or safely 
 stacked before it is entirely cured, if a layer of dry 
 straw a few inches thick is spread over the mow or 
 stack, for every foot in depth of hay. The straw 
 ab*sorbs the moisture of the hay, and also admits air. 
 If there is much greenness in the hay when put up, 
 
1 14 w ALL'S MAN u A L 
 
 a little salt spread over it, will not only assist in pre- 
 serving it, but will make it palatable to the stock. 
 The straw used in packing, is flavored by contact 
 with the clover, and stock will eat it almost as well 
 as the hay. 
 
 The pea- vine hay, spoken of in a former chapter, 
 may be cured by a similar process as the above, and, 
 perhaps, to better advantage than by any other 
 method. 
 
 Gathering Seed. The second crop is generally best 
 for seed ; because, in the first place, the heads are 
 usually better filled than those of the first crop, and 
 because it is more clear of weeds and foreign plants. 
 A plan for gathering only the heads of clover, which 
 is very effectual, is to have a light, but capacious box, 
 swung to the axle of a pair of wheels, so that the 
 bottom of the box shall be about six or eight inches 
 from the ground. On the lower edge of the box, to- 
 ward the horse, have a set of fingers (like a coarse 
 comb), about the fourth of an inch apart. Let a 
 careful hand tilt the box, so that the comb will run 
 two or three inches from the surface of the ground, 
 all the heads will be pulled off and forced back into 
 the box. 
 
 GRASSES. 
 
 We have no room for the specific directions for the 
 cultivation of all the grasses used in hay-making. 
 Some general remarks on the grasses, will have to 
 serve our purpose. 
 
 Timothy. This is sometimes called "cat's tail," and 
 in some of the Northern States, "Herd's grass." It 
 is a perennial, and makes hay of fine quality, when 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 115 
 
 cut in the proper season ; and where the soil suits it, 
 the crop is generally abundant. This grass, on ac- 
 count of the bulbous character of its roots, which are 
 very near the surface, will not stand the climate of 
 the South, except in favored localities. 
 
 Orchard Grass. This grass will grow upon almost 
 any soil which is not swampy. It may be sown in 
 spring, with clover, which it eradicates after one or 
 two seasons. It has a very strong root, and is not 
 easily overcome by other grasses ; it is, hence, suitable 
 for lots designed to be kept in grass a long time. It 
 starts early in spring, and continues green quite late 
 in autum, and is, therefore, valuable for early and 
 late pastures. As a hay crop, it does not hold a high 
 place. When harvested for hay, it should be cut in 
 full bloom; because the hay has then the highest 
 value. 
 
 Herd's Grass. Sometimes called " red top," thrives 
 well in situations suited for it, which can hardly be 
 too Avet. It will succeed even on white, pipe clay 
 land. It does not compare with other grasses as a 
 pasture, but makes excellent hay. 
 
 Irish Velvet Grass." Irish velvet," is the name by 
 which this grass is known in the middle part of Mis- 
 sissippi. It is sometimes called "ivhite top.'' It will 
 grow on almost any land ; and on soil of good quality 
 and moderately moist, will grow to the height of 
 two and a half to three and a half feet. Like clover, 
 it is a biennial ; but by plowing a crop under every 
 third year, will keep possession of the land for 
 several years. This is a soft, velvety grass, and 
 would make excellent hay, if cut just when shedding 
 its flowers. For pastures, there is no grass superior 
 
116 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 to it, as it remains green the whole winter in the lati- 
 tude of middle Mississippi. 
 
 ^espedeza Striata. This grass, or wild clover, comes 
 up very early in the spring (latter part of February), 
 from seeds matured the previous year all the old 
 plants die with the first heavy frosts of winter. 
 Being a summer plant, it would grow almost any- 
 where in the South ; we have heard of its taking 
 foothold from Mississippi to Virginia. Stock will 
 eat, but do not seem to be especially fond of it, 
 will generally eat grass in preference, where the two 
 are side by side. It is a very hardy plant through- 
 out the South ; grows well under pines, in old fields, 
 and upon very poor land, contending very success- 
 fully with the Bermuda and broom-sedge; stands 
 drought well, and springs up again very rapidly after 
 rain. In rich lands and in bottoms, when not grazed, 
 it grows high enough to be cut for hay, and is said 
 to make a very good article. The value of this plant 
 will be found, we think, in its taking possession of 
 old, worn out land, and restoring, more or less, its 
 fertility. It has none of the character of a "pest" - 
 can be eradicated whenever desired. Southern Culti* 
 vator, April, 1869. 
 
 PAS T U R ES. 
 
 The proper care of pasture lands, is too much over, 
 looked by many farmers at the South. Worthless 
 briars and weeds often occupy the very best land, 
 where a little timely care and attention would have 
 secured a rich, green sod of sweet and nutritious 
 grass. 
 
 In. those sections of country where the perennial 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 117 
 
 glasses will not thrive, more attention should be 
 given to the introduction of annuals and biennials, to 
 be cut for hay. The annual meadow-grass, the crop- 
 grass, and biennial rye- grass, have been cultivated 
 where those of a more permanent character will not 
 take root. The different varieties of millet, oats cut 
 in full bloom, and corn sown broad- cast, all make 
 good substitutes for hay. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Every farmer should make repeated experiments 
 on his own lands, with various kinds of grass, that 
 he may determine which are best adapted to his soil. 
 Then it should be an established rule : 
 
 1. Never to allow a field to be out of clover, or some 
 kind of grass, when it is not occupied by other crops. 
 
 2. Never to miss an opportunity of plowing under 
 clover, or grass sod. It is the cheapest w r ay of 
 enriching the soil. 
 
 CHAPTER XV L 
 
 THE TOBACCO CROP. 
 
 The following account of this subject is the result 
 of the writer's personal experience and observation 
 on the best methods pursued by some of the most 
 successful planters in Virginia, North Carolina and 
 Kentucky. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Tobacco requires a long summer season to bring it 
 to maturity; Hence, so far as our own country is 
 
118 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 concerned, the best tobacco can be cultivated only ill 
 the Southern States. Elevation has an influence 
 somewhat similar to increase of latitude* This 
 makes the cultivation of tobacco Uncertain in the 
 nigh and mountainous parts of Western Virginia ; 
 while the like risk is not felt in the same latitude 
 farther east, where the elevation is not so great, 
 
 A variety, called the " Connecticut seed leaf," is 
 Cultivated with great success in the New England. 
 States, and at present commands a good price. It 
 requires a shorter season than the kinds cultivated 
 farther South. 
 
 SOIL, 
 
 Tobacco will grow upon almost any good soil, when 
 well prepared by thorough tillage, but the best 
 adapted to its culture is a rich, dry loam, new 
 cleared and brought into cultivation. Although the 
 light clay and sand loams, well manured, are the most 
 reliable for making the finest qualities of tobacco, 
 yet the clay soils produce excellent crops, but require 
 free applications of rich organic manures to render 
 them sufficiently porous. The sandy loam, which 
 has been drifted down the mountain gorges of the 
 Blue Hidge, is the best adapted to the growth of 
 tobacco. The stiff clay lands of the Valley of Vir- 
 ginia and of Kentucky produce a large leaf, strong 
 shipping tobacco, The same may be said of the 
 deep loams of Missouri, Illinois and Indiana. 
 
 VARIETIES, 
 
 " Owing to the great diversity of climate and soil 
 in Virginia, a corresponding change is produced in 
 the grades of tobacco raised throughout the State, 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 119 
 
 yet she produces more valuable tobacco than any 
 other State in or out of the Union," The Orinoco 
 and the Prior, for manufacturing, and the white stem, 
 and big Frederick for shipping, are the most profita- 
 ble to the planter, of all the various kinds raised. 
 Having had twenty years' experience in cultivating 
 and manufacturing, and the last five years in selling 
 the article, I am clearly of the opinion that, on all 
 lands suitable, the Orinoco is decidedly the best for 
 manufacturing, from the fact that it is the only kind 
 sweet by nature, if ripe. It should be sun-cured, or 
 as much so as the season and circumstances will 
 admit. If thoroughly ripe, it is much easier to bo 
 cured of the right color, and it stands manufacturing 
 better. If cut before being ripe, it chews bitter, its 
 color is forced, and it will not hold it. 
 
 The Prior is a good kind to cultivate on mountain- 
 ous lands, as it stands the wind better than any 
 other kind, being tough. For shipping purposes, I 
 give the preference to the "White Stein," It can be 
 grown large, and rich, is smooth, and tough when 
 cured, and loses less in weight in curing than any 
 other kind." "FT. H. Brown, So. Planter, Jan. 1859. 
 
 PLANT BEDS. 
 
 The climate, the soil, and variety to be culti- 
 vated being favorably determined, the first, and 
 most important thing to be done, is to secure an 
 abundance of plants. To do this, the planter must 
 look well to the preparation of his plant-beds. Of 
 these he should have several, sown at different times, 
 or ohe large one, divided into several parts, to be 
 sown at different times. To meet all contingencies 
 
120 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 that may arise, and still secure an abundance of 
 plants, enough ground should be sown to produce 
 (if all portions do well) a large excess over what the 
 crop to be raised will require. 
 
 PREPARATION OF BEDS. 
 
 The general practice is to burn the surface of the 
 beds before planting. A warm and dry locality, 
 exposed to the' sun, and well protected against cold 
 winds, is most suitable. A southern, or southeastern 
 exposure, should be selected, if possible, having a 
 loose, rich soil. It should be cleared of all roots, 
 stones, and everything that might interfere with a 
 proper tillage of the surface, or with the growth of 
 the plants. 
 
 The burning process is then conducted by covering 
 the bed, with logs and brush previously collected, 
 entirely, or in part, and setting fire to them, at a 
 time when they are dry enough to burn freely. The 
 fuel should not be allowed to lie flat on the ground 
 while burning, but should be placed upon cross logs, 
 beneath it. The whole bed need not be covered with 
 fuel at one time ; because, when one portion has been 
 subjected to the fire for an hour or two, the burning 
 fuel may be removed to another portion, and thus 
 the several parts be burnt in succession.* Some im- 
 portant effects are produced by the wasting process. 
 In the first place, any seeds of grass, etc., which may 
 be in the soil, are partially or entirely destroyed ; 
 and, secondly, the condition of the soil is improved 
 by burning, and by the quantity of ashes left upon 
 it, Beds should generally be burnt just before they 
 are sown; though, in some soils, it is better to burn 
 and expose to frost a few weeks before planting. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 121 
 
 SOWING THE SEED. 
 
 As soon as the surface of the bed is cool enough, 
 after burning, guano, or some finely pulverized 
 manure, rich in ammonia, and clear from seeds 
 of every kind, should be freely applied, and the 
 surface finely chopped over with the hoe, and 
 smoothly raked. It will then be ready for the seed. 
 About two tablespoonfuls of seed for every one 
 hundred square yards will be sufficient, and not too 
 much. The seed are mixed with old ashes, and, to 
 sow them regularly, it is best to sow one- half over 
 the bed, and the other half across the first sowing 
 It is then well trodden, and thickly covered with 
 brush. 
 
 The object of the covering is to protect the young 
 and tender plants against frost and sudden changes 
 of weather, and, at the same time, to admit the air 
 and light, and heat of the sun. The covering is 
 removed when there is no longer danger from frost. 
 One bed should be sown in winter, and the others 
 early in the spring, to multiply the chances for an 
 early supply of plants. 
 
 The fly is the great enemy of plant-beds. Various 
 remedies have been tried for this evil. No remedy 
 has been found better than the frequent application 
 of guano and plaster, during the growth of the 
 young plants, which has the effect of pushing them 
 forward, so that they spring up rapidly, in spite of 
 the fly. 
 
 All weeds and grass should bo pulled out of plant- 
 beds,as soon as they appear. 
 
122 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 PREPARATION OP SOIL FOR TOBACCO. 
 
 This is a point of the very first importance in 
 making a crop of tobacco. The soil must be rich and 
 mellow. New land is generally best for tobacco. But 
 in the best tobacco- growing sections, the land is 
 nearly all cleared, except so much as is required to 
 be kept in timber for fencing and fuel. 
 
 The preparation of the old land is, therefore, 
 the matter of importance. Tobacco requires an 
 abundant supply of ammonia, as well as mineral 
 matter, especially lime and potash. Hence, guano 
 and rich stable and hog-pen manures, lime, plaster, 
 and the phosphates, are all valuable fertilizers for 
 this crop. It has been shown that ammonia is not 
 generally abundant in soils which have been 
 frequently cultivated without manures; hence, old 
 lands require an application of some form of 
 ammonia-producing manure to secure a good crop 
 of tobacco. 
 
 A good clover or pea crop may be plowed down 
 in the fall, and manured well and plowed again in 
 the spring, with subsoiling, when the land requires it. 
 If the manure is not abundant, some guano should 
 be mixed with it, and a small quantity will then 
 answer the purpose. All wet lands must be well 
 drained for tobacco. 
 
 When artificial fertilizers are applied to this crop, 
 they should be sown as soon as we begin to bed up 
 the land to plant. Lay off the tobacco field as if to 
 sow wheat, and sow guano, plaster, and salt, at the 
 rate of two hundred pounds of Peruvian guano, one 
 hundred pounds of phosphate of lime, one hundred 
 
o ft AGRICULTURE. 123 
 
 pounds of plaster, and one hundred pounds of salt 
 per acre. This application, upon . fair land, will 
 produce from one thousand to twelve hundred 
 pounds of good tobacco to the acre. The manipu- 
 lated manure should be sown just before the plows 
 which are bedding up to the land, so that all can be 
 bedded in every day, or the ammonia of the guano 
 may escape. 
 
 The beds, or rows, should be from three and a half 
 to four feet apart, according to the character of the 
 land, and the plants set three feet apart in the row, 
 This will give about four thousand five hundred 
 plants to the acre. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 The season for planting in Virginia, is from the 
 15th of May to the 25th of June, and even as late as 
 the 4th of July. A careful hand should draw the 
 plants from the bed, which can be done with the 
 hand alone, as it is very important to guard against 
 bruising either the top or the roots of the young 
 plant. 
 
 Some of the weaker hands take the plants in baskets 3 
 and following those engaged in flattening the hills or 
 beds, drop a plant to each hill, while others follow 
 with sharpened pegs, with which they make holes in 
 the center of the hills to receive the roots. Care 
 should be taken to have the root extend straight 
 downward in. the hole, and not doubled back upon 
 itself; it is then more certain to grow. After the 
 root has been inserted in the hill, the soil is pressed 
 firmly around it. Of course, setting out plants can 
 only be done when there is a good season in the laud. 
 
124 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 CULTURE. 
 
 The two leading objects to be kept in view in the 
 culture of tobacco, are the same as those mentioned 
 in the culture of corn, viz. : first, all weeds and grass 
 must be kept down; second, the ground must be kept 
 mellow and well aired, The culture should commence 
 as soon after planting as possible, and kept up 
 constantly until the plants are too large for its con- 
 tinuance* Within a week or two after planting, the 
 soil on the surface of the hills may become crusted, and 
 grass and weeds begin to make their first appearance* 
 In either case, the hoes should be used, to scrape down 
 the surface of the hills, A clean, loose suface will 
 thus be formed around the plant. This should be 
 followed by a deep plowing, which should be made 
 so close to the hills as to cut down a considerable 
 portion of the ridge, the dirt being thrown from the 
 plant to the middle of the row. By a subsequent 
 plowing, the soil (as soon as possible), should be 
 thrown up again to the plants, and the hills dressed 
 up with the hoes, By all the other plowings the 
 soil should be thrown to the plant, and the ground 
 kept loose and mellow until the plant becomes too 
 large to work with a plow, 
 
 PRIMING AND TOPPING. 
 
 When the plant has grown to the height of two or 
 three feet around bud or " button" will make its 
 appearance in the center of the plant. This is the 
 flower bud. At this period some of the lower leaves 
 must be pulled off, so as to leave the stalk naked for 
 five or six inches above the ground. This is called 
 " priming," At the same time the priming is done, 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 125 
 
 the flower bud is nipped with the thumb and finger. 
 If a plant is large enough, it may be topped before 
 the " button " makes its appearance by nipping out 
 the leaf bud. There is a great difference of opinion 
 as to the proper height of topping. From eight to 
 twenty leaves are recommended the latter for manu- 
 facturing. If the tobacco is pretty forward, and the 
 land rich at first, prime off just enough leaves to 
 hill up the tobacco well, and top to twelve or fourteen 
 leaves. Continue to top to twelve leaves until the 
 1st of August, then top to ten leaves until the middle 
 of August, and from that time until the 1st of 
 September top to eight, and afterwards to six. Soon 
 after the topping and priming is done, then comes 
 the " suckering " and "worming;" the buds at the 
 base of the leaves begin to grow rapidly, if left alone, 
 would form branches of the main stalk. They are 
 called " suckers," and must be broken out as soon as 
 they are large enough to be caught with the thumb 
 and forefinger. This process is repeated from time 
 to time, as the new suckers make their appearance. 
 Meantime the tobacco or green worm will have com- 
 menced its ravages, and must be carefully picked off 
 and destroyed, otherwise it will greatly disfigure 
 and greatly injure the crop. The philosophy of 
 priming, topping and suckering is easily understood. 
 All parts of the plant are designed to aid and mature 
 its growth for the production of seed. As the period 
 approaches for maturing the seeds, nearly all the 
 vital energy seems to be directed toward and 
 
 O/ 
 
 . expended upon them. If the " button " is removed 
 all the vigor of the plant is thrown into the leaves and 
 suckers, and the suckers being removed, the vigor of 
 
12G WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 the plant is concentrated in the remaining leaves, 
 By priming the air is admitted to the middle leaves 
 of the plant, and at the same time the plant can be 
 hilled up to better advantage. 
 
 CUTTING. 
 
 The maturity of the plant, and consequent fitness 
 for cutting, is indicated by the points and edges of 
 the leaves curling downward, the leaf becoming 
 thick and brittle, and its surface assuming a yellowish, 
 spotted appearance. At this stage the plants con- 
 tain more of the ingredients which afterward give 
 value to them than at any other period, cither earlier 
 or later. It should then be cut, and not till then, 
 unless it is becoming fired, or there is immediate 
 danger of ft-ost. The cutting consists in splitting 
 the stalk with a sharp, thin-bladed knife, down 
 nearly to the lowest leaf, and then cutting it off 
 below this leaf. As the plants are cut they are 
 inserted between the hills, and allowed to remain in 
 that position a few hours, until they are sufficiently 
 wilted to be handled without being broken. They 
 are then collected and placed (eight or ten) together 
 upon sticks, and hung on scaffolds in the open air, or 
 upon the tier poles in the tobacco barn. 
 
 CURING. 
 
 The process of curing, is a matter of the highest 
 importance. On it depends, to a great extent, the 
 market value of the crop. It should, therefore, be 
 attended to with great care. The modes adopted 
 vary somewhat with the end for which the crop is 
 designed. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 127 
 
 Tobacco, for manufacturing purposes, should bo 
 exposed to the air on scaffolds ; and, if ripe and sun 
 cured, it will have that sweet aromatic flavor so 
 peculiar to good tobacco. After cutting, it should be 
 carried to the scaffolds and hung (without touching 
 the ground) about eight plants on a stick, and closed 
 on the poles for the purpose of sweating; by this 
 process the green color is expelled, and the tobacco 
 becomes yellow. It should then be removed to the 
 barn, and be fully cured by fire, either of charcoal 
 or flues. 
 
 For "shipping purposes," the tobacco may be 
 hauled to the barn as soon as wilted, and the process 
 of curing commenced immediately, while the plant is 
 still green ; this gives the tobacco a dark, rich color, 
 so popular in the English and German markets. The 
 sticks may be placed about six inches apart in the 
 barn, and a little closer in the roof than in the body 
 of the barn. 
 
 THE CHEMISTRY OP CURING. 
 
 During the process of curing, tobacco undergoes 
 important chemical changes. Its peculiar properties 
 are, owing to the presence of several remarkable com- 
 pounds, of which one is called "nicotine," another 
 " nicotinanine," these are the most important. " Nico- 
 tine" is an alkaline substance, and has the form of an 
 oily liquid, when separated from the other compounds. 
 In its concentrated form, it is a deadly poison. The 
 quantity of nicotine varies in the different qualities 
 of tobacco cultivated in the same region, and still 
 moro docs it vary in that cultivated in different coun- 
 tries. The Havana has about two per cent, of 
 
1 28 WALL 
 
 nicotine, hence its mildness. Virginia (best manu- 
 facturing) tobacco, has five or six per cent., while 
 the stronger " shipping varieties" have about seven 
 per cent. Nicotianine, is a more volatile substance 
 than nicotine, and is more odoriferous. The pleasant 
 odor of good tobacco is due chiefly to this compound. 
 The nicotianine and nicotine do not exist in the green 
 leaf, but are formed during the curing of the tobacco, 
 from substances already in the plant. If the leaves 
 arc dried very rapidly, these compounds are not fully 
 formed ; and if the heat is raised too high in firing, 
 they may disappear to some extent. Hence, the 
 firing should be commenced at a low temperature, 
 which can be gradually increased, and may be 
 advantageously suspended at night. The temperature 
 should never rise above one hundred and thirty 
 degrees. Curing yellow tobacco with charcoal, a high 
 temperature kept up day and night, is recommended, 
 say, one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty 
 degrees. 
 
 It is best to "fire" all grades of shipping tobacco, 
 and to cure it a dark nutmeg color. From twenty- 
 four to thirty- six hours after cutting, if the tobacco is 
 ripe if not, thirty -six to forty- eight hours, according 
 to the weather seems about the right time to 
 commence firing. Begin with small fires, and bring 
 the tobacco to a proper state, and then increase the 
 fires. 
 
 SHIPPING, HANDLING, ETC. 
 
 After the tobacco has been fully cured, the next 
 step is to strip the leaves from the stalks, and tie 
 them up in little bundles (hands), to be pressed 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 129 
 
 (prized) into hogsheads for market. The two points 
 to be attended to in shipping are, first, to have the 
 tobacco in proper "order;" and, secondly, to assort 
 carefully, so as to separate the different qualities. 
 Tobacco is in " order," when the leaf is sufficiently 
 moist to be pliant, and yet the stem dry enough to 
 break off readily from the stalks. This condition can 
 be secured only in the beginning of a spell of damp 
 weather. After the weather has continued damp for 
 some little time, the moisture penetrates the stems, 
 as well as the thinner part of the leaves, making 
 them too tough to be easily broken from the stalks, 
 and rendering them liable to mould when wrapped 
 together, or when the tobacco is laid down "in bulk.' 1 
 If the stems have thus become pliant, the tobacco is 
 in "too high order," and must be thoroughly dried, 
 and allowed to come in order again, before the strip- 
 ping can be done, A large quantity may be kept in 
 order for stripping, by packing down when in proper 
 condition, upon an elevated platform extending along 
 one side of the barn. This is called " bulking."" The 
 leaves of the plants must be lapped over each other 
 in the middle of the bulk, the but- end of the stalks 
 being turned outward. The whole mass must then 
 be covered with straw or leaves, which will preserve 
 it in order, until it can be conveniently stripped, 
 which is generally at times when the weather is 
 unfavorable for out- door work. 
 
 The business of assorting, requires both care and 
 judgment. It should, therefore, be the business of 
 the most experienced and trustworthy hands. It is 
 accomplished chiefly during the process of stripping, 
 but may be made more complete, by the hands 
 6*' 
 
130 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 engaged in tying, attending to the sorting out of 
 such leaves ay do not properly belong to grades upon 
 which they are engaged. The number of " grades," 
 or qualities, must be determined by the purpose for 
 which the crop is designed. Where the object is to 
 make the dark shipping tobacco, the best leaves are 
 assorted, according to size and quality, into first and 
 second quality " leaf;" while the lower leaves, together 
 with others that may be injured or ragged, form first 
 and second quality of "lugs." 
 
 If the crop is designed for the manufacturer, the 
 color j as well as the quality, must be taken into 
 account. The dark and yellow colors, must be first 
 separated into two general classes, and each of these 
 again assorted, according to their several qualities. 
 So, we would have five classes : Yellow, good yellow, 
 dark, good dark, and " lugs.' 1 When the assorting and 
 tying have been completed, the bundles should be 
 " bulked down," unless the stems are found to contain 
 so much moisture as to be in danger of moulding. 
 It should then be hung up on sticks, and thoroughly 
 dried. Then, at the first favorable time before priz- 
 ing, it should be again bulked down. The bundles 
 should be carefully straightened in packing down; 
 and, when it is afterward transferred to hogsheads, 
 the same, or still greater care should be taken, that 
 every leaf be straight, and in its proper place. The 
 hogsheads usually contain about thirteen or fourteen 
 hundred pounds. 
 
 The price of tobacco depends very much upon the 
 'skill with which it has been cured, and the care bestowed 
 upon the assorting, tying, and subsequent handling. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE 131 
 
 CHAP TEE XVII. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF CUBA TOBACCO. 
 
 The soil for the Cuba tobacco ought to be of a rich 
 sandy loam, neither too high nor too low that is, 
 ground capable of retaining moisture. The more 
 level, the better, and, if possible, well protected by 
 margins. For raising plants, preparing and culti- 
 vating the land, a similar process may be adopted as 
 that described in the preceding chapter for the com- 
 mon tobacco crop of this country. When the plants 
 have acquired twelve or fourteen leaves, and are 
 about knee high, we should begin to top them, by 
 nipping off the bud, with the aid of the fingers and 
 thumb-nails, taking care not to destroy the small 
 leaves immediately 'near the bud; for, if the land is 
 good and the season favorable, those very small top 
 leaves will, in a short time, be nearly as large, and 
 ripen quite as soon as the lower ones, whereby two 
 or four more leaves may be saved, thus obtaining 
 from sixteen to eighteen leaves, in the place of twelve 
 or fourteen, which is the general average. 
 
 The topping of the tobacco plant is absolutely 
 essential in order to promote the growth and to 
 equalize the ripening of the leaves ; it should be com- 
 menced the instant the bud of the plant shows a 
 disposition to go to seed, and be immediately followed 
 by removing the suckers which it will now put out 
 at every leaf. The suckers must be kept down. 
 
 The Cuba tobacco plant ought never to be cut 
 before it comes to full maturity, which is known by 
 the leaves becoming mottled, coarse, of a thick texture 
 
132 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 and gummy to the touch, at which time the end of 
 the leaf, by being doubled, will break short. It ought 
 not to be cut just after a rain, as the leaves have then 
 lost their gummy feel ; in a day or two the gum will 
 again coat the surface of the leaf. 
 
 About this period the cultivator is apt to be ren- 
 dered anxious by the fear of allowing the plants to 
 remain too long in the field. He should be on his 
 guard, not to destroy the quality of his tobacco by 
 cutting it too soon. When the cutting is to com- 
 mence, there should be procured a quantity of forked 
 stakes, set upright, with a pole, or rider, sitting on 
 each fork, ready to support the tobacco and keep it 
 from the ground. 
 
 The plant is then cut obliquely, even with the 
 surface of the ground ; then, Rafter tying two stalks 
 together, they are gently placed across the riders or 
 poles prepared to receive them. In this state they 
 are allowed to remain in the sun or open air until the 
 leaves are somewhat wilted. Than place as many 
 plants on each pole as can be conveniently carried, 
 and take them to the drying house, where the tobacco 
 is strung off on frames prepared to receive it, leaving 
 a small space between the two plants, that air may 
 circulate freely among them and promote their drying. 
 As the drying advances, the stalks are brought closer 
 to each other, to make room for those which remain 
 to be housed. 
 
 In drying the tobacco, all damp air should be 
 excluded, nor should the drying be hastened by the 
 admission of high, drying winds. This process is to 
 be promoted in the most moderate manner, except in 
 rainy seasons, when the sooner the drying is effected 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 133 
 
 the better ; for it is a plant easily affected by the 
 changes of the weather, after the drying commences. 
 It is liable to mildew in damp weather ; that is, when 
 the leaf changes from its original color to a pale 
 yellow cast, and from this, by parts, to an even brown. 
 
 When the middle stem is perfectly dry, it can be 
 taken down, and the leaves stripped from the stalk 
 and put in bulk to sweat ; that is, to make tobacco of 
 them. The leaves are to be stripped from the stalk 
 in damp or cloudy weather, when they are more 
 easily handled and the separation of the different 
 qualities rendered more easy. The good leaves are 
 kept to themselves, for "ivrappers" and the most 
 defective ones for "fillings." 
 
 When the tobacco is put in bulk, the stems of the 
 leaves should all be kept in one direction, to facilitate 
 the tying of them in "hanks," afterward making the 
 bulk two or three feet high and of proportionate 
 width. To guard against the leaves becoming over- 
 heated, and to equalize the fermentation or "sweat- 
 ing," after the first twenty- four hours put the outside 
 leaves in the center, and those in the center to the 
 outside of the bulk. By doing this once or twice, 
 and taking care to cover the bulk with sheets or 
 blankets, so as to exclude all air from it, and leaving 
 it in that state forty days, the tobacco acquires an 
 odor strong enough to produce sneezing, and the other 
 qualities of cured leaf. The process of curing may 
 then be considered as completed. 
 
 Then take some of the most injured leaves, but of 
 the best quality, and in proportion to the quantity of 
 totfacco made, and place them in clear water; there 
 let them remain until they rot, which they will do in 
 
134 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 about eight days. Next, break open your bulks, 
 spread the tobacco with the stems in one direction, 
 and dampen it with this water, in a gentle manner, 
 in order that it may not soak through the leaf, for, in 
 that case, the leaf would rot. A sponge is used in 
 Cuba for this delicate operation. Then tie the hanks 
 of from twenty- five to thirty leaves. 
 
 This being done, spread the hanks in the tobacco 
 house for about twelve hours to air, in order that the 
 dampness may be removed, and afterward pack them 
 in casks or barrels, and head them tight, until you 
 wish to manufacture them. The object in dampening 
 the tobacco with this water is to give it elasticity, to 
 promote its burning free, to increase its fragrance, to 
 give it an aromatic smell, and to keep it always soft. 
 This is the great secret of curing tobacco for cigars, as 
 practiced in Cuba. 
 
 We have here (St. Augustine, Florida) three cut- 
 tings from the original plant. The last will be of 
 rather weak quality, but which will be agreeable to 
 those who confine their smoking to weak tobacco. In 
 the "ratooning" of the plant, only one sprout ought 
 to be left ; all the other sprouts should be broken off 
 and destroyed. 
 
 The houses necessary for curing this tobacco ought 
 to be roomy, with a passage- way running through 
 the center, from one extremity of the building to 
 the other, and pierced on both sides with a sufficient 
 number of doors and windows to make them per- 
 fectly airy. 
 
 In order to obtain vigorous plants, the seed ought 
 to be procured from the original stalk, and not from 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 135 
 
 the "ratoons," by allowing some of them to go to 
 seed for the express purpose. Every three or four 
 years we should send to Cuba for fresh seed. [Joseph 
 M. Hernadez, St. Augustine, Florida. 
 
 CHAP TEE XVIII. 
 
 THE POTATO CROP. 
 
 The Irish, or common potato, will grow upon 
 almost any soil, with good management and a 
 favorable season ; but a loose, moist, and cool soil, is 
 most suitable. Well- drained swamps often produce 
 the potato with great luxuriance. North-lying 
 slopes, of loose, rich mould, gravelly, and sandy 
 loams, are all favorable to the production of this 
 important crop. 
 
 P R EP A RAT ION. 
 
 The ground should be prepared by a thorough 
 plowing in the autumn or winter. In the spring, at 
 the time selected for planting, manure should be 
 applied, either immediately, or before planting, or 
 in the drill with the potatoes. If manure is not 
 abundant, it is more economical to use it in the drill 
 for covering the potatoes at the time of planting. 
 
 M ANURES. 
 
 The best manure for potatoes is fresh stable, or 
 hog-pen scrapings, mixed with a large portion of 
 br*oken straw, leaves, or other litter. From ten to 
 twenty wagon loads per acre, as the soil is more or 
 
130 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 less fertile, should be applied, in case it is spread on 
 the surface. A smaller quantity will be sufficient, if 
 applied in the drill. When only a small quantity of 
 this kind of manure can be collected, a little Peruvian 
 guano may be mixed with it (one hundred pounds), 
 very much to the advantage of the crop. Cotton 
 seed is one of the best manures for this crop. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 In our Southern climate, the great enemy of the 
 potato crop, is the hot sun, and, particularly, if 
 accompanied by drought. Our planting should, 
 therefore, have special reference to protection 
 against heat and drought. The best means of 
 accomplishing this is mulching. After preparing the 
 ground, and planting the potatoes in the best manner, 
 the whole surface should be covered to the depth of 
 eight or ten inches, with broken straw, forest leaves, 
 or some other litter. This covering (mulching) 
 protects the ground against the severe heat of the 
 sun, prevents rapid evaporation, and secures both a 
 cool and moist soil Besides this, it prevents the 
 growth of weeds, while the potato vines rapidly find 
 their way to the surface. This plan will require no 
 after culture, except to pull up a few weeds which 
 may get through the mulching. 
 
 CULTURE. 
 
 If the method of planting is adopted which 
 requires future culture, all plowing and hoeing 
 should be done in the early stage of growth. No 
 working which will disturb the roots, should be done 
 after the flower- buds begin to make their appearance. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 137 
 
 If weeds still prove troublesome, they may be 
 removed by shallow hoeing, or by hand. Deep 
 covering at time of planting, or heavy earthing in 
 future culture, are injurious to the crop, especially in 
 heavy clay soils, or in damp localities. 
 
 The flower-buds of the potato should be plucked 
 off as soon as they make their appearance. The 
 nutrition, expended in the production of seeds, is 
 almost identical in kind, with that which promotes 
 the growth of the potato. Hence, if seeds are 
 produced, it must be at the expense of food, which 
 would otherwise nourish the tubers. 
 
 D I G G I N O . 
 
 As soon as the tops of the potato die, it indicates 
 full maturity of the tubers, and the crop should then 
 be gathered. For if the weather is warm and moist, 
 there is danger of second growth, which makes the 
 potato watery. After being dug, they should be 
 dried in the open air, and laid away in the earth ; a 
 dry, elevated spot should be selected for this purpose, 
 and so prepared that the water cannot collect in the 
 bottom of the bed. They should not be buried until 
 near the beginning of winter, as there will then bo 
 little danger of heating, and consequent rotting, 
 under the influence of warm weather. 
 
 Before the weather becomes warm enough in the 
 spring for the sprouting of the tubers to commence, 
 they should be taken up, and returned to the cool, 
 dry cellar. If they are damp when taken from the 
 ground, they should be spread out in the sunshine for 
 a few hours. They may be kept in good condition 
 for eating much longer, by being spread on a dry 
 
138 W A L L ' 8 M A N U A L 
 
 floor, in a cool situation, than in any other way the 
 great object being to prevent germination, 
 
 SELECTIONS FOR PLANTING. 
 
 Those designed for seed may be conveniently 
 selected, either at the time the crop is laid up in the 
 fall, or when spread out in tho spring. For planting, 
 tubers of medium size are best, because their buds 
 (eyes) are generally more vigorous than those very 
 large or very small. The object of planting this, as 
 well as other crops, should be to secure plants which 
 are healthy and vigorous at the beginning of their 
 growth. For early planting, the "Goodrich" and 
 " Early Rose " are csteehied the best. For late 
 planting, the " Long John " and " Long Red " are 
 probably the best, for the Southern States. 
 
 DEGENERATING. 
 
 Potatoes are found to degenerate in the hands of 
 many farmers, and hence an impression prevails 
 extensively, that the same variety naturally runs out, 
 when cultivated in the same soil and climate, for 
 several successive years. This is true, to some 
 extent, if it is planted too frequently on tlje same 
 land, even when the best modes of culture are 
 pursued. It is also true, when the little, worthless 
 potatoes are selected for seed year aftej* year. Corn, 
 wheat, rye, and every other kind of crop, degenerates 
 under similar treatment. 
 
 Let the farmer try the plans above given carefully, 
 for a few years in succession, and it is most probable 
 that he will find the quality of his crop advancing 
 gradually, instead of retrograding. Such, at least, 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 139 
 
 has been the writer's experience, in the cultivation of 
 this important crop. 
 
 THE SWEET POTATO. 
 
 The Carolina or sweet potato, to the successful 
 cultivation of which the climate and soil of the 
 South is so admirably adapted, yielding, as it does, 
 from one hundred to four hundred bushels to the 
 acre, at comparatively litte cost, and being so highly 
 nutritious to man and beast, claim for it the first 
 place among the crops we should cultivate. The 
 intelligent and prudent farmer, anticipating the short- 
 ness of the corn crop consequent upon droughts or 
 other adverse circumstances, will readily turn his 
 attention also to this crop, and others, which like it, 
 come to maturity at a different time. For this crop, 
 sandy land having a good clay subsoil, is to be pre- 
 ferred. The red and the yam potato are in the 
 highest esteem. As soon as the frost is out of the 
 ground in the spring, the potatoes should be bedded 
 out to obtain slips ; the earlier this is done the 
 better, as it is very important to an abundant supply 
 of slips at the first planting. 
 
 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR PLANTING. 
 
 Lay off rows three and a half to four feet apart, 
 deepen the furrows with the turn plow, throwing 
 out each way, followed by a bulltongue or coulter, 
 running deep. Place in the trench thus formed half 
 rotted straw or leaves, or any rough compost, and in 
 stiff lands, corn cobs and the rakings of the wood 
 yard the larger the chips the better. This is to 
 loosen the soil .and make room for air, which, like 
 moisture, is highly essential to the growth of this 
 
140 WALL'S M A N u A L 
 
 tuber. If the soil needs manure, it can be applied at 
 this time, in some concentrated form, fifty pounds of 
 Peruvian guano and fifty pounds of bone dust would 
 increase the crop very materially. Then bed up in 
 the usual way ; just before planting the slips the beds 
 should be "Hushed up." If your plants in the bed 
 are large enough, the best time to set them out is 
 just before a rain. If this cannot be done set them 
 out when there is a good season in the ground. 
 About two or three thorough workings will make 
 the crop. After the vines commence running, they 
 very often take root between the rows ; they must 
 be loosed from the soil, otherwise numerous tubers 
 will be formed in every direction, much to the injury 
 of the main crop. 
 
 Sweet potatoes should be dug before they become 
 chilled by the frosts. They should not be allowed to 
 remain long in the sunshine, but be deposited as soon 
 as it can be made convenient, where they are to 
 remain, and covered with straw, corn stalks or other 
 dry litter. Earth may now be leisurely thrown on 
 in such way and in such quantity as to prevent the 
 ingress of water. A hole must be made and kept 
 open at the top, which should be sheltered by bark 
 or a piece of board. Another method of banking 
 which has been tried for a long series of years, and 
 found very successful, is as follows : Dig a ditch of 
 convenient length, two feet deep, and three feet 
 w r ide on high and dry ground, lay in a thick bed of 
 straw for bottom and sides, fill the ditch heaping 
 with potatoes, cover with straw, and then with earth, 
 leaving air holes at top, at intervals of three feet. 
 Upon a ridge-pole placed upon forks, and nearly 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 141 
 
 touching the top of the bank, make a shelter of 
 clap- boards, which may be confined down by billets 
 of wood. 
 
 TURNIP CROP. 
 
 The cultivation of the turnip as an esculent, both 
 for animals and man, is of great antiquity, and it is 
 too much neglected at the South. 
 
 Selection and Preparation of the Soil. Turnips 
 delight in a loose soil, on new land, in which they 
 are raised to the greatest perfection, and the least 
 risk. It has been proved by long experience, in this 
 country, that old sod, well rotted, or newly cleared 
 land recently burnt over, produces the largest and 
 best flavored roots. These four points should be 
 carefully attended to in the cultivation of turnips : 
 First To have the ground in a finely pluverized 
 state. Second To force forward the young plants 
 into the rough leaf, in order to secure them from the 
 attack of the fly. This is best effected by sowing 
 guano, superphosphate of lime or other stimulating 
 manure with the seed. Third To have the ground 
 clean and free from weeds before the seed are sown, 
 and watching the growth of weeds afterward, and 
 cutting them off before they choke the crop. 
 Fourth If sown in drills, to keep the ground con- 
 stantly loose and open about the plants by stirring it 
 between them in dry weather. 
 
 Choice of Seed. New seed should always be sown 
 in preference to old. 
 
 Quantity of Seed. The quantity of seed varies 
 According to the condition of the soil and kind 
 employed. Say from one to four pounds to the acre. 
 
 Uses. Food for man and beast. 
 
142 WALL'S M A N U A L 
 
 C H A P T E K XIX. 
 
 SORGHUM CANES. 
 
 The soil and geographical range of the Chinese 
 sugar cane, corresponds nearly with that of Indian 
 corn, and it thrives with great luxuriance in rich, 
 bottom lands, or in moist, loamy soils, well manured. 
 It will produce a fine crop on dry sandy, or gravely 
 soils, too poor to give good crops of other plants. 
 On the latter class of soils, however, it has proved 
 more profitable to the cultivator, where there had 
 been applied a moderate quantity of guano, super- 
 phosphate of lime, and plaster. Say, fifty pounds of 
 Peruvian guano, fifty pounds of superphosphate, and 
 one hundred pounds of plaster. 
 
 This plant endures cold much better than corn, 
 and, resists without injury, slight frosts in the fall. 
 It will also stand excessive drought. In Virginia, 
 and other Southern States, it will ripen its seeds in 
 October, when planted by the 20th of June. At the 
 extreme South, it may be planted from January to 
 July. 
 
 The cost of culture of this plant, does not differ 
 essentialy from that of Indian corn. The seeds 
 require to be planted at different distances apart, 
 according to the strength of the soil. On light, 
 moderately rich land, it succeeds best when sown in 
 rows or drills, three feet apart, with the plants a foot 
 assunder in the drill; but 011 rich land, it has been 
 found preferable to have the drills four or five feet 
 assunder. If cultivated exclusively for fodder, and 
 to be cut green for stock, the seed may be sown 
 
OF AGllICULTl/liE. 43 
 
 broadcast, and treated in the same manner as Indian 
 corn, when grown for that use. . 
 
 The height of the plant varies from six to eighteen 
 feet, according to the locality and the condition of 
 the soil; the stalks ranging from half an inch to two 
 inches in diameter. The weight of an entire crop to 
 an acre, when green, varies from ten to forty tons, 
 The amount of seed will range from fifteen to sixty 
 bushels to the acre. 
 
 During the earlier stages of the growth of this 
 plant, say for the first six or eight weeks, it makes- 
 but little progress, except in penetrating the ground 
 with its roots ; it then grows off very rapidly. The 
 period of its growth, varies from ninety to one hun- 
 dred and twenty days ; the seeds often ripen unequally 
 in the same field. 
 
 The yield of juice from well trimmed stalks, is 
 about fifty per cent. The number of gallons of juice- 
 required to make a gallon of syrup, varies from five 
 to ten, according to the locality, the nature of the 
 soil, and the condition and the maturity of the canes. 
 The yield of syrup per acre, is from one hundred to 
 four hundred gallons. The -amount of pure alcohol 
 procured from the juice, ranged from five to nine per 
 cent. In cases where the plant is well matured, and 
 grown upon warm, light soil,, the juice will yield from 
 thirteen to sixteen per cent, of dry, sacharine matter ; 
 from nine to eleven per cent, of which will be well- 
 defined, crystalized cane-sugar. 
 
 A very palatable bread may be made from the flour 
 ground from the seeds of this plant. By accounts 
 from all parts of the country, this plant is universally 
 admitted to be a loholesome, nutritious, and economical 
 
144 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 food for animals ; all parts of it being greedily devoured 
 ' in the green or dried state, by horses, cattle, sheep, 
 poultry and swine, without injurious effects ; the two 
 latter, fattening upon the seed, equally as well as 
 upon corn. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR AND SYRUP FROM 
 THE JUICE. 
 
 In the first place, it is 'necessary to filter the juice 
 of the plant, as it comes from the mill, in order to 
 remove the ^fibrous matter and starch, which arc 
 present in it when pressed out. A bag filter, or one 
 made of a blanket, placed in a basket, will answer 
 this purpose. .Next, we have to add a sufficiency of 
 the milk of lime (that is, lime slacked and mixed with 
 water) to the juice, to render it slightly alkaline, as 
 shown by changing tumeric paper to a brown color, 
 or reddened litmus paper to a blue. A small excess 
 of lime is not injurious. After this addition, the 
 juice should be boiled, say, for fifteen minutes. A 
 thick, greenish scum rapidly collects on the surface, 
 which is removed by a skimmer, and then the liquid 
 should again be filtered. It will now be of a pale, 
 straw color, and ready for evaporation. It may now 
 be boiled down rapidly, to about half its original 
 bulk, after which the fire must be kept low, the 
 evaporation to be carried on with great caution, 
 and the syrup constantly stirred, to prevent its 
 burning at the bottom of the kettle or evaporating 
 pan. Portions of the syrup is to be taken out from 
 time to time, and allowed to cool, to see if it is dense 
 enough to crystalize. It should be as dense as sugar- 
 house molasses or tar. When the syrup has reached 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 145 
 
 this condition, it may be withdrawn from the 
 evaporating vessel, and be placed in tubs or pans, to 
 granulate. Crystals of sugar will begin to form, in 
 from three to four days, and sometimes nearly the 
 whole mass will granulate, leaving but little molasses 
 to be drained. After it has become solid, it may be 
 scooped out into conical shaped bags, made of coarse, 
 open cloth, or canvas, which are to be hung over the 
 receivers for molasses ; the drainage being aided by 
 warmth, it will be useful to keep the temperature of 
 the room at eighty or ninety degrees, Fahrenheit. 
 
 After some days, the sugar may be removed from 
 the bags, and will be found to be good, brown sugar. 
 If desired, it may now be refined, by dissolving in it 
 hot water, adding to the solution the whites of eggs 
 (say one egg for one hundred pounds of sugar), 
 mixed with cold water, after which the temperature 
 is to be raised to boiling, and the syrup should be 
 allowed to remain at that heat for half an hour* 
 Then skim and filter, to remove the congulated 
 albumen, and the impurities it has extracted from 
 the sugar- By means of bone-black, such as is 
 prepared for sugar refiners, the sugar may be 
 decolored, by adding an ounce to -each gallon of the 
 mcharine solution, and boiling the whole together * 
 Then filter, and 3 r ou w T ill obtain a nearly colorless 
 syrup. Evaporate this, as before directed, briskly to 
 half its bulk, and then slowly, until dense enough to 
 crystalize, leaving the syrup .as before, in tubs or 
 pans to granulate. This sugar will be of ,a light 
 brow^ color, and may now be Delayed and whitened 
 by the usual method that is, by putting it into cones 
 and pouring a saturated solution of white sugar upon 
 7 
 
146 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 it, so as to displace the molasses, which w r ill drop 
 from the apex of the inverted cone. The sugar is 
 now as refined as loaf sugar. 
 
 The methods here described are common and 
 cheap ones, such as any farmer may employ. It 
 may be advantageous, when operations of considerable 
 extent are contemplated, to arrange a regular system 
 of shallow, evaporating pans, for the concentration 
 of the syrup. A very large proportion of our farm- 
 ers will doubtless be satisfied with the production of 
 good syrup from this plant. They may obtain it by 
 following the method above described, or, they may 
 omit the lime, and make an agreeable, but slightly 
 addumis syrup, that will be of a lighter color than 
 that w r hich has been limed. This syrup is not liable 
 to crystalizc, owing to the presence of acid matter. 
 The unripe canes can bo employed in making molasses 
 and alcohol, but, as before stated, will not yield true 
 c me- sugar. 
 
 SUGAR CANE SACCHARINE OFFICINARUM. 
 
 The present condition of the West India Islands, 
 and particularly the Island of Cuba, makes it inter- 
 esting to look into the culture of the true sugar cane, 
 and sec if it cannot be cultivated profitably in higher 
 latitudes than at present. 
 
 Louisiana took the lead in the cultivation of this 
 plant ; as early as 1726 it was cultivated near New 
 Orleans, but sugar was not made in that State until 
 the year 1760, and so late as the year 1818, the 
 entire crop of the State amounted to only 25,000 
 hogsheads. The product of sugar in Louisiana in 
 1845 reached the enormous quantity of 207,337.000 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 147 
 
 pounds, and about 9,000,000 gallons of molasses, and 
 nearly 615,000,000, 
 
 The cane was introduced into Georgia from 
 Otaheite in 1805, and sugar was for some time 
 produced for export, It was an object of attention 
 while it commanded ten cents per pound, but when 
 the prices declined to five or six cents, it ceased to 
 be manufactured as an article of commerce, though 
 still produced for domestic consumption. Of late 
 years a good deal of attention has been paid to its 
 cultivation in Texas and Florida. Large portions of 
 these States are well adapted to the growth of the 
 plant. The Southern and middle portions of Alabama 
 and Mississippi, as well as the Eastern portions of 
 the Carolinas, have grown the true sugar cane to 
 some extent for syrup, 
 
 RIBBON CANE CREOLE OR MALABAR CANE, 
 
 The introduction of the ribbon cane from Georgia 
 into the adjoining States, in 1817, by giving a much 
 hardier variety, has largely extended the area of its 
 cultivation, 
 
 VARIETIES, 
 
 The kind most cultivated in the United States is 
 the stripped ribbon or Java, which is by far the 
 hardiest and most enduring cane, It grows rapidly, 
 is of large size, and resists the effects of early and 
 late frosts, and the excess of rains or droughts and 
 disease, better than any other. It has, however, a 
 hard course rind, and yields juice of only medium 
 quality. The Creole, Crystaline or Malabar, was the 
 first introduced, and though of diminutive size, is a 
 
148 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 cane of great richness and value, Several varieties 
 of the Otaheita, the purple, the yellow, and the 
 purple banded, are more or less cultivated, but tho 
 juice is decidedly inferior to the Creole, 
 
 SOIL, 
 
 The cane will nourish in a great variety of soils, 
 Varying between the extremes of stiff clay and a 
 light, sandy loam, provided the clay soil be well 
 drained and fertile, The soil best suited is a rich 
 loam, well supplied with lime, and such as will yield 
 the best crops of Indian corn, The best and most 
 enduring soils in the West Indies and elsewhere, 
 contain large quantities of lime and phosphates, 
 One of the most profitable sugar plantations in 
 Louisiana has a profusion of shells scattered over it 
 in every stage of decomposition. 
 
 SEED CANE, 
 
 This plant is always propagated by cuttings, 
 These ought to be provided from the best and most 
 mature cane of the preceding season, The only 
 available means of improving or preventing deteriora- 
 tion is to be found in planting the very best quali- 
 ties of seed cane. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF SEED CANE., 
 
 This is kept from the period of cutting until 
 planting, by simply placing it on the dry surface of 
 the ground, in beds or mattresses, as they are 
 technically called, of about ten feet in depth, and 
 having the tops shingling, or overlying the ripe 
 portions of the stalk to protect the seed cane from 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 149 
 
 the frosts and sun. It is well to preserve an excess 
 of seed cane, as continued and severe spring frosts 
 may cut down and destroy so many young shoots as 
 to leave a bad stand, unless partially replanted. Many 
 assert the cane will keep better by being cut soon 
 after a rain, so as to be bedded with the sap vessels 
 full, and that dry rot follows when cut after a 
 drought. Some planters, however, allow it to lie on 
 the ground and wilt for two or three days after 
 cutting, and assert when thus treated, the cane keeps 
 equally well. Corn which is intended for grinding is 
 often thus secured when severe frosts are anticipated. 
 It requires additional labor to top and trim it when 
 thus harvested, but a good yield of sugar is in that 
 way secured, which might otherwise be lost. 
 
 PREPARATION FOR PLANTING. 
 
 Where the land is fresh, it is invariably light, and 
 full of vegetable matter. Shallow plowing, and wide 
 distances between the rows, are then justified. The 
 cane grows luxuriantly in such soils, and when there 
 is a deficiency of warm weather to mature fully, 
 room is required to allow a free circulation of air, 
 and the full benefit of the sun, to ripen it before the 
 approach of frost. From seven to ten feet is near 
 enough for the rows, but these should contain from 
 two to three continuous lines of good plant cane. 
 Where the land is very fertile, wide rows, if well 
 cultivated, will produce an equal quantity, as if 
 planted closer, and there is much less expense and 
 labor in planting and cultivating the crop. 
 
 Land that has been long in cultivation may be 
 planted nearer, but if rich, as it ought always to be, 
 
150 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 the rows should never be nearer than six feet, and 
 might, with advantage, extend to nine. It was 
 formerly the practice to plant a single line of cane, 
 in rows from two and a half to four feet apart ; but 
 this system has been abandoned, as it was found 
 troublesome in cultivating, slow r er in ripening, and it 
 is believed to have lessened the size of the cane. 
 
 Some planters make their cane beds every sixteen 
 feet, planting in each, two rows of cane at a distance 
 of four feet, and leaving a space between every 
 alternate row of eleven feet. There is a great 
 advantage in these wide spaces, as the trash (top, 
 leaves, and vegetable matter), together with the 
 bagasse (the residium of the cane after expressing the 
 juice), can all be buried in the wide spaces, and remain 
 undisturbed till decomposed, without injuring the 
 growing crop. On light, sandy lands, these materials 
 may be burned, and the ashes applied to the soil ; but in 
 adhesive, or clay soils, good husbandry requires that 
 all should be buried, as the vegetable decay, the 
 humus or mold, not only contains every element for 
 the reproduction of the future crop, but it effects a 
 mechanical division in the soil, of great value to its 
 porosity and productiveness. If oyster shell lime, 
 or any other lime, be added to the "bagasse" 
 (refuse from the sugar mills), it will hasten the 
 decomposition, and at the same time correct, or 
 neutralize, the acetic acid, or vinegar, formed by the 
 fermentation of the " bagasse " in the soil. 
 
 The land should be deeply broken up, with a tw r o 
 or .four horse plow. If light and sandy, it may be 
 plowed flat ; but if stiff or wet, it should be thrown 
 up in beds. Great advantage has generally followed 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 151 
 
 the use of the subsoil plow, when run a foot below the 
 bottom of the turning furrow, and immediately under 
 the rows to be occupied by the seed- cane. This is 
 the more important, as no opportunity will again 
 occur for breaking up this portion of the soil, until 
 the plant is renewed. The plowing should never 
 long precede the planting, unless in stiff soils, which 
 need the mellowing influence of the atmosphere to 
 crumble the large clods ; nor in these, beyond the 
 period necessary to effect this object. A fine bed of 
 well pulverized earth is thus secured for the plants 
 to root in, and afford its nourishment to the young 
 shoots. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 This may be done any time between October and 
 April. There is a greater certainty of a good crop, 
 if in the ground by the first of March. 
 
 On land previously well plowed, open a wide 
 furrow, with the fluke, or double mold- board plow, 
 clean this out with the hoe, of a uniform width, by 
 the removal of any clods that may have fallen in 
 after the plow. With the increased width of trench, 
 now usually adopted by the best planters, not less 
 than three parallel seed- stalks should be planted. 
 These ought to be in line, and about four inches 
 apart ; and it is better to place them so that the eyes 
 may shoot out horizontally, and thus come up at the 
 same time, and on opposite sides of the seed- stalk. 
 Cover with sufficient earth to prevent freezing, from 
 anji weather that may follow. On the approach of 
 spring, remove the earth to the depth of one or two 
 inches. Light spring frosts will not injure the plant, 
 
152 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 otherwise than to cut down the young shoots, and 
 thus delay the growth till new leaves appear. The 
 only danger is in removing too much of the earth, so 
 as to expose the roots to freezing. 
 
 CULTIVATING. 
 
 Throughout most of Louisiana the cane yields three 
 crops from one planting. The first season it is called 
 plant cane, and, subsequently, ratoons. On new and 
 very favorable lands the ratoons will produce equal 
 to the plant cane for several years ; and sometimes 
 on the prairie lands of Attakapas and Opclousas, and 
 in higher latitudes, it requires to be planted every 
 year. The cultivation is alike in either case, after 
 the young shoot makes its appearance, previous to 
 which the ratoons should be barred off and scraped, on 
 the approach of settled warm weather. The sun's 
 influence is thus sooner felt upon the roots, and a 
 quicker growth is secured to the cane. But if these 
 operations are performed early, or too closely, frosts 
 may seriously injure the plants. Soon after the plants 
 have made their appearance, the earth is gradually 
 thrown back to them by repeated plowings, the hoes 
 aiding the operation, and to keep the cane clear of 
 weeds. There is a great advantage in wide planting, 
 as two-horse plows can be used in cultivation. There 
 i.3 generally a larger growth from deep and efficient 
 plowing ; and where weeds, and more especially the 
 coco grass, abound, great economy in subduing these 
 is secured by the use of the large plow, as they are 
 thus so deeply buried, and can again only make their 
 appearance after a long interval. 
 
 When the cane has acquired such a hight and 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 15o 
 
 expansion of loaves as to shado the ground effectually 
 (which, if all the first operations have been well 
 performed, will be about the first of June), the last 
 furrows are thrown to the roots, and the earth slopes 
 gradually to the center, forming an elevation about 
 the plants and a depression between the rows (a water 
 furrow), which serves as a drain for the surplus 
 rains. Many of the best planters run a large subsoil 
 plow in this water furrow, which more effectually 
 drains the bed. Throughout the cultivation, except 
 when first barred off, great care should be observed 
 to avoid cutting or breaking the roots. This caution 
 is applicable to all plants, but especially to the sugar 
 cane, which requires the aid of all its roots to develop 
 and mature the plant before cold weather. Good 
 implements, good plowmen, and thorough tillage, are 
 essential preliminaries to a good sugar crop. 
 
 HARVESTING. 
 
 Iii the West Indies and most other foreign coun- 
 tries, where this plant is grown, the cane fully ripens; 
 but in Louisiana and other States, it very seldom or 
 never fully matures. It begins to ripen at the foot 
 of the stalk, in August or September, and advances 
 upward at the rate of about six inches per week. The 
 proper period for cutting would be just previous to 
 the heavy black frosts, or freeze ; but as it requires 
 several weeks to secure the crop, the harvesting is 
 generally commenced by the middle of October, and 
 steadily followed up till completed. This is done by 
 striking off the top (unripened part), then stripping 
 the leaves by a single downward stroke of the knife 
 on either side ; and another blow severs one or 
 
154 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 stalks at the foot. The cane is then thrown upon 
 carls and hauled to the mill, where it should at once 
 be ground, the juice expressed, boiled, granulated, and 
 put up for market. 
 
 Slight frosts in autumn are beneficial, rather than 
 injurious, as, by deadening the leaves and tops, they 
 check vegetation, and stimulate, rather than retard, 
 the ripening of the plant. When severe frosts are 
 apprehended, it will justify cutting the cane as rapidly 
 as possible, and mattrcssing, as before described under 
 the the head of " the preservation of cane ." 
 
 The mode of making sugar and molasses from the 
 true cane, has been reduced to such a science that a 
 description of the appliances and machinery necessary 
 for the operation, would require a book larger than 
 this MANUAL. It rather belongs to the arts than to 
 agriculture. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE ASHES OP THE SUGAR CANE, BY STENTIOUSE, 
 
 SMif-n, 44.13 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 4.88 
 
 Suli'lmrio Acid 7.74 
 
 Lime 4.40 
 
 Magnesia 11.90 
 
 Potash 16.97 
 
 Soda ~ 1.04 
 
 Chloride of Sodium (salt) 7.2& 
 
 From the above analysis, we can see the mineral 
 ingredients necessary to be returned to the soil. We 
 can now intelligently discuss the 
 
 MANURES FOR CANES. 
 
 If the alluvial bottoms of Louisiana and other fertile, 
 level lands, are properly managed, they will never 
 become exhausted by the cultivation of cane. Tired 
 of it they may be, as land is of any constantly recur- 
 ring crop ; but exhaustion will never be accomplished 
 
OF AGRICULTURE, 155 
 
 if the elements constituting the stalk and leaves of 
 the plant are, without fail, returned to the soil, This 
 is done simply by burying the bagasse and trash, with 
 the addition of lime, to hasten decomposition. If the 
 bagasse is burned, as is sometimes the case when 
 there is a deficiency of fuel, the ashes should bo 
 carried and spread on the field. 
 
 From the above table of the ash of cane, we see 
 that potash, in some form, is highly essential, as well 
 as lime, common Bait, sulphates and phosphates. 
 These and other fertilizing materials can be procured 
 in adequate proportions from stable manures, if the 
 latter are to be had ; but when there is a deficiency 
 of them, the land may be restored by adding most or 
 all of the following ingredients : Potash ashes will 
 afford it with the most economy and in the greatest 
 abundance ; it is yielded by the slow decay of vegetable 
 matter, and stable manure, and also from the decom- 
 position of many species of rocks, especially from 
 green sand marl. Lime, marl, or ground shells these 
 are mostly pure carbonates, with, sometimes, a slight 
 addition of the phosphate of lime. Land plaster, 
 gypsum, or the phosphate of lime, is a cheap and 
 appropriate fertilizer, as it yields the plant both sul- 
 phuric acid and lime. Ground bones or phosphate of 
 lime, common salt (chloride of sodium), seems, from 
 the analysis, to be a direct food for the plant. 
 
 DRAINAGE. 
 
 Deep, thorough under- drain age, is peculiarly neces- 
 sary in preparing the sugar lands of the South to 
 yield their greatest crops and choicest quality of 
 sugar cane. All the advantages enumerated under 
 
150 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 the head of draining, will apply here. The cane on 
 thoroughly drained lands will commence growing 
 earlier in the spring than on the undrained; it will 
 grow faster during the summer, ripen earlier and 
 mature a larger portion of stalk, and yield a better, 
 richer juice. [ Condensed from Allen' 's American Farm 
 Book. 
 
 RICE (Oryza Satira}. 
 
 This grain probably contributes directly to the 
 support of a larger number of the human family, 
 than any other plant. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 All the varieties yet discovered, flourish best under 
 the inundation system of culture ; yield more to the 
 acre, give less trouble, and require less labor. Each 
 variety will grow well on light, moist uplands, without 
 irrigation, when cultivated with the hoe or plow. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF LOWLAND RICE. 
 
 The method pursued on the rice lands of the lower 
 Mississippi, is to sow the rice broadcast, about as 
 thick as wheat, and harrow it in with a light harrow 
 with many teeth ; th ground being first well plowed 
 and prepared, by ditches and embankments for 
 inundation. It is generally sown in March, and 
 immediately after the sowing, the water is let on. so 
 as barely to overflow the ground; the water is with- 
 drawn the second or fourth day, or as soon as the 
 grain begins to swell. The rice, very soon after, 
 comes up and grows finely. When it has attained 
 about three inches in height, tl c water is again let 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 157 
 
 on, the top leaves being left a little above the water. 
 Complete immersion would kill the plant. About 
 two weeks previous to harvest, the water is drawn 
 off to give the stalks strength, and to dry the ground 
 for the convenience of the reapers. The same space 
 of ground, yields three times as much rice as wheat. The 
 only labor after sowing, is to see that the rice is 
 properly irrigated ; except, in some localities where 
 aquatic plants prove troublesome, the water effectually 
 destroying all others. The rice grounds of the lower 
 Mississippi, produce about seventy-five dollars' worth 
 of rice per acre. The variety called the Creole white 
 rice, is esteemed the most profitable and best. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF UPLAND RICE. 
 
 In the eastern part of the State of Mississippi, 
 called the piney ivoods, rice has been very generally 
 cultivated upon the uplands. Although it cannot 
 be made a profitable article of export, yet it affords 
 the people of the interior an abundant supply of a 
 healthy food for themselves, and a good provender 
 for their cattle. Unlike other kinds of grain, it can 
 be kept for many years, in a warm climate, without 
 spoiling ; by winnowing it semi- annually. 
 
 It is cultivated entirely with the plow and har- 
 row, and grows well on the pine barrens. A kind of 
 shovel-plow, drawn by one horse, is driven through 
 the unbroken pine forest; not a tree being cut or 
 belted, and no grubbing being necessary, as there is 
 little or no undergrowth. The plow makes a shallow 
 furrow, an inch or two in depth ; the furrows are 
 placed about three feet apart. The rice is dropped 
 into them and covered with a harrow. The middles, 
 
158 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 or space between the rows, are not broken up until 
 the rice attains several inches in height. One or two 
 plo wings suffice in the piney woods for its cultivation, 
 weeds and grass, owning to the nature of the soil, not 
 being troublesome, 
 
 There are two kinds of rice, said to succeed best 
 on uplands, the long and the round, The long, has a 
 red chaff, and is very difficult to beat out. The round 
 shakes out, if not cut as soon as ripe. They, never- 
 theless, all succeed best under the inundation system 
 of culture, for rice is essentially a water plant. 
 
 Before the war, the best rice lands of South 
 Carolina and Georgia, w r ere valued at five hundred 
 dollars per acre ; while the best cotton lands sold for 
 one- tenth part of that sum; proving that rice w T as 
 more profitable than cotton. The profit of a crop of 
 rice, should not be estimated by the yield per acre, 
 but by the number of acres a laborer can till. After 
 the land is properly prepared for inundation, by 
 levelling, ditching, and embankments, a single indi- 
 vidual can grow rice almost without limit. If Chinese 
 labor is introduced into the lower Yalley of the 
 Mississippi, rice is ultimately destined to supercede 
 cotton, in a large portion of the States of Mississippi 
 and Louisiana, 
 
 From the immense extent of our lowlands through- 
 out the delta of the Mississippi, which, if subjected 
 to the inundating system for growing rice, may be 
 considered of inexhaustible fertility, we may expect 
 at some future day, not very distant, to surpass every 
 other portion of the world in the quantity, as we do 
 now in the quality, of our rice. (Condensed from 
 Allen's American Farm Book.} 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 159 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 RECAPITULATION OF SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT 
 FACTS. 
 
 When a vegetable substance is burned the mass of 
 it disappears, taking the form of gases and escaping 
 into the air, and a small residue remains, termed ashes. 
 Now, when plants grow, they draw back again from 
 the air all those gases which escape into it by 
 combustion, and obtain from the soil only those 
 mineral solids which form ashes. The great bulk of 
 vegetable matter is derived from the air, and as the 
 atmosphere is uniform in composition, that portion 
 of the nutrition of plants which depends on this 
 source may go forward in all places with nearly 
 equal facility. 
 
 The atmosphere contains an exhaustless store of 
 elements for the use of vegetation, and as far as it 
 alone is concerned, all plants may be grown with 
 equal success in all places. But other agencies step 
 in and say no. As, for instance, heat and light, which 
 radiate from the sun. In consequence of the almost 
 round shape of the earth, these rays fall unequally 
 upon its different parts. At the equator, where the 
 rays are perpendicular, the heat and light are more 
 intense, while we pass toward the poles the rays 
 strike the earth more obliquely, and the heat is not 
 as great. Now, to the variations of temperature 
 plants are adapted. Equatorial vegetation requiring 
 largp qualities of heat and light, cannot flourish in 
 temperate climates, for although the air and soil may 
 contain all the chemical elements necessary to its 
 
ICO WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 growth, yet one of the conditions essential to it is 
 wanting, namely, heat and light. In addition to the 
 part played by the atmosphere and climate, which 
 may be regarded in a measure as independent of 
 human control, there is a third condition of the 
 growth of plants which relates to the Composition of 
 soils. If there is a want of elements, derived from 
 the soil, growth is impossible; but if they are 
 abundantly supplied, nutrition is rapid, and growth 
 w^ill bo luxuriant. To ascertain and regulate the 
 adaptation of soils to plants, to find out the elements 
 necessary for their development, and the best and 
 most economical method of supplying them, is the 
 great problem of agriculture. This problem we have 
 endeavored to work out in the preceding chapters of 
 this work. We have collected facts, illustrations and 
 experiments from every reliable and available source. 
 In growing cultivated plants, we cannot depend 
 entirely upon the elements of the air. A plant 
 supplied with all the mineral substances in the soil, 
 and allowed sufficient time, will extract the necessary 
 gases from the air, and attain a vigorous develop- 
 ment. But if it is desired to hasten the maturity of 
 the plant, as is frequently necessary in certain 
 climates, or to stimulate it to excessive growth, then 
 vegetable or animal manures must be added to the 
 soil, which, by decay and putrification, generate large 
 quantities of carbonic acid and ammonia in the imme- 
 diate neighborhood of the roots, by which they are 
 taken up when dissolved in water. 
 
 The "ashes " or mineral elements of plants, though 
 small in quantity, yet are of the very highest 
 importance. Unlike the organic elements, which 
 
O T A'G R I C U L T U R E . 161 
 
 arc the same in all plants, these vary in different 
 varieties of vegetation. 
 
 As one kind of plant takes up one mineral from 
 the soil, and others take other kinds, the farmer finds 
 it advantageous to cultivate in succession different 
 varieties of plants on the same grounds j this is- 
 called rotation of crops. 
 
 If a soil yields good crops of one vegetable, and 
 not of another, it must be wanting in the mineral 
 elements of the latter, which should be supplied. 
 If any particular plant, cultivated or wild, nourishes 
 in any given spot, an examination or analysis of the 
 ashes indicates at once the capabilities of the soil by 
 showing what soluble salts it furnishes. 
 
 Decaying- vegetable and animal matters, when 
 applied to crops, act not only in supplying carbonic 
 acid and ammonia, but by furnishing such mineral 
 salts as are contained in them, and that, too, in the 
 very best condition to be taken up by plants. Hence 
 for any particular crop there is no manure so good as 
 the same kind of vegetable in a state of decay, or its 
 ashes, or the droppings of animals fed upon it ; but 
 in the latter case it is of the first importance to make 
 use of the whole manure of the animal, as its liquid 
 excretions, the part most liable to be lost, are by far 
 the richest in soluble salts. 
 
 Nature seems to have made it a fixed law that if 
 one of the important ingredients of the plant is 
 absent, the others, though they may be present iii 
 sufficient quantities, cannot be used. This, if the soil 
 is deficient in alkalies, and still has sufficient quanti- 
 ties of all the other ingredients, the plant cannot 
 take these ingredients, because alkalies are necessary 
 to its growth. 
 
1G2 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 In the case of all plants, the following operations 
 are going on at the same time: The leaves are 
 absorbing carbonic acid from the air, and the roots 
 are drinking in water from the soil. There is a 
 constant tendency to supply the deficiency of water 
 in the root, and keep it constantly charged with as 
 much as it can dissolve of the plant food. 
 
 Under the influence of daylight the carbonic acid 
 is decomposed, its oxygen returned to the air, and its 
 carbon, retained in the plant. 
 
 Water taken in by the [roots circulates through 
 the sap vessels of the plant, and is drawn toward the 
 leaves, where it is evaporated. This water contains 
 the nitrogen and mineral food required by the plant, 
 and some carbonic acid, while the water itself consists 
 of hydrogen and oxygen. Thus we see plants obtain 
 their food in the following manner : 
 
 Carbon, in the form of carbonic acid, from the 
 atmosphere, and from that contained in the sap, the 
 oxygen being returned to the air. 
 
 Oxygen and hydrogen, from the elements of the 
 water constituting sap. 
 
 Nitrogen, from the soil, chiefly in the form of 
 ammonia. It is carried into the plant through the 
 roots, in solution in water. 
 
 Mineral elements, from the soil, and only in solution 
 in water. 
 
 The food taken up by the plant undergoes such 
 changes as are required for its growth ; the nutritive 
 portions of the sap are resolved into wood, bark, 
 grain or other necessary parts. 
 
 The results of these changes are of the greatest 
 importance in agriculture, and no person ought to be 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 163 
 
 called a thoroughly practical farmer, who docs not 
 understand them. 
 
 We have thus far examined the raw material of 
 plants. We have looked at each of the elements, sepa- 
 rately, and considered its uses in vegetable growth. 
 We will now consider another division of plants. 
 
 We know that they consist of various substances, 
 such as wood, gum, starch, oil, etc., and on examina- 
 tion, we shall discover that these substances are 
 composed of the various atmospheric and mineral 
 ingredients described in the preceding chapters. They 
 are made- up almost entirely of atmospheric matter, 
 but their ashy parts, though small, are of great 
 importance. 
 
 These compounds may be divided into two classes. 
 The first class is composed of carbon, hydrogen and 
 oxygen. The second class contains the same sub- 
 stance, and nitrogen. 
 
 The "first class that containing no nitrogen 
 comprises the wood, starch, gum, sugar and fatty 
 matter, which constitutes the greater part of all 
 plants ; also, the acids which are found in some 
 fruits, etc. 
 
 Yarious as are all of these things in their character, 
 they are entirely composed of the same ingredients 
 {carbon, hydrogen and oxygen), only slightly differing 
 in proportions. There may be a slight difference in 
 the composition of their ashes, but the vegetable parts 
 derived from the atmosphere, vary so little that they 
 can often be artificially changed from one to the 
 other. As an illustration of this fact, it may be 
 stated that, at the fair of the Mechanics' Institute, 
 Professor Mapcs exhibited samples of excellent sugar 
 
ft WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 made from the juice of corn-stalks, from starch, from 
 linen, and from woody fibre. 
 
 In the plant, during its growth, these elements are 
 constantly changing. At one time they assume the 
 form in which they cannot be dissolved in water, and 
 remain fixed in their places. 
 
 At another time, the chemical influences on which 
 growth depends, change them to a soluble form, and 
 they are carried by circulation of the sap, to other 
 parts of the plant, where they may again be 
 deposited in other insoluble forms. 
 
 As an illustration, the turnip devotes the first 
 season of its growth to storing up, in its root, a large 
 amount of starch and pcctic acid; in the second 
 Reason (when set out for seed), these substances 
 become soluble, arc taken up by the circulation, and 
 again deposited in the form of woody fibre, starch, 
 etc., in the stems, leaves, and seed-vessels, above the 
 ground. If a turnip root be placed, in the spring, in 
 moist cotton-lint, from which it can obtain no food, 
 it will simply, by the transformation of its own 
 substance, form stems, leaves, flowers, and seed. 
 
 Those products of vegetation which contain 
 nitrogen, are of the greatest importance to the farmer, 
 being the ones from which animal muscle is made. 
 
 They consist, as will be recollected, of carbon, 
 hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, or of all of the 
 atmospheric elements of plants. They are all of, much 
 the same character, though each kind of plant has 
 its peculiar form of this substance, which is known 
 under the general name of protein. 
 
 The protein of wheat is called gluten that of 
 Indian corn is zein that of beans and peas is 
 
tf AGRICULTURE, 105 
 
 legumin. In other plants, the protective substances 
 are vegetable albumen, cassin, etc* 
 
 Gluten absorbs large quantities of water, which 
 Causes it to swell to a great size, and become fall of 
 holes. Flour which contains iiiuch gluten, makes 
 light, porous bread, and is preferred by bakers, 
 because it absorbs so large an amount of water. 
 
 These nitrogen compounds are necessary to animal 
 and vegetable life, and none of our cultivated plants 
 will attain maturity, unless allowed the material 
 required for forming them. To form these, is the 
 chief object of nitrogen given to plants as manure. 
 If no nitrogen could be obtained, these substaaces 
 could not be formed, and the plant would cease to 
 grow. On the contrary, if ammonia is given to the 
 soil, by rains, guano or stable manure, it furnishes 
 nitrogen, w r hilc the carbonic acid, and water, yield the 
 other constituents of protein, and a healthy growth 
 Continues ; provided, the soil already contains the 
 mineral matters required in the formation of the ash,, 
 in a condition to be taken up by roots* 
 
 The wisdom of this provision is evident, when WG 
 recollect that the nitrogen compounds are necessary to 
 the formation of muscle in animals, for, if plants 
 Were allowed to complete their growth without a 
 supply of nitrogen, our grain, grass, and hay, would 
 not be sufficiently supplied to keep our oxen and 
 horses in working condition, 
 
 THE RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 That this matter may be clearly understood, it 
 may be w'ell to explain more fully the application of 
 the different constituents of plants in feeding animals. 
 
ICO WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 Animals are composed (like plants) of atmospheric 
 and mineral matter, and everything necessary to 
 build them up, exists in plants. It is one of the 
 offices of the vegetable world, to prepare the grass in 
 the air, and the minerals in the earth, for the use of 
 animal life; and, to effect this, plants put these gases 
 and minerals together in w T heat, corn, oats, barley 
 and, in fact, all the productions of the earth, 
 
 In animals, the compounds containing no nitrogen, 
 comprise the fatty substances, parts of the blood, 
 etc., while the protein compounds, or those which 
 contain nitrogen, form the muscle, blood, a part of the 
 bones, the hair, and other portions of the body, 
 
 Animals contain a larger proportion of mineral 
 matter than plants do. Bones contain a largo 
 quantity of phosphate of lime, and we find other 
 mineral compounds performing important offices in 
 the system. 
 
 In order that animals may be perfectly developed, 
 they must, of course, receive as food, all of the 
 materials required to form their bodies. They 
 cannot live, if fed entirely on one ingredient. Thus, 
 for example, if starch alone be eaten by the animal, 
 he might become fat, but his strength would soon 
 fail, because his food contains nothing to keep up the 
 vigor of the muscles. If, on the contrary, the food of 
 an animal consisted entirely of gluten, he might be 
 very strong from the development of muscle, but 
 would not become fat- 
 Hence, we sec, that in order to keep up the proper 
 proportion of both fat and muscle in our animals, or in 
 ourselves, the food must be such as contains a proper 
 proportion of both classes of vegetable products. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 167 
 
 Apart from the relations between the organic parts 
 of plants, and those of animals ; there exists an 
 important relation between their ashes or their 
 mineral parts ; and food, in order to supply the 
 demands of animal life, must contain the mineral 
 matter required for the purposes of life. 
 
 Take bones, for instance : If phosphate of lime is 
 not always supplied, in sufficient quantities, in the 
 food, animals are prevented from forming healthy 
 bones. This is particularly noticed in the teeth. 
 When food is deficient in the phosphate of lime, W T C 
 see poor teeth as the result. 
 
 Some eminent physicians have supposed that one 
 of the causes of consumption, is the deficiency of 
 phosphate of lime in food. The first class of vegeta- 
 ble constituents (starch, sugar, gum, etc),, performs 
 an important office in the animal economy,, aside from 
 their use in making fat. They constitute the fuel, 
 which supplies the animal's fire, and gives him heat, 
 The lungs are the delicate stoves, which supply the 
 whole body with heat. 
 
 Let us explain this matter more fully. If wood, 
 starch, gum, or sugar, be burned in a stove, they 
 produce heat. These substances consist of carbon r 
 hydrogen, and oxygen, and when they are destroyed 
 in any way (provided they are exposed to the air), 
 the hydrogen and oxygen unite and form water, and 
 the carbon unites with the oxygen of the air, and 
 forms carbonic acid. This process is always accom- 
 panied by the production of heat, and the intensity of 
 this heat depends on the time occupied in its production. 
 
 In the lungs and blood vessels of animals, the same 
 law holds true. The blood contains carbonaceous 
 
108 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 matters, and they undergo, during circulation, the 
 changes which have been described, that is, combus- 
 tion and decay. Their hydrogen and oxygen unite, 
 and form the moisture of the breath, while their 
 carbon is combined with the oxygen of the air, 
 breathed into the lungs, and is thrown out as carbonic 
 acid gas. The same consequence heat-^YGSultB in 
 this, as in the other cases, and this heat is produced 
 with sufficient rapidity for the necessities of the 
 animal. When he exercises violently, his blood 
 circulates with increased rapidity, thus carrying 
 carbon more rapidly to the lungs. The breath also 
 becomes quicker, thus supplying increased quantities 
 of oxygen. In this way, decomposition becomes more 
 rapid, and the animal is heated in proportion. 
 
 Thus, \ve see food has another office, besides that 
 of forming animal matter, namely, to supply heat 
 When food does not contain a sufficient quantity of 
 starch, sugar, etc., to answer the demands of the 
 system, the animal's own fat is carried to the lungs, 
 und then used in the production of hcuL 
 
 CHAPTER XXI, 
 
 THE VALUE OP CROPS AS FOOD, 
 
 The ingredients of plants which serve valuable 
 purposes as food, are starch, sugar, gum, protein mat- 
 ter, oil, woody fibre, water, and salts. Starch is the 
 most abundant element in grain crops, forming about 
 one-half the weight of the most common cereal grains ; 
 
OP AGRICULTURE, 169 
 
 but in these, proportions vary to some considerable 
 extent. Even in the same species of grain, the 
 quantity of starch differs in accordance with the 
 circumstances of climate, soil and culture. 
 
 Wheat contains about from forty to fifty per cent. 
 of starch. Corn varies less widely in its proportion 
 of starch, ranging from forty to forty-five per cent. 
 The white, soft varieties of both wheat and corn 
 abound most in starch. Eye, oats, buckwheat, and 
 beans, do not vary widely from corn, nor from one 
 another, in the per centum of this element. Rico 
 has about seventy per cent. Potatoes contain fifteen 
 per cent, of starch ; and even hay, about three to five 
 per cent. 
 
 Gum and sugar are very similar to each other, and 
 very similar to starch in their nutritive value. They 
 are found in nearly all of our cultivated crops, in 
 quantities varying from two to fifteen per cent. Hay 
 cut in good time, has more of the substances than we 
 find in any of the ordinary grains, except rye. 
 
 Protein compounds are composed, in part, of nitrogen. 
 They resemble most of the muscular and membraneous 
 parts of animals, and constitute the elements of food 
 which nourish these parts of the animal body. As 
 the greater part of the solid portion of the animal 
 is made up of protein matter, it may be regarded as 
 consisting of the concentrated protein of the food 
 consumed during its growth. Hence, we see the 
 importance of this kind of food in building up the 
 animal system. 
 
 Beans and peas contain more protein matter than 
 is found in any other of our crops. It exists here in 
 a form called "legumin," and in quantity as high as 
 
170 WALL'S M A N u A L 
 
 twenty- five per cent. The cereals (grain) have from 
 ten to twenty per cent, of this kind of matter, chiefly 
 in the form of "gluten" It is most abundant on the 
 inner surface of the bran, and. is taken out largely 
 with it in the preparation of flour. This gives to 
 wheat bran a nutritive value greater than its appear- 
 ance would indicate. 
 
 This important kind of matter is, also, found in 
 grass, hay, and to some extent in straw. Green 
 clover, and clover hay, also hay made of pea vines, 
 owe much of their value to the presence of protein 
 matter. Cabbage contains not a little of it, and is, 
 hence, quite nutritious. Rice contains less than any 
 other grain, of this very important element. 
 
 Oil is found to exist in some form in almost every 
 plant, and in almost all parts of every plant. In 
 passing through the digestive organs, the vegetable 
 oils undergo such changes as convert them into the 
 varieties of fat peculiar to different animals. Those 
 grains which abound most in oily matter, within 
 certain limits, are best fitted for food, where fatten- 
 ing is the leading object. Some seeds, such as those 
 of flax, hemp and cotton, contain too much oil to be 
 fed alone. These, when ground into meal, and have 
 their oil pressed out by machinery, the cake w r hich 
 is left, still contains enough oil, together with starch, 
 gluten, etc., to make a valuable article of food for 
 stock. 
 
 Indian corn has a larger quantity of oil in it than 
 is found in the other cereal grains, having from eight 
 to ten per cent. Oats, which have about five or six 
 per cent., come next in order. Wheat and rye contain 
 two or three per cent, of oil, while rice and buckwheat 
 
Ol<* AGRICULTURE, 171 
 
 have not more than one per cent. The oily matter 
 in good hay ranges from two to four per cent,, and it 
 is by no means wanting in straw which has been cut 
 in good time, 
 
 Woody fibre, when dried, is chiefly indigestible, 
 and yet serves an important purpose in promoting 
 the digestion of other constituents of food with which 
 it is mingled, Its presence makes the mass of food 
 porous, so as to be easily penetrated by the fluids of 
 the digestive organs, It also keeps the stomach and 
 intestines properly distended. Hay and straw aro 
 composed, to a great extent, of woody fibre, In grain, 
 the bran contains most of the fibre, 
 
 Water is a constituent of the dryest articles of 
 food. The ripest grain and the dryest straw and 
 hay, have seldom less than eight to ten per cent, of 
 water in them, Potatoes contain about seventy -five 
 per cent, of water, while turnips, and other root crops 
 of similar kindj have as much as eighty- five per cent, 
 of water, 
 
 The mineral elements contained in food crops aro^ 
 not to be disregarded in estimating their value. The 
 animal system demands mineral as well as vegetable 
 elements, to promote its growth and healthy develop- 
 ment. The bones must be provided with phosphate of 
 lime," and the fluids of the body with salts of soda and 
 potash. These mineral substances are always found 
 in the animal body, 
 
 Of the substances which give to articles of food 
 the^ir chief value, we place the protein compounds first^ 
 because they do more toward building up the animal 
 system ; they are more nutritious. In fact, they are 
 often spoken of us constituting the nutritious part of 
 
172 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 food. Starch, gum and sugar may be classed together", 
 since they serve a like purpose in sustaining animal 
 life. After undergoing digestion, they are all thrown 
 into the veins, where.they become a constituent part 
 of the blood, to be consumed during respiration, 
 They are not less essential to animal life than other 
 forms of diet ; yet, from their abundance in vegetable 
 products, they are not estimated at so high a value 
 as the protein and oily parts of plants. 
 
 To estimate the value of the crop grown upon a 
 given piece of ground, we must not simply take into 
 account the relative quantities of these three kinds of 
 food contained in a given weight of the crop, but the 
 quantities contained in the whole product of the 
 land. A hundred pounds of potatoes contain only 
 about one- eighth as much protein matter as the same 
 weight of corn, one-ninth as much oily substance and 
 one-third as much starch, This shows that a given 
 weight of potatoes is far inferior in value to the same 
 weight of corn. 
 
 But when we compare the products of an acre of 
 land cultivated in corn, with the product of an aero 
 cultivated in potatoes, the case stands differently. In 
 order to institute such a comparison, we may suppose 
 that an acre which would yield sixty bushels of corn, 
 or about 3500 pound of corn, would, if properly culti- 
 vated, yield four hundred bushels of potatoes, or 
 20,000 pounds. Thus we see that the feeding value of 
 the potatoes on one acre may greatly surpass corn. 
 
 From the above principles and facts, w r e will find a 
 mixture of grain and hay, or fodder, as affording 
 probably the best combination of those properties 
 which adapt food to the use of work animals. We 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 173 
 
 find in these the requisite amount of protein com- 
 pounds for keeping up muscular strength of starch, 
 gum, and sugar, for supplying fuel for respiration ; of 
 oil, to prevent exhaustion of fat ; and of Vegetable 
 fibre, to prevent constipation and aid digestion. The 
 perfection of horse provender is, .perhaps, found in 
 good clover or timothy hay, and corn meal ; the hay 
 being cut up and mixed with the meal. 
 
 An occasional change of food is promotive of health, 
 provided only wholesome food is always given. The 
 addition of a little wheat or bran, or a few potatoes, 
 carrots, beets, or pumpkins, cut into fragments, and 
 mixed with their usual food, improve their health. 
 The effects will be seen in a more soft and pliant 
 condition of the skin, and in the improved, glossy 
 appearance of the hair. 
 
 If the object in view is to fatten an animal with 
 the greatest possible rapidity, the chief point in 
 which his food should differ from that of the growing 
 animal, should be in the relative quantity of oily 
 matter contained in it. While it should be adapted 
 to sustain, and even increase the muscular and mem- 
 braneous parts of the body, it should be more especially 
 adapted to the filling up of the fat tissues. It, there- 
 fore, contains as much oil as is consistent with 
 healthful digestion. 
 
 AYe have seen that com is more abundantly supplied 
 with oily matter than any other of the. grains 
 commonly used in feeding. Next to it, the oat is 
 most prominent. There are some other seeds, such 
 as^flax seed, cotton seed and rape sood which abound 
 still more in oil, but, as before stated, they contain 
 far too much to bo wholesome when fed alone ; but 
 
174 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 they are sometimes advantageously mixed with forms 
 of food which are deficient in oil. The grasses, 
 'whether eaten green or as hay, have oil enough to 
 make them highly valuable for fattening stock. 
 
 "PREPARATION OF FOOD FOR STOCK. 
 
 There are some important points involved in the 
 preparation of food which demand the farmers atten- 
 tion. Economy in feeding requires not only the 
 right kind of food, but also such preparation as will 
 give the food its greatest value. It must be in such 
 condition that the animals to be fed will rel'sh it; 
 that they will consume it entirely without waste, and 
 that it shall all be digested, and thus fitted for the 
 purposes it is intended to serve. 
 
 We often see provender rejected by cattle, because 
 its condition is that of coarse, dry, hard, stalks or 
 straw difficult to masticate, and often insipid, when 
 eaten alone. Again we see choice portions of hay 
 and fodder picked out by horses, and the remainder 
 pulled down and trodden under foot. Then we 
 often find whole grains passed through animals, as 
 may be seen in the droppings of cattle, when fed on 
 unground corn, or of horses, when fed on unground 
 oats. To avoid such waste, we must pay attention to 
 the most economical means of reducing provender to 
 the best and most palatable condition. 
 
 The means best adapted to the preparation of food 
 are cutting, grinding, mixing and boiling or steaming. 
 Cutting aids both mastication and digestion. The 
 question here arises : " Will it pay ? " This must be 
 decided by the circumstances of the case. If the 
 farmer has a great deal more straw and fodder than 
 
OF AGRICULTURE 175 
 
 his stock will consume, and wishes to use the excess 
 as litter to absorb liquid manure, lie may not find 
 any economy in cutting the food. And even in the 
 case of feeding hay, if the supply is abundant and 
 price low, as is frequently the case in grass-growing 
 regions, it may be more economical to feed it whole, 
 even with considerable waste, than to expend upon it 
 the necessary labor to cut it up. In sections of 
 country where such provender is scarce, or where 
 there is a sufficient demand for it, to keep up the 
 price good, " cutters" will be among the most econom- 
 ical implements on the farm. And they are no less 
 so in towns and cities when horses and cows arc fed . 
 at considerable cost. 
 
 Grinding sustains very much the same relation to 
 grain that cutting docs to long forage ; but, as grain 
 is more readily transported than other products of 
 the farm, economy in its use becomes more highly 
 important. Grinding is thought by many experienced 
 farmers to add from twenty to thirty per cent, to 
 the nutritive value of grain when fed to hogs or 
 horses, and from forty to fifty per cent, when fed to 
 cows. The cow masticates grain much less com- 
 pletely than either the hog or the horse. In 
 autumn, before corn has become hard, there 
 is but little advantage in grinding it for hogs. 
 Mixing may be added to cutting and grinding with 
 marked advantage. When horses or cattle are fed on 
 any kind of long forage (hay, straw, fodder or 
 shucks), together with meal or bran, the former 
 should be finely cut, and the latter mixed with it 
 w^ater enough being added to make the meal or bran 
 adhere. There will then a double advantage arise j 
 
176 w ALL'S MANUAL 
 
 first, of having the whole completely eaten up with- 
 out waste ; and, secondly, more perfectly masticated 
 and digested. A similar advantage arises from 
 cutting beets, turnips, carrots, pumpkins, etc., and 
 mixing them with meal. 
 
 In localities remote from the sea shore, where 
 vegetation affords too little of the salts of soda to 
 supply the demands of the animal fluids, common 
 salt should be mixed with the food, or else a supply 
 kept in a sheltered place, so that stock may get it 
 when they want it. From four to five quarts 
 sprinkled on a ton of hay or fodder, when stored 
 away, will greatly improve its quality and aid in its 
 preservation. A small quantity of salt is beneficial 
 to hogs, if given regularly, but large doses are very 
 poisonous. 
 
 Boiling and steaming render substances more 
 soluble, and in that way promote digestion. Steam- 
 ing may be profitably applied to hay when fed to 
 young animals, and to sheep, whether old or young. 
 Green grass is more valuable than hay made from it. 
 In making hay there arc changes produced in the 
 stalk and blades, partly physical and partly chemical. 
 Among these changes is the greater insolubility of 
 the fibre. This makes it indigestible. Steaming 
 reduces it back to a condition somewhat similar to 
 that of green grass. 
 
 Boiling may be applied to grain, either whole or 
 ground. It renders the starch more soluble ; and, if 
 in the case of meal, a slight fermentation is produced 
 before boiling, a large portion of the starch will be 
 changed to dextrine. This is one of the stops in the 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 177 
 
 progress of digestion already made. Roots should 
 generally be boiled or steamed. 
 
 If our object is to make food perform its office as 
 rapidly as possible, that is, if we wish it to cause 
 rapid growth and rapid fattening, the most digestible 
 condition is the best In such cases the animals 
 should be kept comfortable and quiet, and there will 
 be but little waste of food. Boiling is especially 
 adapted to hogs, and almost indispensable to the 
 thrifty growth of young pigs. 
 
 For horses and work oxen the boiling of meal is a 
 disadvantage. The digestion then goes on too rapidly, 
 If the grain is ground, and mixed with cut hay or 
 straw, the digestion is made complete, and goes on 
 more slowly. In this way the digestive organs are 
 not so quickly left inactive, and the sensation of 
 hwrjcrer is not so soon produced. 
 
 CARE OF STOCK. 
 
 Farmers lose more in the Southern States by the 
 careless treatment of stock than by carelessness in 
 anything else. Hundreds of dollars are often lost in 
 this way, which might readily have been saved by a 
 little timely attention. Young animals, which require 
 more attention than all others, are most frequently 
 neglected, both as to shelter and food. Many in this 
 way are lost, and many others so much stunted as 
 never to regain their full vigor. Every farmer will 
 find it to his interest to give special attention to his 
 colts, calves and pigs, 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 The stables should be well lighted, well ventilated, 
 
 Pure, fresh air is not less important for any animal 
 
 8* 
 
178 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 tluin good wholesome food. The lungs are capable 
 of transmitting other gases, besides oxygen, to the 
 blood. If stables are not well aired, the horses 
 necessarily breathe ammonia and other affluvia in 
 mixture with the confined air in which they live. 
 This will soon enfeeble their health. Ventilation 
 and the sprinkling of plaster, or woods mold in 
 their stalls, is the remedy. 
 
 The temperature of stables should not bo disre- 
 garded. They should be neither too warm nor too 
 cold. If they are very warm, the horses become 
 severely chilled when brought out in the cold air. 
 If very cold, the waste of animal heat requires a 
 largely increased consumption of grain food. Kind- 
 ness does more to bring animals completely under 
 the control of man than any and all the other means; 
 and, of all animals, the horse is the most sensitive to 
 kind treatment. When colts arc treated with a kind 
 hand from the very commencement of life, if dealt 
 with gently when first trained to the saddle or 
 'harness, they seldom give their owners much trouble, 
 and are afterwards more safe and useless. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Dry, clean sheds, well littered, and opening toward 
 the south, make the best protection for horned cattle 
 in the winter. In very cold, wet weather, it may be 
 w T ell to confine them to their shelters ; but generally 
 in fair weather they thrive better if they have the 
 use of an open lot, supplied with corn stalks r straw 
 or leaves, to keep down the mud and make manure. 
 When cattle are to be fattened they should be kept 
 as quiet as possible. If allowed to run at large they 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 179 
 
 take too much exorcise, and thus waste both muscle 
 and fat. This plan, of course, cannot be pursued 
 when cattle run on pasture while fattening. 
 
 HOGS. 
 
 These are the most neglected of all domestic 
 animals in the Southern States. Many a poor hog 
 never knows what it is to enjoy a comfortable shelter 
 during the whole of his precarious existence. There 
 is scarcely any animal more sensitive to the extremes 
 of heat and cold. We see at once the importance of 
 having them provided with a comfortable shelter 
 against the hot suns of summer, and the cold winds 
 of winter. 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 Bad fences are the cause of bad habits ; good fences 
 are sometimes the cure, but always the preventive. 
 Good enclosures are economical. Almost every 
 rickety fence on a farm is the cause of more loss of 
 time and crops, in a few years, than would build a 
 new, substantial fence. If your fences are always 
 kept in good order, your stock will never learn bad 
 habits. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 CONCLUSION TO TART FIRST. 
 
 The life of the farmer, like that of men in otner 
 pursuits, must have its toil's, its trials, its perplexities, 
 and its disappointments; but it has, at the same time, 
 
180 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 rare sources of pleasure and comfort. It is the most 
 independent of ail departments of industry. It is 
 true, there is a mutual dependence pervading all the 
 classes of society, but none have to rely so little on 
 the capricious patronage of their fellow-man as the 
 successful cultivators of the soil. Every farmer 
 should take a pride in his ennobling profession; he 
 should feel that he is a member of that class upon 
 which our country is chiefly dependent for its wealth 
 and prosperity. The farming interests lie at the 
 foundation of our national greatness. The farmers 
 nourish, and enrich the nation. 
 
 The land- holders of our country are the conserva- 
 tors of the present patriotism. They are always the 
 most stable and reliable citizens of this or any other 
 land. Ko other class of the people have their 
 interests Bo closely and completely identified with 
 the general and permament good of every part of 
 our country none can be more warmly attached to. 
 their native soil and none are found more ready to 
 raise the stiong arm of resistance against oppression, 
 from whatever source it may come. Of course, we 
 speak here of the practical and intelligent farmer. 
 The man of mind one who carries his brains with 
 him to his fields, and who knows, or seeks to know, 
 the "why" and the " wherefore" for all the operations 
 of nature on his fmrm one who has more mind than 
 the senseless clod he crushes under his heel. He 
 puts in practice the deductions drawn from science 
 and experience, and intelligently makes subservent 
 to his will, all the aid which science and the arts can 
 yield him. All th; clap-trap about it being necessary 
 to work the ground with his own hands, to be a 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 181 
 
 practical farmer, is absolutely absurd. We question 
 whether Morse, the inventor of the magnetic tele- 
 graph, could make with his own hands, even one of 
 the screws, required for his instrument ; but he had the 
 mind to plan and direct, and procured experienced 
 instrument makers to do the work, We doubt very 
 much whether Stephenson (the celebrated English 
 engineer), could make even a rivet, to fasten the tubes 
 together in his great iron, tubular bridge ; yet he had 
 the intelligence to comprehend, and the will to have 
 executed, one of the most magnificent structures that 
 ever astonished the eyes of a wondering world. 
 
 Can we say such men are not practical, because 
 they cannot make a screw, or a small rivet of iron ? 
 Their work stand the test of practicability. Such 
 men are the practical men of the world, who can 
 by deep thought and study, harness the very 
 lightnings of heaven, and overcome all physical 
 obstructions in nature. We cannot forbear inserting 
 in this place, a parallel drawn between two farmers, 
 taken from George E. Warren's Elements of Agricul- 
 ture, a work well worthy the perusal of every farmer. 
 
 Who is the practical farmer?' 1 Let us look at two 
 pictures, and decide. Here is a farm of one hundred 
 acres, in ordinary condition. It is owned and tilled 
 by a hard-working man, who, in the busy season, 
 employs one or two assistants. The farm is free 
 from debt, but it does not produce an abundant 
 income ; therefore, its owner cannot afford to purchase 
 the best implements, or make other needed improver 
 merits ; besides, he don't believe in such things. His 
 father was a good, solid farmer ; so was his grand- 
 father ; and so is he, or thinks he is, He is satisfied 
 
182 W A L L ' S M A N U A L 
 
 that "the good old way" is best, and sticks to it. lie 
 works from morning till night, from spring till fall. 
 In the winter, he rests as much as his lessened duties 
 will allow. During this time, he reads little, or 
 nothing. Least of all, does he read about farming. 
 He don't want to learn how to dig potatoes from a 
 book. Book farming is all nonsense. Many other 
 similar ideas keep him from agricultural reading. 
 His house is comfortable, and his barns are quite as 
 good as his neighbors', while his farm gives him a 
 living. It is true, that his soil does not produce as 
 much as it did ten years ago, but prices are better, 
 and he is satisfied. Let us look at his premises, and 
 see how his affairs are managed. First, examine the 
 land. Well, it is good, fair soil ; some of it a little 
 springy, but it is not to be called wet. When first 
 laid down, will produce a ton and a half of hay to 
 to the acre it used to produce two tons. There are 
 some stones and stumps on the land, but not enough, 
 in his estimation, to do harm. The plowed fields are 
 pretty good ; they w r ill produce thirty-five bushels of 
 corn, thirteen bushels of wheat, or thirty bushels of 
 oats per acre, when the season is not dry. His father 
 used to get more ; but, somehow the weather is not as 
 favorable as it was in old times. Ho has thought of 
 raising root crops, but they take more labor than he 
 can afford to hire. Over in the back part of the 
 land, there is a muck-hole, which is the only piece of 
 worthless land on the farm. Now* let us look at the 
 barns and barn-yards. The stables are pretty good ; 
 there are some wide cracks in the siding, but they 
 help to ventilate, and make it healthy for the cattle. 
 The manure is thrown out of the back window, and 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 183 
 
 is left in piles under the eaves of the barn. The rains 
 and sun makes it nice to handle. The cattle have to 
 go some distance for water, and this gives them 
 exercise. All of the cattle are not kept in the stable; 
 the fattening stock are kept in various fields, where 
 the hay is fed out to them from the stack. The 
 barn-yard is often occupied by cattle, and is covered 
 with their manure, where it lies until carted on* to 
 the land. In the shed, are the tools of the farm, 
 consisting of carts, plows not deep plows ; this 
 farmer thinks it best to have roots near the surface 
 of the soil, where they can have the benefit of the 
 sun's heat a harrow, hoes, rakes, etc. These tools 
 are all in - ood order ; and, unlike those of his less 
 prudent neighbor, they are protected from the 
 weather. The crops are cultivated with plow and 
 hoc, as they have been since the land was cleared, 
 and as they always will be, until this man dies. 
 
 Here is a "practical farmer" of the present day. 
 Hard-working, out of debt, and economical of 
 dollars and cents, if not of soil and manures. He is 
 a better farmer than two-thirds of the three million 
 farmers in the coimiry. He is one o. the best farmes 
 in his county, there are but few better in the State. 
 He represents the better average class of his profes- 
 sion. With all this, he is, in matters relating to his 
 business, an unreading, unthinking man. He knows 
 nothing of the first principles of farming, and is 
 successful by the indulgence of nature, not because he 
 understands her, and is able to make the most of her 
 assjstance. 
 
 This is an unpleasant fact, but it is one which 
 cannot be denied. We do not say this to disparage 
 
184 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 the farmer, but to arouse him to a realization of his 
 position, and of his power to improve it. But let us 
 see where he is wrong. 
 
 He is wrong in thinking his land does not need 
 draining. lie is wrong in being satisfied with one 
 and a half tons of hay to the acre, when he might 
 easily get two and a half. He is wrong in reaping 
 less than his father did, when he should get more. 
 He is wrong in ascribing to the weather, and similar 
 causes, what is due to the actual impoverishment of 
 his soil. He is wrong in not raising turnips, carrotp, 
 and other roots, which his winter stock so much 
 need, 'when they might be raised at a cost of less 
 than one-third of their value in food. He is wrong, 
 in considering worthless a deposit of muck, which is 
 a mine of wealth, when properly employed. He is 
 wrong, in the treatment of his manures, for he loses 
 more than one- half their value from evaporation, 
 fermentation and leaching. He is wrong, in not 
 adding to his tools the deep surface plow, the subsoil 
 plow, the cultivator, and many other implements of 
 improved construction. He is wrong, in cultivating 
 with plow and hand hoe those crops which could be 
 better and more cheaply managed with the cultivator 
 or horse-hoe. He is right in a few things ; and but 
 a few, as he himself would admit, had he that 
 knowledge of his business, which he could obtain in 
 the leisure hours of a single winter. Still he thinks 
 himself a practical farmer. 
 
 In twenty years, we shall have fewer such, for our 
 young men have the mental capacity, and mental 
 energy, necessary to raise them to the highest point 
 of practical education, and to that point they arc 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 185 
 
 gradually, but surely rising. We have far fewer 
 now, than twenty years ago. 
 
 Let us now place this same farm in the hands of 
 an educated and thinking cultivator; and at the end 
 of five years, look at it again. 
 
 He has sold one-half of it, and cultivates but fifty 
 acres. The money for which the other fifty were 
 sold has been used in the improvement of the farm. 
 The land has been undcrdrained, and shows the 
 many improvements consequent on such treatment. 
 The stones and stumps have been removed, leaving 
 the surface of the soil smooth, and allowing the use- 
 of the subsoil plow, which, with the under drains, 
 has more than doubled the productive power of the 
 farm. Sufficient labor is employed to cultivate, 
 with improved tools, extensive root crops, and they 
 invariably give a largo yield. The grass land 
 produces a yearly average of two and a- half tons of 
 hay. From eighty to one hundred bushels of corn, 
 thirt}' bushels of wheat, and forty-five bushels of 
 oats, arc the average crops gathered. The soil has 
 been put in the best possible condition, while it is. 
 regularly supplied with manures containing everything 
 taken away in the abundant crops. The principle 
 that all mineral matter sold away must be brought 
 back again, is never lost sight of in the application 
 of manures. The worthless much-bed was retained, 
 and is made worth a dollar a load to the compost- 
 heap, especially as the land requires an increase of 
 vegetable matter. The manure from stalks and 
 barn ^ards is carefully composted, either under a 
 shed constructed for the purpose, or is thrown into a 
 cellar below, where the hogs mix it with a largo 
 
18G WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 amount of muck, which has been in, after being 
 thoroughly decomposed by the lime and salt mixture. 
 
 This farmer reads and thinks; his knowledge of 
 the reasons of various agricultural effects enables him 
 to discard the injudicious suggestion of the book- 
 farmers^ and uneducated dreamers, and take only the 
 facts worthy of experiment. 
 
 Here are two specimen farmers. Neither descrip- 
 tion is over-drawn. The first is much more, careful 
 in his operations, than the majority of our farmers. 
 The last, is no better than many who may be found 
 in every State in the Union. We appeal to the 
 common sense of the reader of this work, to know 
 which of the two is the practical farmer let him 
 imitate either, as his judgment will dictate. 
 
 The author is aware that hardly any class of men 
 arc so difficult to be reached as farmers, and the 
 undertaking is hazardous. They arc terribly afraid 
 of being " humbugged" and thereby very often 
 humbug themselves. For years, this little work has 
 been in the thoughts, and on the mind of the author. 
 His own experience as a farmer, combined with 
 study and observation, since he lost his leg in the 
 late war, enables him to submit it to the farmers of 
 the South, for their most careful attention. 
 
 Although farmers, as a class, are hard to convince, 
 yet, no class of men are so open to conviction, so 
 alive to manly principles, so susceptible of good 
 impressions, when the effort to aid them is judicious, 
 and worthy of attention. 
 
 END OF TART FIRST. 
 
:PA_;RT n. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tho author, in presenting this brief outline of AGRICULTURAL 
 CUKMISTRY, as an Appendix to Part I of this book, wishes to show 
 tho "why and wherefore," certain fertilizers, manures, composts 
 and stimulants, are applied to the soil, so that the farmer may see 
 for himself, the best articles to use, as well as those which should 
 bo avoided. Too great a degree of caution cannot be observed, in 
 the use of stimulating fertilizers ; nor is it necessary that they 
 should be applied in excessive quantities. 
 
II. 
 
 O?O 
 
 CHAP TEE I. 
 
 AS APPLIED TO THE SOIL. 
 THE SOIL, HOW FORMED, ETC., ETC. 
 
 Agricultural Chemistry aims to explain all the 
 actions of earth, air, and water upon plants. It 
 refers to all their chemical relations, to the geology, 
 minerology and chemistry of soil. 
 
 Soil is the loose surface material covering rocks, in 
 which the roots of plants are fixed, and is supposed 
 to be formed by their decay. Both are to be classed 
 by their origin, The origin of rocks refers not only 
 to the mode of their first formation, but to their 
 subsequent arrangement. The origin of all rocks, 
 geology teaches, is from the matter of the globe. 
 Referring rocks to their origin, they are divisible 
 into two classes, viz ; 
 
 First Igneous, or those formed by fire, 
 Second Aqueous, or those formed by water, 
 This division relates both to the origin and 
 distribution. In their origin, rocks are truly 
 igneous, or from fire. In their distribution, they 
 
100 W A L L } S M A N if A t, 
 
 are aqueous, or from water, This is the Onty 
 division necessary to the farmer. It is the division 
 taught and demanded by agricultural geology < 
 
 The first class (or those from fire), includes all 
 highly crystalline rocks, such as granite, gneiss^ 
 sienite, greenstone ; it includes, also, basalt and lava. 
 The products of volcanos, both ancient and modern, 
 should be placed ih the same class, 
 
 The second (or that from water), includes sand, 
 gravel, rounded and rolled stones of all sizes, pudding 
 stones, conglomerates, sand- stones, and slates, When 
 these various substances are examined^ a large part 
 of the sand is found to be composed essentially of 
 the ingredients of the igneous rocks, This is true, 
 also, of sand- stone, slate, and boulders. 
 
 FORMATION OF DEPOSITS. . 
 
 There are large deposits, or formations, in various 
 districts, composed almost entirely of some of the 
 chemical constituents of the igneous rocks^ united 
 with an ingredient of air, These constituents are 
 lime and magnesia ; the portion derived from air is 
 carbonic acid, forming, by their unioiij carbonates of 
 lime and magnesia. Marble, limestone^ and chalk,? 
 belong to this formation, The lime, originally a 
 part of the igneous rocks, has been separated, and 
 combined with air by animals and plants, by a vital 
 process called secretion. The modern production of 
 the carbonate of lime, is still going on under the 
 forms of shells and corals. But limestone is truly 
 a salt, rather than a rock, and should be classed with 
 the salts. 
 
 The transportation, or distribution of the soil, by 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 191 
 
 the effects of water, is a fact so well established, that 
 it needs only to be mentioned. There has been 
 an universal mingling of the loose materials of soil, 
 derived from the worn down rocks and decayed 
 vegetable matter. Great uniformity of the chemical 
 composition, characterizes soils, as, also, more or less ; 
 the rocks, from which they have been formed, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE CHEMICAL INGREDIENTS OP ROCKS AND SOILS, 
 
 The geologist, mineralogist, and the chemist, eacri 
 view rocks with a different eye. The geologist regards- 
 the rocky mass ; the mineralogist, the simple minerals- 
 composing the rocks > the chemist, the simple elements 
 which compose the mineral. 
 
 Elements are substances which as yet have not 
 been proved to be compound ; as oxygen and hydrogen 
 among the gases, iron and lead among the metals. 
 
 The only point of view the farmer takes is that of 
 the chemist. His pole-star is fruit and progress; 
 and his mind, directed by the chemist, is taught the 
 nature and mode of action of the several elements of 
 the minerals, 
 
 As 4 far as known, seven simple minerals compose 
 tho most important rocks, viz : quartz, mica, feldspar, 
 talc, hornblende, augite and carbonate of lime. Other 
 minerals are found in rocks, but the&e seven compose 
 
1 ( J2 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 all those called geological formations, and which form 
 the crust of the earth. 
 
 The chemical constitution of rocks, the nature, 
 properties and relations of their elements, prove to be 
 of the highest importance to the farmer, when it is 
 known that the elements of these seven minerals are 
 also the earthy part or ashes of all plants. 
 
 The number of elements which chemistry has 
 detected, is sixty-two. These are classed as metallic 
 or unmetallic. Of these, some are gaseous, others 
 earthy, most of them combustible, 
 
 ELEMENTARY BODIES. 
 
 Of the simple elementary bodies, thirteen chiefly 
 compose rocks and the mineral proportion of the soil. 
 Six of this number are unmetallic, and seven are 
 metallic substances, viz, : 
 
 The unmetallic are: 
 
 1. Oxygen, 
 
 2. Hydrogen, 
 
 3. Silicon, 
 
 4. Carbon, 
 
 5. Sulphur, 
 
 G. Phosphorus. 
 
 The metallic are : 
 
 1. Potassium, 
 
 2. Sodium, 
 
 3. Calcium, 
 
 4. Magnesium, 
 
 5. Aluminium, 
 
 G. Ferrum or Iron, 
 
 7. Manganese. 
 
 Chemistry tells us how these gaseous and metallic 
 substances combine, and the elements they form after 
 combination. Oxygen has a wide range of affinities. 
 It combines with the unmetallic substances its com- 
 pounds are called oxides thus : 
 
 Oxygen combined with Hydrogen forms Water. 
 
 " Silicon " Silicic Acid. 
 
 " Carbon " Carbonic Acid. 
 
 " Sulphur " Sulphuric Acid. 
 " Phosphorus " Phophoric Acid. 
 
 Again, with metallic substances : 
 
 Oxygen combined with Potassium forms Potash. 
 " Sodium - " Soda. 
 u Calcium " Lime. 
 
 " Magnesium " Magnesia, etc. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 193 
 
 BASES. 
 
 The oxydcs of metals are termed bases* Potash, 
 soda, lime and magnesia are termed alkiline bases ; 
 the others, metalic bases. Acids and bases unite and 
 form salts in the soil. Thus, these unmetallic sub- 
 stances unite with metals, and form a class of 
 compounds of the highest importance in agriculture. 
 It is seen, therefore, that the elements composing 
 rocks, are reduced to salts and metalloid compounds. 
 The peculiar character of the salts formed by silicic 
 acid, will be easier understood by separating these 
 from the others under the name of silicates. These 
 form the great bulk of the earths crust The com- 
 pounds of silicic acid would hardly be recognized as 
 salts, in the common and popular sense of the term; 
 with which is associated the idea of softness and 
 solubility. Carbonic, sulphuric and phosphoric acids, 
 form with bases, salts, in the usual sense of the term. 
 
 The elements which compose the silicates may be 
 named in pairs, to aid the memory. First, the alkalies, 
 potash and soda. Second, alkaline earths lime and 
 magnesia. Third, earths silica or sand, and alu- 
 mina. Thus, we have two alkalies, two alkaline 
 earths, and two earths. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS SILICA. 
 
 The term salt, silicate and metalloid compound, 
 may need further explanation. Pearl ash and vinegar, 
 are well known substances. One is an alkali, the 
 othjer an acid. Pearl ash has the alkaline properties 
 of a bitter, burning taste, and the power of changing 
 vegetable blues to green, and pink to blue. Vinegar 
 has the acid properly of a sour taste, and of causing 
 9 
 
194 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 a hissing or effervescence, when poured on pearl ash. 
 This action ceasing, there is neither acid taste or 
 alkaline properties; the character of the vinegar and 
 pearl ash has disappeared ; the substances have united ; 
 they have formed a new substance, termed a salt-. 
 The fact to be observed in the above experiment 
 is, that an alkali and an acid mutually neutralize 
 each other. The vinegar is popularly said in this 
 case, to "kill" the pearl ash. So, soda, potash, lime, 
 magnesia, etc., would all be "killed" or neutralized by 
 vinegar, they would all be dissolved by it, and lose 
 their distinguishing character. In either case, a 
 neutral salt would be formed. Such a class of salts 
 are called acetates, being formed by alkalies, alkaline 
 earth, and metallic oxydes, united with acetic acid, or 
 vinegar. 
 
 Silex or silica, or the earth of flints, is in its pure 
 state, is a perfectly white, insipid, tasteless powder. 
 It unites with bases in the form of silicic acid, form- 
 ing neutral salts, termed silicates. Thus, are formed 
 a large class, in which are found silicates, potash, 
 soda, lime, magnesia, etc. This class forms the great 
 bulk of all the rocks and soil. 
 
 METALLOID COMPOUNDS SALTS. 
 
 The substances last mentioned are all metals, 
 united with oxygen v They are metallic oxides. If 
 the oxygen is removed and replaced by carbon, 
 sulphur, or phosphorus, the combinations are called 
 carburids, sulphids, phosphids. 
 
 Metalloid compounds are combinations of metal- 
 loids with metals, in their pure or unoxydized state. 
 
 Salts are combinations of metalloids with oxygen 
 and the metals, in their rusted or oxydized state. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 195 
 
 The formation of carbonic, sulphuric, and phos- 
 phoric acids, has been explained. [See article 15.] 
 When these acids unite with bases, salts are formed, 
 called carbonates, sulphates, phosphates. 
 
 Hence, when a substance is named, as for example, 
 sulphate of lime, a definite idea of the nature of this 
 compound is. conveyed. It is at once known to be a 
 salt, that is, a sulphate, that is, sulphur and oxygen 
 united with lime. So too, phosphate of lime is seen 
 to be a salt of lime, 
 
 The thirteen substances that enter into the compo- 
 sition of rocks, [see article 14,] are subject to fixed 
 laws in their combinations, viz : 
 
 They combine only in definite proportions, or in 
 multiples of the same. The combining number of a 
 compound, is the sum of the combining numbera of 
 the composing elements. If we assume the smallest 
 Combining weight, viz : that of hydrogen, as one, the 
 combining weight of all. other dements may be 
 represented by definite numbers, expressing the 
 proportions by weight in which they unite, not only 
 with hydrogen, but also amongst themselves. j.hus, 
 when oxygen and hydrogen unite to form water, the 
 proportions are : 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Water 
 
 It has been ascertained that the proportion in 
 which the bases of the silicates combine with oxygen, 
 are: 
 
 Oxygen 1 eq>, or 8 with one eq., 21 of Silicatt, = 29 Silica or sand. 
 
 Alumimen = 18 Almumina or clay. 
 Calcium = 28 Lime. 
 Magnesium = 20 Magnesia. 
 
 Potassium = 47 Potash. 
 Sodium 31 Soda, 
 
196 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 When oxydized substances combine with an acid, 
 it is only in these proportions. The numbers are 
 called equivalents ; that is, 47 of potash is equal in 
 saturating power to 31 of soda, or 28 of lime, 
 
 The equivalent of sulphur is 16, adding 3 equiva- 
 lents of oxygen or 24, wo have 40, or the equivalent 
 of sulphuric acid. The equivalent of phosphorus 
 is 32, adding 5 equivalents of oxygen, we have 
 40x32 72 phosphoric acid. The equivalent of 
 carbon is 6x16, or 2 of oxygen =s 22 carbonic acid. 
 Hence, the equivalents of the acids are 40, 72, 22. 
 These acids combine with bases in the above pro- 
 portions, forming neutral salts, or with two or more 
 proportions of acid, forming super-salts, or with a still 
 larger proportion base, forming sub- salts ; thus, 
 are formed sulphate of lime or plaster, 28 lime x40 
 sulphuric acid. Carbonate of lime, 28 lime x22 
 carbonic acid. Phosphate of lime has a larger 
 proportion of base, 3 parts or 84 of lime x72 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
 When the subject of the composition of the soil is 
 discussed, the value of this slight knowledge of 
 chemical rotation and combining proportions is 
 manifest. 
 
 SIMPLE MINERALS. 
 
 Yiewed by the light of chemistry, rocks are mostly 
 masses of silicates. The simple minerals composing 
 most rocks are truly, only silicates in fixed proportions. 
 The simple minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, horn- 
 blende, augite, talc. In each mineral, the t base is 
 combined with silica, which acts as an acid, a com- 
 pound or silicate is formed. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 197 
 
 1. The silicate of alumina (clay, earth), with potash, 
 forms feldspar. 
 
 2. Silicate alumina and lime, with magnesia and 
 iron oxyde, forms hornblende. 
 
 3. The silicate of magnesia, forms serpentine and 
 talc, and silica almost pure in quartz. 
 
 This brings us to the third branch of our subject. 
 The mineral ingredients of the soil, their properties 
 and chemical action. 
 
 CHAP TEE III. 
 
 THZ PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL ACTION OP THE MINERAL 
 INGREDIENTS OP THE SOIL. 
 
 The bases of the silicates have common properties, 
 which are: 
 
 1. Alkaline, as exhibited in potash and soda, and 
 in a less degree in lime and magnesia, etc. 
 
 2. They are almost all soluble in water. Potash 
 stands first here, also; the solubility decreases in lime, 
 and totally disappears in alumina and clay. 
 
 3. They have a great affinity for carbonic acid. 
 The order of affinity is potash, soda, lime, magnesia. 
 
 4. They all have a great affinity for water. 
 
 The metalloids or unmctallic substances, also, have 
 common properties : 
 
 1. They combine with the pure base of silicates, 
 sftid form silicinrets, phosphurets, carburets and sul- 
 phurets. Thus are formed carburet of iron or plum- 
 
198 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 bago, sulphuret of iron or iron pyrites, and the 
 sulphuret of potassium, or the liver of sulphur. 
 
 2. They chemically combine with each other. 
 Thus are formed sulphuret of carbon, sulphuret of 
 silicon, etc. 
 
 3. They all form acids by combining with oxygen. 
 Thus are formed carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric, and 
 silicic acids. 
 
 NAMING ACIDS. 
 
 The rule followed in naming acids is, that each is 
 called after the substance forming it, the metalloids 
 having ous added, to denote the weaker, and ic to 
 designate the stronger acids, thus : 
 
 1 sulphur 16x2 of oxygen =16x1 6 ==22 sulphurous 
 acid. 1 sulphur 16x3 of oxygen = 16x24 = 40 sul- 
 phuric acid. In the same way carbonic and phosphoric 
 acids are formed. Silica or sand forms but one acid, 
 silicic. 
 
 Silicon, from which silicic acid or silica is formed, 
 requires a more extended notice. Silicon, when united 
 with oxygen, forms pure rock crystal, quartz, agate, 
 cornelian. It is this that forms the glazed coating to 
 the rush and the grasses. Wheat, rye, oats, cornstalks, 
 and barley owe their support to this covering of 
 silicon or sand. It cases the bamboo and rattan with 
 an armor of flint, from which, when dry, may be 
 struck sparks of fire. 
 
 Silicon in the purest state yet obtained, is a dull 
 brown powder, soiling the fingers. It dissolves in 
 hydro -fluoric acid and in caustic potash. When heated 
 with dry potash, it is converted into silicic acid. Silicic 
 acid exists in two states, soluble and insoluble in 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 199 
 
 water. Sulphuret of silicon dissolves in water, and 
 gives silicon or sand in solution. 
 
 GLASS ANALYSIS OP GRANITE. 
 
 The general properties which silicic acid exhibits 
 in combination are these, viz. : 
 
 1. All its compounds with excess of alkali are 
 caustic, and soluble in water. 
 
 2. Those with an excess of silicon or sand are mild 
 and insoluble. G-lass is an example of the last, and 
 so are rocks. Green bottle glass is but a fused rock, 
 a mixture of the silicates of potash, soda, magnesia, 
 lime, and iron. These are the silicates which have 
 been already noticed as composing rocks, and the 
 amount and origin of those elements of the soil can 
 now be easily comprehended. This is practical 
 ground, and shows the value of the chemical analysis 
 of rocks. 
 
 Let us take granite rock for an example. See of 
 what it is composed ? 
 
 ANALYSIS OP GRANITE BOOK. 
 
 Silex or Sand 74.84 
 
 Alumina (or clay earth) 12.80 
 
 Pofash 7.48 
 
 Magnesia 99 
 
 Lime 37 
 
 Oxide of Iron 1.93 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 12 
 
 .100 
 
 Thus, in every one hundred pounds of granite we 
 have seven and a half pounds of potash and three - 
 eighths of a pound of lime. 
 
 These elements do not exist in the soil free; they 
 exist as silicates or salts, which are gradually acted 
 upon by the carbonic acid of the air, and by the grow 
 
200 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 ing plants. The action of the carbonic acid upon 
 the silicates separates the potash or the alkaline part 
 of the silicate, and makes it soluble, to become food 
 for plants. 
 
 The fact most important for the farmer in these 
 changes is that the compounds are present in all soils, 
 becoming salts and food for plants. Whenever iron 
 pyrites or sulphuret of iron is found, and it is present 
 in nearly all soils, exposure to air and moisture acid- 
 ifies the sulphur, and forms oil of vitriol or sulphuric 
 acid. This acid immediately combines with iron and 
 forms copperas ; or with alumina, forming alum ; or 
 with lime, forming sulphate of lime (plaster) ; or with 
 magnesia, forming epsom salts. All these salts are 
 liable to be decomposed by any soluble alkali, as 
 carbonate of potash, soda, etc., which may be pro- 
 duced by the decomposition of the silicates. 
 
 Among the most important salts in the soil arising 
 from those actions, are sulphate of lime (or plaster), 
 phosphate of lime, and of alumina and iron. The 
 sulphate of lime is partially soluble, but phosphates 
 are more insoluble, and are always found in soil. 
 
 It is not easily understood how phosphate of lime 
 exists in the soil, but that it does exist none can 
 doubt. The proof may be stated in a few words, 
 Jjoncs of all grazing animals contain about half their 
 weight of the phosphate of lime. It can be derived only 
 from their food, and that from the soil. The actual 
 result of chemical analysis confirms this statement. 
 Beets, carrots, beans, peas, potatoes, cabbages, etc., 
 afford phosphate of lime, magnesia and potash. Indian 
 corn, rice, wheat, barley, oats, rye, and cotton seed 
 and plant, contain sulphate and phosphate of lime. 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 201 
 
 not only in the grain and seed, but in the straw and 
 stalk. Every exact analysis of the ashes of trees, 
 shrubs, and plants of every kind, cultivated or wild, 
 shows the presence of phosphoric acid. 
 
 Having briefly discussed the mineral ingredients of 
 the soil and their chemical action, we will now turn 
 our attention to the organic or vegetable constituents 
 of the soil. 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 THE VEGETABLE, OR ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE 
 SOIL. 
 
 Soil consists of two grand divisions of elements: 
 inorganic and organic. The inorganic are wholly 
 mineral, formed by chemical action on the metallic 
 and unmetallic elements of rocks. They existed 
 before plants or animals. Life has not called them 
 into existence, nor created them out of the simple 
 constituents. Organic elements are the product of 
 living organs, or of substances once endowed with 
 life, hence called organic ; and, when formed, they 
 are subject to chemical laws. The number of 
 elements in the organic parts of the soil does not 
 exceed four, viz: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and 
 nitrogen. 
 
 To have a clearer idea of this subject, we will give 
 a description of each of these elements separately. 
 * Oxygen (symbol O ; combining weight 8). 
 
 This is one of the most important, as well as the 
 9* 
 
202 w ALL'S MANUAL 
 
 most abundant, of elementary substances. It enters 
 into the composition of almost everything we use 
 around us. It constitutes eight-ninths the weight of 
 water, and nearly one-fifth of the air. It is an 
 abundant clement in rocks and soil, and in nearly all 
 vegetable and animal substances. The presence of 
 oxygon in the air is necessary to support combustion, 
 and, also, to sustain life. A mixture of oxygen 21 
 part?, and nitrogen 79 parts, is the air wo breathe. 
 Its action upon the soil is very beneficial, and will be 
 noticed more fully hereafter. 
 
 Hydrogen (Symbol II ; combining weight 1). 
 
 The name of this gas is derived from two Greek 
 words signifying "generator of water,' 7 because with 
 oxygen it forms w r ater, H, IxO, 8 or 1 part hydrogen 
 and 8 parts oxygen forms water, = 9. The union of 
 hydrogen and nitrogen forms ammonia, one of the most 
 active fertilizers known to agriculture. 
 
 Carbon (Symbol C ; combining weight 6). 
 
 Carbon is a very important element in nature. It 
 constitutes the greater part of both plants and 
 -inimals. It is the chief ingredient in the vast beds 
 of mineral coal. The diamond is the present form of 
 carbon. With oxygen it forms carbonic acid ; thus, 
 one part of carbon added to two parts of oxygen, or 
 C, GxO, 1622 carbonic acid, which forms somewhat 
 less than half the weight of limestone. Combustion 
 and respiration consume oxygen, arid generate 
 carbonic acid, while vegetation consumes carbonic 
 acid, and generates oxygen ; thus, the equilibrium of 
 the air is preserved in reference to these two gases. 
 
 Nitrogen (Symbol ]S ; combining weight 14). 
 
 This gas, as before stated, constitutes about 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 203 
 
 seventy-nine per cent., or four-fifths of the atmos- 
 phere which surrounds us. Thus, the air is 
 twenty-one per cont. oxygen and seventy-nine per 
 cent, nitrogen. It being one of the constituents of 
 niter, or saltpeter, it is properly called nitrogen. 
 When combined with oxygen, in the proportion of 
 one combination weight of nitrogen to five combi- 
 nation weights of oxygen, thus : N, 14xO, 40. form 
 nitric acid. Nitrogen exists in all animal substances, 
 and in all plants, especially such as putrify with an 
 animal odor, as, cabbages and mushrooms. Nitric 
 acid, or aqua-fortis, combines with a great number of 
 bases, giving us an important class of salts, called 
 nitrates. 
 
 When the ashes of plants are examined, we find 
 carbonates of bases that did not exist in the soil as 
 such. A large proportion of carbonate of lime and 
 potash is found in ashes ; the origin of these is to be 
 sought in the vegetable acids of plants, which, by 
 heat, produce carbonic acid. This is the effect of 
 heat upon all salts formed of vegetable acids, such as 
 tartaric, malic, citric, oxalic, and vinegar or acetic acids. 
 Each plant forms acids in definite quantity, propor- 
 tionate to its size, age, and parts of the plant ; thus is it 
 beautifully ordered by nature, the acids being 
 constant, the bases to saturate them will be equally 
 constant. 
 
 It is an established fact, that plants growing in a 
 soil containing a due mixture of earthy ingredients, 
 always select a due proportion of each, according to 
 their functions, but if in such a soil an excess of 
 either of the alkalies, such as lime, potash, soda, or 
 magnesia, be present, then an excess of either of 
 
204 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 these base3 may be taken up by the plant to the 
 exclusion of the usual proportion of the other ; 
 hence, one base may be substituted for another in 
 equivalent proportion, but through certain elements, 
 may supply the place of others, yet no one element 
 can supply the place of all the others.- Nor can the 
 possible mixture of mere silicates and salts alone give 
 fertility to a barren soil. Fertility depends, in a 
 great measure, upon the presence of vegetable 
 matter in the soil. This vegetable, or organic 
 matter, is constantly undergoing changes, and this 
 chemically induced change exerts a powerful influence 
 upon fertility. 
 
 In the products of the decomposition of organic, 
 or vegetable matter, a variety of substances is 
 formed, differing according to circumstances, the 
 time and progress of decay. In this decomposition 
 of vegetable matter in the soil, the nitrogen it may 
 have contained combines with hydrogen, a highly 
 important fact to be remembered. This union of nitrogen 
 and hydrogen produces ammonia. The nitrogen of 
 the putrifying body is thus converted into ammonia, 
 and there remains the several forms of " humus," or 
 vegetable mold. 
 
 The elements which do not usually enter into 
 the constitution of animal or vegetable matter, 
 mostly from comparatively simple compounds; 
 while the four "organic" elements ^carbon, oxygen, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen though few in number, form 
 an immense number of compounds of great com- 
 plexity, Hence, the moment life departs, the 
 animal or plant speedily undergo new changes ; its 
 elements which life had organised, obey now not the 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 205 
 
 laws of life, but the laws of chemistry. The solids 
 and fluids of a living body escape part in air and gas, 
 leaving a solid mass differing equally from any living 
 organic product, and form inorganic elements. This 
 complexity and susceptibility to decomposition of 
 inorganic or vegetable bodies, is a great practical 
 fact in agriculture. It is this that forms the humus, 
 or vegetable mold, which imparts fertility to soil. 
 
 The great practical lesson of all agricultural 
 experience teaches, that humus or mold, is essential 
 to the healthy growth of plants, and the perfection 
 of seed, that without humus, crops cannot be made. 
 So far as nourishment is derived from the soil, mold 
 or humus, with mineral salts, is the food of plants. 
 It may be laid down as a principle in agricultural 
 chemistry, that humus, in some form, is absolutely 
 essential to agriculture. 
 
 HUMUS OR VEGETABLE MOLD. 
 
 Humus, or mold, is the product of decomposition 
 of bodies once endowed with life. For the present 
 purpose, it may be considered as the result of 
 vegetable decomposition. Life, and the manner how 
 plants grow, may not be understood. Growth is a 
 process of life. Decay is a chemical process The 
 laws of decomposition are not only understood, but 
 its products ma.y be limited, controlled and hastened. 
 Decay is fermentation, and this, marked by its 
 several stages, ends in putrefaction. Putrefaction is 
 the silent onward march of decay. Its end is humus 
 or mold, the great promoter of fertility. 
 
 The union of hydrogen and nitrogen, as before 
 said, forms ammonia. This ammonia, which always 
 
206 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 exists in the air, by the action of the oxygen of the 
 air, becomes nitric acid. These are facts. Ammonia 
 in the air, in contact with porons vegetable matter in 
 a decaying condition, becomes aqua-fortis, or nitric 
 acid. Moist decaying substances induce the nitrogen 
 of the air, inclosed in their pores to become first 
 ammonia, then nitric acid. There is a constant 
 formation of nitric acid in the decomposition of 
 vegetable matter. What becomes of the nitric 
 acid? It forms nitrates, a class of salts of great 
 value in the soil. All these changes are worthy 
 of study j the ultimate results are the formation 
 of water and carbonic acid ; the intermediate pro- 
 ducts are ammoina nitrates and soluble salts in the 
 soil, essential to the growth of plants. 
 
 Hence the necessity of the presence of humus or 
 mold in the soil. No practical farmer ever had other 
 opinion than this, that decaying vegetable matter in 
 soil (matter in active state of decay), is essential to 
 good crops. It may be assumed that science has now 
 shown the specific grounds for this universal belief. 
 It is perfectly useless for a farmer to spend time 
 and money in putting lime, potash and other salts on 
 his land, when there is no vegetable matter in the 
 soil. This fact well understood will save thousands 
 of dollars every year. 
 
 CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 THE MUTUAL ACTION OF THE ORGANIC AND INORGANIC 
 ELEMENTS OF THE SOIL. 
 
 We will now take up and study the mutual action 
 of the organic and inorganic matter in thesoil. How 
 
OF* 1 AGRICULTURE. 207 
 
 do the elements of the soil act ? The answer involves 
 two important considerations. First, the mutual 
 chemical action of the elements of the soil, the vege- 
 table matter and salts upon each other; and, second, 
 this action, as influenced by the living, growing 
 plants. 
 
 The elements of the soil are silicates, salts, and 
 humus, or vegetable mold. The silicates are such as 
 have no tendency to act upon each other; these are 
 gradually decomposed by the action of the air. The 
 great agent in this action is carbonic acid, which 
 gradually combines with the alkaline base of the 
 silicates, and the potash and soda in them are con- 
 verted into soluble salts, while the sand and clay 
 remain. The result of this action is that the plants 
 are enabled to take up by their roots the soluble 
 salts which have been set free, and the soil becomes 
 more clayey. 
 
 If lime be applied to land, either air-slacked, shell 
 or marl, the result is, slowly but surely chemical 
 action takes place, resulting in rendering soluble an 
 additional supply of nutritive ingredients, such as 
 potash, soda, phosphoric and silicic acids, from the 
 previously undecomposed minerals in the soil. Thus, 
 clay soils are benefitted by liming, and also sandy 
 land, if not limed too frequently and in too large 
 doses. It may be laid down as a principle that car- 
 bonic acid and ammonia decompose the earthy, 
 alkaline and metallic silicates in the soil. The result 
 of this action is that lime, potash, soda, magnesia, 
 and metallic oxydes are rendered available as food for 
 plartts. 
 
 Experiments have shown conclusively that the 
 
208 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 carbon which plants contain, and which forms the 
 bases, as it were of their vegetable substance, is 
 derived from the air and not from the soil. Plants 
 can grow in soils absolutely devoid of vegetable 
 matter, provided the soils contains mineral ingredients 
 required by the plant, in a soluble state, or at least 
 in a condition available to rootlets of plant. 
 
 This condition we do not often find fulfilled in- soils 
 in their natural state. It has been before stated that 
 only a part of the nutritive ingredients present in 
 the soil is usually available, the greater part being 
 ''locked up" in the undecomposed, or partially de- 
 composed minerals, and but very gradually set free 
 by the action of the atmosphere. This very action 
 is due chiefly to the carbonic acid contained in the 
 air, and will be the more powerful and rapid, the more 
 carbonic acid is present. Now, carbonic acid is con- 
 tinually formed in the process of decay of vegetable 
 matter ; hence the importance of this vegetable 
 matter in the soil. It is true that in some measure 
 it acts as an exhauster of the mineral ingredients in 
 the soil, and in that respect would be injurious if we 
 do not supply annually ashes, phosphate of lime, 
 soda, or stable and barn yard manures which contain 
 hem all. 
 
 But the " hnmus " or vegetable mold has other 
 highly important offices in vegetable economy. One 
 of these its renjentiveness of moisture it soaks up 
 moisture Jike a sponge ; it serves as a correction for 
 light, sandy soils; while on the other hand it renders 
 clay soils less compact and stiff. Yet there is another 
 virtue possessed by "humus" more important than 
 either of the others its power of absorbing ammonia 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 209 
 
 from the air thus fixing in the soil this important 
 stimulant, as well as nutritive ingredient ready to be 
 taken up by the rootlets of plants. 
 
 When we consider the great importance of the 
 properties of " humus " just referred to, it cannot bo 
 surprising that its presence should, as a general rule, 
 exercise an influence so decidedly favorable on the 
 productiveness of soils, yet it is incontestably true 
 that "humus" alone, without mineral ingredients, 
 will not support vegetable growth. It is, neverthe- 
 less, true that a perfectly healthy growth of cereals 
 or any useful cultivated plant is rarely attained in 
 soils destitute of "humus/' Hence the necessity of 
 composting mineral ingredients with vegetable mold 
 or humus. [Professor E. W. Hilyard, West of Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 The mere presence of growing plants of roots, of 
 seeds where life is, impresses upon both the vegetable 
 and mineral elements of the soil power to enter into 
 new combinations. The soil then is not external to 
 plants; so far as life is concerned it is as much 
 internal as if the plant had a mouth and stomach 
 through and into which the soil might be fed. Call 
 this power life, electricity, galvanism or by any 
 other name, still the great fact remains, that the 
 mere presence of a living, growing plant in the soil 
 effects a greater amount of decomposition than all 
 the other influences. This fact is of the highest 
 importance in practical agriculture. 
 
 It is this decomposing action of the living plant 
 on the mineral elements in the soil which affords the 
 only'reasonable explanation of the action of the salts 
 in agriculture. This power of life dissolves the 
 
210 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 elements of the salts ; they enter into new com- 
 binations, the base and the acid being often separated 
 by the action of the living plant. 
 
 We will illustrate this action : Suppose there be 
 applied to the soil a salt composed of muriatic acid 
 and soda (which is common table salt). By the 
 action of the living plant this salt is partially decom- 
 posed, that part of the soda furnishes direct food for 
 plants, and the rest with the muriatic acid acts as 
 solvents in the soil, and in that way nourishes vege- 
 tation. But the farmer should distinctly understand 
 that large crops, resulting from the use of salt, is at 
 the expense of his soil. Therefore salt should only 
 be used in small quantities, and always composted 
 with other manures. 
 
 Again, let us take another illustration : Suppose 
 sulphate of lime (land plaster, or as it is generally 
 known, plaster of Paris), be applied to the soil, the 
 effect of only one bushel per acre is wonderful to 
 behold on clover or grass lands, which shows its good 
 effects as far as the eye can reach. It is almost 
 incredible that so small a quantity could act at all, 
 yet how beautifully is it explained by the principle 
 that plants dissolve this salt, the lime is separated 
 from the sulphuric acid, both of which are direct food 
 for plants ; yet its supplying these ingredients to the 
 soil is but rarely the main cause of its good effect 
 upon crops. It .has a great attractive power for 
 ammonia and carbonic acid contained in the air, both 
 of which it attracts and fixes in the soil. The lime, 
 carbonic acid and ammonia act as solvents of the 
 silicates in the soil, and the potash, soda, etc., of the 
 silicates is liberated to become food for plants. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 211 
 
 There is no speculation, and we may say no 
 mystery, as to the manner in which these ingredients 
 of the soil act. The effect produced by such wonder- 
 fully small quantities of the mineral fertilizers is no 
 longer astonishing. It is no more wonderful than 
 that leaven should make dough rise, it is even less 
 mysterious. 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 MINERAL FERTILIZERS THEIR ACTION IN THE SOIL. 
 
 Silex or sand, lime, potash, soda, magnesia, iron, 
 sulphate, phosphorus, Chilian saltpetre and salt are 
 the mineral parts of plants. It is mainly with these 
 substances we have to deal in connection with 
 fertility in agriculture. 
 
 " SILEX .' ' 
 
 Silica or silex is a very abundant natural product. 
 It forms a large part of all granite or primitive rocks, 
 and is the chief ingredient in sand stones earthly 
 formations, rock crystal or quartz. Flint and sub- 
 stances of this kind are composed almost entirely of 
 silex or sand. Silex, in the form of sand, is the 
 principal article used in the manufacture of glass. 
 Oxygen with silicon, forms silicic acid (as before 
 explained). This acid uniting with bases forms 
 silicates, as the silicate of potash, silicate of lime and 
 of soda. Silex in the form of sand is the principal 
 part of all soils. 
 
212 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 LIME. 
 
 The purposes served by lime as a chemical constit- 
 uent of the soil, are, at least, of four distinct kinds, 
 viz : 
 
 1. It supplies direct food for plants which appears 
 necessary for their healthy growth. 
 
 2. It neutralizes acid substances, which are naturally 
 formed in the soil, decomposes and renders harmless 
 other noxious compounds, w T hich arc very jo f ten in 
 reach of the rootlets of plants. 
 
 3. It changes insoluble vegetable matter into soluble 
 food for plants. 
 
 4. It promotes the decomposition of existing com- 
 pounds in the soil, so as to prepare them more 
 speedily as food for plants. 
 
 Lime is not merely a base, but a very strong basa, 
 and can therefore withdraw from the weaker bases 
 existing in the soil the acids with which they are 
 combined. Caustic or quick lime, as the name indi- 
 cates, attacks the skin of the hand, and 'dissolves it 
 in washing in the same way as potash or lye, and has 
 a similar action upon other animal and vegetable 
 substances. When lime is mixed with the soil, it 
 acts in this decomposing and dissolving way upon 
 leaves, straw, stalks and other vegetable matter in 
 the soil which have already been partially converted 
 into mold by natural decay. 
 
 The difficulty of vegetable matter in light soils, 
 accounts for lime not acting beneficially. It should 
 be used very sparingly on such lands, and with an 
 interval of six or seven years between the limings. 
 Lot green crops of peas or clover be plowed under, 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 213 
 
 on such soils, and then limed. The farmer will find 
 his grain crops greatly increased, and his land left in 
 better heart. 
 
 Quick- lime should never be used with "guano," 
 stable or fermenting manures; it has the effect of 
 setting the ammonia free in these manures. After 
 the lime has been sometime on the surface of the 
 soil, it can exercise no injurious effect on any kind of 
 manure. 
 
 The most valuable kind of lime for agricultural 
 purposes, is that obtained from burning oyster shells, 
 and allowing it to remain exposed to the air a few 
 hours to slack. The amount used to the acre, depends 
 upon the nature of the soil, from thirty to one hun- 
 dred bushels; thirty bushels on the light, and one 
 hundred on the clay lands. 
 
 GYPSUM SULPHATE OF LIME, OR PLASTER. 
 
 Gypsum, or the sulphate of lime, is a well known 
 white, crystalline compound, found in large deposits, 
 in various parts of the world. The native plaster, 
 or gypsum, of commerce, consists of: 
 
 Water 21 per cent. 
 
 Lime 33 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 46 " 
 
 100 parts. 
 
 A ton of pure plaster will yield when ground, about 
 twenty-five bushels. Dr. Benj. Franklin, when he 
 wished to introduce this fertilizer into America from 
 France, in order to convince his countrymen of its 
 efficacy, sowed in large letters upon a clover lot, at 
 Washington city, in powdered plaster, this phrase: 
 " This land has been Plastered. 1 ' The effect of this 
 application of plaster was distinctly visible for several 
 years. 
 
214 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 The soils upon which plaster has the most marked 
 effect, are those of a light, dry and sandy nature. It 
 is used principally on grass and clover crops, with 
 great success, one bushel of plaster often doubling 
 the crop. But in order that such a simple substance 
 as gypsum, should be of benefit, the soil must possess 
 all the other ingredients necessary for a crop. Take 
 clover, for an illustration. This plant requires fourteen 
 substances to perfect its growth, if only one of these 
 substances be missing, as potash, for instance, the 
 other ingredients would be of little, or no avail. 
 
 On land exhausted by over- cropping, which con- 
 tains very little vegetable matter, plaster will be of 
 no service, but will do good after an application of 
 barn-yard manure, or the plowing under of a green 
 crop. Plaster may be applied to grass lands by 
 sowing it broad- cast, at the rate of one to two bushels 
 per acre ; it may be applied in the hill to beans, peas, 
 or corn, at the time of planting, or dropped upon 
 them just after they are up. The best time for 
 applying plaster, is in the morning or evening, when 
 the dew is upon the plant, or on a damp, cloudy day. 
 
 When sown with grain, the ordinary dose is equal 
 in bulk, to that of the grain, say two hundred pounds 
 to the acre, but to crops of potatoes and corn, as 
 much as three or four bushels have been applied, 
 Used in a compost with dung, or combined with 
 other manures, such as guano, it has a marked effect 
 upon turnips. If plaster is sprinkled over barn- 
 yard or stable manure, it hastens decomposition, and 
 at the same time fixes the ammonia, so that it cannot 
 escape into the air and be lost. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 215 
 
 MARL. 
 
 By the term, "marl," is generally understood an 
 earthly mixture, containing not less than one-fifth of 
 its weight of lime, or twenty per cent, of the carbonate 
 of lime. 
 
 " Clay Marl." This has the appearance of a more 
 or less tenacious clay. When long exposed to the 
 air, or put in water, crumbles to powder. It has- 
 much the same qualities of lime, and acts in a similar 
 manner in soils, but with less energy. Clay marl 
 usually contains sixty- eight to eighty per cent, of 
 clay, and from twenty to thirty- two per cent, of 
 lime. 
 
 "Stone Marl.^ Is often richer in lime than the 
 clay. Clay marls are sooner dissolved than the stone, 
 and commonly 'have stronger power of neutralizing 
 acids, and producing salts. Jlay or stone marls are 
 well suited to light, sandy soils, which they improve 
 and render more solid. On the contrary, sandy 
 marls are good for stiff, clay soils, causing them to 
 be easily worked, 
 
 "Shell Marl." This marl is different in nature 
 from the two just described, being: highly fertilizing: 
 upon soils of every description. It does not disin- 
 tegrate in water like them, but sucks it up, and 
 sometimes swells like a sponge, as they do. It 
 contains from thirty-two to forty-six per cent, of 
 lime, and dissolves quickly when exposed to the 
 atmosphere. Most of the marls above described, are 
 to be found in great abundance in the Southern 
 States. From five to six hundred bushels to the 
 acre should be applied, or about twenty wagon loads. 
 
216 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 Many marls contain green sand-grains, a mineral 
 containing a large quantity of potash and soluble 
 sand, and therefore especially adapted to the cereals 
 and grasses, 
 
 POTASH, 
 
 Potash of commerce, is obtained from the lye of 
 wood ashes, boiled down in pots ; hence, the name of 
 potash. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of soap 
 and glass. Ashes of wood are used largely in agri- 
 culture ; one bushel of good wood ashes, contains 
 about four and a half pounds of pure potash. 
 
 AXALY8IS OP ASHES (100 POUNDS) OP BECH AND PINE WOOD, 
 
 (Bottinger,) (Malaguti.) 
 
 Beech, Pine. 
 
 Potash 11.80 16.24 
 
 Soda 2.04 5.26 
 
 Magnesia 8.42 7.12 
 
 Chloride of soda 0,16 1,65 
 
 Sulphuric acid 1.01 10.29 
 
 Carbonate of lime 47.21 44.74 
 
 Phosphoric acid 2,29 6.11 
 
 Silica 1.09 6.81 
 
 Oxyde of iron 0.60 1.60 
 
 100,00 100.00 
 
 It will be perceived from the above analysis, that 
 woods ashes contain an average of about twelve per 
 cent, of potash, three and a half per cent, of soda, five 
 and a half per cent, of sulphuric acid, all soluble in 
 water. The insoluble parts are bases, and when they 
 come in contact with the mold and acids in the soil, 
 become soluble, causing the insoluble humus or mold 
 to become soluble, and, therefore, food for plants. 
 Hence, the value of wood ashes as a fertilizer. 
 
 SODA. 
 
 Soda is readily distinguished from the other 
 alkalies by the following characteristic* : "With 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 217 
 
 muriatic acid it forms common table salt, with the 
 taste of which every one is familiar ; with sulphuric 
 acid it forms Gluaber's salts, or sulphate of soda. 
 All the salts of soda are soluble in water. When 
 applied to the soil it immediately combines with -the 
 acids, and forms soluble salts, 
 
 MAGNESIA, 
 
 Magnesia is a common substance, existing in most 
 soils. It is a white, light, and odorless powder, and 
 slightly soluble in water. It forms soluble salts with 
 nitric, muriatic, or sulphuric acids. According to 
 11 Bergmann," magnesia forms an important ingredient 
 of some of the most important soils, and of the mud 
 of the river Nile, in Egypt, Jlagnesia is present in 
 almost all soils, in sufficient quantities for plants, and 
 is found in the seeds of most plants. It can be pro- 
 cured in large quantities from magnesian lime -stone, 
 which abounds in various sections of the world. 
 
 IRON. 
 
 Iron is sometimes found in its natural state, but 
 very seldom. The ores of this metal are very 
 numerous, and some of them very beautiful and 
 interesting. They are chiefly sulphurets and oxydes, 
 but the oxydes are the only ores from which the 
 metal is obtained. Iron combines with carbon, sul- 
 phur, iodine, phosphorus, and the different acids. It 
 is present in most all the soils, and is a constituent of 
 the blood of all animals, including man. 
 
 SULPHUR. 
 
 Sulphur is a well known brittle solid, of a greenish- 
 yellow color. It is chiefly interesting in agriculture 
 10 
 
218 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 from the fact that sulphuric acid is formed from 
 it, thus : 1 comb. wt. sulphur = 16x3 comb. wts. 
 oxygen 24 = 40 sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid 
 unites with lime, forming the sulphate of lime or 
 plaster, it also unites with other bases, forming sul- 
 phates, and it is used to dissolve bones, forming the 
 "superphosphate of lime" 
 
 "PHOSPHORUS." 
 
 Of all the substances which the farmer has to take 
 under consideration, we think phosphorus the most 
 important. It is found in all animals and vegetables ; 
 without it, neither the one nor the other could live. 
 It is also diffused widely, and is discovered in combi- 
 nation with oxygen, in all rocks, in all soils, in all 
 plants, and in the flesh and bones of fish, reptiles, 
 insects, animals, and in their secretions. It is found 
 in nature, combined with many other substances, 
 forming phosphates ; thus, we have the phosphate of 
 lime, of magnesia, of iron, etc. But it is in the 
 phosphates and phosphoric acid, that the farmer is 
 most interested. 
 
 The use of "bones" in agriculture, has been long 
 and widely adopted in England, and in other countries 
 in Europe, and for some years they have been 
 extensively used in the United States. From 300,000 
 to 400,000 tons of bones are imported into Great 
 Britain, and used by the English farmers every year. 
 The chief source from which this vast quantity of 
 bones is obtained, is from the plains of South America, 
 where great herds of wild cattle are annually 
 slaughtered for their hides, tallow and bones. 
 
 "Bones" are the most available source from which 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 219 
 
 the phosphate of lime is obtained. Guano owes a 
 large proportion of its value to the phosphate of 
 lime it contains. " Bones" enter into the composition of 
 nearly all the artificial manure- powders of commerce, 
 Bones, like guano, force and quicken vegetation, 
 develop and form seed. 
 
 RAW BONES, SUCH A8 HAVI NOT BEEN BOILED OR CALCINED. ANALYSIS OF 100 POUNDg 
 OF BONES, BY HENITZ. 
 
 Fat. gelatine and water i 23.42 
 
 Phosphate of lime U...IH 63.62 
 
 Carbonate of lime ,,,.,<) ,;,, ,, 7;89 
 
 Magnesia (J3hdsphate).......u:;....i 2.28 
 
 Soda 2.79 
 
 100 
 
 No practical use can be made of bones, until 
 crushed or ground -the finer ground the better, 
 When finely ground, if moistened, the meal soon 
 heats, fermentation sets in, and the gelatine evolves 
 from four to six per cent, of its weight as pure 
 ammonia, To prevent the escape of the ammonia 
 into the air, sprinkle the pile with a few pounds of 
 plaster, or with one-half pint of oil of vitrol (sul- 
 phuric acid), stirred into two gallons of water, for 
 every one hundred pounds of bone meal. 
 
 "Boiled bones," such as have been boiled at soap 
 factories, for the purpose of extracting the fat and 
 gelatine, or have been boiled, so that they can be 
 crushed or ground more readily ; 
 
 ANALYSIS OP BOILED BONES, (100 PARTS), 
 
 Water..... , 10.. 
 
 Animal matter u 20.2 
 
 Phosphate of lime and magnesia^.... , 65.5 
 
 Carbonate of lime and magnesia;. >,.. ............ ^... .......... 8.3 
 
 100 parts* 
 
 Practical experience has demonstrated that bone 
 meal from boiled bones 5 is its most valuable form for 
 
220 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 agricultural purposes, chiefly on account of the very 
 fine state of division, The bone meal ferments, 
 some ammonia is given off, the phosphate of lime 
 combines with the animal matter, and is easily dis- 
 solved by rain water, 
 
 CALCINED BONES OR BURNED BONES, SUGAR- 
 MOUSE REFUSE, OR BONE-BLACK, 
 
 Bones are easily reduced to the state of ashes, by 
 piling them up with light- Wood or faggots and firing 
 the heap. The bones continue burning until reduced 
 to whiteness, become as brittle as pipe stems, and are 
 very easy to grind, By this mode, all the animal 
 matter is burned out. In the state of ash, phos- 
 phate of lime is less soluble than bone meal ; hence, 
 does not act as quickly, nor mature a crop as rapidly 
 as the latter. It has been found by treating bone ash, 
 as also bone meal, with certain acids, the phosphate 
 of lime is brought into a highly soluble state, The 
 cheapest acid, and the one commonly used for this 
 purpose, is sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol; which 
 produces by its action on bone, both plaster and a 
 soluble phosphate of lime, called super- phosphate of 
 lime. In this state, bone acts quicker and goes 
 farther than in any other form, 
 
 There are various methods of dissolving bones 
 with oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), It should be 
 borne in mind that this acid is highly corrosive, and 
 requires great care in handling it, or the hand may 
 be burned, an eye lost or clothes destroyed, 
 
 First method. Take one hundred pounds of 
 crushed bones the smaller the better -place them in 
 a hogshead, pour upon them five or six gallons of 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 221 
 
 water, so as to thoroughly wet them. Then pour in 
 carefully, thirty-three pounds of acid, stir the mess 
 with a wooden shovel until the acid comes in contact 
 with all the bones ; cover up and let it stand twenty- 
 four hours. Then give the second dose of thirty- three 
 pounds of acid, stirring the mess well ; cover up the 
 hogshead and let it stand for ten or twelve days, 
 when you will find the bones dissolved. 
 
 Second method without acid. Take broken bones 
 the smaller the better place them in a hogshead 
 or barrel in a layer of six inches, then a layer of 
 hard- wood ashes, mixed with one- tenth of its bulk of 
 slacked lime, so as to fill the spaces between the 
 bones, and cover them; proceed in the same way, 
 until the barrel is nearly full. Then pour in boiling- 
 hot water enough to wet the whole mess, cover up 
 and let it stand for from thirty to forty days, taking 
 care that the lye does not leak out, but remains 
 standing over the ashes. This preparation will not 
 act as quickly on vegetation as that prepared with 
 the acid, but will answer a very good purpose. 
 
 Third method. If the bones be ground fine, by 
 using a larger proportion of acid, say eighty- six and 
 one- third pounds to the one hundred pounds of bones, 
 a superphosphate will be formed, which will act very 
 quickly, and have almost the same effect as the best 
 Peruvian guano. 
 
 Fourth method. If the bones be ground to a fine 
 meal, by using a smaller portion of acid, say twenty - 
 eight pounds to one hundred pounds of meal, a 
 superphosphate will bo formed, which will act more 
 slowly, but last longer than the above, 
 
222 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 By pursuing either of the above methods, 
 phosphate, or the superphosphate of lime, will be 
 produced, which will act very beneficially in forcing 
 vegetation with all crops, and especially in forming 
 the seed. A special mixture of guano a.nd super- 
 phosphate of lime has been described before for 
 crops of corn, cotton, wheat, etc. 
 
 CHILIAN SALTPETRE AND COMMON SALT, 
 
 Among the stimulants w r hich may sometimes be 
 used to advantage, both by themselves and in 
 addition to stable manure or to the compost pile, we 
 may mention common salt and Chilian saltpetre, or 
 nitrate of soda, They act as solvents and decompos- 
 ing agents, somewhat in the manner of ammoniacal 
 salts, and the farmer ought to understand distinctly, 
 that large crops, resulting from their use, have been 
 produced entirely at the expense of his soil, Both 
 salts, being but slightly absorbed by the soil, are 
 soon removed from it, to a great extent, by drain 
 water. 
 
 COLUMBIAN GUANO. 
 
 There is imported from South America, under the 
 appellation of " Columbian Guano," a substance very 
 different from the Peruvian article, which consists 
 chiefly of phosphate and carbonate of lime, but it 
 contains no ammonia, or only traces of it. It may 
 be used in the same way as ground bones, or super= 
 phosphate of lime ; it is not, however, as energetic in 
 action as the latter, being much less soluble. 
 
 It has been attempted, and apparently with 
 considerable success, to remedy the slowness of 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 223 
 
 action by intermixture of the finely ground 
 mineral with stimulants, such as Peruvian guano, 
 or ammonical salts. 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 AN ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS. 
 
 To have a clearer understanding of the facts, 
 illustrations and experiments presented in this work, 
 the author thinks it necessary to give a more 
 extended description of the minerals and acids. 
 
 QUART z. 
 
 Quartz is silica crystalized. When broken down 
 into fine grains, it forms sand, and this consolidated 
 or concentrated with silex, lime or oxydes of iron, 
 constitutes sand stones. When silica is fused with 
 bases it unites with them, playing the part of an 
 acid, and forming salts the silicates. 
 
 Talc and Serpentine. Talc is the silicate of mag- 
 nesia. French chalk and soapstone are varieties of 
 talc, and are so soft that they may be worked with 
 the same tools as wood. Soapstone does not fracture 
 in the fire, and is used for lining fire places and 
 grates. It has a soapy, greasy feel, hence its name. 
 
 Augite. Augite is a double silicate of magnesia 
 and iron, its prevailing color is some shade of green. 
 It*forms extensive barren ridges of magnesian rock. 
 
 Horneblende. This mineral is the silicate of mag- 
 nesia, iron and lime. It is of a dark color, and exists 
 
224 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 f>yj*r^ 
 
 abundantly in many rocks which yield lime to soils 
 when decomposed. It is an element of the slate and 
 trap rocks. 
 
 Feldspar. Feldspar contains a large proportion of 
 clay. It is the chief ingredient of porphysy, the 
 hardest and most enduring of all rocks. It is a 
 white or flesh-colored mineral, and by decomposition 
 furnishes potash and clay to soils ; also, the fine 
 clays for porcclian ware. 
 
 Mica. Mica occurs in semi-transparent plates, 
 which may be split into elastic leaves of almost any 
 degree of thinness. It withstands fire, and is used 
 as a substitute for glass in the doors of stoves. It is 
 frequently called isinglass. Quartz, feldspar and 
 mica compose granite, which underlays all other rock 
 formations. Much of the Rocky Mountains, Andes 
 Alps, Pyrenese and all the highest mountains in the 
 world are granite. Upon many of the "silicates" the 
 car exerts a destructive agency. The carbonic acid 
 of the air slowly unites with their bases, thus break- 
 ing the bond which united their elements, and 
 combining with them. By absorbing into their 
 pores moistures which expands when freezing, they 
 are mechanically crumbled down. These -joint forces 
 are constantly active in disintegrating and wearing 
 down rocks and stones, and reducing them to the 
 condition of s&iL 
 
 ARTIFICIAL SILICATES. 
 
 Although not immediately connected with agricul- 
 ture, yet it may not be uninteresting to mention 
 some of the artificial silicates : 
 
 Glass. The several kinds of glass are composed of 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 225 
 
 silica or sand, with various bases. Silicate of potash 
 and soda forms a colorless glass which is soluble in 
 water. This soluble glass is applied to wood and 
 cloth, etc., to render them incombustible. Silicates 
 of soda and lime forms window glass, the soda gives 
 it a slight greenish tinge. The lime hardens the 
 glass and adds to its lustre. 
 
 Silicates of potash and lime forms plate glass and 
 crown glass (the finest window glass), 
 
 Silicates of potash and lead' yield flint glass and 
 crystal glass. The oxyde of lead gives it great trans- 
 parency, brilliancy and refractive power; it is hence 
 used for chandiliers and optical lenses. 
 
 Silicates of alumina, of oxyde of iron, and potash 
 or soda produce green bottle glass, the color being 
 due to the impurities of the materials. 
 
 Earthenware. Silicate of alumina or clay is the 
 basis of all the varieties of pottery. Its adaptation 
 for this puroose depends upon its plasticity when 
 mixed with water, the readiness with which it may 
 be molded and shaped, and on its capability of 
 being hardened when exposed to a high heat in 
 furnaces or kilns. 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 Some more extended explanation of the acids may 
 be necessary, we therefore lay them before the 
 reader : 
 
 Carbonic Acid. This acid being one of the most 
 important, we will describe it first. Carbon unites 
 with oxygen in the proportion of one combining 
 weight to two, forming carbonic acid (c. o. 2). Car- 
 bonic acid is a colorless gas, with a slightly sour 
 10* 
 
22G WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 taste, and is about one and a half times heavier than 
 air. It exists abundantly in the mineral crust of the 
 earth, hence called fixed air ; and is found also in the 
 atmosphere in a pure state. It is found in lime 
 stone to the extent of forty-four per cent, of its 
 weight, and is best obtained by the action of muriatic 
 acid upon powdered marble. 
 
 Any strong acid will do. A cubic inch of marble 
 will yield four gallons of gas. 
 
 Properties of Carbonic Acid It Extinguishes Fire. 
 A candle dipped into it goes out at once, and if 
 poured upon a flame it quenches it as quickly as 
 water. It is the foul air in wells; hence no one 
 should venture into a well before testing whether 
 carbonic acid gas is present or not. A candle let 
 down in the well is a good test : if extinguished the 
 gas is present, if it burns as usual there is no danger. 
 
 Sources of Carbonic Acid. Carbonic acid is pro- 
 duced very abundantly in nature. The burning of 
 wood (which always contains carbon) in the open air 
 yields it in vast quantities. The combustion of one 
 bushel of charcoal will produce two thousand five 
 hundred gallons of this gas. It is formed within the 
 bodies of all animals, by the union of the oxygen of 
 the atmosphere with the carbon contained in the 
 system ; it escapes through the lungs, by respiration, 
 into the -air. Each adult man exhales about one 
 hundred and forty gallons per day. [Davy. 
 
 The test of carbonic acid is clear lime water, 
 which it turns milky, by forming insoluble carbonate 
 pf lime. To prove that it is the product of both com- 
 bustion and respiration, invert an empty jar over a 
 
OF AGRICULTURE, 227 
 
 burning candle for a short time ; then agitate in the 
 jar a little lime water. It will become turbid at once. 
 With a glass tube, or a tobacco-pipe, breathe through 
 a portion of clear lime-water, and the same effect 
 will be produced. 
 
 Carbonic acid exists in all natural waters, and 
 form many mineral springs, as those at Saratoga ; 
 it constantly escapes, causing the water to sparkle, 
 and giving it a pungent, lively taste. Soda-water is 
 such as has been charged artificially with carbonic acid. 
 
 Its Physiological Effects. Carbonic acid gas, when 
 respired, destroys animal life. This it does in two 
 ways: \vhen breathed pure it produces spasms of the 
 glotis, closes the air passages, and thus kills suddenly 
 by suffocation. When diluted with ev"en ten times its 
 bulk of air, and taken into the system, it acts as a 
 narcotic poison, gradually producing stupor, insensi- 
 bility and death. 
 
 Persons sleeping in close apartments are sometimes 
 suffocated by the fumes ef burning charcoal carbonic 
 oxyde as already stated above, but so many persons 
 are killed by going into w^ells that I state it again. It 
 often accumulates at the bottom of wells and in 
 cellars, stifling those who may unwarily descend. To 
 test its presence in such cases, lower a lighted candle 
 into the suspected places. If it is not extinguished, 
 the air may be breathed for a short time ; if the light 
 goes out, it will be necessary before descending, to 
 throw down some dry, slacked lime or raise and 
 depress an umbrella in it repeatedly, in order to 
 mingle it with the air. 
 
 4 To resuscitate those who have been exposed to the 
 poisonous action of carbonic acid, dash cold water 
 
228 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 upon them freely, rub the extremities, and, if the 
 body is cold, administer a warm bath. 
 
 Carbonic acid is used to suffocate insects, as butter- 
 flies, when it is desired to preserve the colors perfect. 
 The Lake of Averno, which was asserted by the 
 ancients to have been the entrance to the infernal 
 regions, evolves so large a quantity of carbonic acid 
 gas, that birds flying over it drop from suffocation. 
 Carbonic acid unites with bases forming a class of 
 salts the carbonates. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. This powerful acid is of the 
 greatest interest to the chemist, agriculturist and 
 manufacturer. It was formerly obtained from " green 
 vitriol," and hence called " oil of vitriol" It is now 
 prepared upon a large scale, by heating sulphur and 
 nitre in furnaces and conducting the sulphurous and 
 nitrous acid fumes which" are thus formed, into vast 
 leaden chambers, along with steam and atmospheric 
 air, the floor of the chamber being covered with 
 water. The water at the bottom of the chamber, 
 which soon becomes very acid, is draw r n off and 
 boiled down in platinum stills to a sufficient degree of 
 concentration. 
 
 When the acid is procured from the distillation of 
 green vitriol, it comes off in a dry state, and attracts 
 moisture so rapidly as to cause fuming ; it is hence 
 called the fuming oil of vitriol or " Nordhousen acid," 
 because it was largely manufactured in a city of that 
 name in Saxony. Common sulphuric acid or oil of 
 vitriol, contains a larger proportion of water. 
 
 Properties. Sulphuric acid has a thick, oily appear- 
 ance, with a greasy or soapy face; but it speedily 
 corrodes the skin, and causes an intense burning 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 229 
 
 sensation. It has a powerful affinity for water ; when 
 a splinter of wood is dropped into it for a short time 
 it "chars" or turns black, the acid decomposing it 
 into water and carbon. In like manner it decom- 
 poses the skin, and most organic substances, by 
 removing their water. It is an active poison, the 
 best antidote being copious draughts of water and 
 chalk, or the carbonate of soda or magnesia. 
 
 Uses. Sulphuric acid is extensively used in the 
 manufacture of soda from common salt; also in the 
 manufacture of chlorine for bleaching; of citric, 
 tartaric, acetic, nitric and muriatic acids, sulphate of 
 soda, sulphate of magnesia; also dyeing, calico print- 
 ing, gold and silver refining, and in purifying oils 
 and tallow. Its chemical uses are innumerable. It 
 is the Hercules of the acids. Its uses in agriculture 
 have been before stated. 
 
 This acid unites with bases forming the sulphates, 
 and exists in nature both combined, as with lime in 
 sulphate of lime, or gypsum, and free, as in some 
 streams of water and springs, the water of which it 
 renders acid. It is nearly twice as heavy as water, a 
 gallon weighing thirteen pounds. The test for sul- 
 phuric acid is the chloride of barium, with which it 
 forms an insolube precipitate. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. Phosphorus has an intense affinity 
 for oxygen. Place a bit of phosphorus, of the size of a 
 pea, in a wine glass; cover it with hot water, and 
 direct against it a current of oxygen gas, it will burst 
 into violent combustion beneath the surface of the 
 water. When a match is burned, the white smoke 
 that appears is phosphoric acid ; it is always produced 
 when phosphorus is burned in dry air or oxygen gas. 
 
230 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 This acid condenses into solid white flakes of snowy 
 appearance, and possesses a powerful affinity for 
 water, hissing like red-hot iron when brought in 
 contact with it. 
 
 Phosphoric acid is of the highest importance in 
 agriculture. It is principally from its presence in 
 bones that they are useful as a manure. There are 
 three other compounds of phosphorus and oxygen, 
 but they are of interest only to the scientific chemist. 
 
 Nitric Acid or Aquafortis. This acid is the most 
 powerful of the chemical compounds of oxygen and 
 nitrogen. It is prepared by distilling equal weights 
 of sulphuric acid and saltpetre. Pure nitric acid is a 
 colorless liquid, one -and- a- half times heavier than 
 water. It smokes when exposed to the air, and is 
 partially decomposed by the action of light, nitrous 
 acid being formed, which gives it a yellow color. It 
 has an intensely acid taste, and reddens vegetable 
 blues. It is used for etching on copper, for assaying 
 or testing metals, and as a solvent for tin by dyers 
 and calico printers. It is also used as a medicine, as 
 a caustic to cleanse and purify foul ulcers. In conse- 
 quence of its large proportion of oxygen, it corrodes 
 or rusts metals with great energy, and hence it is a 
 most powerful oxydizing agent. 
 
 Nitric acid occurs in small quantity in rainwater, 
 especially after thunder-storms, and is thought to be 
 produced in the air by lightnings, which combines 
 the gaseous nitrogen and oxygen, and also by the 
 oxydation of ammonia in the air. It is found in 
 nature in combination with the alkalies and earths. 
 Combined with potash or soda, nitric acid is a valuable 
 fertilizer. It hastens and increases the growth of 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 231 
 
 plants. It also occasions a larger produce of grain, 
 and this grain, as when ammonia is employed, is more 
 nutritious in its quality. [Professor Jackson. 
 
 Ammonia ( Volatile Alkali}. Three combined parts 
 hydrogen and one combined part nitrogen form ammo- 
 nia. It is a gas, colorless, irrespirable, of a pungent, 
 caustic taste, lighter than air, and possesses strong 
 alkaline properties, neutralizing acids and changing 
 vegetable yellows to brown. Being a gas, it is called 
 volatile alkali, to distinguish it from those that are 
 fixed or solid. The great source of the ammonia of 
 commerce is the liquor of the gas-works. 
 
 Ammonia is used medicinally in various ways. It 
 is administered internally as a powerful stimulant, 
 and applied externally as a counter-irritant. 
 
 Ammonia is one of the most active ingredients of 
 manure. It is produced by the putrefaction of all 
 vegetable and animal substances containing nitrogen. 
 The urine of animals evolves it in large quantities. If 
 this be be collected in tanks, and sulphuric acid (oil 
 of vitriol) added, fixed sulphate of ammonia is formed 
 in the liquid, and all the ammonia is thus saved for 
 farm use. Sulphate of lime (plaster) and sulphate of 
 iron (green vitriol) also serve to fix ammonia. As 
 the decomposition goes on, which forms ammonia, 
 carbonic acid is also generated, which unites with the 
 former, forming the carbonate of ammonia; it exists 
 in this form in the atmosphere. 
 
 The application of ammonia increases the luxuri- 
 ance of vegetation and hastens the maturity of crops, 
 It enters the roots of plants dissolved in water, and, 
 ^according to Liebig, is absorbed by leaves from the 
 air. * 
 
232 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 Silicic Acid (Silica, Sand'). However strange it 
 may seem, that such substances as sand and flint 
 should be classed among the acids, yet such is the fact. 
 At high temperatures, silica exhibits powerful acid 
 properties, and neutralizes bases, forming a class of 
 salts the silicates. Most rocks and minerals are 
 silicates. 
 
 Although common quartz and sand are totally 
 insoluble in water, yet they are rendered soluble by 
 the action of the alkalies ; hence the reason for apply- 
 ing potash and lime to soils to dissolve their silica. 
 AYhen liberated from its combinations by the agency 
 of the air, it is soluble in water; hence it is always 
 present in springs. Silica is necessary to the growth 
 of vegetation, and exists abundantly in many plants ; 
 particularly in the stalks of grains and grapes. 
 It is this which gives stiffness to their stems,, as 
 the skeleton does to the bodies of animals. If there 
 is a deficiency of soluble silica in the soil, the grain 
 stalks will be weak, and liable to break down or 
 lodge. How necessary, then, to apply substances 
 which will dissolve silica or sand. 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES. 
 
 Animal maures are compounds of vegetable matter 
 and salts. They, of course, contain all the elements 
 of fertility. The immense variety of substances used 
 and commended for manures, w^ould seem to render 
 the subject both extensive and complicated. It is 
 capable .of simplification. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE 233 
 
 First, let us take up cow manure. Although not 
 as rich as other animal manures, yet it acts very 
 beneficially on all soils. According to the analysis of 
 "Dana," a cow forms daily about thirteen pounds of 
 undecayed vegetable matter, three ounces phosphate 
 of lime, two ounces of plaster of paris and two ounces 
 carbonate of lime; or in. one year four thousand 
 eight hundred pounds of vegetable matter, seventy-one 
 pounds of bone-dust, forty-seven pounds of lime, 
 forty-seven pounds of plaster, twenty-five pounds of 
 common salt, and fifteen pounds of sulphate of pot- 
 ash. But from the decay, four thousand eight hund- 
 red of well masticated vegetable matter, there is 
 evolved about one hundred and seventy -nine pounds 
 of ammonia, if it is carefully preserved. It is evident, 
 then, that the cow is a great manufacturer of humus, 
 salts and ammonia. The main value of the cow 
 manure depends upon its vegetable matter and 
 ammonia; the other salts are valuable, for they are 
 in such a condition as to be readily taken up by 
 plants. Ammonia in dung is that organic body to 
 which is to be attributed its chief enriching quality. 
 The humus or mold, ammonia and salts, each act; the 
 acid in the mold acts upon the salts, such as lime, 
 potash, soda, etc., alread} 7 in the soil, and also absorbs 
 ammonia from the air, and forms carbonic acid in its 
 decay. The ammonia acts upon the silicates in the 
 soil, the salts act in a similar manner, and also some- 
 times neutralize the injurious acids in the soil. 
 
 Stable or horse manure is highly valued by farmers, 
 and for good reasons it is a powerful fertilizer. But 
 the readiness with which it undergoes fermentation, 
 and sends off ammonia, makes it necessary to exer- 
 
234 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 else great care in its collection and preservation. It 
 has the same constituents as cow manure, but in a 
 more concentrated form, and with a much larger 
 proportion of phosphate of lime. It acts in a similar 
 manner in the soil. 
 
 The "urine" of the horse is a still more powerful 
 fertilizer, and is generally neglected by farmers. It 
 would pay to make plank floors, so as to collect the 
 urine, but they are injurious to the animals. The 
 most common and practical method adopted by 
 farmers is, to litter their stalls with leaves, saw -dust, 
 mold or swamp -muck. These substances absorb the 
 urine and retain its ammonia or nitrogen. Horse 
 dung heats very quickly, and should therefore be 
 piled in such a manner as to receive at any time a 
 layer of woods-earth or mold and plaster. The 
 plaster not only '-fixes " the ammonia in the manure, 
 but eats up the straw, leaves, and rough litter. A 
 sprinkling of plaster to every layer of manure of a 
 foot's thickness is sufficient. 
 
 Hog-pen manure is even more valuable than that 
 of the horse, on account of the large amount of 
 ammonia-producing materials in it, and should be 
 preserved with the greatest care. Sheep droppings, 
 On account of the trouble of saving the manure, are 
 very little attended to by farmers. Where a farmer 
 has forty or fifty head of sheep, he can very cheaply 
 fertilize poor spots on his farm by penning and 
 feeding his sheep upon them during the night, for a 
 week or two at a time. In a very short time the 
 spots will become permanently improved. 
 
 POUDRETTE AND URATE. 
 
 Poudrette is the name given to the human 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 235 
 
 excrements, after being mixed with charcoal- dust 
 or charcoal peat. By these its effluvia is absorbed, 
 and when dried, it becomes a convenient fertilizer 
 for use, and will bear remote transportation. Tho 
 odor is sometimes expelled by adding quick lime, but 
 this removes with it much of the ammonia, and, on 
 this account, should be avoided. 
 
 Urate, as well as poudrette, has become an article of 
 commerce. It is manufactured in large cities by 
 collecting the urine, and mixing with it one-sixth 
 or one- seventh of its weight of ground gypsum, 
 (sulphate of lime), and allowing it to stand several 
 days. The gypsum absorbs a portion of the 
 ammonia in the urine, after which it is dried 
 and the liquid is thrown away, Only a part of 
 the value is secured by this operation. It is some- 
 times prepared by the use of sulphuric acid (oil of 
 vitriol), which is gradually added to the urine, and 
 forms sulphate of ammonia, which is afterwards 
 evaporated to dry ness. This secures a greater 
 amount of the valuable properties of urine. 
 
 NIGHT SOIL. 
 
 Treatment of Night Soil. There has recently been 
 introduced into our large cities a method for deodor- 
 izing night soils, by the means of what are called 
 *' earth closets." These earth closets add greatly to 
 the sanitary condition of the cities in which they have 
 been introduced, and contribute vast quantities of 
 the richest fertilizing ingredients to agriculture : 
 that, too, in a dried, pulverized and portable form, so 
 as to be conveniently applied to the soil. 
 
 We have not, as yet, had an opportunity of testing 
 
23G WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 this fertilizer upon crops cultivated at the South ; 
 but as it has been used from time immemorial by the 
 Chinese, Japanese, and European farmers, we may 
 take it for granted, a substance which has been 
 heretofore a fruitful source of disease in our cities, 
 will be made a blessing to our country. 
 
 With all his industry and efforts, the farmer will 
 find he can manure but a small portion of his farm 
 annually, and a great many contend that making and 
 collecting manures in this way will not pay. A fatal 
 error ! It will pay to keep one hand and a horse 
 and cart, to do nothing else but haul materials for 
 making manure ; this hand would pay better than 
 any other on the farm. 
 
 As we said before, the farmer who cultivates a 
 large surface, will have to look to other sources for 
 the largest portion of his fertilizers. This renders it 
 necessary that we should take up and discuss some of 
 the most prominent fertilizers now offered for sale in 
 the markets. First upon the list, W T C find 
 
 PERUVIAN GUANO. 
 
 Guano, or huana, which signifies in the Peruvian 
 language, " manure/' is now well known to be the 
 excrements of various kinds of sea-fowl, which 
 resort in vast numbers to small uninhabited islands, 
 and rocky promontories, on the coast of Africa and 
 South America, as Avell as in other parts of the globe. 
 On these islands their excrements have accumulated 
 for ages; in some instances, on the coast of Peru 
 (according to the celebrated traveler Ilumbolt), to 
 the depth of from fifty to eighty feet. 
 
 The Peruvian, or that from the coast of Peru, is 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 287 
 
 esteemed the most valuable, and for good reasons, 
 as there, no or very few rains fall upon the islands 
 from which it is collected, and, therefore, very few of 
 its valuable ingredients are lost, It has been used by 
 the Peruvians, from time immemorial, as a manure, 
 and history tells us the Incas used it before the 
 conquest of Peru by the Spaniards. Humbolt 
 introduced it into Europe, on his return from 
 South America, in 1806J but it was" not until 1840 
 it began to be used as a general fertilizer Jby the 
 English farmers, At this time, over 300,000 tons 
 are imported into Great Britain, and 500,000 into the 
 United States, annually* 
 
 ANALYSIS OF PERUYIAN GUANO (100 POUNDS), 
 
 Water i 13vOO = 13 per cent. Water. 
 
 Organic matter 36.00 = 36 " ' Organic matter. 
 
 Ammonia 17.00 = 17 " " Ammonia* 
 
 Phosphates 23.50 = 23^ " " Phosphate of lime, etc, 
 
 Alkaline salts... ...,. ,9,50= 9*1" " Alkaline salts, 
 
 Sand 2.00 = 2 " " Sand. 
 
 100 pounds, 
 
 Guano, it is hardly necessary to state, from the 
 above analysis, may be applied, with advantage, to 
 almost any kind of soil, and to all the crops we 
 cultivate. It contains all the elements necessary for 
 their growth, with the single exception of mold. 
 One great point to be attended to, is that the land 
 should be in good tilth ; otherwise, the tender roots 
 of the plants will meet with obstructions, and become 
 crippled in their growth, Poor, well tilled soils, 
 receive the most advantage from this fertilizer, as 
 they are generally deficient in the very ingredients 
 supplied by the guano. 
 
 Taking the best Peruvian guano as a standard, 
 one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds to the 
 acre, will be sufficient to mature a good crop, mixed 
 
238 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 >vith ten times ite weight of well rotted woods-mold) 
 muck, or swamp mud, Guano should never bo 
 mixed with unleached ashes, potash, soda, or limo, 
 for these salts will "set free" the ammonia, which 
 will be lost in the air, and greatly diminish the effects 
 of the manure. 
 
 The action of guanOj Borne farmers contend, 
 while it produces largely increased crops for a few 
 years, finally exhausts the soil, This action results 
 from a kind of stimulating influence which it exerts 
 upon plants, causing in them an artificial growth, by 
 which they take away from the soil more fertilizing 
 matter than the guano has brought into it. This is 
 true, to a certain extent. Guano contains nothing 
 which is not real food for plants. It is a well 
 ascertained fact, that an ordinary application of 
 guano, gives more mineral matter to the soil than 
 the resulting crop takes away. But when we remember 4 
 that guano continues its effects for several successive crops, 
 the quantity of some of the mineral ingredients of 
 the soil may be diminished. This is especially true 
 of potash, lime, and sulphuric acid. We can guard 
 against this bad effect by using bone-dust and plaster 
 in combination with guano, 
 
 The long continued application of guano, will 
 exhaust the mineral matter in the soiL "While the 
 guano has an excess of ammonia, it has no humus 
 or mold in it, and as the caustic character of the 
 ammonia hastens the decomposition of the mold, the 
 loss is not made up by the guano, but by mixing 
 well-leached ashes, plaster and mold with it, there 
 will be no danger in its application, and a great 
 improvement in the soil will be the reward; 
 
OF AGKI CULTURE, 
 
 One of the very best methods of applying guano 
 is in connection with green crops of peas, closer", etc^, 
 plowed in. It greatly increases the growth of peas, 
 clover, lucerne, etc., and when these crops are plowed 
 under, they add largely to the humus and ammonia 
 in the soil. Guano has the power to act upon the 
 vegetable matter, and convert it more rapidly into 
 humus or mold, than it would have done if the guano 
 had not been applied. It also causes the plants, by 
 increased vigor, to thrust their raots down deeply 
 into the subsoil, and thus bring up an increased 
 supply of mineral matter, in the proper condition to 
 feed succeeding crops. 
 
 A great deal of fraud has been practiced in the 
 sale of guana The best safe-guard against being' 
 imposed upon, is to buy only from reliable men, 
 regularly engaged in the business of selling it. One 
 or two simple tests may be useful. 
 
 First test. Burn one hundred grains to ashes in 
 an iron spoon or ladle ; the remaining ashes should 
 not weigh more than from thirty-five to forty grains, 
 and should be nearly all soluble in dilute muriatic acid. 
 
 Second test. Hub a little guano with a few grains 
 of freshly slacked lime, and if a strong odor of 
 hartshorn, or ammonia is not given off, the quality 
 is not good. 
 
 There are a great many other kinds of guano 
 besides the Peruvian, which have been used very 
 successfully by farmers in the Eastern and Middle 
 States, but it has been the experience of the best 
 farmers, that the pure Peruvian pays the best, 
 although the price is higher. The Pacific, Sea- Fowl 
 and Kedonda, are all favorably ksown ; while not 
 
240 
 
 as rich in ammonia as the Peruvian, they contain a 
 larger proportion of the phosphate of lime, and act 
 very well on crops. 
 
 Swamp mud, or well- rotted peat, or woods mold, 
 when composted with guano and the superphosphate 
 of lime, forms a very valuable fertilizer. The farmer 
 can haul, at any time it suits his convenience, the 
 muck or mold, and deposit it upon the wornout spots 
 in his field. "When he wishes to manure the land, if 
 he will add guano and superphosphate of lime, at the 
 rate of one bushel of guano and one bushel of super- 
 phosphate to twenty bushels of mold, he will have a 
 rich manure. A handful of this mixture in a hill of 
 corn will have a marked effect. 
 
 Again : If the farmer mixes one bushel of super- 
 phosphate of lime, two bushels of strong wood ashes, 
 and one bushel of lime, with twenty bushels of muck 
 or mold, he will have a valuable fertilizer. Again : If 
 he uses five bushels of ashes and one bushel of lime, 
 with thirty bushels of muck or mold, he will have a 
 good manure. The lime and potash of the ashes acts 
 upon the vegetable matter in the muck or mold, 
 neutralizes the acids in it, and causes quick decompo- 
 sition of the vegetable matter, converting it into 
 mold. 
 
 A great variety of vegetable manures may be 
 formed upon the spots of ground which need them 
 most, if the former bears in mind the principle, or 
 fact, that a small amount of lime, potash, or soda, will 
 act upon an indefinite quantity of vegetable matter, in 
 the compost heap, causing quick fermentation, which 
 ends in the entire decomposition of the vegetable 
 matter. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 GHAPTEE IX. 
 
 241 
 
 USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. 
 
 The following table will be useful for readily 
 determining the number of hills, plants, trees, etc., 
 which may be grown on an acre of land : 
 
 DI8TAWCB8 APART. 
 
 NO. PLANTS, ETC. 
 TO AN ACR1. 
 
 3 inches by 3 inches 696,900 
 
 4 " "4 " 392,040 
 
 6 " "6 " 174,240 
 
 9 " "9 " 77,440 
 
 1 foot " 1 foot 43,500 
 
 1% feet " 1% feet 19,300 
 
 2 ' 1 foot 21,780 
 
 2 " "2 feet 10,890 
 
 2^ " " 2^ " 6,909 
 
 1 1 foot 14,520 
 
 8 " "2 feet 7,200 
 
 5 " " 3 " 4,840 
 
 VA " ;; &A ; 3,555 
 
 4 " "1 foot 10,890 
 
 4 " 2 feet 5,445 
 
 4 ' " 3 3,630 
 
 4 " 4 2,722 
 
 * 1 A ' " VA " 2,151 
 
 5 ' 1 foot 8712 
 
 5 " " 2 feet 4,356 
 
 fi " 3 ' 2,904 
 
 5 ' 2,178 
 
 5 " "5 " 1742 
 
 &A " " 5^ " 1J417 
 
 6 ' 6 ' 1210 
 
 6^ " " 6^ " 1031 
 
 7 ' 7 888 
 
 8 " 8 680 
 
 9 " 9 537 
 
 10 ' "10. " 435 
 
 11 ' "11 " 360 
 
 12 ' "12 " 302 
 
 13 13 " 257 
 
 14 '14 " 222 
 
 W 15 " 193 
 
 16 10 " 
 
 IP ^ " ::::::::::::::::::::::::::r;:::::::::::::::::r & 
 
 18 18 " {34 
 
 19 19 " 120 
 
 *) 20 1 08 
 
 25 25 " 69 
 
 30 30 ... '. 48 
 
 3 33 " Jo 
 
 40 40 ' 27 
 
 50 50 " 17 
 
 60 60 " 12 
 
 68 
 
242 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 This table can be used also to determine how many 
 piles of manure to a load, it will take to spread on an 
 acre, at any of the above distances apart. 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 The following tables may often be useful to farmers 
 for reference. 
 
 Money. The -'prices current" of foreign markets 
 are frequently quoted in newspapers, in accordance 
 with foreign currencies, hence these tables are given. 
 
 ENGLISH MONET. 
 
 4 Farthings make 1 penny = $0.02 1-00 
 
 12 Pence make 1 shilling = 0.24 1-5 
 
 2(i Shillings (a sovereign) make 1 pound =. 4.84 
 
 21 " make 1 guinea = 5.10 
 
 .-> " " 1 crown = 1.21 
 
 FRENCH MONEY. 
 
 1 Fnmo = $0.18 3-5 
 
 5 Franc-piece =-= 0.93 
 
 1 Crown, = 1.10 
 
 1 Napoleon (20 francs) = 3.85 
 
 OTHKR FOREIGN MONEY. 
 
 1 Florin (Austria) $0.48 
 
 1 Rupee (Bombay) = 0.50 
 
 1 Thaler (Prussia) = 0.73 
 
 1 Ruble (Russia) = 0.75 
 
 1 Ducat (Germany) ==. 2.23l^ 
 
 1 Ducat (Holland) = 2.27M 
 
 1 Doubloon (Mexico) = 5.53% 
 
 Weights. Avoirdupois weight is used in all business 
 transactions. The long ton, of two thousand two 
 hundred and forty pounds, has generally passed out 
 of use in this country, except at the custom-house. 
 
 TABLE OF AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHTS. 
 
 10 Drams make 1 ounce (oz.) 
 
 1C Ounces " 1 pound (lb.) 
 
 25 Pounds ' 1 quarter (qr.) 
 
 4 Quarters (100 Ibs.) ' 1 hundred (cwt.) 
 
 20 Hundred weight (2000 Ibs.) ' I ton (T.) 
 
 56 Pounds of butter " 1 firkin 
 
 56 
 14 
 
 100 
 196 
 
 200 
 560 
 
 (id 
 
 of hay ' 1 truss 
 
 (an English weight).... " 1 stone 
 
 of fish " 1 quintal 
 
 of flour " 1 barrel 
 
 of beet or pork ' 1 barrel 
 
 of wheat " 1 quarter (English) 
 
 of wheat ' 1 bushel (United States) 
 
 of wheat ' I bushel (English) 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 243 
 
 Measures. The standard of dry measures in the 
 United States is the Winchester bushel, containing 
 2150 2-5 cubic inches. A circular measure, eighteen 
 and a half inches in diameter and eight inches deep, 
 holds a bushel. 
 
 PET MEASURE. 
 
 2 Pints make 1 quart 
 
 8 Quarts , " 1 peck 
 
 4 Pecks " 1 bushel 
 
 5 Bushels of corn (shelled, South) 1 barrel 
 
 8 Bushels of wheat (English) 1 quarter 
 
 Liquid Measure. The wine-gallon is the standard 
 by which liquids are generally bought and sold. It 
 contains two hundred and thirty- one cubic inches. 
 
 COMMON OR LIQUID MEASURE. 
 
 4 Gills make 1 pint 
 
 2 Pints " 1 quart 
 
 4 Quarts " 1 gallon 
 
 31^ Gallons " 1 barrel 
 
 42 Gallons " 1 tierce 
 
 63 Gallons M 1 hogshead 
 
 LONG OR LINEAR MEASURE. 
 
 12 Inches make 1 foot 
 
 3 Feet 1 yard 
 
 5% Yards (16^ feet) 1 rod, pole, or perch 
 
 40 Rods (220 yards) 1 furlong 
 
 8 Furlongs (1760 yards) 1 mile 
 
 4 Inches hand 
 
 6 Feet fathom 
 
 4 Poles (66 feet) chain 
 
 80 Chains mile 
 
 3 Miles league 
 
 LAND AND SQUARE MEASURE. 
 
 144 Square inches make 1 square foot 
 
 9 feet 1 yard 
 
 30*< yards 1 po ]e 
 
 40 poles 1 rood 
 
 16 " 1 chain 
 
 10 chains 1 acre 
 
 640 acres ' 1 square mile 
 
 CUBIC, OR SOLID MEASURE. 
 
 
 
 1728 cubic inches (12x12x12) make 1 cubic foot. 
 
 27 " feet " 1 " yard 
 
 128 " " (8 ft, long, 4 ft, high, 4 ft, wide) " 1 cord. 
 
 &% " "of stone (16^ ft. long, 1% ft. wide and 
 
 Jft. high) 1 solid perch, 
 
244 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 A FEW SIMPLE AND USEFUL EULES. 
 
 I. To calculate simple interest at six per cent 
 Multiply the dollars by half the number of months, 
 and the result will be the interest in cents. For odd 
 days, multiply the dollars by the whole number of 
 days, and divide by sixty the result will be the 
 interest in cents. 
 
 For any other rate of interest, as seven or eight per 
 cent. Multiply the dollars by the rate per cent. the 
 result will be the interest for one year in cents. This, 
 divided by twelve, is the interest for one month. The 
 interest for one month, divided by thirty, gives the 
 interest for one day. From these, the interest for 
 any period may be calculated. 
 
 II. To determine how many bushels a given space 
 will hold. Multiply the length, width and depth, 
 measured in feet. This will give the contents in 
 cubic feet. Now, as there are two thousand one 
 hundred and fifty cubic inches in a bushel and one 
 thousand seven hundred and twenty- eight in a foot, 
 these numbers stand (nearly) to each other as four to 
 five. Hence, multiply the cubic feet of the given 
 space by four and divide by five, will give the bushels 
 (very nearly). 
 
 Example. A crib eight feet long, five feet wide, 
 and six feet deep, contains (8x5x6) = 240 cubic 
 feet, then 240 x 4 = 960 cubic feet, which, divided by 
 five, gives one hundred and ninety- two bushels as the 
 contents of the crib, very nearly. 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 245 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TEEMS. 
 
 Absorb To soak up a liquid or gas, to take sub- 
 stances from the air, or from watery solutions. 
 Abstract To take from. 
 Acid Sour, acrid; a sour substance. 
 Agriculture The art of cultivating the soil. 
 Alkali The direct opposite of an acid, with which 
 
 it has a tendency to unite, neutralizing. 
 Alumina The base of clay. 
 Analysis Separating into its primary parts any 
 
 compound substance. 
 Carbonate A compound, consisting of carbonic acid 
 
 and a base (metallic oxyde). 
 Caustic Burning. 
 
 Chloride A compound containing chlorine. 
 Decompose To separate the constituents of any 
 
 body from their combinations ; to decay or rot. 
 Digestion The decomposition of food in the stomach 
 
 and intestines of animals. (Agricultural.) 
 Fermentation A kind of decomposition. 
 Gas Air ; aeriform matter. 
 Ingredient Component part of any substance. 
 Inorganic Mineral, or earthy ; not organized by 
 
 animal or vegetable life. 
 Mulching Covering the soil with litter, leaves, or 
 
 straw. 
 Neutralize To overcome or destroy the properties 
 
 or effects of. 
 Organic matter That kind of matter whicn possesses 
 
 or has possessed life, 
 
246 WALL'S MANUAL 
 
 Oxyde A compound of oxygen with an clement. 
 Phosphate A compound of phosphoric acid with 
 
 a base. 
 
 Pungent Sharp ; acrid. 
 Putrefaction Hotting. 
 
 Saturate To fill the pores of any substance, as a 
 sponge with water, or charcoal with ammonia. 
 
 Silicate A compound of silicic acid with a base. 
 
 Soluble Capable of being dissolved in water. 
 
 Saturated Solution One which contains as much of 
 the foreign substances as it is capable of holding. 
 
 Sulphate A compound of sulphuric acid and a base. 
 
 Vapor Moist air see gas. 
 
 END. 
 
Errata. 
 
 On page 19, first line, germs should read gums. 
 
 On page 34, eighth line, Phospllc should read Phosphoric. 
 
 On page 111, second line, Planting in should read Plowing in. 
 
 On page 212, first line in last paragraph, difficulty should 
 read deficiency. 
 
 On page 145, twentieth line, congulated should read coagu- 
 lated. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ABSORBENTS 45 
 
 ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MANURES 232 
 
 Analysis of Peruvian Guano 237 
 
 Night Soil 235 
 
 Peruvian Guano 237 
 
 Poudrette and Urate 234 
 
 A STATEMENT OF LEADING FACTS 38 
 
 CARE OF STOCK 177 
 
 Horses 177 
 
 Cattle 179 
 
 Hogs 179 
 
 Bad Habits 179 
 
 CHEMICAL INGREDIENTS OF KOCKS AND SOILS 191 
 
 Elementary Bodies 192 
 
 Bases 193 
 
 Experiments Silica 193 
 
 Metalloid Compounds Salts 194 
 
 Simple Minerals 196 
 
 CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF THE SOIL 83 
 
 Analysis of Ashes of Crops 24 
 
 CHEMISTRY AS APPLIED TO THE SOIL 
 
 The Best Soil How Formed 189 
 
 Formation of Deposits , 190 
 
 CONCLUSION TO PART 1 179 
 
 COTTON 
 
 Its Origin 62 
 
 The Disease! of Kust 67 
 
 Sore Shin 68 
 
 Rot 68 
 
 Blight 70 
 
 Insecti btneficial and injurious to 71 
 
 11* 
 
250 INDEX. 
 
 COTTON Continued. ?AE 
 
 Insects Frequenting 71 
 
 Insects which feed upon the Stalk 73 
 
 Insects found on the Leaf. 74 
 
 Caterpillar 75 
 
 Boll Worm 77 
 
 Insects beneficial to 80 
 
 Planting, Cultivating and Gathering 87 
 
 Kind of Soil 87 
 
 Planting '. 89 
 
 Mode of Planting 90 
 
 Culture 91 
 
 Selection of Seed 92 
 
 Analysis 98 
 
 Cotton Seed as a fertilizer 94 
 
 Caution to Planters 101 
 
 Experiments of Rains, 18G8 101 
 
 CULIVATION OF WHEAT, EYE AND OATS 
 
 Preparation of the Soil 102 
 
 Wheat 104 
 
 Rye 106 
 
 Oats 106 
 
 DRAINING 20 
 
 ERRATA ::'.:' 247 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS i'.-.-i 245 
 
 HAY CROP 
 
 Clover.., 112 
 
 Grasses ..V. 114 
 
 Pasture? 116 
 
 Experiments 117 
 
 How PLANTS VEGETATE AND GROW 15 
 
 Germination 16 
 
 Roots 10 
 
 The Stem 19 
 
 Th Leaf. 20 
 
 Flowers and Fruits ,. ., , 22 
 
 INBIAN COK il 
 
 INTRODUCTION 3 
 
INDEX. 251 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 MECHANICAL TREATMENT or THE SOIL 23 
 
 MINERAL FERTILIZERS THEIR ACTION UPON THE SOIL.... 211 
 
 Silex 211 
 
 Lime 212 
 
 Gypsum Sulphate of Lime or Plaster 215 
 
 Marl 215 
 
 ' Potash 216 
 
 Soda 216 
 
 Magnesia 217 
 
 Sulphur 217 
 
 Phosphorus 218 
 
 Analysis of Bones 219 
 
 Calcined Bones 220 
 
 Sugar-house Eefuse 220 
 
 Chilian Saltpetre, or Common Salt 222 
 
 'Columbian Guano 222 
 
 Quartz 223 
 
 Artificial Silicates 224 
 
 Acids 225 
 
 MUCK, OR VEGETABLE MOLD......... 46 
 
 MUTUAL ACTION OF THE ORGANIC AND INORGANIC ELE- 
 MENTS or THE SOIL 206 
 
 PEA CROP 107 
 
 Varieties 108 
 
 Soil 108 
 
 Planting, or Sowing . 109 
 
 POTATO CROP 
 
 Climate 117 
 
 Soil 118 
 
 Varieties 118 
 
 Plant Beds 119 
 
 Preparation of Beds 120 
 
 Sowing the Seed..... 121 
 
 Preparation of Soil 122 
 
 Planting 123 
 
 Culture 124 
 
 Digging 137 
 
252 INDEX. 
 
 POTATO CROP Continued. PAGE. 
 
 Selections for Planting 138 
 
 Degeneration 138 
 
 The Potatoes 139 
 
 Preparation of Land for Planting 139 
 
 PREPARATION OF FOOD FOR STOCK , 174 
 
 PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE MINERAL 
 
 INGREDIENTS OF THE SOIL 197 
 
 Naming Acids 198 
 
 Glass Analysis of Granite 199 
 
 REASONS WHY AGRICULTURAL BOOKS SHOULD BE READ 6 
 
 RECAPITULATION 159 
 
 RELATION BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 165 
 
 RICE 
 
 Varieties 156 
 
 Cultivation of Low land Rice 165 
 
 Cultivation of Up land Rice 157 
 
 SORGHUM CANES 142 
 
 Manufacture of Syrup from its Juice 144 
 
 SOURCES FROM WHICH PLANTS DERIVE THBIR NOURISH- 
 MENT 11 
 
 SUGAR CANB 
 
 Saccharine Officinarum 146 
 
 Ribbon Cane Creole or Malabar Cane 147 
 
 Varieties 147 
 
 Soil 148 
 
 Seed Cane ; 148 
 
 Preservation of Seed Cane 148 
 
 Preparation for Planting 149 
 
 Planting 151 
 
 Cultivating 152 
 
 Harvesting 153 
 
 Analysis of Ashes of Sugar Cane 154 
 
 Manures for Canes 154 
 
 TOBACCO CROP 
 
 Climate , 117 
 
 Soil 118 
 
 Varieties .,... 118 
 
INDEX. 253 
 
 TOBACCO CROP Continued. PAGE 
 
 Plant Beds 120 
 
 Sowing the Seed 121 
 
 Preparation of Soil 122 
 
 Planting 123 
 
 Culture 124 
 
 Priming or Topping 124 
 
 Cutting 126 
 
 Curing 126 
 
 The Chemistry of Curing 127 
 
 Stripping and Handling 128 
 
 Cultivation of Cuba Tobacco 131 
 
 TURNIP CROP 141 
 
 TABLES FOR FARMERS 241 
 
 Money 242 
 
 Weights 242 
 
 Measures 243 
 
 USEFUL KDLES 244 
 
 VALUE OF CROPS AS FOOD 168 
 
 VEGETABLE OR ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE SOIL 201 
 
 Humus, or Vegetable Mold 205 
 
ALLISON BROTHERS 
 
 Importers and Dealers in 
 
 HARDWARE, 
 
 GUNS, CUTLEBY, STEEL, 
 
 CASTINGS, NAILS, MAINS, 
 
 And every description of 
 
 Agricultural Implements 
 
 AND 
 
 Farming Tools. 
 
 Mechanics' and Builders' Hardware, Plows, 
 Hoes, Anvils, Bellows, Vises, etc. 
 
 ROLE AGE.NTS FOR HILL MAN BROTHERS & SONS' 
 
 CELEBRATED TENNESSEE CHARCOAL 
 
 AND COMMON IRON. E. CARVER 
 
 & CO'S. COTTON GINS AND 
 
 LINTERS. LANE & 
 
 BODLEY'S STEAM 
 , ENGINES. 
 
 270 Front St., Memphis, Tenn. 
 
CENTRAL DEPOT FOR THE SOUTHWEST 
 
 RHODES' 
 
 SUPERPHOSPHATE OF 
 
 THE STANDARD MANURE AND FERTILIZER, THE 
 
 OLDEST AND MOST RELIABLE ON THE 
 
 AMERICAN CONTINENT. 
 
 Also of the 
 
 ORCHILLA. GTJA^O. 
 
 Detailed information furnished on application to the 
 
 SOLE AGENTS, 
 
 JENSEN & ROESSEL, 
 COTTON FAOTOES AND COMMISSION MEBOHANTS, 
 
 No?!. 102 and 104 Peters, late New Levee, and 32 and 34 
 Commerce Streets, 
 
 !N~ew Orleans, Louisiana. 
 
. G. CRAI& k CO., 
 
 DEALEBS IN 
 
 Seeds, Implements, Fertilizers, 
 
 377-379, Main Street, 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 Also Agents for 
 
 RAW BONE FERTILIZER, 
 
 .Made from the Blood, Meat and Bone of 
 the Animal. 
 
 Price $6 per Barrel; $55 per Ton of 2000 Ibs. 
 
For 187O. 
 
 DR. M, W, PHILIPS, Editor-in-Chief, 
 
 Assisted by a Corps of ABLE WRITERS, PRACTI- 
 CAL FARMERS and HORTICULTURISTS, 
 
 It has reached its FOURTH VOLUME, and is an 
 
 UNPARALLELED SUCCESS. 
 XJSSTULO ZLO,OOO. 
 
 It has become the Standard Agricultural Paper 
 for the Southwest. 
 
 Every FARMER should read it. 
 Every FARMER'S SON should read it. 
 Every FARMER'S WIFE should read it. 
 Every FARMER'S DAUGHTER should read it. 
 Every STOCK RAISER should read it 
 Every FRUIT GROWER should read it. 
 Every GARDENER should read it. 
 It will teach you how to save labor. 
 It will teach you how to save money. 
 It will teach you how to make money. 
 It will teach you how to raise stock. 
 It will teach you how to economise. 
 It will teach you how to live. 
 
 [From the New Orleans Picayune.] 
 
 THE SOUTHERN FARMER. This sterling and useful Southern journal of 
 Agriculture, edited by the veteran and reliable Dr. M. W. PHILIPS, began 
 a new year with January, and has an increase in the variety and amount 
 of its matter. The study of the experience of others, is of the greatest 
 value to the farmer and planter, who should avail himself of it as far as 
 he can, and in the SOUTHERN FARMER he will find it ; for the numerous 
 contributors to that journal are among the most candid, enterprising 
 and fairest of all those who are trying to improve the agriculture of the 
 South. 
 
 TERMS, S2 J YE.AR. 
 
 Send. Ten Cents for a Specimen Copy. 
 Local Agents and Canvassers wanted, and good pay 
 given. Address 
 
 3 61 Main st., Memphis, Tenn. 
 
THE SOUTHERN FARMER AGENCY 
 
 THE writer, M. W. PHILIPS, being now one of the fixtures, and so long 
 as the agriculturist requires it, and can find no better a servant, would 
 inform subscribers, and others, who desire anything in the agricultural 
 line from a dog chain to a steam engine that he will, to the Lest of his 
 ability to purchase for them, and will always strive to obtain information 
 touching the various machines from those who are experts. The per 
 cent, is not the main question, and old friends will bear us out that we 
 have ever been actuated by a desire to be of use. 
 
 MACHINERY FOR SOUTHERN FARM LIFE. 
 
 Having moved to the Southwest in 1830, and settled in a new Country, 
 where mills and mechanics were not ; although immediately from school, 
 we were forced to use a talont given to us. Thus forced, our mind was 
 drawn out on mechanism, and we tried all labor-saving machinery we 
 could procure. Thus apprenticed and serving our full time as such, we 
 think we are somewhat prepared to select Gin Stands, Presses, Running 
 Gear, Mills, etc., etc. ; and, from our particular bias to test thus, we have 
 bought, used and laid aside three different Presses, several Gin Stands, 
 Mills and Running Gear. We will give our best attention and discretion 
 to a selection. Our only brother, Col. Z. A. P., is fully posted up on Steam 
 Engines, and we will avail ourself of his knowledge. We have had many, 
 the most of what is justly termed improved stock, and, although our 
 prejudices may have swerved us, yet we are honest in our convictions 
 and will try to select the best. 
 
 PRICES OF BLOODED STOCK, &c. 
 
 owing are the 
 New York and elsewhere : 
 
 The following are the prices of Blooded Stock, etc., in Pennsylvania, 
 el 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Durham, age and quality ..... $60@300 I Alderney, age and quality. ..$60(o>300 
 Ayrshire, " " " " ..... 60@250 | Jersey, " " " ... 60@.3UO 
 
 HOGUS. 
 
 Chester Whites, 6 to 8 weeks old... .$30 
 
 Improved Ohio Chester 35 
 
 Windsors (Prince Albert Suftblks) 30 
 
 Essex ......................................... $30 
 
 Berkshire ................................... 25 
 
 $2 for boxing. 
 
 Spanish (pairs) ............................ $ 8 | White Aylesbury Ducks ............... $12 
 
 Golden Hamburgs ....................... 15 | Brahrnas .................................... 7 
 
 We have access to a large variety of Fowls, such as Rouen, Cayuga 
 and other Ducks, Breman and other Geese, Bronze and White Turkeys ; 
 any of which we will order. We are anxious to make our Southern 
 homes more interesting. 
 
 CARAFES. 
 
 Each. Per 100 
 
 Concord ....................................................................... 25c. $18 <K) 
 
 Hartford ....................................................................... 25c. 20 00 
 
 Scuppernongs .............................................................. 25c. 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 All the choice Seeds (Corn, Cotton, Grass, Ramie Plants, etc.) we shall 
 be prepared to fill for next planting. Orders solicited. 
 Address: 
 
 M. W. PHILIPS & CO., 
 
 361 MAIN STREET, MEMPHIS, TENN, 
 
(MMOmiTED IRIPIE SUPERPIOSPIUTE 
 
 -AND 
 
 THIS valuable Manure has been accepted by the most experienced 
 and practical Farmers of the South, as the most efficient and reliable 
 Fertilizer known. Three hundred pounds per acre, will double crops of 
 COTTON and CORN, and treble WHBAT and OAT crops. 
 
 The AMMONIATED TRIPLE SUPERPHOSPHATE 
 
 Will NOT RUST Wheat and Cotton, and in this respect is unlike most 
 commercial manures* and superior to all others in use. The Planters of 
 the South and West, will be convinced of the great value of this Manure 
 by a single application to COTTON, CORN, WHEAT or OATS. 
 For sale by 
 
 E, H. MARTIN & CO., Sole Agents, 
 
 233 Front Street, Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 " WE have handled as many varieties of Fertilizers as any Farmer in 
 Dixie, and we give our opinion, that the cornponate parts of the 
 
 AMMONIATED TRIPLE SUPERPHOSPHATE 
 
 Are all and each eminently valuable, and the Compound cannot fail 
 to give satisfaction." 
 
 EDITORS SOUTHERN FARMER. 
 
 EH 
 9 ii* 
 
 -DEALERS IN- 
 
 Hardware and Agricultural Implements, 
 
 232 Front St., Memphis, Fenn. 
 
South western Publishing Co, 
 
 BLANK BOOK MANUFACTURERS, 
 
 PAPER DEALERS, 
 Printers, Booksellers, 
 
 it 
 
 STAFIONJZftS, &c., 
 
 No. 361 Main St., 
 
 Having largely added to our stock of Print- 
 ing Types and Machinery, we are enabled to 
 execute all kinds of Printing, on short notice> 
 and at the lowest prices. 
 
 ' m* COUNTRY ORDERS PROMPTLY AT- 
 TENDED TO. 
 
IMPROVED ATTACHMENTS 
 
 For Opening Furrows and Cultivating the Growing Crops. 
 Manufactured at 
 
 MUlIIl'S FLOW FAGZOBY, 
 
 MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE. 
 
 Sold by citv and country merchants in all the Southern States. For 
 circulars and further information, address 
 
 J. H. MITJRIPEK, .A-gt., JAMES W. MURFEE, 
 
 MEMPHIS, TENN. Inventor and Patentee. 
 REFF.RF.KCB Dr. M. W. PHILIPS, Editor Southern Farmer. 
 
 B. B. Will & CO., 
 
 DEALERS ir 
 
 SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, 
 
 FRUIT TREES, 
 
 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, &c., &c., 
 
 232 Main St., Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 -AGENTS FOR 
 
 BAUGH'S RAW-BONE SUPERPHOSPHATE, BUCKEYE CULTIVATOR 
 
 OR SULKY PLOW, EXCELSIOR REAPER AND 
 
 MOWER, Etc., Etc., Etc. 
 
 Keep constantly on hand all kinds of Fertilizers, Agricultural Imple- 
 jnents, Seeds, etc. 
 
GENERAL LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the 
 
 date to which renewed. 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 AUG28195 
 
D ./ D .//