GIFT OF Dr. Horace Ivie eOUCATION DEF^ ( As*;^^-^ ^> — r,^C-<,^ (\. ?i V; i- « * ( 37 5 / ^ "' -r- ^ j 7 J ^?» •^«'5 >c' ,^s^5v Typography by J. S. Gushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. Presswork by Ginn & Co., Boston, U.S.A. PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION. The Publishers have again taken advantage of the opportunity offered by the necessary recasting of the plates of this book to cause such improvements to be made in it as the advance of gram- matical knowledge and the experience of the schoolroom have shown to be advisable. The revising editors have endeavored to simplify and make plain the statement of principles, so far as could be done without sacrificing scientific correctness ; but no concession has been made to the prevalent mechanical method of treating the science of language. Many additional explanations and suggestions have been made in the text and foot-notes, for the benefit of teachers and advanced scholars. The number and range of examples have been very considerably increased; and it is hoped that scholars will find no grammatical usage in their ordinary reading that is not provided for in the statements laid down. The treatment of the formation of words has been much extended ; and new light, it is hoped, has been shed upon this difficult and ever- advancing branch of the science. In cases where comparative philol- ogy is concerned, the editors have endeavored to set down the sure results of the so-called "New Grammar," but have been conservative about accepting doctrines which, though likely to be true, cannot yet be regarded as fiilly proved, and are certainly not universally accepted. In conformity with the modern practice all naturally long vowels, known to be such, including those whose natural quantity is concealed by position, have been marked throughout ; but many suspected to be long have been left unmarked, where the evidence did not seem sufficiently convincing. Some new doctrines will be found in regard to the order of words, which, though not generally accepted, will, the editors are persuaded, meet with more general approval, the better they are applied and understood. This subject has only just begun to receive the con- sideration it deserves. No changes of any account have been made in the numbering of sections. In conclusion, the editors hope that they have made still more plain some of the devious ways of Latin grammar, and feel that if their new efforts meet with anything like the same favor that has been shown to the book heretofore, they shall be amply rewarded. 924186 PREFACE TO THE EDITION OF 1877. The editors have taken advantage of the re-casting of the plates to make some improvements in the present edition, which have grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough revision of the book has been made. The principal changes are the following : i . The matter of each part has been cast in chapters, with sub-divisions by numbered paragraphs. 2. A considerable expansion has been given to several portions, especially to those on Phonetic Changes and the Forma- tion of Words ; inflectional forms have been more carefully exhibited, and sections have been added on the Syntax of Pronouns and Parti- cles. 3. Strictly philological matter, not intended for class use, has been put in the form of marginal notes. 4. The several topics of the Syntax are introduced by brief prefatory notes, suggesting what we consider to be the true theory of the constructions ; these are not designed for class use, and are not included in the numbered sections. 5. Some important additions and illustrations have been given in the Prosody. The substance of the book remains as be- fore. The form of expression, however, has been carefully revised ; and a few sections have been transferred to a different connection. The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experienced teach- ers, who have generously aided us by their criticism, and have con- tributed many valuable practical suggestions. The editors have pleasure in acknowledging, also, their special indebtedness to Pro- fessor Caskie Harrison, of the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., whose correspondence has made a very full running com- mentary extending over the greater portion of the book, including all the Syntax, with copious discussion of numerous incidental topics. His notes have been of the greatest service to them ; have sometimes modified their views and constantly supplemented them ; have urged important points upon their attention, and have not seldom suggested valuable improvements through the very antago- nism of opposing doctrine. Material less easy to specify in detail, but not less valuable or welcome, has been received from Professor M. W. Humphreys, of Nashville, from the principals of the acade- mies at Andover, Exeter, and Quincy, and from others, to whom cor- j dial thanks are due for the interest they have testified in the work. Cambridge, September 25, 1877. NOTE For the convenience of those who may wish to follow up more minutely the study of the subjects treated in this book, a list of important works is given below. Allen, F. D. : Remnants of Early Latin. American Journal of Philology, Vols. I. to VIII. and continued. BoPP: Vergleichende Crammatik des Sanskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan- guages.] 4 vols. 3d ed. Berlin: 1868-70. The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor). London: 1862. The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel Breal. Paris: 1866. Bezzenberger : Beitrage tur Kunde der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Brambach: Lateinitche OrtJiographie, 1868. Brugmann: Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik. Vol.1. Strassburg: 1886; Vol. II., 1889-92. Greek Grammar, See " MUller's Handbuch." Corssen: Aiissprachey Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Spracke. 2 vols. 2d ed. Le?pzig: 1868. The greatest work on Latin alone, treating the language in reference to its own individual development, particularly as to the sounds {^Lauflehre). Must be used whh caurion. CuRTius, G. : Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologie. 3d ed. Leipzig: 1869. Treats of Latin only by comparison, but is one of the most valuable works on the general subject. Erlauterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d ed. Prag: 1870. English translation ("Elucidations"). London: 1870. Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the doctrine of forms. • Das Griechische Verbutrf, DelbrOck: Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. Halle: 187 1. Origin of the Moods treated scientifically. Should be read in connection with a notice in ** North American Review," October, 1871, and "Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive," by J. B. Greenough (Cambridge : 1870). Ablativ, Localist Instrumentalis im Indischen, etc. Berlin : 1867. Origin of the various Ablative constructions. vi Note. FtCR: Vergleichendn Wdrterduch der Indo-Germanisehen Spruchen. G6t tingen: 1870. A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo-European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various languages. It can be used without a knowledge ot German. No such booTc, however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and vowel changes. Hadley: Essays^ Philological ana Critical. New York (Holt & Williams); 1873- Hale, W. G. : Cum Constrtutions. [Cornell Studies.] ■ The Sequence of Tenses, Hoffman: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna: 1 86a [Pamphlet.] lAkK3ii mifsbilchlein ftir die Amsprache^ etd. Berlin: 1883. Meyer, G.r Griechische Grammatik, 2d ed. Leipzig: 1885. MOller: JIandbuch der Klassischen Alter thums-ivissenscha ft. Vol. 11. Griech- ische und Lateinische Sprachwissenschaft (by Brugmann, Stolz and Schmalz, and others). Neue: Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache, Stuttgart: 1875-92. Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late textual criticism. The standard work, Papillon : A Manual of Comparative Philology y as applied to the lUustra" Hon of Greek and Latin Inflections. Oxford : 1876. Behind the times, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of forms. RoBY, H. J. : A Grammar of the Latin Language ^ from Plautus to Suetonius. London and New York (Macmillan): Vol. L, 1871; Vol. IL, 1873. Someerrorshavebeenpointed out in the " North American Review," January, 187a. Schleicher: Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der IndO'Ger* manischen Sprachen. 4th ed. 1876. Antiquated, but indispensable. Seelmann, E. : Die Attssprache des Latein. Heilbronn : 1885. SiEVERS,E.: GrundzUge der Phonetik. 3d ed. Leipzig: 1885. Vanicek, A. : Etymologisches Wdrterduch der Lateinischen Sprache. Leipzig : 1874. Suggestive, but to be used with caution. V^^STPKALi Metrik der Griechen. 2d ed. 1867. ? vols. The great authority on the metrical systems of the ancients, with full literary and musical illustration. A convenient summary, with some modifications, will be found in Schmidt's Rhythmik und Metrik, now translated by Prof. J. W. WHITE, and published by the publishers of this book. Wheeler, B. I.: Analogy and its Scope in Language, [Cornell Studies.] Whitney: Sanskrit Grammar, Leipzig: 1879. ^ The best grammar of the Sanskrit, without some knowledge of which language it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. Zeitschrift fur vergleickende Sprachforschung. Edited by Dr. A. KuHN. Vol. L, etc. Berlin: 1 851 and subsequent years. Indispensable to correct theories of individual investigators. CONTENTS. PART I. — ETYMOLOGY. PAGE Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds 1-13 Alphabet ; Classification, Phonetic Variations i~9 Pronunciation; Quantity and Accent , I0-12 Chapter II. — Words and their Forms 13-18 Inflection; Root and Stem I3> 14 The Parts of Speech . 15, 16 Gender, Number, and Case 16-18 Chapter III. — Declension of Nouns , 19-46 General Rules of Declension 19, 20 First Declension 20-22 Second Declension 22-25 Third Declension: Mute Stems 25-27 Liquid Stems 27-29 Vowel Steins 29-32 Irregular Nouns 32, 33 Greek Forms 33> 34 Rules of Gender 34> 35 Lists of Nouns 36-38 Fourth Declension 39> 40 Fifth Declension 40, 41 Defective and Variable Nouns 42-46 Proper Names 46 Chapter Y^,-^ Adjectives 47-62 First and Second Declensions . , 47-49 Third Declension 49-54 Comparison 55-58 Numerals 59-62 viii Contents, PAGB Chapter V. — Pronouns . 63-72 Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative .... 63-68 Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71 Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 72 Chapter Yl.-^ Verbs 73-121 Inflection 73» 74 Signification : Voice, Mood, Tense 74-78 Personal Endings . « 78, 79 Forms: Verb-Endings 79-81 The Verb Sum 81-83 The Three Stems 84 Regular Verb : The Four Conjugations 84, 85 Formation of the Three Stems .... 86-90 Synopsis of the Verb 90 Special Forms . 91 First Conjugation 92,93 Periphrastic Conjugations 93 Second Conjugation 96-98 Third Conjugation 98-103 Fourth Conjugation ....... 104-106 Deponent Verbs 106-108 Irregular Verbs 109-114 Defective Verbs 114-117 Impersonal Verbs 117,118 Note on the Origin and History of Verb-Forms . . . 119-121 Chapter Y\\. — Particles . 122-139 Adverbs .... 122-127 Prepositions 127-133 Conjunctions 133-139 Interjections 139 Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words . ...... 140-162 Roots and Stems 140, 141 Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings 141-143 Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives 143-156 Derivation of Verbs 156-160 Compound Words , 160-162 Contents, ix PART II. — SYNTAX. PAGB Introductory Note 163, 164 Chapter I. — The Sentence 165-204 Definitions : Subject and Predicate ; Modification . . . 165-170 Agreement: the Four Concords 170 Nouns: Apposition; Predicate Agreement 170-172 Adjectives: Rules of Agreement 172 Special Uses 174-177 Pronouns : Personal and Demonstrative ..... 1 78-181 Reflexive 181-184 Possessive 184-186 Relative 186-191 Indefinite 191, 192 Alius and Alter . . 193, 194 Verbs: Subject, Incomplete Sentences 194-196 Particles: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives . . . 199-201 Questions 201-204 Chapter II. — Construction of Cases .... ... 205-273 Introductory Note 205 Genitive: With Nouns 206-211 Possessive 207 Material^ Quality 208 Partitive 209,210 Objective 21 1 With Adjectives 211-213 With Verbs . 213-217 Remembering and Forgetting . 213,214 Accusing, etc ► 214 Feeling 214 Interest and RSfert; other Verbs, 216, 217 Peculiar Genitives ; Exclamatory, etc. ... 218 Dative : Indirect Object with Transitives 2 19-22 1 Indirect Object with Intransitives .... 221-225 With Compounds . , „ 225-227 Of Possession ; of Agency 227-229 Of Purpose or End ; Dative with Adjectives . 229-233 Of Reference ; Ethical 233, 234 X Contents, PAGB Accusative : Direct Object , 235-237 Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives . , , . 238-242 Idiomatic and Special Uses o . 242-244 Vocative o . . . 244 Ablative : its Several Uses 244, 245 1. Of Separation and Privation 245-247 Source, Material, Cause 247-250 Of Agent ; of Comparison 251-253 2. Of Manner. Means, Instrument, Accompaniment, 253-256 Of Difference, Quality, Price, Specification . 256-259 3. Locative : Special Uses . 260 Ablative Absolute 260-262 Time and Place 263-279 Use of Prepositions 270-273 Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb . . o . . . . , 274-305 Note on the Moods 274 Moods : Indicative ■> ^ 275, 276 Subjunctive : General Use 276 " Hortatory 277, 278 ** Optative . » 279 " Deliberative 280 Imperative 280-283 Infinitive . c ■ . . 283 Tenses: Introductory Note . 291 Tenses of Continued Action 291 Present 291-294 Imperfect 294-296 Future 296 Tenses of Completed Action 296 Perfect 296-298 Pluperfect 298 Future Perfect 298 Epistolary Tenses 299 Tenses of the Subjunctive 299 Sequence of Tenses 300-304 Tenses of the Infinitive 304 Participles: 306-314 Distinctions of Tense 307 Adjective Use 308 Predicate Use . . o 309 Contents, xi PAGB Future Participle 312 Gerundive 3^3 Gerund and Gerundive 314 Supines 3^8 Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences 320-339 Introductory Note 320 Protasis and Apodosis 321 Classification of Forms 322 Simple Conditions 324 Future Conditions 325 Conditions Contrary to Fact 327 General Conditions 329 Condition Disguised 330 Condition Omitted 332 Potential Subjunctive 332 Subjunctive of Modesty 332 Verbs of Necessity 333 Complex Conditions 333 Particles of Comparison 334 Concessive Clauses 335 Proviso ZZ^ Use of SI and its Compounds 337 Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions 339-3^8 Relative Clauses : Introductory Note 339 Conditional Relative Clauses 339 Clauses of Purpose 340 Clauses of Result 343 Clauses of Characteristic 346 Causal Clauses 348 Relations of Time 349 Postquam, etc. 350 Cum Temporal ^ . . • 352 Cum Causal 353 Antequam, Priusquam 354 Dum, Donee, and Quoad 354 Substantive Clauses: Introductory Note 355 Infinitive Qauses 356 Clauses of Purpose 359 xii Contents, PAGB Clauses of Result , 362 Clauses with Quod 366 Indirect Questions 367 Indirect Discourse : Introductory Note 369 Formal Indirect Discourse 370 Subordinate Clauses 372 Tenses in Indirect Diiscourse 373 Conditions, Questions, Commands 374 Informal Indirect Discourse 379 Integral Clauses 380 Important Rules of Syntax 381 Chapter VI. — Arrangement 386-393 General Rule 386 Special Rules 392 Structure of the Period 392 PART III..— PROSODY. Chapter I. — Quatttity . . . .\ 394-401 Introductory Note . . . . ^V. 394 General Rules of Quantity 394 Quantity of Final Syllables 396 Quantity of Penultimates 398-401 Chapter II. — Rhythm 402-406 Measures of Rhythm : Feet 402-405 The Musical Accent 406 Chapter III. — Versification 407-424 The Verse 407 Dactylic Verse : Hexameter 408 Elegiac Stanza ; Other DactyHc Verses . 410, 41 1 Iambic Verse: Trimeter 411 Other Iambic Measures 413 Trochaic Verse 413 Mixed Measures 4^4 Logaoedic Verse o 415,416 Metres of Horace 417-421 Index to Metres of Horace 420 Contents, xiii Other Lyric Poets 421 Miscellaneous 422 Early Prosody 423, 424 Miscellaneous : Reckoning of Time 425 Measures of Value 427 Abbreviations 428 Glossary of Terms 429-432 Appendix : Latin and Kindred Tongues 433-438 Principal Roman Writers 438, 439 Index OF Verbs 440-448 Index of Words and Subjects 449 ff. LATIN GK AMM;AR} :.; v-\ \ / Latin Grammar is usually discussed under three heads : i. Etymol- ogy; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Etymology treats of the form of separate words, as either written or spoken ; Syntax of their function when joined together as parts of the sentence; Prosody of their arrangement in metrical composition. PART FIRST.— ETYMOLOGY. Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds. Alphabet. The Latin Alphabet, as the language is usually written, is the same as the English (which, in fact, was borrowed from it), except that it has no w. Properly, it consists, however, of only twenty-three letters : a (called aK), b {be \bay-\), c {ke), d {de), e {e [^^]), f (£pw), dear; frater (paTr)p) , brother. f {iox dh^ d: fores (^vpa), doors; fera {Orjp), deer. h G: veho, 'ze/<7^(?«; haedus, ^(9«/; hostis, ^//^j/. icons., V Y, w: mgum, yoke; ov\s, ewe. Sometimes a consonant lost in the Latin appears in the English word. Thus, {s)tA-^-, snow ; (h)anser, ^w^^; (s)nervo-, j-;/^r^. Sounds of the Letters. Note. — The pronunciation of Latin is different in different countries. Among us, it usually follows one of two ways, which may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) and the English method. 16. By the Roman (or Phonetic) method, every letter has always the same sound. Note. — A long vowel in our enunciation almost necessarily acquires a slightly different quality from a short one, as in boot and foot, machine and holiest. See also bs below. a as in idea. 6 as ehl (clipped). i as in holiest. 6 as in obey. ii as 00 in foot. Vowels : a as \n father ; e as ehf (prolonged); they; 1 as in machine; 6 as in holy; u as ^6' in boot; y between // and i (German il). Diphthongs: ae like ay; oe like oy; au like ow in now. ei as in eight; eu as eh'oo; ui as oo^ee. c and g are always hard, as in come, get. s is always sharp, as in sea, lips. i cons, is like/ \n young; v (cons, u), like w in wing; Consonants, qu as in English, as in English, ] bs is XiVe ps; ch like k; ph like/, except that : n before s or f was combined with the preceding vowel somewhat as French nasal n, making the vowel long. z as dz in adze. th as in rathole, later as in thin. §§ 16-18.] Quantity and Accent, . i r Note i. — In the ancient pronunciation, ph was distinguished from f by being sounded with the lips only, instead of lip and teeth. Note 2. — In many words (as abietls, tenuis), i and u sometimes had the consonant sound, though usually in such words reckoned as vowels. Note 3. — The diphthong ae was anciently sounded as above, but early in the time of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial use the long sound of e. Note 4. — When two consonants come together (as in condo, postea), or a consonant is doubled (as in annus, uUus, mitto), care should be taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronunciation of consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position {\ 18. d). 17. By the English method, the letters have the same sounds as in English ; but — a. Final a is pronounced as in America] but in the monosyllables 5, da, qua, sta, sometimes as \n pay, e in open syllables as in nie^ in close as in men] i in open syllables as in Hil in close as m pin; o in open syllables as in tone, in close as in not; u as in pii/t or as in /mlt, without any definite rules, as ullus (like gull us), but fuUo (like full oJi) ; y like i. Note. — In this method of pronunciation, syllables are often treated as open or close according to the position of the accent: as, i'-ter (open), it-i'neris (close). b. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like e; au like aw; eu like ew; ei and ui like i in kite; as and (in plural words) 6s at the end of a word as in disease, morose. c. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and/) before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu ; ch is always hard, as in chasm, chemist. Note. — The English method should be retained in Roman names in English, as yulius CcBsar; and in familiar quotations, as e pluribus unum ; viva voce ; vice versa; a fortiori; vern, vidi, vici, etc. Quantity and Accent. 18. Vowels are long or short {as affecting their pro- mmciation) only by nature. Syllables {as affecting accent and metrical value) are long or short, according to their vowel, but are also made long by Position through the obstruction of consonants. The length or shortness in both cases is called Quantity (cf. § 347). Note. — Some of the rules of Quantity affect length by nature only, som^e length by position only, and some both. a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via, nihil. b. A diphthong is long : as in aedSs, foedus. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong: as, exclfldo (ex-claudo). c. A vowel formed by contraction is long : as, nil (nihil). 12 Etymology: Letters and Sounds, [§§18,19. d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants (ex- cept a mute with 1 or r), or a double consonant (x, z), is long by Position ; as in pingo, saxum, Mezentius. Before nf and ns, gn and gm, and i consonant the vowel itself becomes long by nature : as in infero, praesens, magnus, agmen, huius. e. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r is common ; i.e. it may be long in verse : as in alacris, latebrae. /. A vowel before nd, nt is regularly short by nature : as, am^nt. am^dus from am&re. Note. — A vowel is lengthened before i cons, because another i (vowel) is developed as a vanish ; thus &(')yo becomes aio. 19. In Latin the accent in words of more than one syllable is on the Penult or Antepenult. Definition ; The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the last but two. a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first syllable : Ro'ma, ve'ho, i'pse. b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, if that is long: as, ami'cus, praesen'tis ; if it is short or common, on the Antepenult: as, do'mmus, a'lacris, la'tebrae, conti'ntlo, praete'- ritum, dissocia'bilis. Note, — In words of more than four syllables a secondary accent usually arises at a convenient distance from the main accent : as, navig'a"ti5'nibus, pecti"lia'ria. c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dSS'que, SmarS've, tibi'ne, itS.'que (and . . . so), as distinguished from i'taque {therefore). So (according to some) ex'inde, ec'quando, etc. d. Exceptions: i. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the accent of the simple verb: as, benefS'cit, calefS'cit (see § 169. «) (These were not true compounds, but phrases.) 2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius, and the genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nomi- native : as, Cornell, Vergili, inge'ni (see § 40. c) . 3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the complete words : as, illi'c for illi'ce, produ'c for produce, sati'n for sati'sne. Note. — The ancients recognized three accents, acute {'),£^rave (*■ ), and ctr- curnfiex (^), Accent no doubt originally consisted in a change of pitch, — eleva- tion, depression, or both combined, — and not merely in a more forcible utterance (ictus). But in Latin this pitch accent had been supplanted by a stress accent in historical times. 20,21.] Root and Stem, 1 3 Chapter II. — Words and their Forms. Inflection. 20. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, to show its grammatical relations. a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination: as, vox, a voice; vocia, 0/ a voice; voco, I call; vocat, he calls; vooavit, he has called; tangit, he touches ; tetigit, he iotiched. b. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepo- sitions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English ; thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the preposition of ox the like ; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood. c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or mood, and correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng- lish : as, frangit, he breaks or is breaking; fregit, he broke or has broken ; mordet, he bites ; momordit, he bit.^ Root and Stem. 21. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the Stem.^ The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part of a compound, it cannot be used without some termination to express them. Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes v5x, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice. The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a comparison with other forms is necessary to determine it. 1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of Stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections. 2 The name Stem is sometimes incorrectly given to that part of a word — as serv- in servus — which is unchanged in inflection. This maybe called the base. 14 Etymology : Words and their Forms. [§§ 22-24. 22. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same or kindred languages.^ Thus the root of the stem v5c- is voc, which does not mean to call, or /call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With S- it becomes voca-, the stem of vocare {to call) ; with avi- it is the stem of vocavit {he called)', with ato- it becomes the stem of vocStus {called) ; with atlSn- it becomes the stem ot vocationis {of a callmg). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox {a voice z that by which we call). This stem, again, with -Slis added, vcAzxxs, belonging to a voice ; with -iila, a little voice. Note. — In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, whJch at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building, The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning. Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latirt>.but are the representatives of forms used earlier. 23. The Stem is sometimes the same as the root : as in due-is, of a leader^ f er-t, he bears ; but it is more frequently formed from the root — 1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in soob-s, sawdtest (SCAB, shave) ; reg-is, of a ki?tg (reg, direct) ; v6c-is, of a voice (voc, call), 2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in ivi%-^, flight (FUG+a); Imzx-s, you fly (FUG + ya); pango, I fasten (PAG + na). 3. By two or more of these methods : as in diic-it, he leads (DUC + a), tolls, I raise (TUL+ya). 4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See Chap. VIIL) 24. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see § 32). 1 For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit tisthHtni, Greek 'L(jrt]ixi^ Latin sistere and stare, German fie{)en, and English stand. (See Chap. VII I.) §§ 24, 25.] The Parts of Speech. 15 Note. — A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open affix one beginning with a consonant, a close affix. When a close affix is joined to a con- sonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as in rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as in reg-i-bus. But, in most cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, as in voca-mus, reg"i-mus (see § 123). The Parts of Speech. 25. Words are divided into nine Parts of Speech : Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. a. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, Caesar; Roma, Rome', domus, a house; virtus, virtue. Names of persons and places are Proper Nouns; other nouns are called Common. b. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality : as, \toivoL.'&^ good \ fortis, brave., strong. Note. — Etymologically, there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any name can still be used to attribute a quality. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name King. c. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or describing it : as, is, he; qui, who; nos, we. d. A Verb is a word which asserts something: as, sum, I am; amat, he loves. Note. — In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late develop- ment. e. A Participle is a word that attributes a quality like an adjective, but being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, Caesar consul creatus, Ccssar having been elected constd; Caesar Pompeium metuens, Ccssar fearing Pompey. f. Ah Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute : as, spleudide mendSx, gloriously false; hodiS u^tus, bom to-day. Note. — These same functions are often performed by cases (see \\ 148, 149) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use. l6 Etymology : Words and their Forms. [§§ 25-28. g. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun and some other word or words in the same sentence : per agros it, he goes over the fields-^ e pluribus unum, one out of many. Note. — Prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. \ 152). The relations ex- pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by cases. h. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or sen- tences without affecting their relations : as, et, and] sed, but. Note. — Some adverbs also connect vv'ords, etc., like conjunctions. These are called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donee, until. i. Interjections are mere exclamations. They are not strictly to be classed as Parts of Speech : heus, halloo I 6, ohl Note. — They sometimes express an emotion which affects some other things mentioned, and so have a connection like other words : as, vae victis, woe to the conquered! (alas for the conquered ! ) 26. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflections Gi declension^ to denote gender, number, and case. Verbs have inflec- tions of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person. Note. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison to indicate degree. These inflections are, however, properly stem-formations made by deriva- tion (cf. \ 89). 27. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called Parti- cles : these are Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- jections. Note. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an {interrogative), non, ne {negative) ; 61 {conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence. Gender. 28. The genders distinguished in Latin are three : Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. a. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as, ■pviex,boy; puella., girl ; donum, gift. Note. — Many nouns have both a masculine and feminine form to distinguish sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, aoe,* cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror. Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor), usually though not necessarily male, are always treated as masculine. §§ 28, 29.] General Rules of Gender. 17 b. Grammatical gender ^ is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as; lapis magnus (m.), a great stone ; manus mea (f.), my hand. Note. — A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class : as, mancipium \>\x.\xxtx, your slave. Names of classes or bodies of persons may be of any gender : as, exercitus (M.), acies (F.), and agmen (n.), army; operae (F. pi.), workmen; copiae (f. pi.), troops. Many pet names of girls (as Paegnium, Glycirium) are neuter. General Rules of Gender. 29. I. Names of Male beings, Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are masculine. 2. Names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine. Note. — The gender of most of the above may be recognized by their termina- tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as Allia), with the Greek names Lethe and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain. Some names of Mountains take the gender of their termination : as, Alpes (p.), the Alps i Soracte (n.). Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mensis, mojith, being understood : as, lanuarius, January. b. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, Sulmo, Gabii (plur.) ; or neuter, as Tarentum, Illyricum. A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina- tion: as, centaureum(N.),^^«^^//ry,* acanthus (M.),<^^^rj/ as, adip-is, adeps. Most stems in cXp- are compounds of the root CAP (in capio, take) : as, partioip-is, particeps, sharer. In these the stem sometimes has the form cup-: as, aucup-is, auceps,/^^/^^. b. LiNGUALS. — Stems in it- (m. or F.) have e (short) in the nomi- native: as, hospit-is, hospes. The neuter capit-is has caput. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in S.t- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual: as, cord-is, cor; poemat-is, poema. c. Palatals. — Stems in ic- (short i) have the nominative in -ex, with a few exceptions (§ 67. ^), and are chiefly masculine: as, apic-is, apex; indic-is, index. Those in ic- (long i) retain I, and are femi- nine: as, cornlc-is, cornix.2 Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — ing. help{v.) ki?tg{u.). guide (c.).^ soldier {u.) . head (yi.^. Stem op- reg- due- mllit- capit- NoM. [ops]« rex dux miles caput Gen. opis regis ducis militis capitis DAT. opi regi duel militi capiti Ace. opem regem ducem mllitem caput Voc. ops rex dux miles caput Abl. ope rege duce mllite capite Plur. , wealth NOM. opes reges duces milites capita Gen. opum regum ducum mllitum capitum DAT. opibus regibus ducibus multibus capitibus Ace. opes reges duces milites capita Voc. opes reges duces milites capita Abl. opibus regibus ducibus militibus capitibus 1 In these cases e is a less weakened form of the root (} lo. a). A few whose root-vowel is i follow the analogy of the others : as, indic-is, index. 2 In nix, nivis, the nominative retains a palatal lost in the other cases (original stem snig-, compare § 15. and ningit, § 146. a). Supellex (-ectilis) is partly a lingual-, partly an i-stem. Of apparent S-stems in Latin, as (assis) is an i-stem ; and the original stem of OS (ossis) is osti- (cf. ocrrfov and Sanskrit astht). Original s-stems have either (i) passed into r-stems (changed from B {^ 11. a. i)) in most of the cases, as honor, -oris, corpus, -Sris (see ligtHd stems) ; or (2) have broken down into i-stems, as moles (cf. molestus), nttbes (Sanskrit nabhas), sedes (cf. eSos), vis (plur. vires), etc., but vas keeps its proper form in the nominative. 8 Common gender, see { 30. 4 The singular (meaning help) is not used in the nominative, except as the name of a divinity. The dative singular occurs but once. §§ 47, 48.] Third Declension, 27 47. In like manner are declined — princeps, -ipis (c.)> chief i ariSs, -etis (m.), rant'i lapis, -idis (m.), stonei iudex, -icis {m..), Judge; custos, -odis {c), guard; cornix, -icis (f,), raven; comes, -itis (c.), companion', poema, -atis {^.), poem (§ 47.^). a. Many apparent mute-stems,' having the genitive plural in -ium, are to be classed with i-stems (§ 54) . if. Greek neuters (as poema), with nominative singular in -a, frequently end in the dative and ablative plural in -is, and in the gen- itive plural rarely in -orum. c, A few nouns apparent i-stems belong here : canis, or canes, gen. canis (stem orig. can-), dog, 2. Liquid-Stems. 48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (1, n, r), the nominative is the same as the stem, except when modified as follows : — a. Stems in on- (m. and F.) drop n in the nominative : as in leSn-is, leo, lion; legion-is, legio, legion. b. Stems in din- or gin- (mostly feminine) drop n and keep an original 6 in the nominative : as, virgin-is, virgo, maiden. Also a few others: 2 as, homin-is, homo, man; turbin-is, turbo, whirlpool; ApoUin-is, Apollo; carn-is, g^xo^ flesh (see §61); Anien-is, Anio. Most other stems in In- have e and retain n^ as, cornicin-is, cornicen (m.), horn-blower; carmin-is, carmen (n.), song.^ c. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, patr-is, pater, father; m5tr-is, mater, mother.^ d. Many neuter stems in er- and or- (originally s-stems) have -us in the nominative: as, oper-is, opus, work; corpor-is, corpus, body. Some stems in er- have -is : as, ciner-is, cinis, ashes. A few masculine and feminine stems have the nominative in -s as well as -r: as, honor-is, honos (or honor); arb6r-is, arbos (or arbor), tree.* Note. — For some irregular nominatives of this kind, see $ 50. 1 That is, as would appear from the nominative. 2 All these had originally 5 in the stem. 8 These differences are inherited from the parent speech, and depend upon dif- ferent modifications of the same original vowel (^ 10). ^ These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weak- ened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nom, and voc. sing, show the e. But cf. Marspitris and Mftrspiteris (Ma(r)s-piter) 5 See Note a, page 26. 2S Etymology : Declension of Nouns. [§§ 48-50. e. Stems in 11-, rr- (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative as, farr-is, f ax ^ grain; fell-is, ie\,gall. 49. NouPxS of this class are declined as follows : — / ,Sing. consul (m.) . tton (m.). maiden (p.). name{yk.^. K Stem cousul- Ie5n- virgin- noinin- \^OM. consul le5 virgo nomen Gen consulis leonis virginis nominis DAT. c5nsuli leoni virgin! nomini Ace. consulem leonem virginem nomen Voc. consu^ _ka_ ,_ virgo - - — nonfen Abl. consule leone virgine nomine Plur. NOM. consules leones virgines nomina Gen. consulum leonum virginum nominum DAT. consulibus lednibus virginibus no minibus Ace. consules le5nes virgines nomina Voc. consulgs leones virgines nomina Abl. consulibus leonibus virginibus nominibus Sing. body (n.). race (n.). ivory (n.). plain (n.). St. corpo •r-, orlg. corpos- gener- orig. geneos- ebor- * aequor- NOM. corpus genus ebur aequor Gen. corporis generis eboris aequoris DAT. corpori generi ebori aequori Ace. corpus genus ebur aequor Voc. corpus corpore fifenus ebur aequor aequore Abl. genere ebore Plur. NOM. corpora genera ebora aequora Gen. corporum generum eborum aequorum DAT. corporibus generibus eboribus aequoribus Ace. corpora genera ebora aequora Voc. corpora genera ebora _ .--aequera Abl. corporibus generibus eboribus aequoribus 50. In like manner are declined — pater, patris {u.), father ; arbor (-os), -oris (p.), tree. furfur , -uris (m.), bran ; honor C-os), -oris (m.), honor. opus, -eris (n.), work ; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge. 1 A foreign word forced into the analogy of the r- (s-) stems. 50-52.] Third Declension. 29 The following apparently liquid stems have the genitive plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems : imber, linter, uter, venter; fur, glis, lar, mSs, mus, [fren] ; also vires (pi. from vis: see § 61). 3. Vo^wrel-Stems. 51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i- (as turris, stem turri- ; mare, stem mari-). The nominative, except in neuters, is formed by adding -s to the stem. a. Thirty-five nouns change i to e in the nominative,^ and many others vary between i and e : as, cIvSs or civis, citizen ; canes or canis. d. The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add -s, but loses i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter (§ 54, and cf. ager). c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the change of i to 8 (as in mare). But when i was preceded by al or ar, the e was lost, as in animal (§ 53. c).^ . y52. Nouns of this class are decHn^ ed as folk >ws :- )(81ng. thirst {b:). tower (¥.). cloud {¥.). j-^^/(n.). animal (n.). ( ^ Stem siti- turri- nubi- sedHi- animSli- NOM. sitis turris nubes sedile animal Gen. sitis turris nubis sedllis animalis DAT. siti turri nubi sedlll animali Ace. sitim turrem (im ) nubem sedlle animal Voc. sitis turris nubes sedlle animal Abl. siti turre (1) nube sedlll animali Plur. NOM. turres nubes sedTlia animalia Gen. turrium nubium sedilium animalium DAT. turribus nubibus sedllibus animalibus Ace. turris (gs) nubis (Ss) sedilia animalia Voc. turres niibSs sedilia animalia Abl. turribus nubibus sedllibus animalibus 1 These are acinaces, aedes, alces, caedes, cautes, clades, compag-es, contages, fames, feles, fides (p].), indoles, labes, lues, meles, moles, nubes, palumbes, proles, prSpages, pubes, sedes, saepes, sordes, strages, strues, suboles, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, vepres, verres, vulpes (aedes has also nom. aedis). 2 p:xcept in augurale, collare, focale, mare, navale, penetrale, scutaie, tibiaie ; alveare, capiliare, cochleare. 30 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 53, 54. 53. Nouns of this class include : — a. Nouns of the third declension in -es or -is (mostly feminine) or •e (neuter) having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive {parisyllabk). b. Those in -er, except pater, mSLter, frater, acoipiter. c. Neuters in -al, -ar (originally neuters of adjectives in -alls, -aris) which have lost a final -e.^ 54. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems were originally i-stems.^ These are — 1. Monosyllables with stem apparently ending in two consonants: as, urbs, xuons (gen. mentis), nox (gen. noctis), arx; together with imber, linter, uter, venter (§ 51. ^). 2. Stems in tat- (as civitas, -atis),^ or in d or t preceded by a consonant (including participles used as nouns) ; also the monosyllables dos, [ffaux], fur, glls, lis, mas, mus, nix, [frSn], strix, vis, scrobs (cf § 50). 3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, originally adjectives : as, Arpinas, -atis (§ 164. c), with penates and optimates (§ 76. 2). They are thus declined : — Sing. city{F.). night (y.). age(y.y "S^ Stem urbi- N^M. urbs Gen. urbis DAT. urbi Ace. urbem Voc. urbs Abl. urbe mouse ( M.) . shower (m. ) . nocti- aetati- muri- imbri- nox aetas mus imber noctis aetatis muris imbris nocti aetati mQri imbri noctem aetatem murem imbrem nox aetas mus imber nocte aetate mure imbre (1) ^ These are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal, puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear, lucar, luminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular ; with the plurals dentalia, frontalia, genualia, ramalia, sponsaha ; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria ; also many names of festivals as Saturnalia. 2 The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them. The nominative plural (-is) was most thoroughly lost, next the ac- cusative form (-im) , next the ablative (-1) ; while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were retained in almost all. 3 These, however, more commonly have the genitive plural in -um. §§ 54-57.] Third Declension. 31 Plur. NdM. urbes noctes aetat§s mures imbrgs Gen. urbium noctium aetatum (ium) murium imbrium DAT. urbibus noctibus aetatibus muribus imbribus Ace. urbis (es) noctis (es) aetatis (es) muris (es) imbris (es) Voc. urbes noctes aetates mures imbres Abl. urbibus noctibus aetatibus muribus imbribus Note. — The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in no respect from that of consonant-stems, and in the plural in no respect from that of vowel-stems. 55. Vowel-Stems show the i of the stem in the follow- ing forms : — a. They all have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 59. b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia. c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is regularly -Is. d. The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (§ 56). e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in -i (see § 57). 56. The regular case-ending of the accusative singular of i-stems (m. or f.) would be -im : as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, -am ; servos, -om) ; but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the consonant declension). a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively — 1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers. 2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis. 3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as partim ; and in amussim. b. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turris, seciiris, sementis, and rarely in many other words. 57. The regular form of the ablative singular of i-stems would be -1: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed to -e. a. The ablative in -I is found exclusively — 1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 56) ; also securis. 2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, annalis, aqualis, consularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris . tribulis. 3. In neuters (whose nominative ends in -e, -al, -ar) : except baccar, iubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rSte. 32 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. [§§ 57-60. b. The ablative in -i is found sometimes — 1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, Ignis,i imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris. 2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, canalis, familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridSns, triremis, vocalis. c. The ablative of fames is always fame (§ 78. i. ^). The defec- tive mane has sometimes locative mani (§ 'j'j . 2. e) used as ablative. d. Most names of towns in -e, — as Praeneste, Tergeste, — and Soracte, a mountain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete. e. For canis. see § 47. ^. 58. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems would be -is, but this is very rarely found in nouns. The regular Accusative -is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is -6is (diphthong). 59. The following have -um (not -ium) in the Genitive plural: canis, iuvenis (originally consonant-stems); ambages, mare (once only, otherwise wanting), volucris; also (sometimes) apis, caedes, clades, mensis, sedes, strues, suboles, vates, and (very rarely) patrials in -as, -atis ; -is, -itis ; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum ; Samnis, Samnitum. 4. Irregular Nouns. 60. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nominative or other cases. Thus — a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, add -s in the nominative, and are in- flected like mute-stems : grus has also a nominative gruis ; sus has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural. b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative (bos, b6vis). In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, -is). In I6v- (=:r Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes xl in lu-piter (for , -pSter), gen. I6vis, etc. c. In iter, itineris (n.), iecur^ iecinoris (n.), supellex, supellec- tilis (f.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem, in aenex, senis from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of two distinct forms. The shorter form is found in the genitive ieoor-is. d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (n.) (pi. vasa, -orum) (see p. 26, foot-note 2), retains its proper form in the nomi- native (see § 48. ^). 1 Always in the formula aqua et igrm interdici {\ 243. a). 61-63.] Third Declension. 33 61. Some peculiar forms are thus declined : — Sing, ox^ coTvic). oldrnan {u.)./lesk (f.). botie (n.). ^ce (f.). swine (c). N., V. bos senex car 6 OS ^ sus Gen. bovis senis carnis ossis vis (rare) suis DAT. bovi seni carni OSSl vl (rare) SUl Ace. bovem senem carnem OS vim suem Abl. bove sene carne esse VI sue Plur. cattle strength N.,A.,V. . boves senes carnes ossa vires sues Gen. bourn senum carnium ossium vTrium suum D., Abl. b5bus (bubus) senibus carnibus ossibus vTribus subus (suibus) 5. Case Forms. 62. The Locative form for nouns of the third declen- sion ends in the singular in -I or -e : as, ruri, in the country ; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage ; in the plural in -ibus : as, Trallibus, at Tralles. Note. — The Locative singular in -e appears to .have been first used in poetry. a. An old ablative is found ending in -d : as, conventionid, dicta- tdred (cf. praedad, § 36./; Gnaivod, § 40.^; magistrattid, § 70. k). 6. Greek Forms. 63. Many nouns originally/ Greek — mostly propei names — retain Greek forms of Inflection. a. Stems in In- (i long) : delpUTnus, -1 (m.), has also the form delphin, -inis ; Salamis, -is (P.), has ace. Salamina. b. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as, tigris, -idis (-idos) or -is ; ace. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in) ; abl. -ide or -T. But many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. -idem (-ida), abl. -ide, — not -im or -1. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.) c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative : as, Agamem- non (or Agamemno), -6nis, accusative -6na. d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in -6n: as, horizon, Xenophon ; but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. -6) : as, Draco, •onis. e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have the nom. in -5s, -is : as adamas, -antis ; Simois, -entis. So a few in unt- (contracted from cent-) have -us : as, Trapezus, -ilntis. Occasionally the Latin form of nominative is also found : as, Atlftns, elephtns, as well as Atlas, elephts. 34 Etymology : Declension of Noims. [§§ 63-65. f. Many Greek nouns (especially in the poets) have gen- -8s, ace. -S; plur. nom. -6s, ace. -Ss: as, aer, aether, crater, heros (-ois), lampas (-Xdis or -Sdos), lynx (-cis or -c6s), nais (-idos), Orpheus (-eos : see §43). g. A few in -ys have ace. -yn, voc. -y, abl. -ye : as, chelys, -yn, -y ; Capys, -yos, -yi, -yn, -y, -ye. h. Several feminine names in -6 have gen. sing, -us, all the other cases ending in -6 ; they may also have regular forms : as, Dido, gen. Didouis or Didus ; dat. Didoni or Dido, etc. i. Several Greek forms are irregularly retained in the vocative : as, Panthus, voc. Panthu ; Orpheus, Orpheu ; Atlas, Atla ; Daphnis, Daphni ; Pericles, Pericle (cf. § 43). 64. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : — basi- basis baseos basi basin basI Sing. heroiM..). torch (¥.). Stem hero- lampad- N., V. heros Gen. herois Dat. heroi Ace. heroa Abl. heroe Plur. N., V. heroSs Gen. heroum lampas lampados lampadi lampada lampade tiger {c). naiad {Y.yiyreiy.). tigrid- (tigri-) naid- cliely- tigris nais chelys tigris (idos) naidos . • tigri naidi • tigrin(ida) naida chelyn tigri (ide) naide (V. chely) bases lampadSs lampadum D., A.^ heroibus lampadibus basibus Ace. heroes lampadSs basis (eis) tisrres basium (eon) tigrium tigribus naidSs naidum naidibus tigris (idSs) naidSs PROPER NAMES. NOM. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Atlas Atlantis Atlanti Atlanta Atlas (a) DTdo Didonis (lis) Didoni (6) Didonem (6) Did5 Simois Simoentis Simoenti Simoenta SimoTs Capys Capyos Capyi Capyn Capy Daphnis Daphnidis Daphnidi Daphnim (in) Daphnt Abl. Atlante Didone (6) Simoente Capye Daphni Note. — The regular Latin forms can be used for most of the above. ,7. Rules of Gender. 65. The following are general Rules for the Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to the termination of the nomiriative. 1 Dative, heroisin (once only) . §§ 65, 66.] Third Declension. 35 a. Masculine endings are -6, -or, -6s, -er, -6s (gen. -idis, -itis). b. Feminine endings are -as (gen. -atis), -es (gen. -is), -is, -ys, -x, -s (following a consonant) ; also, -do, -go, (gen. -inis), -io (abstract and collective), and -us (gen. -udis, -utis). c. Neuter endings are -a, -e, -i, -y ; -c, -1, -t ; -men (gen. -minis) ; -ar, -ur, -tis (gen. -eris, -oris). 66. The following are general Rules for the Gender of nouns of the third declension, c\2i's>^^^ according to their stems. a. Vowel-Stems. — Stems in i-, having -s in the nominative, are Feminine, except those mentioned below (§ 67. a). Those having •6 in the nominative and those in -al and -ar (which have dropped the -e) are neuter. b. Liquid-Stems. — Stems in 1- are Masculine, except sil, fel, mel, and sometimes sal (n.). Those in min- are Neuter, except homo, n§m6, flamen (m.). Others in in- are masculine, except pollen, unguen (n.). Those in en- are masculine. Those in din-, gin-, ion-, abstract and collective nouns, are femmine. Others in on-, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, seni5, quaternio, are masculine. Those in r- preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except about 30 given below (§ 67. b). Those in r- preceded by a long vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus (f.) ; crus, ius, pus, rus, tus (thus) (n.), in which the long vowel is due to contraction. c. Labial Stems (no neuters). — Stems in b- and m- are Feminine, except chalybs. Stems in p- are chiefly masculine (exceptions below, § 67. c), d. Lingual Stems. — Stems in Sd-, 6d-, id-, ad-, aud-, nd-, are Femmine, except dromas, vas (vadis), pgs, quadrupes, obses, praeses, lapis (m.). Those in at-, ut-, are feminine, except patrials (as Arpinas), and the masc. plur. penates and optimates. Those in ed-, et-, are masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds (f.). Those in 6t-, it-, are masculine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (f.), and those which are common by signification. Those in at- are neuter; those in nt- various (see list, § (^y. d)\ those in It-, rt-, feminine. (For a few isolated forms, see list, § 67.) e. Palatal Stems. — Stems in c- preceded by a consonant or long vowel are Feminine, except calx, deounx, phoenix, storax, vervex (m.). Those in c- preceded by a short vowel are chiefly masculine (for exceptions, see list, § 67. ^) ; those in g-, masculine, except [ffrux], lex, phalanx, syrinx ; also nix (nivis) (f.). 36 Etymology : Decle^ision of Nouns. [§ 67. 67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems : a. VOWEL-STEMS. -es, -is : about 35 nouns (see list, § 51. «), feminine, except tudes, vdtes, V err is, m. •IS, -is : about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine, 2isfelis, pellzs. Exc. — aedilis, atnuis, anguis, c, anndlis, antes (pl.)> assis, axis, bilris, callis, c, candlis, C, canis, c, cassis, caulis, ctvis, c, clfinis, C, collis, crtjtis, c, ensis, fascis, finis, C..,follis, funis, c.,fustis, hostis, c, ignis, iuvenis, c, lactes (pi.)? C., lares (pl.)» »idnes (pi.), mensis, jnoldris, ndtalis, orbis^ pdnis, pedis, c, piscis, postis, sentis, c, soddlis, testis, c, torris, unguis, vectis, vepres (pi.)? c, vermis, M. [Those marked c. are sometimes feminine ; the rest are masculine.] -g, -is : upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter, as mare, ciibile. -ai, -alis ; -Sr, -aris : 24 neuter, with several used only in the plural, as animal, Sdturtidlia (see list, § 53. ^; for those in -Sr, -Sris, see Liquid Stems). -6r, -ris: itnber, linter, Uter, venter, — all m. except linter, which is commonly f. ' [For other apparently consonant stems, see below.] Peculiar. — griis, gruis, f. ; rhfls, rhois (ace. rhum'), m. ; siis, suis, c, herds, herois, M. ; 7nisy, -yos, f. ; oxys, -yos, f. ; cimtabarT, gumtmi, sindpi, N. (indecl.) ; chelys, -yn, -y, f. ; bos, bovis, c. b. liquid-stems. •1, -lis : 9 nouns, masculine, as consul, sol, except sll, and (sometimes) sal, N. -en, -enis : Ijren^, splen, m. en, -6nis : Hymen, M. en, -inis : 10 nouns, M., as tibicen; except pollen, unguen, gliiten, sanguen, n. -mSn, -minis (verbal), as dgmen ; about 60 nouns, n. ; hvXfldmen, m. -on, -6nis (Greek) : canon, daejnon, gnomon, m. ; aedon, alcydn, ancon, sindon, F. -6, -onis: about 70 nouns, all masculine, as sermo; with many family names, as Cicero. -io, -ionis (material objects, etc.), 2iS pugio: about 30 nouns, masculine. -io, -ionis (abstract and collective), as legio, regid : upwards of 180. feminine, including many rare verbal abstracts. -6, -inis : homo, turbo, nemo, Apollo, m. § 67.] Third Declension. 37 -do, -dinis : nearly 50 nouns, as grando, feminine except car do, ordo, M. -go, -ginis : about 40 nouns, as compago, feminine ; with margo, m. or f. -Sr, -3jris : baccar, iubar^ nectar, N. ; lar, salar, M. -gr, -ris : accipiter, frdter, pater, m. , fndter, f. -er, -eris (mostly Greek) : crater, halter, prester, m., ver, N. -er, -gris : der, aether, M. -fer, -gris : acipettser, agger, dnser, asser, aster, cancer, career, later, passer, vesper, vomer, m. ; innlier, f. ; acer, cadaver, cicer, laver, papdver, piper, slier, siser, suber, tuber, tuber, fiber, verber, N. -es, -gris : Ceres, F. -is, -Sris : cinis, cucufnis, ptdvis, vomis, M. -6r (-6s), -oris : nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the Agent, formed upon verb-stems), as favor, ordtor, all m. except soror, uxor, F. -6r, -6ris : castor, rhetor, m. ; arbor, f. ; ador, aequor, 7nar?nor, n. -OS, -oris : fids, mos, ros, M. ; glos, F. ; os, N. -ur, -uris : fftr, C. -iir, -tlris : 9 masculine, as vultur ; w'whfulgur, gutttcr, murmur, sid- fur, N. -iir, -6ris : ebur, femur, iecur, robur {^-us^, n. -lis, -6ris : 20 neuter, 2isgeftu5; also, Venus, f. -iis, -6ris : 14 nouns, as pectus, neuter, except lepus, M. -us, -uris : mus, m. ; telliis, F. ; crfis, ills, pus, riis, tils (thus) N. Peculiar. — Anio, -ienis ; deiphln, -inis ; sanguis (-en), -inis ; senex, senis, m. ; card, carnis, F. ; aes, aeris ; far, f arris ; fel, fellis; mel, mellis; iter, itineris; iecur, iecinoris (iecoris), n. ; glis, gllris, M. C. LABIAL. -bs, -bis : chalybs, M. ; piebs, trabs, urbs, F. ; scobs, scrobs, c.^ -ms, -mis : hiems (often written hiemps), F. -ps, -pis : 15 nouns, masculine, 2iS prtnceps ; except \_-\ daps'], merops, ops, slips, F. ; forceps, stirps,'^ c. d. LINGUAL. -Ss, -S.dis (mostly Greek): 14 nouns, feminine, as latnpas ; except dromas, vas, M. -es, -edis : ciipes, hires, M. ; jnerces, F. ; also, praes, praedis. -es, -gdis : pes, quadrupes, M. ; compes, f, -6s, -idis : obses, praeses, c. 1 These five were originally i-stems. 2 Originally i-stem. 38 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. [§ 67. -is, -idis : nearly 40 nouns (mostly Greek), as cassis, aegis, f. ; lapis, M. -OS, -odis : ciistos, c. -OS, -Otis : nepos, m. ; cos, dos, f. ; sacerdos, c. -us, -iidis : incus, palus, subsciis ; ^\\kifraus, laus, peciis {-lidis^, F. -a, -3.tis (Greek) : nearly 20 nouns, neuter, as poeina. -as, -atis : about 20 (besides derivatives), m., satids, f. ; also, anas {-dtis), c. -es, -etis : celes, lebes, mdgnes, m. ; quies, requies, inquies, F. -es, -Stis : aries, paries, M. ; abies, F. -gs, -gtis : seges, teges, F, ; interpres, c. -6s, -itis : about 20, masculine or common, as stipes, hospes. -us, -utis : iuvetitils, salfis, senectus, servitiis, virtus, F. -ns, -ndis : frons, gldns, iiigldns, F. -ns, -ntis : nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns) , com- mon, as Infdns ; dens, fons, mons, pons, m. ; frons, gens, lens, y mens, F. -rs, -rtis (originally i-stems) : ars, pars, cohors, fors, Mars, mors, sors, F, -ys, -ydis ; -s, -ntis (Greek) : chlamys, F. ; Atlds, -antis, M. Peculiar. — ds, assis, m. ; Us, litis ; nox, noctis ; puis, pultis, F. ; caput, -itis ; cor, cordis ; hepar, -atis ; ds, ossis ; vds, vdsis, n. ; also, compounds of -pus, -pddis, m., (foot), as triptls; Idc, lactis, n. e. PALATAL. -ax, -3.ois : anthrax, corax, fraces (pi.), panax, scolopax, u.', fax, styrax {storax), F. -ax, -acis : cnoddx, corddx, Umax, thorax, M. ; pdx, F. -ex, -ecis : dlex, M. or F. ; verve x^ m. -ex, -icis : upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, as apex, vertex, except cdrex, forfex, ilex, imbrex, nex {necis), pellex, f. {ijnbrex2i\'AO m.) -ix, -Icis : appendix, coxendix, filix, fornix, larix, salix, struix, vdrix, F. -IX, -icis : about 30 nouns, feminine, as cervix, radix', besides many in -trix, regular feminines of nouns of agency in -tor (§ 162. ^). -ox, -ocis : celox, vox, f. -ux, -iicis : dux, c. ; crux, 7iux, F. -ux, -ucis : balux, liix, f. -X, -cis : arx, calx,falx, lynx, merx (def.), F. ; calx, calyx, m. -X, -gis: coniux {-nx), grex, remex (gen. -igis), rex, m. ore; \^\friix'\ (def.), lex, phalanx, F. ; with a few rare names of animals. Other nouns in -x are nix, nivis ; nox, noctis; supellex, -ectilis, f. ; onyx, -ychis, M. and f. ; Styx, Sty gis, f. j^ 68-70.] Fourth Decleiisio7t. 39 FOURTH DECLENSION. 68. The Stem of nouns of the F'ourth Declension ends in U-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Mascu- line and feminine nouns form the nominative by adding -s ; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with u (long). Nouns of the fourth declension are declined as follows : — r hand (p.). lake{^.y knee (n.). Sing. Stem niaiixi- lacu- genu- NOM. manus lacus genu Gen. manus lacus genu (us) DAT. manui (u) lacui (u) genu Ace. manum lacum genu Voc. manus <- lacus genu Abl. manu lacu genu Plur. NOM. manus lacus genua Gen. manuum lacuum genuum DAT. manibus lacubus genibus Ace. manus lacus genua Voc. manus lacus genua Abl. manibus lacubus genibus Note. — The fourth declension is only a modified form of the third. The rela- tion is seen in the following parallel forms, unc^tracted (of the third) and con- tracted (of the fourth). manus manuiis (us) fmanuis (us) manul (u) manum manus fmanue (u) manuum (um) manubus (ibus) fmanues (us) fmanues (us) manubus (ibus) 69. Gender. — a. Most nouns in -us are Masculine. The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (pi.), manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatrus (ph), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus. b. The only neuters are cornu, genu, pecu (§78. i. ^), veru. 70. Case-Forms. — a. The uncontracted form -uis (sometimes -uos) is sometimes found in the genitive, as senatuos ; and an old (irregular) genitive in -1 is used by some writers : as, ornati, senati. 40 Etymology: Declenston of Nouns. [§§ 70-72. b. The nominative plural has rarely the form -uus. c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into -um. d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural in -libus : artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru ; also dissyllables in -cus : ag^; lacus (but sometimes portibus, veribus). e. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension. /. Domus, house., has (either originally, or by mistake) two stems end- ing in u- and o- (cf. gen. in -i, § 70. «), and is declined as follows:^ — SINGULAR. PLURAL. NOM. domus domus Gen. domus (domi. loc.) domuurai (domorum) DAT. domul (domo) domibus Ace. domum domos (domus) Voc. domus domus Abl. domo (domu) domibus g. The only locative form of the fourth declension is domui. But even this is rare, and domi is almost universally used instead. h. An old form of the ablative ends in -d : as, magistratud (cf. § 62. a). 71. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (cf. § 163. b) : as, cantus, songy can, cano, sing^ casus (for cad-tus), chance, cad, cado, fall\ exsulatus, eMle, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul). Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy : as, consulatus (as if from fconsulo, -are), senatus, inoestus. a. The Supines of verbs (§ 109. ^) are the accusative and ablative (or dative, perhaps both) of derivatives in -tus (-sus) : as, auditum, memoratu. b. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : as, iussu (meo), by {my^ command; so iniussu (populi), without (the people's) order. Of some only the dative : as, memoratui, divisul. FIFTH DECLENSION. 72. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e-, which appears in all the cases. The nominative is formed from the stem by adding -s. I The forms in parenthesis are less common. But the form domi is regulaf as locative, though genitive in Plautus ; domorum is poetic. 72-74.] Fifth Declension. 41 These nouns are thus declined* — ^ SING. thing (F.) PLUR. L^NG. day (M.) PLUR. faith (F.) ^ Stem re- ^ 7 die- fide- ^ fOM. res res ' dies dies fides c Ien. r6i rerum die! (die) dierum fidgi DAT. r6i rebus diei(die) diebus fidgl Acc. reir res diem dies fidem Voc. res res dies dies fides / LBL. re rSbus dig diSbus fide Note. — The e has been shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. 73. Gender. — All nouns of this declension are feminine, except dies (usually m.), day^ and meridiSs (m.), noon. Digs is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general : as, longa digs, a long time; constituta dig, on a set day; also in the poets: as, pulohra digs, a/ine day. 74. Case-Forms. — a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in -gs (cf. -5s of first declension, § 36. b). The genitive ending -gi was sometimes contracted into -ei, -i, or -g : as, dil (^n. i. 636), and the phrases plgbi-scitum, tribunus plgbei. An old Dative in -i or -€ also is mentioned by grammarians. b. The fifth declension is only a variety of the first, and several nouns have forms of both : as, materia, -igs ; saevitia, -igs.'' The genitive and dative in -gi are rarely found in these words. c. The Locative form of this declension ends in -g (cf. dative -g under a'). It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time : as, hodig (for hoi-dig, cf. huic), to-day ; perendig, day after to-mor- row i dig quarto (old, quartl), the fourth days pridig, the day before. d. Of nouns of the fifth declension, digs and rgs only are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative and accusative in the following: acigs, effigies, eluvigs, facies, glacigs, serigs, species, spea.^ 1 Nouns in -iSs (except dies) are original R-stems. The others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles (cf. moles-tus) ; dies, cf. diumus; spes (cf sper5). Some vary between the fifth and the third declen- sion : as, requiSs, satles (satiS-s, gen. -fttis), plibes (plebs, plebis), fame (fames, gen. -is). 2 The forms facierum, specierum, speciebua, spSrum, spgbfis, are cited by grammarians, also speres, speribus. 42 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. [§§ 75, 76. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 75. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only {slngtddria tanttmi). These are — 1 . Most proper names ; as, Caesar, CcBsar , Gallia, Gatil. 2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold'^ aer, air; triticum, wheat. 3. Abstract nouns : as, ambitio, ambition ; fortitude, courage ; calor, /leat. But many of these are used in the plural in some other sense. Thus — a. A proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common: as, duodecim Caesares, //te twelve CcBsars^ Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Trans- alpine) ; CastSrSs, Castor and Pollux \ lo^^^^ images of Jupiter. b. Particular objects may be denoted : as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snowfakesi or different kinds of a thing : as, acres, airs (good and bad). c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like : as, quaedam excellentiae, so?ne cases of superi- ority ; otia, periods of rest i oalores, frigora, times of heat and cold. 76. Some nouns are commonly found only in the Plural {plurdlia tantum (cf. § 79. c)). Such are — 1. Many proper names: as, Athenae, Athens, Thurii, Philippi, Veil, names of towns, Adelphoe {The Adelphi), the name of a play; but especially names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic Games ,° Bacchanalia, feast of Bacchus ; Quinquatrus, festival of Minerva ; ludi RomanT, the Roman Games. 2. Names of classes: as, optimates, the upper classes \ maiorSs, ancestors] liberi, children ; penates, household gods. 3. Words plural by signification : 2i%, ^rva.^^ weapons -, axtvLs, joints ; &VTiti3.e, riches i scalae, stairs ; -val-vsLe, folding-doors ; foies, double- doors. These often have a corresponding singular in some form or other, as noun or adjective. a. As noun, to denote a single object : as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to Bacchus ; optimas, an aristocrat. b. As adjective: as, Cat5 Maior, Cato the Elder. c. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin : as, scala, a ladder ; valva, a door ; artus, a joint. § 77.] Defective Nouns. 43 77. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : — • 1. Indeclinable nouns: fas, nefas, instar, necesse, nihil, opus {need), secus. 2. Nouns found in one case only {tnonoptotes) : as. — a. In the nom. sing, glos, f. b. In the gen. sing, diois, naucT, N. c. In the dat. sing. memoratuT, m. (cf. § 71. 3). d. In the ace. sing, amussim, m. e. In the abl. sing, pondo, N. ; mane, n. (Both also treated as indeclinable nouns. Of mane an old locative form man! is found.) iussu, iniussu, m. (§ 71. ^). /". In the ace. plur. infitias, suppetias. 3. Nouns found in two cases only {diptotes). a. In the nom. and abl. sing, fors, forte, F. ; astus, astu, m. b. In the gen. and abl. sing, spontis, sponte, p. c. In the dat. and ace. sing, venui (veno in Tac), vSnum, m. d. In the ace. sing, and plur. dioam, dicSs, f. ^. In the ace. and abl. plur. foras, foris, f. (cf. forSs). 4. Nouns found in three cases only {triptotes). a. In the nom., ace., and abl. sing, impetus, -um, -u (m.) ; lues, -em, -e (f.). b. In the nom., ace, and dat. or abl. plur. grates, -ibus (f.). c. In the nom., gen., and dat. or abl. plur. iugera, -um, -ibus (n., but iugerum, etc., in the sing., cf. § 78. i.b). 5. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular. a. Nouns found in the sing., in gen., dat., ace., abl. : dicionis, •1, -em, -e (f.) ; frugis, -1, -em, -e (f.) ; opis, -i (once only), -em, -e (f., nom. as a divinity, see § 46). b. Nouns found in the dat., ace., abl. : preoi, -em, -e (f.). c. Nouns found in the ace. and abl. : cassem, -e (f.) ; sordem, -e (F.). d. Nouns found in the abl. only : ambage (f.) ; fauce (p.) ; obice (c, nom. obex rare). 6. Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural. a. ius and rus have only iura, rura. b. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lux, nex, 6s, p5x, pix, praes, ros, sal, sol, tus (thus), vas, want the genitive plural. c. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (see § 74. d). 44 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. [§§ 77, 78. 7. Nouns defective in both singular and plural. a. Nouns found in the nom., ace. sing. ; nom., ace, abl. plur. : sentis, -em ; -es, -ibus. b. Nouns found in the gen., ace, abl. sing. ; nom., ace, dat., abl. plur. : vicis, -em, -e ; -es, -ibus. c. Nouns found in the gen., dat., ace, and abl. sing. ; gen. plur. wanting : dapis, -i, -em, -e. VARIABLE NOUNS. 78. Many nouns vary either in Declension or Gender. 1. In Declension {heteroclites, ftomina abundantid). a. colus (f.), distaff \ domus (p.), house (see § 70./"), and many names of plants in -us, vary betvi^een the second and fourth declensions. b. Some nouns vary between the second and third : as, iugerum., -1, abl. -e, plur. -a, -um, etc. ; Mulciber, gen. -beri and -beris ; seques- ter, gen. -tri and -tris ; vas, vasis, and vasum, -1. c. Some vary between the second, third, and fourth : penus, penum, gen. -1 and -oris, abl. penu. d. Many nouns vary between the first and the fifth (see § 74. b'). e. requies has gen. -etis, dat. wanting, ace -etem or -em ; fames has abl. fame (§ ^"j. c) ; pubes (pubis, puber) (m.) has -eris, -em, -e ; pecus has peooris, etc., but also nom. pecu, dat. pecui; pi, pecua, pecuum, pecubus. y. Many vary between different stems of the same declension : femur (n.), gen. -oris, also -inis (as from f femen); ieour (n.), gen. ieoiuoris, iocinoris, ieooris ; munus (n.), pi. munera and munia. 2. In Gender (Jteterogeneous nouns). a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um : balteus, caseus, clipeus, coUum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many others of rare occurrence. b. The following have in the plural a different gender from the singular: balneum (n.), bath\ balneae (f.), baths (an establishment), caelum (n.), heaven \ caelos (m. ace). carbasus (p.), a sail; carbasa (n.), sails (-orum). delicium {^.'), pleasure; deliciae (y.), pet. epulum (ja.), feast; epulae (f.), feast. frenum (n.), a bit; freni (m.) or frena (n.), a bridle. iocus (m.), a jest; ioca (n.), ioci (m.). rastrum (n.), a rake; rastri (m.), rastra (n.). locus (m.), place; Ioca (n.), loci (m., usually topics^ spots'). §^d.] Variable Nouns. 45 [For § 79. a, b (old edition) see § 78. 2. a, b.'\ 79 [79. c in old edition]. Many nouns have irregu- larities of Number either in their ordinary or occasional use. a. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the Singular or Plural: as, — aedes, -is (p.), temple x aqua (p.), water', auxilium (n.), help ; bonum (n.), a good; career (m.), dungeon ; castrum (u.),/ort; codicillus (m.), dlt of wood; aedes, -ium, house. aquae, a watering-place. auxilia, auxilia?'ies. bona, property. carceres, barriers (of race-course). oastra, camp. codicilli, tablets. comitium (n.), place of assembly ; comitia, an election {town-meeting^ copia (f.), plenty ; fides (p.), harp-string; fluis (m.), ejtd; f ortuna (p. ) , foj'tune ; gratia (f.), favor (rarely, thanks) hortus (m.), a garden; impedimentum (k.), hinder attce ; impedimenta, baggage. littera (p.), letter (of alphabet) ; litterae, epistle. locus (m.), place [pi. loca (n.)] ; copiae, troops. fides, lyre. fin§s, bounds, territories. fortunae, possessions. gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces). horti, pleasure-grounds. ludus (m.), sport; natalis (m.), birthday; opera (p.), work; [ops] opis (p.), help (§ 46) ; pars (p.), a part; pl^ga (p.), region ; rostrum (n.), beak of a ship; sal (m. or n.), salt; loci, topics. (In early writers the regular plur.) lildi, public games, natales, descent. operae, day-laborers ("hands"). opes, resources^ wealth. partes, part (on the stage), party. pl&gae, snares. rostra, speaker'^s platform. salSs, witticisms. tabellae, documents., records. tabella (p.), tablet; b. The singular of a noun usually denoting an individual is some- times used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus'M^ Carthagini- ans; miles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry, c. Of many nouns the plural is usually, though not exclusively, used (cf. § ^(i) : as, cervicgs, the neck; Quirites, Romans; vibgqx9^ flesh ; faucSs, throat. 46 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. [§§ 79, 80. d. The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion : as, ora (for 6s), the face', sceptra (for sceptrum), sceptre ,• silentia (for silentium), silence (cf. ^T^- c). PROPER NAMES. 80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting the person, the gens, and the family. a. Thus, in the name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have Marcus, the prcenomen, or personal name (like a Christian or given name) ; Tullius, the nometi (properly an adjective), i.e. the name of the gens. or house, whose original head was a (real or supposed) Tullus ; Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. Note. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cognomen is usually put in the plural : as, Ptlblius et Servius SuUae. b. A fourth or fifth name ^ was sometimes given. Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius CornSlius ScipiS Africa- nus Aemilianus Africanus, from his exploits in Africa ; Aemilia- nus, as adopted from the .^milian gens. c. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nomejt of their gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter TuUia. A younger daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, and so on. d. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : — A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. App. Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. C. (G.) Gaius {Caius) (cf. § 6). M'. Manius. Sex. Sextus. Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus {Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. D. Decimus. N. Numerius. T. Titus. K. Kaeso {Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. Tiberius. e. A feminine praenomen is sometimes abbreviated with an inverted letter : as, o for Gaia {Caid). 1 The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, but later grammarians invented the word agruomeu to express them. 81.] Inflection of Adjectives. 47 Chapter IV. — Adjectives, INFLECTION. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and correspond with their nouns in gender, number, and case. They are (i) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension.^ 1. First and Second Declensions. 81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (a- and o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, in the Feminine like stella, and in the Neuter like bellum ; as, — SINGULAR. bonus, , good. PLURAL. M. F. Stem bono- bona- NOM. bonus bonS N. bono- bonum M. boni F. bonae N. bona Gen. boni bonae boni bonorum bonarum bonorum Dat. bono bonae bono bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonum bonam bonum bonos bonSs bona Voc. bone bona bonum boni bonae bona Abl. bono bona bono bonis bonis bonis 1 Most Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with the corre- sponding feminine a-stems, or i-stems. Many, however, were originally stems in u- or a consonant, which passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings -es and -is of the third declension with the Greek -es and -ay; navis (nom.) with the Greek vavs\ ^pax^s with brevis ; cornu with bicornis; lingua. with bifing-uis ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium ; suavis with 7]5v% ; ferens, -entia, with (pepwv, -ovra.) A few, which in other languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, vetus = fros. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most of their cases. 48 Etymology : A djectives. [§§ 81-83 a. The masculine genitive singular of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, and the vocative in -ie ; not in -i, as in Nouns (c£ § 40. by c) : as, Lacedaemonius, -ii, -ie. Note, — The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine nd (c£. ^ 98. 3). 82, Stems ending in ro- preceded by 6 or a consonant (also satur) form the masculine nominative like noun-stems in ro- of the second declension (cf. pner, ager, § 38). They are thus declmed . — Sing. N. G. D. Ac. V. niger, black, nigro-, 3-, o- nigra nigrae nigrae nigram nigra nigra nigrum nigri nigro nigrum nigrum nigrS nigrae nigra V. Ab. miseris miser misera miserum nigei miseri miserae miserl nigri misero miserae miserS nigro miserum miseram miserum nigrum miser misera miserum niger Ab. misero misera misero nigro Plur. N. miserl miserae misera nigri G. miserorum miserarum miserSrum nigiorum nigrarum nigrorum D. miseris miseris miseria nigris nigris nigris Ac. miseros miseras misera nigros nigras nigra miseri miserae misera nigri nigrae nigra miseris miseris nigris nigris nigris a. Stems in ero- (as procerus), with moriggrus, properus, have the regular nominative masculine in -us. b. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also prosperus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and -ger: as, saetiger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearings also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem ; but in dextra it is often omitted : as, dextra manus, the right hand. c. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, integer, ludicer, macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer; also the possessives noster, vester (p. 64. 3). d. The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative in classic use : cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases : as, postero die, the next day. Note. — A feminine ablative in -5 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica octophoro (Verr. v. 27). 83. The following o-stems with their compounds have the geni- tive singular in -iu^ (one only having -ius) and the dative in -i in all genders : — 83, 84.] Inflection of Adjectives. Ar9 alius (n. aliud),^M^r. totus, whole. nuUus, no, fione. uUus, any. solus, alone. unus, one. alter,! -terius, the other. neuter, -trius, neither. uter, -trius, which (of two). Of these the singular is thus declined :■ M. NOM. unus Gen. tinius Dat. uni Ace. unum Abl. ijno NoM. alius Gen. alius Dat. alii Ace. alium Abl. alio F. una unius uni unam iina alia alius alii aliam alia N. unum Qnius uni unum iJno aliud2 alius alii aliud ali5 M. uter utrius utri utrum utro F. utra utrius utri utram utra N. utrum utrius utri utrum utro alter altera alterum alterius alterius alterius alteri alteri alteri alterum alteram alterum altero altera altero a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 8i). b. The i of the genitive-ending -ius, though originally long, may be made short in verse. Alterius is generally accented on the ante- penult, as having the i permanently shortened. Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense the adjective alienus, belonging to another, another''s. In compounds — as altertlter — sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, to one of the two. 2. Third Declension. Adjectives of the third declension are of one^ two, or three terminations. 84. Adjectives of the third declension having stems in i distinguished by being parisyllabic (§ 53. ci) — have but one form for both Masculine and Feminine, and one for the neuter, and hence are called adjectives of two ter- minations. In the neuter the nominative ends in -e. They are declined as follows : — 1 The suffix -ter, in alter, uter, neuter is the same as the Greek compara- tive suffix -Te/3o(s), The stem of alius appears in early Latin and in derivatives as all- in the forms alis, alid (for alius, aliud), aliter, etc. The regular forms of the genitive and dative (as in bonus) are also found in early writers. 2 The genitive in -Ius, dative in -i, and neuter in -d are pronominal (of. § loi). Etymology: Adjectives. [§84. IS vis (stem levi-), light. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M., F. N. M., F, N. N., V. levis leve leves levia Gen. levis levis levium levium DAT. lev! levi levibus levibus Ace. levem leve levis (es) levia Abl. levi levi levibus levibus a. The following stems in ri- have the masc. nom. in -er : acer, alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and are called adjectives of three termi7iations. So also, celer, celeris, celere ; and names of months in -ber (cf. § 51. ^) : as, October. These are declined as follows : — Y J acer. keen. Stem acri- SINGU-LAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. N., V. acer acris acre acres acres acria Gen. acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium DAT. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus Ace. acrem acrem acre acris (es) acris (es) acria Abl. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus Note. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was some- times used for both genders : as, coetus alacris (£««.). In others, as faenebriSi funebris, illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all. Thus : — ■k illustris. brilliant. Stem illustri- SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.,V. M., F. illustris N. illustre M., F. illustres N. illustria Gen. illustris illustris illustrium illustrium DAT. illustri illustri illustribus illustribus Ace. Abl. illustrem illustri illustre illustri illustris (es) illustribus illustria illustribus b. Case-Forms. — Adjectives of two and three terminations, being true i-stems, retain in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly -Is (see § 55 and p. 30, n. 2). But the forms of some are doubtful. Note. — For metrical reasons, an ablative in -e sometimes occurs in poetry. §§ 84, 85.] Inflection of Adjectives. 51 j/K c. celer, swift, when used as a noun, denoting a military rank, has celerum in the genitive plural. The proper name Celer has the abla- tive in -e. 86. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Consonant-stems; but all except Comparatives have the form of i-stems in the ablative singular -i, the nomi- native, accusative and vocative plural neuter -ia, and the genitive plural -ium. In the other cases they follow the rule of Consonant-stems. Note. — The ablative singular of these words often has -e. These adjectives (except comparatives) have the same nominative singular for all genders, and hence are called adjectives of one termitia- iiony All except stems in 1- or r- form the nominative singular from the stem by adding -s. a. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : — 2iX.xb-x., fierce. egens, needy. v..^^^^^ St. atroc- St. egent- Singr. M., F. N. M., F. N. N.,V. atrox egens Gen. atrocis egentis DAT. atroci egenti Ace. atrocem atrox egentem egens Abl. atroci or atroce egenti or egente Plur. N., V. atroces atrocia egentes egentia Gen. atrocium egentium DAT. atrocibus egentibus Ace. atrocis (es) atr5cia egentis (es) egentia Abl. atrocibus egentibus 1 The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of cognate languages, would end in -ia : this form does not appear in Latin adjectives, but is found in the abstracts amentia (from amens), desidia (from deses), socordia (from sScors), etc., and in proper names, as Florentia (cf. Greek -p5r parts pari parem par pari pares paria parium paribus parls (es) paria vibeXf fertile. uber- M., F. N. uber uberis uberl uberem uber ubere i dlvites [ditia] i>ber5s ubera divitum uberum divitibus uberibus dlvitis (es) divitia uberes ubera M.. F. N., V. vetus Gen. veteris DAT. veteri Acc. veterem Abl. vetere vetus, old. Stem veter- (for vetcs-) SINGULAR. N. vetus plural. M., F. N. veteres vetera veterum veteribus veteres vetera veteribus Note. — Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for bi-corpos), degener (for de-genes) . c. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine form in -a : as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative luno Sospita. 1 Given bv errammarians. but not found. §§ 86, 87.] Inflection of Adjectives. 53 3. Comparatives. 86. Comparatives are declined as follows : — melior, better. plus, fnort. Stem melior- for luelios- pltlr- for plus- Sing. M., F. N. M., F. N. N., V. melior meHus plus Gen. melioris pluria DAT. meliori Ace. meliorem melius plus Abi^ meliore or meliori plure Plur. N., V. meliorSs meliora plurSs pliira Gen. meliorum plurium DAT. melioribus pluribus Ace. melioris (6s) meKora plurls (gs) plura Abl. melioribus pluribus a. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os- ; but this became or- in all cases except the neuter singular (n., a., v.), where s is retained, and 6 is changed to tl (cf. honSr, -oris; corpus, -6ris). Thus com- paratives appear to have two terminations. b. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun. The getritive (rarely ablative) is used as an expression of value (cf § 352. a). The dative is not found in classic use. The compound complures, sever al^ has sometimes neuter plural compluria. AU other comparatives are declined like melior. 4. Case-Forms. 87. In adjectives of Consonant stems the following Case-forms are to be remarked : — a. The Ablative singular commonly ends in -I; but adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor') have -e. Participles m -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute, § 225), or as nouns, regularly have -e ; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -1. The following have uniformly -1: amens, anceps, concors (and other compounds of cor), consors (but as a substantive, -e), degener, hebes, ingens, inops, memor (and its compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres. b. In the following, -e is the regular form of the ablative : caeles, compos, [fdeses], dives, hospes, pauper, particeps, princeps, superstes, sospea ; also in patrials (see § 54. 3) and stems in at-, It-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives. 54 Etymology: Adjectives, [§§ 87, 88. c* The genitive plural ends commonly in -ium. The accusative plural regularly ends in -is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to the i-declension. d. The genitive plural ends in -um : — 1. Always in dives, compos, inops, particeps, princeps, praepes, supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um : as, quadru-pes, bi-oolor. 2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns : as, silentum con- cilium, a council of the silent shades (Virg.). e. In vetus (gen. -6ris), pubes (gen. -gris), uber (gen. -gris), which did not become i-stems, the endings -e (abl. sing.), -a (neut. nom. ace. plur.), -um (gen. plur.) are regular. (Uber has also -I in abl.) /. I. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis C-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-orus). 2. A few are indeclinable : as, damnas, frugi (really a dat. of ser- vice, see § 233), nequam (originally an adverb). 3. Several are defective : as, (^)exspes (only nom.), exlex (exlegem) (only nom. and ace. smg.), pernox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.) ; {b) primoris, semineci, etc., which lack the nom. sing. 4. Potis is often used as an indeclinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter. 5. Special Uses. 88. The following special uses are to be observed : — a. Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construction of nouns; as, amicus, a friend \ aequalis, d: contemporary ^ maiores, ancestors (see p. 47, head-note, and § 188). b. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender. Such are adulescens, youthful; [fdeses], -idis, slothful; inops, 'Opis, poor; sospes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iMvenis, young fnany may be called masculitie adjectives. c. Many nouns may be used as adjectives . as, pedes, a footman or on foot (see § 188. ^). Such are especially nouns in -tor (m.) and -trix (f.), denoting the agent (§ 162. a)', as, victor exercitus, the conquering army ; victrix causa, the winning cause. d. Certain forms of many adjectives are regularly used as adverbs. These are, the accusative and ablative of the neuter singular (§ 148. d, e) : as, multum, multo, mi^ch ; the neuter singular of comparatives (see § 92) : as, melius, better; levius, more lightly. Note. — Adverbs ending m -§ and -ter were also once case-forms; as, cSre, dearly, leviter, ti^Atty ; Scerrime, most eagerly {\ 148. a, ^). § 89.] Comparison of Adjectives, 55 COMPARISON, n Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com- parison : the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superla- tive. 1. Regular Comparison. 89. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neuter -ius^), the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um) to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel : as, — carus, dear (st. caro-) ; carior, dearer] carissimus, dearest. levis, light (st. levi-) ; levior, lighter] levissimus, lightest. felix, happy (st. felio-) ; ielloiox, happier ; felicissimus, happiest. hebes, didl (st. hebet-) ; hebetior, duller; hebetissimus, dullest. a. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative. The comparative is regular : as, — Seer, keen] acrior, acerrimus. miser, wretched] miserior, miserrimus. So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form veter ; and maturus, besides its regular superlative (maturis- simus), has a rare form maturrimus. For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used. b. The following in -lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its vowel : faoilis (st. facili-), difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis. The comparative is regular: as, faoilis, easy ] facilior, facillimus. c. Compounds in -dicus {saying)^ -ficus {doing), -volus (willing), take in their comparison the forms of corresponding . participles in -ns, which were anciently used as adjectives : as, — maledicus, slanderous ] maledicentior, maledicentissimus. malevolus, spiteftd] malevolentior, malevolentissimus. d. Adjectives m -us preceded by any vowel but u rarely have forms of comparison, but are compared by means of the adverbs magis, more ; maxime, most: as, — idoneus,^?^; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. Note. — But plus has piissimus. 1 The comparative suffix (earlier -los) is the same as the Greek -icov, or the Skr. -iyans. That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form ; perhaps for -ios- timus (comparative and superlative), or possibly for -ist-timus (two superlatives). The endings -limus and -rimus are formed by assimilation (^n./) from -timus and -Simus. The comparative and superlative thus formed are new stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection. $6 Etymology : Adjectives. [§§ 89-91. Most derivatives fn -5cus, -idus, -alls, -aris, -ills, -lilus, -undus, -timus, -inus, -ivus, -orus, with compounds (as degener, inops) are also compared by means of magis and maxime. e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : as, — patiens, patient ; patientior, patientiBsimus. apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus. /. A form ot diminutive is made upon the stem of some compara- tives : as, grandius-culus, a Itttle larger (see § 164. a). _\ 2. Irregular and Defective Comparison. \ 90. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregu- lar forms : as, — bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best. malus, peior, peasimus, bad, worse, worst. ^magnus, maior, maximus, great, greater, greatest. I>arvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. multus, plus (n.) (§ 86. b^, pldrimus, nitich, more, most. multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most. nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless (ct. § 87./. 2,) frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, tiseful, worthy (cf. § 87./". 2). dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy. NOTJE. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf. \ 89. c). 91. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear with- out a Positive : ^ — a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives : — cis, citra (adv. on this side) : citerior, ci-timus, hither, hit her most. in, intra (prep, in, within) : interior, intimus, imier, inmost. prae, pro (prep, before) : prior, primn&, former, frst. prope (adv. near) : propior, proximus, nearer, next. Ultra (adv. beyond) : ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest. b. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in the plural) : — 1 The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf alter), so that the comparatives in -terior are double comparatives, Inferus and superus are comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comp. in -er). The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison ; those in -mus like imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms like eKtremus are superlatives of a comparative. In tact, comparison has always been treated with an accumulation of endings, as children ^2Cj further er ax\d further est. §§ 91, 92.] Comparison of Adverbs. 57 exterus, exterior, extremus (^xtimus), outer, outmost. [inferus], inferior, infimus (imus), lower, lowest (§ 82. ^) [posterus], posterior, postremus (postumus), latter, last. [superus], superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. The plurals, ezs-terl, foretgjiers ; inferi, the gods below; poster!, posterity ; superi, the heavenly gods, are common c. From ivLvemB, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 88. b), are tormed the comparatives iunior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natu and maior natu are sometimes used (natu b^ng often omitted). The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with or without natu. Note. — In these phrases natu is ablative of specifieation (see \^ 253). a. In the following, one or other of the forms of comparison is wanting: 1. The positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus ; ocior, ocis- simus ; potior, potissimus.^/^ 2. The comparative is W^ting in bellus, caesius, falsus, fidus (with its compounds), inclutus (or inclitus), invictus, invitus, novus, pius, sacer, vafer, vetus (§ 89. «). 3. The superlative is wanting in Sctuosus, agrestis, alacer, arca- nus, caecus, diuturnus, exilis, ingens, ieiunus, longinquus, obli- quus, opimus, proclivis, proplnquus, satur, segnis, serus, supinus, surdus, taciturnus, tempestivus, teres, vicinus, and in some adjectives in -ilis. Note. — Many adjectives — as aureus, golden — are from their meaning incapable of comparison ; but each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus niger, glossy black, and candidus, shining white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning absolute dead black or white (except tlmt Plautus once hasatrior). 3. Comparison of Adverbs. 92. The comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusa- tive of the comparative of the corresponding Adjective; the superlative is the 'Adverb in -e formed regularly from the superlative of the Adjective : as, — c^re, dearly (from earns, dear) : carius, carissime. misere (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched) : miserius, miserrime. leviter (from levis, light) : levins, levissime. audacter (audaciter) (from audax, bold) : audacius, audacissime. beng, well (from honna, good) : melius, optime. malg, /// (from mains, bad) : peius, pessime. 58 Etymology: Adverbs. [§§ 92, 93. The following are irregular or defective : — diu, lo7ig (in time) ; diutius, diutissime. potius, rather', potissimum,yfr^/ of all^ in preference to all. saepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissime. satis, enough; &2kX\vis, preferable. secus, otherwise ; secius, worse. multum (multo), magis, maxime, mnch, more, most. parum, fiot enough, minus, less, minime, least. 4. Signification. 93. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows : — a. The Comparative denotes a cofisiderable or excessive degree of a quality: as, brevier, rather shoi't ; audacior, too bold. b. The Superlative {of eminence') often denotes a very high degree of a quality w^ithout implying a distinct comparison : as, maximus Humerus, a very great nuinber. With quam, vel, or unus it denotes the highest possible degree: as, quam plurimi, as many as possible; quam maxime potest (maxime quam potest), as much as can be; virum unum dootissimum, the one inost learned man. c. With quisque, each, the superlative has a peculiar signification. Thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest (each richest man) ; primus quisque, all the first {each first man in his order). 1 Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion : as, — sapientissimus quisque aequissimo animo moritur (Cat. Maj. 83), the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity . d. A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valde, very, or by per or prae in composition (§ 170. c) : as, valdg malus, very bad = pessimua -, permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep). e. A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition : as, subrustious, rather clowfiish; or by minus, not very; minime, not at all; parum, not enough ; non satis, 7tot much. f The comparative maiores has the special signification of an- cestors (cf. §§ 88. a, 91. c). g. The comparative minores often means descendants. take it 1 As in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you §94.] Numerals. 59 NUMERALS. 1. Cardinal and Ordinal. 94. Cardinal numbers are the regular series of numbers used in counting. Ordinal numbers ^ are adjectives de- rived from these to express order or place. Note. — Cardinal numbers answer the question quot ? how many? Ordinal numbers, the question quotus ? which in order? one of how many? These two series are as follows : — CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUN lERALS. I. unus, una, unum, one. primus, -a, -wvci, first. I. 2. duo, duae, duo, two. secundus (alter), second. II. 3- tres, tria, three. tertius, third. III. 4- quattuor (quatuor) quartus IV. 5- quTnque quTntus V. 6. sex sextus VI. 7- septem Septimus VII. 8. octa octavus VIII. 9- novem nonus IX. lO. decern decimus X. II. undecim undecimus XI. 12. duodecim duodecimus XII. 13- tredecim (decern et tres) tertius decimus XHI. 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus XIV. 15- quTndecini quTntus decimus XV. 16. sedecim sextus decimus XVI. 17- septendecim Septimus decimus XVII. 18, duodevTginti (octodecim) duodevicensimus XVIII. 19. undevTginti (novendecim) undevlcensimus XIX. 20. viginti vTcensimus (vTgensimus) XX. 21. vIgintT unus vicensimus primus XXI. {or unus et vTgintT) (unus et vTcensimus, etc.) 1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (compare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; primus is a superlative of the stem of pro; the forms in -tus (quartus, quintus, sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -tos, and with npwTos, superlative of xpS) nonus is contracted from novimus ; while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; and alter is a comparative form (compare -repos in Greek). The multiples of ten are compounds of the unit with a fragment of decern : as, vigfintl = dvi-grintl (duidecem-tl?). 6o Etymology: Numerals. [§94. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS. trlcensimus xxx. quadragensimus XL. quinquagensimus L. sexagensimus LX. septuagensimus LXX. octogensimus Lxxx. nonage nsimus xc. centensimus c. centensimus primus, etc. ci. ducentensimus cc. trecente nsimus ccc. quadringentensimus cccc. quTngentensimus I3, or d. sexcentensimus DC. septingentensimus dcc. octingentensimus dccc. nongentensimus Dcccc. millensimus cio, or m. quinquiens millensimus loo. deciens millensimus ccioo. centiens millensimus ccciooo. Note. — The forms in -eusimus are often written without the n: as, vice- simus, etc. a. For the inflection of unus, see § 83. It often has the meaning of same or only. The plural is used in this sense ; but also, as a simple numeral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra, one camp (cf. § 95. <^). The plural occurs also in the phrase uni et alteri, one party and the other (the ones and the others). b. Duo,i two^ and ambo, both^ are thus declined : — CARDINAL. 30- triginta 40. quadraginta 50. quinquaginta 60. sexaginta 70. septuaginta 80. octoginta 90. nonaginta 100. centum lOI. centum (et) unus, etc. 200. ducenti, -ae, -a 300. trecentl 400. quadringenti 500. quingentl 600. sexcenti 700. septingenti 800. octingenti 90Q. nongenti 1000. mille 5000. quinque milia (millia) 0,000. decem milia (millia) >o,ooo. centum milia (millia) NOM. duo duae duo Gen. duorum duarum duorum DAT. duobus duabus duobus Ace. du5s (duo) duas duo Abl. dudbus duabus duobus c. Tres, tria, three^ is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like the plural of levis (see § 84). The other cardinal numbers, up to centum (100), are indeclinable. 1 The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number ^ which was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. 94, 95.] Numerals. 61 The forms octodecim, novendecim are rare, duodeviginti, un- deviginti being used instead. Similar forms for higher numbers are occasionally found: as, duodequadraginta, thirty -eight -, undecen- tum, ninety-nine. d. The hundreds, up to 1000, are o-stems, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus. e. Mille, a thousand^ is in the singular an indeclinable adjective. In the plural (mHia or millia, thousands)^ it is used as a neuter noun, with a genitive plural. Thus, cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men ; but cum duobus milibus hominum, with two thousand men.'^ Note. — The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and accusative : as, mille hominum misit ; but in the other cases only in connection with the same case of milia : as, cum octo milibus peditum mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse. f. The ordinals are o-stems, and are declined like bonus. 2. Distributives. 95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. Note. — These answer to the interrogative quoteni? hoiv mamy of each, or at a time? as, — 18. oct5ni deni or duodevicem 19. noveni deni or undevTcenT 20. vTcenI 21. vTceni singulT, etc. 30. trice ni 40. quadrageni 50. quTnquageni 60. sexageni 70. septuageni 80. octogeni 90. nonagen! Distributives are used- as follows: — a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula singulis, one apiece (one each to each one) ; agri septena iugera plebi divisa sunt, i.e. seven jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc. 1. sTngulT, 07ie by one. 2. binl, two-and-two. 3. term, trim 4. quaternl 5. quTni 6. sen! 7. septeni 8. octoni 9. noveni 10. deni 11. undenT 12. duodeni 13. term deiiT, etc. 100. centeni 200. duceni 300. trecen! 400. quadringeni 500. quTngenl 600. sesceni 700. septingenT 800, octingeni 900. nongeni 1000. milleni 2000. bina milia 10,000. dena milia 100,000. centena milia 1 Or, in poetry, cum bis mill« hominibus, with twice a thousand men. 62 Etymology : Numerals. [§§ 95-97. b. Instead of Cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun is plural in form but singular in meaning : as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). But the plural uni is used (instead of singuli), to signify one (see § 94. d)y and trini (not terni) for three. c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two] ter septenis diebus, in thrice seven days. d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where /^zW or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set). 3. Numeral Adverbs. 96. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiens (quo ties), how many times, how often. I. semel, once. 12. duodeciens 40. quadragiens 2. bis, twice. 13- terdeciens 50. quinquagiens 3- ter, thrice. 14. quaterdeciens 60. sexagiens 4- quater 15- quTndeciens 70. septuagiens 5- quTnquiens (-es) 16. sedeciens 80. octogiens 6. sexiens (-es) 17- septiesdeciens 90. nonagiens 7- septiens (-es) 18. duodevTciens 100. centiens 8. octiens 19. undeviciens 200. ducentiens 9- noviens 20. viciens 300. trecentiens 10. deciens 21. semel et viciens. etc. 1000. miliens II. undeciens 30- triciens 10,000. deciens miliens Note. — They are used, in combination with mille, to express the higher numbers : as, ter et triciens (centena milia) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces. Forms in -ns are often written without the n : as, quinquies. 4. Other Numerals. 97. The adjectives simplex, single, duplex, double, two-fold, triplex, quadru-, quincu-, septem-, decem-, centu-, sesqui- (i>^), multi-plex, 7nanifold^ are called Multiplicatives. a. Proportionals are: duplus, triplus, etc., twice as great, etc. b. Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or three years'' age] biennis, triennis, lasting two or three years] bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months] biduum, bienuium, a period of two days ox years. c. Partitives: binarius, ternarius, <7/'/'Z£/^ or Mr^^/^r/j. d. Fractions : dimidia pars (dimidium), a half] tertia pars, a third. Note. — But fractions are regularly expressed by special words derived from as {a pound) and the numerals : as, triens, a third; bes, two-thirds. e. Other derivatives are: unio, unity] binio, the two (of dice); primanus, of the first legion] primarius, of the first rank] denarius, a sum of 10 asses ] binus (distributive), double^ etc. 98.] Personal and Reflexive Pronouns, 63 Chapter V. — Pronouns. 98. Pronouns have special forms of declension. Note. — These special forms are, in general, survivals of a more primitive form of declension than that of nouns. 1. Personal Pronouns. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, /, nos, we ,* of the second person t tu, thou, v6s, ye or you. FIRST PERSON. NoM. ego,/; nos, we; Gen. mei, of me; nostrum (tri), of us; DAT. mihi (mi), to me; nobis, to us; Ago. me, me; noa, us; Voc. Abl. mg, dy me ; nobis, dy us. SECOND PERSON. NoM. tu, thou ; vos, ye or you ; Gen. tui, you ; vostrum, vostri; vestrfim (tri) DAT. tibi vobis Ace. tg vos Voc. tu vos Abl. tS vobis a. The personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they — are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used (see § 10 1). b. The plural nos is often used for the singular ego ; the plural vos never for the singular tu. c. Old forms are genitive, mis, tis ; accusative and ablative med, ted (cf. § 70. h). 2. Reflexive Pronouns. Reflexive pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the Subject of the sentence or clause (see § 196). a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pronouns are used as Reflexives : as, me contuli, / went (I betook myself) ; tS laudas, you praise yourself; nobis persuademus, we persuade ourselves. 64 Etymology : Pronouns. [§§ 98, 99. b. The reflexive pronoun of the Third Person has a special form used only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus declined : — Gen. sui, of himself^ herself themselves. DAT. sibi, to himself, herself themselves. Ace. . se (sese), himself herself themselves. Abl. s§ (sgse) , by himeelf herself themselves. Sis (genitive) and sed (accusative and ablative) are ancient. 3. Possessive Pronouns. The Possessive pronouns are, for the first person : mens, my, noster. our; for the second person: tuus, thy, your, voster, wester, your; for the third person : suus, his, her, their. These are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions (see §§ 81, 82). But mens has regularly mi (rarely mens) in the vocative singular mascu- line. Note. — Suus is only reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demon- strative must be used. Thus, patrem suuin occidit, he killed his (own) father; but patrem eius occidit, he killed his (somebody else's) father, 99. In the meaning and use of the Personal, Reflexive, and Possessive pronouns it is to be observed that — a. To express Possession and similar ideas the possessive pro- nouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (cf. § 197. a). Thus, my father is pater mens, never pater mei. b. The forms nostrum, vostrum, etc., are \is&d partitively : as, — unusquisque nostrum, each one of us ; so vostrum omnium, of all of you. Note. — The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives of the possessives : mei, tul, stii, nostri, vostri, gen. sing, neuter : nostrilni, vostrtim, gen. plu. masc. or neuter contracted. So in early and later Latin we find una vestrarum, one of you {women). c. The genitives mei, tuT, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used objectively (see § 213. n.): as, — memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me). mS tul pu4et, I am ashamed of you. §§ 99, 100.] Demonstrative Pronouns. 65 d. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter 8§ or alter . . . alterum : as, — alter alterius ova frangit, they break each other'^s eggs (one ... of the other). inter sS amant, they love one another (they love among them- selves). e. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative of the personal and reflexive pronouns : as, tecum loquitur, he talks with you. /.fTo the personal and reflexive (and sometimes to the pos- sessive) pronouns certain enclitics are joined for emphasis : -met to all except tu (nom.) 'X~te to tu (tute, also tutimet) ; -pte to the ablative singular of tne adjectives, and in early Latin to the others : as, — vdsmetipB5s proditis, j^w betray your own very selves. suopte pondere, by its own weight. 4. Demonstrative Pronouns. 100. The Demonstrative pronouns are hic, this-, is, ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same.^ a. Ille is a later form of oUus (olle), which is sometimes used by the poets; a genitive singular in -1, -ae, -1, occurs in ille and iste. b. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, etc., with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the first syllable of ipse and ille is very often used as short in early poetry. c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for -pte, from the same root as potis) (cf. § 99-/"), meaning self. The former part was originally declined, as in reapse (for r§ eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs. idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem. 1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and 1-stems, which are not clearly distinguishable. Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstra- tive enclitic -co, which appears ir full in early Latin (hice), and when followed by the enclitic -ne (Wcine). In most of tlie cases -ce is shortened to -c, and in many lost ; but it is often appended for emphasis to forms that do not regularly retain it (as htliusce). In early Latin -C alone is retained in some of these (horunc). nie and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic : lUic, illaec, illilc ; also ill6c (ace. or abl. : § 101. p. 67). 66 Etymology: Pronouns. [§ 101 101. The demonstratives are used either with nouns as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns. From their signifi- cation they cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. They are thus declined : — V hic, this is, that. #• M. F. N. M. F. N. ^6m. hic haec hoc is ea id Gen. huius huius huius eius eius eius DAT. huic huic huic ei ei ei Ace. hunc hanc hoc eum eam id Abl. hoc hac hoc eo ea eo Plur. NOM. hi hae haec i(ei) eae ea Gen. horum harum horum eorum earum eorum DAT. his his his eis or is Ace. hos has haec eos eas ea Abl. his his his eis or is Sing. ille, that ipse, self. NOM. iUe ilia illud ipse ipsa ipsum Gen. illms illlus illius ipsius ipsius ipsius DAT. ill! ill! ill! ipsi ipsi ipsi Ace. ilium illam illud ipsum ipsam ipsum Voc. ipse ipsa ipsum Abl. illo ilia illo ipso ipsa ipso Plur. NOM. ill! illae ilia ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. illdrum illarum illorum ipsomm ipsarum ipsorum DAT. illis illis illTs ipsis ipsis ipsis Ace. illos illas ilia ipsos ipsas ipsa Voc. ipsi ipsae ipsa Abl. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis idem, the same. SINGULAR. N. idem eS.dem idem G. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem D. eidem eidem eidem Ac. eundem eandem idem Ab. eodem eadem eodem PLURAL. idem (ei-) eaedem eSdem eorundem earundem eorundem eisdem or isdem eosdem easdem eSdem eisdem or isdemi iate, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille. §§ 101, 102.] Demonstrative Pronouns. 67 lUe and iste are combined with the demonstrative -ce. Thus : — Sing, M. F. N. M. F. N. NoM. illic illaec illoc (illuc) istic istaec istoc (istuc) Acc. illunc illanc illoc (illuc) istunc istanc istoc (istuc) Abl. illoc iliac illoc istoc istac istoc Plur. N., Acc. illaec istaec a. For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old form hibus is sometimes found ; haec occurs (rarely) for hae. b. The normal forms illi, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat), are found ; also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). c. The plural forms T, is, idem, isdem, are often written ii, iis, etc. Obsolete forms are eae (dat. for ei), and eabus or ibus (dat. plur. for is). For ei are found also Si and ei. d. By composition with ecce or en, behold! are formed eccum, eccam, ecc5s, eccas; eccillum, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas ; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial. e. The combinations huiusmodi (huiuscemodi), giusmodi, etc., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, suck: as, res eiusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort : compare § 215). 102. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be observed that — a. Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, thought, or on the written page). It is hence called the deinottstraiive of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for " the latter " of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writ- ing ; more rarely for " the former," when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought, b. Ille is used of what is re?note (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean " the former" (see under hic, a) ; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known ; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean " the following." I The Intensive -ce is also found in numerous combinations : as, htllusce, hunce, hSrunce, harunce, hosce, hisce (cf. n., p. 65),llllusce,lsce; also with the interrogative -ne, in hocine, hoscine, istilcine, llllcine, etc. The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nom.), eumpse, eampse, eOpse, eapse (abl.). 68 • Etymology: Pronouns. [§§ 102-104. c. late is used of what is between the two others in remoteness : often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the deinoti" strative of the second person. It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies a kind of contempt. d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a personal pronoun (see §98. I. a) ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative qui : as, eum quem, one whom ; eum consulem qui non dubitet (Cic), a consul who will not hesitate. e. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, as n5s ipsT (nosmetipsT), we ourselves ; or independently (the verb con- taining the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipsi adestis, j/y, the instrumental case of the pronoun jjEet, that. This pronoun is used both as demonstrative and relative. Thus the .., the corresponds exactljf to quo . . . eo. §§108-10.] hiflection of the Verb: Voice, Mood, Tense, 73 Chapter VI. — Verbs, I.- INFLECTION OF THE VERB 1. Voice, Mood, Tense. 108. The inflection of the Verb denotes Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. a. The Voices are two : Active and Passive. b. The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.! c. The Tenses are six, viz.: — 1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future. 2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect. d. Person and Number. — There are separate terminations for each of the three Persons, — first, second, and third, — both in the singular and in the plural. 2. Noun and Adjective Forms. 109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of th^e Latin Verb : — a. Four Participles, ^ viz. : — Active: the Present and Future Participles. Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.* if. The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declen- sion, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. A corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive (see § 114. note). c. The Supine: see §§ 71. « and 114. d. 3. Defective Forms. 110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting in certain parts of the verb : — 1 The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of the verb (p. 120./) ; but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it is properly treated as a part of the verb. 2 The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see § 25. g), but have the power of Verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. 8 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating necessity or duty (see } 113. d). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle. 74 Etymology: Verbs. [§§ 110-12. a. The Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future Perfect. In most constructions, these tenses are supplied without ambiguity by the Present (or Imperfect) and the Perfect (or Pluperfect) ; for originally all tenses of the subjunctive referred to future time. In some constructions the want is supplied by the future participle with the proper tense of the verb signifying to be : as, cum secuturus sit, sitice he will follow. b. In the Passive voice in all moods the tenses of completed action (Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect Participle with the present, imperfect, and future of the verb signifying TO be: as, occisus est, he was killed. c. In the Imperative mood, the only tenses are the Present and the Future. d. In the Infinitive mood the Present (active and passive) and the Perfect (active) only are formed by inflection. A Future in the active voice is formed by the Future Participle with the infinitive signifying TO be: as, amaturus esse, to be going to love-, in the passive, by the Former Supine with iri (infin. .pass, of ire, to go') : as, amatum iri, to be about to be loved. For the Perfect passive, see b above. II. -SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB. 1. Voices. 111. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally correspond to the active and passive in English; but — a. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning: as, iuduitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes; Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself). Note. — This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubtless a survival of the original meaning of the passive (§ ii8. note). b. Many verbs are used only in the passive form, but with an active or reflexive meaning. These are called Deponents {deponentia), i.e., verbs which have laid aside {deponere) the active form and the passive meaning (see § 135). 2. Moods. 112. The Moods of the Latin verb are used as follows: a. The Indicative Mood is used for direct assertions and inte?-ro- gations : as, — valesne? valeo, are you well? 1 am well; and also in some other idiomatic forms of predication. § 112.] Moods. 75 b. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, conditions, and various dependent clauses. It is frequently translated by the English Indicative ; sometimes by means of the auxiliaries fnay, might, would, shotdd; sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibi- tions. Thus — eamus, let us go. cum venisset, when he had come. adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see). tu lie quaesieris, do not thou itiquire. nemo est qui ita existimet, there is ho one who thinks so. beatus sis, may you be blessed. ne abeat, let him not depart. quid merer, why should I delay 1 sunt qui putent, there are some who think. imperat ut scribam, he orders 7ne to write (that I write). nescio quid scribam, T know not what to write. licet Qdi^, you may go (it is permitted that you go). cave cadas, donH fall. vereor ne eat, I fear he will go. vereor ut eat, I fear he will not go. si moiieam audiat (pres.), if I should warn, he would hear. si vocarem audiret (imperf.), if I were (now) calling, he would hear. quae cum dixisset abiit, and when he had said this, he went away. Note. — The Latin Subjunctive is often translated, formally, by means of the English auxiliaries may, might, could, would, etc., to distinguish it from tlie Indica- tive, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative ; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite meaning. Thus, / may write is often not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scribere ; / can write is possum scribere ; / would write is scribam, scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; I should write, (//ietc), scriberem (si) . . . , or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive (§§ 266, 269). d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or object of another verb (§§ 270, 271. ^). In special con- structions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in English (see "Indirect Discourse," § 335 ff.). Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see \ -slb^ fF. 'j6 Etymology : Verbs, [§ lia 3. Participles. 113. The Participles of the Latin verb are used as follows; — a. The Present participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same meaning and use as the English participle in -ing : as, vocans, calling', legentes, reading. (For its inflection, see egens, § 85). b. I . The Future participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used to ex- press what is likely or about to happen. Note. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb TO BE it forms what is called the First Periphrastic conjugation (see § 129) : as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall; mansurus eram, / was going to stay, 2. It is also used, more rarely, to express purpose (see § 293. ^) : as, venit audlturus, he came to hear (about to hear). c. The Perfect participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses: — 1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English Perfect Passive parti- ciple in -ed: as, tectus, sheltered \ acceptus, accepted', ictus, having been struck \ and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus, acceptable. 2. It is also used to form certain tenses of the passive (§ 1 10. ^) : as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called. Note. — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive participle in Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as seciltus, having followed. In the case of other verbs some different construction is used for these missing participles : as, cum venisset, having come (when he had come) ; equitatO. praemisso, havitig sent forward the cavalry (the cavalry having been sent forward); dum verberatur, while he is (being) struck (= TV7rT(^/i€»'0s). d. I. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus) is often used as an adjective implying obligation or necessity {ought or must) : as, audiendus est, he must be heard. Note. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb TO BE it forms the Second Periphrastic conjugation deligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 129). 2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same mean- ing as the Gerund (cf. § 1 14. *;«^. I. -era-m -isse-m feram essem 2. -era-s -isse-s ■*si-- esses 3- -era-t -isse-t Lerat efsset /V«r. I. -era-mus -isse-mus r eramus essemus 2. -era-tis -isse-tis -^^--]e..Hs essetis 3- -era-nt -isse-nt I. erant essent 1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 122). §§ 118, 119.] Forms of t/ie Ven ^ Future Perfect Sing. I. -er-6 2. -eri-s 3. -eri-t -tus(-ta, -turn) er5 eris erit Plur, I. -erimus 2. -eri-tis 3. -eri-nt -tT(.tae, ^ -ta) erimus eritis erunt Imperative. Present. Sing. 2. — Plur . 2. -te I Sing. 2. J5'te*Mrc. -re P 2. -to 2. -tote 2. -tor 3. -to 3- -nto 3. -tor 81 2. -mini 3. -ntor For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the verb is here added. Infinitives. Pres. -re (Pres. stem) I. II. i\ Perf. -isse (Perf. stem) Fut. -turns (-a, -um) esse Participles. Pres. Perf. -ns, -ntis Ftit. -turns, -a, -um Ger -ri ; III. -1 -tus (-ta, -tum iri -tus, -ta, -ndus, -a. -tum) esse -tum -um Gerund. -ndi, -ndo, -ndum, -ndo Supine. -tum, -tu Note. — The 1 of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always ion^ except before -mus, is of doubtful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes -vi (of un- known origin) and -si (akin to those of Greek e56/|a and Skr. adih/iam) , and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but probably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The S before -tl and -tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es; but it may be, like the personal endings, of pronominal origin. The Passive is a middle (or reflexive) form peculiar to Latin and Celtic, and of uncertain origin. The Verb Sum.. 119. The verb sum, be^ is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future. Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its importance for the inflection of all other verbs. 82 Etymology: Verbs. [§ 119. Principal Parts : Pres. sum, Infin. esse, Perf. ful. Fut. Part, futurus. Indicative. Subjunctive. J*resent. Sing. I. sum, I am. simi 2. Ss, thou art (^yoie are). sis 3- est, he {she, it) is. sit /Y7/r. I. sumus, we are. simus 2. estis,_y^7/; are. sitis . 3- sunt, they are. sint Imperfect. ^-/V/^. I. eram, I was. essem (forem) 2. er3La,yo?t were. esses (fores) 3- erat, he (she, it) was. esset (foret) iP/z/r. I. eram us, we were. essemus 2. eiAtis, you were. essetis 3- erant, they were. essent (forent) Future. Sing. I. ero, I shall be. 2. eris, you will be. 3- erit, he will be. PUir. I. erimus, we shall be. * 2. eritis, yoii will be. 3- erunt, they will be. Perfect. ^/«^. I. f ul, / was (have been) . fuerim 2. f uisti, yoit were fueris 3- fuit, he was. fuerit /Vwr. I. fuimus, we were. fuerimua 2. fuistis, you were. fueritis 3- f uerunt, f uere, they were. fuerint Pluperfect. ^•/w^. I. fueram, I had been. fuissem 2. fueras, j^« had been. fuisses 3- fuerat, he had been. fuisset Flur. I. fueramus, we had been. fuissemus 2. fuerStis, yoti had been. fuissetis 3- fuerant, they had been. fuissent 1 All translations of the subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given, see ^ 112. A, §§ 119, 120.] The Verb Sum. 83 Future Perfect. Sing. \.iviGv^,T shall have been. Plur. i.tvLerimxiS^ive shall have been. 2. ivieTis,yoti will have been. 2. ivLexitv&yyou will have been. 3. f uerit, he will have been. 3. f uerint, they will have been. Imperative. Present. Sing. 2. Ss, be thou. Plur. 2. este, be ye. Future. 2. esto, thou shalt be. 2. estate, ye shall be. 3. esto, he shall be. 3. svLntb^ they shall be. Infinitive. Present, esse, /^ ^^. Perfect, fuisse, to have been. Future, fore OF futflrus esse, to be about to be. Participle. Future, futurus, -a, -um, about to be. a. The present participle, which should be f sens (compare Sanskrit sant)^ appears in that form in ab-sgns, prae-sens ; and as §ns (com- pare wv) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms Sns, being] entia, things which are. b. Rare Forms. — Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoative present, see § 167. «). Subjunctive : Present, siem, si§s, siet, sient ; fuam, fuSs, fuat, fuant ; Perfect, fuvimus ; Pluperfect, fuvisset. Note.— For essem, etc., forem, fores, etc., are often used without difference of meaning. 120. The verb sum appears in numerous compounds, v^^hich will be treated under Irregular Verbs (§ 137). Note. — The root of the verb sum is es, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see § II. a. i), and in many cases is shortened to S. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table, — the " Indo-European" being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form ^am corresponding to the Latin sim (sieiu) : — INDO-EUROPEAN SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN. LITHUANIAN. es-mi es-si es-tl as-mi as-i as-ti syam (opt.) syas syat iari s-um es es-t es-mi es-i es-tl s-masl 8-tasl 8-antl s-mas s-tha s-anti syama syata syus s-umus es-tis 8-unt es-me es-te es^ The Perfect and Supine stems with the English be. ,ful-, futQro- , are kindred with the Greek tt-, take away. dico, dixi, diet-, say. divido, divisl, divis-, divide. duco, duxi, duct-, guide. figo, fixi, fTx-,y£r. lingo [fig], finxi, fict-, fashion. fleets, flexi, flex-, bend. fluo, fluxi, ViVi3L-,floW. frendo, -fresi, fress-, gnash. frigo, frixi, friet- (iil^-),fry. gero, gessl, gest-, carry. laedo, laesi, laes-, hurt. -lieio, -lexi, -lect-, entice (elicui, -licit-), lingo, linxi, linet-, lick. ludo, lusl, lus-, play. mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. mitto, misi, miss-, send. necto [nec], next (nexui), nex-, /t weave. ^ nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry. . peot5, pexi (pexul), pex-, comh- pergo, perrexi, perreet-, go on. pingo [pig], pinxi, piet-, paint. plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud. pleeto, plexi (-xui), plex-, braid, premo, pressi, press-, press. promo, -mpsi, -mpt-, bring out. quatio, (-cussi), quass-, shake. rad5, rasi, ras-, scrape. rego, rexi, rect-, rule. rSpo, repsi, rept-, creep. rodo, rosT, ros-, gnaw. sarpo, sarpsi, sarpt-, prune. scalpo, sealpsi, sealpt-, scrape. seribo, seripsi, script-, write. serpo, serpsi, serpt-, crawl. spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter. -spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view. -stinguo, -stinxT, -stinct-, quench. strings, strinxl, strict-, bind. struS, struxi, struct-, build. sumS, siimpsi, sumpt-, take. siirgS, surrexi, surrect-, rise. tegS, texi, teet-, shelter. temnS, tempsi, -tempt-, despise. tergS, tersi, ters-, wipe. tingS, tinxi, tinet-, stain. trahS, traxi, tract-, drag. trudS, trusi, trus-, thrust, urS, ussi, ust-, burn. vadS, -vasi, -vas-, go. vehS, vexl, vect-, draw, VIVO, vlxl, Vict-, live. I02 Etymology: Verbs, [§ 132. b. Reduplicated in the perfect (§ 124. c)\ — cado, cecidi, c2^-,fall. caed5, cecidi, caes-, cut. cano, cecini, caxit-, sing. . . curro, cucurri, caro-, rtm. » 'i disc5 [dig], didici. (discitilriis) learn. ^ ' ^ ' - ' " I ' -do, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, etc., with credo, vendo), put [dha]. fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive. pango [pag], pegi (pepigi), pact-, fastejiyjix, bargain. parco, parsi, peperci, parcit- (pars-), spare. pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), bring forth. p.ello, pepuli, puis-, drive. p^ndo, pependi, pens-, weigh. poscO; poposci, (posciturus), ' -detiKjind. pungo [pug], pupugi, punct-, prick. sisto [sta], stitT, Stat-, stop. tango [tag], tetigi, tact-, touch. tendo [ten], tetendi (-tendi), tens- (cent-), stretch. \beat. tundo [tud], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-), c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root (§ 124. «): — alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. C0I6, colui, cult-, dwell y till. compesco, compescui, restrain. consuls, -lui, consult-, consult. cresco, crevi, cret-, iticrease. -cumbo [cub], cubui, cubit-, /i^-sero, sevi, sat-, sow. down. depso, depsui, depst-, ktiead. ^ excello, -cellui, -eels-, excel. fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. furo, furui, rage. gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan. -gigno [gen], genui, genit-, beget. meto, messui, mess-, reap. molo, molui, molit-, grind. occulo, occului, occult-, hide. pasco, pavi, past-,j^^^. percello, -cull, -culs-, upset. pono [pos], posui, posit-, put, quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest. rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize. scisco, scivi, scit-, decree. sero, serui, sert-, entwine. sino, sivi, sit-, pertnit. eperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn. sterno, stra""^!, strat-, strew. sterto, stertui (sterti), snore. strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound. -suescS, -suevi, -suet-, be wont. texo, texui, text-, weave. tremo, tremui, tremble. vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit. d. Adding iv to the verb-root (cf. § 124./) : — arcesso, -ivi, arcessit-, summonr. capesso, capessivi, U7ide7'take. ~ cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire. incesso, incessivi, attack. lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-,^<^ voke. peto, petivi, petit-, seek. quaero, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek. rudo, rudivi, rudit-, bray. sapio, sapivi (sapui), be wise. tero, trivX, trit-, rub. § 132.] Third Conj legation. 103 I e. Lengthening the vowel of the ago, egi, act-, drive. - capio, cepi, capt-, take. •■^ edo, edi, esum, eat (see § 140). "" — emo, emi, empt-, buy. facio, feci, fact-, make {?,^^%\dfl). fodio, fodi, foss-, dig. frango [frag], fregi, fract-, break. "^ fugio, fugi, fugit-,y?t'^. fundo [fud], fudi, fus-, pour, --sjacio, ieci, iact-, throw ^ (-icioj- -iect-). f. Retaining the present stem or arguo, -ui, -utum, accuse. "**^bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. -cendo, -cendl, -cens-, kindle. cudo, -cudi-, 'CUQ-, forge. facesso, facessi, facessit-, exe- cute. ~~ -f endo, -fendi, -fens-, ivard off. findo [fid], fidi,- fiss-, split. ICO, ici, let-, hit, lambo, Iambi, lambit-, lap. luo, luT, luit-, wash. — maudo, mandi, mans-, chew. nuo, nui, nuit-, nod. .^^pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), open. root (cf. § 124. tion, sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch. The following are regular in the perfect, but have no supine stem ; sarriS, -IvI (-ul), -itum, hoe. sentio, sensi, sens-,/^^/. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury. venio, veni, vent-, co?ne. vincio, vinxl, vinct-, bitid. caecutiS, be purblind. dgmentio, be mad. ferocio be fi,erce. gestio, be overjoyed. glociS, cluck (as a hen). ineptiS, play the trifler. Parallel Forms. , 134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic use : as, — lavo, lavare or lavgre, wash (see § 132. i). seated, scatere or scatgre, gush forth. ludifico, -are or ludifioor, -ari, mock. fulgo, fuIgSre or fulgeo, fulgere, shine. W^ DEPONENT VERBS. 135. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive 'Voice, with an active or reflexive signification : as, — 1st conj. miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 2d conj. vereor, vereri, xex'\tw&,fear. 3d conj. sequor, sequi, secutus,/i?//(?w. 4th conj. partior, partiri, partltus, share. Indicative. T I. " •> II. III. IV. Pres. 'miror vereor sequor partior miraris (-re) vereris (-re) sequeris (-re) partiris (-re) miratur veretur sequitur partitur miramur veremur sequimur partimur mlramint veremini sequimini partimini mlrantur verentur sequuntur partiuiitur Impf. mirabar verebar sequebar partiebar Fut. mlrabor verebor sequar partiar Perf. miratus sum veritus sum secutus sum partltus sum Plup. miratus eram veritus eram secutus eram partltus eram F,P. miratus ero veritus ero secutus ero partltus ero § 135.] Deponent Verbs, 107 I. Pres. mlrer Impf. mirarer Perf. miratus sim Subjunctive. II. III. IV. verear sequar partiar vererer sequerer partirer veritus sim secutus sim partitus sim Perf. Ger. Plup. miratus essem veritus essem secutus essem partitus esspm Imperative. mirare, -ator, etc. verere, -etor sequere, -itor partire, -itor Infinitive. Pres. mlrari vereri sequi partirl Perf. miratus esse veritus esse secutus esse partitus esse Fut. miraturus esse veriturus esse secuturus esse partiturus esse Participles. Pres. mirans verens sequens partiens Flit, miraturus veriturus secuturus partiturus miratus veritus secutus partitus mirandus verendus sequendus partiendus Gerund. mirandi, -6, etc. verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. partiendi, etc. Supine. mTrStum, -tu veritum, -tu seciitum, -til partitum, -tu a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : as, — sequeus, following. secuturus, about to follow. secutus, having followed, sequendus, to-be-followed. b. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, bottght ; adeptus, gained (or having gained^. c. The future infinitive is always in the active form : thus, sequor has secuturus esse (not secutum iri) . d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in trans- itive verbs, or neuter verbs used impersonally : as, — hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged. moriendum est omnibus, all must die. e. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in meaning, corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ in. «). f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense: as, criminor, / accuse, or / am accused. g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, found in both active and passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, / deserve* io8 Etymology : Verbs. [§§ 135, 136. h. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and all of these are legular. The following deponents are irregular : — adaentlor, -iri, adsensus, «jj^«/^hHascor, -i, natus, be born. apiscor, (-ip-), -i, aptus (-eptus), get. ^ defetiscor, -i, -fessus, faint. ^^ expergisoor, -I, perrectus, rouse. experior, -Tri, expertus, try. fateor, -eri, fassus, confess. fatiscor, -i, gape. ^fruor, -1, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. ^Vfungor, -I, functus, fulfil. "^^gradior (-gredior),-i, gressus, step. irSscor, -I, iratus, be angry, ,,^- ^ ISbor, -i, lapsus, /Zz//. --—loquor, -1, locutus (loquutus), speak. ..^ •miniscor, -i, -mentus, think. in§tior, -iri, mensus, measure. , "^ morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (mori- turuB, die. nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanotus), find. -iiitor, -i, nisus (nixus), strive. obliviscor, -I, oblitus, forget. opperior, -iri, oppertus, await. ordior, -iri, oisus, begin. orior (3d), -iri, ortus, (oriturus), rise. paoiscor, -1, pactus, bargain. patior (-petior), -i, passus (-pes- sus), suffer, -plector, -i, -plexus, clasp. .proficiscor, -i, profectus, set-out. queror, -i, questus, complain. re or, reri, ratus, think. reverter, -i, reversus, return. ringer, -i, rictus, snarl. sequor, -i, seciltus (sequutus), follow. tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus), defend. ulciscor, -i, ultus, avenge. utor, -i, usus, use, employ. Note. — The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio. Reverter, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect system, revertl. reverteram, etc. /. The following deponents have no supine stem : — dgverter, -ti, turn aside (to lodge). diflSteor, -eri, deny. liquor, -i, melt (neut.). Note.— appeared. medeer, -eri, heal. remiuiscery -i, call to mind. vescer, -\,feed upon. Deponents are only passive (or middle) verbs whose active has dis- There is hardly one that does not show at some period of the language signs of being used in the active. Semi-Depeuents. 136. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents. These are called semi-deponefits or neuter passives. They are : — ^~^audeo, audSre, ausus, dare.^- ^BM6.eo, gaudSre, gSvisus, rejoice. _ fido, fIdSre, fiaus, trust, soleO, solere, seUtus, be wont. §§ 136, 137.] Deponent Verbs, 109 a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive perfect auaim. The form sSdSs (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere. b. The active forms vapulo, vapulare, be flogged^ and vene6, venire, be sold (contracted from venum ire, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri, to be made (see § 142), and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile). Note. — The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iilrS, larare, ittratus, swear; nQb5, ntlbere, nttpta, marry; placed, plac§re, placitus, please, [For the regular Derivative Forms of Verbs, see \ 167.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the present system directly to the root, or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs (cf. p. ZS). They are sum, vols, fero, ado, queo, e6, fio, and their compounds. Sum has already been inflected in § 119. a. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with the prepositions ab, ad, dS, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (prod), sub, super. In the compound prosum, pro retains its original d before e. Thus,— Indic. Subj. Pres, prosum, [help, prosim prodes prosis pr5dest prosit prdsumus proslmus prodestis prosltis prosunt prosint Itnp. proderam, / was helping, prodessem Fut, •px^diexo, f shall help. Per/, proful, I helped. profuerim Plupf. ^xbixxexamt I had helped. profuissem F, P, profuero, I shall have helped. Imper. prSdes, prodesto, etc. Infin. Pres, pr5desse Perf. profuisse Fut. prSfutilrus ease Part. pr6futiirus, about to help. no Etymology: Verbs, 137, 138. b. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making the verb possum. This is inflected as follows : — Indicative. Subjunctive. Pres, possum, I can. possim potes, you can. possis potest, he can. possit possumus, we can. possTmus potestis, you can. possitis possunt, they can. possint Imp. poteram, I could. possem Fut: peter 6, I shall be able. Perf. potui, I could. potuerim Plupf. potueram potuissem F. P. potuero, I shall have been able. Infin. Pres. posse * Perf. potuisse Part. potens {2id].) , powerful. Note. — The forms potis sum, pote sum, etc., occur in early writers. Other early forms are potesse ; possiem, -es, -et ; poterint, potisit (foi possit) ; potestur (with pass. inf. cf. § 143. a). \ "' 138. Volo and its compounds are inflected as follows: — V0I6, velle, volui, wish. nolo (for ne volo) , nolle, nolui, be unwilling. al6 (for magis or mage volo), malle, malui, wish rather, prefer. Present, Indic. SUBJ. Indic. Subj. Indic. Subj. volo velim nolo • nolim mal5 malim VIS veils nonvis nolis mavis malls volt(vult) 1 velit nonvolt nolit mavolt malit volumus velimus nolumus nolTmus malumus malimus voltis(vul- •)velitis nonvultis nolitis mavultis malitis volunt veUnt nolunt nolint malunt malint volebam vellem Imperfect, nolebam noUem malebam mallem volam Future. nolam malam voles, etc. noles, etc. males, etc volui voluerim Perfect. nolui noluerim maluT maluerim Pluperfect, volueram voluissem nolueram noluissem malueram maiuissen voluerS Futtire Perfect, aoluerd mSluerd / / 138, 139.] Irregular Verbs. Ill Imperative. Pres. noil nolite, do not. Fut. nolito u51itdte, thou shalt not, ye shall not. u51ito Infinitive. velle voluisse nolle noluisse malle maluisse Participles. Pres. volens, willing, nolens, unwilling. Gerund. volendi (late) Note. — The forms sis for si vis, sultis for si voltis, and the forms ne volo, nevis (ne-vis), mage volo, mavolo, etc., occur in early writers. 139. Fero, ferre, tiili, latum,i bear. ACTIVE. PASS IVE. Indic. SUBJ. ' Indic. SUBJ. Pres. fero feram feror ferar fers feras ferris feraris (-re) fert ferat fertur feratur ferimus feramus ferimur feramur fertis feratis ferimini feramini ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur Imp/. ferebam ferrem ferebar ferrer Fut. feram ferar Per/. tiili tulerim latus sum latus Sim Plup. tuleram tulissem latus eram latus essem P.P. tulero Imper latus ero ATIVE. Pres. fer ferte ferre ferimini Fut. ferto ferto fertSte ferunto fertor fertor feruntor Infin ITIVE. Pres. ferre ferri Per/. tulisse latus esse Fut. laturus esse latum iri (lat us fore) Partk :iPLES. Pres. ferens Per/, latus Fut. laturus Ger. ferendus Gerund : ferendl, -d6, -dum -d5 Supine : latum, -tu 1 The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), from TUL, root of toUO ; the supine latum is for ftlatum (cf. T\riT6t), 112 Etymology: Verbs. [§ 140. 140. Ed5, edere, edi, esum, eat^ is regular of the third conju- gation, but has also some forms directly from the root (ed) without the characteristic vowel. These are in full-faced type. INDIC. edo edis (6s) edit (Sat) edimus ACTIVE, PASSIVE. SuBj. Indic. Subj. pTresent. edor edar ederis (-re) edaris (-re) editur (estur) edatur edam (edim) edas (edis) edat (edit) edamus (edimus) editis (estis) edatis (editis) edunt edant (edint) edimur edimini eduntur edamur edamini edantur edebam edebas edebat »dam edes edet, etc. edl ederam gdero ede (5s) edito (Ssto) edito (Ssto) edere (§sse) edisse esurus esse Imperfect. ederem (essem) edebar ederer ederes (esses) edebaris (-re) edereris (-re) ederet (esset) edebatur ederetur (essetur) Future, edar ederis edetur, etc. Perfect. ederim | esus sum Pluperfect, edissem | esus eram Future Perfect, 1 esus ero €sus sim esus essem edite (Sste) editote (estote) edunta Imperative. edere ediniin! editor editor eduntor Pres, edens Fut, esurus Gerund. edendi, -do, -dum, -d6 Infinitive. edl esus esse 6sum Tri Participles. Perf, esus Ger, edendus Supine. esum, -sQ S 141] Irregular Verbs. ,. >r\ V i^^ 113 Subjunctive. earn, eas, eat eamus, eatis, eant irem, ires, iret iremus, Iretis, Irent iverim (ierlm) ivissem (issem) 141. E6, ire, Ivi, itum, go. Indicative. Pres. S, e6, Is, it P, Imus, itis, eunt Imperf, ibam, ibas, Ibat ibamus, ibatis, Ibant Ftiture. ibo. Ibis, ibit Tbimus, Ibitis, ibunt Perfect. IvI (ii) Pluperf. Iveram (ieram) Fut. Perf. ivero (iero) Imperative. I, ite, its, its, itote, eunto Infinitive. Pres. ire Perf. ivisse (isse) Fut. iturus esse Participles. Pres. iens, euntis Fut. iturus Ger. eundum Gerund: eundi, -do, -dum, -do Supine: itum, itu a. The compounds adeo, approach^ ineo, enter^ and some others, are transitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive : — Indic. Impf. adibar Fut. adibor Pres. adeor adiris aditur Perf. aditus sum adlmur Plup. aditus eram adimini F. P. aditus ero adeuntur Infin. Part. SUBJ. Pres. adear Impf adlrer Perf aditus sim Plup. aditus essem adiri, aditus esse aditus adeundus Thus inflected, the forms of eo are used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive : as, itum est (§ 146. ^). The infini- tive Irl is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (§ 147. c. l). The verb veneo, be sold {i.e. venum eo, go to sale)^ has also several forms in the passive. b. In the perfect system of eo the forms without v are more common, and in the compounds are regular : as, adil, adieram, adiisse (adisse). c. The compound ambio is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative. d. Pro with eo retains its original d : as, prodeo, prodis, pr5dit. 1 Root I, cf. iifu ; the e stands for ei, lengthened form of the root i. 114 Etymology: Verbs. "[§§142,143. 142* FaciC, facSre, feci, factum, make., is regular. But it has imperative fac in the active, and besides the regular forms the future perfect f axo, perfect subjunctive f axim. The passive of f acio is — flo, fiSri, factus sum, be made, or become. The tenses of the first stem of fio are regular of the fourth con- juofation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri. Indicative. Subjunctive. Pres. S. fio, fis, fit flam, fias, fiat P. fimus, fitis, fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant Imperf. fiebam, fiebas, etc. fierem, fieres, etc. Future, flam, fies, etc. Perfect, factus sum factus sim Pluperf. factus eram factus essem Fut. Perf. factus ero Imper. fi, fite, fito, fitote, flunto Infin. Pres. fieri Perf. factus esse Fut. factum iri Part. Perf. factus Ger. faciendus a. Most compounds of facio with prepositions change a to I (pres- ent stem), or g (supine stem), and are inflected regularly : as, — conficio, conficSre, confeci, confectum,^?^/^^. conficior, confici, confectus. b. Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive : as, benefacio, -facere, -feci, -factum ; pass, benefio, -fieri, -factus, benefit. These retain the accent of the simple verb : as, bene-fS'cis (§ 19. dy c. A few isolated forms of -fio occur in other compounds : viz., — confit, // happens, defit, it lacks, infit, he begins (to speak). confiet defiunt infiunt confiat defiet efiBeri, to be effected. confieret defiat interfieri, to perish. confieri defieri interfiat, let him perish. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 143. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected reg- ularly. These are — §§143,144.] Defective Verbs. 1 15 a. CoQ^l} J began I Infin. ooepisse ; Fut. Part coeptilrus; Perf. Pass. Part coeptus. The passive is used with the passive infinitive: as, coeptus sum vocari, I began to be called^ but coepi vocare, / began to call (cf. § 144. g, note). For the present inoipio is used. b. Odiljlhate;^ perfect participle osus, hating or hated {jpexoBVLAy utterly hateful), future participle osurus, likely to hate, c. MeminI, / remember i^ with the Imperative memento, me- mentote ; Part, meminens. Note. — OdI and meminl have a perfect form with a present meaning, and are called preteritive verbs. Novl and consuevi (usually referred to n6sc6 and consuesco) are often used in the sense of / know (have learned), and / am accus- tomed (have become accustomed), as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see $ 279. Remark). 144. Many verbs are found only in the present system. Such are maereo, -ere, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad)\ ferio, -ire, strike. In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts occur in its compounds : as, vado, vadere, invasi, invasum. Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms : as,— a. Aio, I say: — Indic. Pres. 5io, ais, alt ; Siunt hnpf aiebam (aibam), aiebas, etc. SuBj. Pres. aias, aiat, aiaut Imper. ai Part. Siens b. Inquam, I say (used only, except in poetry, in direct quotations, like the English quoth, which is possibly from the same root) : — Indic. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt Impf inquiebat Fut. inquies, -et Perf. inquisti, inquit Imper. inque, inquito c. The deponent farl, to speak ^ forms the perfect tenses regularly : as, fatua sum, eram, etc. It has also — Indic. Pres. fatur, fantur Fut. fabor, fabltur Imper. fare Infin. farl i Root AP (as in apiscor) with co(n-). 2 Root OD, as in 5dium. 3 Root MEN, as in mens. ii6 Etymology: Verbs, [§144. Part. Pres. (dat.) fanti Perf, fatus, having spoken. Ger, fandus, to be spoken of, Ger. fandi, -do Sup. fatu Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, occur: as, praefatur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The com- pound infans is regularly used as a noun {child). Infandus, nefandus, are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abo7ninable. d. Quaeso, I ask^ ^^^ (original form of quaero, § 132. af), has — Indic. Pres. quaeso, quaesiimus Infin. quaesere Part. quaesens e, OvSre, to trijanph, has the following ; — Indic. Pres. ovat SuBj. Pres. ovet Imperf. ovaret Part. ovans, ovaturus, ovatus Ger. ovandi /. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : as, — Pres. sing, salve, plur, salvete, haill (from salvus, safe and sotmd). An infin. salvere also occurs. Pres. sing. avS (or have), plur. avete, Fid, aveto, hail ox farewell. Pres. sing, cedo, plur. oedite (cette) , ^/V^, tell. Pres. sing, apage ! begone ! (properly a Greek word). g. Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot^ are conjugated like eo. They are rarely used except in the present. Indic. SuBj. Indic. Present. SUBJ. queo queam nequeo (non queo) nequeam quis queas nonquis nequeas quit queat nequit nequeat quimus queamus nequimus nequeamus quitis queatis nequitis nequeatis queunt queant ne queunt Imperfect. nequeant quTbam quTrem nequibam nequTrem quibat quiret nequibat nequiret quibant quirent nequibant nequirent 144, 145.] Indic. quibo quibunt Impersonal Verbs. 117 SUBJ, Indic. Future. SUBJ. quivi quivit quiverunt quire nequlbunt Perfect. nequlvi nequlvisti quiverit nequivit nequiverunt Pluperfect. quissent nequisset Infinitive. quivisse(quisse) nequire nequivisse ^^^' Participles. quiSus, queuntis nequiens Note. — A few passive forms are used by old writers with passive infinitives : as, quitur, quitus, queatur, queantur, nequitur, nequitum ; cf. possum and coepi (^^ 137. note and 143. a). Impersonal Verbs. 145. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third person singular^ the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.^ Their synopsis may be given as follows: — CONJ. I. II. III. IV. Pass. Conj. i. it is plain. it is allowed. it chances. it results. it is fought. constat licet accidit evenit pugnatur constabat licebat accidebat eveniebat pugnabatur constabit licebit |-eat accidet eveniet pugnabitut constitit licuit,-itum accidit evenit pugnatum est cons tit erat licuerat acciderat evenerat pugnatum erat constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit pugnatum erit constet liceat accidat eveniat pugnetur constaret liceret accideret eveniret pugnargtur constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit pugnatum sit constitisset licuisset accidisset evenisset pugnatum esset constare licere accidSre evenire pugnarl constitisse licuisse accidisse evenisse pugnatum esse -staturum esse -iturum esse -turum esse pugnatum iri 1 With impersonal verbs the word IT is used in English, having usually no rep- resentative in Latin, though id, h6c^ illud^ are often used nearly in the same way. Ii8 Etymology: Verbs. [§ 146. 146. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : — a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day: as, pluit, it rains \ ningit, it snows; grandinat, // hails i fulgurat, // lightens \ vesperascit (inceptive, § 167. «), it grows late; lucet hoc iam, it is getting light now. Note. — In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject : as, Itippiter tonat, Jupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings ram stones. b. Verbs of feelings where the person who Is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb (§ 221.^). Such are: miseret, it grieves i paenitet (poenitet), // repe?its; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it shajnes; taedet, // wearies: as, miseret me, I pity (it distresses me). Note. — Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity (am moved to pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as, paenitHrus (as from tpaenio), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pig-itum est. c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (§§ 270. a, 330, 332. a): as,— accidit, contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it happens, libet, it pleases. licet, // is permitted. certum est, // is resolved. constat, it is clear. placet, videtur, // seems gooa. decet, it is becoming. delectat, iuvat, // delights. oportet, necesse est, it is needful. praestat, it is better. interest, refert, // concerns. vacat, there is leisure. restat, superest, it remains. Note. — Many of these verbs may be used personally. Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est, etc. The participles libens and licens are used as adjectives. d. The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally : as, pugnatur, there is fighting (it is fought) ; itur, some one goes (it is gone) ; parcitur mihi, I atn spared (it is spared to^me, see § 230).^ 1 This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French (ela se/ait). § 147.] Origin and History of Verb-Forms. 119 Periphrastic Forms. 147. The following periphrastic forms are found in the inflection of the verb : — a. The so-called "Periphrastic Conjugations" (see § 129). b. The tenses of completed action in the passive formed by the tenses of esse with the perfect participle : as, amatus est. c. The future infinitive passive, formed as follows : — 1. By the infinitive passive of eo, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um : as, amatuni iri. 2. By fore (or futurum esse), with the perfect participle (as amatus fore). 3. By fore with ut and the subjunctive (cf. § 288./). NOTE. Origin and History of Verb-Forms. The forms that make up the conjugation of a verb are composed of formations from a root, originally separate, but gradually grouped to- gether, and afterwards supplemented by new formations made on old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of these forms were inherited, already made, by the Latin language; others were developed in the course of the history of the language itself. I . Present Stem. — The Present stem is a modifi"cation or develop- ment of the root (see § 123). In regular forms of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations it appears in all the other parts of the verb (including noun and adjective forms) as well, and is accordingly called the Verb-Stem. The tenses of the Present system are made from the Present stem as follows : — a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to the present stem. Thus root ar, present- (and verb-) stem ara-; ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis. b. In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bSs, etc. (originally a complete verb), is added, bam is probably the imperfect of the root BHU (cf. fui, futurus, fio, ^vw, be), meaning I was. This was added to a complete word originally a case of a noun, as in Iivas a-ploiighing, hence ara-bam. The form probably began in the second or the third conjugation and from that was extended to the others. c. In the Future Indicative a similar sufiix, -bo, -bis, etc., is added (by the same process), bo is probably a present form of the same root BHU, with a future meaning : as, ara-bo. I20 Etymology: Verbs. This form once in use in all the conjugations was later supplanted in the third and fourth by an inherited form, which was originally an optative mood, differing from the present indicative only in the final vowel of the stem (see § 126. r. l) : as, suge-bo (old) ; sugam, suges (later). d. In the Present Subjunctive the personal terminations were added to another form of present stem of great antiquity with a different vowel : as, amem, moneam, audiam. e. In the Imperfect Subjunctive a suffix, -rem, -res, etc., was added. -rem is doubtless a very old modal form of sum diverted from its original use. f. The noun and adjective forms of the Present system were originally separate formations made from the root by means of noun-sufifixes. These forms being associated with the verb became types for the formation of new ones from the present stem, in cases where no such formation from the root ever existed. Thus regere is originally a dative (or locative) of a noun like genus, generis ; but as regere seems to be rege + re, so ara-re was made in the same manner. Gerendus is the noun-stem geron-, i.e. ger + on- (ger5, -onis, § 162. c) + dus; but it seemed to be gere + ndus, and thus gave rise to ama-ndus. 2. Perfect Stem. — The Latin inherited from the parent Indo- European speech preterite forms of two kinds : — a. In the real perfect (perfect with have in English) the proper terminations (see § 118) are added directly to a root-form, which was originally a reduplication (doubling) of the root with vowel change. Thus sto, root sta, perfect steti (for fstesti) ; cf. pungo (root pug), pupiigi (later pupugi). b. In other inherited verbs the perfect was formed by a verbal auxiliary (some form of sum) added to the root (or later to the present stem). Thus dico, root Die, perfect tdic-si (dixi). This auxiliary being a complete verb-form, contained, of course, the personal termi- nations. c. The remaining perfects were formed with a suffix -vi, of uncertain origin, but containing the personal terminations. But these formative processes had been forgotten long before the Latin language reached the stage in which we know it. , The form in -vi, however, became the type for new Perfects. By the Romans, the first person singular of the Perfect (however formed), losing its final vowel, was treated as a new stem, from which other forms were developed by the use of added auxiliaries or by analogy with those already formed. This stem is Origin and History of Verb-Forms. 121 called the Perfect Stem. Thus were formed the Pluperfect and the Future Perfect Indicative, the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect Infinitive. The terminations of these tenses are parts of sum in some form or other, but precisely how they are made is uncertain. 3. Supine Stem. — The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suifering the same phonetic changes (by which the t becomes s, § 11. «. 2). Hence these forms, along with several sets of derivatives (see §§ 162. a, 163. ^, 164. ///) used as nouns or adjectives, were felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with the Supine Stem. Thus, — pingo, pictum, pictus, picturus, pictura, pictor. rideo, risum (for rid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risurus, risio, risor, risibilis. The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the Root (or verb-stem) and the Personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a developed language like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of cojnposition ; that is, of adding to the root or the verb-stem either pronouns (personal endings) or fully developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal termina- tions), or of adding similar auxiliaries to the perfect stem; or of imi- tation of such processes. Thus amabaiuus is made by adding to ama-, originally a significant word, or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form fbamus, not by inserting ba between ama- and -mus. 122 Etymology : Particles. [§ 148. Chapter VII. — Particles. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are called Particles. In their origin these words are either (i) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compotmds and phrases. Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (§§ 152 and 155), and interjections must be reckoned as particles (§ 27). I.-ADVERBS. 1. Derivation. 148. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives as follows : — a. From adjectives of i\\Q Jirst and second declensions, by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -§: as, care, dearly^ from carus, dear (stem caro-) . Note, — The ending -e is a relic of an old ablative in -ed (cf. { 36./). b. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as l-stems. Thus, — fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave. aoriter, eagerly, from acer (stem aori-), eager. vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-), prudenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-), aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-). Note.— This suffix is probably the same as -ter in the Greek 'Tepos and in Uter, alter (p. 49, n. i). If so, these adverbs are neuter accusatives (cf. d). c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of both forms (-§ and -ter). Thus diViX\xs,,hard, has both dure and duriter ; miser, wretched, has both misere and miseriter. d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb : as, multum, much', facilg, easily i quid, why. So regularly in the comparative degree : as, Scrius, ?nore keenly (positive Scriter) ; facilius, more easily (positive, facilS). Note. — These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (see \ 340. a). $ 14a] Derivation of Adverbs, 123 t. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, pronouns, and nouns, maj be used adverbially: as^ falso^ fatsety ; citS, quickly] recta (via), straight {straightway) \ cr5br5, frequently i forts, by chance i spontS, of one'' s own accord. f» Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use : as, abundS, plentifully (as if from fabundus, cf. abundS, abound) \ saepg, often (ci. saepes, hedgey and saepid, hedge in) ; propS, almost (as if from tpropis). Note. — Many adverbs and other particles are case-forms of nouns or pronouns. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful. Examples may be seen in the following:— a. Accusative forms: actdtuni, quickly; nOn (for ne tlnuni), not; iterum (comparative of Is), a second time; demum (superlative of de, down), at last. 0. Ablative or Instrumental forms (J ^i. i) : QU&, where; ContrS, 07i the other kand: intr&, within; (in\,how; aliciui, somehow ; volg6, cominonly; frtlstra, in vain ; foiis, out 0/ doors. 7. Datives of adjectives and pronouns: as, QuS, whither; ade5, to that degree; flltrS, beyond; citrO, this side (as end of motion) ; retro, back; illoc (for 1116-ce), weakened to illtlc, thither. Remark. — Those in -tr6 are from comparative stems (cf, tils, cis, re-). 5. Locative forms: Ibi, there; ubi, where; peregri (peregre), abroad; hic (for fhoi-ce), here; interim, meanwhile (cf. inter) ; ind6, thence ; tamen, yet; 51ira (from ollus, old form of ille), once. Also the compounds extrinsecus, outside; hodle (hol + die), to-day; perendiS, day after to-morrow. e. Feminine accusatives: Statim, on the spot; saltim, at least (generally saltern), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular adverbial termination ; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun and verb stems inmiediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim : as, separ§,tim, separately, from separatus, separate. Some adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are perhaps locative : as, palam, openly; perperam, wrongly; tam, ^; quam, as. C Plural accusatives: as, ali§.s, elsewhere; forSs, out of doors (as end of motion). 17. Of uncertain formation : (i) those in -tus (usually preceded by 1), with an ablative meaning: as, fUnd.itUS,y^£'/« the bottom, utterly ; divinitus, from above, providentially; Intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do : as, quidem, indeed; quondam, once; quando (cf. dSnec), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of time), while; iam (perhaps locative, cf. nam), now, 6, Phrases or clauses which have grown together into adverbs (cf. notwithstand- ing^ nevertheless, besides) : antea, old antideS, before (ante ea, probably ablative or instrumental) ; postmodo, presently (post modo, a short time after) ; denuo, ane7t} (de novo) ; prorsus, absolutely (pro versus, straight ahead) ; quot- annls, yearly (quot annis, as many years as there are) ; quam-ob-rem, wherefore; cominus, hand to hand (con manus) ; eminus at long ra?ige (ex manus) ; ob-viam (as in Ire obviam, to go to meet) ; pridem (cf. prae and -dem ini-dem), for some time; forsan (fors an [est]) perhaps (it's a chance whether) ; forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance whether); scilicet (sci, licet), that is to say (know, you may); vldSllcet (vidS, licet), to wit (see, you may). 124 Etymology: Particles. [§ 149. 2. Classification. 149. Adverbs are classified as follows : a. Adverbs of Place.* hic, here. hue, hither, hinc, hence. ibi, there. eo, thither, inde, thence. is tic, there. istuc, //r/Z/^^r. istiuc, thence. illic, there. illuc, thither, illinc, thence. ubi, where. qvib, whither, unde, whence. h.2iC, by this way. ea, <5/ Mrt/ wrty. i&tB., by that way. iUa (iliac), " qua, by what way. iudidem eadem aliunde alia undecunque quaqua uudique quavis sicuude siqua necunde uSqua citro, to this side, intro, inwardly. •poxxOy further on. alicuhi, somewhere. aliqu6,/<7,etc. alicunde,/rom,etc. aiiqua, by, etc. ibidem, in the same eodem place. alibi, elsewhere. alio ubiubi, wherever, quoquo ubi vis, anywhere, quo vis sicubi, if anywhere, siquo necubi, /w day to day ; in longitiidinem, in length; in haec verba iiirare, to szvear to these words; hunc in modum, in this way; oratio in Catilinam, a speech against Catiline ; in perpetuum, y^r ever; in peius, y^r the worse; in diem vivere, to live from hand to mouth. 1 (y originally had the same meaning as de (compare off). § 153.] Prepositions, 131 2. With the ablative, in, on, among. \ In very various connections : as, in castris, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at, or near the camp) ; in mari, oit the sea ; in urbe esse, to be in town ; in tempore, in season; in scribendo, while writing; est mihi in animo, / have it in mind ; in ancoris, at anchor ; in hoc homine, in the case of this man ; in dubio esse, to be in doubt. infra, below, with the accusative. a. Of place: as, ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea beiojv the town; infra caelum, under the sky. b. Figuratively: as, infra Homerum, later than Hojuer ; infra tres pedes, less than three feet ; infra elephantos, smaller than elephants ; infra infimos omnes, the lowest of the low. Inter, between (with two accusatives), among : as, — inter me et Scipionem, between myself and Scipio ; inter os et offam, bet^veen the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela, amid the weapons of the en eviy ; inter omnes prim us, yfrj/ tj/"*?/// inter bibendum, while drinking ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between ourselves. a. Literally: (i) of motion (archaic) : zs,,<:!^'^qvcvz.vc\, towards Rome (Ennius); ob viam, /^ the ri?^^^ (preserved as adverb, in the way of^. (2) Of place in which, BEFORE, in a few phrases : as, ob oculos, before the eyes. b. Figuratively, IN return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account, balancing one thing against another): as, ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, ON ACCOUNT OF (a similar mercantile idea), for : as, ob eam cz.v&2sa., for that reason ; quam ob rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why. Per, THROUGH, OVER, with the accusative. a. Of motion: as, per urbem ire, /^ ^it? //;r£»«^,^ the city; per miaros, over the walls. b. Of time : as, per hiemem, throughout the winter, c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments : as, per homines idoneos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) may for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality. So, per se, in and of itself. d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as, per iocum, in jest; per speciem, in show, ostentatiously. Prae, in front of, with the ablative. a. Literally, of place (in a few connections) : as, prae se portare, to carry in one's arms; prae se ferre, to carry before one (hence figuratively), ex- hibit, proclaim, ostentatiously make known. b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English for) : as, prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy. 132 Etymology: Particles. [§ 153. c. Of comparison : as, prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison with their own great size. Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative. 1. Literally: as, praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of); praeter oculos, before the eyes. 2. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except : as, praeter spem, beyond hope ; praeter alios, more than others; praeter paucos, with the exception of a few. Pro, IN FRONT OF, with the ablative : as, — sedens pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; pro populo, in presence of the people. So pro rostris, on [the front of] the rostra; pro contione, before the assembly (in a speech) . In various idiomatic uses: pro lege, in defence of the law ; pro vitula, instead of a heifer ; pro centum milibus, as good as a [hundred] thousand; pro rata parte, in due proportion ; pro hac vice, for this once ; pro consule, in place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength; pro virili parte, to the best of one's ability. Propter, near, by, with the accusative : as, — propter te sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of ^ : as, propter metum, through fear. Secundum,! just behind, following, with the accusative. 1. Literally: as, ite secundum me (Plant.), go behind me; secundum litus, near the shore ; secundum flumen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumine, down stream). 2. Figuratively, according to: as, secundum naturam, according to nature. Sub, UNDER, UP TO, with the accusative or the ablative. a. Of motion, with the accusative : as, sub montem succedere, to come close to the hill. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night; sub lucem, near daylight; sub haec dicta, at (following) these words. b. Of rest, with the ablative : as, sub love, in the open air (under the heaven, personified as Jove) : sub monte, at the foot of the hill. Idiomatically : sub eodem tempore, about the same time (just after it). Super,2 ABOVE, over, with the accusative or ablative : as, — vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super Indos, beyond the Hindoos. But, — super tali re, about such an affair. (See § 260. c.) Supra,^ ON TOP OF, ABOVE, with the accusative : as, — supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively: as, supra hanc memoriam, before our remejnbrance ; supra morem, more than usual; supra quod, besides. 1 Part, of sequor. 2 Comp. of sub. 3 Instrumental of superus, \ 91. b. §§ 153, 154.] Conjunctions. 133 TranBji ACROSS, OVER, THROUGH, BY, With the accusative. a. Of motion : as, trans mare currunt, they run across the sea ; trans flumen ferre, to carry over a river ; trans aethera, through the sky ; trans caput iace, throw over your head. b. Of rest : as, trans Rhenum incolunt, they live across the Rhine. Ultra, BEYOND (on the further side), with the accusative : as, — cis Padum ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond ; iiltra eum numerum, more than that number ; iiltra fidem, incredible; ultra modum, im- moderate. [For Prepositions in Compounds, see ^ 170.] Note. — Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, insuper. III. -CONJUNCTIONS. 154. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are of two classes : — a. Co-ordinate, connecting co-ordinate or similar constructions (see § 180. a). These are: — 1 . Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or opposition of thought as well as of words : as, et, and. 2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought : as, sed, but. 3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for. 4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore. b. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or dependent clause with that on which it depends (see § 180. ^). These are : — 1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, if; nisi, unless. 2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition: as, ac si, as if. 3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission : as, quamquam, although (lit. however, much it may be true that, etc.). 4. Temporal : as, postquam, after. 5. Consecutive, expressing result : as, ut, so that. 6. Final, expressing purpose : as, ut, in order that ^ ne, that not. Note 1. — Conjunctions, like adverbs, are either petrified cases of nouns, pro- nouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases : as, sed, an old ablative (cf. red, prod) ; quod, an old accusative; dum, an old accusative (cf. turn, cum) ; vero, an old ablative of verus ; nihilominus, none the less; proinde, \\X. forward from there. Note a — A phrase used as a conjunction is called ?>. conjunctive phrase : as, qua propter, quO circ&, wherefore, ^ Probably neuter participle, cf. terminus. 134 Etymology : Particles. [§ 155. 155. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accu- rately distinguished in Latin than in English. The follow- ing list includes the common conjunctions^ and conjunc- tive phrases : — 1. Co-ordinate. a. Copulative and Disjunctive. et, -que, atque (ac), and. et . . et ; et . . . -que (atque) ; -que . . . et ; -que . . -que (poet.), both . . . and. etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item), also. cum . . . tum J turn . . . tum, both . . . and; not only . . but also. qua . . . qua, on one hand , » , on the other hand. m.odo , . . modo, now . . . now. aut . , . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . . or. sive (seu) . , . sive, whether , , . or, nee (neque) . . . neo (neque) ; neque . . . nee ; nee . neque (rare), neither . . . nor. et . , . neque, both . . . and not. nee . . . et ; neo (neque) . . . -que, neither . . . and. b. Adversative. sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, bid. tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yety nevertheless, nihilominus, none the less. at vero, but in truth; enirarverOy for in truth. ceterum, on the other handy but. c. Causal and Illative. nam, namque, enim, etenim,/^?^. quia, quod, because. quoniam, quippe, cum (quom, quum), quando, quandoquldem, Biquidem, utpote, since y inasmuch as. propterea (. . . quod),yj?r this reason (. . . that). quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore^ whence. ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore, accordingly. Note. — Of these quia, quod, quoniam, quippe, cum, slquidem, often introduce subordinate clauses. As all subordinate clauses have been developed from clauses once co-ordinate (p. 164), the distinction between co-ordinate conjunc- tions and subordinate is often obscure. 1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list of correlatives, $ 106. §§ 155, 156.] Conjunctions, 135 d. Concessive. quidem, to be sure^ it is true, 2. Subordinate. e. Conditional. sT, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless ^ if not; quod si, but if. modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only ^ provided. dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not. f. Comparative. ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, oeu, as^ like as. tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsT, ac si, velut, veluti, velutsi, as if* quam. atque (So), as^ than. g. Concessive. etsT, etiamsl, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam (quanquam), aU though. quamvTs, quantumvis, quamlibet, however mrtch. licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom, quum), though^ suppose^ whereas. h. Temporal. cum (quom, quum), cum primum, ubi, ut primum, postquam (posteaquam), when. prius . . . quam, ante . . . quam, before , non ante . . . quam, not . . . until. quando, simul atque (simul ac), simul, as soon as. dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until. i. Consecutive and Final. at (uti), quo, so that, in order that. ne, ut ng, lest {that . . . not, in order that not^ ; neve (neu), nor. quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent). 156. The following are the principal conjunctions whose meaning requires to be noticed : — a. Et, and., simply connects words or clauses ; -que coinbines more closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word con- nected or to the first or second of two or more words connected. Thus, cum coniugibus et liberis, with [their] wives and children. ferro ignique, with fire and sxvord. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.] aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.] 136 Etymology: P articles . [§ 156. Atque (ac) adds with some emphasis or with some impHed re- flection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet y and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untrans- latable : as, — "* omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction), usus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected), atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part). In the second of two connected ideas, and not is expressed by neque (nee) : as, — neque veto hoc solum dixit, and he not only said this. Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words ot comparison and likeness : as, — non secus (aliter) ac si, not ctherivise than ij. pro eo ac debui, as was fny duty (in accordance as I ought). aeque ac tii, as much as you. haud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered. simul atque, as soon as. b. Sed and the more emphatic verum or vero, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives i^not this . . . but something else). At introduces with em- phasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense. Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqui, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, hd if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument. Ast is old or poetic and is equivalent to at. Note. — A concessive is often followed by an adversative either in a co- ordinate or a subordinate clause : as, etiamsi quod scribas non habebis, scribito tamen (Cic.) , though you have noth'mg to write, still write all the same. c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (probably imperative of V0I6) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this dis- tinction is sometimes disregarded. Thus, — sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas, but who am I or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a neg- ative is implied and both alternatives are excluded]. § 156.] Conjunctions. 137 quart! tenui aut nulla potius valetudine, what feeble health [he had], or rather nojte at all. [Here vel might be used, but would refer only to the expression, not to the fact]. aut bibat aut abeat, let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses]. vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria, his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it). si propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortiina, if they have rel- atives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example). cum cogniti sunt et aut deorum aut regum filii inventi, sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.] implicati vel usu diuturno vel etiam officiis, entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude the first.] Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions {if either . . . or zf), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing: as, — sive arridens sive quod ita putaret (De Orat. i. 91), either laughingly or because he really thought so. Vel, even, for instance, is often used with no alternative force : as, — vel minimus, the very least. d. Nam and namque,/"^/-, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; eteuim {for, you see; for, yo7i know; for, ?nindyoji) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof. (ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus in his incliisi compagibus corporis munere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere per- fungimur. est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. Maj. yj). harum trium sententiarum niilli prorsus assentior. nee enim ilia prima vera est, for of course that first one isn't true. e. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative : as, quia, quod, si, ut, ne, and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative. 138 Etymology : Particles. [§ 156. ne aegri quidem quia non omnes convalescunt, idcirco ars nulla medicinae est. prim urn igitur aut negandum est esse deos . . . aut qui deos esse con- cedant eis fatendum est eos aliquid agere idque praeclarum; nihil est autem praeclarius mundi administratione, deorum igitur consilio administratur. quod si aliter est, aliquid profecto sit necesse est melius et maiore vi praeditum quam deus. . . . non est igitur natura deorum praepotens neque excellens, si quidem ea subiecta est ei vel necessitati vel naturae qua caelum maria terrae regantur, nihil est autem praestantius deo, ab eo igitur mundum necesse est regi. niilli igitur est naturae oboediens aut subiectus deus : omnem erg5 regit ipse naturam. etenim si concedimus intellegentis esse deos, concedimus etiam providentis et rerum quidem niaximarum. ergo utrum ignorant quae res maxumae sint quoque eae modo tractandae et tuendae an vim non habent qua tantas res sustineant et gerant? (N. D. ii. 76.) malum mihi videtur mors, est miserum igitur, quoniam malum, certe. ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventiirum est miseri. mihi ita videtur. nemo ergo non miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) meministis enim cum illius nefarii gladiatoris voces percrebuissent quas, etc. — turn igitur (Murena 50). /, Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a fact or a statement. Quoniam (for quom iam), inas7mich as, since, when now, now that^ has reference to motives, excuses or justifications, and the like. Quando, sifice, is mostly archaic or late. possunt quia posse videntur, they can because they think they can, locus est a me quoniam ita Murena voluit retractandus (Murena 54), J must review the point, since Murena has so wished. me reprehendis quod idem defendam (as he had not) quod lege piinierira (Murena 67), you blame me because [as you say] / defend the same charge which I have punished by the law. reprehendis me quia defendam (as he had) (Sulla, 50). cur igitur pacem nolo ? quia turpis est (Philip, vii. 9), why then do I not wish for peace ? Because it is disgraceful. In the denial of a reason, non quo is used as well as non quod^ non quia, and non quin, but not non quoniam. Thus, — non quia multis deheo . . . sed quia saepe concurrunt aliquorum bene de me meiitorum inter ipsos contentiones (Plancius 78), not because I am indebted to many, but because, etc. n5n quin pari virtiite et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam n5n habuerunt (Philip, vii. 6), not that there were not others of equal courage and £ood-will, but they had not so much reason. g. Cum (quom), when, is always a relative, and is often correlative with tum (see h. i, below) ; quando, when (rarely since), is used as interrogative, relative and indefinite: as, quando? hodie, whenf to- day ; bI qxjidLndLOf if ever § 156.] Cotijtinctioiis ; Interjections. 139 7i. I. Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, frequently have a correlative in another clause, to which they correspond : as, — ut sementem feceris, ita metes, as you sow, so shall you reap. uti initium, sic finis est, as is the beginning, so is the end, turn cum Catilinam eiciebam (Catil. iii. 3), at the time when, etc. 2. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two co-ordinate clauses. Examples are : — et . . . et, both . . . and. modo . . . modo, now . . . now. nunc . . . nunc, now . . . now. iam . . . iam, now . . . now. simul . . . simul, at once (this) and also (that) . qua . . . qua, both . . . and, as welt . . . as, alike (this) and (that) . /. The concessives (etsi, quamvis, etc., although^ may introduce either a fact or a mere supposition, and are often followed by the cor- relative tamen, yet, nevertheless ', quamquam is regularly used to introduce an admitted fact and not a mere supposition. Quamquam (and rarely etsi, tametsi), in the sense of though {and yet, but, however') are also used to introduce an independent statement made to limit or correct the preceding {quamquam correc- ttvum) : as, — ille volt dill vivere, hie diii vixit, quamquam, o di boni, quid est in hominis vita diu? (Cat. Maj. 68), the one wishes to live long, the other has lived long, though (after all) Good Heavens ! what is there that is long in the life of man ? k. Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive, i.e. they always follow one or more words of their clause ; so generally igitur and often tamen. INTERJECTIONS. O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vSh (of astonishment). io, evae, evoe, euhoe {oi joy). heu, eheu, vae, alas (of sorrow) . heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling) ; st, hist. eisL, evLge {of praise) . pro {of attestation) : as, pro pudor, shame! 140 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§ 157 Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words, Note. — All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the forma- tion either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first juxtaposed, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. This gradual process is seen in sea change, sea-nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so-called, appears as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must date back of inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun- and verb-stems had not yet been made. After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the Primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in tliis way new modes of deri- vation arose. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns. In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became con- fused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns. Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many derivatives sur- vive of which the Primitive is lost. Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed. r.- ROOTS AND STEMS. 157. Roots ^ are of two kinds: — ■ 1. Verbaly expressing ideas of action or condition (sensi- ble phenomena). 2. Pro7iominaly expressing ideas of position and direction. Stems are divided into (i) Noun- (including Adjective-) stems, and (2) Verb-stems. Note, — Noun- and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded, but in general were treated as distinct. 1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §} 21, 22. §§ 15S-^.] Primary Suffixes. 14t 158. Words are formed by inflection : — 1. From roots inflected as stems : — a. Without change: as, due-is (dux), dug; nec-is (nex) ; is, id. So in verbs : as, est, fert, est (cf. p. 86). b. With change of the root-vowel: as, luc-is (lux), Luc; pao-is (pax). S5 in verbs : i-s for feis, from eo, ire ; fatur from for, farl. Note. — In these cases it is impossible to say with certainty whether the form ot root in a or in ^ is the original one. But for convenience the above order is adopted. c. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as, si-sto (root sta). 2. From derived stems; see § 159. II.-SUFFIXES. 159. Stems are derived from roots or from other stems by means of suffixes. These are : — 1. Primary: added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb-stems. The root has either the weaker or the fliller vowel (cf. § 158. a, by 2. Secondary : added to a noun- or adjective-stem. Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronom- inal roots (§ 157. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin. Note. — The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig- inal (see p. 140, head-note), is constantly lost sight of in the development of a lan- guage. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ka (see \ 160. A.) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives ; but in pudlcus, aprlcus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary suffix, but also makes forms like clubbable, salable ; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsotne, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddlesoyne, venturesome. 1. Primary Suffixes. 160. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of Primary suffixes, are few. a. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-sojue-ish^ meaning nothing more than lone^ lonely ^ or lonesome. b. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation : thus — 142 Etymology: Formation of Words, [§ 160. A word like mSns, mentis, by the suffix on- (nom. -C) gave mentio, and this being divided into men + tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tio (phonetically -sio) : as, legatio, embassy, A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like auditorius, of which the neuter is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence torio- (nom. -torium), n., becomes a regular suffix (§ 164. /. 5). So in English such a word as mechanically gives a suffix -ally, making telegraphically ^ though there is no such word as telegraphical. c. Examples of primary suffixes are : — I . Vowel suffixes : — a,^ found in nouns and adjectives of ft- and o-stems, as sonus, ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root teg). i, less common, and in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in scobs (scobis, root scab). nj disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for tsuadus, cf. ^Si5s), ten-uis (root ten in tendo), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharps in acer, acies, w^us), pecu (root pac, bind, in paciscor). 2 Suffixes with a consonant : — a. ta (in the form to-) in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus, tectum; sometimes with an active sense, as m potus, pransus; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf pii- rus), altus (alo). i8. ti in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens. But in many the i is lost. 7. tu in abstracts (including supines), sometimes, becoming concretes, as actus, luctus. 5. na, forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus (= mactus, root mag), plenus, regnum. 6. ni, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis. C. nu, rare, as in manus, sinus. 7/. ma with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma. d. va (commonly uo-) with an active or passive meaning, as in equus, arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus), t. ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), 'usually passive, as in agar, integer, pleri-que (= plenus = pletus), sella (for sed-la, cf. 'ilpa), > Observe that it is the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the nominative is here given for convenience of reference. The vowel in these suffixes is given as a to avoid puzzling questions of comparative grammar, though it had no doubt assumed the form , even in the Parent Speech. §§ 160-62.] Significant Endings. 1 43 tc, ya (forming gerxindives in other languages), in adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies. A. ka, sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. iroOpos), locus (for stlocus). In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a conso- nant-stem : as, apex, cortex, loquax. /t. an (in-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergo, compago (-inis), gero (-onis). V. man (men- : also used in the form men- as a conscious derivative) expressing MEANS, often passing into the action itself: as, agmen, flumen. |. tar, forming nouns of AGENCY: as, pater (i.e. protector)^ frater (i.e. supporter) y orator, o. tra, forming nouns of MEANS : as, claustrum, miilctrum. IT. as (sometimes phonetically changed into er-, or-), forming names of actions : as, genus, furor. p. ant, forming active participles : as, legens, with some adjectives from roots unknown : as, frequens, recens. The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo- European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living for- mations in the Latin. 2. Significant Endings. 161. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings. They form: i. Nouns of Agency; 2. Names of Action ; 3. Adj'ectives (active or passive). Note. — There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as nouns (§ 25. bf note). III.- DERIVATION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 1. Kouns of Agency. 162. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives. Their significant endings are : — a. -tor (-6or), m., -trix, p., added to roots or verb-stems to denote the ageni or doer of an action. 144 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§§ 162, 163. cano, sing (can, supine tcantum); cantor, singer', cantrix, song- stress. vinco (vie, supine victum), conquer: victor, victrix, conqueror {victorious'). tended, shear (tond as root, sup. tonsum) : tonsor, tonstrix, hair-cutter. peto, seek (petl- as stem, sup. petitum) : petltor, candidate. senator (lost verb fseno, -are), senator. By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs (cf. senator above) : as, viator, traveller^ from via, way (but cf. invio). Note i. — The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine ending -turn (-sum) (p. 121. 3), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending (see \ 125). Note 2. — The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstrix). Note 3. tor is an inherited termination (cf. |, p, 143). The feminine is a further formation in -ca which has lost its final vowel (cf. ^ 160. a). b, t- (originally ta-, cf. § 160. a), c, added to verb-stems making nouns in -es (-itis, -etis, stem -it-, -et-) descriptive of a character : as, — miles (verb-stem mile-, as in mille, thousand), a soldier (man of the crowd). ' teges (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover) y a cover er, a mat. comes, -itis (con- and meo, go^ cf. trames, semita), a cofn^anion. c. -6 (gen. -onis, stem on-), M., added to stems conceived as verb-stems (but perhaps originally noun-stems) to indicate a person employed in some specific art or trade : as, — gero (ges in gero, gerere, carry, but compare -ger in armiger {squire) y a carrier, com-bibo (bib as root in bibo, bibere, drink) y a pot-companion. Note. — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of per- sonal characteristics {ci. $ 164. q) . 2. Names of Actions. 163. Names of Actions are confused, through their suffixes, with real abstract nouns and nouns denoting means and instruments. They are derived (i) apparently or really from roots and verb-stems {primary) or (2) from noun-stems {secondary). § 163.] Names of Actions. 145 I. Significant endings giving real or apparent primary formations are : — a. -or (st. or-, earlier 6s-), M., -es (gen. -is, st. i-, earlier es-), f., -us (st. gs-, earlier es- or os-), n., added to roots or forms conceived as roots: as, — timeOy /ear ; tim-or, dread, sedeo, sit ; sed-es, seat. decet, zt is becoming; dec-us, grace, beauty. ffacino (old form of facio, do) ; facin-us, a deed. Note. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots : as, f acinus above (from a supposed root FACIN). b. -io (st. ion-), -tio (st. tion-), -tura (st. tura-), F., -tus (st. tu-), m., (phonetically -sio, -sura, -sus), apparently added to roots or verb- stems, making verbal abstracts which easily pass into concretes. le^o, gather, enroll; leg-io, a legion (originally, the annual conscription), rego, direct ; reg-io, a direction, a region. insero (SA), implant; inai-tio, grafting, voco, call; vca-tio, a calling. m51ior, toil; moli-tio, a toiling. pingo (fig), paint; pic-tura, a painting. Bentio, feel; sen-sus (for sent-tus, § ii. a. 2), perception, fruor, enjoy (for f fruguor) ; fruc-tus, enjoyment, fruit. Note i. — tio, -ttlra, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change. Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see p. 121), They sometimes form nouns when there is no corre- sponding verb in use : as, senatus, senate (cf. senex) ; mentio, mention (cf. mens) ; fetura, offspring (cf. fetus) ; litteratura, literature (cf. litterae) ; consulatus, consulship (cf. consul). Note jz. — Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. $ 160. 7) ; -io is a compound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) : as, dici5 (cf. -dicus and dicis) ; -tio is a compound formed by adding on- to stems in ti- : as, gradatio (cf. gradatim) ; -tara is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in tu-: as, natura from natus; statilra from status (cf. flgiira, of like meaning, from a simple U-stem, fflgu-s; and maturus, Matuta). c. -men, -mentum, -monium, n., -monia, p., apparently added to roots or verb-stems to denote acts, or means and results of acts. AG, root of ago, lead; 5g-men, line of march. regi- (stem seen in rego, direct) ; \ ^^gi-n^en, rule. ( regi-mentum, rrtle. So coin-men, pillar ; mo-men, movement; no-men, name, fruor, ettjoy ; fru-mentum, grain. testor, witness ; testi-monium, testimony. queror, complain; queri-monia, complaint (but see note). 146 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§ 163. Also fla-men (m.), a priest (from flo, blow, in reference to the sacri. ficial fire). Remark : -monium and -monia are also used as secondary, form- ing nouns from other nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-monia, sanctity (sanctus, holy) ; matri-monium, marriage (mater, mother). Note. — Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. \ i6o. v)\ -mentum is a further development of -men made by adding to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men : as, mQmen, movement (Lucr.) ; mSmentum (later). So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along w^ith other nouns in -men. -monium and -monia are compound secondary suffixes formed from mo-, as in the series elvoMa, fostering : Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last was formed from al6 later, when -monia had become established as a sup- posed primary suffix. d. -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum, n., added to verb-stems or roots (rarely to noun-stems), to denote means or instrument : as, — "pasco, feed; ^di-hvLhim^ fodder. sto, stand; sta-bulum, stall. tus (gen. tiiris), incense; turi-bulum, a censer, voco, call; voca-bulum, a name, a word. lateo, hide; lati-bulum, hiding-place. veho, carry ; vehi-culum, wagon. pio, purify ; pia-oulum, an expiation. cernS (crevi) , sift ; cri-brum, sieve. flo, blow; fla-bra (pi.), blasts. candSla, a candle; candela-brum, a candlestick. ambulo, walk; ambvLla.-CTuin, place for walking. sepelio, bury ; sepul-crum, tomb. Bimulo, pretend; simula-crum, image. claudo, shut; claus-trum, a bar. ^xo, I plough; dixa.-txuxa, a plough. A few Masculines and Feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives : as, — for, speak ; f a-bula, tale. rideo, laugh; ridi-culus, laughable. facio, make; fa-ber, smith. lateo, hide; late-bra, hidingpiace. terS, bore ; tere-bra, auger. mulgeft, milk ; mulo-tra, milk-pail. Clr5, burn ; Aus-ter, South wind. Note. — These are no doubt compound nominal suffixes, bo- + lo-, CO- + lo-, bo- + ro-, CO- + ro-, to- + ro-, but the series cannot be distinctly made out. They had become fully welded into independent suffixes before the historical period. § 163.] Abstract Nouns. 147 2. Significant endings entirely secondary forming Ab- stract nouns are : — €, -la, -tia (-iSs, -tiSs), -tSs, -tiis, -ttldS, f., added to adjective stems and a few to nouns. So -do and -go, p., but associated with verbs, and apparently added to verb-stems. Thus : — audSx, bold I audac-ia, boldness. So fidiic-ia, confidence (ffldiix). prildSns, wise ; pruden-tia, wisdom. sxipeThvL9f proud } Buyeih-ia.^ pn'iU. trXstis, sad; tristi-tia, madness. pauper^ poor; psLuper-iSs, poverty. sSgnis, lazy; sggni-ties, laziness, honvLSfgood; honi-t§.s, goodness, civis citizen | civi-tas, citizenship. , senex, old; senec-tus, age. solus, alone ; soli-tfldo, solitude, dulcis, sweet ; dulce-do, sweetness (probably from a lost stem dulce-, cf. duloe-sco). cupiS, /desire; cupl-d5 (as if from stem cupi-; cf. cupi-vi). lumbus, the loin ; lumba-go, lumbago (as if from flumbo, -5re). plumbum, lead; plumba-go, blacJ^ lead, rubus, bramble (red bush) ; rubi-g5, rust (redness). priiriS, itch ; prtlrl-gS, itching, albus, white; albii-go, a disease of the eyes (whiteness, as if from falbuo). Stems ending in o- or S- lose these vowels i^efore -ia (as superb-ia), and change them to i before -tSs, -tus, -tia (as boni-tas, above). Consonant-stems often insert -1 before -tas: as, loquax (stem loquac-), loquaoi-tas ; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old ad- jectives in -es), €Lber-tas, volup-t5s. o after i is changed to e : as, plus (stem pio-), pie-tas; sooius, sooie-tas (see § 1 1. ^). Note. — Of these, -la is inherited as secondary (cf. \ i6o. k) ; -tia is formed by adding -ia to stems with a t-siiffix : as, militia, from miles (st mHit-) ; molestia from molestus; dementia from Clemens; whence by analogy, mali-tia, avari-tia. -tas is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + tl-, are found as suffixes in the same sense : as, senecta from senex ; semen-tls from semen, -ttls la tO- + ti-, cf. 8ervita-d5. -do and -gO appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -do is do- + 6n- : as, cupidus, cupIdS; gravldus, gravedO (cf. grave -sc6 ) ; albidus, albedo (ct albe-sc3); formldus, >5oif, formldO (cf. formldulOsus), {/tot ftaskf) fear; -er© is possibly CO- + <5n- ; cf. vorSx, vorftgO, but of. CethSgus. -tUdO is compounded of -dii with tu-stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf, voltlmen, from VOlvO): as, C6nsu6t0-d0, valetti' 'id, habita-dA, eolUcita-dd; whence Bervitadfi (ct eervitOs. -tatte). 148 Etymology: Formation of Words [§§ 163, 164. /. -ium, -tium, added to noun- and perhaps verb-stems, forming neuter adstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and groups: as, — hospes (gen. hospit-ls), a guest; hospit>lum, hospitality, an inn. servus, a slave; servi-tium, slavery, the slave class, collega, a colleague; colleg-ium, colleagueship^ a college, auspesc, a soothsayer ; auspio-ium, soothsayingy an omen, gaude6, re/oice ; gaud-ium, ^i?/. benefaciS, benefit; benefic-ium, a kindness (but cf. beneficus). dg-sider6, miss (from fdg-sides, t;^^^//^^^^, of missing soldiers) ; desJder-ium, longing, effugia, escape ; eff ug-ium, an escape (cf . profugus). ad verbum, [added] to a verb; adverb-ium, an adverb. inter Idnas, between moons ; interlfin-ium, time of new 7noon. rSgis f uga, flight of a king; rggif ug-ium , fligM of kings. Vowel-stems lose their vowel before -ium, as coUSg-ium, from collega. Note. — ^ium, neuter of -lus (§ 164.^), -la (ct. tf), is an inherited primary suffix (cf. § i6a f), but is used with great freedom as secondary; -tium is formed like -tia, by adding -ium to stems with t as. exit-ium, eqtiit-ium {q{. exitus, equites) ; so, by analogy, caivl-tium, servi-tium (from calvus, servus). g. Less commonly -nia, p., -nium, -lium, -cinium, N., added to noun« stems, but confused with verb-stems : as, — pecii, cattle; pecfi-nia, money (chattels), conticesco, hush; oontici-nium, the hush of night auged, increase; auxi-lium, help. pectl, cattle; pecu-lium, private property (cf. peoulor, implying a noun fpeculum). Iatr5, robber ; latro-cinium, robbery (cf. latrocinor, rob, implying an adj. flatrociuus), 3. Adjectives. 164. Derivative adjectives are Nommal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). Their significant endings are : — I. Nominal. a, -ulus (-a, -urn) (after a vowel -olus), -cuius, -ellus, -illus, making an important class of adjectives, which are usually appropriated to one gender, that of the Primitive, and used as Diminutive Nouns: as,— § 164.] Nominal Adjectives, 1 49 rivus, a brook I rTv-ulu3, a streamlet. gladius, a sword ^ gladi-oliis, a small sword, filius, a son ; fili-olus, a little son, filia, a daughter \ fHi-ola, a little daughter atrium, a hall; atri-olum, a little hall. homo, a man ; homun-culus, a dwarf. auris, an ear; auri-cula, m little ear. munus, N., a gift; munus-culum, a little gift. f puera (cf. puer, a boy) ; puella (for f puer-ula), a girl, codex, a block ; codic-illT, writing-tablets, miser, wretched; mi»-ellus, rather wretched. liber, a book; lib-ellus, a little book. aureus (-a, -uni)^ golden; aure-olus (-a, -Viin^^ golden. parvus (-a, -um), little; parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small. maior (old msiioa), greater } maius-oulus, somewhat larger. Note i. — These are all formed by adding «lu3 (originally -rus, cf. ^ 160. *) to various stems, forming adjectives. The formation is the same as that of -Ulus in / below. But these words became settled as diminudves, and retained their con- nection with nouns. So in English the diminutives zohitish^ reddish^ are of the same formation as bookish and snappish, -cuius comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and 8- ; as, iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf, Aurun- culeius), pris-cus, whence the CU becomes a part of the termination, and the whole ending is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and S-stems, in accordance with its origin. Note 2. — Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as, deliciolae, /i!///bundus and -cundus; and turunda, a paste-ball)^ p. -bundus, -cundus, with a participial meaning, but denoting con" tinuance of the act or quality. iocus, a jest] ivL-cundus, pleasant (cf. iuv5, -^e). vxto, sh^n ,* vita-bundus, dodging about, tremS, tremble ; treme-bundus, trembling. morior, die; mori-bundus, at the point of death. for, speak ; f^-cundus, eloquent. VTL, produce] iQ-CMndiViSy fruitful. So Ira, anger] ira-cundus, irascible (cf. Ira-scor) Note. — These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, ru bus, red bush; rubidus (but no frubicus), red; Rubicon, Red River (cf. MiniS, a river of Etruria ; Minius, a river of Lusitania) ; rubicundus (as in averrun- cus, homun-culus). So turba, coinmotion; tur' 6, a top; turbid us, roily ^ etc. Cf. apexabS, longabS, gravedo, dulcedd. III. Irregular Derivatives. q. The primary suffix on- (nom. -o) is used as secondary to form nouns denoting possessed of (originally adjectives), and so expressing a character y and often used 2i?> proper names t"^ as, — e^nla-Qy a feast ] e^nl-o, a feaster, n^sus, a nose; nas-6, with a large nose (also as a proper name), -volus (in bene-volus), wishing] vol-ones (pi.), volunteers, fxQns^ forehead ] front-6, big-head (also as a proper name). So ctlria, a curia] curi-6, head of a curia (also as proper name), restis, a rope] resti-6, a rope-maker. fvespertilis, of the evening] vesportili-o, a bat. r. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used in their compound form : as, — ad-verb-ium, adverb ] ad, to^ and verbum, verb, but without the intervening f adverbus. ISti-fund-ium, large estate] latus, wide, fundus, estate, su-ove-taur-ilia, a sacrifice of a sheep, a swine, and a bull] sus, swine, ovis, sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossi- ble Latin, though such formations are common in Sanskrit IV. -DERIVATION OF VERBS. 165. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative, ^ This sui!ix is the same as in $ 162. c, but not connected with a verb. §§165,166.] Derivation of Verbs. 157 1. Primitive verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech. 2. Derivative verbs are those formed in the develop- ment of the Latin as a separate language. They are of two main classes : — a. Denominative verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives. b. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs (see § 167). 1. Denominative Verbs. 166. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun- and adjective-stem. a. I. Verbs of the first conjvigation ^ are formed directly from a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning : as, fuga, flight ; fugo, put to flight. Note.— No doubt originally particular forms of stem formed particular con- jugations of verbs, but from changes of stem and from various cross-analogies the relation between conjugations and stem-forms became entirely confused. Thus poena should make fpiinare, but it really makes punire, in accordance with an i-stem, as in impunl-s ; servus makes servare in one sense, servire in another. 2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-stems, changing the o- into a-. Tlrese are more commonly transitive. Thus, — stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-) ; stimulo (-are), incite. aequus, even (stem aequo-) ; aequo (-are), make even. hibernus, of the winter (stem hiberno-) ; hiberno, /^jj the winter. albus, white (stem albo-) ; albo (-are), whiten, ■pina, p?i?-e (stem pio-) ; pio (-are), expiate. 3. A few verbs, generally neuter, are formed by analogy from con- .sonant- and u-stems, adding a to the stem : as, — ^\^,t\, awake , vigilo (^-^xo)^ watch. exsul, an exile ; exsulo (-are), be in exile. hiemps (stem hiem-), winter; hiemo {-axe), pass the winter. aestus, tide, seething; aestuo (-are), snrge, boil. levis (stem levi-), light ; lev5 (-are), lighten. b. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems, but most are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost : as, — 1 A few verbs of the first conjugation are inherited. These are (i) formed directly from a root ending in a vowel, as dS,re (da), stare (sta), nare (na) ; (2) formed with -yami (see p. 86), as vocare ; or (^) uncertain, as ainar*». 158 Etymology : Formation of Words. [§§166,167 albus, white ; albed, de white (ct alh6, -ftre, whiten^ under a. a). c£Uiiis (stem c^o-), hoary ; oSneS, de hoary, tumulus, hill (implying f tumus, swelling) \ tume6, sweU. pro-vidus, foreseeing; pro-video, foresee. But moneo, remind; cf. memini, remember. alge5; be cold; cf. algidus, cold. Note. — The second conjugation has undoubtedly been formed partly through the agency of stems like those of the fifth declension in §-, originally es-. as, tsordes, -Is, filth; SOrdeO, be dirty, cf. Eng. sioart; tabes, -Is, wasting: tabeS, waste away (cf. also ptlbSs. ptlbesco) ; res, thing; reor, reckon. But the traces of the original formation of these verbs are almost lost from the language. c. Some verbs In -uo, -uere are formed from noun-stems m u- where probably an i has been lost : as, — status, position ; statuS, set up, xxx^tyxsy fear ; raetno, fear, indu (old form of in), in, on : InduO, put on. So, by analogy, exu6, doff^ from ex, out of. Note. — Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in ttr as, fluo, fluere ; so-lv6, solvere. Some roots have a parasitic a . as, loquor, locatus. d. Many verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from i-stems : as,— xnSles (-is), mass ; molior, -Irl, toiL finis, end; finio, -Ire, bound. sitis, thirst ; sitio, -Tre, thirst, stabilis, stable; stabilio, -Tre, establish. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as if i-stems : as, — bulla, bubble; bulli5, -Ire, boU. condus, storekeeper; condio, -Ire, preserve. Insanus, mad; insanio, -Ire, rave. gestVLs, gesture; gestio, -Ire, show wild longing. custoSf guardian ; custodio, -ire, gi/ard. Note. — Some of this form are of doubtful origin : as, ordior, begin, cf. 6rd5 and exordium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -16 of the third conjugation (p. loo) 2. Verbs from Other Verbs. 167. The following classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with their terminations. § 167.] Derivation of Verbs, 159 Note. — These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but had become so associated with verbs that new derivatives were often formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem. a. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -sco to the present stem ox verbs. They denote the beginning oi 2in. action. Of some there is no simple verb in existence. Thus, — caleo, be warm ; oale-sc5, grow warm. labo, totter \ laba-sco, begin to totter, scio,^now; sci-sco, iietermine. cupio, desire^ con-cupT-sco, conceive a desire for. ^o, feed I ale-SCO, grow. So Ira-scor, get angry ; cf. ira-tus. iuvene-sco, grow youtig] cf. iuvenis, young man. mite-sco, grow mi/d; cf. mitis, mild. vespera-scit, it is getting /ate ; cf. vesper, evening. Note. — Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use thv perfect and supine systems of simple verbs : as, calesco, calui ; proflciscor, profectus. b. INTENSIVES or Iteratives end in -to or -ito (rarely -s6), and denote 2^ forcible or repeated action : as, — iacio, throw; iac-t3, htirl. dic5, say I dict-ito, keep on saying, quatiS, shake ; quas-s6, shatter. They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative, derived from the participle in -tus (stem to-). Note.— But they were originally denominatives from a noun of agency in -ta, like nauta, sailor. Hence some are formed from a stem different from the supine : as, ago, agitS (not fS-cto) ; so, dictitS, not fdictata, from dictO. c. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs oi practice — ends in -ess 6 (rarely -issd). These denote a cer- tain energy or eagerness of action : as, — capio, take\ cap-esso, lay hold on, facio, do I fac-esso, do (with energy), peto, seek ; pet-isso, seek (eagerly). These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the fourth : as, — lacesso, lacessSre, laoesslvl, \?ioess\\.\VDCi., provoke. d. Diminutives (derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns) end in -ill5, and denote a feeble or petty action : as, — i6o Etymology: Formation of Words. [§§ 167,16a cavilla, raillery i cav-illor,^^j/ canto, si7igi cant-illo, chirp or warble, e. Desideratives end in -turio (-surio), and express longing or nvish- ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only three are in common use: — emo, buy\ emp-turio, want to buy. edo, eat I e-surio, be hungry, pario, bring forth ; par-turio, be in labor. Others are used by the dramatists. Note. — Desideratives are derived from some noun of agency: as, empturiS, from emptor, buyer, Viso, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of a different formation. 3. Compound Words. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two or more simple stems. Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, how- ever, often becomes attached to a verb. 168. New stems are formed by composition as follows : ^ a. The second part is simply added to the first : as, — su-ove-taurilia (sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a hogy sheep, and hill (cf. § 164. r). septen-decim (septem, decern), seventeen, b. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb (^Detertninative Compounds): as, — lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a large landed estate. c. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal {oxc% {Objective Compounds)', as, — 1 In these compounds only the second part receives inflection. This is most commonly the proper inflection of the last stem ; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; lucifer, -feri; iadex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of l-stems: as, animus, exanimis; nSrma, abnormis (see note, p. 30). In composition stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, igni-spicium, divining by fire. But O- and a-stems weaken the final vowel of the stem to i-, as in ali-pes (from ala, st. ala-) ; and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, foederi- f ragus (for ffoeder-f ragus : foedus, ff ragus), treaty-breaking. §§ 168-70.] Compound Words, i6i agri-cola (ager, fcola akin to col5)» a farmer. armi-ger (arma, f ger akin to gerfi), armor-bearer, corni-cen (corntt, f cen akin to cano), horn-blower. carni-feac (caro, ffex akin to faciS), executioner. d. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, acquire the signification of adjectives, meaning possessed of the qualit)f denoted {Possessive Compounds) : as, — ali-pSs (ala, p5s), wing-footed magn-animus (magnus, 2iVi\vQ}x&)y great-'Souled, con-cors (con-, cor), harmonious, an-ceps (amb-, caput), double (having a head at both ends). Note. — Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some further derivative, the proper compound being impossible in Latin (cf. $ 164. r), 169. In many apparent compounds, complete words — not stems — have grown together in speech. These are not strictly compcunds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntactic Compounds, Examples are : — a. Compounds of faci5, facts, with an actual or formerly existing noun-stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are Causative in force: as, consue-facio, habituate (cf. c5nsu5-sc6, become ac" customed) ; cale-faci5, cale-facto, to heat (cf. CdLl^-^cb, grow warm). b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb : as, bene-dic6 (bene dic6), to bless ; sat-ag3 (satis agS), to be busy enough. c. Many apparent compounds of stems: as, fide-iubeS (fldel ivibeQ), to give surely ; man-suStus (manul suStus), /^;^^j luppiter (flds-pater) ; Marci-por (Marcl puer), slave of Marcus, d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns : as, — pr6-c6n3ul, proconsul (for pr5 consule, instead of a consul), trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virorum). septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triones, The Seven Oxen). 170. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefix- ing a Particle to some other part of speech : — a. Prepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives. In these com- pounds the prepositions retain their original adverbial sense : ^ as, — 1 The prepositions sometimes, however, have their ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, Jn, circum, trans, and govern the case of a noun : as, transire flumen, fc cross a river (see § 239. b. Rem.). 1 62 Etymology: Formatton of Words, [§ I7a a. ab, AWAY; au-ferre (ab-fer5), to take away, ad, TO, TOWARDS : af-f erre (ad-f erfi), to bring. ante, BEFORE: ante-ferre, to prefer ; ante-cellere, to excel. circum, AROUND: circum-munire, to fortify cofnpletely, com-, con- (cum), together or forcibly: con-felrre, to bring together ; col-locare, to set firm. dS, DOWN, utterly: dg-spicere, despise '^ dgstraere, destroy. S, ex, OUT: ef-ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth, uplift, in (with verbs), in, on, against r In-ferre, to bear against. inter, BETWEEN, TO PIECES : inter-rumpere, to interrupt. ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET: of-ferre, to offer i ob-venire, to meet. sub, UNDER : sub-struere, to build beneath. super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE: super-fluere, to overflow^ su- perstes, a survivor. Note. — In these compounds short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before two: as, facio, cOnflcio, cOnfectus; iaci5, eicio, eiectus. But long a is retained : as, peractus. b. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable parti- cles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : — amb- (am-, an-), around: amb-Tre, to go about (cf. aft^t, about). dis-, di-, ASUNDER, apart: dis-c§dere, to depart (cf. duo, two'). por-, FORWARD : por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porrS, forth). red-, re-, back, again : red-Ire, to return ; re-cludere, to open (from claudo, ji^/^/) ; re-ficere, to r^/^/r (make-again). s5d-, sg-, apart: se-cerno, to separate (cf. sed, but). c. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix. Of these, per (less commonly prae), very-y sub, somewhat ; in-> not, are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective : as, — per-magnus, very large. prae-longus, very long. sub-rusticus, rather clownish. In-finitus, boundless. Note. — Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs : as, per- terreo, terrify ; sub-rideo, smile. In ignosco, in- appears to be the negative prefix. d. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the verbs to which they correspond. Thus, — per-fuga, deserter-, cf. per-fugio. traduxj vine-branch ; cf. trans-duco. PART SECOND.— USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX). INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and deals with language as fully developed. The terms of Syntax correspond accordingly to the logical habits of thought that have grown up at such a period, and have therefore a logical as well as a simply grammatical meaning. But Syntax as thus developed is not essential to language. A form of words — like 6 puerum pulcruml oh! beautiful boy — may express a thought, and in some languages might even be a sentence ; while it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence at alL At a very early period of spoken language. Roots were no doubt significant in themselves, and constituted the whole of language, — just as to an infant the name of some familiar object will stand for all it can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, two simple roots put side by side 1 made a rudimentary form of propo- sition : as a child might sdiyjire bright; horse run. With this begins the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but as yet there is no dis- tinction between noun and verb either in form or function. Roots were presently specialized, or modified in meaning, by the addition of other roots either pronom- inal or verbal, and Stems were formed ; but the same stem could still be either nominal or verbal. In this period composition is the only form of syntax. Still later — by combination chiefly of different pronominal elements with verb-stems and with noun-stems — Inflections were developed to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations,^ and we have true parts of speech. Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by custom, particular forms came to be limited to special uses, or were produced to serve those uses ; and rules were established for combining word? in what we now call Sentences. These rules are in part general laws or forms of thought (Logic), resulting from our habits of mind {General Grammar^ ; and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language {Particular Grammar'), and making what is called the Syntax of that language. 1 In most languages there still remain traces of the unorganized forms of expres- sion : as, for example, the nominative or accusative in Exclamations (§ 240. d), and the omission of the Copula (§ 206. c). These are sometimes wrongly regarded as cases of Ellipsis. Compare also the use of Interjections generally, 2 Sometimes called accidents : hence the " accidence " of the language. Com- pare pp. 19, note I ; 78, note i ; 119-21 ; § 118. note. 164 Syntax: Introductory Note. In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the SENTENCE i ; that is, the completed state- ment, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally every sentence is simple. But two simple sentences may be used together, without the subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than can be denoted by one alone. This \% parataxis (arrangement side by side). In time two sentences, thus habitu- ally used in connection, come to be regularly associated with each other, in certain relations, as parts of one logical idea, and the one is felt to depend upon the other. This is syntax is (arrangement together). In this way, through various courses of development, which correspond to the growth of our habitual forms of thought, there are produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus timeo ne id accidat was originally two simple sentences: I fear. Let that not happen/ and these, becoming attached, formed the complex sentence: I fear (lest) that may happen. The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax as shown in the annexed Outline. I, A Sentence may be either Simple or Compound: viz., SIMPIE* (Containing a single statement (Subject and I Predicate) (§ 180). a. Containing two or more Co-ordinate Clauses 2. Compound- \ (§i8o.«). b. Modified by Subordinate Clauses {complex') (§ 180. b). II. The Essential Parts of the Sentence are — 1. The Subject: consist- f a. Noun or its equivalent (§ 174. 1). ing of t b. Pronoun contained in verb-ending {\ 174. 2). fa. Neuter (intransitive) Verb (§ 175. a). b. Copula with Predicate Noun or Adjective (} 172. note). c. Verb with Object {\\ 175. b, 177). III. The Subject and Predicate may be MODIFIED as follows : — ' a. Noun in Apposition (§ 184). b. Adjective or Participle {\ 186). c. Noun in Oblique Case (^ 178. a, b). d. Preposition with its case (§ 260). e. Relative Clause (§ 180. c). Adverb or Adverbial Phrase (§5 179, 207). 2. TheVERB(/r^'6?/Va/99ds tp di^tingijigli them from the Infinitive. 1 66 Syntax: The Sentence, [§§ 174-76. 174. I. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or some word or phrase used as a Noun : as, — humanum est errare, to err is hitman. quaeritur num mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evil. venit, incertum est unde, he came, where from is uncertain. 2. But in Latin the subject may be implied in the ter. mination of the verb (see § 206. ^, b) : as, — sede-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. iiic^ai-t, says he. 1 75. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive. a. An Intransitive (or Neuter) verb contains in itself an entire statement: as, — cado, I fall (am falling). sol lucet, the sun is shining, sunt viri fortes, there are brave men. b. A Transitive (or Active) verb has or requires a Direct Object to complete its sense (see § I ^^^ : as, — fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother. Note i. — Among transitive verbs Factitative Verbs are sometimes dis- tinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus mensam fecit, he made a table (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from mensam percussit, he struck a table (which already existed). Note 2. — A transitive verb may often be used absolutely without any object ex- pressed : as, arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — quid, what? agrum suum, his land, 3. Predicate Noun. 176. An intransitive verb is often followed by a noun or adjective to describe or define the subject. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective : as, — Xti'Qx\psma Q.^cx^xX.^ he fell dead. Quintus sedet iiidex, Quintus sits as judge. Caesar victor incedit, Ccssar advances victorious (a victor). a. The copula sum especially is used with a predicate noun or adjec- tive (§ 172. note). So also verbs signifying to become^ to be made^ to be named, to appear^ whence these are called Copulative {i.e. coupling) verbs. Note. — A noun in agreement with some part of the predicate is sometimes a Predicate Noun (see \ 185. c). §§ 176, 177.] Object, 167 b. A Predicate noun or adjective after the copula sum or a copulative verb is in the same case as the subject (see § 185. a). Roma est patria nostra, Rome is our country. stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright (cf. stellae lucebant). consul creatus est, he was elected consul. mors finis esse videtur, death seems to be the end. dicit n5n omnes bonos esse beatoa, he says that not all good men are happy. 4. Object. 177. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of a verb is called the Direct Object. A person or thing indirectly affected is ealled the In- direct Object. Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object ; but an Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and in- transitive verbs (§§ 225, 226). Thus: — pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his »on. mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me afield. milii (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me. Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not fixed, but most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually in- transitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 237. b). a. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the nom- inative case: as, — Active: pater filium vocat, the father calls [his] son. Passive: filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father. Active: lunam et stellas videmus, we see the moon and the stars. Passive: lana et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear). b. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the Objective. Thus: — hominem video, 1 see the man (Accusative). homini servi5, I serve the man (Dative, see § 227). hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see § 221. tf). homine amico utor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see § 249). c. Many verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by an intransitive verb with a preposition : as, — petit aprum, he aims at the boar. laudem afifectat, he strives after praise. ciirat valetudinem, he takes care of his health. i68 Syntax: The Sentence, [§§ 177-80. Note. — One or more words, essential to the grammatical completeness of a sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer, are often omitted. This omis- sion is called ELLIPSIS, and the sentence is called an ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE: aa> adest, he is here; quis? (sc. adest), -who? miles (sc. adest), the soldier 5. Modification. 178. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a Phrase or a Clause, see §§ 179, 180). The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way. a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (§ 184), or the oblique case of a noun. Thus in the sentence vir fortia patienter fert, a brave man bears patiently^ the adjective fortia, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter, patiently, modifies the predicate fert, bears. b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs. Thus in the sentence puerl patrem video, I see the boy'' s father t the genitive puerl limits patrem (by excluding any other fether). 179. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb. Thus in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a 7nan of the highest nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble'), and are called an Adjective Phrase. In the sentence magna celeritate venit, he caitte with great speed, the words magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrimS, very quickly^, and are called an Adverbial Phrase. 180. Sentences are either Simple or Compound. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple Sentence. A sentence containing more than one statement is called a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called a Clause. § 180.] Modification. 169 a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said to be Co-ordinate. They are usually connected by a Co-ordinate Conjunction (§ 154. a) ; but this is sometimes omitted (§ 208.^). Thus : divide et impera, divide and conquer. But, — veni, vidi, vici, I came^ I saiVy I conquered. d. l( one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called the Main Clause. This subordination is Indicated by some connecting word, either a Subordinate Conjunction or a Relative (§ 154. d) i as, — oderint dum metuant, le/ them hate so long as they fear. servum misit qaem secum habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him. A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes called Complex. Note. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by another subordinate clause. c. A clause introduced by a Relative pronoun or adverb is called a Relative Clause. A clause introduced by an adverb of time is called a Temporal Clause. Thus : — dum tacent clamant, while they are silent they cry aloud. homines aegri morbo gravi cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam biberint primo relevari videntur, men suffering with a severe sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever ^ if they drink cold water, seem at first to.be relieved. d. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if^ or some equivalent, is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, prImS relevari videntur (of. c above) is a Conditional Sentence, and si . . . biberint is a Conditional Clause. e. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action Is called a Final Clause. edo ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live). misit legatos qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (wrho should say). A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Consecutive Clause. 1 tam longe aberam ut non viderem, / was too far away to see (so far away that I didn't see). 1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is usually subordinate, and may be at the same time conditional ; and subordinate clauses may be co-ordinate with each other. I/O Syntax: The Sentence, [§§ 180-84. /. Sentences or clauses are regularly connected by means of Con- junctions; but frequently in Latin — more rarely in English — inde- pendent sentences are connected by Relative Pronouns or Adverbs, In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by a con* junction with a demonstrative (cf. §§ 201. ^, 336. b. Rem.): as, — quo cum venisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come). quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. AGREEMENT. 181. A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person. 182. The following are the general forms of Agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords : — 1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (§§ 184, 185). 2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 186). 3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (§ 198). 4. The agreement of the Verb with its Subject (§ 204). a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied in that word. This use is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum (construction according to sense) . I.-NOUNS. 183. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case : as, — Servius rex, Servius the king. ad urbem Athenas, to the city [of] Athens. Cicero consul creatur, Cicero is chosen consul. The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 184) or a Predi- cate noun (§ 185). 1. Apposition. 184. The descriptive noun, when in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi- tive, and is said to be in Apposition : as, — §§ 184, 185.] Agreement of Nouns. 171 externus timor, maximum concordiac vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv, ii. 39), fear of the for eigne r^ the chief bond of harmony y united their hearts. [Here the descriptive noun belongs to the subject^ quattuor hie primum omen equos vidi (^En. iii. 537), / saw here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in iYvQ predicate. '\ litteras Graecas senex didici (C. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man. [Here senex, though in apposition, really states something further : viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act {Predicate Apposition). ^ a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word includ- ing the parts, or vice versa : as, — Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cneius and Publius, the Scipios. b. An appositive generally agrees in Gender and Number when it can: as, — sequuntur naturam, optimara ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best guide. on)nium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. \.\-^, Athens, discoverer of all learning. Note. — But such agreement is often impossible : as, — olim truncus eram ficulnus iniitile lignum, I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log (Hor. Sat. i. 8. i). c. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 258. c) is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as, — Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Aniioch, once a famous city. Albae c5nstiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a forti- fied tozvn. d. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 197. e) : as, — in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all. ex Anniana Milonis dom5 (Att. iv. 3) [= ex Anni Milonis domo], out of Annius Mud's house, e. A genitive is sometimes used instead of an appositive (see § 214./*). So also a dative in certain constructions (see § 231. ^). 2. Predicate Agreement. The Predicate noun may agree (i) with the subject, being connected with it by the copula or a copulative verb (§ 176. a), or (2) with the direct object of a verb. 185. A descriptive noun used to form a predicate is called a PREorcATE Nominative (or other case, according to the construction). 1/2 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 185, 186. a. The case of the predicate after the copula and copulative verbs is the same as that of the subject (§ I'jd. b) : as, — pacis semper auctor f ul (Ligar. 28), / Aave a/ways been an adviser of peace. quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem alils constantia videri potest (Marcel. 31), what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others cotisistency. eius mortis sedetis ultores (Milon. yc)), you sit as avengers of his death. habeatur vir egregius Paulus (Catil. iv. 21), let Patdus be regarded as an extraordinary man. ego patronus exstiti(Rosc. Amer. 5), I have come forward as an advocate. b. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural: as, — consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. l), Ccesar and Servilius are elected consuls. c. For Predicate Accusative, see under that case, § 239. a. II. -ADJECTIVES. 1. Rules of Agreement. 186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender^ Niiinber^ and Case. vir fortis, a brave man. ilia mulier, that woman. urbium magnarum, of great cities. cum ducentis militibus, with 200 soldiers. imperator victus est, the general was beaten. Note. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pro- nouns and to participles. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate. a. An Attributive adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied. bonus imperator, a good commander. stellae lucidae, bright stars. b. All other adjectives are called Predicate adjectives. 1. A predicate adjective, like a predicate noun, maybe connected with the subject by esse or a copulative verb expressed or implied (see § 176. a): as,— ^ stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright. 2. After verbs of naming, calling, making, etc., an adjective may be used as a predicative accusative like a noun (see § 239.^). 3. A predicate adjective may be used in apposition like a noun (see c, below). §§ 186, 187.] Agreement of Adjectives. 1 73 c. Predicate adjectives in apposition follow the rules of agreement of other adjectives (see § 186, above) : as, — Scipionem vivum vidi, I saw Scipio in his lifetime (lit., living). d. WTth two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but sometimes agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive). Thus, Nisus et Euiyalus prirai (^En. v. 294), Nistis and Euryalus first. Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9), I enjoy all Ccesar' s favor and resources. Note. — An adjective referring to two nouns connected by cum, is occasionally plural : as, — luba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), fuba and Labi enus were taken. 187. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. a. In such cases, — 1. An attributive adjective agrees with the nearest : as, — multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil. vita moresque mei, my life and character. si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 19), if any things if any man, if any time was fit. 2. A predicate adjective may agree with the nearest, if the nouns form one connected idea : as, — factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur). Note. — This is only when the Copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 205. d). b. But generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings \ neuter, if things without life: as, uxor deinde ac llberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his zuife and children embraced him. labor (m.) voluptasque (f.), societate quadam inter se naturali sunt iiincta (n.) (id, v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance. Note. — If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a predicate adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural : as, — rex regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet set out together. natiira inimica sunt libera civitas et rex (id. xliv. 24) , by nature a free state and a king are hostile. legat(3s sortesque oriculi exspectandas (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for. 174 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 187, isa c. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a predi- cate adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 189. c)'. as, — stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 39), folly, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned. d. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied {Sy nests, § 182. a)', as, — pars certare parati (^n. v. 108), a part ready to contend. duo niilia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), tivo thousand were left. coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), several colonies •were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins. magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized. omnis aetas currere obvii (id. xxvii. 51), [people of] every age ran to meet them. e. A superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender of the partitive genitive by which it is limited : as, — velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures. 2. AdjectiveB used Substantively. 188. Adjectives are often used as Nouns {substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in genej-al of that kind, the feminine womeji, and the neuter things : as, — omnes, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything), maiores, ancestors. minores, descendants. Romani, Romans. barbarl, barbarians. liberta, a freedwoman. Sabinae, the Sabine wivei sapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend. boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property. Remark. — The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is rare except in a few words which have become practi- cally nouns. See below and § 189. a. a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives. Thus, — tuus vicinus proximus, your next-door neighbor. propinqui ceteri, his other relatives. meus aequalis, a man of my own age. familiaris tuus, an intimate friend of yours (cf. § 218. t them. quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty. In a sentence of this class the relative clause usually stands first in Latin (cfc \ aoi. c), as in the example, §§ 200, 201.] Relative Pronouns, 1 89 c. The antecedent may be entirely omitted, especially if it is in- definite : as, — qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion. qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21),/^^ j^?^/ [men] to reconnoitre (who should, etc.). d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with its antecedent in gender and number may stand in the relative clause: as, — vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house, [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones."] e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea : — [obtrectatum est] GabiniS dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique — id quod est verius? (Manil. 57), an affront is offered — shall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey ? or — which is truer — to both ? multum sunt in venationibus . , . quae res vires alit (B. G.iv. i), they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength. [Cf. B. G. ii. 5.] Note. — But quod alone often occurs: as, — Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae voluptat! fuit, hostem reiecerat (Fam. 11. 10), our friend Cassius — which was a great satisfaction to me — had driven back the enemy, 201. In the use of relatives, the following points are to be observed : — a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English. Thus,— liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me. is sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always was. eo in loco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is iti the place I told you of. h, A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English ; particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency : as, — leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist). Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Casar the conqueror of GatU (who conquered Gaul), insta gloria quae est friictus virtutis, true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue, qui legit, a reader (one who reads). ilJe qui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues). 1 90 Syntax: The Sentence, [§ 201. c. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 200. b) : as, — quae mala cum multis patimur, ea nobis leviora videntur, the evils we suffer [in common] with many^ seem to us lighter. Note. — In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a demonstrative pronoun which properly belongs in the antecedent clause : as, — ille qui c5nsulte . . . cavet, diiitine uti ei bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guards he may enjoy, etc. d. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause : as, — firmi amici, cuius generis est magna penuria, steadfast friends., a class of which there is great lack (of which class). e. A relative may stand (even with another relative or an interroga- tive) at the beginning of a sentence or clause, where in English a demonstrative must be used (§ 180./) : as, — quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things). quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. quorum quod simile factum (Cat iv. 13), what deed of theirs like this? /. I. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case : as, — mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumce^ whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.] 2. So, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun (cf. whence^ whereto, wherewith) : as, — locus quo aditus non erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access, regna, unde genus duels, the kingdom from which you derive your race, unde petitur, the defendant (he wherefrom something is demanded, cf. § 207. a). g. The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc., are often rendered simply by as * in English (§ 106. b) : as, — idem quod semper, the same as always. talis dux qualem Hannibalem novimus, such a chief as we know Hannibal [to have been], tanta dimicatio quanta numquam fuit, such a fight as never was before, tot mala quot sidera, as many troubles as stars in the sky, 1 The English as in this use is strictly a relative, though invariable in form. §§ 201, 202.] Indefinite Pronouns. 191 h. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro- duced by relative or temporal adverbs: as, ubi, quo, unde, cum, quar§. Note. — For the use of the Relative in idiomatic clauses of Characteristic and Result (est qui, dig-nus qui, quam qui, etc.), see § 320. For the use of Interrogatives, see \ 210. 6. Indefinite Pronouns. 202. The Indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one. Note. — For the meanings of the compounds of qUi and quia, see § 105. a. Of the particular indefinites meaning so7ne or any (quis, quis- piam, nescio quis, aliquis, quidam), the simple quis is least definite, quidam most definite : as, — dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say. aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would mean certain particular persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.] habitant hie quaedam mulieres pauperculae, some poor women live here \i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nescio quae]. b. In 2, particular negative aliquis (aliqui) is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam (subst.) or uUus (adj.) would be required: as, — iustitia nunquam nocet cuiquam qui earn habet (Cic), justice never does harm to anybody who possesses it. [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it."] sine aliquo metu, [you cannot do this] without some fear, sine iillo metu, [you may do this] without any fear. cum aliquid non habeas (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not. Note. — These pronouns are used in like manner in conditional and other sentences (§ 105. K) : as, — si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit (Lsel, 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was. dum praesidia iilla fuerunt (Rose. A. 126), while there were any armed forces (till they ceased to be), si quid in te peccavi (Att. iii, 15, 4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see a, above)]. c. Of the general indefinites, quivis and quilibet {any you will), utervis {either you will, of two), are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and uUus {any at all) in clauses where a nega- tive is either expressed or implied : as, — 192 Syntax: The Sentence, [§ 20a cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest, what can happen to any [one] man can happen to any man [whatever], non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth, [non cuiquam would mean not any man's."] minus habeS virium quam vestrum utervis, I have less strength t/ian either of yoze. [For the form utervis, see § 2>^.1 quicQibet niodo aliquid (Cic), anything you will, provided it be some thing. cur cuiquam misi prius, why did J send to anybody before [you] ? si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any man is timorous, I am he. cum baud cuiquam in dubio esset (liv, ii. 3), when it was not a matter of doubt to any one, si tempus est nllum jure hominis necandi (Milon. 9), if there is any occasion whatever, etc. Note. — The use of these indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them often depends merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax. d. The distributives quisque (every), uterque {each), and fiuus quisque {every sitigle one), are used in general assertions. They are equivalent to a plural, and sometimes have a plural verb (cf. § 205. c 3):as,— bonus liber melior est quisque quo mSor, the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better [in the same measure] as it is larger). amb5 exercitus suas quisque abeunt domos, both armies go away, every man to his home. uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu, each army was in sight op the other (each to each), ponite ante oculos unumquemque regum, set before your eyes each 0/ tht kings. e. Quisque is regularly placed in a dependent clause, if there is one : quo quisque est soUertior, hoc docet iracundius (Rose. Com, 31), the keener-witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches (as each is so, etc.). Note. — Quisque is generally post-positive. Thus, suum cuique, to every man his own, f. Ngmo, no one,, is used : — 1 . As a substantive : as, — nemd fit repente turpissimus, no one suddenly becomes absolutely base. 2. As an adjective pronoun : as, — vir nemo bonus (Leg. ii. 41), no good man. Note. — Even when used as a substantive, nemo may take a noun in apposi- tion: as, — nemo scriptor, nobody [who is] a writer. § 203.] Alius and Alter. 193 7. Alius and Alter. 203. The expressions alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other^ alius . . . alius, 07te . . . another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action : as, — alii gladiis adoriuntur, alii fragmentis saeptorum (Sest. 79), some make an attack with szvords, others with fragments of the railings. arma ab aliis posita ab aliis erepta sunt (Marcel. 31), arms were laid down by some and were snatched from others. duobus Rosciis Amerinis quorum alteram sedere in accusatorum subselliis video, alterum tria huiusce praedia possidere audio (Rose. Amer. 17), two Roscii of Ameria, one of whom I see sitting on the benches of the . prosecution ; the other, I hear, is in possession, etc. alteri dimicant, alteri victorem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the other fears the victor. hi fratres alter alterum amant, these brothers love one another. alius alium percontamur, we ask each other. a. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number) ; alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceteri and reliqui, all the rest, the others] alteruter, one of the two. Thus, — quid aliud agis, what else are you doing (what other thing) ? cum etiam hi quibus ignovisti, nolint te esse in alios misericordem (Lig. 15), when even those whom you have pardoned are unwilling that you should be merciful to others. uni epistulae respond!, veniS ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17, 6), one letter I have answered, I come to the other. onus atque item alter, one and then [likewise] another, [Of an indefinite number, but strictly referring only to the second.] alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class. iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ut ceteros conservarem (Sestius, 45), / shotdd have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest. horum utro uti n51umus, altero est iitendum (Sestius, 92), whichever of the two we do not wish to have, we must take the other. Servllius c5nsul, reliquique magistratiis (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates. cum sit necesse alterutrum vincere (Fam. vi. 3), when it must be that one of the two should prevail. b. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another {the other) of the objects referred to : as, — alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare (Cic), it is one thing to slander^ another to accuse. 194 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 203, 204 c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses shortly a double statement : as, — alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, one another (another seeks another thing). aUus alia via civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 2i), they enlarged the State ^ each in his own way. iiissit alios alibi fodere (Liv. xliv. t^-^, he ordered different persons to dig in various places. Note. — Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an in- definite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly : as, — qui alteram incusat probri eum ipsum se intueri oportet (PI. True. 1 59), he who accuses his neighbor of wrong ought to look at himself {the other^ there being at the moment only two concerned). dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor, Sat. i. i. 40), so long as another is not richer than you. non ut magis alter, amicus (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no other is more so. IV.-VERBS. 1. Verb and Subject. 204. A Finite verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person : as, — ego statuo, I resolve. senatus decrevit, the senate ordered. silent leges inter arma, the laws are dumb in time of war. Note. — In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number ($ 186) : as, — oratio est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose. a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the ex- pressed or implied antecedent : as, — adsum qui feci (.^n. ix. 427), here am I who did it. b. The verb sometimes agrees in number, a participle in the verb- form in number and gender, with an appositive or predicate noun : as, — amantium irae amoris redintegratio est (Ter. Andr. 555), the quarrels of lovers are the renetval of love. non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Div. ii. 90), not every error should be called folly. Corinthus liimen Graeciae exstinctum est, CoHnth., the light of Greece^ is put out. § 205.] Double Subject. 195 2. Double Subject. 205. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the plural : as, — pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead. Note. — So rarely (by a construction according to the sense, § 182) when to the subject is attached an ablative with cum : as, — dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the general and sev- eral chiefs are taken. a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is in '^t first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third : as, — si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.] Note. — In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate- adjectives; see \ 187. b, c, b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives, or if they are con- sidered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular : as, — quern neque fides neque iiisiuranduni neque ilium misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate and people understand. But, — neque Caesar neque ego habiti esse- mus (Fam. xi. 20), neither C. nor I should have been considered. €, A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular: as, — Senatus haec intelligit (Catil. i. 2), the Senate is aware of this. ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quar- ters. 1. But the plural is often found with collective nouns when individ- uals are thought of: as, — pars praedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. cum tanta multitude lapides conicerent ("B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd was throwing stones. Note. — The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as, — equitatum omnem . . . quem habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15), he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see). 2. Quisque has very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in apposition with a plural subject implied (cf § 202. ^) : as, — «bi quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Cure), let every one keep his own (let them keep every man his own). 196 Syntax: The Sentence, [§§ 205-7. d. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately^ it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as, — intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Antony and CassiuSy tribunes of the people^ interpose. 3. Incomplete Sentences. 206. The subject of the verb is sometimes omitted. Thus : a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic. Thus, — loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak. b. An indefinite subject is often omitted. This is usually a plural, as in dicunt, f erunt, perhibent {they say) ; but sometimes singular, as in inquit (Tusc. i. 93), one says (referring to a class of reasoners just spoken of). c. The verb is often omitted. Thus, — 1. Dico, facio, ago and other verbs in familiar phrases : as, — quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at? ex ungue leonem [cognosces], jo« will know a lion by his claw. quid multa, what need of 77tany words? (why should I say much?) quid? quod, ivhat of thisythat, etc.? (what shall I say of this, that, etc.?) [A form of transition.] Aeolus haec contra (^En. i. 76), JS,olus thm [spoke] in reply. turn Cotta [inquit], theti said Cotia. di meliora [duint], Heaven forefend (may the gods grant better things) ! unde [venis] et quo [tendisj, where are you from and where bound? 2. The copula sum, very commonly in the indicative and infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the subjunctive : as, — tu coniunx (^n. iv. w^^you [are] his wife. omnia praeclara rara (La^l. 79), all the best things are rare. potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum honestius (Of. i. 152), a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.] accipe quae peragenda prius (^n. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom* plished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius?] Cf., for omission of a Subjunctive, — cum ille ferociter ad haec [diceret] (Liv. i. 48), upon his replying with insolence to this, that, etc. v.- PARTICLES. 1. Adverbs. 207. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives. and other Adverbs. § 207.] Adverbs. 197 Note i. — For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see \\ 148, 149. Note 2. — The proper functions of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as, celeriter ire, Z^^*? with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name (adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see $ 163./J. They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested : as, splendide mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs : as, nimis graviter, too severely. Note 3. — Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 25. h. note) , a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 201. f): as, — eo (= in ea) imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils. eo milites imponere (B. G. i. 42), on them (thereon) he puts the soldiers. apud eos quo (= ad quos) se contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom (whither) he resorted. qui eum necasset unde ipse natus asset (Rose. Am. 71), one who should have killed his oivn father (him whence he had his birth). o miseras condiciones administrandarum provinciaruni ubi [= in quibus] severitas periculosa est (Flacc. 87), oh / wretched terms of managing the provinces, where strictness is dangerous. b. The adverbs propius, neari proxime, next (like the adjectives propior, proximus) ; pridie, the day before] postridie, the day after^ are sometimes followed by the accusative (see § 261. «). The adverbs palam, openly ; procul, afar; simul, at the same time, are sometimes followed by the ablative (see % 261. b). Note. — Pridie and postridie are often used with the genitive (§ 223. ^.n. 2). Clam, without the knowledge of, may take the accusative, the ablative, or the gen- itive (§ 261. c), c. Many perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the adverb which modified them as participles : as, — praeclare factum, a glorious deed (a thing gloriously donej. d. Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which contain a verbal idea(cf. § 188. <^) : as,— populus late rex (^n. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide. hinc abitio (Plaut.), a goiiig away from here. quid cogitem de obviam itione (Att. xiii. 50), what I think about going to meet [him]. [Perhaps felt as a compound.] e. For adverbs used as adjectives, see § 188. e. Note. -^ In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun (as in $ 188. e), or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in \ 188. d). 1 98 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 20a 2. Conjunctions. Note. — For the classification of conjunctions, see \\ 154, 155. 208. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them : as, — scriptum senatui et populo (Catil. iii. 10), written to the senate and people. ut eas [partis] sanares et confirmares (Milon. 68), that you might cure atid strengthen those parts. neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Catil. ii. 29), rely- ing neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom. a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tanquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions : as, - his igitur quam physicis potius credendurn existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers ? hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter.), a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 247. a). ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Gate Major, 65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature. Cf. perge ut instituisti (Rep. ii. 22), go on as you have begun. in me quasi in tyrannum (Philip, xiv. 1 5), against me as against a tyrant. b. Two or more co-ordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions {Asyndeton^ § 346. cy. as, — omnes di, homines, all gods and men. summi, medii, infimi, the highest^ the middle class, and the lowest. liberi, servi, freemen and slaves. 1. Where there are more than two co-ordinate words, etc., a conjunc- tion, if used at all, must be used with all (or all except the first) : as, ~ aut aere alieno aut magnitiidine tribiitorura aut iniuria potentiorum (B. G. vi* I3)» ^ ^^^^* excessive taxation^ or oppression on the part of the powerful. summa fide et constantia et iustitia, with perfect good faith^ [and] consist- ency^ and justice. [Not fide constantia et iiistitia, as in English.] 2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups them- selves express the conjunction (or omit it) : as, — propudium illud et portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium homi num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men. utrumque egit graviter, auctoritate et offensione animi n5n acerba (Lael. 77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority, and with no bitterness of feeling. §§ 208, 209.] Conjunctions ; Negative Particles. 199 3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent : as, — voce vultii motuque (Brut. 1 10), by voice, expression, and gesture. ciiram consiHum vigilantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigi- lance. multo sudore labore vigililsque (Caecil. 72), with much fatigue, toil, and waking. quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam. i. 7, 2), whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended. c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con- nected by a conjunction : as, — multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons. d. Many words properly adverbs may be used correlatively, and so become conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force (see § 107). Such are, — cum . . . tum, while . , . so also (both . . . and^, turn. . . . tum, no7tf . . . noiv. modo . . . mode, now . . . now. simul . . . simul, at the same time . .,at the same time (at once ... as well as) . qua . . . qua, now , . . nozv. nunc . . . nunc, now . , . now. Thus, — cum difficile est, tum ne aequum quidem (Laelius 26), not only is it diffi- cult, but even unjust. erumpunt saepe vitia amicorum tum in ipsos amicos tum in alienos (Lael- ius 76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, nozv against strangers. mode ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no. simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. vi. 7), he thanks him and at the same time congratulates him. qua maris qua feminas (Plaut. Mil. 11 13), both males and females. e. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together, for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what pre- cedes: as, at vero, but in truth, but surely^ still, however i itaque ergo, accorditigly then\ Damque, /"^r; et-enim, y^r, you see, for of course (§ 156. d). f. For conjunctions introducing subjunctive clauses, see Chap. V. 3. Negative Particles. Note. — For the list of negative particles, see \ 149. e. 209. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed : — 200 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 209 a. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as in English (§ 150) : as, nemo non videt, everybody sees. But 2i general negation is not destroyed — 1. By a following ne . . . quidem, not even, or non modo, not only: as, — numquam tu non modo otium, sed ne bellum quidem nisi nefarium con- cupisti (Catil. i. 25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one xvhich %vas infamous, 2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member : as, — eaque nesciebant nee ubi nee qualia essent (Tusc. iii, 4), they knew not where or of what kind these things were. 3. By neque introducing a co-ordinate member : as, — nequeo satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), / cannot wonder enough nor conjecture. b. The negative is frequently joined to some other word. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions. Thus, — neque (nee) (not et non), and not, but not (neither . . . nor). nee quisquam (not et nemo), and no one (nor any one). niilli or neutri eredo (not non credo ulli), / do not believe either (I believe neither). nego haec esse vera (not dico non esse), / say this is not true (I deny that these things are true). sine iillo periculo (less commonly cum nSUo), with no danger (without any danger). nihil unquam audivi iiicundius, / never heard anything more amusing (nothing more amusing have I ever heard). c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary {Litotes^ : as, — non haec sine numine divom eveniunt (^n. ii. 777), these things do not occur without the will of the gods. haec non nimis exquiro (Att. vii. 18, 3), not very muchy i.e. very little. Note, — Compare nonnullus, nonnemo, etc. {\ 150. a), d. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo be- comes nearly equivalent to yes {nay but, nay rather') : as, — causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. ix. 7), is the cause then not a good one ? on the contrary, the best. §§ 209, 210.] Questions. 201 e. Minus, less (especially with sT, if, quo, in order that), and minime, least, often have a negative force. Thus, — si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quo minus, see §§ 319. c, 331. el\ audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minime (Rose. Am. 2), am I the boldest of them all ? by no means (not at all). [For do not in Prohibitions, see \ 269. a.] Vl.-QUESTIONS. 210. Questions are either Direct or Indirect. 1 . A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker : as, — quid est? what is it? 2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like : as, — rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct : quid est, what is it F'] nescio ubi sim, / know not where I am. [Direct : ubi sum, ivhere am //] Questions in Latin are introduced by special inter- rogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English. Note. — For the list of Interrogative Particles, see \ 149. d. a. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word : as, — tiine id veritus es (Cic), did you fear that.? hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Milon. 104), shall ims man die anyivhere but in his native land? b. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted : as, — patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. i), do you not see that your schemes are manifest? (you do not see, eh?) Note. — In such cases no sign of interrogation appears except in the punctua- tion, and it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement. c. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, — as in nSnne, — an afirmative answer is expected. The particle num sug- gests a negative answer. Thus, — nSnne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe? num dubium est (Rose. A. 107), there is no doubt, is there? 202 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 210, 211 d. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nonne : as, — meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 7), don't you remember my say- ing in the Senate ? rectene interpreter sententiam tuam (Tuscul. iii. 37), do I not rightly interpret your meaning? Note,— This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most cases the negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into ehf Remark.— The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether ; anne, or; Quantane (Hor. Sat, ii. 3. 317), how bigf quGne malo (id. 290), by what curse t e. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb (§ 106), as in English : as, — quid est quod iam amplius exspectes (Cat. i, 6), what is there for you to look for any more} quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6), whither then is alt this tending P Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icartis^ where are you? Remark. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the inflection of the voice: as, qUalis vir eratt what a man he wast quot cala- mitates passi sumus ! how many misfortunes have we suffered! /, The particles nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter- rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : as, — quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.] ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we? in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Milon. 7), in what city^ pray, do they maintain this? Note. — Tandem is sometimes added to verbs: as, — ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), j^^« donU say so! (say you so, pray?) itane tandem, quaesS, est (Ter. Heaut. 954), it*s so, is it then? itane tandem uxorem diixit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh ? Antipho's got married? Remark. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions regularly takes the Subjunctive {§ 334). In indirect questions num loses its peculiar force (J 21a c) Double Questions. 211, A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one. §§ 211, 212.] Questions. 203 In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member ; an, aune, or ; annon, necne, or not, in the second ; and usually an in the third, if there be one : as, — utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you don^l knowy or do you think nothing of it ? quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 74), 1 ask whether slaves or free. utrum hostem an v5s an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis (Liv. xxi. 10, 6), is it the enemy ^ or yourselves^ or the fortune of the two peoples^ that you do not knoio f Remark. — AnnOn is more common in direct questions, necne in indirect. a* The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member ; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second : as, — Gabinio dicam anne PompeiS an utrique (Manil. 57), shall I say to GabiniuSy or to Pompey^ or to both ? sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not? b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : as, — an tu miseros putas ill5s (Tusc. i. 13), what! do you think those men wretched? c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative : as, — utrum in clarissimis est civibus is, quem . . . (Flacc. 45), is he among the noblest citizens^ whoin^ etc.? d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions : — utrum ... an ... an utrum . . . annon -^— ... an (anne) -ne ... an — . . -ne, necne -ne . . . necne -ne . . . -ne Question dnd Ans-wer. 212. There is no one Latin word in common use mean- ing simply j^^j or no. In answering a question affirmatively^ the verb or some other emphatic word is generally re- peated ; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with non or a similar negative : as. — 204 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 212. valetne, is he well? valet, jk^^ (he is well). eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not). numquidnara novi there is nothi7ig nezv, is there ? nihil sane, oh ! nothing. a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some- times used to answer a direct question : thus, — I. For yes:-- vero, in truths true, no doubt, yes. ita vero, certainly (so in truth), etc. etiam, even so, yes, etc sane quidem, yes, no doubt, etc. ita, so, trtie, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc. sane, surely (soundly), no doubt, doubtless, etc. certe, certainly, most assuredly, unquestionably, etc. factum, true (it was done), ifs a fact, you're right, etc. 3. For no: — non, not [so], niillo mod5, by no means. minime, not at all (in the smallest degree, cf. § 209. e). minime ver5, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc. non quidem, why, no ; certainly not, etc. non hercle vero, why, gracious, no (certainly not, by Hercules) ! Examples are : — quidnam? an laudationes? ita, why, what? is it etdogies ? just so. aut etiam aut non respondere (Academ. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) yes or no. estne ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361), is [she] as handsome as they say she is (is her beauty as it is said) ? oh ! yes. fugisne hinc? ego vero ac lubens (Ter. And. 337), will you clear out from here ? indeed I will, and be glad to, miser ergS Archelaus? certe si iniustus (Tuscul. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched then ? certainty, if he was unjust. haec contemnitis? minime (De Orat. ii. 295), do you despise these things ? not at all. volucribusne et fens? minime vero (Tuscul. i. 104), to the birds and beasts ? why, cf cotirse not. ex tui animi sententia tii uxorem habes? non hercle, ex mei animi sen- tentia (De Orat. ii. 260), Lord I no, etc. b. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna- tive, or some part of it, must be repeated : as, — tiine an frater erat, was it you or your brother? ego [eramj, it was I. Remark. — From double {alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which so7iie detail only is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus, — quaero num iniiiste aut improbe fecerit (Off. iii. 54), I ask whether he cuted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the mf»n did Hther of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did. Constrtiction of Cases, 205 Chapter IL — Construction of Cases. Note. — The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations is by mere juxtaposition of roots or stems. From this arises in time composition, the growing together of stems by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armo-gero- comes to mean arni-iearhig ; fidi-cen-, playing en the lyre. Later, Cases are formed by means of suffixes to express more definitely such relations, and Syntax begins. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages. Originally the family of languages to which Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and Instrumental were lost except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases) and their functions were divided among the others ($} 224, 242). The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the oldest form* of case- relations {^Direct Cases, $ 31.^. note). The Nominative Is the case of the Subject, and the -S in which it generally ends is thought to be a demonstrative pronoun (^ 32, n. 2). The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (.) 33. fl), perhaps never had a suffix of its own. The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m (doubtless another demonstrative), originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or adjective (see page 235, head-note). The other cases were formed by combination with various pronominal suffixes, and at first probably expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH : Indirect Cases, ^ 31. g. note). But these original meanings have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguish- able either in form or meaning. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where ({ 258./), To indi- cate relations of place more precisely, Prepositions (originally Adverbs) gradually became necessary. These by degrees rendered the case-endings useless, and so have finally superseded them in all modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-forms. It is to be noticed that cases in their literal use tended to adopt the preposition, and in WxQix figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, } 243; Ablative of Place and Time, >}§ 254, 256.) The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek irrSxns, a falling away (from the erect position). The term tttwois was originally applied to the Oblique Cases ($ 31.^), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called opOi] {^casus rectus). The later name Nominative {casus notninatlvus) is from n5min5, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive {casus genetivus) is a translation of yeuiK-f) [Trrwcris], from ytyos {class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative {casus dativus, from dO) is translated from Sotlk^^ and means the case of giving. Accusative (accusativus, fi-om acctlso) is a mistranslation of alriariKri (the case of causing), from aiTia, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative {vocafivus, from VOCO) is translated from icXrjTLK-)] (the case of calling). The name Ablative {ablativus, from ablfitus, aufero) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost 2o6 Syntax: Construction of Cases, [§ 213* I. -GENITIVE. Note. — The Genitive is regularly used to expresc the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. Its uses may be classified as follows : — 1. Of Possession (§ 214). 2. Of Source developed into Material (§ 214. e). 3. Of Quality (^ 215). 4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, § 216). 5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling ( \ 217). I. Genitive with Nouns : II. Genitive with f i. Relative adjective (or Verbal) (§218. «,/5). Adjectives: | 2. Of Specification (later use) (^218.^). III. Genitive WITH j i. Of Memory,. Feeling, etc. {\\ 219, 221-23). Verbs: (2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (^220). . I. Genitive with Nouns. ""\ 213. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo- sition OF : as, — libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero. talentum auri, tf talent of gold. vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage. pars miMtnm, a />art of the soldiers. cultus deorum, worship of the gods. vacatio laboris, a respite from toil. victor omnium gentium, conqueror of alt nations. In most constructions the genitive is either Subjective or Objective. 1. The Subjective genitive denotes that to which the noun limited belongs, or from which it is derived (§ 214). 2. The Objective genitive denotes that toward which an action or feeling is directed (§ 217 fF.). This distinction is illustrated by the following example. The phrase amor patris, love of a father^ may mean love felt by a father, a father''s love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive). Note. — The genitive seems to have denoted originally that to which something belongs, and hence it was originally subjective. The objective genitive is a later development, through such expressions as mei laudatSres, my admirers, in which the admirers are first conceived as belonging to me, and afterwards felt as admiring me (cf. § 217. note). For this reason the distinction between the subjective and the objective genitive is very unstable and constantly lost sight of (cf. § 197. a). I § 214.] Possessive Genitive, 207 \ I 214. The Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to denote (i) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the Material, (3) the Quality. 1. Possessive Genitive a. I. The Possessive Genitive denotes the author or owner : as, — libri Ciceronis, the books of (written by) Cicero, ^ Alexandri equus, Alexander's horse. 2. For th e genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective IS often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns (§§ 190, 197.^): as, — liber meus, my book, [Not liber mei.] aliena pericula, other men^s dangers. [But also aliorum.] SuUana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener SuUae.] b. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : as, — ad Castoris [aedes], to the [temple] of Castor. Hectoris Andromache (^n. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache. Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius, c. The possessive genitive is often in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb : as, — haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's. tutelae nostrae [eos] duximus (lAw.'), we held them [to be] in our protec- tion. compendi facere, to save (make of saving), lucri facere, to get the benefit Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac), Tiberius [then] thirsting for blood. Note 2. — Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note i) even when they express a disposition or character : as,— virtus quam alii ipsam temperantiam dicunt esse,* alii obtemperantem tem- perantiae praeceptis et earn subsequentem (Tuscul. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her. c. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almoet any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists {Genitive of Specification^ : as, — callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skilled in soldiership. pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant ofzvater. notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6^^ famed for a paternal spirit. §§ 218, 219.] Genitive with Verbs. 213 fessi rerum (-^n. i. 1 78), lueary of toil. integer vitae scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and unstained by guilt. Note i. — For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see \ 253. Note 2. — The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construc- tion with relative adjectives. Thus callidus denotes knowledge ; pauper, want ; purus, innoce?ice; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a. Remark. — Adjectives oi feeling are followed by the apparent genitive animi (really locative, cf. ^ 223. c)'. as, — aeger animi, sick at heart. confusus animi, disturbed in spirit. So by imitation — sanus mentis et animi (Plant. Trin. 454), sound in mind and heart. audax ingenii (late), bold in disposition. d. For adjectives of likeness, etc., with the genitive, apparently ob- jective, see § 234. d. III. Genitive with Verbs. . '^- The Objective Genitive is used with some verbs. L> 1. Remembering and Forgetting. V 219. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting take the Genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state of mi7idy but the Accusative when used of a single act : as, — 1. Genitive: — recordans superioris transmissionis (Att.iv. 19), remembering your former crossing. animus meminit praeteritorum (Div, i. 63), the soul remembers the past. venit mihi in mentem illius diei, / bethink me of that day (it comes into my mind of that day). obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations. nee unquam obliviscar illius noctis (Plancius loi), and I shall never for- get that night. 2. Accusative: — totam causam oblitus est (Bru. 217), he forgot the xvhole case. pueritiae memoriam recordarl (Arch, i),/^? recall the t/iemory of childhood. a. The Accusative is almost always used of a person or thing re- membered by an eye-witness : as, — memineram PauUum (I^oel. 9), I remevibered Paulus. b. Recordor, recollect, recall, denotes a single act and is therefore almost always followed by the Accusative : as, — \ 214 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 219, 220, recordare consensum ilium theatri (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agreement of the [audience in thej theatre. recordamini omnis civilis dissensiones (Cat. iii. 24), recall all the civil wars. c. Verbs of reminding take with the accusative of the person a genitive of the thing ; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 238. b). Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21), Catiline reffiinded one of his poverty y another of his cupidity. unum illud monere te possum, / can re?nitid you of this one thing. So admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio, commonefio. But moneo with the genitive is found only in late writers (cf. § 238. b. note). Note. — All these verbs often take de with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them : as, — saepius te admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4, 5),/r^w/«. 3) and in I - some adverbial forms (as e5, illo, thither, cf. § 148. note, 7). O In Latin the Dative has two classes of derived meanings : — 1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the boy a book, or fecit mihi inidriani, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting fersons ox things with personal attributes are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things.2 See examples under § 224. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative {i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see \ ittj. a and b). ■2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see \ 233). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action. 1 Compare the English />r hii sake, on my account. • So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a. person is the object of an action; yo veo cU hom.bre, I see [to] the man. ^ §§ 224, 225.] Dative with Transitives. 219 These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in § 234 (cf. especially § 234. b)» The uses of the Dative, arranged practically, are the following : — 1. As Indirect Object f i. With Transitives (§ 225). (general use) : | 2. With Intransitives (§^ 226-28, 230). 1. Of Possession (with esse) {\ 231). 2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 232). 3. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) {\ 233). 4. Of Fitness, etc. (with Adjectives) (§ 234). 5. Of Reference {datlvus commodT) (§J 235, 236). 2. Special or Idiomatic Uses: 224. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action. This is called the Indirect Object (§ 177). It is usually denoted in English by the Objective with to or for. Thus, — dat librum puero, he gives a book to the boy. cedite tempori, yield to the occasion. provincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicerx). inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies. civitatis saluti consulite, consult for the safety of the State. sic mihi videtur, so it seems to me. indicavit mihi Pansa, Pansa has made known to me. hoc tibi spondeo, I promise [to] you this. 1. Indirect Object with Transitives. 225. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accu- sative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see § 177) : as, — do tibi librum, I give you a book. illud tibi afifirmo (Fam. i. 'f)^this I assure you. commendo tibi eius omnia negotia (Fam. i. 3), I put all his affairs in your hands, dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (Dei. A,6)^yoti will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath. litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam.ii. 17), delivered to me a letter. a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use (§ 177. note). These take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone: as, — banc pecuniam tibi credo, I trust this money to you. [Transitive.] in hac re tibi credo, / trust you in this. [Intransitive.] ^. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion (§ 258. h). Thus — 220 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 225. 1. Some verbs take the Accusative (with or without a preposition) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of Motion prevails (§258):as,- litteras quas ad Pompeium scripsi (Att. iii. 8), the letter which I have writ- ten [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo haberem quod tibi scriberem (Att. iv. 4), not that I had anything to write to you.'] litterae extemplo Romam scriptae (Liv. xli. i6), ^^ he will never yield to his foes. illis libellis nomen suura inscribunt (Arch. 26), they put their own name to those papers. cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Rose. A. 1 1 2), why do you offer yourself to'^me^ and then hinder and withstand my ad- vantage ? Note 1. — In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains or some different construction arises. Thus in convocat SUOS, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indi- rect object appropriate. So hominera interflcere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeflcere imper2,t5rem bellS, to put a man as commander- in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also a and c, and § 237. d). 226 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 228, 229. Note 2. — Some of these verbs being originally transitive take also a direct object: as, ne offeramus nos periculis (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose our- selves to perils. Note 3. — The construction of § 228 is not different in its nature from that of ^ 225 and 226; but the compound verbs make a convenient group. a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, gnd take the accusative (cf. § 237. d) i^ as, — nos oppiignat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare encounter a man well attended? miinus obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty. b. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative : as, — si ille obvius el futiirus non erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in his wa^. mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16) y you came to meet ?ne. c. VJhen place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned m § 228 regularly take a noun with a preposition, instead of the dative : as, in visceribus inhaerere (Tuscul. iv. 24), it remaii7sfixed in the mtals. homini coniiinctS mecum (TuUius 4), to a man united to me. convenit mihi cum adversario (Tullius 23), my adversary and I agree (it agrees to me with my adversary). cum hoc concurrit ipse Eumenes (Nep. Eum. 4, i), with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together). quae a ceterarum gentium more dissentiunt (Fonteius 30), which differ from the citstom of all other nations. inserite ocul5s in ciiriam (Fonteius 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house. ignis qui est ob 6s offusus (Univ. 49), the fire which is diffused before the sight. obicitur contra istorum impetus Macedonia (Fonteius 44), Macedonia is set to withstand t/ieir attacks. [Cf. si quis vobis error obiectus (Caec. 5), if any mistake has been caused you. se iniecturos vobis causam deliberandi (Caecina4), that they would give you occasion for con- sidering^ in segetem flamma incidit (iEn. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn. Note. — But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word in the same sense. The dictionary must be consulted for each verb. 229. Many verbs of taking away'^ and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 243) : * as, — 1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, conveni5, ineo, obeo, offendo, oppugno, subeo, praecedo. 2 The dative in these constructions represents the action as done to the object, and is thus more vivid than the, ablative. 8 Such verbs are compounds of ab, de, ex, and a few of ad. s§ 229-31.] Dative with Compounds'. 227 mulieri anulum detraxit, he took a ring from the woman. bona mihi abstulisti, yon have robbed me of my gains. vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 71), violence deprives young men of life. nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (Fam. i. 5, \i).i for age has robbed you, etc. nee milii hunc errorem extorquerl void (C. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from. me. a. The distinct idea oi motion, — and, in general, names oi things ^ — .-equire the ablative with a preposition (§ 258. a) : as, — ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged hijn out of danger. b. Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb : as, — victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, that victory should be xurested from his hands (cf. § 243, b). c. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs oi contending (§ 248. b)-. as, — contendis Homero (Prop. i. 7, 3) , you vie with Homer. [In prose : cum Homero.] placitone etiam pugnabis amori (iEn. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a love that pleases you? tibi certat (Eel. v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.] differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sermone, § 243.] solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide heat from the flock, [a pecore,] lateri abdidit ensem (-^n. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side, [in latere, § 260. a.] [For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 225. b. 3.] 230. The passive of intransitive verbs that govern the dative can be used only impersonally (§ 146. d). Such verbs retain the dative in this use (cf. § 225. e). cui parei potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared ? non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 45), that age (youth) is not only not envied, but is even favored. tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occa- sion (the time). 5. Dative of Possession. 231. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession : as, — , 228 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 231, 232. homini cum deo similitudo est (Cic), man has a likeness to God (there is to man, etc.). quibus,opes nullae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth. est mihi domi pater (Eel. iii. t,'}^^ I have a father at home. Remark. — The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor ; the Dative, the fact of ;>£?jj^jj/tf«; as, liber est meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, I have a book (among other things). The latter is the usual form to denote simple possessio?i, since habeo, have, generally signifies hold, often with some secondary meaning : as, — legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept with him. doraitas habere libi dines (De Or.), to keep the passions under control. a. Compounds of esse take the dative (except abesse and posse) : as, — deest mihi pecunia, / lack money. quid mihi proderit? in what will it help me (what will it profit me) ? b. After n5men est, and similar expressions, the name is usually put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person : as, — cui Africans fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was Africanus. puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty. c. The name may also be in apposition with nomen ; or in later Latin in the genitive (cf. § 214.^/') : as, — cui nomen Arethiisa (Ver. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa (to which is the name Arethusa). puero nomen est Marcus (Marci), the bo/s name is Marcus (to the boy, etc.). Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum est (Vel. Pat. i. 11), /vaeL). congruenter naturae (Finib. iii. 26), in harmony with nature. Note i. — So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, — invltum qui servat idem facit occidenti (Hor. Ars. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him. Note 2. — Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also the adverbs aeque, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun idem has regularly atque or a relative. Thus, — si parem sententiam hic habet ac formam (Plant. Mil. 1251) if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty). te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri (Cato Maj. i), / suspect y 014 are disturbed by the same things by which I am. 232 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 234 b. Adjectives oi fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative oi persons : as, — aptus ad rem militarem.yf/y^r a soldier^s duty. locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait* nobis utile est ad banc rem, it is of use to us for this thing. c. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or erga : as, — comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), kind to his ivife. divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men. de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Offic. i. 47), in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us. gratiorem me esse in te (Fam. xi. lo), that I am more grateful to you. d. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive.^ Thus, — quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . optare debetis (Leg. Man. 48), which you ought to pray may be sectire (his own) and lasting to him. fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Romani (Manil. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. id quod re5 maxime necessarium est (Caecil. 38), a thing which is espe- cially necessary for the defendant. cum utrique sis maxime necessarius (Att. ix. 7, A), since you are espe- cially bound to both. procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinctius 86), an agent equally closely connected with both. Note. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those above, but possessive (cf. § 214. a), I. The Genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns. Thus, — amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero ; and even, Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero. Creticus et eius aequalis Paeon (Orat. 215), the Cretic and its equivalent the Paeon. hi erant affines istius (Verr. ii. 36), these were this manh fellows. - 2. After slmilis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero uses the genitive of living objects^ and either the genitive or dative of things : as, — domini similis es (Tev.) you^re like your master (your master's like). 1 Such are aequalis, af finis, amicus, cognatus, communis, consan- guineus, dispar, familiaris, flnitimus, Inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius (regularly genitive), similia, superstes^ viclniis, alienus, contrarius, sacer. §§ 234, 235.] Dative of Reference. 233 ut deSmm similSs essemus (Nat. D. i. ()i),that we might be like the gods. simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (Nat. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape! si enim hoc illi simile sit, est illud huic (Nat. D. i. <)o),/or if this is like thatf that is like this. fllius patri similis (Finib. v. 12), a son like his father. est similis maiorum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he*s like his ancestors. e. The adjectives propior, proximus sometimes, and the adverbs propius, proxime more commonly, take the accusative, as if preposi- tions, like prope (see § 261. a). propius perlculum (Li v. xxi. i), nearer to danger. proxime deos accessit Clodius (Milon. 59), Clodius has come very near the gods. proximus Pompeium sedebam (Cic), / was sitting next to Pompey, proximus mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean. NOTB. — These words take also the ablative with ab^ (cf. \ 260. b), 9. Dative of Reference. 235. The Dative is often required not by any particular wordi but by the general meaning of the sentence : as, — tibi aras (PI. Merc. ']i), you plough for yourself. res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods to yourself, laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; lauda- vit fratrem meum would imply no such motive), meritos mactavit honores, taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo (iEn. iii. 1 18), -^ [For the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 152. a, tf,} IV. -VOCATIVE. 241. The Vocative is the case of direct address : as, — Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Livy ii. 10), O^ father Tiber y thee^ holy one, I pray. a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : as, — audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear^ thou people of Alba. b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person : as, — censorem trabeate salutas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor. c. The nominative may be used in exclamations (cf. § 240. d) : as, — en dextra fidesque (.^n. iv. 597), loy the faith and plighted word ! d. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte esto (virtute), success attend your (valor). Thus, — iuberem te macte virtute esse (X-y^.W. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor. Note. — As the quantity of the final G in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est, and the like. (See American Journal of Philology, Vol. I.) V. -ABLATIVE. 242. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from, in, at, WITH, BY : as, — liberate metu, to deliver from fear. caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. occisus gladio, slain by the sword. excultus doctrina, trained in learning. hoc ips5 tempore, at this very time. §§ 242, 243.] Ablative of Separation, 245 Note. — The ablative y^rw contains three distinct cases, — the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM ; the Locative, IN ; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. This confusion has arisen partly from phonetic decay {\ 8), by means of which the three cases have become identical in form, and partly from the development by which they have approached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -e of the fifth declen- sion {\ 74. a), and the loss of the original -d in the ablative {J^\ 36. yj 62. a) ; and, for the second, the phrases a parte dextra, ON the right ; quara ob causam, FROM which cause; ad famam, at (in consequence of) the report. The relation of FROM includes separation^ source, cause, agent, and comparison ; that of WITH or BY, accoynpaniinent, instrutnent, means, manner, quality, a.nd price ; that of IN or AT, place, time, circutr'tance. It is probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment had a separate case, which became confounded with the instru- mental before Latin was separated from the kindred tongues. The following are the uses of the Latin Ablative, classed according to the origi- nal cases which have been combined in it : — II. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (\ 243). 2. Of Source (participles of origin, etc.) (^ 244). 3. Of Cause (gaudeo, dignus, etc.) {\ 245). 4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (^ 246). 5. Of Comparison (THAN) {\ 2^7). 1. Of Mariner, Means, and Instrument {§ 248). ^ 2. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§ 248. a). 3. Of Object of the Deponents litor, etc. (} 249). 4. Of Degree of Difference (^. 250). 5. Of Quality (with Adjectives ) (^ 251). 6. Of Price and Exchange (^ 252). 7. Of Specification (§ 253). {I. Of Place where (commonly with in) ($ 254). 2. Of Idiomatic Expressions (§ 254. a). 3. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 256). 4. Ablative Absolute (^ 255). 1. Ablative of Separation. 243. Words signifying Separation or Privation are fol- lowed by the ablative, with or without a preposition. a. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent ^ deprive, and want^ require die abladve : as, — oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself oj eyes. legi!)us solutus, relieved from the obligation of laws. omni Gallia interdicit Romanis (B. G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul. ei aqua et ignl incerdicitur (Veil. Pat. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and water. voluptatibus carere (Cat. Maj. 7), to lack enjoymeftts. non egeo mediclna (Lael. 10), I want no physic. magno me metii liberabis (Cat. i. 10), you will relieve me of great fear. Epborus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur. Instrumental Ablative {with) : 246 Syntax: Construction of Cases, [% 243. levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved from superstitiofiy we are freed from fear of death. consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cato M. 17), to be bereft of counsel and authority, b. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, take the simple ablative when ustd. figuratively I but when used literally to denote separation or motion, they usually require a preposition (see § 258). Thus, — conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt. desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces. abire magistratu, to leave one's office. abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong. But, — aberrare a proposito (Cic), to wander from the point. de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one'' s province, ab iure abire (id.), to go outside of the law. ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf. f inibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 1 8), they had left their oiun territory. 1 a magno demissum nomen lulo (^n. i. 288), a name descended (sent down) from great lulus. Note. — For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see } 229. £. For the ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expres- sions, see § 258. a^ and note 2. d. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the abla- tive: as, — urbs nuda praesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), yV^^ of military service. plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes. Note. — Some adjectives of want take the genitive (see \ 218. a), e. Opus and usus, signifying need^ are followed by the ablative : 1 as,— magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates. nunc viribus usus (^n. viii. 441), now there is need of strength. Note, — With these words the ablative of the /^r/^^/ /ar/?W)>/^, with or with- out a noun, is often found (§ 292. b) : as, — opus est tua exprompta memoria atque asttitia (Ter. And. 723), / must have your good memory and cleverness set to work. properato opus erat (Mil. 49), there was need of haste. facto usus est, it is desirable to do (there is need of the thing's being done). Remark. — Frequently opus is in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject : as, — ' This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which 6pus ar.d Qsus mean luork and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is per- formed or the service rendered. §§ 243, 244.J Ablative of Source and Material, 247 dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and responsibh adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us). si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any- thing should be necessary for him). quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14, 3), things which are required. f, Egeo and indiged are often followed by the genitive (§ 223) : as, — ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), test any require aid. quae ad consolandum maioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability f and for endurance unusual courage. Remark. — The Genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of the Ablative with all words oi reparation and want ($ 223. b, 3) : as, — abstinetS irarura (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 70), abstain from wrath, operum solutis (id. 17, 16), free from toils. desine moUium querelarum (id. ii. 9. 1 7), have done with weak complaints, 2. Ablative of Source and Material. 244-. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists. These ablatives commonly take a preposition : as, — 1. Source: — Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii. ab aliquo sermo oritur (Laelius 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) some one. ciiius rationis vim atque iitilitatem ex illo caelesti EpiciirT volumine accepimus (Nat. D. i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus. suavitatem odorum qui afflarentur e floribus (Cato Major 59), the sweet- ness of the odors which breathed from the flowers. 2. Material : — erat totus ex fraude et mendacio factus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood. valvas magnificentiores, ex auro atque ebore perfectiores (Verr. iv. 124), more splendid doors^ more finely wrought of gold and ivory. factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. Met. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks. templum de marmore p5nam (Georg. iii. 13), r It build a temple of marble. Note i. — In poetry the preposition is often omitted. Note 2. — The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source (cf. § 214). 248 Syntax : Construction of Cases. [§ 244. a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Ablative of Source, generally without a preposition : ^ as, — love natus et Mail (N. D. iii. 56), son of Jupiter and Maia edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. i. i), descendant of kings, quo sanguine cretus (^n. ii. 74), born of what blood. genitae Pandione (Ov. Met, vi. 666), daughters of Pandion. Remark. — A preposition (ab, d§, ex) is usually expressed with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : as, — cum ex utraque [uxore] filius natus esset (De Orat. i. 183), each wife having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife). Tros est generatus ab 1116 (Ov. Fast. iv. 33), Tros was sprung from him. ex me hie natus non est sed ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), ihis is nottnysony but my brother'' s (not born from me, etc.). Belus et omnes a Belo (^En. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants. b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source : as,— desideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Cranium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), he lost C. Felginas of Placentia, A. Granius of Puteoli. NOTEU — The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as, — Q. Verrem Romilia (Verres i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe. c. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposi- tion. Such are constare, consistere, and continerl.2 But with constare, ex is more common. Thus : — domus amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. ex animo constamus et eorpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body. vita eorpore et spiritu continetur(Marc. 2%),life consists of body and spirit. d. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere,, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of: as, — quid h5c homine faciatis (Ver. ii. i.42), what are you going to do with this- man? quid TuUiola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear Tullia /^ quid te futurum est (Ver. ii. 155), what will become of you? e. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without ai preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun: as, — non pauca pocula ex auro (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold. scopulis pendentibus antrum (^n. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks.. 1 Such are natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, progrnatus, gren« ratus, cretus, creatus, oriundus. a The ablative with cSnsistere and contineri is locative in origin (cf. aS4.3). §§ 244, 245.] Ablative of Cause. f. For Genitive of Material, see § 214. e. g. For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 216. c. 3. Ablative of Cause. 245. The ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause.^ nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam. ii. 9), I was almost zuild from too muck joy. neglegentia plectimur (Loel. 85), xve are chastised for negligence. gubernatoris ars iitilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), the pilot's skill is praised for its service^ not its skill, certis de causis, for certain reasons. ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound. mare a sole lucet (Ac. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). ex opportunitate loci (Jug. 48, 2), from the advantage of position. a. Certain verbs and adjectives regularly take the ablative of cause without a preposition. These are : — 1. The adjectives dlgnus, in dignus : as, — vir patre avo maioribus suia dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy of his father, grandfather y and ancestors. te omni honore indignissimum iudicat (Vatinius 39), he judges you entirely unworthy of every honor, 2. The verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio, exsultS, triumphs, lacrimo, SrdeS : as, — baud equidem tali me dignor honore (/En. i. 335), / do not deem myself worthy of such an honor. doleS te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt (lit., from another's money), exsultaie laetitia ac triumphare gaudio coepit(Clu. i^yShe began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy. exsilui gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. lacrimo gaudio (Ter. Ad. 409), J weep for joy. delicto dolere (Lsel. 90), to grieve for the fa tdt. ardere dolore et ira (Att. ii. 19), to be on fire with pain and anger. Note i. — For gaudeo and g-lorior, see \ 254. b. 1 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de, ex ; but when the accusative with ad, ob is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally, however, it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental Case) or circumstance (which is either the I-^cative or the InstrumentalV 250 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 245, 246. Note 2. — Digrnus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry : as, — curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most worthy of your noble character. dignus saliitis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum (^n. xii. 649), never un- worthy my great ancestors. Note 3. — For the construction of dignus and indignus with verbs, see \ 320./ b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by ob 1 or propter with the accusative : as, — non ob praedam, aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through lust of plunder. amicitia ex se et propter se expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought of and for itself. Note. — But these constructions are often confused: as,— parere legibus propter metum (Parad. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear, [Here metum is almost equivalent to " the terrors of the law," and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.] c. The ablatives causa and gratia,y*^r M6), with this force he set out. Remark. — Misceo and iungo, with their compounds, and confundo may take either (i) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) some- times the Dative : as, — mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. <,&), pleasure mingled tvith pain. cuius animum cum suo misceat (Lxlius 81), whose sottl he may mingle with his oivn. fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. Met. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood. Caesar eas cohortes cum suo exercitu coniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Ccesar united those cohorts with his ozvn army. air coniiinctus terris (Lucr. v. 562), air united with earth. hiimanS capiti cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. i), to join to a human head a horse's neck. b. Words of Contention and the like require cum: as,— armis cum hoste certare, to fight with the enemy in arms. libenter haec cum Q. Catulo disputarem(Leg. Man. 66), I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus. Note. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 229. c). 8. Ablative of Means. c. I. The Ablative is used to denote the means or in- stniment of an action : as, — certantes ptignis, calcibus, unguibus, morsil denique (Tuscul. v. 77), fighting with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth. cum pugnis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels. §§248,249.] Ablative of Means. 255 meis laboribus interitu rempublicam liberavi (Sulla, 33), by my toils I have saved the state from ruin. multae istarum arborum mea manu sunt satae (Cat. Major 59), many of those trees were set out with my own hands. 2. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives oifillmgj abounding, and the like : as, — Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 9), God has filled the world tvith all good things. aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B, G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines. totum montem hominibus complevit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole 77iountain with men. opimus praeda(Ver. ii. i. 132), rich with spoils. vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest. 23), a life filled and crozvded with delights. Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 4), Forum Appii crammed with bargemen. Remark. — In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words by a Greek idiom. But compleo, impleo, plenus and refertus often take the genitive in prose (cf. ^ 223). Thus, — omnia plena liictus et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief and inonrning. oUam denariorum implere (Fam. ix, 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.] convivium vicinorum compleo (Cato Major 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors. 249. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vesoor, with several of their compounds,^ govern the ablative: as, utar vestra benignitate (Arch. id>),I will avail myself of your kindness. sagacitate canum ad utilitatem nostram abutimur (N. D. ii. \^\),wetake advantage of the sagacity of dogs for our own benefit. ita mihi salva republica vobiscum perfrui Hceat (Catil. iv. 11), so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous. auro heros potitur (Ov. Met. vii. 155), the hero takes the gold. Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), the Numidians fed mostly on vtilk and game. fungi inani munere {Mxi. vi. 885), to perform an idle service. Note.— This is really an Ablative of Means and the verbs are really in the middle voice (§ 11 1. a). Thus utor signifies / employ myself or avail myself hy means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as wc f.nd it. 1 These are abator, deator, defungor, defnior, perfruor, perfun&or, 256 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§249,250. a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control 01 be jnaster of affairs (§ 223. a) : as, — totius Galliae sese potiri posse spirant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul. b. In early Latin, these verbs are often transitive, and take the ac- cusative : as, — ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate. fiinctus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc. Note. — The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but of. \ 294. c') : as, — Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tradiderat (Verr. ii. 46), he had given over eve?ything to He radius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed). 9. Ablative of Degree of Difference. 250. With comparatives and words implying compari- son the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Differ- ence : as, — duobus milibus plures, two thotisand more (more by two thousand), quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant (it stands off by five miles), aliquot ante annis (Tuscul. i. 4), several years before. aliquant© post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after he looked up. multo me vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that I walch much more sharply (more sharply by much), nihilo erat ipse Cyclops quam aries priidentior (Tuscul. v. 115), /Jjr the Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram. Remark. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives quo . . . eo (h5c) ; quanto . . . tanto (cf. § 106. c) : as, — quo minus cupiditatis, eo plSs auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more), quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebri5res litterae mittebantur (B. G. v^ 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent. Note. — To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and eo with a comparative even when they have ceased to be felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause; as, — eoque me minus paenitet (Nat. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so much the less I regret). a. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 247) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are often used together with the same adjective ; as, — multo divitior Crasso, much richer than Crassus. §§251,252.] Ablative of Quality ; of Price. 2S7 10. Ablative of Quality. 251. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a Modifier (either an adjective or limiting genitive). This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality. animo meliore sunt gladiatores (Catil. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better mind. quae cum esset civitas aequissimo lure ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights. mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Ver. ii. i. 64), a woman of extraordinary beauty. Hortensius memoria tanta fuit ut, etc. (Brutus, 301), Hortensius had so good a memory that., etc. (was of so great memory), quam elato animo est (Theramenes) (Tuscul. i. 96), how lofty a spirit Theramenes displays. Aristoteles, vir summo ingenio, scientia, copia (Tuscul. i. 7), Aristotle^ a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression. quam tenui aut nulla potius valetudine (Cato Major 35), what feeble health he had, or rather none at all ! de Domitio dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. 25), concern- ing Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor. Note. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality) modifies a sub- stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs. Compare, — mulier pulchra, a beautiful ivoman. mulier magna pulchritudine, a woman of great beauty, with — mulier pulchritudine Troiam delevit, by her beauty a ivoman destroyed Ti'oy. mulier excellens pulchritudine (§ 253), a woman preeminent in beauty. a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but //yj-zV^/ qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. § 215, note) : as, — capill5 sunt promissS (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair. ut capite operto sit (Cato Major 34), /&- erant in statione pro castrls collocatT, ing an attack upon those who were on acriter pugnaverunt ; duabusque mtss'is guard in front of the camp, they fought subsidio cohortibtts a Caesare, cum fiercely; and, though two cohorts had hae {perexiguo intermtsso loci spatio been sent by Caesar as reinforcements, inter se) constitissent, novo genere afterthesehad taken their position (/^at/- piignae perterritls nostrls, per medios ing very little space of ground between audacissime perriiperunt, seque inde them), as our fnen were alarmed by the incolumes receperunt." — CAESAR, B. G. strange kind of fighting, they dashed V. 15. most daringly through the midst of them, and got off safe." [For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 152.] VI.-TIME AND PLACE. -1. Time. 256. Time w/ien, or within zvhich, is put in the Ablative ; time how long in the Accusative : as, — 1. Ablative: — constituta die, on the appointed day ; prima luce, at daybreak, quota hora, at ivhat 0'' clock ? tertia vigilia, in the third watch. tribus proxumis annis (Jug. il), within the Idst three years. 2. Accusative: — dies continues triginta,y^r thirty days together, cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), ivhen he had marched three days. Note. — The ablative of time is locative in its origin (J 254. head-note) ; the accusative is the same as that of the extent of space (§ 257). a. The Ablative of time 7£//////« which sometimes takes in, and the Accusative of time how long, per for greater precision : as, — in diebus proximis decern (Sail.), within the next ten days. in brevi spatio (Ov. Met. i. 411), within a brief space (of time). ludi per decern dies (Cat. iii. 26), games for ten days. b. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative : as, — milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus- tained the fight five hours. Note. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. 2. Space. 257. Extent of space is put in the Accusative : as, — 264 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 257, 25a fossas qumdecim pedes latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches fifteen feet broad. in omni vita sua quemque a recta conscientia tranaversum unguem non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20) fin all on^s life, one should not depart a naiPs breadth front straightforward conscience- Note. — This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes place, and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (c£ ^ 258). a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 215. b)\ ■ IS, — vallo pedum duodeeim (B. G. ii. 30), in a rampart oj twelve feet (in height). b. Distance vsrhen considered as extent of space is put in the Ac- cusative ; when considered as degree of difference^ in the Ablative (§ 250): as,— quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days' march. triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below that place (below by thirty miles). 3. Place from Which and End of Motion. 258, "Wi^ place from which'^is denoted by the Ablative with ab, dg, or ex ; the place to which (the End of Motion) by the Accusative with ad or in : as, — I . Place from which : — a septentrione, from the north, cum a vobis discessero (Cat. Maj. 79), when I leave you, de provincia decedere, to come azuay from one's province. de monte, do2V7t from t/te mountain, negotiator ex Africa (Ver. ii. i. 14), a merchant from Africa, infliixit e Graecia rivulus (Rep. ii. 34), there flozved in a 7-ill from Greece. ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain. Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains. quas (navis) ex Pictonibus et Santonis reliquisque pacatTs regionibus con- venire iusserat (id. iii. 11), the ships which he had given orders should collect from the [country of the] Pictones and the Santoni and from the other conquered regions. 1 Originally all these relations were expressed with all these words by the cases alone. The accusative denoted the end of motion as in a certain sense the object of the action (cf. ROmam petiit), and the ablative in its proper meaning of sepa- ration denoted the place from which. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were added to define more exactly the direction of motion, as in to us ward^ toward us and by long association became indispensable except as indicated above. §258.] Place from Which; End of Motion, 265 2. Place to which : — ad fines Hyrcaniae penetrat (Q. C. vi. 4), he penetrates to the borders 0/ Hyrcania. adibam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate (cf. § 237. d)^ in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa. in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy, legatum in Treveros mittit (B. G. iii. li), he sends his lieutenant into the [country of the] Treveri. in Kraea cum exissem (Att vi. 9, i), when I had landed at the Pireeus. [Admitted by Cicero himself to be wrong, the Piraeus being a town (see b, below). The passage is discussed by him in Att. vii. 3.] Note i. — In poetry the end of motion is often expressed by the Dative (J 225. b. 3) : as,— it clamor caelo (^n. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky. Note 2. — With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders ; in, into the country itself. ^Similarly ab denotes away from the outside ; ex, out cf the interior. Thus ad Italiam pervSnit would mean, he came to the frontier, regard- less of the destination; in Italiam, he went to Italy, i,e, to a place within it, to Rome, for instance. So ab Italia profectus est would mean, he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex ItalJa, he came from Italy, from within, as from Rome, for inst*ice. a. The names of towns or small islands /^'^/^^ which, as also domus and ruB, are put in the Ablative without a preposition : as, — Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. rure reversus, having returned f'om the country. Roma abesse, to be absent from Rome. dom5 abire, to leave home. Note i. — With names of towns, etc., ab is often used, commonly to denote from the vicinity of: as, — ut a Mutina discederet (Phil. xiv. 4), that he should retire from Mutina (which he was besieging), erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about G. a view into the catnp. profecti a domo (Liv. xl. 33), setting out frotn home, loca quae a Brundisio propius ahsunt (Att. viii. 14), places which are nearer to Brujidisium (nearer from). Note 2. — The ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from which in certain idiomatic expressions: as, — cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he would have left his country. patria pellere, to drive out of the country. manu mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand). Note 3. — The poets often omit the preposition where it would be required in prose: as, — minis Acheronte remissos (^n. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron, 266 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 258. b. The names of towns or small islands to which as also domus and rus, are put in the Accusative without a preposition : as, — Romam rediit, he returned to Rome. Delo Rhodum navigate, to sail from Delos to Rhodes. rus ibo, I shall go into the country. domum iit, he went home. [So, suas domos abire, to go to their homes."] Note i. — In this use domum may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive. When otherwise modified, domum requires the preposition in. Thus, — domum regis (Dei. 17), to the kin^s house. [But also in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 8), to M. Lceca's house ^ But, — in domum magnam venire, to come into a large house. Note 2. — With the names of towns, etc., ad may be used in the sense of towards, to the neighborhood of: as, — ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (B. G. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia. ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (come through to). ad Athenas navigare, to set sail for Athens (landing in the harbor). Note 3. — The general words, urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition in either construction {to which ov from which)', as, ad urbem, ab urbe, ad urbem Romam, Romam ad urbem, ex urbe Roma. Note 4. — Two or more nouns are sometimes expressed after one verb as limits of motion (see § 259. h). Note 5. — The poets often omit the preposition with any noun: as, — Italiam Laviniaque venit litora (^n. i. 2), he came to Italy and the Lavin ian shores. finis Italos mittere (id. iii. 440), you shall be allowed to reach the Italian boundaries. terram Hesperiam venies (id.ii. *j%\)yyou shall come to the Hesperian land. Remark. — The preposition is omitted with the supine in -um (§ 302) and in the following old phrases : — exsequias ire, to go to the funeral. infitias ire, to resort to denial. pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdo). venum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.] venum ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence venire.] foras (used as adverb), out: as, foras egredi, to go out of doors, 4. The Place Where. r. I. The place where is denoted by the Ablative with the preposition in {Locative Ablative) : as, — in hoc urbe vitam digit, he passed his life in this city. si in Gallia remanerent (B. G. iv. 8), if they should stay in Gaul. dum haec in Venetis geruntur (id. iii. 17), while this was going on among the Veneti. oppidum in insula positum (id. vii, 58), a town situated on an island. § 258.] The Place Where, 267 2. But names of towns and small islands are put in the Locative Case. This has in the first and the second declension singular the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative : as, — Romae, at Rome (Roma). Athenis, at Athens (Athenae). Rhodi, at Rhodes (Rhodus). Lanuvi, at Lanuvium. Sami, at Santos. Cypri, at Cyprus. Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur Curibus, at Cures. Philippis, at Philippi, Capreis, at Capri (Capreae). Remark. — Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory znA not as a locality are treated like names of countries: as, — in Sicilia, in Sicily. in Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N., of. § 256. a), in Ithaca hares when carried there die. [ Ulysses lived at Ithaca, would require Ithacae.] Note i. — With all names of places AT, meaning near (not /«), is expressed by ad or apud with the Accusative. In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circa with the Accusative ; among, by apud with the Accusative. Thus, — pugna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae. conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore). ad (apud) inferos, in the world below (near or among those below). ad fores, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door. apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house. apud Solos (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. circa Capuam, round about Capua. Note 2. — In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular work, in. Thus, — apud Xenophontem, in Xenophon. But, — in Xenophontis Oeconomico, in Xenophon's CEconomicus. d. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following common nouns : — domi (rarely domui), at home. belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service. humi, on the ground. ruri, in the country. foris, out-of'doors. terra marique, by land and sea. These are used like names of towns, without a preposition. So also,— heri {-e), yesterday. vesperi (-e), in the evening, infelicl arbori (Li v. i. 26), on the ill-omened tree. 26S Syntax: Construction of Cases, [§§ 258, 259. e. The locative domf may be modified by a possessive adjective or a limiting genitive ; but, when it would be otherwise modified some other construction is used instead of the Locative. Thus, — domi Caesaris, at Gssar's house, domi suae vel alienae, at his ozun or another's home. But,— in Marci Crassi castissima domo (Caelius 9), in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus, [Cf. ex Anniana Milonis domo, § 184. «^ of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense. The moods, except the infinitive, are only specialized tenses ; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, \ 311. c\ future for imperative, \ 269. /) ; and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunc- tive in future conditions, \ 307. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive § no. a). The parent language, besides the imperative mood, had two distinct forms with modal signification : the Subjunctive, expressing an action as willed or vividly con- ceived; and the Optative, expressing an action as wished for or vaguely conceived. Of these, the Subjunctive was developed from a Present Tense, by which an action continued in present time was represented as future: compare in English, the army marches to-morrow. Such an action came to be conceived on the one hand as command: compare the military order, the regiment will advance; and on the other as a possibility or a mere conception : compare anybody will under- stand that. The Optative has had a similar development. It was originally a tense-form compounded with YA, and probably denoted past time (cf. Eng. should and would) ; but like the subjunctive, it has acquired the two meanings of conception and com- mand. It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this process the mood used comes to have in each case a special meaning, which is afterwards habitually associated with it in that construction. Thus in English the expression I would do this has become equivalent to a mild command; while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact (§ 308) : if I were you, etc. By further SLnalysis, / would go is seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished (or / did wish) to go. In Latinj the original subjunctive and the optative became confounded in form and meaning, and were merged in the present subjunctive. Then new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed by composition ; ^ and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 265). All the independent ws&s of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen in every case from the employ- ment of some independent subjunctive construction in co-ordination with a main statement. In time the two clauses have so grown together as to form a single 1 For the signification of these tense-endings, see pp. 120, 121, 264.] The Indicative Mood. 275 compound sentence^ and the subjunctive member is felt to have assumed subordinate relations toward the other clause. The original meaning of the mood has disap- peared, and a new meaning has arisen by implication. Thus, misit Iegr3.t5s qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say {i.e. who would say in a supposed case) .1 Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, toUe banc oplnionem, Idctum sustuleris (remove this notion, you will have done away with grief: i.e. if you remove, etc.). The infinitive is originally a verbal noim, modifying a verb like other nouns : V0I6 videre, lit. " I wish for-seeing " : compare English what went ye out for to see ? But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for other moods. The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below. The proper verbal constructions may be thus classified : — I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (^ 264). a. Independent: 1^^^^' Exhortation, Command. Question (} ^ \ 265. a). 1. Purpose (with ut, n§) (§ 317). 2. Result (with Ut, ut non) (J 319). 3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (J 320). 4. Time (with cum) (^ 325). 5. Conditions } ^^^"^'^ (^^^^ ^^^''i) (5 307. b, c). •^ I Contrary to Fact ($308). 6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§341). 7. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 334, 339). Direct Commands (often subjunctive) (§ 269). Statutes, Laws, and Wills (^ 269. possible ^ the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccont' plished in past time. Thus, — ita T^vam (Att. v. 15), so may I live (as true as I live). ne vivam si sci5 (id. iv. 16), I wish I may not live if J kn(no, dl te perduint (Dei. 21), the gods confound thee I valeant, valeant, cives mei; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 93), farewell [he says], 7ny fellozu-citizens ; may they be secure from harm, di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. *] 2), would thai the gods allowed me to be without a father (but they do not) I a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, — male di tibl faxinl (Plant. Cure. 1 31), may the gods do thee a mischief, quod omen di averterint (Philip, xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen, b. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particles uti (ut), utinam, 6 si : as, — ut pereat positum robigine telum (Hot. Sat. ii. l), may the weapon un* used perish luith rust. falsus utinam vates aim (Liv. xxi.), I wish I may te a false prophet. ■fttinam P. Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive, utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr, i. 3), would you had seen me dead. 6 si angulus ille accedat (Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 8), oh! if that corner might only be added. Note i. — The subjunctive with Utl, etc., was originally deliberative^ meaning how may /, etc. (^ 268). The subjunctive with 6 si {^poetical) is a protasis (} 312, note) ; sl alone is sometimes used to express a wish in the same way: as,— SI nunc si nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (-(En. vi. 187), if now that golden branch would only show itself to us I Note 2. — The subjunctive of Wish without a particle is rarely 'found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (j 286): as,— ac venerata Ceres ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. Sat. 11. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [Di- rect : ita sflrgas.] c. Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : as, — • dc Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum edt (Att. xv. 4), about Menedemus I wish it h^d been true; about the queen I hope it may be. 28o Syntax: The Verb, [§§ 267^9 nOllem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. lo), / wish the time never had come. mallem Cerberum metueres (Tus. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared C). Note, — Velim, etc., in this use, are strictly apodoses with the protasis omitted (} 311. non dubitaveris (Sen. Q. N. i. 3, 3), J^« must not doubt. nihil ignSveris (Mur. 6^)^ grant no pardon (pardon nothing). b. General Prohibitions addressed to no definite person are regularly expressed by the Present Subjunctive with ne (cf. Ct below) ; as, — denique ist5 bono iitare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (Cat. Maj. 33), in shortf use this good while present ; when wanting^ do not regret it. Note. — The poets and early writers sometimes use the Present Subjunctive with nS in prohibitions not general : as, — molestus ne sis (Plant. Most. 771), donU be troublesome. ne sis patruus mihi (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 88), don^t be a [harsh] uncle to me. c. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic : — ollis salus populi suprema lex estS, the safety of the people shall be their first law. iiista imperia suntS, eisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 6), let (here be lawful authorities^ and let the citizens strictly obey them. NoTE.--In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead {\ 266): as, haec igitur lex in amicitia sanciatur (Lael. 40), let this law then be laid down in case of friendship. 1 In prohibitions the Subjunctive with nS is hortatory; that with cave is an object clause (originally hortatory, cf. J 33i.y^ Rem.). 282 Syntax: The Verb, [§ 269 d. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is a distinct reference io future time: viz., — 1. In connection with some form that marks a condition precedent (as 2i future^ 2^ future-perfect^ or an imperative^ Thus, — Phyllida mitte mihi, meus est natalis, lolla; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus ipse venito (Eel. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me^ it is my birthday, lollas ; when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself die quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida s51us habeto (id. iii. 107), tell in what lands f etc., and have Phyllis for yourself 2. With adverbs or other expressions of Time : as, — eras petito, dabitur (PI. Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given. 3. In general directions t as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills: as, — cum valetudini consulueris, tum consulito navigation! (Fam xvi. 4), when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing. is iuris civilis cust5s esto (Leg. iii. 8), let him (the pi-setor) be the guardian of civil right. Borea flante, ne arat5, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. xviii. 77), when the north wind blows^ plough not nor sow your seed. e. The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense oi consider), regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : as, — filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy, sic habeto, mi Tir5 (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand ity viy good Tiro. de palla memento, amabS (PI. Asin.), pray^ dear^ remember about the gown, f. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; and quin {why notf) with the Present Indicative may have the force of a command: as, — si quid accident novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. S'),you will let me know if any thing new happens. quin accipis (Ter. Heaut. 832) } here^ take it (why not take it?). g. Instead of the simple Imperative, ciira, fac, or velim, followed by the subjunctive with or without ut (§ 331./. R.) is often used, especially in colloquial language : as, — ctira ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome. fac ciires ut ores (Ter. Eun. 500), do try to induce [him]. fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of yow health. [Cf rus eo. fac, amabo (Ter. Eun. 533), I^m going into the country. Do^ please. domi adsitis facite (id. 506), be at home, do. cum mihi velim mittas (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me. $§ 269, 270.] The Infinitive, 283 k. In the Indirect Discourse all imperative forms of speech are rep- resented by the Subjunctive (see § 339). /. The Imperative sometimes has the force of a Conditional Clause (see § 310. ^). IV. The Infinitive. Note. — The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb ab- stractly. It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (i) it admits in many cases of the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by ad' verbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited to special constructions. The Latin Infinitive is the dative (or locative) case of such a noun and was originally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject-Accusative (§ 240./), originally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeo te valere is literally, I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 330). 1. Infinitive as Subject, etc. 270. The Infinitive, with or without a subject-accusa- tive, may be used with est and similar verbs (i) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative. Thus, — 1. Subject: as, — dolere malum est (Finib, v. 84), to suffer pain is an eviL bellum est sua vitia nosse (Att. ii. 17), ifs a fine thing to knozv one's own faults, pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a noble thing to bejtefit the state. motos praestat componere fluctus (^n. i. 135), // is better to calm the troubled waves. h5c facere ilium mihi quam pr5sit nescio (Att. ii. i 6), I don''i know how his doing this benefits me. 2. In Apposition with the Subject : as, — proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio iiti (Sail. Cat. 12), just as if this y — to commit injustice^ were to use power. [Here facere is in apposition with id.] 3. Predicate Nominative ; as, — id est convenienter naturae vivere (Finib. iv. 41), that is to live in con' formity with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.] Note 1. — An infinitive may also be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predicate Accusative, or as Appositive with such Direct Object: as, — 284 Syntax: The Verb. [§ 270. istuc ipsum n6n esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tus. i. 12), for J ikink this very thing jfiost zvr etched, not to be zvhen one has been. miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant (Tuscul. iii. 7), to feel pity, envy, desire^ joy, — all these things the Greeks call diseases. Note 2. — An Appositive or Predicate noun used with an infinitive in any ol these constructions is put in the Accusative, whetlier the infinitive has a subject ex- pressed or not. Thus, — non esse cupidum pecunia (Parad. 51), to be free from desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand, a. I. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and similar verbs. (See examples above.) Note. — In this use the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented as having some quality or belonging to some thing, 2. But occasionally, especially in less careful writers and in poetry, the infinitive is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning : as, — quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in iinum coegit (Jug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the satne things has united into one. ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores (Ov. ex P. ii. 9. \%^, faith- fully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners. posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. ii. Af^^, the power of speech is taken away. non cadit invidere in sapientem (Tuscul. iii. 21), the sage is not liable to envy (to envy does not fall upon the sage). istuc nihil dolere non sine magna mercede contingit (Tuscul. iii. 12), that apathy is not to be had except at great cost (does not fall to one's lot). b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and expressions, partly as subject and partly as complementary infinitive (§ 271). Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget, necesse est, opus est, etc. id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 27), this may be seen first in poets. reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Bru. 215), he found what needed to be said. haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 92), one who observes these precepts may live nobly. Cato negat ius esse qui miles non sit pugnare cum hoste (Off. i. 37), Cato says it is not right that one who is not a soldier should fight with the enemy. necesse est mori (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die. |§ 270, 271.] Complementary Infinitive, 285 quid attinet gloriose loqui nisi constanter loquare (Finib. ii. 89), what good does it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently ? non lubet enira mihi depldrare vitam (Cato Major %^yfor it does not please me to lament my life. neque me vixisse paenitet (id, 84), / do not feel sorry to have lived. iam pridem gubernare me taedebat (Att. ii. 7, 4), I had long been tired of being pilot. Note i. — These are not generally real cases of the infinitive used as subject, but approach that construction. Note 2. — For the subject of such infinitives, and for predicate nouns or adjectives agreeing with the subject, see §§ 271. c^ 272. a, c. Rarely the infinitive is used exactly like the accusative of a noun: as, — beate vivere alii In alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Finib. ii. 86), a happy life different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure. quam multa , . . facimus causa amicorum, precari ab indigno, supplicare etc. (Laelius 57), how many things we do for our friends^ sake, ask favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc. nihil exploratum habeas, ne amare quidem aut amari (Lailius ^f^^you have nothing assured^ not even loving and being loved. Note. — Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples under c. Thus, — ■ avaritia . . , superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere, omnia venalia habere edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price. 2. Complementary Infinitive. 271. Verbs which imply another action of the same sub" ject to complete their meaning take the infinitive without a subject-accusative: as, — hoc queo dicere (Cat. Maj. 32), this I can say. mitt5 quaerere (Rose. Am.), I omit to ask. vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face (one who is present), oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. i), I beg you will make haste to come. oblivisci non possum quae vol5 (Finib. ii. 104), / cannot forget that which I wish. desine me id docere (Tuscul. ii. 29), cease to teach me that. audeo dicere, / venture to say. loqui posse coepi (Cic), / began to be able to speak. Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertakcy remember, for- get, be accustomed^ begin^ continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like. 286 Syntax: The Verb. [§ 271 Note. — The mark of this construction Is that no Subject of these infinitives is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no subject expressed. Thus volo dicere and volo me dicere mean the same ^kiva^, I wish to speak; but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not apparently different in origin and construction from queo dicere {^complementary infinitive) ^ and again Volo eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially dif ferent from either. a. Many verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying willingness^ necessity, propriety ^ resolve^ C07nmand, prohibition, effort^ and the like (cf. § 331) : as, — student excellere (Of. i. 116), they aim to excel. cum statuissem scribere ad te aliquid (Off. i. 4), when I had resolved to address something to you. istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. Am. 52), he had it in mind to deprive him of the inheritance. Note i. — With some of these verbs an infinitive with subject-accusative may be used as object, taking the place of a completneniary infinitive. In this use the subject of the infinitive and that of the main verb are of course the same. Thus, — cupio me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4) = cupi5 esse clemens, / desire to be merciful (cf. § 331. <5, note). Note 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identical in meaning with others which do: as, — quos tueri debent deserunt (Of. i. 28), they forsake those whom they should protect. non lubet fugere aveo pugnare (Att. ii. 18, 3), / have no desire to run away^ Pm anxious to fight. b. Some verbs of these classes — iubeo and veto regularly — may take (as object) the infinitive with a subject * different from that of the main verb (see § 331. ^) : as, — signa inferri iubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to be advanced. Pompeius . . . rem ad arma deduci studebat (B. C. i. 4), Pompey %uas anxious to have matters come to open war. c. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb : as, — fierique studebam eius priidentia doctior (Laelius i), / was eager to become more wise through his wisdom. 1 This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses under \ 271 is the infini- tive strictly Subject or Object ; but its meaning is developed from the original one oi purpose (cf. § 273. a). §§ 271, 272.J Infinitive with Subject- Accusative. 287 scio quam soleas esse occupatua (Fam. xvi. 21), / know how busy you ustially are (are wont to be), brevis esse laborS obscurus fio (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be briefs 1 become obscure^ Note. — If the construction of the main verb is impersonal, a predicate noun or adjective is in the accusative (but for lir^et, etc., see \ 272. a. 2). Thus, — peregrini officium estminime in aliena esse republica cdriosura (Of. i. 125). it is the duty of a stranger to be by no tneans curious in a foreign state. d. For the infinitive in poetry instead of a substantive clause of purpose, see § 331. J'. 3. Infinitive vrith Subject-Accusative. 272. The Infinitive, with Subject- Accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowings thinking, telling, 2ind perceiving (Indirect Discourse, § 336) :^ as, — dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says thai the hill is held by the enemy. [Direct: mons ab hostibus tenetur.] Remark. — The Infinitive Clause maybe — 1. the Direct Object of the verb: as, Caesarem adesse ntlntiavit, he reported that Ccesar was present; 2. the Subject of the same verb in the passive: as, Caesarem adesse nuntiatura est, it was reported that Ccesar was present ; 3. the Predicate Nominative (or Appositive) with words Hke fama, rumor, etc. : as, rumor erat Caesarem adesse, there was a report that Ccesar was present (cf. ./En. iii. 295). a, I. With certain impersonal verbs and expressions that take the infinitive as an apparent subject (§ 270. ^), the personal subject of the action may be expressed — 1. By a dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase ; or, 2. By an accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive. Thus, rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allotved them to do this. si licet vivere eum. quem Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allotved a man to live against the will of Sextus Ncevius (whom S. N. does not wish), quid est tarn secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cato Major 71), what is so much in accordance with nature as for old men to die ? exstingui homini suo tempore optabile est (id. '&^), it is desirable for a man to die at the appointed time. 2. With licet regularly, and other verbs occasionally, a predicate noun or adjective follovi^ing the infinitive may be in the dative : as, — 1 The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and person. 288 Syntax: The Verb, [§§ 272. 273 licuit esse 5ti585 Themistocli (Tuscul. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inactive (it was allowed to T, to be inactive), mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), / must not be negligent, [But also neglegentem.] cur his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to be free? n5n est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), // is not necessary for all to speak standing. expedit bonas esse v5bis (Ter. Heaut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good. mediocribus esse poetis non homines non di concessere (Hor. A. P. 372), neither gods nor men have granted to ordinary men to be poets. Note. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite {one, anybody), a predicate noun or adjective must be in the accusative (cf. \ 271. c. note) : as, — vel pace vel bell5 clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in peace or in war, b. In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb : as, — vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good and wise man says he is prepared^ etc. [In prose: ait se esse paratum.] sensit medios delapsus in hostes (^^n. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the foe. [In prose : se esse delapsum.] 4. Infinitive of Purpose. 273. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose. a. The infinitive is used after habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages instead of a subjunctive clause : as, — tantum habeo poUiceri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise. [Here the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.] ut lovi bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to serve Jove with wine (to drink), meridie bibere datS (Cato R. R. ^j), he had, he has no longer. f ilium habe5 . . . immS habui; nunc'habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Heaut. 92), / have a son^ no^ I had one ; whether I have one now or not is tmcertain, foimus Troes, fuit Ilium {Mn. ii. 325), we have ceased to be TrojanSy Troy is no more. b. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general truth (§ 276), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause refer- ring to time antecedent to that of the main clause ; as, — qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly. haec morte eflftigiuntur, etiam si non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire (id. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet] happened ^ etc. simul ac mihi coUibitum est, praesto est imago (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes. Note. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of general conditions in present time (§ 309. c). c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially with negatives {^Gnomic Perfect): as, — qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), ^^ who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things. non aeris acervus et auri dediixit corpore fibres (id. Ep. i. 2, 47), the pile of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame. Note. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; but its use implies that something which never did happen in any known case, never does happen, and never will (cf. the English " Faint heart never won fair lady") ; or without a nega- tive that what has otice happened will always happen under similar circumstances. d. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : as, — dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better than he tvrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison : compare the use of quisquam, ullus, etc. (§ 202. f), and the French ne after comparatives and superlatives.] e. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incom- plete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. 298 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 279-81. Such are the preteritive verbs odi, I hate i memini, I remember \ novi, I know i consuevi, /am accustomed^ with others used preteri- tively, as venerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.) (see § 143, note). Thus, — qui dies aestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day gener' ally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make). cuius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 59), whose splendor is now all faded (has become old). Remark. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used : as,— dum oculos certamen averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here averterat = tenebat.] 2. Pluperfect. 280. The Pluperfect is used (i) to denote an action or state completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to : as, — (1) loci natura erat haec, quem locum nostri castris delegerant (B.G. ii. 18), this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp. Viridovix summam imperi tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defece- rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which had revolted. (2) neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), but when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done. quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, turn fert alacri- tatem (Tusc. iv. 35), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previ- ously] desired, then it produces joy. a. For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 282. 3. Future Perfect. 281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as com- pleted in the future : as, — ut sementem feceris, ita metes (De Or. ii. 65), as you sow (shall have sown), so shall you reap. carmina tum melius cum venerit ipse canemus (Eel. ix. 67), then shall we sing our songs better^ when he himself has come. si illius insidiae clariores hac luce fuerint tum denique obsecrabS (Mil. 6), when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as day- light, then^ and not till then, shall I conjure you. 1 Cf. detestor, reminiscor, scio, soleo. §§ 281-84.] Epistolary Tenses; Te?iscs of Subjunctive. 299 ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 25), I at least 7uill have done my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I will be found to have done it, whatever the event). Remark. — The Future Perfect is used with much greater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for representing an action as completed : as, — quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found out I will see presently. qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confecerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most loathsome war. Note. — For the future perfect in future conditions, see § 307. c. III. Epistolary Tenses. 282. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: as, — neque tamen, cum haec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere (Fam. V. 12), nor zvhile I write this am I ignorant under what bur- dens you are weighed down. ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att ix. 10), / [have] answered all your letters yesterday. cum quod scriberem ad te, nihil haberem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. ix. 16), though I have nothing to write you, still I write this letter. Note. — In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Imperfect and Pluper- fect. The epistolary tenses are not used with any uniformity, but only when atten- tion is particularly directed to the time of writing, (So especially scribebam, dabam, etc.). IV. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 283. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. The Present always refers to future (or indefiJtite) time, the Imperfect to q.\X\\qv past or present, the Perfect to either future ox past, the Pluperfect always to past. 284. In Dependent Clauses the tenses of the Subjunc- tive were habitually used in certain fixed connections de- termined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together. 300 Syntax: The Verb, [|§ 285, 2861 Note.— The tenses of the Subjunctive were originally used in Dependent clauses (as in Independent), each with its own time in relation to the point of view of the speaker ; but in consequence of the natural tendency of language to refer all the parts of a complex sentence to one time, — namely, that of the speaker, — the connections in which these tenses were used became fixed. Hence the rules for the Sequence of Tenses, These are by no means rigid, but allow many varieties, as is natural from their origin. Sequence of Tenses. 285. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent clauses follow special rules for the sequence of tenses. With reference to these rules all tenses when used in Independent clauses are divided into two classes, — primary and secondary. 1. Primary. The primary tenses include all forms that express present or ftUure time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative. Note. — The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary, but see $ 287. a, 2. Secondary. The secondary tenses include all forms that refer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive. Note 1. — To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in Inde- pendent Clauses. Such are: (i) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary : Perfect Infinitive in Elxclamations (see § 287. a. note). Note 2. — For the Historical Present, see $ 287. e\ for the Imperfect Subjunc- tive in Apodosis, see $ 287. g, 286. The following is the general rule for the sequence of tenses . In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the depend- ent clause, and a secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : as, — scribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn tis. scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us. scribe (scribit5) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us. scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us. scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. scripsit quasi oblitus asset, he wrote as if he had forgotten, rogo quid facturus sis, I ask what you are going to do. Note.— The beginner must observe that the rule affects only the tenses of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses. The tenses of the other moods and those of the] Subjunctive in independent constructions (as in apodosis contrary to fact, § 308) are not a£fected by the sequence of tenses. (But cf. §§ 338. a. note s, 339. note 2.) : §§ 286, 287 ] Sequence of Tensas, 301 Remark. — In applying the nde for the sequence of tenses, observe (i) whether the main verb is (a) primary or {b) secondary. (2) whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action {i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incom- plete {ix. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then — {(i) If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if at denotes incomplete action^ in th'e Perfect if it denotes completed action. {b) If the leading verb is secondary the dependent verb must be in the Itnper' feet if It denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action^ Thus,— he writes (primary; to warn (incomplete) ««, scribit at nos moneat. I ask (primary) what you were doing (now past), rogo quid feceris. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect. Thus.- I ask what you wilt have accomplished^ rog5 quid perfeceris. he asked what he would have accomplished, rogavit quid perfecisset. 287. In the Sequence of Tenses some special points are to be noted : — a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the writer's mind. Thus, — ut satis asset praesidi pro visum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.] addiixi hominem in qu5 satisfacere exteris nati5nibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), / have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.] est enim res iam in cum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter eorum causas qui diraicant, tamen inter victorias non multum inter futurum putem (Fam, v. 21, 2>)*fi^ affairs have been brought to such a pass that^ though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference betiveejt their victories. [Primary sequence,] ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiosissiraara naturam excolere possit (Q. ¥t> i. I, 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.] Note. — The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule: as, — adeon rem redisse patrem ut extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think (hat things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father, b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to lenote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, — I. A Perfect Definite : as, — non dubito quin omnes tui scrlpserint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt that all. your friends have written, [Direct statement : scripserunt. j p? Syntax: The Verb, [§ 287 quaie non ignoro quid accidat in iiltimis terns, cum audierim in Italia querelas civium (Q. Fr. i. i, 2>'^y therefore I ktiozv well what happens at the ends oj the earthy when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. [In a direct statement, audivL] 2. A Perfect Historical : as, — me autem hie laudat quod retulerim, non quod patefeeerim (Att. xii. 21), me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I brought it to light. [Direct statement : retulit.] 3. An Imperfect : as, — SI forte ceciderint turn intellegitur quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lael. 15, 53), if by chance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were in friends. [Direct question : quam inopes erant?] qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi scire poteris ex C. Tidio Strabone (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question : qui erat?] quam civitati carus fuerit maerore fiineris indicatum est (Laelius 11), how dear he was to the State has been shotvn by the grief at his funeral. [Direct question: quam carus erat?] ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor (Or. 15), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato. [Direct question: quam frequens erat?] Note. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Defin- ite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive to express continued action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (i) / wonder what he has done, (2) / wonder what he did (hist, perf.), or (3) / wonder what he was doing. c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect subjunctive is very often (the Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as, — Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim (Bru. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak- ing that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man. Sicilian! Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Ver. i. 12), for three years Verres so racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present is used in describing a state of things actually existing.] videor esse consecutus ut non possit Dolabella in Italiam pervenire (Fam. xii. 14), / seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into Italy. Remark. — This construction emphasizes the result; the regular construction subordinates it. Note. — There is a special fondness for the Perlect Subjunctive to represent a Perfect Indicative. 'Ihus, — § 287.] Sequence of Tenses. 303 .Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et sacrificia et fana contemn eret; ita non limit 1 us ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Finib. ii. 63), Tkorius was so little supersti- tious that he despised [coutemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timorous about death that he ivas killed [inter- fectus est] in battle, in defence of the State. Zeno nuUo modo is eiat qui nervos virtutis inciderit (cf. § 279. e of an author as subject : as, — Xenoph5n facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing. 4. Future Participle. 293. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by later writers. a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse (which is often omitted) in the active periphrastic conjugation (see § 129) : as, — morere, Djagora, non enim in caelum adscensiirus es (Tus. i. iii), die, for you are not likely to rise to heaven. sperat adolescens diu se victiirum (Cat. Maj. 68), the young f>mn hopes to live long (that he shall live long). neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 79), and did not seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship. b. By later writers and the poets the future participle is also used in simple agreement with a substantive to express : — 1. Likelihood or certainty ; as, — ausus est rem plus famae habitilram (Liv. ii. 10), he dared a thing which would have more repute. 2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : as, — cum leo regem invasorus incurreret (Q. C. viii. i), when a lien rushed on to attack the king. rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he returned to try the chances of war anew. dispers5s per agr5s milites equitibus invasiiris (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields. [A rare use of the Ablative Absolute.] si peritiirus abis (^n. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish. 3. Apodosis: as, — dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datfirus ampHus si potuisset (Plin.' Ep. iii. 21), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he had been able. §§ 293, 294.] Gerundive {Future Passive Participle). 313 c. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see § 308. ^). 5. Gerundive (Future Passive Participle). Note. — The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, lias two dis« tinct uses : — (i) Its predicate and attribute use as participle or adjective {\ 294). (2) Its use with the meaning of the gerund (§ 296). This may be called its gerundive use. 294. The gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity or propriety. In this use of the gerundive the following points are to be observed {a-d). a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun : as, — fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be preserved. b. The most frequent use of this form is with esse in the second (^passive) periphrastic conjugation (see § 129) : as, — non agitanda res erit (Verr. v. 179), tvill not the thing have to be agitated? c. The neuter of the gerundive^ is occasionally used impersonally with an object. The object is in the case regularly governed by the verb. Thus, — agitandumst vigilias (PI. Tr. 869), I have got to stand guard. via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Maj. 6), the way we have to enter. Note. — 'Ihis use is regular with verbs which take their object in the dative or ablative: as, — legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed. utendum exercitationibus modicis (Cat. Maj. 36), %ue must use moderate exercise. d. After verbs signifying to give, deliver^ agree for ^ have, receive, zmdertake, demand^^ 2l gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose : as, — 1 Sometimes called Nominative of the Gerund. Compare Greek verbal in 'Tfoi (Goodwin's Grammar, \^ 281). 2 Such verbs are accipio, adnotS, attribuo, conduce, caro, denotS, deposed, d6, divldo, dono, edico, edoceo, fero, habeo, loco, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo, pr6p5n6, relinquo, rog-o, sus cipi5, tradS. voveS 314 Syntax: The Verb. [§§294-96. redemptor qui column am illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular construction with this class of verbs.] aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Ver.ii. 1. 150),^^ had the temple of Castor to take care of. naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. v. 146), he took cart that the ships and cargoes should be kept. II. -GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 296. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a verb it may take an object in the proper case. Thus, — ars bene disserendl et vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. i^y),the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. Remark. — The nominative of the gerund is suppUed by the infinitive. Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiti- dicare. 296. When the Gerund would have an object in the accusative, the Gerundive^ is generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, and takes the case which the gerund would have had : as, — paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself gov- erned by ad. The construction with the gerund would be, ad subeun- dum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.] exercendae memoriae gratia (C. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory. [Here the gerund construction would be memoriam exer- cendi gratia.] plerisque in rebus gerendis tarditas odiosa est (Phil. vi. 7^, in the con- ducting of most business, sloth is odious. 1 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The participle in -dus seems to have had a present passive force (as in ante condendam urbem (§ 292. d), rotundus, volvenda dies ( Virg.) , flammandi (Tac), § 290. c) from which the idea of necessity was developed through that of futurity, as in the develop- ment of the subjunctive (see p. 274). Consilium urbis delendae would have TCieznX a plan of a city being destroyed [in process of destruction] , then about to be de- stroyed, then to be destroyed, then apian of destroying the city, the two words becom ing fused together as in ab urbe condita. I §§ 296-98.] Gerund and Gerundkfe, 315 Note.— In this use the gerund and the gerundiveVre translated in the same way, but have really a different construction. The Germdive is a passive partici- ple, and agrees with its noun, though in translation we "^hange the voice, just as we may translate vigiliae agitandae sunt {guard \iust be kept) by / must stand guard. The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundivj used impersonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an obje(i, as in agitandumst vig-illas {\ 294. c). It may therefore be considered as i noun (cf. opus est maturato, § 292. b) with a verbal force (cf. hanc tactio.p. 235, foot-note). See p. 314, foot-note. The following examples illustrate the parallel con^ructions of gerund and gerundive : — Gen. c5nsilium [ ''''f'^"' capiendi | ^ ^^^^ of takingihe city. K urbis capiendae i 1 Dat. dat operam \ ^^^^^ '^^ ^" _° v he attends to tillinkhe fields. I agns colendis i Acc. veniunt ad [ °l^^» Parendum | ^^ ,^,,^, f to obepne. I pacem petendam J I to seek^eace. Abl. terittempus^ ., ,. ". ,. \ he spends time n writing letters. I scnbendis epistulis J 1 Remark. — In the gerundive construction the verbs titor, 'ruor, etc., are treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they doin early Latin (5 249.^): as,— expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Of. i. 25), rich^ are sought for the enjoyment of pleasures (for enjoying pleasures). , 297. The Gerund and the Gerundive are useL in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of noui 1. Genitive. 298. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundve is used after nouns or adjectives either as subjecti^ or objective genitive : as, — ( neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv*, 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking \rms. [Objective.] \ ne conservandae quidem patriae causa (Of. i. 159), not even for the\ake of saving the country. [Originally subjective genitive.] \ Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. Maj. 72), it is the best end of living, [9ab- jective.] \ . non tam commiitandaruni rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (Off. ii. n, desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objectivd] Note. — In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinariw have the genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive. Thus tempus est abire, it it time to depart. \ 3r6 syntax: The Verb. [§§ 298, 299. Remark. — The genrive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in early amd late Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose: as, — quae res vertendai reipublicae solent esse (Verr. ii. 132), things which generally tend t the overthrow of the commonwealth. si erboTum trunci deiciendi operis assent missae (B. G. iv. 17), in case trzm-ks of trees should be sent down [with the object] of overthrowing the work. [Ped, gen. like quas sui commodi fecerat (v. 8).] Aegyptum proficicitur cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Igypt to study old times. ne id assentand magis quam quo habeam gratum facere existumes (Ter. Ad. 270), fr fear you should think tJiat I do it more for the sake oj flattery thai, because, etc. a. The genitve of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or pronoun (especally sui) in the objective genitive- instead of taking a direct object ; is, — eim« videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec. 372), eager to see her (eager for a seeing of her), xeiciendi trum iudicam pot€Stas(Ver. ii. yy), the power of challenging three jurors\oi the rejecting of three jurors). sui colligaidi facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves. Note. — rhis construction undoubtedly arose from the fact that the gerund, with the noui (or adjective) on which it depends, was conceived as a compound noun (or adective) governing an objective genitive (cf. \ 217. b). Thus sui col- ligendi ffCUltas would be literally, a chance of a recovering of theirs. This constructim is easily distinguished from that of the gerundive by the fact that the gerund dees not agree with the substantive in gender and number. b. Ir genitive constructions the Gerund and Gerundive are about equally common. c. 7he genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with caust or gratii to denote purpose (see § 318). Note. — This is merely a special use under the main head of \ 298. 2. Dative. 299. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used af;er adjectives^ which take the dative and rarely after n3uns (§ 234. a) : as, — 1 The dative of the gerund and gerundive occurs most commonly after the idjectives accoramodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, Qtilis, intitiliS. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. § 234. 6) . §§ 2d9, 300.] Gerund and Gerundive, 3^7 genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. lo), a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body, te sociam studeo scribendia versibus esse (Lucr. i. 25), / desire that thou (Venus) be my partner in writing verses. reliqua tempora demetendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. Maj. 70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest. perferendis militum mandatis idoneus (Tac. Ann. i, 23), suitable for carrying out the instructions of the soldiers, a. The dative is used in a few expressions after verbs * : as, — diem praestitit operi faciendo (Ver.ii. 1. 1 4^^) y he appointed a day for doing the work. praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 50, to take charge of cultivating the land. esse solvendo, to be able to pay (to be for paying). Note. — This construction is a remnant of a more general use of the dative of the gerund and gerundive. b. The dative is also used in certain legal phrases after nouns mean- ing officers^ offices^ elections^ etc., to indicate the function or scope of the office, etc. : as, — comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls, triumvir coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies. triumviri reipublicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a commission of three) for settling the government. 3. Accusative. 300. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (and rarely in and ante) ; most frequently after ad, denoting Purpose (cf. § 318.^): as,~ me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to 7vrite. vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you livCy not to put off^ but to confirm your daring. nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), hewing found means to under- take these things. inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), while driving. Note. — The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct object, the Ablative of the gerund very rarely. The Gerundive is used instead iS 296). J Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dice re, locum capere. 3i8 Syntax: The Verb, [§§ 301, 302 4. Ablative. 301, The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (i) to express Manner,^ Means, Cause, etc.; and (2) after Comparatives ; and (3) after the prepositions ab, de, exs in, and (rarely) pr5 and cum : as, — i) multa poUicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises. Latine loquendo cuivis par (Bru. 128), equal to any man in speaking iMtin. nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. I 5), without delivering any precepts of virtue (by delivering no precepts), his ipsis legendia (Cat. M. z\)^ by reading these very things. obscuram atque humilera conciendo ad se multitiidinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude. (2) niillum officium referenda gratia magis necessSrium est (Off. i. 47), 7io duty is more important than repaying favors. (3) in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17), to be efnployed in conducting affairs. Note. — The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used with verbs and adjectives : as, — Appius non abstitit continuando magistratum (Liv. ix. 34), Appius did not desist from continuing his magistracy. Remark. — The gerund is often found co-ordinated with nominal constructions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun: as, — (i) in foro, in curia, in amicorum periculis pulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), in the forum, in the senate-house^ in defending my friends in jeopardy. (2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 3), for the most widely different things, obeying and commanding* lll.-SUPINE. Note. — The supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension ($ 71. condicione are rare. 322 Syntax: Qmditional Sentiences. [§§ 304, 305. c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so be in the form of a Participle, ar, Infinitive, or a Phrase j as, — sepultiira quoque prohibituri, ni i^x humari iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2), intend- ing also to deprive him ofburh^il^ unless the king had ordered him to be interred. quod si praeterea nem5 sequatur, tanien se cum s51a decima legione itiirum [esse] (B. G. i. 40), but if no one else zvould follow, he would go with the tenth legion alone. si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse {\di.),ifthe loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc. Note. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any dependent construction,' the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the first two of the above examples, see § 337). d. Conditions are either (l) Particular or (2) General. 1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time. 2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. 2. Classification. 305. The principal or typical Forms of conditional sentences may be exhibited as follows; — a. Simple Conditions, with nothing implied 2i% to fulfilment. 1. Present, nothing implied. Present Indicative in both clauses, si adest,^ bene est, if he is [now] here^ it is well. 2. Past, nothing implied. Some past tense of the Indicative in both clauses. si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well. si adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been here, it has been well. b. Future Conditions (necessarily as yet unfulfilled). I. More vivid. (a) Future Indicative in both clauses, si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here^ it will be well. (^) Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodo-j sis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins). ^ uf. the Greek forms: — d;. I. et Trpda-a-ei tovto, KaXus ex^'* I 2. el %irpa(T(Te tovto^ KaKcbs elxei'. €i eirpa^e tovto, Ka\ws tax^v. p. I. iav trpdcar-p tovto, Ka\S}S e'lei. 2. et irpdaaoi tovto, koXus h,v ex<"»j if. I. 6t evpaffffe tovto, kuXcos tiv cTxc. 2. et eirpa^e tovto, kuXcos &v cffxc*, a, I. 4dv Ttt KXivTxi, KoXc^C^raie 2. cf ris k\4ttoi, iKoXdCero, § 305.] Classification. 323 si adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) hergy it wilt [then] be well (but it will not begin to be well until he actually is here). 2. Less vivid (a) Present Subjunctive in both clauses. si adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) herg^ iiTVOuld be well. (/3) Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apodosis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins). si adfuerit, bene sit, ;/ he should be (should have been) here^ it would [then] be well. c. Conditions Contrary to Fact. 1. Fvt?,tn\., contrary to fact. Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses, si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but ne is not here). 2. Past, contrary to fact. Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. si adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was NOT here), d. General Conditions. Usually not differing in form from Par- ticular Conditions {a, b, and c) ; but sometimes distinguished in the cases following : — 1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time). (a) Present Subjunctive second person singular in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis. si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed. (/?) Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present in apodosis. si quid dixit, creditur, ij he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed. 2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time). (a) Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis. Imperfect Indicative in apod- osis. si quid diceret, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed (== whatever he said was always believed). (y8) Pluperfect Indicative in protasis. Imperfect in apodosis. si quid dixerat, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed. Remark. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition con- trary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; if he were to see me thus is a FUTURE condition less vivid to be expressed by the Present Sub- junctive ; and so too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid. 324 Syntax: Conditional Sentences, [§ 306i 3. Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied. 306. In the statement of present and past conditions whose falsity is not impliedy the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis. Thus, — SI tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army art welly a is well. [Present Condition.] haec igitur, si Romae es; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negotia sic se habent (Att. v. 18), IhiSy theuy if you are at Rome ; but if you are away — or even if you are there — these matters are as follows. [Present.] 81 qui magnis ingeniis in eo gen ere exstiterunt, non satis Graecorum gloriae responderunt (Tuscul. i. 3), if any men have appeared of great geniui in that branch, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. [Past Condition.] accepi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo si modo valuisti et Romae fuisti Philotimi diico esse culpam non tuam (Att. v. 17), / have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, provided you have been well and at Rome^ I take to be the faidt of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and present con- clusion.] quas litteras, si Romae es, videbis putesne reddendas (Att. v. 18), as to this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought to be delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future.] si nemo impetravit adroganter rog5 (Ligarius 30), if no one has suc- ceeded in obtaining it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.] a. In these conditions, the apodosis need not always be in the Indica- tive; but may assume any farm, according to the sense. Thus^ — si placet . . . videamus (Cato M. 15), if you please, let us see. [Hortatory.] fuerit hoc censoris, si iiidicabat (Div. i. 29), suppose it was the censor's\ duty, if he judged it false. [Hortatory Subjunctive.] si nondum satis cernitis, recordamini (Milon. 61), if you do not yet see\ clearly, recollect. [Imperative.] si quid habes certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trust' worthy information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Mod- esty, § 311.^.] Note. — Although the foryn of these conditions does not imply anything as toJ the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some suchj implication: as, — nolite, SI in nostro omnium fletu niillam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, h minus ei parcere (Milon. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of tis all you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for tkat. 1 §§ 306, 307.] Future Conditions, 325 petimus a vobis, iudices, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatio debet esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Archias 31), we ask you^ judges^ if there ought to be anything in stich genius to recommend it to us as by a recommendation 0/ the gods, that you receive him under your protection. In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause : but the cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used. 4. Future Conditions. 307. Future Conditions may be more or less vivid. 1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis express- ing what will be the result. 2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed. a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis : as, — sanabimur si volemus (Tus. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish. quod si legere aut audire voletis . . . reperietis (Cato M. 20), if you will [shall vi'ish to] read or hear ^ you will find. Note. — In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, rarely by the future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf, § 276. c) : as, — si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt; sin metu cesserimus, eadem ilia advorsa fient (Sail. Cat. 58, 3), if we conquer ^ all things will be safe for us; bttt if we yield through fear, those same things will become hostile. si pereo hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (vEn. iii. 606), if I perish^ it will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men. b. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is used in both protasis and apodosis : as, — haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 19), if your country should thus speak with thee^ ought she not to pre- vail? quod si quis deua mihi largiatur . . . valde recusem (Cat. Maj. 83), but if S0me god were to grant me this^ I should stoutly refuse. 326 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§ 307. Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the ■future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the speaker.i ^. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indic- ative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunc- tive: as, — sin cum potuero, non venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), but if I do not come when I can^ he will be unfriendly. si non feceris ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it, I will excuse you. Remark.— The Future Perfect is very often used in the apodosis of a future condition: as, — vehementer mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adolescentem humanitate tua comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor y if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy. d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity ^ possibility ^ and the like : as, — alius finis c5nstituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lsel. 59), another limit must be set if I first state ivhat Scipio 7vas wont most to find fault zoith. si me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento, if fate cuts me off too sooHy do you remember that I ordered this (Q. C. ix. 6, 26). nisi oculis videritis insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecatiiri sumus nee postulatiiri (Milon. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against Milo by ClodiuSy I shall neither beg nor demand^ etc. non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Ver. iv. Z']'), I cannot accuse him if I should desire to. e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : as, — si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.'] SI eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have kepi the same spirit, we have conquered. f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, with- out implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 308). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : as, — 1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the proverbial "If the sky falls, we shall catch larks," the impossible condition is ironically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condition stated by some one else. §§ 307, 308.] Conditions Contrary to Fact, yi'J non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), was not able unless he wished. tumulus apparuit ... si luce palam iretur hostis praeventurus erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by lights the enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like ind. disc, but are not. An observer describing the situations as present ones would say potest si velit (etc., see d), and no ind. disc, would be thought of. The only difference between these and the third is that in them the forms in d are used instead of the subjunctive.] Caesar si peteret . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 3. 4), if even CcBsar were to ask he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply si petat non proficiat, thrown into past time.] 5. Conditions Contrary to Fact. 308. In the statement of a supposition known to be falsBy the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis.^ The imperfect refers to Present Time, the pluperfect to Past : as, — quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret mens (Cat. Maj. 38), if I could not [xxov^'] follozv this (an active life),/*?//;/^ couch would affoj'd me pleasure. [Present.] nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 11), unless you had lost it, I should not have recovered it. [Past,] si meum consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie eger^s, nos liberi essemus, respublica n5n tot duces et exercitus amisisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment and authority had prevailed [as they did not], you would this day be a beggar ^ we should be free^ and the republic would not have lost so many leaders and armies. [Mixed Present and Past.] qui nisi revertisset, in e5 conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima nocte conruit: ruina igitur oppressus esset; at id neque si fatum fuerat effugisset, nee si non fuerat in eum casum incidisset (Div. ii. 20), if it had been decreed by fate, he would not have escaped ^ etc. [The apodosis of fuerat is not effugisset, but the whole conditional sen- tence of which effugisset is the apodosis; the real protasis of effugis- set is revertisset (cf. § 311. ^).] a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past time., both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con- tinued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist: as, — 1 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the Subjunc- tive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condition has, at the time of writing, already passed; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apodosis in this construction (see d, below, and head-note, p. 320), 328 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§ 308. hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educeie exercitum (Pis. 50), if he were of sane mind, would he have dared to lead otU the army ? [Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.] non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. ii. 3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had been open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patebat. j Remark. — This use necessarily arises from the fact that the pluperfect is equivalent to a future perfect in praeferito, and so represents the action as com- pleted and momentary, rather than as continuing. b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the Past tenses of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or already begun : as, — si licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if it had been allowed (see § 305. c. 2). in amplexiis filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Tac. A. xvi. 32), he was about rushing into his daughter'' s arms, unless the lictors had opposed. iam tiita tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset (^Mn. vi. 358), / was just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked tne. Note. — In such cases the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus,— matres veniebant (et venissent) si licitum esset, the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if it had beeti allowed. [So with paene, prope, etc.] Remark. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time to thr imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive. c. Verbs and expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possibility, duty,^ when used in the Apodosis of a condition contrary to fact are regularly put in the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative instead of the Subjunctive : as, — si ita putasset certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Milon. 31), if he had thought so, surely it zvotcld have been preferable for Milo. si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if he (Pompey) were at this time a private citizen at Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. quod esse caput debebat si probari posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought to be the main point if it could be proved. nam nos decebat lugere (Tuscul. i. 115), for it would befit us to mourn. 1 Such are possum, decet, oportet, debeo, and the Second Periphrastic Conjugation. Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf. note above). Thus, decet me [hodie] ire eras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow; and, decebat me [heri]. Ire hodie, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually with the implication that / have not gone oi I was bound to. §§ 308, 309.] General Conditions. 529 Note 1. — In this construction it is only the thing^ necessary (etc.) that is con- ditioned, and not the necessity itself. If the necessity itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used as with other verbs. The difference is often imperceptible, but may be seen in the following example : — quid facere potuissem nisi turn consul fuissem? consul autem esse qui potui nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem a pueritia (Rep. i, 10), what could I have done if I had not then been consul ; and how cotdd / have been consul if I had not followed that course of life from boyhood. Note 3. — This construction is sometimes carried still further in poetry: as, — SI non alium iactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel^ but for giving out a different odor, d. The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the Apodosis of a condition contrary to fact : as, — quid enim futurum fuit \= fuisset], si . . . (Liv. ii. i), what would have happened if etc. neque ambigitur quin ... id factiirus fuerit, si . . . (id.), nor is there any question he xvould have done it if, etc. [Direct : feciseet.] ex quo inteilegi potest quam acuii natura sint, qui haec sine doctrina credi" turi fuerint ( Tusc. i. 48), hence it may be understood how keen they are by nature, who, without instruction, woiUd have believed this. [Here the condition is contained in the words sine doctrina.] adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem raptiiri fuerint, ni incerta noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would have seized upon Oiho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In a main clause : rapuissent ni timuissent.] Note. — This construction Is regularly used when the apodosis is itself a dependent clause requiring the subjunctive, and also in Indirect Discourse. In Indirect Discourse fuisse replaces eram or fui (see \ 337). e. The Present and Perfect subjunctive are sometimes used in poetry in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : as, — ni comes admoneat, inruat (^n. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him^ he would have rushed on. ni faciat, maria ac terras ferant (id. i. 58), unless he did this, they would bear away sea and land. Note. — This is probably a remnant of an old construction. Its use puts the condition in a vivid form, — as if possible at any moment in the future though not now true. 6. General Conditions. 309. General Conditions (§ 304. d) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are some- times distinguished in the following three cases; — 330 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§§ 309, 3ia tf. The Subjunctive is sometimes used in the second person singular^ to denote the act of an Indefinite Subject {^you — any one). Here the Indicative oi 2i general truth may stand in the apodosis : as, — mens prope uti ferrum est: si exereeas conteritur; nisi exerceas, riibi- ginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like iron : if you use it, it wears away ; if you don't use it, it gathers rust. virtiitem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. i. ^i), glory necessarily follows virtue ^ even if that is not one's aim. si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Tac. A. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity ^ there is no fear nor shame any more. si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), \he was'] easily appeased if one yielded. b. In later writers (not in Cicero), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apod- osis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time : as, — accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Tac. A. vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered^ were visited with punishment. c. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis. Thus,— si quos aliqua membrorum parte inutiles notaverunt, necari iubent (Q. C. ix. 1,25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they [always] order them to be put to death. [Present.] si a persequendo hostes deterrere nequiverant ab tergo circumveniebant (Jug* 50), ''/[ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pur* suing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.] ^. In all other cases, general suppositions — including those intro- duced by Indefinite Relatives — are not distinguished in form from Particular Conditions. 7. Condition Disguised. 310. In many sentences properly conditional, the Prot- asis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of the thought. Thus, — a. The condition may be implied in a Clause or in a Participle, Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase. Thus, — facile me paterer — illo ipso iudice quaerente — pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Amer. 85), / should readily allow myself to speak for J\ ascitis if that very judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact: 81 quaereret, etc.] § 310.] Condition Disguised. 331 non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De O. ii. 180), it would not have come into my mind unless [I had been] 7'eminded. [Past con- trary to fact : nisi admonitus essem.] nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster. [Past contrary to fact : si alia fuisset.] nemo unquam sine magna spe immortalitatis, se pro patria offerret ad moitem (Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality ^ would ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact : nisi magnam spem haberet.] quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio iuvare potuisset (Lsel. 11), what good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ? [Past contrary to fact : si accessissent.] qui igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentient! (Tuscul. i. 104), zvhat harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don^t feel any- thing (feeling nothing)? [Future more vivid: si nihil sentiam.] incitata semel proclive labuntur (Tusc. iv. 42), if once given a push, they slide down rapidly. [Present General : si incitata sunt.] b. The condition may be contained in a Wish {optative subjiinctive)., or expressed as an Exhortation or Command {hortatory subjunctive^ or i?nperative) : as, — utinam quidem fuissem I molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), / wish I had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us {i.e. if I had been). [Optative Subjunctive.] naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24) drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.] roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny. manent ingenia senibus, mode permaneat studium et industria(Cato M. 22), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili- gence (§ 266. ^, note 2). f. Verbs of pro7nising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom : as, — minatur sese abire (Plaut. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct: abeo, / am going away.'\ ex quibus spirant se maximum fructum esse captiiros (Lael. 79), from which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct : capiemus.] quern inimicissimum futiirum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 90), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct : erit.] dolor fortitiidinem se debilitatHruin minatur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to wear down fortitude. [Direct: debilitabo.] Note. — These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (§271). So regularly in early Latin (except spero). Thus,— pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages. [Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs], promisi dolium vini dare (Plaut. Cistel. 542), I promised to give a jar of wine. § 331.] Substantive Clauses of Purpose. 359 2. Clauses of Purpose. Note. — Clauses of Purpose maybe used substantively! (1) as the Object of verbs of admonishing, etc. (§ 331) ; (2) as the Subject of these same verbs in the pas- sive (^ 331. K), as well as of certain impersonal verbs and verbal phrases {\ 311. i) ; (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc. 331. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative ns) are used as the object of all verbs denoting an action directed toward the future? Such are, verbs meaning to admonish^ ask, bargain^ command^ decree^ determine^ permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish. Thus, — monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to avoid all • suspicion. te rogo atque oro ut eum iuves (Fam. xiii. 66) , / beg and pray you to aid him. his ut conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet (B. G. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to usurp royal power. a. lubeo, order, and "veX-o, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative (§ 330. B. 2) : as, — Hberos ad se adduci iussit (B. G. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought to him. ab opera legates discedere vetuerat (B. G. i. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants to leave the work. Note i. — Some other verbs of commanding, etc., occasionally take the Infini- tive: as, — haec facere imperatum est, orders were given to do this. res monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52), the occasion warns us to be on our guard. b. Verbs of wishing take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. The Infinitive is more common when the subject remains the same ; the Subjunctive, when it changes. Thus, — 1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of main verb : quos n5n tam uleisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 17), whom I do not care so much to punish as to cure. 2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of main verb : cupi5 ut impetret (Plaut. Capt. 102), I wish he may get it. mallem Cerberum metueres (Tus. i. 12), / would rather you feared Cerberus. 1 See p. 362, foot-note i. 2 Such Verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venio, caveo (ne), c§nse5, cSgo, concedo, constituo, euro, decerno, edico, flagrito, hortor, impero, Insto, mando, metuo (ne), moneo, negotium do, operam d5, oro, persuadeo, peto, postulo, praecipio, precor, pro- nUntiS, quaero, rogo, scisco, timeo, vereor (ne), video, volo. 360 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 331 Note. — Volo and cupio, however, tend to take the Accusative and Infinitive rather than the Subjunctive, even when the subject changes. When it remains the same, the subject-accusative is rarely found. Thus, — vim volumus exstingui (Sestius 92), we wish violence to be put down. te tua frui virtute cupimus (Brutus 331), wtf wish you to reap the fruits of your virtue. iudicem me esse, non doctorem volo (Orat. 117), / wish to be a judge, not a teacher. cupio me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4), / desire to be merciful. [But regu- larly, cupio esse clemens (see § 271. a).] c. Verbs oi permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. Fatior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; so often Bin5. Thus, — permfeit ut partes faceret (DeO. ii. 366), permitted him to make divisions. concedant ut boni viri fuerint (Laelius t8), let them allow them to have been good men. nuUo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered himself to be entangled in no business. vinam importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported. d. Verbs of determining^ decreeing^ resolving, bargaining, take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive : as, — constituerant nt L. Bestia quereretur (Sail. Cat. 43), they had determined that Lucius Bestia should complain. proelio supersedere statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle. de bonis regis quae reddi censuerant (Liv. ii. 5) , about the king's goods, which they had decreed should be restored. decemit ut consules delectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the con- suls shall hold a levy. edicto ne quis iniussu pSgnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none should fight without orders. pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bargained that the property should belong to the victor. Note I. — Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their construction. For verbs of bargaining with the Gerundive, see \ 294. d. Note 2. — Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second Periphrastic conjugation : as, — Regulus captivos reddendos [esse] non censuit (Off. i. 39), Regului voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his for- mal opinion : captivi non reddendi sunt.] e. I. Verbs of ^^«//V7« and See the impersonals in the list above. 364 Syntax : Dependent Constructions. [§ 332, c. A result clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically, in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the inter- rogative -ne. Thus, — quamquam quid loquor? te ut iilla res frangat (Cat. i. 22), yei why do 1 speak ? [the idea] that anything should bend you ! egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what^ I interrupt you? ego te videre noluerim (Q. Fr. i. 3), I unwilling to see you? Remark. — The Infinitive, in exclamations (§ 274) , usually refers to something actually occurring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated. d. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case], regularly takes two clauses of result with ut : one is substantive, the subject of abest; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum. Thus,— tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 104), so far from admir- ing my own xvorks, I am dificult and captious to that degree.^ that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the sub- ject of abest (§ 332. a) ; the second, a result clause, after tantum (§ 319)5 3,nd the third, after usque eo.] e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb : as, — invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem (Cat. Maj. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminiiis from the senate. Note.— With this may be compared fore ut for the future infinitive (§ 288./). f. Rarely, a thojight or an idea is considered as a result, and is expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and in- finitive (§ 336. i) . In this case a demonstrative usually precedes : as, — praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 73), this is a noble thing, that we should love, etc. verisimile non est ut ille anteponeret (Verres iv. 11), it is not likely that he preferred. g. A Relative clause of Result with quin is used after verbs or other expressions of hindering and the like when these are negatived. Thus, facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoid, etc. nihil praetermisi quin scribam. . . , (Q. F. iii. 3), I have left nothing undone to write. ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hindered by tiothing from, etc. non humana iilla neque divina obstant quin (Sail. Ep. Mith. 1 7), no human or divine laws prevent, but that, etc. A § 332.] Substantive Clauses of Result, 365 A«' Note i. — The negative may be expressed (as in the examples above) or merely implied (as in quia impedit quin earn, wko (i.e. nobody) hinders me from ■oingf). Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non dubito, / do not doubt, and similar expressions : as, — non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt that we believed him. illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not doubt that I will do all. quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant that, etc.? neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fuerit si prio- rum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Liv. ii. i), nor is there any ques- tion that Brutus, if he had wrested the kingdom from any one of the former kings, would have done it with the worst results to the state. [Direct statement : fecisset.] Note 2. — N5n dubito, in the sense of I do not hesitate, commonly takes the Infinitive, but sometimes quin with the subjunctive. Thus, — nee dubitare ilium appellare sapientem (Laelius i), and not to hesitate to call him a sage. dubitandum non existimavit quin proficisceretur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he ought to hesitate to set out. h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and tlie like. These take as their object either a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result or an Infinitive with subject accusative, according to the sense. Thus, — sequitur ilico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 28), it follows directly that there are unalterable causes. [Result clause, the regular construction with sequor when used of a logical sequence.] laudem sapientiae statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), / hold that the glory of wisdom is the greatest. statuunt ut decern milia hominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause, cf. § 331. ^.] res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8) , the thing itself warned that it was time. [Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.'^ fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 7 5), suppose that I am persuaded of that. [Cf. facere ut, accomplish that.^ h5c volunt persuadere, n5n interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they wish to convince that souls do not perish. huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades him to pass over to the enemy. Note. — The infinitive with subject accusative in this constnicflon is Indirect Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause. 366 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 333. 4. Indicative with Quod. 333. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod causal with the Indicative. The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the statement is regarded as a fact: as, — alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. i. 19), zV is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut conferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men do bestow, etc.] inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 37), this is the chief difference ^ etc., that an animal aims at something. quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Of. iii. 1 1 1 ), that he (Regulus) returned seems wonderful to us. vetus illud Catonis admodum scitum est, qui rairari se aiebat quod non rideret haruspex haruspicem cum vidisset (Div. ii. 51), Vw an old and shreiud saying of Cato, that he wondered a soothsayer did not laugh when he looked another in the face. [Here rideret is in the subjunc* live as being a subordinate clause of indirect discourse : see § 336.] Note. — Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposition with the subject. a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification^ corresponding to the English whereas (cf. § 326. ^) : as, — quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the house. quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minimi miramur te tuis praeclaris operibus laetari (Att, i. 5), as to your congratulating me on our con' dition, no wonder you are pleased with your oxvn noble works. b. Verbs oi feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod, quia (Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as,— quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q. F. iii. i), I am glad that you write. facio libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 63), / am glad that I cannot pass it by. quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. A. 136), I greatly rejoice that this is finished: V Remark. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.l This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. \ 331. e. i. note i). Thus.— 1 Cf. the Greek davfidCo) «!. §§ 333, 334.] Indirect Questions. 367 miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 54), I wonder if he could ever have a friend. [Originally, If this is so, I wonder at iV.] 5. Indirect Questions. Note. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is introduced by an Interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt. In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative (see the third example below). 334. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Sub- junctive : as, — quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 10), / wilt explain what I think. [Direct: quid sentio?] id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 32),/?^ consulted zvhether it could be done. [Direct: poteatne?] quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could understand how bold you are. [Direct: quam es audax I] doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account whether I suffer or not. f Double question.] rogat nie quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat me senten- tiam, he asks me my opinion^ hoc dubium est, uter nostrum sit verecundior (Academ. ii. 126), this is doubtful, which of us tivo is the more modest. incerti quatenus Volero exerceret victoriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far Volero would push victory. [As if, dubitantes quatenus, etc.] Note. — An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the fifth), an appositive (as in the sixth). The use of tenses in Indirect Question is illustrated by the following examples : — dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing. dico quid facturus sim, / tell you what I will do. dico quid fecerim, I tell you what I did (^have done, was doing, had done"). dixi quid facerem, / told you tvhat I was doing. dixi quid fecissem, I told you what I had done. dixi quid facturus essem, / told you what I would do (was going to do). dixi quid factiirus fuerim, I told you what I would have done. a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of the First Periphrastic conjugation : as, — prospicio qui concursus futiiri sint (Div. in Csec), I foresee what throngs there 7vill be ID'itect: qui erunt?] quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask what will be on the morrow. [Direct: quid erit or futiirum est?] 368 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 334. Note. — This periphrastic future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by using the present subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses. b. The Deliberative Subjunctive (see § 268 and examples) remains unchanged in an Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense : as,— [quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, ar Carthaginiensibus reddatur (De Inv. i. 17), [the question is] shah Carthage be destroyed, or re- stored to the Carthaginians. nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7), nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future participle with sit could not be used,] incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Li v. xxviii. 36), since it was doubtfu,. (abl. abs.) what they should seek or shun. C, In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an Indirect Ques- tion is often attracted into the main clause as object {accusative of anticipation) : as, — nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fara. viii. 10), you know how slow Marcellus is. [For nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. / know thee who thou art.^ Cf. potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurae sint ulla esse praesensio (Div. ii. i^),can there be, then^ any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur ? [A similar use of the objective genitive.] Remark. — In some cases the Object of anticipation becomes Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative construction is the result : as, — quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lsel. 63), it is often seen, in a trifling matter of moneyy how unprincipled some people are (some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are), quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Ag. i. 5), it has been shown by tne in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown by me, how they attacked). d. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and in poetry: as, — non reputat quid laboris est (Plaut. Am. 172), he does not consider what o task it is. vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observatS (Cato R. R. 6), in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus. e. A few interrogative expressions are used parenthetically in an indefinite sense and do not take a subjunctive. Such are — nescio quis (and kindred forms), I know not who, somebody or other ^ etc. mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how), mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much), immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much), sane quam, immensely. valde quam, enormoi4sly. § 334.] Indirect Discourse, 369 Examples are : — qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tus. iii. 12), who greatly extol that freedom from pain^ whatever that is. mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. i), it helped prodigiously, ita fato nesci5 qu5 contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so by some fatality or other, nam su5s valde quam paucos habet (Fam. xi. ^Z),for he has uncommonly few of his own. sane quam sura gavisus (id.), I was immensely glad. vin5 et lucernis Medus acinaces immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 5), is monstrously at variance. f. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the *nse of whether (like if in English, c£ § •^2>2>' ^- Rem-) • as, — circumfunduntur hostes si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi, 37), the enemy pour round {^to see] if they can find entrance. visam si domJ est (Ter. Heaut. 118), I will go see if he is at home. Note. — This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the clause is virtually an Indirect Question. g, Forsit, forsitan, forsau, fortasse, fortasse an, perhaps^ are often followed by the Subjunctive : as, — - forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rose. Am. 2), you may perhaps in- quire what this alarm is. Note.— The Subjunctive Clause in this case was originally an Indirect Ques- tion. Thus, it would be a chance whether, etc. Fortasse is also followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative in Plautus. m.-!NDIRECT DISCOURSE. Note. — The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse ipratib obtlqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit and Zend, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German. The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb is necessarily conformed to the new relation of persons. The construction of the Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any one — whether the speaker or some one else — says, thinks, ox perceives, whenever that which is said^ thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be said, etc.j can also be reported indirectly as well as directly. The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as « .case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying, etc., and its object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact 370 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§335,336. to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of saying and the like, by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as, " The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses." The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses ; and in Latin it became a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches, etc., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed, as is also occasionally the case in Sanskrit.) The use of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse probably came from regarding the statements contained in them as not absolutely true, but as conditioned upon the trustworthiness of the original speaker ; that is, as Apodosis with an implied Protasis {if we may believe the speaker, or the like) . So the French conditional is often equivalent to " it is said " : as, ainsi il aurait apeu pres double, "it is said to have nearly doubled," lit. "would have doubled," i.e. if we should believe the report. Cf. in German, Er soil krank sein, " he is said to be sick," lit. " he ought to be sick, unless the story is false." The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if necessary), as in the reporter's style, and in Sanskrit. 335. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted. Remark.— The term Indirect Discourse (oratio obnqua) is used in two senses. In the wider sense it includes all clauses — of whatever kind — which express the words or thought of any person indirectly ; that is, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an address of any lengfth, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense. I. Formal Indirect Discourse. 336. I. Verbs and other expressions of knowings think- ing, telling, 2iXi.^ perceiving} govern the Indirect Discourse. 1 Such are : (i) knowing, scio, c6gn6sc6, compertum habeo, etc. ; (2) thinking, put6, existimo, arbitror, etc.; (3) telling, dico, nGntiS, refers, polliceor, promitto, certiorem faciS, etc.; (4) perceiving, sen- tio, comperio, video, audiS, etc. So in general any word that denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the Indirect Discourse. 1 §336.] Indirect Discourse : Subject Accusative. 371 2. In the Indirect Discourse the main clause of a De- claratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All Subordinate clauses take the Subjunc- tive. Thus, — sper5 me liberatum [esse] de metu (Tusc. ii. 67), / trust I have been freed from fear. [dicit] esse nonnuUos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he says there are some^ whose itifliience most prevails. [In direct dis- course : sunt n5nnalli . . . valet.] nisi iorasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Ver.ii. 1. 123),/^.? thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. [Direct : nisi iuravero, faciam,] Stoici negant quidquam [esse] bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 68), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dico with a negative.] Note i. — In the statement of all speech or thought, the Romans tended to use the Indirect Discourse, etc., with verbs of the classes mentioned, but : inquam, said I (etc.), is appropriated to the Direct Discourse except in poetry. Note 2. — The verb of saying, etc., is often not expressed, but implied in some word or in the general drift of the sentence ; as, — c5nsulis alterius nomen invisum civitati fuit: nimium Tarquinios regno adsuesse; initium a Prisc5 factum; regnasse dein Ser. TuUium, etc. (Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tar quins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power y etc. [Here mvisum implies a thought, and this thought is added in the Indirect Discourse. ] orantes ut urbibus saltern — iam enim agros depl5ratos esse — opem senatus ferret (Liv. xvi. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the cities — for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost. Note 3. — Verbs oi promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse (see § 33a/ and note). 1. Subject Accusative. a. I. The Subject of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse must regu- larly be expressed, even if it is wanting in the direct : as, — orator sum, I am an orator ; dicit se esse oratSrem, he says he is an orator. Note. — But the subject is often omitted, if easily understood : as, — ignSscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their rashness. rogavi pcrvenissentne Agrigentum: dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 27), / asked whether they (the curtains) had come to Agrigentum; he an- swered that they had. 3?2 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. \% 33a Remark. — After a relative, or quam {than), if the verb would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative : as, — te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. Maj, i), / stis- pect that you are disturbed by the same things as I. 2. When the verb oi sayings etc., becomes /^j'j/'Z/^, the construction may be either Personal or Impersonal. Note i. — For rules in regard to the choice between these constructions, and for examples, see § 330. a-d. Note 2. — An Indirect Narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued with the Infinitive and Accusative. 2. Subordinate Clauses. h. A subordinate clause merely explanatory or containing statements which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, takes the Indicative: as, — quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate administrari (Cat. ill. 2 1 ), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of the gods ? cuius ingeni5 putabat ea quae gesserat posse eel ebrari (Arch. 26), by whose genius he thought that those deeds ivhich he had done could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation : quae gessisset would mean, what Marius claimed to have done.] Note. — It often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall use the Indicative or Subjunctive in such clauses (cf, §§ 340-342). c. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demon- strative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see § iZo.f) : as, — Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset inter- feetum permoleste tulisse (Ver. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought for Archimedes^ and when he heard that he was slain^ to have been greatly distressed. Unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud nalura c5nsequi (Fin. iii. 64), the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the universe^ from which this naturally follows. Note i.— Really subordinate clauses occasionally take this construction : as, - quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken^ so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends. A § 336.] Tenses in Indirect Discourse, 373 Note 2.— The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam: as,-— addit si prius occisuin in ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), he adds that he himself will be killed by hitft, before I shall be injured. Note 3. — The Subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see ? 332. b). d. A subordinate clause in the Indirect Discourse occasionally takes the Indicative when th^fact is emphasized ; as, — factum eius hostis periculum . . . cum, Cimbris et Teutonis . , . pulsis, non minorem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus videbatur (B. G. i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when^ etc., the army seemed, etc. 3. Tenses of the Infinitive. 336. A. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future In- finitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying, etc., by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced. Thus, — cad5, I am fallins^: ,. . ysecadere,< , . ,i^^\ \ falling. ' * dixit J (he said ) I tvas f cadehamtf was falling ) cecidi, Ifeir i t"' 1 se cecidisse,| f '''^' ^' wasfalhng, ctcAtrzL,^/ had fallen ) ^^^^ ^ ^ ^' '^'^ V^^A had fallen. J T 1^ 11 T 11K dicit 1 - — r -x \^^ ^^y^ l^s shall fall. cecidero, I shall } dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen, have fallen ) dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen. Note i. — All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. But sometimes continued or repeated action in past time is expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse, and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive (so regularly after memini) : thus, — te memini dicere, I remember that you said. [Direct: dicebas.] Note a.— For variotis ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see k 147. c. 4. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 336. B. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Dis- course follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 286). They depend for their sequence on the verb of sayings etc., by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced- 374 Syntax: Dependent Constructions, [§§336,337, Thus in the sentence, dixit sS Romam itilnim ut c5nsulem vidSret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul^ vidgret follows the sequence of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, iturum [esse], on which it directly depends. Note i. — This rule applies not only to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses in indirect discourse, but also to that which stands for the imperative, etc. (see ex- amples in \ 339), and to that in questions (§ 338). Note 2.— A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is commonly in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of sayings etc, is in a primary tense (cf. §2870. Thus,— Tarquinium dixisse ferunt tum exsulantem se intellexisse quos fidos amicos habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile he had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb of saying, ferunt, is primary^ but the time is carried back by dixisse and intellexisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.] tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verbSrura quidem copia vince- remus (Nat. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in fulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. a. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying, etc., is in a secondary tense : as, — dicebant . . . totidem Nervios (polliceri) qui longissime absint (B. G. ii. 4), they said that the Nerviiy who live farthest off^ promised as many. Note i. —This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker {Repraesentatio). In the course of a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the Sequence, and sometimes affected by Repra^sentatid. Examples may be seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc. Note 2. — Certain constructions are never affected by Repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, anteQuam, and priusquam. 5. Conditions in Indirect Discourse. 337. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed as follows : — 1 . The Protasis, being a subordinate clause ^ is always in the Sub- junctive. 2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive. a. The Present Subjunctive m the apodosis of less vivid future con- ditions (§ 307. b) becomes the Future Infinitive. Thus there is no dis- tinction between more or less vivid future conditions in the Indirect Discourse. § 337.] Conditions in Indirect Discourse 375 Examples of conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are : — 1. Simple Present Condition (§ 306). (dixit) si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet quemadmodum suo iure iiteretur, non oportere sese a popul5 Roman5 in suo iuie impediri (B. G. i. 36), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they should use their rights^ he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct : n non prae- Bcribo . . . non oportet.] praedicavit ... si pace uti velint, iniquum esse, etc. (B. G. i. 44), he as- serted that if they wished to enjoy peacCy it was unfair, etc. [Direct: si volunt . . . est. Present tense kept by Repraesentatto (§ 336. B. a, note i).] 2. Simple Past Condition (§ 306). non dicam ne illud quidem, si maxime in culpa fuerit Apollonius, tamen in hominem honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tam graviter animad- verti causa indicta non oportuisse (Verres v. 20), / will not say this either y that, even if Apollonius was greatly in fault, still an honor- able man ought not to have been punished so severely ^ etc. [Direct ; SI fuit , . . non oportuit.] 3. Future Conditions (§ 307). Aeduis si obsides redditurum non esse, neque eis . . . bellum illatiiram, si in eo manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis pende- rent: si id non fecissent, longe eis fraternum nSmen populi Romani abfutiimm (B. G. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the ^dui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement, etc., and paid tribute yearly ; but if they should not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people ivould be far from aiding them. [Direct : reddam . . . inferam ... si manebunt . . . pendent : si non fecerint . . . aberit.] (dixit) quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola deciraa legione itiirum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go with the tenth legion alone. [Direct : si sequetur . . . ibo. Present tense by Repraesentatid.'\ id Datames ut audivit, sensit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam necessa- ri5 se relictum, fntiirum [esse] ut ceteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat. 6), if it should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody else would follow his example. [Direct: si exierit . . . sequentur.] (dixerunt) nisi me civitate expnlissent, obtinere se non posse licentiara cupiditatum suarum (Att. x. 4), they said that unless they drove me out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct : nisi (Ciceronem) expulerimus, obtinere non poterimus.] b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 308) into the Indirect Discourse, the following points require notice. 37^ Syntax : Dependent Constructions. [§ 337 1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense. 2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by combining the Participle in -urus with fuisse. 3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futurum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used. 4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes Perfect Infinitive. Examples are : — nee se superstitem flliae futurum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis eius in auxilio commilitonum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50), a7td that he should not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope , etc. [Direct: non superstes essem, nisi habuissem.] illud Asia cogitet, nullam a se neque belli externi neque discordiarum domesticarum calamitatem abfuturam fuisse, si hoc imperio non tenere- tur (Q. Fr. i. i, 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster etc., would not be hers, if she xvere not held by this government. [Direct: abessem, si non tenerer.] quid inimicitiarum creditis exceptiirum fuisse, si insontes lacessissem (Q. C. vi. 10, 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred if I had wantonly assailed the innocent, [excepissem ... si laces- sissem.] invitum se dicere, nee dictiirum fuisse, ni caritas rei publicae vinceret (Liv. ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken (at all), did not love for the commomvealth prevail ? [Direct: nec dixis- sem . . . n£ vinceret.] quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futiirum fuisse ut omnibus perfectis artibus hominum vita erudiretur (Tuscul. iii. 69), if life could have been longer, human existence zuould have been embellished by every art in its perfection. [Direct : erudita esset.] si Cn. Pompeius privatus esset, tamen erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if P. were a private citizen, still he ought to be chosen, would become deli- gendum fuisse. Note i. — In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past, but \}(\& protasis may keep them distinct. Note 2. — The periphrasis f utarum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it. Note 3. — Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Jndirect Discourse to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples of this use occur in classic authors : as, — Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque CarnStes, etc., neque Eburo- nes tanta cum contemptione nostra ad castra ventiiros esse (B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Ccesar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt. [Direct : si adesset . . . venirent.] V §§ 338» 339.] Questions and Commands. 377 6. Questions in Indirect Discourse. 338. A Question in the Indirect Dis<:ourse may be either in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying its own answer, in the Infinitive. Thus, — quid sibi vellet? cur in suas possessiones veniret (B. G. i, 44), what dia he want? why did he cotne into his territories ? [Real question. Direct : quid vis ? ciir venis ?] num recentium iniuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse (iJ. i. 14), could he lay aside the tnemory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Ques- tion. Direct : num possum ?] quern signum daturum fugientibus ? quem ausiirum Alexandro succedere (Q. C. iii. 5), who will give tlie signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed Alexander ? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit . . , audebit.J Note i. — No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infini- tive in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view. Thus, — utrum partem regni petitiirum esse, an totum ereptiirum (Liv. xlv. 19), will you ask part of the regal poiver (he said), or seize the whole? quid tandem praetori faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what^ pray^ ought a prcetor to have done ? quid repente factum [esse] ciir, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54), what had suddenly happened, that, etc.? Note 2. — Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see $ 334). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. I'hQ question may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15). Note 3. — For the use of tenses, see $ 336. B, note i., a. A Deliberative Subjunctive in the Direct Discourse is always retained in the Indirect: as, — cur aliquos ex suis amitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose some of his men? [Direct; cur amittam?] 7. Commands in Indirect Discourse. 339. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunc- tive in Indirect Discourse : as, — reminisceretur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) tht ancient disaster, [Direct : reminiscere.] finem faciat (id. 20), let him make an end. [Direct : facj 373 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 339, 340. ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid^ let them help. Remark. — This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse, but to the hortatory and the optative subjunctive as well. Note i. — Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on the verb oi saying, etc. (cf. \\ 286, 336. B, note i). Note 2. — A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by n§ with the Subjunctive, even when noli with the Infinitive would be used in the Direct: as, — ne perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct: nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Ind. Disc] The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles in a connected address : — INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem itCL- ros atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi COS Caesar constituisset atque esse volaisset: sin bell 5 persequi perse- veraret, reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani, et pristi- nae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod im- proviso iinum pagum adortus asset, cum ei qui flumen transissent suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magnS opere vir- tuti tribueret, aut ipsos despiceret : se ita a patribus maioribusque suis didicisse, ut magis virtute quam dolo contenderent. aut insidiis niteren- tur. Quare ne committeret, ut is locus ubi c5nstitissent ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exerci- tus nomen caperet, aut memoriara proderet. — B, G. i. 13, DIRECT DISCOURSE. Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in earn partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos tii constitueris atque esse volueris : sin bello persequi perseverabis, remini- scere [inquit] et veteris incommodi populi Romani, et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus es, cum ei qui flumen transierant suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut tuae magno opere virtuti tribueris, aut nos despexeris: nos ita a patribus maioribusque nostris didicimus, ut magis virtiite quam dolo contenda- mus, aut insidiis nitamur. Quare noli committere, ut hie locus ubi constitimus ex calamitate populi Ro- mani et internecione exercitus nomen capiat, aut memoriam prodat. n. Intermediate Clauses. 340. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, (i) when it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer {Informal Indirect Discourse), or (2) when it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive^ {Attraction). 1 See note at bead of Indirect Discourse, p. 369. § 341.] Informal Indirect Discourse. 379 1. Informal Indirect Discourse. 341. A subordinate clause takes the subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker. Thus : — a. In subordinate clauses in formal indirect discourse (§ 336) ; but also in Informal Indirect Discourse in the following cases (J?-d): — b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a com- mand, or a question expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the form of Indirect Discourse : as, — animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Of. i. 14), an animal feels what it is that is fit. hunc sibi ex animo scriipulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the rela- tive clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but is an assertion made by the subject of postulat.] c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of saying, or some modifier of it ; as, — si quid de his rebus dicere vellet, feci potestatem (Catil. iii. li), if he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance. tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Milon. 1 5), he passed a law concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the Appian Way. nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer eis minatur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause, ** that he will inflict punishment," is contained in minatur.] eis auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suevis premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suem, [= pol- licitus se auxilium laturum, etc.] prohibitio toUendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactiSni (Ver. iii. 37), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the bargain. d. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 32 1).^ Thus, — Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit(Att. ii. i. 12), Patus presented me all the books zvhich (he said) his father had left. Remark. — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive. Here belong also non quia, n5n quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See $ 321. Rem. and note 2.) 1 This usage probably originates in Apodosis, the condition being the supposed truth of the speaker, the main subject. (See Indirect Discourse, Note, p. 370.) 380 Syntax : Depe^ident Constrttctions. [§ 342. 2. Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction). 342. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause : ^ as, — imperat, dam res adiudicetur, hominem ut adservent : cum iudicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iii. 55), he orders them, till the affair should be decided, to keep the man ; when he is judged, to bring him to him. etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac negle- gere possit (Rose. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit, that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass thet?i by? mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti (Or. 151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eidogized who have been slain in battle. [Here laudari is equivalent to ut laudentur.] «. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause : as, — quodam modo postulat ut, quemadmodum est, sic etiam appelletur, tyran- nus (Att. X. 4) , in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called, a tyrant. si mea in te assent officia solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso praedicari quam a me ponderari sclent, verecundius a te . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6), if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to be called by you than to be estimated by j?ie, I should, etc. natura fert ut eis faveamus qui eadem pericula quibus nos perfuncti sumus ingrediuntur (Muren. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through. ne hostes, quod tantum multitiidine poterant, suos circumvenire possent (B.C. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strojtg in numbers, should be able to surround his men. Note. — The use of- the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to empha-j size the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction between the Indicative and Subjunctive is perceptible. 1 The Subjunctive in this use is in a manner of the same nature as the Sul junctive in the main clause. A dependent clause in a clause of Purpose is really part of the purpose, as is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in Eng'^ lish. In a Result clause this is less clear, but the result construction is a branch the characteristic, to vi^hich category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs, when it takes the Subjunctive, It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse and thj Integral Part. Thus in imperftvit ut ea flerent quae opus essent, essenf may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being a part of the order itself. Syntax: Important Rules. 381 IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 1 . A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 183). 2. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case (§ i86). 3. A Relative pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in gender and mimber, but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands (§ 198). 4. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in number smd person (§ 204). "* ^5. Superlatives (more rarely comparatives) denoting order and succession — - also medius, ceterus, reliquus — usually designate not 7i'^at object, but what part of it, is meant (§ 193). 6. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -iim being msq^. partitively, and that in -i oftenest objectively (§ 194. b). 7. The Reflexive pronoun (se), and usually the corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause (§ 196). 8. The Possessive Pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun: (i) always instead of the possessive genitive, (2) rarely in- stead of an objective genitive (§ 197. a). 9. A Possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive in apposition (§ 197- 0- 10. Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (§ 207). 11. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 210. a). 12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, — as in nonne,-^ an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega- tive answer (§ 210. c). 13. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 173. a'). 14. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive (§ 213). — 15. The Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to denote (i) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the Material, (3) the Quality (§ 214). 16. Words denoting a Part are followed by the genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs {Partitive Genitive, § 216). "17. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive of the object {Objective Genitive, § 217). ^18. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; verbals in -ax, and participles in -ns when used as adjectives, govern the Genitive (§ 218. a, b). » 19. Verbs of re?nembering, forgetting, take the Genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state of mind, but the Accusative when used of a single act (§219). 382 Syntax: Important Rules, 20. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty (§ 220). '^ 21. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action {Indi- rect Object^ § 224). *— 22. Most verbs meaning to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy , threaten, pardon^ and spare, take the Dative (§ 227). 23. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, are followed by the Dative of the indirect object (§ 228). *- 24. Many verbs of taking away, and the like, take the Dative (especially of a person^ instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 229). 25. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession (§ 231). 26. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the per- son on whom the necessity rests (§ 232). "- 27. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative ofthe person or thing affected (§ 233. a). ^ 28. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) oi fitness, near- ness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 234. a^. 29. The Dative is often required, not by any particular word, but by the gen- eral meaning ofthe sentence {Dative of Reference, § 235). 30. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (§ 237)- 31. A neuter verb often takes an accusative of kindred meaning (§ 238). — 32. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object (§ 239- a). 33. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addi- tion to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition (§ 239. b). 'v^ 34. Verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one oiih^ per- son, and the other of the thing (§ 239. <"). 35. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 173. 2). 36. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative (§ 240. e-). 37. The Vocative is the case of direct address (§ 241). 38. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Ablative, with or without a preposition {Ablative of Separation, § 243). ■ — 39* Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (§ 243. e), 40. The ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to denote the source from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists (§ 244). Syntax: Important Rules. 383 41. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause (§ 245). 42. Dignus and indignus, contentus, laetus, praeditus, etc., take the Ab- lative (§ 245, a). 43. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is put in the Ablative with a or ab (§ 246). 44. The Comparative degree is followed by the Ablative (signifying than) (§ 247). The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 247. a). The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 248). Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum (§ 248. a). The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action (§ 248. ^. i). 49. The deponents, iitor, fruor, fangor, potior, and vescor, with several of their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 249). 50. "With comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used to denote the degree of difference (§ 250). 51. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a modifier, usually an adjective or limiting genitive (§ 251). 52. The/rzV(f of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 252). 53. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done (§ 253). 54. A noun or pronoun, with a participle, may be put in the Ablative, to de- fine the time or circumstances of an action {Ablative Absolute^ . An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the ablative absolute construction (§ 255 and a). 55. Time when, or within which, is put in the Ablative; time how long in the Accusative (§ 256). 56. The ^\z.ct.from which is denoted by the Ablative with ab, de, or ex; the place to which (the end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in (§ 258. c). The names of towns or small islands /ri7w which, as also domus and rQs, are put in the Ablative without a preposition {\ 258. a). The names of towns or small islands to which, as also domus and rus, are put in the Accusative without a preposition (§ 258. ^). 57. T^^ place where is denoted by the Ablative with the preposition in {Loca- tive Ablative') ; but names of towns and small islands are put in the Locative Case (§ 258. c). The Locative Case is also preserved in domi, belli, mllitiae, humi, foris, rilri, terra marique (§ 258. d). 384 Syntax: Important Rutes, 58. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with eu and similar verbs (i) as the subject^ (2) as in apposition with the sub- ject, or (3) as z. predicate nominative (§ 270J. 59. The Infinitive, without a subject accusative, is used with verbs which im* ply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning {Complementary Infinitive^ § 271^. 60. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other ex- pressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (^Indirect DiS' course^ see § 272). 61. The Infinitive is often used in narrative for the Imperfect Indicative, and takes a subject in the Nominative (^Historical Infinitive, § 275"), 62. Sequence of Tenses. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive; a secon- dary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect (§ 286). 63. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb on which they depend (§ 288). 64. Participles denote time as present, pact, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause (§ 290). 65. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of nouns (§ 297). For particulars see \\ 298-301. 66. The Former Supine (in -um) is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose (§ 302). 67. The Latter Supine (in -u) is used only with a few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, and rarely with verbs, to denote an action in reference to which the quality is asserted (§ 303), 68. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express an exhortation, a command^ a concession, or a condition (§ 266). 69. The Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished vcv past time (^Optative Subjunctive, § 267). 70. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being done {Deliberative Subjunctive, § 268). 71. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (i) by ne with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive, (2) by n5li with the Infini- tive, (3) by cave with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive (§ 269. a). 72. The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as actually per- formed, but 2s possible (§ 311. a). 73. Dum, mode, dummodo, and tantum, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive (§ 314). 74. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative ne (ut ne), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) (§ 317), Syntax : Important Rules. 385 75. Consecutive clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (neg- ative, ut non), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) (§ 319). 76. Dignus, indiguus, aptus, and idoneus, take a clause of result with a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 320. /). 77. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is given on the authority of the speaker or writer ; the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of another (§ 321). 78. Cum TEMPORAL, meaning when, takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indicative (§ 325). 79. Cum CAUSAL or concessive takes the Subjunctive (§ 326). For other concessive particles, see \ 313. 80. In the Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive (§ 336. 2). 81. In the Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunc- tive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 338). 82. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Dis- course (§ 339). 2>^. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (^Informal Indirect Discourse, § 341). 84. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause (^Attraction, § 342). For Prepositions and their cases, see §§ 152, 153. For Conditional Sentences, see § 304. flf. (Scheme in § 305.) For ways of expressing Purpose, see § 318. 386 Syntax: Order of Words, [§§343,344. Chapter VI. — Order of Words, Note. — Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the arrange- ment of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of the ideas in a sentence. 343. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the Predicate last. Thus, — Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homo sed varius in omni genera vitae fuit. Note. — This happens because from the speaker's ordinary point of view the subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other things to be spoken of. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself last of all after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate. 344. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence. This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis). Note, — This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed ex- cept in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sen- tence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best actor in English. Remark. — Some exceptions to this rule will be treated later. Thus the first chapter of Caesar's Gallic War rendered so as to bring out so far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus : — § 344.] Emphasis. 387 GAUL,i in the widest sense, is di- Gallia est omnis divisa in partes vided '^ into three parts^ which are tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, inhabited^ (as follows) : one ^ by the aliam Aquitani, tertiain qui ipsorum Belgians, another ^ by the Aquitani, lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellan- the third by a people called in their tur. Hi omnes lingua, institiitis, legi- own "^ language Celts, in ours Gauls. bus inter se differunt. Gallos ab These,8 in their language,^ institu- Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis tions, and laws are a// of them ^"^ dif- Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum ferent. The GAULS ^^ (proper) are omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, prop- separated ^'^ from the Aquitani by terea quod a cultu atque humanitate the river Garonne, from the Belgians by the Mar tie and Seine. Of these i^ (tribes) the bravest of alP* are the Belgians, for the reason that they live farthest ^^ away from the civiliza- 1 GAUL : emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like. 2 Divided : opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnia) that the country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact that Caesar later speaks of the Galli in the narrower sense as distinct from the other two tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense. 3 Parts : continuing the emphasis begun in divisa. Not three parts as opposed to any other number, but mXo parts at all. * Inhabited : emphatic as the next subject, " The inhabitants of these parts are, etc." 5 One : given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close connection with quarum. 6 Another, etc. : opposed to one. ^ Their own, ours : strongly opposed to each other. 8 These (tribes) : the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head the names previously mentioned. 9 Language, etc.: these are the most prominent ideas as giving the striking points which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say " these have a different language, different institutions, different laws." 10 All of them : the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjective, as if it were " every one has its own, etc," 11 GAULS : emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other tribes. 12 Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is : The Gauls lie between the Aquitani on the one side, and the Beiges on the other. 13 Of these : the subject of discourse. 14 All : emphasizing the superlative idea in bravest ; they, as Gauls, are assumed to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians. 16 Farthest away : one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more em- phatic place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effeminating injluences from which the Belgas are said to be free. It is not that they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the province, etc., which would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has already been anticipated by the construction of cultd and still more by longrissime, so that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus because the civilization, etc., of the province (which would soften them) '\& farthest from them. 388 Syntax: Order of Words. [§344. TION and REFINEMENT of the Prov- ince, and because they are least !<* of all of them subject to the visits of traders^ and to the (consequent) im- portation of such things as i^ tend to sofien^^ their warlike spirit; and are also nearest ^^ to the Germans, who live across the Rhine^^ and with whom they are incessantly '^"^ at war. For the same reason the Helvetii, as well, are superior to all the other Gauls in valor, because they are en- gaged in almost daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from them, or themselves making war on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS country, one part, the one which as has been said the Gauls (proper) occupy, begins at the river Rhone. Its boundaries are the river Garonne, the ocean, and the confines of the Belgians. It even reaches on the side of the Sequani and Helve- tians the river Rhine. Its general direction is towards the north. The Belgians begin at the extreme lim- its of Gaul; they reach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward. Aquitania extends from the Garonne part of the ocean that lies towards Spain, northward. provinciae longissime absunt, minime- que ad eos mercatores saepe com- meant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent, important, proximi- que sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter hel- ium gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliqu5s Gallos virtiite praece- dunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dic- tum est, initium capit a fliimine Rho- dano; continentur Garumna fliimine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis fliimen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis GalHae finibus oriuntur : pertinent ad inferiorem par- tem fliiminis Rheni; spectant in sep- tentrionem et orientem solem. Aqui- tania a Garumna fliimine ad Pyre- naeos montes et eam partem Oceani, quae est ad Hispaniam, pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septen* triones. to the Pyrenees, and that It runs oflF westward and 16 Least: made emphatic here by a common Latin order, — the chiasmus (see / p. 390). 17 traders : the fourth member of the chiasmus opposed to cultti and hll- manitate. 18 Such things as : the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in "traders." 19 Soften : cf. what is said in note 15. They are drave because they have less to soften them, their native barbarity being assumed. *> Nearest : the same idiomatic prominence as in 16, but varied by a spe- cial usage (seeXp. 390) combining chiasmus and anaphora. 21 Across the Rhine; i.e. and so are p>erfect savages. 28 Incessantly : the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as if it were, "and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them." i § 344.] Special Rules of Order. 389 Remark. — The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it were, in a new one. a. In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes first : as, — 1 . Adjective and Noun : — omnes homines decet, every man ought (opposed to some who do not). Lucius Catilina n5bili genere natus fuit magna vi et animi et corporis sed ingeni5 malo pravoque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a 'iiO'&l.Y. family, with GY.YJ^^ force of mind and body, but with a NATURE that was evil and depraved, [Here the adjectives in the first part are the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the 7ioun is meant to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus making a chiasmus^ 2. Word with modifying case : — cui rei magis Epaminondam, Thebanorum imperatorem, quam victoriae Thebanorum c5nsulere decuit (Inv. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, commander of the Thebans, have aimed at more than the victory of the Thebans? lacrima nihil citius arescit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR. nemo fere laudis cupidus (De Or.i. i^), hardly any one desirous . e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora. f. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series o! verses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indi- cated by the sign A ; orie of two 7norce by the sign A . g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis or prelude.'^ The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure. 356. The measures most frequently employed in Latin verse, together with their musical notation, are the follow- ing:— a. Triple or Unequal Measures (f).^ I. Trochee {;L \j =^f): z&,regts, 2 Iambus (w -il = P P) : as, duces. 3. Tribrach 8 (^^ ^ \j = fff) - as, hdmtnts, 1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modem music any unac- cented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belong- ing to the following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iambic in its structure, or at least accented the second syllable rather than the first. 2 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to l. 8 Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus. 404 Prosody: Rhythm. [§ 356. b. Double or Equal Measures (f). 1. Dactyl {jL \j \j = f ^ f) : as, consults. 1 bJ 2. Anap^st {kj \j —^ ff f ) : as, monitos. '" 3. Spondee (^ _ =r • •) : as, reges. ^ c. Six-timed Measures (|). 1. Ionic d mdiore ( w w = f f i* f ) : as, confec^rdt. 2. Ionic d minor e (ww ~^ T ^ \^ '' ^^' ''"^i^li^^^^^i- 3. Choriambus (_ w ^ _ = f Tf f) : as, contuUrant. d. Quinary or Hemiolic^ Measures (|). 1. Cretic ( \j = P P ^) : as, consiiles, 2. Vje.0^ primus (^ \j \j kj = f f f ^): as, consiilibus* 3. P^ON qudrtus {yj \j \j ^ = T_A_f I*) ' ^^' ^'''^^«^'^^- 4. Bacchius {kj = f I* D : as, amicos. (— =crr> ^. Several compound measures are mentioned by the grammarians, vi^., Antibacchlus ( w), Proceleusmatic {kj kj w w), the 2d and 3d PcEon^ having a long syllable in the 2d and 3d places, with three short ones ; ist, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus, having a short syllable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th places, with three long ones. None of them, however, are needed to explain rhythmically all the forms of ancient verse. f. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy the same time in the measure, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have integral ratios. Such are ; — Irrational Spondee : _ > = | |v . Cyclic Dactyl: —\j\j = \ JN ^ (or nearly N J^ J^). 1 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of i to 15, or of 3 to 2. $§ 356, 357.] Measures. 405 Cyclic Anapaest : = the same reversed. Irrational Trochee : _ > = | h. Note.— Of feet and combinations of feet (sometimes extending to an entire verse, and controlled by a single leading accent), the following are recognized, assuming s to be the unit of musical time : — 20 2S 3 4 5 6 9 10^ 12^ 16 18^ — » — » — , — » 8 s' s' s' 8 8' 8' s' 8 8' Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or Chant, with instru- mental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to " sing." Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the Verse gives us the exact time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the meas- ure ; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Do not scan, but read metrically. 357. In many cases measures of the same time may be substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long one. In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the latter, to be resolved. Thus : — a. A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl (_ w w) or an anapaest Cw w _) ; and a Tribrach (www) may take the place of a Trochee (_ w) or an Iambus (w_)- The optional substitution of one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign ww. b. Another form of dactyl when substituted for a trochee is repre- sented thus, _ v^. A spondee, similarly substituted for a trochee, is represented thus, _ >. c. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 358. a) is resolved, the ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables; but for convenience the mark of accent is placed on the fir^ : as, — ndnc experiar | sftn* aceto | tfbi cor acr^ in J pectore. — Bacch. 405. 406 Prosody: Rhythm. [§ 358 2. The Musical Accent. 358. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is called the Arsis.^ a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis Is called the ICTUS (beat). It is marked thus: jL\j k^. b. The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm. c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in Prosody is called DiiERESis. 1 The Thesis signifies properly, Ha^ putting down {Oeais, from ridrj/uLi) of the foot in beating time, in the march or dance ("downward beat"), and the Arsis, the raising {&pais, from ailpw) of the foot (" upward beat "). By the Latin grammarians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and beginning of a meas- ure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accordance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind. The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition which was true only of iambic or anapaestic. § 359.] The Verse, 407 Chapter III. — Versification. 1. The Verse. 359. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of meas- ures set in a recognized order — is called a Verse.^ Note. — Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series {hemi- stichs)^ but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic verse by the Diceresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Ccesura. a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, having a pause to fill the measure; when the end syllable is not lacking, the verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause. b. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scansio, from scando, a climbing or advance by steps). Remark. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done in scanning, f. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision {bruising).^ In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, however, they should be sounded lightly. Remark. — Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synaloepha \ {smearing). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a vowel ; this is called Synapheia {binding). •« 1 The word Verse {versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like manner, as opposed to Prose {prorsus or proversus) , which means straight ahead. 2 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is some- times adopted in English, particularly in the older poets : as, — T* inveigle and invite th* unwary sense. — Covtus, 538. In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in j. often loses this letter even before a consonant (cf. $ 13. b) : as, — senio confectu* qulescit. — Ennius (C. M. 14). 408 Prosody : Versification. [§§ 359-62. d. A final -m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like man- ner when the next word begins with a vowel or h;! this is called ECTHLlPSis {squeezing out) : as, — monstr«»* horrend«»«, inform', ingens, cui lumen ademptum. — yEn. iii. 658. Final -m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy. Remark. — The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui (plural) are never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words. e. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus (gaping). The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases. f. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a pause : 2 it is then said to be long by Diastole: as, — nostror^w* obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes. g. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short {syllaba anceps). Forms of Verse. 360. A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental measure : as, Dactylic^ Iambic, Trochaic, Ana- pees tic ; and from the number of measures (single or double) which it contains : as, Hexametery Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter, Remark. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet, but by pairs {dipodla), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter, 361. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite num- ber of verses ranged in a fixed order. Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet : as, Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian •(from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on. 1. Dactylic Hexameter. 362. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : — 1 Hence a final syllable in -m is said to have no quantity of its own — its vowel, in any case, being either elided or else made long by Position. 2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity. § 362.] Dactylic Hexameter. 409 or in musical notation as follows : — ir^'irc;iri^irc;ir:;irM a. For any one of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be sub- stituted, and must be for the last. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth place ; the verse is then called spondaic. Thus in Eel. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrementum. Note. — In reality the last foot is a trochee standing for a dactyl, but the final syllable is not measured, and the foot is usually said to be a spondee. b. The hexameter has always one principal ccesura — sometimes two — aknost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. In this case there is often another caesura in the second foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts : as, — parte fe | rox il ar ] densqu _) or its equiv alent (a cyclic anapaest \j kj— or an apparent dactyl > w w (§ 356./*)) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. A Tri- brach (v^ 6 w) may stand for an Iambus anywhere except in the last place. In the comic poets any of these substitutions may be made in any foot except the last : as, — O lucis al I me rector 11 et | caeli decus ! qu^ alterna curjru spatia II flam|mifer5 ambiens, illdstre lae|tis || exseris [ terris caput. — Seneca, Here. Fur. 592-94. quid quaeris? an|nos II sexagin|ta natus es. — Terence, Heaut. 62. homo %vm\ humajni II n/hil a m? alilendm puto. vel me mone|r^ h5c |I vel percon(taif puta. — Heaut. 77, 78. c. The Choliambic {lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last iambus : as, — Ili^ — v^ — I ^^\J ^\ w_»L.|^All aeque est bea[tus ac poelma cdm scribit: tam gaudet in j se, tdmque s^ ip|se miiatur. — Catull. xxii. 15, 16. d> The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : — It is used in combination with other measures (see § 372. 11), and is shown in the following : — Vulcanus arjdens urit ofjficinas. — HoR. Od.\./^. or in English : — "On purple peaks a deeper shade descending." — Scott. Note. — The Iambic Trimeter may be regarded, metrically, as "a single foot" (its time being represented by -'s^), consisting of three dipodies, and having its principal accent, probably, on the second syllable of the verse, though this is a matter of dispute. The spondee in this verse, being a substitute for an iambus, is irrational, and must be shortened to fit the measure of the iambus (represented by>-). §§ 366, 367.] Other Iambic Measures. 413 5. Other Iambic Measures. 366, Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : — a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic {SeptSndrius). This con- sists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter. It is used in lively dialogue : as, — nam idcfrc^ arcesjsor, niSptias j quod ml &dpara|ri sensit. quibus qufdem quam facijle potuerat | quiesci s* hie | quiesset! — Ter. Andria, 690, 691. The rhythm of the Iambic Septenarius may be thus represented according to our musical notation (see p. 403, foot-note i) : — \\kd\^^^kj\ jLkj ^Kj\ jLkj ^ w 1 1 An nrcrcirrrnrrrnrTi Its movement is like the following : — " In go6d king Charles's gulden days, when 16yalty no hdrm meant," etc — Vicar of Bray, d. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic {Octdndrzus). This consists of eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Tri- meter. It is also used in lively dialogue : as, — hocinest humalnura fact« aut injcepts? hocinest oflficidm patris? quid fllud est? pr5 ] deflm fidem, j quid est, s? hoc n5n conltumeliast? — Andria, 236, 237. c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or cata- lectic. 1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used in combination with some longer verse (see § 365. a"), 2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet It is used only in choruses : as, — quonam cruen \ ta Maenas, praec^ps amSIre saev5, rapitdr quod im | potent! facinds parat | fSrore? — Sen. Medea, 850-853. 6, Trochaic Verse. 367. The most commonform of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter catalectic {Septenarius) ^ consisting of four dipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable. It is repre- sented metrically thus, — 414 prosody : Versification. [§§ 367, 36a or in musical notation, irjrnrprMrprnrjr-'i id t? advenio, spem, salutem, || consili^^^ adxili«»« expetens. — Ter. Andr. ii. 18. In English verse : — "Tell me not in mournful numbers life is but an empty dream." — Longfellow. a. The spondee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even places ; except in comic poetry, which allows the substitution in any foot but the last : as, — ftid'f»«>ll solvitur I acris hi | ems gra|ta vice H veris | et Fa|voni. — HoR. Od. 1. 4. Note. — It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure seems more probable. |§ 368-70.] Logacedic Verse. 415 2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic {Dactylic Pen- themim) ; Iambic Dimeter : — II v^<^ l«_v^w!— llo_v^_„| W — . v^ „_ II scribSre | versicullos || amore perlculsum iiivat. — id. Ep. ii. 8. Logacedic Verse. 369. Trochaic verses containing in regular prescribed positions, irrational measures or irrational feet, are called Logacedic. The principal logacedic forms are : — 1. Logacedic Tetrapody (/i^wry^^/) : Glyconic. 2. Logacedic Tripody {three feet) : Pherecratic. 3. Logacedic Dipody {two feet) : this may be regarded as a short Pherecratic. Note. — Irrational measures are those in which the syllables do not correspond strictly to the normal ratio of length (see $ 355). Such are the Irrational Spondee and the Cyclic Dactyl. This mixture of various ratios of length gives an effect approach- ing that of prose: hence the name Logacedic {K6yo^y ioidij). These measures originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logace- dic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logacedic Pentapody consists of five feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others. 370. Each logacedic form contains a single dactyl,^ which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic. Thus, — Glyconic. Pherecratic. i. -vy w I - v^ 1 _ w U (vy) II -v^ v^ I - w I __ (v^) II ii. _v^ |-^w|-.v^|«(^)ll_v^ |-^w|-.(vy)ll a_w |-v>|-vyvy|_(w)ll^wU(v>)ll • Note. — The shorter Pherecratic {dipody"), if catalectic, appears to be a simple Choriambus ( \j\j \ A) ; and, in general, the effect of the logacedic forms is Choriambic, In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metri- cians, and these metres have obtained the general name of CHORIAMBIC But they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as logacedic measures ; and that course is followed here, in accordance with the most approved opinion on the subject. 1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls, and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi- tated by the Romans as distinct metres. 4i6 Prosody: Versification, [§ 371. 371. The verses constructed upon the several Logacedic forms or models are the following : — 1. Glyconic {Second Gly conic, catalectic) ; — ll_^l-^.^l_w|_llpp)p•5J|ppj^•(or•^| Romae | principis | urbi|um. In English : — •* Fonns more real than living man." — Shelley, Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the first foot is always irrational in Horace, consisting of an apparent spondee ( >). 2. Aristophanic {First Pherecratic) : — '"--'--'--"r^nruirpi temperat | ora | frenis. — Hor, Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by protracting the last two syllables : thus,— 3. Adonic {First Pherecratic, shortened) : — Terruit | urbem. — J/or. Or perhaps : — 4. Pherecratic {Second Pherecratic') : — eras donaberis haedo. — Hor. 5. Lesser Asclepiadic {Second and First Pherecratic, both cata- lectic) : — Maecenas atavis edite regibds. — Hor, 6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same, with a Logacedic Dipody inter* posed) : — Il_> I -^w ll^Il^^w |l_II-v^w I _w I i^ All tu ne quaesieris — scire nefas — quern mihi quern tibi. — Hor. 7. Lesser Sapphic {Logacedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place) : — II_wI_>I-wv^I_v^Il«|v:3A« integer vita6 scelerisque purus. — Hor, $§ 371. 372.] Metres of Horace, 4^7 Or in English : — "Brilliant hopes, all woven in gorgeous tissues.** — Longfellow, 8. Greater Sapphic {Third Glyconici First Pherecratic):-^ ||_w I — > 1--^^ I i-ll'-c'v/ I — w iL-l w All it de6s or6 Sybarin ii cur properts araando. — Hor. 9. Lesser Alcaic {Logaosdic Tetrapody^ two dactyls, two tro- chees) : — II -WW l-ww I — w I-.C7II vfrginibds puerisque canto. — Hor^ In English (nearly) : — " Blossom by blossom the Spring begins." — Atalanta in Calydon. 10. Greater Alcaic {Logaoedic Pentapody^ catalectic, with Ana- crusis, and dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) : — l!w:_w|— >l^>wl— wloAll iustww* ^t tenacem prSposit! virdm. — Hor, Note. — Only the above Logaoedic forms are employed by Horace, 11. Phal^cian {Logaosdic Pentapody^ with dactyl in the second place) : — n !-j > 1 -w w I - w I -. w 1 1- 1 -. A II quaenam tS mala mlns, mis611i RS«/di, dgit praecipit^»» fn meos iambos?— Catull. xl. In English : — ** Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining.** — Longfellow, 12. Glyconic VYiY.^Y.zvihl\Q.{MetrumSatyricunt)\-^ 11— wI-^w1_wIl>!I_wI-wwIl-_I — AH Colonia quae cupis || ponte Ifidere 16ng5. — Catull, xvii. 9. Metres of Horace. 372. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza ; these are : — I. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)*: as, — iust«»* et tenacem propositi virdm non etvi«w« Irdor prava iubentidm non vdltus Instantis tyranni m6nte quatit solida nequ' Adster. — Od, iii. 3. (Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. i, 3, 5, 7, 9, n, ^3. H» I5> ^7> i9 > 20; iii. i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.) ' The figures refer to the foregoing list f $ 371). 41 8 Prosody : Versification. \% 372. Note. — The Alcaic Strophe was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odei thirty-seven are in this form.i it is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza. The verses were formerly described as, I, 2. spondee, bacchins, two dactyls ; 3. spondee, bacchius, two trochees ; 4. two dactyls, two trochees. 2. Sapphic {minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3) : as, — i&m satis terrts nivis &tqae dfrae grdndinis misit pater et rub^nte d6cterlL sacrds iaculatus drees terruit drbera. — Od. L 2. (Found m Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; il 2, 4, 6, 8, ip, 16; ill. 8, II, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27; iv 2, 6, II. Carm. Sac.) Note. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes — more frequently than any other except the Alcaic. The Lesser Sapphic verse was formerly described as consisting of a Choriambus preceded by a trochaic dipody and followed by a bacchius. 3. Sapphic {tnajor), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic CS) • as, — Lydia die, per 6mnes tS deos 6r6, Sybarln cfir properfis amando. — Od. i. 8. 4. AsCLEPiADEAN L {minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5) : as,— exegi monumental* aere perennms regalfque sitd — pyramid««« altids. — Od. iii. 30. (Found in Od, i. I ; iii. 30; iv. 8.) 5. ASCLEPIADEAN IL, consisting of one Glyconic (l) and one Lesser Asclepladic (5) : as, — NSvis quae tibi creditdm dibes Virgilidm, — f tnibus Attids reddas incolumem, precor, ^t serves animae — dtmididm meal. — Od. i. 3, (Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.) 6. AsCLEPiADEAN IIL, Consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one Glyconic (i): as, — Quis destderio sit pudor adt modds tam cart capitis? — 'praecipe Ifigubr^s cantlis, Melpomene, — cui liquidam patir vficem cdm cy thar& dedlt — Od. i. 24. (Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; fi. I2j iiL 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.) 1 See the Index below (pp. 420, 431). 1 372.] Metres of Horace. 419 7. ASCLEPIADEAW IV., consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (i) : as, — D fons B£ndusiae splendidior vitr6, ddlci digne mero, non sine floribds, eras donaberis haedo cm frons tdrgida cornibds. — Od. iii. 13, (Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; ii. 7; iii. 7, 13; iv. 13.) 8. AscLEPiADEAN V. {majorat consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6) : as, — tfi ne quaesierfs — scire nefts ! — quem mihi, quem tibf finem d! dedermt — Ledconoe — nee Babylonios t^ntaris numeros. — Od. i. 1 1. (Found in Od. i. ii, i8; iv. lo.) 9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 362) alternating with Tetrameter (§ 364. a). (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.) 10. Archilochian I., consisting of Dactylic Hexameter alternat- ing with Trimeter Catalectic {Dactylic Penthemim, see § 364. ^). (Od. iv. 7.) 11. Archilochian IV., consisting of a Greater Archilochian {heptametery § 368. i), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 365. d^. The stanza consists of two pairs of verses: asr— s61vitur Seris hiems gratS vice || VSris et Favoni, trahdntque siceas maehinae carinas; fie neque iam stabulis gaud^t peeus, || adt arttor tgni, nee prtta canis dlbicant prutnis. — Od. i. 4. 12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 365). (Ep. 17.) 13. Iambic Strophe (see § 365. a). (Ep. i-io.) 14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter ; as, — n6x erat, et cael6 fulgebat luna sereno inter minora sidera, cdm tu, mSgnordm numen laesfira deorum, in verba iurabfis mea. — Epod. 15. (So in Ep. 14.) 15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 365) ; as, — altera iam teritdr bellts civilibus aetas, sufs et ipsa Roma viribds ruit. — Epod. 16, 16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics : as, — miserar«»« est | nequ' amori I dare ludum | neque duld mala vm5 | laver^ aut ex|animari ( metuentes. — Od. iiL 12. 420 Prosody : Versification. [§ 372. 17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 365) ; Dactylic Penthemim (§ 364. b) ; Iambic Dimeter : as, — Pecti nihil me sicut antea iuvat scribere versiculos — amore perculsdm gravi. — Epod. ii. 18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (§364.^): as,— liorrida tempestas caeldm contraxit, et imbres nivesque deducdnt lovem : ndnc mare, ndnc siliiae. . . . — Epod. 13. 19.. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 367. b). INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE. Lib. I. I. Maecenas atavis : 4. 20. Vile potabis : 2. 2. lam satis terris : 2. 21. Dianam tenerae: 7, 3- Sic te diva : 5. 22. Integer vitae : 2. 4. Solvitur acris hiems: 11. 23. Vitas hinnuleo : 7. 5- Quis multa : 7. 24. Quis desiderio : 6. 6. Scriberis Vario : 6. 25. Parcius iunctas : 2. 7- Laudabunt alii : 9. 26. Musis amicus : i. 8. Lydia die : 3. 27. Natis in usum : i. 9. Vides ut alta : i. 28. Te maris: 9. 10. Mercuri facunde nepos : 2. 29. Icci beatis: i. II. Tu ne quaesieris : 8. 30- Venus : 2. 12. Quern virum : 2. 31. Quid dedicatum: 1. 13- Cum tu Lydia : 5. 32. Poscimur: 2. 14. navis : 7. 33. Albi ne doleas : 6. 15. Pastor cum traheret : 6. 34. Parens deorum : i. 16. matre pulcra : i. 35- diva: 1. 17. Velox amoenum : i. 36. Et thure : 5. 18. Nullam Vare : 8. 37. Nunc est bibendura ; I. 19. Mater saeva : 5. 38. Persicos odi : 2. Lib. IL 1. Motum ex Metello : i. II. Quid bell icosus : i. 2. Nullus argento : 2. 12. Nolis longa: 6. 3- Aequam memento: I. 13- I lie et nefasto : i. 4- Ne sit ancillae : 2. 14. Eheu fugaces : 1. 5- Nondum subacta: i. 15- lara pauca: 1. 6. Septimi Gades: 2. 16. Otium divos : i. 7. saepe mecum : 1. 17. Cur me querelis : i. 8. Ulla si iuris : 2. 18. Non ebur : 19. 9. Non semper imbres : i. 19. Bacchum in remotis: l. xo. Rectius vivas: 2. 20. Non usitata : i. §§ 372, 373.] /;/^4 asses. 378. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2>^ asses) was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius (usually abbreviated to IIS or HS) came to be used as the unit of value, and nummus, coin.^ often means simply sestertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. The value of these coins is seen in the following table : — 2^ asses = 1 sestertius or nummus (hs), value nearly 5 cents. 10 asses or 4 sestertii = i denarius . . • ** ** 20 ** 1000 sestertii = i sestertium *• ** ^50.00. Note. — The word sestertius is a shortened form of semis-tertius, the third one, a half. The abbreviation IIS or HS = duo et semis, 12%, two and a half 379. The SSstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of sSstertius) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria sgstertia = $150.00. When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centena tnUia^ hundreds of thousands^ is to be understood : thus deciens sestertium {deciens hs) = $50,000. In the statement of large sums sister tium is often omitted: thus sexa^ens (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, sexdgiens \centSna mllia\ sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) = $300,000 (nearly). 380. In the statement of sums of money In cipher, a line above the number indicates thousands; lines above and at the sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus hs. dc. = 600 sestertii ; HS. DC = 600,000 sSstertil^ or 600 sistertia , H.s. [dc] = 60,000,000 sestertii, 381* The Roman Measures of Length are the following : — 12 inches {unciae) = l Roman Foot {pes: 11.65 English inches). lyi Feet= I Cubit {cubitum). — 2|^ Feet= i Degree or Step {gradus). 5 Feet = I Pace {passits), — looo Paces {mille passuum) — i Mile. 428 Miscellaneous, [§§ 381-84 The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet The lugerunty or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) feet long and 120 broad ; a little less than f of an English acre, 382. The Measures of Weight are — 12 unciae (ounces) = one pound (Jibra^ about | lb. avoirdupois). Fractional parts (weight or coin) are — 1. (xV)» tincia. 5. (j'2), quincunx, 2. (^^ sextans. 6. (DfSemissis. 3. Q), quadrans, 7. (/^), septunx. 4. (^), trims. 8. (f), bessis. The Talent {talentum) was a Greek weight {raXavTov) = 60 librae. 9. (I), dodrans. 10. (I), dextans. 11. (tD* deunx. 12. SB. 383. The Measures of Capacity are — 12 cyathi = i sextarius (nearly a pint). 16 sextarii=: i modius (peck). 6 sextarii = i congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 8 congii = i amphora (6 gallons). 384. The following are some of the commonest abbreviations found In Latin inscriptions and sometimes in editions of the classic authors. A., absolvo, antiquo. A. U., anno urbis. A. U.C, ab urbe condita. C, condemnor comitialis. COS., consul {consule). coss., consules {consulibus'), D., divus. D. D., dono dedit. D. D. D., dat^ dicaif didicat, des., designatus. D. M., dn manes. eq. Rom., eques Romanus, F., filius, fastus. Ictus., iurisconsulius. Id., Idiis. imp., imperator. I. O. M., /(?z^ optimd maxitnb. K., Kal., Kalendae, N., «v vocum Dat. vakbhyams vagbhyas h^l vocibus Ace. vakams vachas 6iras voces Abl. vakbhyams (as dat.) (gen. or dat.) vocibus Loe. vaksvas vaksd (dat.) (dat.) Instr. vakbhis vagbhis (dat.) (abl.) 1 To avoid unsettled questions of Comparative Grammar, the stem-vowel is here given as a, though the vowel undoubtedly had approached o before the separation of the various Indo-European languages from the parent speech. 434 Appendix, 2. Cardinal Numbers. Indo-EdB' ? dva tri kvatvar kvankva ? 7 septm 8 aktam 9 navam lO dekm 12 dvadekm 13 tridekm 20 dvideknta 30 trideknta 100 kntom Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. [eka] [els] [unus] dva li^ duo trf TpeTs tres chatur T^TTOLpeS quattuor panchan vivTt quinque shash H sex saptan itrrd septem ashtun bKTii octo navan ivv4a novem dasan dha decern dva-dasan Un^Ka duodecim trayo-dasan rpiCKaideKa tredecim vinsati ftKoat viginti trinsati Tpuixovra triginta 9atam kKaT6v centum Familiar and Household Words. Indo-Eur. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Father, patar- pitri- •Koriip pater Mother. matar- matri- fifp np mater Father-in-law. svakura- 9va9ura- cKvpSs socer Daughter-in-law. snusha- snusha- vvSs nurus Brother, bhratar- bhratri- (ppdrrjp ^ frater Sister. svasar- (?) svasar- i&8€\ 5s, avs sus Yoke, yuga- yuga- (vySu iugum Wagon, rata- rata- [S/ta{o] rota (wheel) Middle. madhya. madhya- p.€aos medius Sweet svadu- svadu- ^Us saavis The emigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own develop- ment, until all the rest were crowded out by the dominant Latin. These dialects have left no literature, but fragments of some of them 1 Clansman. Appendix, 435 have been preserved, in inscriptions, or as cited by Roman antiqua- rians; and other fragments were probably incorporated in that pop- ular or rustic dialect which formed the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these ancient languages of Italy were the Oscan of Campania, and the Umbrian of the northern districts. To these should be added the Etruscan, which is of uncertain origin. Some of their forms, as compared with the Latin, may be seen in the following : — Latin. Oscan. Umbrian. Latin. Oscan. Umbrian accinere arkane neque nep alteri (loc. ) alttrei per perum argento aragetud portet portaia avibus aveis quadrupedibus peturpursus censor censtur quattuor petora petur censebit censazet quinque pomtis contra, F. contrud, N. qui, quis pis pis cornicem curnaco quid pid dextra destru quod pod pod dicere deicum (of venum-do) cui piei dixerit dicust quom pone, pune duodecim desenduf rectori regaturei extra ehtrad siquis svepis facito factud stet stain (stai« et) fecerit fefacust subvoco subocau fertote fertuta sum sum fratribus fratrus est i'st ibi ip sit set imperator embratur fuerit fust fust inter anter anter fuerunt fufans liceto licitud fuat fuid fuia magistro mestru tertium tertim medius mefa ubi puf mugiatur mugatu uterque puturus pid multare moltaum utrique puterei* putrespe Fragments ot early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating back to the third century before the Christian era; and some Laws are attributed to a much earlier date, — to Romulus (B.C. 750), to Numa (b.c. 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, B.C. 450) ; but in their present form no authentic dates can be assigned to them. Specimens of these are usually given in a supplement to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. De Legibus, especially ii. 8 ; iii. 3, 4.) An instructive collection of them is given in " Remnants of Early Latin," by F. D. Allen : Ginn & Co. 43^ Appendix. Latin did not exist as a literary language until about 6.C. 26S. The language was then strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the chief objects of literary study and admiration.- The most popular plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from the Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. Thus the natural growth of a genuine Roman literature was very considerably checked. Orations, rhetorical works, letters, and histories, — dealing with practical aifairs and the passions of poUtics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct from the native soil. The Latin poets of the Empire were mostly court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class ; satires and epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the familiar features of Italian life. In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part of Europe ; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philosophers during the Middle Ages, and in some countries to a much later period ; as the official language of the Church and Court of Rome, down to the present day ; as, until recently, the common language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of communication among many learned classes and societies ; and as the universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences, so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelligibly to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be regarded as a living language ; while, conven- tionally, it retains its place as the foundation of a liberal education. During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not only in its literary or urban form, but in local dialects, known by the col- lective name of lingua rustica^ far simpler in their forms of inflection than the classic Latin. These dialects, it is probable, were the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection: as, orto {/tortus), gente {gentem). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, Latin, in its ruder and more popular form, came to be the language of the common people.- Hence the modern languages called •• Romance " or •• Romanic^' ; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern Spain, the Provengal or Troubadour language of the South of France, the ** Rouman" or Wallachian of the lower Daiiube (Roumania), and the '• Roumansch" of some districts of Switzerland. Appendix, 437 A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which reference has been made in the body of this Grammar (§ 8. 2), as well as the degree in which the substance of the language has remained unchanged. Thus, in the verb to be the Romance languages have preserved from the Latin the general tense-system, together with both the stems on which the verb is built. The personal endings are somewhat abraded, but can be traced throughout. The following table shows the forms assumed by sum in five of the Romance languages. In the others, the alterations are more marked. Latin. Italian. Spanish. Portuguese. . French. PR0VEN5AL. Slim sono soy sou suis son (sui) es sei eres es es ses (est) est e es h6 est es (ez) sumus siamo somos somos sommes sem (em) estis siete sois sols 8tes etz (es) sunt sono son sao sont sont (son) eram era era era etais (\/ sta) era eras eri eras eras etals eras erat era era era etait era eramus eravamo eramos eramos etions eram eratis eravate erais 6reis etiez eratz erant erano eran erao etaient eran fui fui fui fui fus fui fuisti fosti fuiste foste fus fust fuit fu fue f8i fut fo (fon) fuimus fummo fuimos fomos fClmes fom fuistis foste fuisteis fostos fates fotz fuerunt fdrono fueron forao furent foren sim sia sea seja sois sia sis sii seas sejas sols sias sit sia sea seja soit sia simus siamo seamos sej^mos soyons siam. sitis slate seals sejais soyez siatz sint siano sean sejao soient sian fuissem fossi fuese f3sse fusse fos fuisses fossi fueses fosses fusses fosses fuisset fosse fuese fosse fftt fossa (fos) fuissemus fossimo fuesemos fossemos fussions fossem fuissetis foste fueseis fosseis fussiez fossetz fuissent fossero fuesen f8ssem fussent fossen 438 Appendix, es su se s8 sois * sias esto sia sea seja soit sia este siate sed sgde soyez siatz sunt5 siano scan s6jao soieut sian esse 6ssere ser sSr 8tre esser [sens] cssendo siendo sendo etant essent PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS. Republican Writers. T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies Q. Ennius, Annals^ Satires, etc. (Fragments) M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry^ Antiquities^ etc. M. Pacuvins, Tragedies (Fragments) . P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Comedies C. Lucilius, Satires (Fragments) L. Attius (or Accius), Tragedies (Fragments) M. Terentius Varro, Husbandry/y Antiquities, etc M. Tullius Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues C. Julius Caesar, Commentaries . T. Lucretius Carus, Foem " De Rerum Natura " C. Valerius Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems . C Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories . Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders B.C. 254-184 239-169 234-149 220-130 195-159 148-103 170-75 116-28 106-43 100-44 95-52 87-47 86-34 ? Writers of the Augustan Age. P. Vergilius Maro (Virgil), Eclogues, Georgics, ^neid Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satires, Odes, Epistles Albius Tibullus, Elegies Sextus Propertius, Elegies T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, etc. M. Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, etc. . C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History Pomponius Mela, Husbandry and Geography 70-19 65-8 54-18 51-15 59-A.D. 17 43-A.D. 18 -31 19-31 -50 Writers of Silver Age. A. Persius Flaccus, Satires L. Annaeus Seneca, Philosophical Letters, etc. ; Tragedies . M. Annaeus Lucanus (Lucan), Historical Poem " Pharsalia ' Q. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander . . . . CPlinius Secundus (Pliny), iVa/«ra/^w/<7ry, etc. . A.D. 34-62 -65 39-65 ? 23-79 Appendix, 439 C Valerius Flaccus, Heroic Poem " Argonautica " P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems " Thebais," etc. C. Silius Italicus, Heroic Poem " Punica" . D. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires L. Annaeus Florus, Historical Abridgment . M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), Epigrams M. Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian), Rhetoric . C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals^ History, etc. . C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior), Letters C. Suetonius Tranquillus, The Twelve Ccesars Appuleius, Philosophical Writings, " Metamorphoses ' A. Gellius, Miscellanies^ " Noctes Atticae " -88 61-96 25-100 40-120 -120 43-104 40-118 60-118 61-115 70- IIO- about 180 Writers of Christian Period. t Q. Septimius Florens TertuUianus (Tertullian), Apologist t M. Minucius Felix, Apologetic Dialogue . . . t Firmianus Lactantius, Theology D. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History Claudius Claudianus (Claudian), Poems, Panegyrics, etc. t Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems . t Aurelius Augustinus (St. Augustine), Confessions, Discourses, t Hieronymus (vSt. Jerome), Homilies, Dialogue:, Epistles, etc Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philosophical Dialogue Maximianus, Elegies etc, 160-240 about 250 250-325 -380 -395 -408 348-410 354-430 -420 470-520 about 500 t Christian writers. INDEX OF VERBS. In this index are given all the simple irregular verbs that the student will find in his reading. Compounds are to be looked for under simple verbs. If the simple verb is given with no mention of compounds, the compounds are conjugated like the simple verb. If to the simple verb a compound form is added (as "statuo [constituo]"), the compounds vary from the simple verb, as may be seen under the particulap compound mentioned. I£ different compounds of the same verbs present different irregularities, several specimens are appended to the simple verb (see e.g. ago). Full-face figures (thus, 91) designate the most important among several references. References are to sections, unless " p." is used, i ab-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 130. N. ab-eo, see eo. ab-nuo, 3,-nuT, -nuitum (-nutum) [-nuo], ab-oleo, 2, -evi (-ul), -itum, 131. ab-olesco, 3, -evi, — [aboleo]. abs-condo, 3, -di (-didI), -ditum [condS]. accerso, see arcesso. accidit (impers.), 145, 146. c, ac-cio, 4, reg. [-cio] . ac-colo, 3, -ui, — [coloj. ac-credo, see credo, ac-cumbo, 3, -cubul, -itum, 132. c, acuo, 3, -Ul, -utum, p. 86, 123. d. ad-eo, see eo. ad-igo, 3, -egl, -actum [ago], ad-imo, 3, -emi, -emptum [emo]. ad-ipiscor, -i, -eptus, 135. h. ad-nuo, 3, -nuT, -nutum [-nuo], ad-oleo, 2, -evi (-ui), -ultum, 131, ad-olesco, 3, -evi, -u'.tum [adoleo], ad-sentior. -in, -sensus, 135. h. ad-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargo], ad-sto, I, -stiti, — . 130. N. ad-sum, -esse, -fui, 11./ 3. N. aequo, i, reg., 166. a. 2. aestuo, I, reg., 123. d, 166. a. 3. af-fari, affatus, 144. c. af-fero, -ferre, attuli, allatum, 170. a, af-fligo, 3, -xi, -ctum [-fligo], ag-giedior, -i, -gressus, 135. h. agito, I, reg., 167. b. N. agnosco, 3, -ovi, agnitum, 132, c, ago, 3, egi, actum, 9. c, 124. rf, 132. «, 169. b^ 17a a. N. (agier, 128. t. 4). [For regular comps., see ad-igo ; for others, see cogo, circum-, per-, sat-ago.] aio, 18./ N. 144. a. albeo, 2, -Ul, — , 166. b. albo, I, reg., 166. a. 2, b. alesco, 3, -ui, — , 167. a. algeo, 2, alsi, — , 131, 166. b. al-Iego, 3, -egi, -ectum [lego], al-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-lici5]. alo, 3, alui, altum (alituni), 123. b, 132. c. ambio, -Ire, -ii (-ivi), -itum (amblbat), 141. c, 170. b. amicio, 4, amixi (-cui), amictum, 133. amo, pp. 92, 95 ; §^ 122. r, 125. a, 126, fl, e-g, x^rj (synopsis), p. 120, p. 121 (amat, 9. e, 375. g. 5 ; amarat, 10. b ; amans, 113. . N finio, 4, -ivl, -Ttum, p. 90, foot-n. i, 166 d. fio, fieri, factus, 142 (see facio), p. 119 (fit, impers., 146. c). flecto, 3, flexi, flexum, 132. a. fleo, 2, -evi, -etum, p. 86, 123. / 126. b, 131 (fietis, 128. a.\). -fligo, only in comp., see af-fllgo. flo, -are, -avi, -atum, 126. a. floreo, 2, -ui, — , 131. N. flu5, 3, fluxi, fluxum, 132. a, 166. c. N. fodio, 3, fodi, fbssum, 132. e. [for] fan. fatus, 126. a, 144. c, 158. i. b (praefatur, affarl, profatus, interfatur, etc., 144. c). fore, forem, etc. (see sum), 119. b. N.; fore, 147. c. 2. foveo, 2, fovl, fotum, 131. frango [frag], 3, fregi, fractum [per- fringo], 132.^. fremd, 3, fremui, fremitum, 132. c. frendo, 3, fresi, fressum, 132. a. frico, I, -ui, frictum (fricatum), 130. frlgeo, 2, frixi, — , 131. frigo, 3, frixi, firictum (frixum), 132. a. fritinnio, 4, — , — , 133. fruor, -T, friictus (fruitus) , 135. b. fuam, -as, etc. (see sum), 119. b, fugio, 3, filgi, fugitum, 23. 2, 123. b. 2, 124. d, 132. e, fugo, I, reg., 166. a. i. fulcio, 4, fulsi, fultum, 133. fulgeo, 2, -si, — , 131. 9. cf, 134, fulgo, 3, — , — , 132./. N., 134. fulgurat (impers.), 146. a. fundo [fud], 3, fudi, fusum, 132. e, fungor, -i, filnctus, 135. h. fiiro, 3, furui, — , 132. c. fiivimus, fiivisset (see sum), 119. b, gannio, 4, — , —, 133. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, 131, 136. gemo, 3, gemui, gemitum, 132. c. gero, 3, gessl, gestum, 132. a, p. 120. gestio, 4, -ivi, — , 133, 166. d. gTgno [gen] , 3, genm, genitum, 9. rf, I23.£i 2, 132. o. gllsco, 3, — , — , 135./ N. glocio, 4, -ivi, — , 133. glubo, 3, — , — , 132./ N. glutio, 4, reg., 133. gradior, -i, gressus [ag-gredior] , 135. A. grandinat (impers.), 146. a. -gru5, 3, see con-, in-gruo. habeo, 2, -ui, -itum [in-hibeo; debeo; dir-ibeo] . haereo, 2, haesi, haesum, 131. liaurio, 3, hausi, haustum (haus-), X33. have, see ave. hiberno, 1, reg., 166. a. 2. hiemo, i, reg., 166. a. 3. hinni5, 4, — , — , 133. hirrio, 4. — , — , 133. hisco, 3, — , — [de-hisco], X32./ N. horreo, 2, horrui, — , 131. N. 444 Index of Verbs. ICO, 3, Ici, ictum, 132, f, Ignosco, 3, -novi, -notum [nosco] . il-IIdo, 3, -lisi, -lisum [laedo]. imbuo, 3, -ui, -utum (cf. acuo). im-mineo, -ere, — , — [-mineo]. impero, i, reg., 11. / 2. im-pello, 3, -pull, -pulsum [pello] . im-petro, i, reg. (-assere, 128. e, 5). im-pingo, 3, -peg!, -pactum [pango]. am-plico, i, -avi (-ul), -atum (-itum), 130. N. dn-cendo, 3, -dl, -sum, 132. yi qncesso, 3, incessivl, — , 132. d. nn-cid5, 3, -cidi, -casum [cado] . incipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum, 10. d, 143. a. in-colo, 3, -colui, — [coIo] . in-cudo, 3, -cudT, -cusum [cudo]. Hi-cuTro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum [curro] . indulged, 2, indulsi, indultum, 131. 4nduo, 3, -uT, -utum, iii. a, 166. c. iineptio, 4, -IvT, — , 133. In-fero, -ferre, -tuli, illatum, 170. a ; pro- nunciation, 18. d. 'in-fit, see fio. ■in-gruo, 3, -ui, — [-gruo]. •in-hibeS, 2, -ui, -itum, 131 [habeo]. inquam, 144. b. insaniS, 4, reg., 166. d. intellego, 3, -lexT, -lectum, p. 103, foot-n. inter-do, -dSre, -dedl, -datum, 130. N. interest, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 146. c. inter-fatur, 144. c [f for] . inter-rumpo, 3, -rupl, -ruptum, 170. a. inter-sto, i, -steti, — , 130. N. in-tueor, -eri, -tuitus [tueor]. in-vado, see vado. irascor, -i, iratus, 135. h, i&j, a, iaceo, 2, -ui, -iturus, 131. iacio, 3, ieci, iactum, 132. e, 170. a. N. [con-icio, etc.; dis-icio. porricio], lubeo, 2, iiissi, iussum, 131 (iusso, 128. ^.3) . iudico, I, reg, (-assit, 128. e. 5). iungo, 3, iiinxi, iunctum. iuvenescor, 3, -venui, — , 167. a. iuvo (ad-), l^ iiivi, iutum (-aturus), 130. labasco, 3, — , — , 167. a. Iab5, 1, -avi, — , 130. labor, -i, lapsus, 135. k„ lacesso, 3, lacessivi, lacessituni; 132. d, 167. c. laedo, 3, laesi, laesum [il-lIdo] , 132. a. lambo, 3, Iambi, lambitum, 132./ langueo, 2, langul, — , 131. lavo, -ere, lavl, lotum (lautum) (also reg. of ist conj.), 132. <», 134. lego, I, 3, legl, lectum [colligo, 10. d; see also deligo, dlligo, intellego, neglego], 132. g, g. a. levo, I, -avi, -atum (-asso, 128. e. 5), libet (lubet, 10. a), -ere, -uit, 146. c. (libi. tum est, id. N. ; libens, id.), licet, -ere, -iturum, 145, 146. c. (licitum est, 146. c. N. ; licens, id.). -licio,3 [only in comp.,see al-licio, e-licio, pel-licio] , 132. a. lingo, 3, linxl, linctum, 132. a. lino [LI], 3, levi (livl), litum, 132. tf. linquo [lic], 3, llqui, -lictum, 132. e. liqueo, 2, ITqui (licui), — , 131. liquor, -1, — , 135. /. loquor, -i, lociitus (loquutus), 135. h, 166. c. N. liiceo, 2, liixi,-luctum, 131 (lucet, impers., 146. a). ludo, 3, lusi, liisum, 132. a. liigeo, 2, liixi, luctum, 131. luo, 3, lui, luitum [de-luo], 132.^ maereo, 2, — , — , 144. mando, 3, mandi, mansum, 132. y^ maneo, 2, mansi, mansum, [per-maneo], II. a. 2, 121. N. 2, 122. d, 131. medeor, -erI, — , 135, i. memini (-to, -tote, -ens) , 143. c. mere5 or mereor, merere or -rl, meritus, 135- ^' mergo, 3, mersi, mersum, 132. a. metior, -iri, mensum, 135. k. meto, 3, rnessui, messum, 132. c. metuo, 3, -ui, -Ctum, 166. c. mico, I, micui, — , 130. -mineo, 2, -ui, — [e-, im-, pro-mineo]. -miniscor, -i, -mentus, 135. A [com-, re-]. minuo, 3, -ui, -Gtum (cf. acuo). miror, mirari, miratus, 135. misceo, 2, -cui, mixtum (mistum), ii. d, 131. misereor, -eri, miseritus (raisertus), 146. b. N. miseret, 146. ^. mltesco, 3, — , — , 167. a, mittc, 3, misi, missum, 123. b, i, 132. a. roolior. -iri. -itus. 166. d. Index of Verbs. 445 mol3, 3, molul, molitum, 132. c. moneo, 2, -ui, -itum, 122. c, pp. 96-97, \\ 123. a, 124. a, 125. b, ie6. b. i, 2, ^, 166. b, p. 120. mordeo, 2, momordi, morsum, 121. N. 2, 131. morior, -i (-in), mortuus, (moriturus), 135- h, moveo, 2, movi, motum, 131 (commorat, 128. a. i). mugio^4, reg., 133. mulceo, 2, mulsi, mulsum, 131. mulgeo, 2, -SI (-xT), mulsum (mulctum), 131. multi-plico, 1, reg., 130. N. mutti5, 4, -ivi, — , 133. nanciscor, -1, nactus (nanctus), 135. h. nascor, -1, natus, 135. h. necesse est (impers.), 146. c. neco, I, -ul, nectum, [e-neco], 130. necto [NEC], 3, nexi (nexui), nexum, 132. a. neglego, 3, neglejd, -lectum, p. 103, foot- n. I. neo, 2, -evi, -etum, 126. b, 131. nequeo, -ire, nequitus, 144. g (nequitur, etc., id. N). ningit (impers.), ninxit, 146. <7. nltor, -I, tiisus (nixus) [co-nltor], 135. h. niveo, 2, nivi (nixi), 131, no, 1, navi, — , 126. a, p. 157. foot-n. nosc5 [gno], 3, novi, notum [ag-, co-, dl-, Ig-nosco] 132. «, 143. c. N. (nosse, 128. a. i). nubo, 3, nupsi, nuptum, 132. a. nuncio, late form of nSntio, 12. a. nuntio, i, reg., 12. a. -nuo, 3, -nul, -nuitum [ab-,ad-nuo] , 132./ ob-llviscor, -!, oblitus, 135. h. obs-olesco, 3, -evi, -etus (adj.) [-oleo] . obtingit (impers.), 146. c. ob-tineo, 2, -ul, -tentum [teneo]. ob-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tiasum (tunsum) [tundo]. ob-venio, 4, -veni, -ventum, 170. a. ob-venit (impers.), 146. c, oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -casum [cad5], 11./. 3. 00-cIdo, 3, -cidi, -caesum [caedo] . occulo, occului, occultum, 132. c. oo-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum, 11./ 3. 5di, 5disse, Csiirus (perosus), 143. b, iT. N. of-fero, -ferre, obtull, oblatum, 170. a. -oleo {grow) [see ab-, ad-], 131. oleo {smell) ^ 2, olui, — , 131. operio, 4, operui, opertum, 133. oportet, -ere, -uit (impers.) , 146. c. op-pango, 3, -pegl, -pactum [pango]. opperior, -Iri, oppertus, 135. h. ordior, -iri, orsus, 135. /i, 166. d. N. orior (3d), -iri, ortus, (oritiirus) (so comps.), 135. /t, p. 86. ovare, ovatus, 144, tf. paciscor, -i, pactus, 135. k, paenitet (impers,), -ere, -uit, 146. b (-tiirus, -tendus, 146. b. N.) . pando, 3, pandi, pansum (passum, 11. a. 2),[dis-], 132./. pango [fag], 3, peg! (pepigi), pactum, [im-pingo; op-pango], 132. 6, 23. 2. parco, 3, peperci (parsi), parsum, 132. b (parcitur, impers., 146. d). pared, 2, -ui, pariturus, 131. pario, 3, peperi, partum (paritiirus), [com-, re-perio] , 132. b, partis, 4, reg., but see next word, partior, partiri, partitus, 135. parturiS, 4, -ivi, — . 167. e. pasco, 3, pavi, pastum, 132. c, pateo, 2, patui, — , 131, N. patior, -i, passus [per-petior] 11. a. 2, 135. n. paveo, 2, pavi, — , 131. pecto, 3, pexi (pexui), pexum, 132. a. pel-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio] . pello, 3, pepuli, pulsum [im-pello, re- pello], 10. a, p. 86, 123. b. I, 132. 6. pendeo, 2, pependi, pensum, 131. pendo, 3, pependi, pensum, 132. b* per-ago, 3, -egi, -actum, 170. a. N. per-cello, 3, -culi, -culsum, 132. c. per-ci5, see -cio. per-fringo, 3, -fregi, -fractum [pango]. pergo, 3, (11. b)y perrexi, perrectum, 132. a, per-lego, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego] , per-maneo, 2, -mansi, -mansum [maneo], per-osus [odi], 143.^. per-petior, -i, -pessus, 135. h. per-terreo, 2, -ui, -itum, 170. c. N. pessum-do, -dSre, -dedi, -d^tum, 130, N. petisso, 3. — , — , 167. c. 446 Index of Verbs. peto, 3, petivl, petltum, 122. d, 124./ 125. b. N. 2, 132. d. piget (impers.), -ere, piguit, 146. b (pigi- tum est, id. N). ping5 [pig], 3, pinxi, plctum, 132. a, p. 121, pinso, 3, -si, pins- (pinstum, pistum), 132./I pio, I, rag., 166. a. 2. placeo, 2, -ul, -itum (placet, impers., 146. cY plango, 3, planjd, planctum, 132. a. plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-plodo, etc. ; ap-plaudo] , 132. a. plecto, 3, plexi (-xui), plexum, 123,^. i, 132. a, p. 86. -plector, -i, -plexus, 135. h, -pleo, 2, -plevi, -pletum (only in comps., as com-pleo), 131. plico, I, -plicui, -plicitum, 130. N. [com- pounds], 130. pluit, 3, pluit (pluvit), p. 86, 146. a (plu- unt, id. N.). pono [POS], 3, posui, pbsitum, 132. c. porr-icio, 3, no perf., -rectum [iacio], 170. b. posco, 3, poposci (posciturus), 132. h (so comps.), posside5, 2, sedi, sessum [sedeo] . possum, posse, potul. — , 137. pot-ens, 119. a (see sum), potior, -Iri, potitus. p5to, 1, -avi, potum, 130. praebeo [11. b. i], 2, -ul, -itum. prae-cello, 3, no perf., no sup. [-cello], prae-fatur, 144. c. prae-lig5, 3, legi, lectum pego]. prae-sens, 119. a (see sum), praestat (impers.) , 146. c, prae-sum, -esse, -fui, 137, 347. b. prandeo, 2, prandl, pransum, 131. prehendo (prendo), 3, -dl, prehensum, 132./ premo, 3, pressf, ii._/C 1, press- [re-primo] , 132. a. prendo, see prehendo. prod-eo, 4, -il, -itum, 144. d, pro-fatus, 144. c. pro-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum. pro-ficiscor, -I, profectus, 132. Ti, 1&7, a. N. pro-fiteor, -eri, -fessus. pro-mineo, -ere, — , — [-mineo]. promo, 3, -mpsi, -mptum, 132. a. pro-sum, prod-esse, pro-fiii, 137. pro-video, 2, -vTdl, -visum, 166. c, piibesco, 3, piibui, 166. b, N. pudet (impers.), pudere, 146. b (pudenduj^ id. N.), puduit or puditum est. piigno, I, reg. pugnatur (impers.), -ari, -atum, 145, 146. d. pungo [PUG],3,pupugi,punctum [com-], 132. b, p. 120. piinio, 4, -Ivi, -Itum, 166. a. i. N. quaero, 3, quaeslvl, quaesltum [re-quiro] , 132. d (cf. quaeso). quaeso, -ere, 144. d (cf. quaero). quasso, i, reg., 167. b. quatio, 3, — , quassum [con-cutio], 132.3. queo, quire, quivl, quitus, 144. ^, (quitur, etc., nequeo, id. N.). queror, -i, questus, 135. h. quiesco, 3, quievi, quietum, 132. c. rabo, 3, — , — , 132. f. N. rado, 3, rasi, rasum, 132. a. rapio, 3, rapul, raptum, 132. c (erepse- mus, 128. b) [cor-ripio]. raucio, 4, rausi, rausum, 133. re-cipio, 3, -cepi, ceptum [capio] (re- cepso, 128. e. 3). re-cludo, 3, -si, -sum, 170. ^. red-do, 3, reddidi, redditum [do] . re-fercio, 4, -fersi, -fertum [farcio] . re-fero, -ferre, rettuli (retuli), re-latum [fero]. re-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 146. c. re-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum, 170. b, rego, 3, rexl, 24. N., rectum [ar-rigo, etc. ; pergo, surgo], 132. a, p. 120. re-linquo, 3, liqui, -Iictum [linqu5]. reminiscor, -i, — , 135. i. reor, reri, ratus, 126. b, 135. h, 166. b. N, re-pello, 3, reppull, repulsum [pello]. reperio, 4, repperi, repertum, 133. re-plico, i, reg., 130. N. repo, 132. a, repsi, reptum, 132. a. re-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo] . re-quIro, 3, -sivl, -situm [quaer5] . re-sipisco, 3, -siplvi (-sipuT), — [sapio]. re-spondeo, 2, -di, -sum [spondeo] . restat (impers.), 146. c, restd, I, -stiti, — , 130. N. reverter, -i, reversus, 135. h (8. N,), tided, a, nsi, risum, 131, p. 12a rodd, 3, rosi, rosum, 132. a. Index of Verbs. 447 rudo, 3, rudivl, ruditum, 132. d. rumpo [rup] , 3, rupl, ruptum, 132. e. ruo, 3, rul, rutum (ruitum) [di-, cor-], 123./ 132./ saepio, 4, saepsi, saeptum, 133. salio, 4, salui (salil), saltum [de-silio], 133- salve, salvere, 144. yC sancio [SAC] , 4, sanxl, sanctum, 124. b. N., 133. sapio, 3, sapivl (sapui), — , 132. d. sarcio, 4, sarsi, sartum, 133. sario, see sarrio. I sarpo, 3, sarpsi, sarptum, 132. a. f sarrio, 4, -ivl (-ul), -Itum, 133. sat-ago, 3, like ago. satis-do, -dare, -dedl, -dStum, 130. N. scab5, 3, scabi, — , 133. e, scalpo, 3, scalps!, scalptum, 132. a. scateo, -ere or -ere, — , — , 134. scaturio, 4, — , — , 133. scando, 3, scandi, scansum [de-scendo] , 132./. scin' (=scisne), 13. c, see scio. scindo [scid], 3, scidi, sclssum, 124. c. N., 132./. scio, 4, -ivl, scltum ; scIn, 13.^ (sclto, -tote, 128. d). sclsco, 3, sclvl, scitum, 132. c, 167. a. scnbo, 3, scrlpsi, scriptum, w.f. 2, 132. a. sculpo, 3, sculpsi, sculptum, 132. a. secerno, 3, -crevl, -cretum, 170. b. seco, I, -Ul, sectum (also secaturus), 130. sedeo, 2, sedi, sessum [dis-, pos-sideo, etc.; super-sedeo] , 131. sens, 119. a (in praesens, absens). sentio, 4, sensi, sensum, 132. sepelio, 4, sepelm, sepultum, 133. sequor, -i, secutus (sequiitus), 135. h. sero, 3, serul, sertum, entwtne, 132. c. sero, 3, sevi, satum, sow, 126. c, 132. c. 1^ serpo, 3, serpsi, serptum, 132. a. I servio, 4, -Ivi, -itum, 166. a. i. N. servo, I, -avi, -atum, 166. a. i. N. sldo, 3, sidl (sedl), -sessum, 132./ 6. siem, sies, siet, sient, 119. b (see sum J. sileo, 2, -Ul, — , 131, N. singultio, 4, -Tvi, singultum, 133. sino, 3, sM, situm, 121. N. i, 132. o (siris, etc., 128. a. 2). sisto [sta], 3, stiti, statum, 132. 6, p. 14, foot-n. I, 158. I. b. sitio, 4, -ivi, — , 166. d. sodes (=si audes), 13. c. soleo, solere, solitus, 131, 136. solvo, 3, solvi, solutum, 132. / 124. e, 166. c. N. sono, I, -ui,-itum (fut. part, also -aturus), 130, 124. a. sopio, 4, -ivl, -Itum, 123. a. sorbeo, 2,sorbuI (rarely sorpsi),sorptum (so also comps.), 131, i66.f. N. spargo, 3, sparsi, sparsum [ad-spergo], 132. a. sperno, 3, sprevi, spretum, 9. d, 124. a. N. 132. c. -spicio, 3, -spexT, -spectum, 132. a, p. 86, p. jj. foot-n. spondeo, 2, spopondi, sponsum [re-] , 131. 'st, for est (in homost, etc.), 13. b. stabilio, 4, reg., 166. d. statuo, 3, -ul, -utum [con-stituo] , 123. d, 166. c. sterno, 3, stravi, stratum, 9. d, 132. c, p. 86, 124. a, N. sterto, 3, stertui (sterti) , — , 132. c. stimulo, I, reg., 166. a. 2. -stinguo, 3, -stinxl, -stinctum [only in comp., as ex-] , 132. a. sto, stare, stetl, statum (-stit-), 130, p. 14, foot-n. I, 118. N., 126. a, cf. constat., p. 120, p. 157. foot-n. [compounds, 130. N.] . strepo, 3, strepul, strepitum, 132. c. strideo, 2, strldl, — , 131. strido, 3, strldl, — , 132, yC stringo, 3, strinxi, strictum, 132. a. struo, 3, striixl, striictum, 132. a. studeo, 2, -Ul, — , 131. N. suadeo, 2, suasi, suasum, 131. sub-rldeo, 2, risl, risum, 170. c. N. sub-struo, 3, -striixl, -striictum, 170. a. -suesco, 3, -suevi, -suetum, 132. c, suf-fero, cf. tollo. siigo, 3, siixi, siictum (siigebo, p. 120). siiltis (= si vultis), 13. c (see volo). sum, esse, 123. e\ fui, 119, 120. N., 128. e. 2, p. 119, p. 120, p. 121, 158. I. a (siem, 119. b\ fore, 147. c. 2; escit, escunt, 119. b\ forem, 119. b. N.; fuam, 119. b; fuvimus, fuvisset, 119. b\ ens, fsens, 119. a; homost, etc., 13. b). sumo, 3, siimpsi, siimptum, 11. c, 132. a. suo, 3, sui, siitum, see acuo. super-do, -dSre, -dedi, -datum, 135. N. 448 Index of Verbs. super-fluo, 3, — , — [fluo] . super-sedeo, like sede5. super-sto, i, -stetl, — , 130. N. super-sum, see sum (superest, impers., 146. <;). sup-plico, I, reg., 130, N. siirgo, 3, surrexi, surrectum, 132. a, 10. b. tabeo, 2, -uT, — , 166. b. N. taceo, 2, -ui, -itum, 131. taedet (impers.), -ere, taeduit, pertaesum est, 146. b. tango [TAG],3,tetigT, tactum [con-tingo], 123, c. 3, 132. h. tego, 3, texl, tectum ; 122. c, 123. b, 124. b, 136. c^ e, 132, a, pp. 98-99. temno, 3, tempsi, temptum, 123. b. i, 132. a. tendo [ten] , 3, tetendi (-tendl), 132. 6 ; tensum (tentum), 125. b. N. 1. teneo (-tineo) , 2, tenui, tentum [ob-tineo] , 131. tergeo, 2, tersT, tersum, 131. tergo, 2, tersT, tersum, 132. ft. tero, 3, trivi, tritum, 132. d (con-, 11. texo, 3, texui, textum, 132. c. timeo, 2, -ui, — , 131. N. lingo (tinguo), 3, tinxi, tinctum, 125. b. N. I, 132. a. linnio, 4, reg., 133. tollo, 3, sustull, sublatum [at-toUo] , 132. /N. tondeo, 2, totondi, tonsum, 131. tono, I, -ui, -itum, 124. c, 130. torqueo, 2, torsi, tortum, 131, torreo, 2, torruT, tostum, 131. traho, 3, traxi, tractum, 132. a (traxe, 128. b). tremo, 3, tremui, — , 132 c. tribuo, 3, tribul, tributum, cf. acuo. trudS, 3, triisi, trusum, 132. a. tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus) , 135. h [in-tueor] . tumeo, 2, — , — , 166. b. tundo [tud] , 3, tutudi, tunsum (-tusum) [ob-tundo], 132. ^, turgeo, 2, tiirsi, — , 131. tussio, 4, — , — , 133. ulciscor, -I, ultus, 135. h. ungo (-uo), 3, iinxi, iinctum. urgeo, 2, ursi, — , 131, iiro, 3, ussi, ilstum (so comps,, cf. also combiiro), 132. a. iltor, -i, usus, 135. h. vacat (impers.), 146. c. vado, 3, vasi, -vasum [e-], 132. a, 144. vagio, 4, -ivi, — , 133. veho, 3, vexi, vectum, 132. a, p. 87. foot-n. vello, 3, vein (vulsi), vulsum, 132./ ven-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 258. b. R. veneo, 4, -IvT, -Ttum {be sold), 258. b, R. venio, 4, venl, ventum {come), 133, p. 86. venum-do, -dSre, -dedi, -datum, 130. N. vereor, vereri, veritus, 135. vergo, 3, — , — , 132, /. N. verro, 3, verri, versum, 132. _/I verto (vorto, 10. d), 3, verti, versum, 132. /; mid., iii. a, 124. e. vescor, -i, — , 135. i. vcsperascit (impers.), 146. a, 167. a. veto, I, -ul, -itum, 130. video, 2, vidi, visum, 131. videor, -eri, visus {seem) (videtur, impers^ 146. c) . vieo, 2, — , -etum, 131. vigilo, I, reg., 166. a. 3. vin (= visne, see volo), 13. c. vincio, 4, vinxT, vinctum, 122. d, 133. vinco [vie] , 3, vici, victum, 132, e. viso [vid], 3, visl, visum, 132./, 167. e.-a. vivo, 3, vixl, victum, 132. a (vixet, 123. b). voco, I, -avi, -atum, see p. 87. foot-n., p 157. foot-n. (vocarier, 128. e. 4). volo, velle, volui, 123. e, 128. e. 2 (vult, 123. e', sGltis, 13. c\ vIn, 13. c). volvo, 3, volvi, volutum, 132. /C vomo, 3, vomui, vomitum, 132. c^ voveo, 2, vovi, votum, 131. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. Note. — The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which th« page (p.) is referred to. The letters refer to subsections. The letter n. signifies Note; r.. Remark. Abl. == ablative; ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; apod. = apodosis; app. = appositive; comp. = comparison or compoimd; compar. = comparative; constr. = construction; conj. = conjugation or conjunction; dat. = dative; gen. = genitive; gend. = gender; ind. disc. = indirect discourse; loc. = locative; prep. = preposition; subj. =5 subject or subjunctive; vb. = verb; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.) A, quantity in increment, 350, 351 ; quan- tity of a final, 348. 4. & or O, Indo-Eur. vowel, p. 142. foot-n.; primary suffix, 160. c. I. a, characteristic of decl. I., 32; ace. of Gr. nouns in, 63./; as nom. ending, decl. III., gend., 65. c, 67. d. a, in decl. I., 32; stem-vowel of conj. I., 122, 123, 126. a, 166. a; in subjunctive, 126. d-d; preps, in -3., adv. use of, 261. d. a (ab, abs), use, 152. d, 153, 260. 6, 263 ; compounded with vbs., 170. a; with abl. of agent, 246; with place from which, 258 ; with names of towns, id. a. N. I ; expressing position, 260. ^; in comp., with dat., 229; with abl., 243. d ; with abl. of gerund, 301. Ability, verbs of, constr., 271 ; in apod., 308. £. Abbreviations of praenomens, 80. d; other abbreviations, p. 428. Ablative, Etymology ; meaning, 31. f\ in -abus, 36. e\ in -d, 36./ 40.^, 62. a, 'jo.h', of i-stems, decl. III., 55. e\ rules of form, 57 ; nouns having abl. in -i, 57. a,b\ of decl. IV., in -ubus, 70. d\ abl. used as supine, 71. a\ of adjs., decl. III., 87. a, 3; prepositions followed by, 152. b\ adverbial forms cf, 148. e, cf. N. /3. Ablative, Syntax {\\ 242-255) ; mean- ing and classification, 242 and N. ; Separation, 243; w. vbs. of freedom, etc., id. a ; w. comp., id. b ; w. adjs. of freedom, etc., id. c\ w. opus and Qsus, id. e. Source and material, 244; w. participles, id. a\ w. c5n. stare, etc., id. c\ w. facere, id. d\ w. nouns, id. e. Cause, 245 ; w. dig- nus, etc., id. a ; causa, gratia, id. c^ Agent, 246. Comparison, 247 ; opinio 5ne, spe, etc., id. b\ w. alius, id. d\ w. advs., id. e. Manner, 248 ; accom- paniment, id. a\ means, id. c\ w. donS, etc., 225. d\ w. ator, fruor,. etc., 249. Degree of difference, 250; qu6 . . . e5, 106. c, 250. R. Quality. 251 ; price, 252 ; charge or penalty, 220. b. Specification, 253. Place, 254 ; w. verbs and fretus, id. b. Ablative absolute, 255 ; adverbial use, id. <:; re- placing subord. clauses, id. d\ supply- ing place of perf. act. part., 290. d. Abl, of time, 256; of time w. quara, 262, N. 2; of place from which, 258; names of towns, domus, rus, id. a; edc urbe Roma, id. b. N. 3; Locative abl., id. e,f\ way by which, id.^; with transitive compounds, 239. b, N. i; time within which, 259. c\ distance of time, id. d. Abl. with prepositions, 152. b, c, 260-63 ; ^^it''^ ®^ for part, gen., 216. c\ with pro {in defence of), 236. R. ; with palam, etc., 261. b ; abl. of gerund, 301 ; equiv. to pres. part., id. foot-n. (See N., p. 245.) Abounding, ^ords of, w. abl., 248. c ; w. gen., 223. Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 243. a. 450 Index of Words and Subjects, Absolute use of vb., 175. b, N. 2, 237. N. ; absolute case, see abl. absolute. Abstract nouns, gend., 29. 2; in pi., 75. c\ endings, 163. ^, e^J\ w. neut, adj., 187. tf, 189. fl, b\ abstract quality de- noted by neut. adj., 189. a, absum, constr., 231. a. -abus, in dat. and abl. pi,, decl. I., 36. e. ac, see atque ; Be si, see acsL Acatalectic verse, 359, a. accSdit ut, 332. Accent, rules of, 19 ; marks of, id. d. N. ; in decl. II., 40. b\ in comps. of facio, 142. b ; musical, 358. acceptum, 292. N. 2. Accidents, p. 163, foot-n. 2. accidit, synopsis, 145 ; constr., 332. a. accingo, constr., 225. d, accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. foot-n. Accompaniment, abl. of, 248. a\ orig. separate case,- p. 245. Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjunc, 332. Accusative, Etymology, 31. d\ in -m and -S, 33. c\ origin of -m, p. 205; in -im, decl. III., 56. a, b\ in -is (pi.), 58 ; in >-a, 63./; ace. of decl. IV., used as supine, 71. a ; neut. ace. used as adv., 148. d, cf. N. a; fern, used as adv., id. e. Accusative, Syntax, 237-40 (see notes pp. 205, 235); w. verbs of remembering, 219 and a, b ; and gen. w. vbs. of remind- ing, id. c ; w. impersonals, 221. b, 237. e ; w. dat., 225 ; w. compounds of ad, ante, ob, 228. a ; verbs varying between ace. of end of motion and dat., 225. b ; w. ad, for dat., 234. b; after propior, etc., id. e', direct object, 177, 237; w. iuvo, etc., 227. a ; ace. or dat. w. vbs., 227. b, c ; ace. w. verbs of feeling and taste, 237. b, c ; with comps. of* cir- cum and trans, id. d', cognate ace, 238; two accusatives, 239; ace. w. pass, of verbs of asking, etc., 239. R. ; adverbial use of, 240. a, b ; synecdoch- ical ace, id. c, in exclamations, id. d\ duration and extent, id. e, 256, 257; end of motion, 258 ; names of towns, domus, rtis, id. b\ Romam ad urbem, id. N. 3 ; ace. w. ante diem, 259. e ; subject of inf., 173. 2, 240.^^ 272, 330 ; w. prepositions, 152. a. c\ w. ad or in to denote penalty, 220. b. 3 ; w. ad w. rSfert, etc., 223. h\ w. prIdiS, proplus, etc., 261. a; ace of gerund, 300; of anticipation, 334. c\ subject in indirect discourse, 336. and a. Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr^ sao. Beer, decl., 84. a\ comp., 89. a. -Bceus, adj., ending. 164.^. acies, decl., 74. d, acquiescO, with abl., 254. b, Bcsi, with subjunc., 31a. Actions, names of, 193 ; nouns of, w. gen., SI7. Active voice, 108. a, iii ; change to pass., 177. a. Acts, nouns denoting, 163. c, acus, gender, 69. a, -acus (-Bcus), adj. ending, 164. c. ad, use, 152. a, 153; in comp., 17a a\ w. ace. to denote penalty, 220. c\ in comp., w. dat., 228, 229 ; in comp., w. ace, 228. a; w. ace w. adjs., 234. b\ end of motion, 258, cf. Z2S.b; w. names of towns, 258. b. N. 2; w. names of countries, 258. N. 2; meaning near, 259. /; in expressions of time, id, b ; following its noun, 263. N. ; w. gerund, 300. adamas, decl., 63. e. additur, constr., 332. aded (verb), constr., 228. a, ade5 ut, 319. R. -ades, patronymic ending, 164, b, adimO, constr., 229. Adjective phrase, 179. Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. Adjectives, Etymology, Definition, 25. b', formed like nouns, p. 47; stems, id. foot-n. 1. Declension, 81-87; decl, I. and II., 81-83; decl. Ill,, 84-87; decl. III., three terminations, 84. a; one termination, 85. Comparison, 89-91; decl. of comparative, 86. a ; advs. de- rived from adjs., 148 ; numeral adjs., 94, 95 ; derivative adjs., 164. Adjectives, Syntax and use. As advs., 88. d (cf. 92) , 148. d, e, 191 ; as nouns 88. a, 188, 189, 218. d\ masc. adjs., I b\ adjs. of com. gend., 88, b\ notms used as adjs., 88. £, x88. d\ advs, used as adjs., 188, e\ participles used as adjs., 291. Agreement of adjs., 186, 187 ; attribute and predicate, 187. a, b\ Index of Words and Subjects, 451 use of neut. adjs., 189 ; two compara- tives with quam, 192. Adjs. w. ad- verbial lorce, 191 ; adj. pronouns, 195- 203. Gen. of adjs. of decl. III. instead of nom., £14. d. R. Adjs w. part, gen., 218; w. dat., 234; w. ace, 237 /, w. inf., 273. d\ w. supine in •(!, 303. Po- sition of adjs., 344. a b. Adjective phrase, 179. adiuvo, w. ace, 227. a, admodum, use, 93. d. admoneo, constr., 219. c. Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 330. 2,331, Adonic verse, 371. 3. adspergS, constr., 225. d. adttlor, constr., 227. b. Adverbial ace, 240. rt, b, cf. 238. a. N. Adverbial conjunctions, 25. h. N. Adverbial phrases, 148. N. 0, 179. Adverbs, defined, 25. /; formed from adjs,, 88. d and N., 92, 148 ; case-forms or phrases, p. 123. N. ; comparison of advs., 92; numeral advs., 96; correla- tive advs. used as conjs., 107, 208. d. Classification of advs., 149 ; correlative forms of advs. of place, 149. foot-n. Advs. used as adjs., 188. e; adjs. w. adverbial force, 191 ; adverbial ace, 240. a; adverbial abl. abs., 255. c. Special uses, 150, 151. Syntax, 207; adv. w. nouns, 207. d ; part. gen. w. advs., 216. a. 4; dat. w. advs., 234, a ; comp. of adv. followed by quam, 247. e ; adv. as protasis, 310. a. Adversative conjunctions, 154. a. 2, 155. b. ad versus, 152. foot-n.; w. ace, id. a; as adv., 2.61. d, ae, diphthong, i ; sound of, 16. N. 3, 12. c. aedes, sing, and pi., 78. c. aeger, decl., 82. c. aemulor, constr., 227. b. Aeneades, decl., 37. Aeneas, decl., 37. aequalis, decl., 57. a; constr. w. gen., 218. d. aeque ac, 234. a. n. 2. aequo (abl.), w. comp., 247. b. aequor, decl., 49. aer, decl., 63. /; use of pi., 75. b. aes, decl., 67, b ; use of pi., 75. b. aetas, decl., 54, aether, decl., 63. / Affecting, ace of, p. 235, af finis, decl., 57. b\ constr. w. gen., 218. d. Affirmative, expressed by two negatives, 150 ; ndnne expecting affirm, answer, 210. c ; ways of saying _y^j, 212. and a. Affix, close and open, 24. N. Agency, nouns of, 162 ; rel. clause equiv- alent to, 201. b. Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 232; w. perf. parts., id. a ; abl. of, 246 ; agent regarded as means, id. b\ animal as agent, id. n. agar, decl., 38. aggredior, constr., 228. a. Agnomen, 80. b. agS, forms of, omitted, 205. c. Agreeing, verbs of, with gerundive, 294. d (cf. 331. rf). Agreement, 181 ; forms of, 182; of nouns, 183, ill appos., 184; in predicate, 185; of adjs., 186; of demonstrative pro- nouns, 195; of possessive pronouns, 197 ; of relatives, 198, 199 ; of verbs, 204, 205. -ai for -ae, decl. I., 36. a ; 347. a. 2. -aius in Prosody, 347. d, note i. -al and -ar, neuters in (decl. III.), 53. ^, 57. a, (yj. a. -al, ending, 164. i. 7 ; list of nouns in, p. 30. foot-n. 1. alacer, decl., 84. a\ comp., 91. d. albus, not compared, 89. N. Alcaic verse, 371. 9, 10. Alcmanian strophe, 364. a. -ale, noun-ending, 164. i. 7 ; list of nouns in, p. 29, foot-n. 2. all-, old stem, 83. foot-n. alienus, for possessive gen. of alius, 83. b, 190, 214. a, aliqui (-quis), decl., 105.^; derivation and use, id. N. ; meaning, 202. a, b. aliquot, indeclinable, use, 106. a. -alls, -aris, adj. endings, 164. d. alius, decl., 83 and foot-notes; gen., id. ^, cf. 214. a ; compounds, 83. b \ alius with abl., ac, nisi, quam, 247. d. alius . . . alius, alter . . . alter, 203. Alphabet, p. i ; vowels and diphthongs, 1 ; consonants, 2 ; table of vowels and consonants, 2, 5 ; early forms of letters, 6.7. alter, decl., 83; gen. and comps., id. b\ use, 203 ; reciprocal use, 99. d, 203. 452 Index of Words and Subjects. alter . . . alter, 203. altera est res ut, 332, foot-n. alteruter, decL, 83. b ; use, 203. a. Although, how expressed, 313, 320. e. alvos (alvus), gend., 39. a. am-, see amb-. amb- (am-, an-), inseparable prefix, 170. b ; -am, adv. ending, 148. N. e. ambages, dec!., 59. ambo, decl., 94. b. amens, decl., 87. a. amplius, without quam, 247. c. amussim, ace., 56. a, 'jt. 2. an-, see amb-. an, anne, annOn, in double questions, 211. an (in, on), primary suffix, 160. ju.. Anacrusis, 355.^. Anapaest, 356. b\ anapaestic verse, 360, 374. a. Anaphora, 344. f. anas, decl., 67. d. anceps, decl., 87. a. Anchises, decl., 37. Andromache, decl., 37. -aneus, adj. ending, 164.^. animal, decl., 52. Animals, gend. of names of, 29. 2, 30, id. b ; regarded as means, 246. b. N. animi (loc), w. adjs., 218. c. r. ; w. verbs, 223. c. Anio, decl., 67. b. annalis, decl, 57. a. Answers, forms of, 212. ant, primary suffix, 160. e; ant-, ent-, stem endings, 63. e. ante, 152. a\ uses, 153; compounded w. vbs., 170. a; in compounds, w. dat., 228, w. ace, id. a; adverbial use of, 261. d\ followed by quam, 262. ante diem, 259. . maiestatis, with words of accusing, etc., 220. a. maior natu, 91. c. maiores, signification of, 76. 2, 76. l>, 93-/ Making, verbs of, constr., 239. a. male, comp., 92; compounds of, with dat., 227- e. mS.10, conj., 138. malus, comparison, 9a man, primary suffix, 160. v, mando, constr., 331. mane, defect, noun, 57. c, 77. 2. maneo, with abl, 254. b. mansuetus, 159. c. manus, decl, 68 ; gender, 69. Manner, adv. of, 148. Abl. of, hard to distinguish from specification, 253. Nc Manner implied in part., 292. Manner, abl. of, 248. and R. mare, decl, 57, a, 59. marl, loc, 258. /. mas, decl, 54, 2. Masculines, rule for gender, 29. Masculine adjectives, 88. d. Masculine caesura, 362. R, Material, adjectives denoting, 164. ^; gen. of, 214. e,/; abl. of, 244. and {:-e. maxime, as sign of super!., 89. d. , May, how expressed in Latin, 312. d. N. Means, nouns denoting, 163. c, abl. of, 248. and c ; participle implying means, 292. Measure, gen. of, 215. b (cf. 257. a). Measures in Prosody, 355-357; names oi, 356 ; contracted or resolved, 357. Measures of value, 377-380; of length, 381 ; of weight, 382; of capacity, 383. medeor, medicor, with dat. or ace, 227. d. mediocris, decl, 84. a. N. Meditative verbs, 167. c. medius {middle part of) , 193. medius fldius, 240. d. N. 2. mel, decl, 67. b, melior, decl, 86. melius est, with infin., 288. e. memini, conj., 143. c ; in pres. sense, 143. N., 279. e \ imperative of, 269. e ; me- mini with pres. infin,, 336. A, N. i. memor, decl, 87. a. Memory, adjs. of, constr., 218. a ; verbs of, constr., 219. men, primary suffix, 160. v. -men, -mentum, noun-endings, 163. c ; -men, gend., 65. c, (yj. b, mensis, decl, 59. merldies, gend., 7'^. -met (enclitic), 99. yC Metathesis, 11. d, 124. a. N, Metre, see Prosody, Index of Words and Subjects, 469 metuS, with dat. or ace, 227. c ; w. sub- junc, 331./. metus, with dat. or ace, 227. c. me us (voc. ml, 81. a. N.), 40. c, 81. a, 99. a \ syntax of, 197. ^ neuters^ i-stems, 51. a Index of Words and Subjects. 471 in a-stems, decl. IV., p. 40, N. ; in e-stems, decl. V., p. 32, N. Nominative, Syntax (see p. 205) : as subject, 173. I ; in predicate, 176. b, 185; verb-agreement with, 204; used for vocative, 241. a\ in exclamations, id. c (cf. 240. d) ; with opus in predicate, 243. e. R. ; nom. of gerund supplied by inf., 295. R. non, derivation, I48. N, a; compoundL of, 150. a,b\ in answers, 212. a. non dubito quin, 319. ^; 332.^. r. non modo, after a negative, 209. a. non modo . . . ne . . . quidem, 149. e, nonne, in questions, 210. c. non nein5, non nuUus, etc, 150. a. non quia, non quod, non quo, non quin, etc., 156./ 321. R. non satis, 93. e. Nones (nonae), 376. c. nos, decl., 98. i ; for ego, 98. i. b. noster, for poss. gen., 99. a, 197. a. nostri, as objective gen., 99. c, 194. b. nostrum, as partitive gen., 99. b, 194. b. novendecim, 94. c. Noun and adj., forms of verb, 109, p. 120. Noun-stem, treated as root, 123. d. Nouns defined, 25. a\ in decl., gend., 29. tf; declension of, 32-78 ; derivative forms of, 161-163; used as adjectives, 88. 266. ^,313. a,g. quandd (interrog.), derivation, 148. N. ■»j; meaning, 156.,^; indef., id. ; causal {since), 321. N. 3; temporal, 322. quanti, gen. of price, 252. a. Quantity, gen, of adjs. o^ denoting price, 252.0. Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 5; get^ Index of Words and Subjects. A77 eral rules of, i8, 347; nature of, p. 394. N.*, final syllables, 348; penultimate syl- lables, 349-354. quanto, w. tanto, 106. c, 250. r. quantum (with mirum), in indirect questions, 334, e. quantumvis, concessive, 313. quantus, 105.^. quasi, with primary tenses, 312. R. quasso (intensive) , 167. b. -que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 105. e] as conjunction, use, 156. a, 208. ^.3; quantity, 348. i. queo (defective), 144.^. ques, old nom. plur., 104. d. Questions, direct, in indie, 112. /z, 210- 212; indirect, \6.. f, R; double ques- tions, 21 1 ; question and answer, 212 ; re- sult clause in exclam. questions, 332. c, mood in indirect question, 334; in in- direct discourse, 338 ; in informal ind. disc, 341. a. qui (relative), decl., 103; (interrog. and indef.), 104 and a\ in compounds, 105 ; q\ai = ut is, with subj., 317, 319; qui causal and concessive, 320. e. qui (adverbial), 104. c. qmcutQ, 104. c. quia, use, 156. /; causal, 321 ; w. verbs of feeling, 333. b; in intermediate clauses, 341. d. quicumque, decl., 105. a. quid, in excl., 240. d. N. i. quidam, decl., 105. c\ meaning of, 202. a ; with ex, 216. c. quidem, use, 151. e; with is or idem, 195. c ; position of, 345. b. quilibet, decl., 105. c, use, 202. c. Quin, w. indie, equivalent to command, 269./; in result-clause (= qui non), 319. d\ w. vbs. of hindering, 332. g\ non dubit5 quln, 332. g. R. Quinary or hemiolic measures, 356. d. quinquatrtls, gend., 69. a\ pi. only, 76, I. quippe, with relative clause, 320. e. N. i ; with cum, 326. N. I. Quirites, 79. c. quis, decl., 104 ; distinguished from qui in use, id. a. and N. ; compounds of (aliquls. etc.), 105; quis with si, num, n§. 105. d-, inde£ use of, 202. a. quis est qui, 320. a. qi:ds, dat. or abl. plur., 104. d. quisnam, 105. i. quispiam, 105. c, use of, 105. d. N, 202. a. quisquam, decl., 105. c; use, 105. d. N., id. h, 202. b, c. quisque, form and decl., 105. e\ use with superlative, 93.^; in general as- sertions, 202. d\ in dependent clause, id. e ; with plural verb, 205. c. 2. quisquis, decl., 105. b, quivis, decl., 105. c\ use, 202. c. quo, approaching abl. of cause, 250. N. quo in final clauses (= ut e5) with subj., 317. b\ non quo, 321. r. quo . . . eo, 106. c, to denote deg. of difference, 250. R. quoad (purpose, etc.) , 328. quod for id quod, 200. e. N. quod (conj.), 156./; mood with, 321; in indirect discourse, id. a\ subst. clause with, 333; as ace. of specifica- tion, id. a] with verbs of feeling, id. b\ quod in intermediate clauses, 341. c. and R. quod sciam (proviso) , 320. d. quod si, use, 156. b, 240. b. quom (see cum) , 7, 156. g: quominus (= ut eo minus), w. vbs. of hindering, 317. b. N. i, 319. c, 331. e, quoniam, meaning, 156. /; in causal clauses, 321. quoque, use, 151. a; position, 345. b, quot, indeclinable, 106. a. Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in, 258. c. 2. N. 2 ; direct and indir., 335. quotus quisque, 105. e. quu- (cu-),7. quum (conjunction), 7 (see cum). R subst. for s between sonants, 11. a, p. 26, foot-n. 2 ; r- in adj. stems, 85 ; rr- in noun-stems, 48. e. ra (la), primary sufiix, i6c. t. rastrum, plu. in -a and -I, 78. 2. d. ratione, as abl. of manner, 248. R. ratus, as pres. part., 290. b. r§,vis, decl., 56. a. re- or red- (prefix), 170. b. reapse, 100. c. Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. Reciprocal (each lace where), 258./ 2. Towns, names of, gend., 29, 39. a ; names of towns in -e, decl., 57. d; locative of, 258.^. 2; as place from which, id. a; as place to which, 258. b, tr-, stems in (pater, etc.), 48. c. tra, primary suffix, 160. o. traicio, constr., 239. b. R. ; traiectus lora, id. trans, 152. a \ use, 153 ; comps. of, w. ace, 237. d\ w. two aces., 229. b and R. Transitive adjectives, 218. Transitive verbs, 175. b, 177: absolute use, 175. b. N. 2 ; how translated, 177. c ; w. dat., 225. Transposition of vowel and liquid, 9. d, 124. a. N.; of consonants, 11. d. Trees, names of, gend., 29. 2. tres, decl. 94. c. tri-, stem-ending of nouns, 51. b, 54. i; of adjs., 84. a. Tribe, abl. of, 244. b. N. Tribrach, 356. a. tribal! s, decl., 57. b. tribus, gend., 69. a\ decl., 70 d. tridens, decl., 57. b. Trimeter, Iambic, 365. Triptotes, 77. 4. triremis, decl., 57. b, -tris, adj.-ending, 164. e. triumpli6, w. abl., 245. a. 2. -tnx, see -tor. -tro, advs. in, p. 123. N. y. R. Trochaic verse, 360, 367. Trochee, 356. a ; irrational, id. N., 369. -trum, noun-ending, 163. d. Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 227. tu, primary suffix, 160. c. 2. y. ta, decl., 98. 1 (see tttte, tutimet). -ttl, -stl, supine-endings, 114. b. -ttld5, -ttis, noun-endings, 163. e. tull (tetuli), 139; derivation, id., foot* n. ; quantity, 351. b. Ex. -turn, -sum, supine endings, 114. b. tum, tunc, use, 149.^; correl.w.cum, 107, 156 h. turn . . . tum, 208. d. -ttira, -ttla, noun-ending, 1^ b, -turl5 vbs. in, 167. e. turris, decl., 52 (cf. 56. S). Junius, adj.-ending, 164. e. 484 Index of Words and Subjects. -tas, adj.-ending, 164. /; noun-ending, 71, 163. e. -tus, adv.-ending, 148. N. tj. tus (thas), decl., ^^. 6. tussis, decl., 56. a. tute, 99./; tiitimet, 99./ Two accusatives, 239. Two datives, 233. a. U(v), as consonant, 4; after q, g, S, 4. N. 3 ; not to follow u or V, 7 ; u for e in conj. III., 126. c. i. U, primary suffix, 160. c. i. u-stems, of nouns, decl. III., 60. a, 61; decl. IV., 68 ; of verbs, p. 86, 123. d, 166. d:. 3, ^. aber, decl., 85. b, 87. c. Ubi, derivation, 148. N. 6 ; in temporal clauses, 322, 324. ubiubi, 105. b. -ubus, in dat. and abl. pi., decl. IV., 70. d. -uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV., 68. N., 70. a. -ulis, adj .-ending, 164. d. uUus, decl., 83 ; use, 105. h, ^xyz. b, c. ulterior, comparison, 91. a. ultra, 152. a\ use, 153; following noun, 263. N. -ulus, diminutive ending, 164. a\ verbal adj. -ending, id. /. -um for -arum, 36. d\ for -6 rum, 40. e ; -um in gen. pi. of personal prons., 194. b\ -iim for -ium, decl. III., 59; in gen. pi. of adjs., 87. d\ for -uum, decl. IV., 68. N., 70. c. Umbrian forms compared with Lat., p. 435- Undertaking, vbs. ot, w. gerundive, 294. d. Unorganized forms of expression, p. 163 and foot-n. unquam, use, 105. h. unt-, stem-ending, 63.^. [w. super!., 93. b. unus, decl. 83; meaning, 94.0:, 95- *> unus qvii, w. subj., 320. b. unus quisque, decl., 105. e ; use, 202. d. uo, suffix, see va. -u3, vbs. in, 166. c. -uos, see -uis. -ur, nouns in, 65. c\ -iir, -6ris, 67. b\ -tir, -tlris, -Or, -Qris, id. urbs, decl., 54; use in relations of place, 258. b. N. 3. Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 331. -iiri5, desiderative verbs in, 167. e, -urnus, adj .-ending, 164. e, -tirus, fut. part, in, 113. ^, 293; w. f ui, 293. c, 308, a ; in ind. questions, 334, a\ -Qrus fuisse, in ind. disc, 337. b. -us, nom.-ending, decl. II., 28,39 ; -us for -er in Gr. nouns, decl. II., 43. b\ -us nom.-ending in decl. III., 48. d\ gend., 65. ^, 67. b ; decl. IV., 68 ; gend., 69 ; neut.-ending, 163. a. -tls, Gr. nom.-ending, 63. e\ -da, -Gdis, 67. d\ -"Qs, -Utis, id. Use, adjs. of, constr., 234. b. usquam, use, 105. h. usque, w. ace, 261. a. 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