ON MILITARY SCIENCE \ NOTES iUi u ITARY SCIENC THE ART OF WAR. JOSEPH M. CALIFF, Captain 3D U. S. Arthxery. (THIRD EDITION.) JAMES J. CHAPMAN, WASHINGTON. 189S. Copyright, 1891, BY JOSEPH M. CALIFF. PREFACE. 'T^HESE Notes were prepared in an abbreviated form for use in -*■ connection with a course of lectures on Military Science and the Art of War, delivered to the Senior Class at the State University of Iowa. The absence of a text-book made something of the kind necessary, and the success that has attended the distribution of hektograph copies of these Notes seems to indicate that they are in the right direction. No attempt has been made in these lectures, which are supple- mental to four years of drill, to teach the purely technical part of the military profession. The limited time available for military in- struction at colleges indicated to me that the instruction should be broad and general. The aim, therefore, has been to teach these young men how armies are organized and their affairs administered ; how men are handled in actual warfare, and how battles are fought ; and, in addition, something about the material employed in war — guns, ammunition, torpedoes and explosives : in short, to give them a speaking acquaintance with the Science and Art of War. Nothing especially original is claimed for the subject-matter of the book. The authorities consulted have been so many and various (iii) 1711087 IV • PREFACE. that no atteiu{)t has been made to cite llieni. I am, however, great- ly indebted to Captain James Chester, 3d U. y. Artiller^^ for valu- able hints and suggestions, and to 1st Lieutenant D. A. Howard, U. S. Ordnance Department, for important data. JosKPH M. Califf, Ixt Licul, .id U IS. Ar/iUcri/. State Univeu.sitv ok Iowa, November 12, ISSS. TO THE SECOND EDITION. The subject-matter of this edition remains substantially the same as in the first, but in order to keep pace with the progress of the military art, it has been necessary to practically rewrite much that then appeared regarding small arms, powders, and military material generally ; besides, two short chapters upon Transport and Recon- naissance have been added. July s, JSUl. CONTENTS PAGE. CHAPTER I. Army Organization 1 CHAPTER II. Army Administration 14 ERRATA Page 27 — Second line, for 16 read 75. Page 144 — Eighth line, between are and called interpolate when mounted. Page 164 — At end of third paragraph, add in time of war the Summary Court is replaced by the Field Officer s Court. CHAPTER X. Cannon 89 (V) VI CONTENTS. I'AUE. CHAPTER XI. Practical Gunnery 105 CHAPTER XII. Pyrotkciiny and Projectiles 112 CHAPTER XIII. Fortifications 118 CHAPTER XIV. Siege Operations 120 CHAPTER XV. Torpedoes and Suhmarine Mines 131 CHAPTER XVI. Grand Guards, Sentinels, and Outposts 142 CHAPTER XVII. Military Reconnaissance 149 CHAPTER XVIII. Military Transport and Supply 153 CHAPTER XIX. Troops in Campaign 156 CHAPTER XX. Military Law and Courts .Martial IGO CHAPTER XXI. The KRA(;-JoRattle ; administrative t!iat which looks to their maintenance in })eace as well as in war. Drill is the familiarizing of the individual soldier with his weapon ; making him acquainted with its capabilities and enabling him to obtain from it its maximum effect, and, in addition, teaching him to act in harmony and intelligently with otiier indi- vidual soldiers to the accomplishment of a common purpose. Discipline, as understood in a military sense, may be said to be the perfect subordination of each and every individual of the multitude to the will of the superior; the willing, spontaneous and unquestioned obedience of all to the commands of the chief. It is the " seasoning " process for the raw recruit ; it is the teaching of that self-control which enables a man to preserve his coolness and equanimity at all times, and under the most startling and unlooked- for conditions. But it takes time and actual experience in the field to make the recruit a valuable soldier. "The value of the veteran consists as much in his hal)itual expertness in the routine of the camp and the march as calinne^^s and confidence under fire." Recruiting. Among barbarous i)eo[)le all men ;ire warriors, and even in a rude state of agriculture NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 6 every man may serve a part of the year as a soldier; but a more civilized state of society and advanced stage in the military art require that a portion of the population should be permanently given to the military service. There are two general methods, among civilized nations, for obtaining men for an army — by Con- scription and Voluntarij Enlistment. Conscription is now the prevailing method among all the great powers — England and the United States alone ex- cepted. Under the method by conscription, all able-bodied men from about twenty to fort}' 3'ears of age are liable to military duty, with certain exceptions for occupation, etc. A certain number of men, depend- ent on the exigencies of the times, are called for each year, and required to join the colors. The period of service varies from twelve to twent}^ years, of which time from three to six years are with the colors ; then follows about the same period on fur- lough, or in the first reserve, during which the men may be recalled at any time, after which they pass into the general reserve, and are called into service only in time of great national danger. The calling in of these furloughed men, and all the preparation necessary to enable them to take the field, is called mobilization. The proportion of the popuUition that can be 4 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. spared for military service is much greater in a rude than in a civilized state of society. It is estimated that one per cent, of the population in a modern civilized state may be diverted to military purposes without detriment to other interests. In the United States, should it become necessary for the general Government to raise a military force in excess of the regular establishment, a proclama- tion would issue by the President calling for the required number of men for a specified time. This number would be apportioned to the different States- upon the basis of their Congressional representation, and the State, in turn, would designate the number to be supplied by each Congressional district and smaller subdivision, upon the basis of population. The quota assigned to a State would, in the first in- stance, be filled by volunteers, either from the organ- ized State militia or by fresh enrollment. When a regiment or battery had completed its organiza- tion, and its officers had been appointed by the Governor, a mustering officer, designated by the Government, would formally accept and muster the individual officers and men into the United States service. Failing to fill its quota by voluntary enlist- ment, resort wimld be hail to conscription, in which case the number of men required of each town or precinct would, under Federal supervision, be chosen by lot fi-om among the male population between certain ages, usually, IS and 45 years. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. An army is divided into two general classes^the Line and the Staff. The Line constitutes the fight- ing force — that is, all officers and men who do the .actual fighting. The Staff are those employed in an administrative or executive capacity. The fighting force is composed of three arms — ■Cavalry, Artillery and Infantry. By an arm we mean the union of those combatants having the same mode of action. The Infantry constitutes the main Vjody of an army, and is organized as follows: The Company is the unit. The number of men per company varies in different services. The war strength of a company in our own service is one hundred ; in England, one hundred and twenty-five, while in the German service, and in most other European armies, it is about two hundred and fifty. The Battalion, of from four to eight Companies, is the tactical unit, and is the proper command of a Major. In all armies, except our own, the battalion organization prevails. The Keg-iment, in the United States service, is the tactical unit ; but in all foreign armies it con- sists of from tw^o to four battalions, with a Colonel, a Lieutenant-Colonel, and as many Majors as there are battalions. In all European armies there is at- tached to each battalion, or regiment, one or more ■" depot companies," to which all recruits are sent, 6 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. and where they receive a certain amount of training- before being sent to join their companies in tlie field. The Brigade consists of two or more regiments, and is the proper command of a Brigadier-General. • The Division consists of two or more brigades of infantry, a certain proportion of artillery and cav- alry, a company of engineers, and possibly a signal detachment, and is commanded by a Major-Gen eral. The Corps is composed of two or more divisions of infantry, a division of cavalry, all the reserve artillery, a battalion of engineers, a signal detach- ment and a bridge train, and is the command of a Lieutenant-General. The Corps is the strategical unit. It is, in fact, a small army, complete in all its parts, and capable of independent action. Two or more Corps would constitute an army, the proper commander of which would be a General. Artillery. The unit is the Battery, usually of six guns, and, roughly estimated, with twenty horses and twenty -five men per gun. The proportion of artillery varies from two to four guns per thousand infantry, depending upon the character of the infan- try and the theatre of military operations. Poor infantry needs most artillery, and an army operat- ing in a wooded country with poor roads less than if the opposite conditions prevailed. The artillery belonging to an army is divided into two classes — Mounted and Horse Artillery. Mounted NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 7 artillery serves with infantry, the cannoneers riding upon the carriages. In the Horse Artillery the guns are lighter, the cannoneers are iiiounted on horse- back, rapid movement is possible, and it is intended to serve with cavalry. Machine-guns would find their proper field in this service. The artillery allowed to a Corps is divided into two parts. One, usually aljout half, is attached to the divisions, while the remainder is retained under the direct control of the Corps Commander, and constitutes the Corps Artillery, or the Artillery Re- serve. In addition to the artillery serving with an army in the field, artillery troops for the service of heavy guns in forts, and for siege-guns, will be required. These troops have essentially the same organization as tiie mounted artillery, but are armed as infantry. Cavalry. The unit is the troop, usually of about fifty men. Two troops form a squadron, and with from four to six squadrons to a regiment. It is grouped into brigades and divisions like the infantry^ with a varying number of subdivisions to each larger division. The cavalry is usually assigned, as is the artillery, to the divisions of infantry, with a Corps reserve ; but it may be formed into a corps by itself. The General Staff of an army consists of — The Adjutant-General's Department — is the department of orders, correspondence, records and statistics. 8 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. The Inspector-General's Department — is the department through which the General watches over the discipline, drill and general efficiency of the troops; it examines the accounts of disbursing officers. The Jiirtse-Advocate General's Department — is the law department of on army. It advises the General as to the technical correctness of court mar- tial records and rulings ; assi-sts him with its advice on all questions of law submitted by him, and repre- sents the United" States in all military trials before either military or civil tribunals. The Quartermaster's Department — sui>jilies the clothing for the men ; the hor.ses, mules and wagons ; forage for all animals; tenls, camp equipage and fuel ; has charge of all transportation by land and water ; and everything that concerns " the outward comfort of the men or the inward comfort of the animals " comes within its juri.sdiction. It is by far the most complicated and expensive department of an army. The Suhsistenee Department — purchases, col- lects and issues all food fi)r the men, and provides for sale various articles of provision and .^mall stores not on the regular supply tables. The Medical Department — provides medical su[)plics of all kinds : has charge of all hospitals and aiijl'ulanccs. and \]\v cai'e of all sick and wounded. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 9 The Pay Department — provides for the pay- ment of troops at stated intervals; is charged with the settlement of the money accounts of the soldier ; pays mileage accounts, etc. The Ordnance Department — supplies the arms, ammunition and accoutrements for the infantry- man ; the guns, carriages, harness, ammunition and equipments for the artillery and cavalry. The Engineer Department — is charged with the planning and construction of forts and field works; the preparation of ground for defense; the repair of roads and laying of bridges. Engineer troops have the infantry organization and arms. The Signal Department — is charged with the erection and maintenance of all field-telegraph lines, and all means for the communication of orders and information between the separated parts of an army. The Provost-Marshal's Department — has an organization only in time of war, and has the care of all prisoners; officiates at executions, and has charoe of the detective and secret-service business of an army. To recapitulate the matter of organization, we have first — The Company, with a C'a]:)tain and two or three Lieutenants, one first and four duty Sergeants, four or more Corporals, two musicians and say eighty- six privates, or a total strength of one hundred. 10 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. The Regiment, of ten or twelve companies, witli a Colonel, a Lieutenant-Colonel, one or more Majors, an Adjutant, and a Quartermaster, with the rank of First Lieutenant ; a Surgeon with the rank of Major, and an Assistant Surgeon with the rank of First Lieutenant, and sometimes a Chaplain with the nominal rank of Captain ; a Sergeant-\Lijor, a Hos- pital Steward and a Quartermaster Sergeant. The Brigade, of two or more regiments, with a Brigadier-Cieneral in command, who has, as his indi- vidual statf, an Adjutant-General, a Quartermaster, a Commissary, all Captains, a Surgeon, usually known as the Brigade Surgeon. The Division, of two or more brigades, com- manded by a Major-General, who has the same staff as a brigade commander, with the possible addition of a Provost-Marshal, and with the exception that the Adjutant-General, Quartermaster and Commis- sary sliouM have the rank of ]Major. The Corps, of two or more divisions, with a Lieu- tenaut-General in command, who would have the same stafl' as a division commander, with the several rank of Lieutenant-Colonel, and known as the Chief Quartermaster, Chief Commissar}'', Medical Director and hispector-General, and, in addition, would liave upon his staff the commantler of the Corps Reserve Artillery, as Chief of Artillery, and an Engineer officer. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 11 An Army, of two or more Corps, should have a General in command, who would have a staff iden- tical with that of a Corps commander, except that the officers above mentioned should have the rank of Colonel. The above is given as the proper rank of the various commanders. In our service the rule has never been followed. Washington, Grant, Sherman and Sheridan are the only full Generals we have had, and they also the only full Lieutenant-Gen- erals. An army Corps of twenty-five thousand men, under our military system, might have the follow- ing organization : Two divisions of infantry, eight batteries of mounted artillery and four of horse artillery, two divisions of cavalry, a battalion of engineers, signal detachment, etc., divided as follows : Infantry — 2 divisions, 6 brigades, 18 regiments, or .... 18,000 Artillery — divisional, of 4 mounted and 2 horse batteries, and an equal number as corps artillery, or 72 guns and . 1,800 Cavalry — 2 divisions, each of two brigades of 2 regiments of 6 squadrons, or 4,800 Enyinvers — 1 battalion ; signal detachment, hosfiital corps, etc. 400 Total 25 000 Under recent orders the enlisted strength of the army is distributed as follows — (two companies of 12 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. •each iiifantrv, and two troops of each cavahy regi- ment having only a skeleton organization) : Infantry — 25 regiments (8 companies of CO men and 5 N. C. S.) 12,125 Cavalry — 10 regiments ( 10 troops of 60 men and 5 N. C. S.) 6,030 Artillery— b regiments ( 12batteries of 60 men and 5 N. C. S.) 3,675 Total for line of the Army 21,850 Engineer Battalion . 500 Ordnance Dei>artment 450 West Point Detachments, (including Army Service men in the Quartermaster's Dept. and Military Academy Band) 224 Prison guard (Fort Leavenworth) 110 Ordnance Sergeants 90 Commissary Sergeants 120 Post Quartermaster Sergeants 80 Depot Detachments 315 Indian Scouts 476 2,365 Recruits at Depot 785 Authorized Enlisted Strength 25,000 Note. — In addition to tlie above, there are 50 Signal Service and 721 Hospital Corps men not included in the allowed strength of the army. The two light batteries of each artillery regiment are allowed ^5 men each. The number of Indian Scouts has since been reduced to 150, and authority given to enlist 8 troops of Indian cavalry and 19 companies of Indian infantry to take the place of an equal num- ber of organizations skeletonized. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. IS- Rank in the army is fixed as follows : 1. General. 2. Lieuteaant-General. 3. Major-General. 4. Brigadier-General. 5. Colonel. 6. Lieutenant-Colonel. 7. Major. 8. Captain. 9. First Lieutenant. 10. Second Lieutenant. 11. Cadet. 12. Sergeant Major. 13. Regimental Quartermaster- Sergeant. 14. Ordnance, Commissary and Post Quartermaster Ser- geants, Hospital Steward, Chief Musician, Principal Musician, Chief Trumpeter and Saddler-Sergeant. 15. First Sergeant. 16. Sergeant. 17. Corporal. 18. Private. Its strength is limited by law to 25,000, exclusive of tiie Signal and Hospital Cor[)s. The military force of the United States consists of the regular army ; organized militia or State troops, about 106,000; and the unorganized militia^ estimated about 7,700,000. CHAPTER II. ARMY ADMINISTRATION. ARMY administration relates not only to the ques- tions of supply of an army, but to the entire ad- ministration of its affairs in peace as well as in war. Nothing definite is known of the methods em- ployed in ancient times to supply armies, although for Csesar it is claimed that he had a commissariat, and did not depend upon the foraging of the indi- vidual soldier. Still it was almost wholly a commis- sariat of plunder, although an official, orderly and calculated one. During the Middle Ages armies subsisted, friend and foe alike, from off the theatre of operations. They came together to fight, then scattered to subsist. War in those da3's meant pil- lage, and was cruel to the last degree. With standing armies, and the necessity of strict discipline, came an organized commissariat. Under Frederick the Great an army became wholly inde- })endent of the resources of the invaded territory. Subsisting from an enemy's country is one of the rights of war, but subsisting by pillage is quite a (14) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 15 different thing. In the former case it is done b}' properl}' ai)pointed officers and under military re- strictions, and the supplies gathered are issued and accounted for in the regular way. The Staflf, as has been said, is charged with the questions of administration and suppl}'. The officers of the Staff departments have, for the furtherance of discipline, military rank, but. they never command troops unless specially as.signed thereto. When thrown together with troops, an officer of the line, however low his rank, would take command, what- ever might l)e the rank of the other. Correspondence. All official communications between an inferior and a suj)erior pass through the hands of all the intermediate commanders, and are returned through the same channels. All communi- cations forwarded to a su{)erior are signed by the inferior in person ; all those to an inferior in rank are signed by order of the superior, and by his Adjutant or Adjutant-General. Property Accountability. Every article of pub- lic property, however small, issued for use of troops, must be accounted for until properly disj^osed of; and all officers receiving such property are held to a strict pecuniary and personal responsibility for its safe-keeping. The clothing issued to the men be- comes their personal property, under certain restric- tions : but for tlie arms, ammunition and equip- 16 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. ineiits, tools and utensils of all kinds, issued for tlie use of a company, the Captain must receipt and become responsiljle. duailermaster's Supplies — for an army in the tield are either manufactured by tlie department, as in the case of clothing and some other articles, or purchased under contract or in open market, and are gathered together in depots and from thence is- sued to the corps, division or brigade Quartermasters, and l\v tliem distributed to regiments, batteries, etc. Subsistence Stores — are purchased by officers of this department, in the large markets of the country, and, like quartermasters' stores, are collected in large (quantities at safe points in rear of the army, and from thence issued to the Commissary officers serving with troops in the field. Under ordinary circumstances, rations are issued to troops every ten days. In campaigns, or when starting on a march, the men carry u])on their })er- sons two, three, and sometimes five days' rations. On marches, whenever practicable, the beef ration is driven on the hoof. Ordnance Stores — with the excepticn of powder, which is puiehased, are nearly all manufactured at government arsenals, and, like all other supplies, sent to depots and them-e to the front. The Medical Department — is charged with im- NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 17 portant and exacting duties. The whole fighting power of an army depends on the health of the indi- vidual soldier. As has been said, each regiment, or independent organization, has its medical officer and assistants, and at each headquarters the department is represented by an officer of the department. With each regiment there is a temporary or im- provised hospital for the reception and care of those taken suddenly ill, or only likely to be temporarily disabled. With each Corps, usually, there is a Field Hospital, where the more serious cases are taken, and to which are sent the more seriously wounded from the field of battle. Here most of the surgical operations and amputations are performed. Besides the Field, there are General Hospitals, located usually in some city, which receive all the badly wounded and all those likely to require long treat- ment. Each of these hospitals has a surgeon in charge, with a staff of assistants, nurses and attend- ants. On the field of battle, as near the fighting line as may be, the regimental surgeons are ready to give such aid to the wounded as they may at once re- quire ;, wounds are dressed, bandages applied, and, in case of shattered limbs, amputations performed. In an infantry company there are four men desig- nated as litter-bearers, whose duty it is to bring back to this point all who are unable to get there by them- 18 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. selves. Here the ambulances are waiting to convey all who are unable to walk to the Field Hospital. Each of the other staff de[)artments is re])resented at division, corps and army headquarters by an offi- cer who is charged with the administrative sui)er- vision of liis own de|)artment. The Organization of Trains, — which falls to the Quartermaster's department, is one of the most difficult duties pertaining to the supply of an army. The elements that enter into the problem are the strength and composition of the army ; the charac- ter and extent of the operations ; the nature of the country operated in ; the soil, with special reference to the effect of rain thereon ; if streams have to be crossed, the possibility of bridges being destroyed, and the time required to repair them. These, and many otlier elements cf uncertainty, must be kej)t in vieWj and, as much as po.ssible, provided against. Separate trains of wagons must be provided for nmmunition for infantry, for cavalry, for artiller}', for forage, for rations and for baggage. These wagons are divided into two general divisions — Division and Corps Trains. The ionner carry such supplies of ammunition, forage and rations as may be needed at unce, and must accomjiany the troops, while the Corps or Reserve train may move in roar of the army. .\n army wauon will carry 2,000 jiounds over all NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 19 roads, and five days' forage for its six mules. One tliousand rounds of .45 caliber rifle ammunition weigh about 100 pounds : one wagon will carry 20,000 rounds. Each soldier should have at least 160 rounds — 80 on his person, or immediately available, and 80 in the wagons. AVith a repeating rifle this number would have to be considerably increased, but as the caliber will be reduced with the introduction of such an arm, the weights will remain about the same. The artillery will require 400 pounds per gun — one-half in the chests and one-half in wagons. A round for our 3.2-inch field-gun will weigh about 17 pounds. With (> guns i)er battery, each 200 rounds equal 20,000 pounds — 10 wagon-loads per battery. The horse artillery will carry less ammu- nition : but by removing the rear chests of the cais- sons, a certain amount of forage can be carried. Rations : — The army field-ration, exclusive of meat, will weigh, with necessary packages, about two pounds, or one wagon-load per day per thou- sand men. Forage : — The ordinary allowance is 14 pounds of hay for a horse or mule, and for a horse 12, and for a mule 9 pounds of grain. In the field the allow- ance is 8 pounds per day per animal, or four wagons per day per thousand animals. 20 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Baggage : — One wagon to each regiment, one to each brigade and division, and two to corps head- quarters — thirty-six in all. An army corps, then, of 25,000 men, organized as we have supposed, to take the field, with proper amount of ammunition and five days' supply of food and forage in its wagons, wouW require — For infantry ammunition, 18,000 men 72 wagons. For cavalry carbine aminunition, 4,800 men 10 For artillery ammunition, 12 batteries .... • . . 120 For rations for 5 days, 25,0C0 men 125 For forage for 5 days, 4,800 horses 96 For baggage 36 468 The U. S. Army, ration is, by weight : Meat, 16 oz. average beef and pork. Flour, 18 oz. or 18 oz. bread in lieu. Fresh vegetables, 16 oz. (potatoes, 80, onions 20 per cent.) Beans, 2.4 oz. or 1.6 oz. rice in lieu. Coffee, 1.6 oz. or .32 oz. tea in lieu. Sugar, 2.4 oz. Pepper. .04 oz. Salt, .6 oz. Vinegar .8 oz. 3.65 lbs. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 21 Weight carried by soldiers in the U. S. service is : R'fle and bayonet 9.50 lbs. Belt .50 lbs. 80 rounds ammunition 8.00 lbs. 18.00 lbs. 2 days' full rations 5.30 lbs. Utensils 3.00 lbs. Canteen filled 3.75 lbs. 12.05 lbs. 1 piece shelter tent 2.00 lbs. 1 blanket • 5.20 lbs. 1 overcoat • ... 8.50 lbs. 1 pair shoes . 3.00 lbs. 1 pair drawers .75 lbs. 1 shirt 1.00 lbs. 1 pair stockings 25 lbs. 20.70 lbs. Total weight carried, fully equipped 50.80 lbs. Weight carried by English soldier 57.00 lbs. Weight carried by Italian soldier b2.00 lbs. Weight carried by German soldier 55.00 lbs. Weight carried by French soldier 50 -f- lbs- The Roman soldiers are said to have carried a weight of quite 100 pounds, including their pro- visions, weapons and armor. CHAPTER III. LINES AND ORDERS OF BATTLE. ANCIENT FORMATIONS. THE infantry formations of ancient times were in heavy, solid masses, intended to act by shock alone, and with little or no mobility. Egyptian infantry formed in heavy square battal- ions of 100 men to a side, or 10,000 in a body, sub- divided into fractions of 1,000, 100 and 10. The heavy infantry carried a shield and pike ; the light infantry were archers and slingers. The Jews formed their infantry upon a single line, from 10 to 30 men in depth. The archers and slingers occupied the front rank, the heavy armed troops the rear. The tactical unit seems to have been 1,000 men, subdivided into groups of 100. The Persian infantry was originally armed only with offensive weapons, and formed in heavy battal- ions of 24 to 30 men in depth. Cyrus the Elder reduced the number of ranks to 12, and introduced the use of defensive weapons. Like other early nations, the Persians followed the decimal system (22) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 23 of subdivision, and divided their troops into bodies of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 men. The organization of the Greek infantry, instead of being decimal, was founded on the powers of the number tivo. The Greek 'phalanx was a corps of heavy infantry, formed in a single line, 16 men deep. Taking as its primitive element a file of 16 men, four of these files, or 64 men, was the unit of organization, corresponding to a modern company. Four of these, or 256 men, were grouped together into a. body corresponding to a small modern battalion. The 2)halanx numbered something over 16,000 men, and was the tactical unit. In open order there was an interval of six feet between men each way ; in close order, three feet ; and in very close order, a foot and a half. The phalanx charged in close order, and received a charge in very close order. The heavy infantry was armed with the long pike ; the light infantry with short pike and shield, or were archers, slingers, or darters. The Roman Legion formed in three lines, each line of ten companies, of ten ranks and twelve files, or 120 men, except the tliird line, which had but half the number of files. These, with 1,200 light troops or skirmishers, gave the legion a strength of 4,200 men. Later the legion was divided into ten Cohorts, or battalions. The distance between each soldier was six Roman feet each way (5 feet 7 inches). 24 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. The offensive wea))ons of the Roman sohlier were the ])ike and sword for heavy, and light spears, jave- hns and darts for light troops. The helmet, breast- |)late, and siiield constituted their defensive arms. AVith the introduction of firearms, depth of for- mations decreased. In the time of Henry IV., infan- try formed in ten ranks; with Gustavus Adolphus, six ranks; Louis XIV., four ranks; and under Frederick the Great, three ranks. The Art of War may be considered under five subdivisions : 1st, Strategy: The art of making war upon the map ; the planning of a campaign ; and comprehends the whole theatre of operations in an extended sense, and embraces all pre-arrangements of Avar previous to tactical operations. It admits of success without actual tactical collision. 2d, Grand Tactics : Is the art of moving an army on the field of battle ; of j)0sting the troops according to the accidents of the ground ; of putting them into action at the proper time. It is the actual fighting upon the ground, in contra-distinction to planning upon the map. Its operations may extend over a field miles in extent. 3d, Logistics: Is the art of moving armies, and includes all the means adopted to carry out the plans of Strategy and Grand Tactics ; the order and de- tails of iiiai'chcs. cani])S, quartering and sup}»lying NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 25 troops. "Strateojy decides w/i en; to act; Logistics brings them to the point, and Grand Tactics decides the manner of execution." 4th, Minor Tactics : The tactics of tlie three arms ; all operations of detachments, such as relate to con- voys, foraging, and affairs of advance guards. Tlie term Tactics is often confounded with that of Drill. Tactics mean something more than mere drill. Our name for the manual of the arm and tlie instructions of troops is a misnomer. It is a drill- book, and not tactics, properly speaking. In a broad and true sense, tactics mean the proper methods and means of using troops : how to fit them to the ground they occupy ; how and where to post them in any given position so as to obtain the maximum advantage ; how to attack or defend such position ; the formations of the troops and the regulation of the fire. A perfect drill-master is not necessarily a tactician. 5th, Art of the Engineer : Relates to the prepar- ation of ground either for defense or offense, also the building and destruction of bridges, roads, etc., and the conduct of siege operations. Line of Battle : Troops placed upon the same line, wdiether deployed or in column of attack ; formed with proper tactical intervals and distances, either with or without a particular object in view for the future. 26 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Order of Battle : Is more than a reunion of lines ; it is the general and combined disposition of troops of different kinds, grouped together for a specific purpose, including an intention to execute a certain manoeuvre. In the Greek order of battle, the troops were drawn up in two equal and parallel lines. With the Romans it was three lines with intervals, with the veterans in the third line. With the Franks, and the barbarians who overran the Roman Empire, the order of battle was a com- pact, wedge-shaped mass of men. With modern tactics as many as twelve different orders of battle have been laid down. There is the parallel order, the oblique order, the convex and con- cave order as the principal ones. These terms have reference either to the relative positions of the op- posing forces, or to the peculiar formation of either the attack or defense. Under the present conditions of warfare the advantages claimed for any of the old orders of battle, for the attack, at least, have been greatly diminished, and it is doubtful if troops will ever again be sent to tlie attack in any other than the thinnest of deployed lines. The Column: A disposition of troops whose suljdivisions are parallel to each other and on the same axis. When they all remain parallel, but upon different axes, they are said to be in echelon. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 27 ALLOTMENT OF TROOPS TO SPACE. Artillery : A battery of six guns, 16 yards from muzzle to muzzle, will occupy 87 yards of space. Cavalry : Each horse is allowed one yard lateral space — a regiment of 600 in double rank would require 300 yards. Infantry : Each man occupies two feet of space. In single rank about 2,300 men would occupy a mile of front with intervals between battalions. In double rank and in two lines, allowing for intervals and room for artillery, a division of 9,000 would occupy a mile of level ground. On the Road : 6,000 infantry in column of fours will occupy one mile of road ; 2,000 cavalry in col- umn of fours, well closed, will cover a little more than a mile ; 24 guns, with their extra caissons, bat- tery wagons and forges, etc., one mile, and 100 army wagons, well closed, one mile. Our army corps of 25,000 men, if posted to receive attack, might have the formation indicated in the accompanying cut. The infantr}'- would be in three lines — first and second line and reserve — covered by a skirmish line with supports. The divisional artil- lery would be in front of the first line and opposite the center and flanks ; the corps artillery with the infantry reserve. The cavalry would be in the rear 28 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENX'E. of the flanks, accom|)anied by tlie horse artillery, the reserve cavalry in third line. In posting troops for battle the topographical features of the ground would determine in great measure the position of and the distance between the lines ; especially would this be the case with the artillery, which would seek to occupy positions that , would give it a cross-fire in front of the infantry. The second line should be near enough to give ready support to the first, but tlie distance l^etween the lines should be such that artillery projectiles missing the first line would be likely to strike and rise on the rebound before reaching the second. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 29- ^ ■ Mil 11 IIIM Itlll lilt I Hill ^$ — a. .:::^ * t < mil CHAPTER IV. FREDERICK'S MILITARY SYSTEM. IN the thousand years following the downtall of the Roman Empire, but little advance was made in the military art, although it was a period of al- most incessant war. Moslem and Christian battled for the supremacy in Palestine, in Eg.ypt, in eastern and western Europe. Charlemagne reared a mighty empire by dint of conquest. Yet, when gunpowder appeared, in the fourteenth century, the art of fight- imr battles was much the same as it had been in the time of C?esar. The Roman legion seems to have been tlie model upon whicli all subsequent com- manders based their formations. The sword and shield and defensive armor were still in use, onh^ the slingers and darters of the Roman time had given place to archers and bowmen. Witli the advent of gunpowder and the use of port- able firearms on the battle field, a change at once became necessary. Formations decreased in depth, the bow gave way to tlie musket ; defensive armor was gradually discarded, and armies became more mobile. (30) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 31 Gustavus Adolphus was the first great commander to appreciate the value of the musket, and to depend upon iis fire to win battles. Still, with him, an army was a clumsy machine, slow to move and difficult to take up new formations when once in position. Marlborough, Turrenne and Conde were soldiers of the school of Adolphus. Armies were still un- wieldy and battles very ceremonious affairs. Oppos- ing armies came into presence of each other, and, as at Blenheim, deliberately cleared away the ground, took up position, and when all was ready, the ball opened. Under such conditions, victory usually rested with the side which could longest supply re- inforcements to the fighting line. This was the state of millitary art when Frederick the Great appeared upon the scene. Armies were yet clumsy ; formations still from four to six ranks iu depth, and celerity of movement, under existing conditions, impossible. Frederick's fatlier, " the crazy king," was a born drill-master, with a love for soldiers and a passion- ate fondness for drill. His mania was for drill, to which he devoted the greater part of liis time and energy, and was known as " the great drill-sergeant of Europe." When he died in 1740, he left to young Frederick by far the best drilled army in Europe, 80,000 in number, and eight millions of dollars in the treasurv. Under such favorable conditions 32 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Frederick came to the throne. His father had kept his soldiers for show, Frederick proposed to put them to use. With this object in view, he set out at once to remedy the defects he had observed in his father's training of the army. The number of ranks was reduced to three; the iron ramrod was introduced ; marksmansliip for the first time received attention, and, above all, he taught his soldiers how to marcJt-. So well did they learn this lesson that it is said that in marching over the roughest ground, so perfectly could they preserve their distances, that a simple wheel of subdivisions would form a perfect line of battle. With such a perfect military instrument ready at his hand, Frederick entered upon his military ca- reer. His phenomenal success may be attributed to two causes : First, the possession of an army thor- oughly well drilled and efficient, capable of rapid movement, and armed with superior weapons ; whilst against him were enemies who still adhered to the old formations, and still blindly followed the old tactical traditions. Second, tlie superior mobility of his army enabled him to inaugurate a new method of attack. Insteaerial Guard, at Solfeiino. CHAPTER YI. MODERN TACTICS. SINCE the tactical formations of armies have kept pace with the development of arms, a word with regard to the evolution of the breech-loader maybe in order. Portable fire-arms were first used in battle about the end of the 14th century. The first guns used had a vent on the top, were carried by one soldier and touched off" by a companion. The next step was the placing of the vent at the side, with a pan to hold the priming. The niatcljlock (1517) was the first serviceable weapon. A curved arm. })i voted on the side, car- ried a lighted slow-match for igniting the priming. The wheelock ignited the charge by means of a toothed wheel impinging upon a composition of iron and antimony. It was an expensive weapon and its use was confined to pistols and arms used by mounted troops. The first matchlocks weighed from 15 to 50 lbs., were from 4 to 8 feet in length, and had a calibre (45) 46 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. of from one-half to one inch. The Hpanisli reduced its length and its weight to 15 pounds, and gave to it the name of musket (1525). The flintlock was invented in 1(330; granulated powder having been introduced a little before. The introduction of iron ramrods and cartridges which followed, made the musket really an efficient weapon. The English flintlock — " Brown Bess '" — which figured in the early Indian wars, the Revolution, the Napoleonic wars and down to 1830. weighed IH pounds ; 3 feet 6 inches in length ; calibre .75 of an inch ; bullets 18 to the pound. The French musket weighed two pounds less. The percussion cap was invented in 1817, by one Shaw, of Bordentown, New Jersey, but did not come into general use until 1840. Rifled fire-arms were in use in the 18th century, but the difficulty and slowness of loading kept them out of the military service until about 1850-60. In tlie Crimean war both English and French troops were partially armed with rifles. Breech-loaders (needle-gun) first appeared in ac- tion in Europe in 1850, in the war between Prussia and Denmark, and the result was such that Prussia at once set to work to change her tactics to corres- pond with the new order of tilings. In the twenty years following 1850, she devoted her energies to this task, so that in the war with France she entered NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 47 upon the campaign with modern arms and modern tactics. In tliis contest it was needle-gun against Chassepot, and the Chassepot was the better weapon ; l)ut the needle-gun with needle-gun tactics was more than a match ior the Chassepot with the tactics of the muzzle-loader. The breech-loader is now rapidly giving place to the repeater, or magazine gun. This is an arm pro- vided with a reserve of from five to eight cartridges carried in a magazine and automatically fed into the barrel of the rifle. There are several methods of attaching this magazine to the rifle: but two, how- ever, are in general use : (1) a steel box just in front of the trigger-guard, either fixed or detachable, and (2) a tube under the barrel. In all of these systems but one, the arm can be used as a single-loader, re- serving the magazine for emergencies. Ihe magazine arm has already been adopted not only by all the principal powers of Europe, but China, Japan, and some of the South American Republics are preparing to follow suit. With regard to the breech-mechanism, the bolt system is almost universal. In it the opening and closing of the breech is effected by a bolt moving in a direct horizontal line with the bore, carrying a firing-pin, with the necessary spring mechanism for discharging the piece. Between 1884 and 1887, German v and Austria 48 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. were converting their single-loading into magazine arms. Up to this ti.me a calibre of about .45 inches was considered the best, and was universally adopted. Professer Hebler, a German scientist, was one of the first to advocate a decided reduction in the calibre of military arms (1886). His announcement that with a bullet of about 8 mm. diameter, greater range, accuracy, and penetration, with less recoil, could be obtained than with tho.se of any of the existing cali- bres, was received with incredulity. Investigation and experiment having shown, however, that these claims were fully substantiated, a halt was called, and before the complete rearmament of the great continental armies witli the large-bore magazine rifle had been completed, the work and vast ex- penditure of another entire change of arm had to be undertaken. Tiie advantages of a lighter arm and a lighter bullet, provided they will do the work re(juired of them, are obvious, and in no way more than in the largely increased number of cartridges that can be carried by the individual soldier. No doubt the astonishing results obtained with the small-bore rifle are due quite as much to the quality of the powder as to the mechanical improvements in the piece itself. Briefly slated, the sy.stems of small arms adopted by the leading European countries are: llij Austria — the Manlicher, the magazine of which NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 49* is H fixed vertical box at the rear end of the barrel. A steel clip or cartridge-holder containing a set of five cartridges is inserted in the magazine from the top. When the last cartridge has been fed into the box, this holder is automatically ejected downwards. This rifle can not be used as a single-loader except when the magazine is empty. By Germany — the Manlicher type with some modifi- cations. The chief peculiarity of the new German rifle is that it has a double barrel, or rather a pro- tective metallic jacket outside the barrel proper, which is intended to serve the double purpose of protecting the barrel from injury and the hands of the soldier from contact with it when heated by rapid firing. Recent experiments seem to show that the presence of this jacket serves to greatly increase the temperature of the barrel through the medium of the confined envelope of superheated air. By France — tlie Lebel, the first of the small-calibred rifles adopted. This is the only arm now in use hav- ing a tubular magazine, which is under the barrel and contains eight cartridges. By England — the Lee-Mefford, wliich is the Ameri- can Lee, somewhat modified. The magazine is de- tachable, contains eight cartridges, and is attached just in front of the trigger-guard, the cartridges being forced upward into the chamber by a spring. By Belgium — the Mauser, which is a .301 calibre 50 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. arm, with a maoaziiie for five cartrido;es in front of the trigger-guard. It differs from the Manlicher in that the clip or cartridge-li older does not go into the magazine, but is liehl above it and the cartridges fed in by a pressure of the thuml). The magazine may be kept full and the piece used as a single-loader. Turkey and the Argentine Republic are said to have adopted this arm. By Italy — the Vitali-Vctte'iii,2i 40-calibre magazine rifle for twelve cartridges, is still the arm of the Italian infantry, although an 8 mm. rifle is likely to be adopted. By tJieUnited States — the Springfield V)reech-loader, model of 1873, somewhat improved, is still the mili- tary weapon, but a Board now have the c^uestion of a small-calibre repeating arm under consideration. Among experimental arms, interesting on account of their ingenious mechanism, the Freddi.the Paul- son and the Maxim merit brief mention. The Freddi recoil-rifle is a small-cali])red arm, in which the force of recoil is made to open the breech and eject the empty case, obviating all movement of the breech-block by hand. Rapid firing is obtained by attaching leather cartridge l)oxes containing twelve cartridges to the side of the barrel. It can be loaded and fired without removing from tiie shoulder. In the Paulson recoil-rifle, the gases following ex- NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 51 plosion enter an aperture in the barrel in front of the chamber, and, by acting upon a long, bent rod, force it to the rear, opening the breech-block and compressing a strong spiral spring, which, after the cartridge has been inserted by hand, reacts, when released, to replace the breech-block and rod. The 3Iaxim recoil-rifle is automatic, and con- structed upon the same principles as the machine- gun of the same inventor. In it the recoil action of the powder charge is received directly on the breech- block, forcing it to the rear, extracting tlie empty case and compressing a spiral spring ; at the same time a system of levers operates a revolving drum to supply a new cartridge. When the force of recoil is spent, the spring reacts to close the l)reech and force the cartridge into the chamber. By continuing the pressure on the trigger, the piece will continue to fire until the magazine is exhausted. The magazine contains eight cartridges. The drum is loaded by hand. The breech-block can be operated by hand and the piece used as a single-loader. In all of these arms of small calibre, the bullet is of hardened lead, compressed into a casing of cop- per, soft steel, nickel, or German silver. The object of this metal covering for the Irallet is to give it a hold in the grooves of the rifle, for with a small calibre the relative diameter of the bullet to its lenerth is so e:reat that stabilitv can onlv be ob- 52 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. tained by an excessive twist of groove ; and lead of itself is too soft to give this hold. Smokeless powder is now fast taking the place of the compressed black powder-charge, at first used in small- calibred arms. On page 53 the details of some of the princi[)al military rifles are given. So far as known Russia has not yet decided upon the type of a new military rifle. THE PROBLEM OF MODERN TACTICS. The problem to be solved by modern tactics is how to get men up to within charging distance of the enemy — that is, within 200, or at most 300 yards. Under the old conditions of smooth-ljored guns, where the effective range of the musket was 200 yards, range of field guns 2,000 yards, and effective at a third of that distance, there was little difficulty in getting men up to the assaulting point. The new conditions are : Range of the rifle 2,000 yards, deadly at 1,000 ; range of artillery 4,000 yards, deadly at 2,000. In other words, the " dangerous zone " has increased from 200 up to 2,000 yards, while accuracy and rapidity of fire have increased in the same ratio. How to get men over tliis 1,S00 yards of ground is a problem to be solved. The ( Jermans have offered their " Company Col- umn " as one solution. It is not a system, but NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. 53 saqoui •spif 'p8iq3is qoiqAi GC C-. 2187 2242 o C<1 •puooas aad 188J 'i;ioo[aA aizznj^ o a: o 00 CO C<1 cr. IT" o in CO m saSpuiJ-BD JO -ox ■-' o 00 X C<1 c^i '-' iCi •ui ano in !• o* 00 "^ b aiaidnioQ •lanng OC I— ^- c in t^ in r-. T ■^ ^ ■^ cc ■^ „ iCl 00 ^ N CO •—I o •jaAioj u- _ UO ^ t~. o in ^^ in o •saqaui 'aaqi^Bf) ~. C-: ': o CO o C-1 CO o CO "^ cc OC •V 00' ■gpnnod '^qSoj^ ci CO 00 05 CJ c~. d d o 00 d ci < ::; 5 ^ -^ fe B :^ ^ -: > 54 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. simply the means to that end — the end a skirmish line — a skirmish line not to skirmish with, but to jight with. Briefly stated, the Company Column is thus put into action : A battalion coming to the " dangerous zone " is at once broken into company columns. A German com})any, at full war strength, numbers 250 men, formed in two ranks of three platoons. These are divided and subdivided until you get a squad of eight or twelve men. Plate IV shows the manner of forming the Company Col- umn, and also of deploying it. Upon an order to deploy, the leading platoon, — or a designated one, if the company is in line, — moves to the front, the center marching straight out; the others draw off to the right and left, the rear-rank men coming up on the right of their file-leaders, and all take an interval of from one to two paces. The remainder of the company acts as a support to the skirmish line. Its distance is not fixed ; at first deployment is about 150 paces. To reinforce the skirmish line, a second or both j)latoons are sent forward, forming on the flanks or in the gaps and intervals. A part of the advanced platoon can be halted mid- way, and serve as a first support to the skirmishers. In the end, the whole company — the whole of the first lino — will find itself u[)on the firing line, and will have been rej)laced iVom a battalion in second line. The men gain ground to the front bv fits and GERMAN COMPANY COLUMN. [Page 55. PLATE r\ IV. (IN LINE) 1st PLATOON OCAPTAIN ■ LIEUTENANTS 'GUIDE & FILE-CLOSERS 3 MUSICIANS o SI 0|2 1 1 " 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 " 3 " If^ ^ COMPANY^ ( COLUMN ^ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Z.\2_ -4- / / / / / / / / / (DEPLOYED^ 56 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. starts, either in squads, or by twos or threes, or singly. In the meantime they put forth every effort to keep down the fire of the defense, until finally, when enough men have reached to within charging distance to make success probable, a rush is made and the line carried, or the attacking party driven back upon its support. The French Company Column is deployed in much the same way, and is governed by the same general rules as to supports and the working of its way up to the 200 yard limit. French tactics pre- scribe that when a battalion reaches a point 2,000 yards from the enemy's artillery the " order of com- bat " shall be taken ; that is, the battalion is broken into compan}'' columns, which is a column of a sec- tion, or half platoon front. The squad is always the unit in the skirmish line, and is commanded by a corporal. Under the modern conditions of warfare, the rule governing any system of tactics is that, except un- der the most favorable circumstances as tD ground and cover, men must, when they reach the " dan- gerous zone," be sent forward in small bodies, and beyond the 800 or ],000 yard limit, singly, by ones or twos, or l)y squads. In other words, the skir- misher is the man who must win Ijattles. But there is another question that confronts the military commander under the modern conditions of wai'fare: a (|Ucstion that may be said to be the NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. 57 corollary of the main problem. This is how to supply ammunition to tlie fighting Inie during a battle. Formerly, with muzzle-loading guns, the iorty rounds wliicli a soldier carried upon his })er- son, eked out, maybe, by what he could gather from the boxes of fallen comrades, was ordinarily an ample supply. Now, with breech-loaders and re- peaters, when the volume of fire has increased many fold, when instead, of forty, each soldier must have at least a hundred or more rounds im- mediately available, the question of getting ammu- nition over the eight hundred or thousand yards of bullet-swept space, between the fighting line and its main support, is a very serious one. In European services the allowance of ammuni- tion for the individual soldier is usually divided into three lots : 1, That which he carries on his person or is carried by the company or battalion pack mules or carts, which should be about half of the whole allowance ; 2, That which is transported in the division train, and 3, That which goes with the train of the corps, and ma}' be cMisidered as a reserve. Of the whole amount, probably one-fourth would be in the corps ammunition train, leaving three-fourths within reaching distance of the troops engaged. Many plans have been suggested for getting up ammunition from the second line to the figiiting line, — by 23ack mules, by men specially detailed for 58 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. the purpose, or, as has recently been proposed, by means of a cart, provided with a bullet-proof shield of steel, which is to be pushed by two strong men. The company or battalion ammunition carts or wagons approach as near as possible to the line of battle. From this point the ammunition must be carried forward either by pack animals or by men — two or three to a company, under a non-commis- sioned officer — who are provided with bags or wal- lets, specially designed for the purpose, each weigh- ing, when filled, about forty pounds. In the absence of pack animals, horses may be taken from the wagons and used to pack the ammunition up to the supports of the firing line, but beyond this point it must be carried forward by men. The English have proposed an ajnmunition cart for connecting tlie wagons with tJje fighting line, capable of transporting as many as 20,000 rounds, depending on the nature of the ground. In shape it is like the bow of a boat, turned upside down, and mounted on wheels. The mnterial is of steel, three- sixteenths of an inch in thickness, and it is estimated that it will turn bullets anywliere beyond five hun- dred yards range. The cart is propelled by two men walking behind it, who are, of course, covered. From the supports it must be carried forward by men. The amount of ammunition to be carried into the field, in dilfercnt European armies, does not seem to NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 5& have been definitely fixed. The whole question of amnumition supply — the number of rounds to be provided, as well as the means of getting it up to the fighting line — is in a transition state. With the adoption of the small calibre rifle the number of rounds carried by the soldier has been largely in- creased. What the increase will be for the division and corps trains is not yet known. The following table, which refers to the supply for large calibered arms, is given to show how the ammunition for European armies is distributed. Under the heading " By the Soldiers," is also given the number of rounds of the reduced calibre so far as is known : AMMUNITION SUPPLY. 0* u c sS c S M O .2 to 3 < Russia. England. By the soldier 78 18 46 33 100 (150) 36 30 29 100 88 84 , 70 MleiV By pack mules, carts, regimental or battal- ion wagons, and at once available 35 48 32 - 83 1 J \ { 48 30 52 40 13 30 By division train, and avail'able in pro- longed action By corps trains Total supply 175 197 215 171 197 ' 170 * Small calibre. CHAPTER VII. STRATEGY. STRATEGY is the planning of a campaign and the determining of the character, direction, and the object to be attained by military operations, and embraces all operations prior to actual tactical col- lision. "A strategist moves the corps, divisions and brigades of his armv as a chess-i)layer moves his pieces, namely, to deceive his adversary and conceal his own ])urposes until within practicable limits of its sure accomplishment. He never shows his hand, even to his friends. Strategy is the mutual strug- gle between the leaders of hostile armies. It is a kind of lying by means of object-lessons ; a thimble- rigger's game, in which the dupe is never so sure to be wrong as when he is sure he is right." The methods employed in organizing armies, and the tactics by which their movements are regulated, have undergone many clianges since men were first assembled in organized bodies for warlike pur])oses; but the princii)les of stracegy have undergone no such change, since they are independen.t both of the nature of the arms and the organization of the troops. (60) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 61 Strategy is a much more difficult science than tactics. Every war develops good tacticians, but the masters of strategy are rare indeed. All strategical oj)erations may be said to have for their object one of three things : First, To menace or assail an enemy's communications with his base. Second, To destroy the coherence and connected action of his army by cutting communications be- tween parts of his front. Third, To effect superior concentrations on par- ticular points. The operations of strategy must not be confounded with tactical operations of the same nature. To out- flank an enemy on the field of battle ; to break his line, or to overwhelm it at a single point, would come under the head of Grand Tactics. Battles be- long to the domain of Grand Tactics. They are simply incidents to a campaign, which may be won by strategy without firing a hostile shot. The preliminaries to a campaign, which de- termine its character, whether offensive or defensive, its direction and object, and the means to be used for carrying it on, are usually decided upon by the statesman and not by the soldier. From a military point of view this is unfortunate. The be.st results may be expected where the military commander is himself the chief of the state. It is .safe to say that neither Caesar, Frederick nor Napoleon could have -62 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. accomplished what tliey did liad they been liam- pered by Parliaments or Legislative Chambers. War is despotic ; an army is a despotism ; and a monarch who is himself a soldier, and commands his own troops, has more tlian double cliances of success. In planning a campaign, the first thing to be de- termined is whether it sliall be offensive or defensive. The reasons that may determine this point are not necessarily all military : they may be political or geographical : — Political and aggressive, if the war were one for the acquisition of territory or to re- •establish control over a revolted province; geo- graphical and offensive, if an enem3''s frontier were open and poorly guarded by natural obstacles and the lines of advance were direct. The military reasons for taking the offensive would be, if you were ready and your enemy were not ; if your army was numerically superior and your lines of advance and bases were reasonably secure. On the other hand, an army would take the de- fensive for political reasons if it were a question of maintaining possession of disputed territory ; for military reasons, if it were inferior in numbers, or the lines of his approach long and easily assailed. The geographical reasons would be a frontier witli strong natural obstacles, as a range of mountains or a deep river. In the war of the Rebellion there were military, NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. 63 political and geographical reasons why the North should take the ott'eusive. and reasons equally strong why the Confederates should choose defensive cam- paigns. The advantages of the offensive in a campaign are that the commander of the invading army knows exactly what he wants to do ; his object is plainly be- fore him. and all the means for the accomplishment of his purpose have been carefully thought out, together with the methods for foiling the probable counter-movements of the enemy. Another great advantage is the power of concentration, keeping all of one"s forces togetiier and striking a decisive Itlow at the outset of the campaign. On the other h 6^ 1 --^ • ^ r ff J r \ O \ >^ ^^-^ \ -V w / " / ^ '^9^^^ \ \ ** —-^ -^ 1 «l / i / '^'\^ \ ^^ r X: < m -9 V ' \ —X ]<, X ^./•^ I ^ \^ /% " \ \ '^ \ ^ F\i • \. / -'- N z \ 1 \ \ ^y\ V- \ '' — ^1 />> ' s \ \^\ ^ ^^ I' \ 2 / -< / >. 1 1^^ V, p' 'C^ r o c < A A 5 V If 1 Y / v^ ^^j/- H^ / T o • v^ ^ \ ^ Cn >) Ti y o c "0 D O 8 c ^ D3 \^^ \ \ D \ ^ , s i. \^Lc \ 1 I m •H \ ^ ° o ^ K 1— \ * J 2 * S m \ Td ° 1 o \ \ c •n w c ,7, •n V'x \ Co t ^ 1 ^ ^ r s? > X 23 V~^ ^ C r- O C > < 1 68 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. the point to be assailed. Breaking through, he joined his center to one of his wings and assailed one-half of the divided enemy; withdrawing his center, he joined it to the other wing and fell upon the other half. The Waterloo campaign, 1815, is another ex- ample. Napoleon, Avith an army of 125,000, moved against more than 200,000 Prussians and English - Belgians, extended on a line of a hundred miles. His object was to separate the Prussians from their English allies and then beat them in detail. He struck their line near its center at Ligny, completely severing the lateral communications ; attacked and finally defeated the Prussians with his right wing and center ; sending Grouchy with the right to follow the retreating Prussians, he joined Ney with his center at Quatre-Bras to destroy Wellington. The first step was a success, but the campaign was a fail- ure. The reasons therefor are not far to seek, and may be summarized as follows : (1) In making his first attack witli inadequate numbers; (2) In sup- posing the Prussian army routed when it was not badly beaten ; (3) His ignorance of the direction of their retreat and of the existence of a practical road across the river Dyle, at Wavre, by which they could join AVellington. (Plate VI.) Of the 3d Order: To effect superior concentra- tions on particuhir points. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 69 The campaign of 1814, in Champagne, is an ex- ample. After the disaster at Leipsic, Napoleon, retreating before the victorious allies, prepared to dispute their advance on Paris, with an army of less than 100,000 men, opposed to more than twice that number. Fortunately, for him, the allied army was divided, one column coming from the east, another from the northeast, and a third from the north. His first contact was with the southern column, in which he was worsted. Taking his entire force, except two divisions, he fell upon the center column and routed it completel3^ Returning to the southern column, he attacked and drove it back toward the frontier. In the meantime the third column had joined the second. Again leaving a small force to watch the southern column, he moved with his entire army against the two combined columns of the allies. He gained decided advantages at first, but was finally beaten and pushed aside, and the allies moved at once on Paris. The campaign, which opened on the 25th of January, was closed by his abdication on 6th of April. In strateg}^ the campaign was good, the fighting- superb, but it failed because the French were simply overborne by sheer force of numbers. CHAPTER YIII. MILITARY OBSTACLES. A MILITARY obstacle is any surmountable im- pediment to military operations an enemy's country may present. It may be either natural, as a mountain range, a river, or a swamp ; or artificial^ as a fortress. The presence of obstacles influences both the direc- tion of operations and the character of the troops to be employed in a campaign. An impassable mountain is not a military obstacle, properly speaking, since strategy is wholly deljarred by the conditions. Rivers and mountains, passable only at certain points, are identical in their influence on military operations, since both Ijring together at certain poi-nts the roads and highways of commerce and civilization. A river is a less complete obstacle than a moun- tain range. It is harder to defend ; the crossings are usually more numerous and the lateral com- munications along tlic l)anks better. A mountain diain which afl'ords but onv point of (7<»; NOTES ON :military science. 71 passage can give no opportunity for the exercise of strategy for the assailant, but may for the assailed. If passable at several points, it affords a capital strat- egical problem. The efhciency of a river as an obstacle depends upon its width and depth ; upon the character of its banks — whether higher upon one side than the other — as well as U[)on whether it is straight or crooked. In Italy, north of the Po, the obstacles are rivers; south of that stream, mountain ranges. Spain, with its network of mountains, has always been a diffi- cult theatre for military operations. A glance at the map will show, in a measure, why the French army made so little headway there during the Napo- leonic wars. In the United States the obstacles are both rivers and mountains. The Alleghenies, extending from Pennsylvania to the northern boundary of Alabama,, intersect the eastern half of the continent, pouring streams both right and left into the Atlantic and the Mississippi, played an important ptirt in the military operations of the rebellion. This mountain barrier separated completely the armies of the East and the West. Blotting it from the map, and the Army of the Potomac and those of the Ohio, the Tennessee an'■>. ^9 Gun-coUon . . <;.">. 43 Dynamite No. 2 51 23 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 83 Gen. Abbott, in his report on explosives, places tliem as follows, when fired under water (Dynamite No. 1 being taken as the standard): Dynamite No. 1 100 Gun-cotton 87 Nitro-glvcerine 81 Rackarock 80 Explosive gelatine 117 Colonel Bucknill gives the following : Dynamite No. 1 U)0 Gun-cotton, dry 100 Explosive gelatine 117 Forcite gelatine 1.33 Blasting gelatine 142 Gunpowder 25 Gun-cotton, dynamite, and nearly all the high -explosives, when ignited in small cpiantities, burn slowly without explosion. If sufficient Cjuantity be fired, explosion takes place. But to obtain the full effect of any of these mixtures, a detonating cap or primer is necessary ; in other words, the force exerted depends very much ui)on the character of the initial impulse that upsets the equilibrium of the atoms. Fulminating mercury has been found to be best adapted for this purpose. Besides the ex|)losives already mentioned, a num- 84 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. ber of others have recently appeared, which promise to take a permanent place in the list. Among them we have — Carbo-Dynamite. — To obviate the objections to ordinary dynamite — the separation of the glycerine from the absorbent, its disagreeable and dangerous fumes, and the character of the gases given off by explosion — the inventor of this explosive substitutes for the inert absorbent, 10 per cent, of cork carbon, which is both an inflammable body and a safe and healthy absorbent. The gases given off are innox- ious, and an explosive effect of 50 to 75 per cent, greater than dynamite is claimed for it. Melinite, the invention of two captains of the French xVrmy, made its appearance four years ago, and was heralded as the most powerful explosive known. It is said to liave been given its name be- cause in color it resembles honey (miel). The in- gredients, as well as the mode of manufacture, have been kept a profound secret. As originally invented it is believed to have been composed largely of picric acid. Since a number of fatal accidents attending its use in its early days, the French claim to have changed its constituents and improved it. A late writer gives its constituents presumably as picric acid, gun-cotton, and gum arabic. Upon its first appearance its inventors claimed for it an explosive power one hundred times that of gunpowder and NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 85 ten times that of nitro-glyceriue. Recent experi- ments with it in shells seem to indicate that it pos- sesses an explosive force about equal to that of gun- cotton. Bellite consists of one part of dinitro-benzine and five parts of ammonium nitrate by weight. It is said to be very stable, and recent tests both by heat and shock have been satisfactory. For detach- ing rock it is claimed to possess greater efficie'jcy than any of the nitro-gl^^cerine compounds. Emmensite takes its name from its inventor. Like JAoburite and rackarock, it is composed of two ingredients — one a new nitro-derivative of certain hydrocarbons of the aromatic series; the other a mineral salt. The exact character of the ingredients and method of mixing are the features of the inven- tion. It is said that it can be fused and cast into any desired form, and by granulating, a powder of any desired quickness of action obtained. Taking for granted all that its friends claim for it, it enjoys the distinction of being the only high explosive that can be used in fire-arms. They claim" for it an explosive power considerably greater than nitro-gly- cerine and double that of dynamite. From recent experiments had at the Washington Navy Yard, and elsewhere, this seems to be one of the most promising of the new explosives. Securite — a German invention. Said to be flame- 86 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. less when exploded, and of particular service in engineering work where fire-damp exists. It is composed of nitrate hydrocarbons mixed with an oxidizing agent, as chlorate of potash, and some organic salt, which renders the mixture flameless. Hellhoffite is one of the latest additions to the list of exjdosives. It is liquid, and is formed by a combination of the nitro-products of tar oils with nitric acid. Its special value is claimed to be in mining — and an explosive force 70 percent, greater than dynamite and 30 per cent, than uitro-glycerine. It should be stated that the results claimed to have been obtained from all the later additions to the list of high explosives, are given with reservation. It is not known that any of tliem have been thoroughly tested by competent, unprejudiced parties. In conclusion, it may be said that the two classes- of explosives have each a distinctive value, aside from their use in a purely military way. Gunpowder does its work progressively and ma}'' be called a dis- intergrating compound. It is a good agent for rend- ing a[»ai't rock, but not a good one for breaking it up. Its action is always in the direction of least re- sistance. On the other hand, the dynamites may be called shattering compounds : their explosion is prac- tically instantaneous, and the force developed ex- erted equally in all directions. They are wholly unfitted for use as a projectile-force in fire-arms. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 87 SMOKELESS POWDERS. The latest experiments in the direction of the im- provement of gunpowder have been made with a view of obtaining a powder that shall be practically smokeless. While the value of such a powder, for small arms, upon the battle-field is obvious, it is with rapid-fire guns that its use has become a necessity, if the quality of rapidity of fire is to be fully taken advantage of. The introduction of a powder of this kind by the French, with their Lebel rifle, five years ago, set half the chemists of Europe at work in this direction. So far as known, all the smokeless powders are either nitro-compounds or picrates. None of them are wholly without smoke, but that given off appears as a thin haze, which does not obscure vision and quickly disappears. With equal charges and cham- ber pressures, much higher velocities are obtained than with black powder. Whether any of these powders possess " keeping qualities " under different conditions of temperature and climate, is yet to be determined. The English are now^ engaged upon some climatic tests in India and Canada, with prom- ising results. All the larger European powers have smokeless powder in actual use with small arms and rapid-fire guns. Its use in heavy ordnance is yet in an experimental stage. 88 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. The French Vieille powder is supposed to be a picrate powder, and in appearance resembles small bits of yellowish-brown paper. The English have adopted Cordite, which is composed of blasting gel- atine and nitro-cellulose, with a solvent added that will give it the consistency of thick jelly. While soft it is pressed into cord-like shapes, which harden as the solvent evaporates. The Hengst powder is prepared from straw pulp, which is treated in much the same way that cotton is in the preparation of gun-cotton. It is described as smokeless, flameless, i^ractically non-fouling, and that both the report and recoil are less than with black j)Owder. Ballistite, adopted by the Italian government, is a mixture of aljout equal parts of nitro-glycerine and nitro-cotton, with sometimes a moderating agent, as camphor, added. The gelatinized material is formed into tubes, granules, or other desired shapes. These powders have been used in guns up to six- inch calibre. The impression that they are noise- less is erroneous. CHAPTER X. CANNON. F ^IRE-ARMS are divided into two general classes : cannon and small arms. The first cannon was a mortar, firing stone balls, with a charge of mealed powder equal to one-half the weight of the projectile. The Bombard came next, built up of wrought- iron staves, strongly hooped, had a conical bore, and was fastened to a block of wood. The Culverin, of bronze, of great length, using iron balls and granulated powder, was the first really serviceable cannon. Shell, or bombs, as they were called, were first used in mortars. Until the invention of the sabot (a block of wood fastened to the rear of a projectile) the artilleryman of those days saw no way of using these projectiles in guns for horizontal fire except by making the piece short enough so that he could place the bomb in the bore with his hands, with fuse in proper position. These short pieces are called howitzers. The name is still retained for com- paratively short and light pieces, of large bore, in- tended only to throw hollow projectiles. (89) 90 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. The iuiprovement in cannon kei)t pace with that of small arnjs. Rifled cannon came into use but little later than the rifle musket, but it has taken much longer for the rifle to assert its superiority with heavy than it did with tield guns or small- arms. The metals used in the construction of cannon are bronze, wrought iron, steel and cast-iron. Bronze is composed of 90 jiarts of co))per and 10 of tin. It has a tensile strength of ai)Out 40,000 lbs. per square inch, and wdll stretch from 5 to 10 jier cent, before breaking. It lacks sufficient har(hiess for rifled guns, and is expensive. Aluminium-bronze has recently been experi- mented with, and owing to its lightness and strength, promises to occupy a prominent place among the gun metals of tlie future. Wrought Iron is pure iron. It has a tensile strength of about G0,000 lbs. per square inch, and will stretcii 10 per cent, before rupture. The diffi- culty of welding it in large masses is its chief defect as a gun metal. Steel. — By adding from .25 to 1.75 per cent, of carbon to wrought, or pure iron, it becomes harder, and capable of taking a " temper."' The carbon enters into the chemical structure of the metal ; it becomes elastic, stronger, and capable of resisting strains of all kinds to a much greater degree than NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 91 did the wrought iron alone. It has a tensile strength of from 50 to 150 thousand pounds per square inch. When thoroughly worked by the rolls or under the hammer, Bessemer or Siemens steel should possess a tenacity of 70,000 lbs. per scjuare inch, and a ductility of 20 to 25 per cent. Cast Iron. — By increasing the amount of carbon added to wrought iron it reaches a degree of hard- ness when it can not be wrought, and ] asses from steel into cast iron. Iron with from 1.75 to 2.5 per cent, of carbon, becomes liard and brittle. " The car- bon in this case is in the physical structure of the metal, and takes from instead of adding to its strength. It will stretch only about 1 per cent. Gun-metal iron should have a tensile strength of from 35 to 40 thousand pounds per scjuare inch. CONSTRUCTION OF CANNON. All the earlier cannon were cast, and of iron or bronze. " Built-up " guns were first constructed in England about 1850. This method is now almost universally employed. The principal systems of gun-construction are — In England, — the Woolwich, Ainnstrong and Whit- worth. The first the government, the latter private firms. The first two systems are essentially the same: — an inner tube of steel, reinforced formerly with wrought-iron coils, but now wholh' with steel 92 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. cylinders or rings, shrunk on by heat. In the Whit- worth system the material used is wholly fluid-com- pressed steel — the metal being subjected to great pressure while in a semi-fluid state. The inner tube is slightly conical, over which are forced the outer rings or jackets by hydraulic pressure — one over the other. In the Krupp (German) system, the guns are con- structed throughout of crucible steel, run into ingots of suitable size, and then forged under powerful steam hammers. The inner tube is made from a solid block; it is cylindrical about the base, and conical towards the muzzle; a steel sleeve, contain- ing the breech-block aperture, is first placed upon the tube, and over this sleeve are placed the bands made from solid disks of hammered cast steel, shrunk on by heat. The accompanying cut of the Canet, Kruj)}) and Armstrong guns, will show the general method of constructing built-up ordnance. The number of coils or rings shrunk over the inner tube depends, of course, upon the size of the piece. The Canet system (French) of built-up all-steel guns is now one of the most promising. In the United States the sj'stem now in vogue is to purchase the steel forgings for the inner tubes, jackets, etc., from private manufacturers, in the rough, and afterwards assemble and finish in Gov- Can^ ■if-?mf/3.iSm.J Gun.oS.Stona ^ "^ ^rmslronq16.ZSin. Oun^ ///&/. m NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 93- ernment shops. The forgings for our first built-up guns were procured abroad, of Whitworth, but now rehance is placed wholly upon steel of American production. At the Washington Naval Gun Factory there is a complete plant for the assembling of all-steel heavy guns of the largest calibres. Up to the beginning of the present year (1891) there have been completed here, in addition to guns of smaller calibre, 51 6- inch, 11 8-inch, and 4 10-inch breech-loading rifles,. while a number of 12-inch are well under way, and work on 13-incli guns will soon be begun. At the Army Gun Factory at West Troy, N. Y., work upon an extended scale is about to be begun. One gun each of 8, 10 and 12-inch calibre has already been assembled here. A second 8-inch army gun has been assembled at the West Point Foundry, while at this place and at the South Boston Iron Works the work of assembling 6 and 8-inch guns for the Navy has been going on for several years. Seventy-five 12-inch breech-load- ing mortars, cast-iron bodies hooped with steel, are now under construction, by contract, for the land service. The length of bore of a cannon should be such as to hold the projectile until the entire charge is converted into gas. With smooth-bore guns this is about IG calibres — with modern rifled guns, using t>4 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. l)eavy fhai'iies of slow-lxirninjj; })o\v(ler, a length of about 35-calil)res is the one now usually adopted. Guns of 40 calibres are being designed in the United States. Abroad, guns of 50 calibres length are pro- posed. The principal strains to which the metal of a gun is subjected are (1) the tangential, the force acting directly outwards and such as would tend to burst the hoops of a barrel; (2) transverse, sucli as would bend outward the staves of a barrel, and (3) longi- tudinal, the force that tends to })ull the gun a})art in the direction of its length, and is maximum at the bottom of tlie l)ore and zero at the muzzle. The Calibre of a gun is the diameter of the bore expressed in inches or centimetres. In the United fStates and all European countries, exce})t England, guns are designated by their calibre; in England by their weight in tons. Formerh' the weight of a spherical Ijall was used to designate calibre ; 0, 12, 24, 32, and 04 pounders, were the guns in use in the United states up to the time of the Rebellion. During and since the Rebellion the United States has fabricated smooth-bore cast-iron guns in great variety ami in large mimliers — loand 20-inch guns leading the list. The ballistic capabilities of this system of guns have never been exceeded l)y any sniooth-l»ore guns ever made, but in the modern game of way the siiioo(h-1)ore cannon is quite as NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 95 antiquated as the smooth-bore musket of forty years ago. It may be added that the ballistic tests of our new breech -loading ordnance show it to be tlie equal of any now in existence of like calibres. MODERN ARTILLERY. Artillery in general is divided into three classes — Field, Siege, ai.id Sea-coast. The first must pos- sess sufficient mobility to accompany troops in the field ; the second be of a weight tluit will admit of its being transported over ordinary roads, while the last class embraces all heavy guns intended for the defense of sea-coasts and harbors. In addition to guns proper, there are mortars belonging to each of the three classes — a mortar being a short piece using a small charge of powder, and intended for vertical fire only. All modern guns are rifled, and, without excep- tion, breech-loaders. Steel, either wholly or in i)art, is to-day the universal cannon metal of the world. Rifles and Rifling. — The rifling of a fire-arm has for its object an increase in accuracy, range and penetration. By giving an oblong projectile a rapid rotary motion about its longer axis, the inclination to turn end for end is overcome. We are, therefore, by increasing its length, able to obtain for any given diameter of projectile a greatly increased weight of metal over one spherical in shape. With an in- 96 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. creased ability to overcome the resistance of tlie air^ which weight implies, come increased range and penetration. The rotary motion gives to the projec- tile greater stability by distributing over the whole area of resistance any defects or inequalities in the form or structure of the projectile itself. The rotary motion is communicated to tiie pro- jectile either (1) by giving a peculiar shape to the bore, as in the English Whitworth gun (a hexagon), (2) Iw studs on tlie body of the projectile to fit into corresponding grooves in the gun, as in all early European systems, now abandoned ; or (3) by a band of soft metal — copper or brass — fitted to the base of the projectile and forced into the grooves of the gun by the explosion of the charge. This is now the universally adopted system. With the stud system, the grooves in the gun were feiv and deep, relatively ; but with the present system they are many and shallow. In our new 8-inch Navy gUns the grooves are .05 inch in depth and ;j2 in number, with increasing twist. The Velocity of Rotation of a projectile de- pends on the " twist " given to the grooves, which is measured Ijy the lengtli of one complete turn of the spiral. Formerly, this was usually uniform, with one turn in about 40 calibres, or twice the length of the gun. Now, with increasing twist, it begins with one turn in from 120 to 140 calibres,, and ends in one turn in from 30 to 40 calibres. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 97 Field-Guns. — Among modern field-guns , Krupp's 9.6 cm. (3.46 in.) may be taken as a repre- sentative of European guns. It weiglis 1,375 pounds, carries a shell of 26 pounds, has a carriage of com- pressed steel plate, and is provided with a simple brake to take up the recoil. At 30 degrees elevation it has given a range of 9,000 yards ; and in practice, out of 6 shots fired at a target lU'x 16|', at 2,200 yards, 5 shots struck the target, with a mean hori- zontal deviation of only 13 inches and a mean verti- cal deviation of 28 inches. It should be stated that 15 degrees is about the maximum practicable elevation for field-guns. With this elevation, the 9.6 cm. gun has a range of about 6,000 yards. The United States is represented by a 3.2 and a 3.6-inch gun, a 3.6 mortar and a 3-inch Hotchkiss mountain-gun — all of steel and all breech-loaders. Siege Artillery in our service is represented by a 5-inch gun and a 7-inch howitzer, steel breech- loaders, and by 8 and 10-iuch cast-iron mortars, old model. Sea-Coast Guns. — Among heavy guns, Krupp's 119-ton guns are the heaviest yet constructed and in actual use. Four have been made for the Italian government ; they have a calibre of 15.75 inches, a 2,000-pound shot and use 800 pounds of powder. In a recent practice at 2,700 yards, in 9 shots there 98 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. was but 1 metre vertical and 2 of mean lateral de- viation. One of these guns, retained hy the Krupps for trial purposes, has already been fired more than 200 rounds and is still in serviceable condition. In the United States our dej^endence is, for coast defense, still largely upon the 15-inch smooth-bore, supplemented by a few 6 and 8-inch muzzle-loading rifles, converted from smooth-bore cast-iron pieces by boring out and inserting a steel tube. Of ex- perimental guns for the land service we have under construction a 12-inch l)reech-loat]iiig cast-iron rifle, tubed with steel ; a similar piece l)()th hooped and tubed with steel : two breech-loading 10-inch, wire- wrapped rifles, one of steel and one of cast-iron. Nine 110-ton guns represent the heaviest type of English ordnance. A number of these guns have proved failures after issue to the service. With re- gard to guns for naval use, a reaction lias set in in favor of smaller calibres. A gun of about lo-inch bore and 65 tons weight is believed to be the heavi- est that will hereafter be constructed for use on shipl;)oard. In 1889 two ()-inch, cast-steel, breech-loading rifles were submitted for test Ijy private manufactnroi's. One was of Bessemer, the other of open-h earth steel, and both had the general dimensions of the 6-in. naval gun. The Bessemer gun burst on the second round ; the other withstood the ten test rounds, but NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. 99 an enlargement of the bore and other defects led to its condemnation. RAPID-FIRING GUNS. These liave been divided into three general classes : (1) Machine Guns, (2) Macliine or Revolving Can- non, and (3) Ra])id-Fire Guns. A Machine Gun has been defined as a single or multi-barreled gun, mounted on a stand or carriage, which feeds, loads fires, and ejects the empty car- tridge cases automatically. These guns usually use small-arm ammunition, although any gun of this kind having projectiles of less than 400 grammes (15 oz.) comes under this class. A Machine or Revolving Cannon is like a ma- chine gun, except that it uses projectiles of more than 400 grammes, usually from one to four pounds in weight, and does not always /?re automatically. A Rapid-fire Gun is a breech-loading gun mounted on a stand or carriage, and differs from the macliine gun or revolving cannon in that each round, containing projectile, charge and the fulmi- nate for its ignition, is contained in a metallic case. It is automatic only in the ejection of the empty cartridge-case and the cocking of the piece by the o|)ening of tlie breech after firing. Of the first class, the pioneer was the French INIontigne}', the Mitrailleur, which figured in the 100 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Franco-German war. It was a clumsy piece, firing but 150 shots per minute. The American Gatling ma}' be taken as a typical arm. It has ten barrels^ revolving about a central spindle, of .45 inch and 1 inch calibres. The smaller calibre uses small-arm ammunition, and can fire, on a spurt, 1,200 shots per minute. The Gardner has two barrels, also uses small-arm ammunition, and can be fired 350 times per minute. The Maxim is the latest pattern of this class of gun. It has a single barrel, mounted on a tripod^ and uses service ammunition. It is automatic throughout. After the first fire, the recoil extracts the empty shell, loads and fires automatically as long as cartridges are supplied. These are arranged (334) in a single row upon a tape, and by engaging one end in the mechanism, one after another is drawn in until the tape is exhausted. It weighs but 85 pounds, and can fire 600 shots per minute, requir- ing but one man to operate it. Of the second class, there is the Hotchkiss, with five barrels, of various calibres, the largest throwing projectiles of 2 and 4 pounds weight, at the rate of about 60 per minute; tlie Nordenfeldt,. with from 1 to 10 barrels, of a variety of calibres, the largest having a })rojectile of about 4 pounds. With the 5 and 10 barrel guns, the shots can be fired singly or in volleys. On a spurt it can be fired NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 101 at the rate of from 600 to 800 shots per minute. Both the Hotchkiss and Nordenfeldt use steel pro- jectiles — shot and shell — and form a part of the armament of every modern vessel of war, as a weapon against torpedo boats and for sweeping the decks of an enemy's ship. Of the third class, the Armstrong, Hotchkiss, Driggs-Schroeder, and Canet are the more important of this rapidly-growing class of guns. In this class of guns each projectile is handled separately. They differ from the ordinary field gun in that the ammu- nition is " fixed " — that is, the charge and projectile is secured in a metal case, much like a round of rifle ammunition. The projectiles are of various weights from 1 to 100 pounds. In the Armstrong system the 45 (4.72") and the 100 pounders (6") are the most important. The 6-inch will form the main battery of many cruisers. In it the charge and projectile are handled separately. Its rate is six unaimed shots per minute. The Canet system (French) embraces guns of 10, 12, and 15 cm. The 15 cm. gun has the distinction of having, with a charge of smokeless powder, given to an 88-pound projectile a higher velocity than has ever before been obtained from any gun — 2,857 feet j)er second. The Hotchkiss system has guns from 1 to 33-pound- ers, while 36.55 and 100-pounders are under con- tract or proposed. The 6-pounder can be fired, 102 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. with fair aim, 15 shots per minute. Generally speaking, a complete round of ammunition for a rapid-fire gun should not exceed a weight that can be handled by one man. The Dynamite Gun (See Plate) is the latest addition to projectile-throwing machines. It is simply an air-gun, the propelling force being com- pressed air. The original gun was a long tube of wrought iron, lined with brass — 60 feet in length and 8 inches in diameter — mounted on a truss hav- ing both vertical and lateral motion. These guns are intended wholly for throwing a projectile con- taining a large charge of the high explosives. The projectile is a case of thin steel, with tail-piece of wood, the whole being about six feet in length. The later type of these guns is of 15-inch calibre, mounted with trunnions; the barrel of thin cast- iron, 40 calibres in length ; has a range of about one mile, and is capable of throwing 500 pounds of high explosive under a pressure of 1,000 pounds per square inch. The new dynamite cruiser Vesuvius has an armament of three pneumatic guns, built into the ship. They are 54 feet long, with a 15-inch bore. On page 104 is given a table showing the best guns now adopted, or undergoing trial, by the dif- ferent powers. notes ox military science. Plate VIII. 103 '^rtliL '11 \ M lU lOk*- ««'■ v.\ ,v. e s5 2 104 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. RAPID-FIRE GUNS. England.... Armstrong 2 Germany.. Krupp France Canet U. States....' Hotchki-ss " ... Driggs-Schroeder. >3 ^: 6 te o 'S K 'Q £ a-^ a Country. Character of gun. o o te c a -Q H "" ^ w ?* c o a O oj .a 9 s 0) « II Length calibre 1^ p--- 28.42 p, O England... W t.iron& steel, iM.L. 100. 17.75 575 2000 1735 41,720 20. Steel, B.L. 111. lli.25 8.50 1800 2148 57, .580 30. 35.3 li 67. 74.2 13.5 16..54 .520 ,595 1250 1720 2025 1692 35,.540 34,140 30. ^2. 29.4 26.1 France " " (42 cm.) it " " (32 cm.) " " (Canet, 32 cm.) 51.9 72.-5 13.39 12.6 337 562 936 988 1968 2308 24,870 86,490 28.5 40. 24.8 31.88 Germany. " " (Krupp) .... 71. 15.75 485 1715 1700 34,-500 21.8 28. Italy " " (Armst'g).. 105. 17. 772 2000 1814 45,675 27. 29.7 " (Krupp) " (32 cm.) 119. 48.4 15.75 12.6 845 485 2314 1058 1900 2050 -58,122 30,840 31.7 35. 35.68 28.4 Spain U. States... " " (Army) 14.5 8. 130 300 1935 7,787 32. 18.-58 " .... " " (Navy) 13.1 8. 115 ^-.50 2080 7,498 35. 18.22 " " " (Army) 30. 10. 256 575 1940 15,000 34. 23.0:^ " " (Navy) 28 2 10, 240 .500 2100 15,285 35. 2:125 " " " (Army) 52. 12. 440 1000 1940 26,100 34. 27 ..58 " " " (Navy; 4.5.2 12. 425 850 2100 25,990 35. 27.-52 2. 4.72 12. 45 2380 1768 33. 10.04 5.5 6. 38. 100 2339 3794 40. 14.97 1.3 4.13 8.6 40 1729 829 35. 8.43 2.4 5.12 17.6 66 1640 1231 35, 9.14 3.2 4.72 23. 46 2493 1982 48. 12.26 6.2 5.91 44. S8 2493 3793 48. 14.99 2.1 4.72 26.7 .55 2288 1986 37. 12.22 1.5 4. 12.5 37 1900 901 45. 8.8 Note. — Roughly speaking, a pointed projectile will penetrate its diameter in wrouglit iron for every 1,000 feet of velocity at moment of impact. For penetration in steel, an allowance of 25 to 30 per cent, must Ije made. A steel built-up gun will cost about Sl.OOO per ton. CHAPTER XL PRA.CTICAL GUNNERY. The Science of Gunnery treats of projectiles iind their effects. Ballistics, that branch of it rehit- ing to their motion. The trajectory of a projectile is its path through the air. This is a modified parabola, the de.scend- ino- branch being shorter than the ascendino-. The initial velocity is the velocity with which a projectile leaves the muzzle of the gun, and is ex- pressed by the number of feet passed over in a second of time. This is measured by electro-ballis- tic machines of various kinds. These machines consist essentially of two wire targets in the path of the projectile, near the muzzle of the piece, each in a separate electrical circuit, and connected with the electro-ballistic machines proper. The projectile cutting successively the wires of the targets, breaks the currents. The breaking of the first circuit re- leases a weight, a pendulum, or projects a spark upon the blackened surface of a rapidly revolving cylinder ; the breaking of the second marks the distance through which the weight has fallen, the length of the arc described by the pendulum, or the revolution of the cvlinder ; then '^^=velocity. (105) lOG NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. The early artillerists ignored the resistance of the air in calculating the trajectory of a projectile, taking the trajector\' in vacuo as a true expression. This is nearly correct for heavy projectiles thrown with moderate velocity, but under no other condi- tions. The resistance of the air to a projectile increases with the velocity, but no exact law for this increase is known. It is found approximately that the resist- ance of the air varies as the cube of the velocity. This is nearly true for a certain range of velocity, but is by no means a general law. The exact amount of the resistance at any velocity is obtained by the use of a co-efficient K, which varies with the velocity. The value of K has been found by cal- culations from the result of many ex))eriments at various velocities, with oblong projectiles, between 100 and 2,900 foot-seconds, and tabulated. The mathematical expression for the resistance of the air may be written — R=d-^(j(^)' lb. avoirdupois. (A) in which d=diameter of projectile in inches, gzr^acceleration of gravit}' in feet-seconds. v=velocity in feet- seconds. K is a co-efficient varying with the velocity, and given in Bash forth 's table. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 107 d? is employed since the sectional area varies as the square of the diameter. The constant g appears in order to reduce absolute to ordinary gravitation units. The variable co-efficient K allows the use of the simple relation that the resistance varies as v^. 1000^ is used for convenience only, to avoid an un- necessary number of ciphers in the value of K, as otherwise it would be a very small decimal. In calculating the value of K, the use of the dif- ferent measures of length in the above expression {i. e., inches and feet-seconds) is taken into consid- eration. If the pressure of the air in pounds on what is called the circuUir inch — a circle one inch in diam- eter — is represented by p, tlie above equation be- comes. P=|(r^o)-^lb. (B.) From this formula a table may be calculated for different velocities, and the resistance on a projectile of any other diameter can be found by multiplying by the square of the diameter in inches. The values of the co-efficient K, as calculated, are for a certain shape of head of projectile (with curve struck with a radius of 1^ diameters), and for normal atmospheric conditions. When any other shaped projectile is considered, or the density of the atmosphere is not normal, certain corrections must 108 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. be applied to K, and the equation for the resistance becomes R=:d" r| {moY lb. avoirdupois. (C.) In which is an empirical factor depending on the shape of the projectile and its steadiness of flight, and T a factor depending on the density of the air — barometric pressure, temperature and humidity being considered. The Loss of Velocity due to this resistance may be calculated by the aid of the above equation. The effect of a pressure or resistance (R) acting on a projectile is to cause acceleration (in this case a re- tardation) in the velocity, represented by/, and the amount of it is known from the law of dynamics ex- pressed by the proportion. R : w : : — f : g. Where w=weight of projectile in pounds. Hence, retardation f= — ^. g. w b" Substituting the value of R from the preceding equation, we have Which is the rate of loss of velocity in feet per second caused ])y the resistance R in pounds. It will be seen from the equations (A), (B), and NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 109' (C), that the resistance of the air is independent of the weight of the projectile, but from equation (D) that the retardation is inversely as the weight. Hence, with projectiles of the same diameter, and moving with the same velocities, the resistances are equal, but the retardation on the heavier is less than on the lighter. Example : — Find the resistance of the air and re- tardation to a 12.5-inch shell, moving at a velocity of 1,400 f.s, atmospheric conditions normal. Weight of shell=802.25 lbs. ; diameter of shell=12.5 in. Substituting ii (A), (K for 1,400 fs velocity^ 104.7), R=(12.5)^i, (SS)-^=1395 1bs. '802.25 (104.7), (£)-^=55.96 feet-seconds. The above represents the resistance and weight of retardation at the instant that the velocity is 1,400 f. s. Deviation of Projectiles. Oblong projectiles deviate from various causes, but the principal one is " drift." This, with guns having a right-handed twist, is to the right, and is caused by the rotation, the resistance of the air which acts at the -center of the 'figure, and the consequent inclination of the pro- jectile to turn about its shorter axis. The resultant of the antagonistic forces cause the projectile to move to the right of the plane of fire. With the 110 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Springfield rifle tlie drift is 5 inches at 300 yards, and 43 inches at 1000 yards. The rotation of the earth is another cause of deviation where the direc- tion of the fire is not due east or west. There are three kinds of fire — direct, vertical and ricochet. The first is indicated by its name; the second, that of mortars, usually fired under an angle of about 45 degrees, in which the descending branch of the trajector}' is vertical; and the third, where the projectile striking water or earth under a small angle makes a series of rebounds, or ricochets. It is only effective with spherical projectiles. Rapidity of Fire depends largely upon the means of loading. On shipboard, where this is done by machinery, the 100-ton gun has Ijeen loaded by three or four men in less than a minute. It takes about five minutes to sj)onge, load, aim and fire one of our lo-inch guns. Field-guns can be fired from two to four times a minute, in guns of moderate length, muzzle-loaders (|uicker than breech-loaders. The Range of a Projectile is varied with mor- tars by increasing or diminishing the charge of powder; with guns the charge remains constant, and range varied by a change of the angle of ele- vation. The extreme range and the practicable range of a gun are two quite different things. The extreme range of the best heavy gun is about twelve jniles. On shipboard the greatest elevation that it NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE, 111 is possible to give this piece, will give a range of about seven miles. In land batteries a greater degree of elevation can be given, but the difficulty of controlling the recoil, and the enormous strain brought upon the carriage when a gun is fired under high angles, are such as to reduce the practicable to between a half and two-thirds of the possible range. The greatest distance that a projectile has ever been actually thrown was probably at Slioebur3'ness, in April, 1887, during the English jubilee. A 9.2- inch wire-wound gun, with a charge of 270 and a projectile of 380 pounds, and an elevation of 45°, landed its shot 21,800 yards away (12.33 miles). The Penetration of Projectiles into parapets of earth, well settled or rammed, is, for field guns, from 10 to ] 5 feet ; for siege guns a little more ; the 15-inch smooth-bore gun, about 22 feet, but against the best modern rifled ordnance a thickness of from 70 to 75 feet is necessary for perfect protection. The standard of penetration for a modern high- power rifled gun is the thickness of ivroughf-iron plate its projectile will perforate. Roughly esti- mated this will equal one calibre for every thou- sand feet of velocity at instant of impact. Against steel plates an allowance of from 25 to 30 per cent, must be made. CHAPTER XII. PYROTECHNY AND PROJECTILES. Pyrotechny treats of the preparation of ammuni- tion of all kinds, fuses, primers, offensive and orna- mental fireworks. Projectiles are divided as to form into two general classes — spherical and oblong. The first are used in smooth-bore, the latter in rifled guns. They are further divided as to structure into solid, hollow and case shot. Solid Shot are intended to act by force of impact alone ; to batter down walls or heavy obstructions of any kind. Armor-piercing shell are allied to this class. Cored shot are almost identical in shape with this shell, as shown in the accompanying cut, the cavity serving to throw the center of gravity well to the front. The aperture is closed with a screw- plug. Hollow Projectiles are for use against animate objects ; to set fire to buildings and destroy lighter obstructions. They are shell and shrapnel. A sltell is a hollow projectile about two-thirds tlie weight of a solid shot of the same diameter, and contains a bursting cluirge. A shrapnel is a shell of somewhat (112) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 113 thinner walls than an ordinary shell, filled with bullets and containing a bursting charge. It is the most effective missile against troops and is chiefly so used. Under the head of case shot we have grape and canister. In this class of projectiles no bursting charge is used — the smaller projectiles making up the case separate of their own inertia after leaving the muzzle of the piece. Grape shot, or a stand of grape, consists of nine cast-iron balls held together by rings and a bolt and nuts. It has been entirely supplanted in warfare by the machine gun. Canis- ter is simply a tin or sheet-iron case filled with bul- lets. It is only effective at very short ranges — 400 yards as a maximum. The accompanying cut (Plate IX) shows the general form of the projectiles above mentioned. Projectiles for rifle guns vary in length from 2i to 3|^ calibres. Rotary motion is communicated in two general ways ; either by a copper or soft-metal band at the base, which is forced outwards and into the grooves of the gun by the action of the powder- gases, or by a like band of metal a little forward of the base of the projectile, and of a slightly greater diameter than that across the lands of tiie rifling and is compressed into the grooves as it moves for- ward from the chamber into the rifled portion of the bore. 114 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Plate IX. Shell Crafie Canist BrhileHCurti) a / A \ \ \ A, / \ \ r i r ^'-■:^ J 3J hanerin^ Shell Commori.Shl} %vu\^ml NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 115 Chilled iron, cast steel, chilled steel, hammered and tempered steel, have all been experimented with against iron and steel armor-plates. The last has proved superior to all others. Steel projectiles of this kind are very expensive — costing from 15 to 25 cents per pound. Rockets (war) differ from other projectiles in that they carry the propeling force within them- selves. The English war rocket (Congreve) is guided by a stick attached to the center of the base. In Hale's American rocket stability is secured by giving the rocket a rotary motion about its longer axis. This is done by means of tangential vents on the side. It has no guide-stick. All war rockets are surmounted l^y a shell or solid shot at the head. Rockets have been Imt little used in late warfare. Incendiary Fire- works, such as Greek-fire, fire- stone, etc., are com])ositions that burn slowly but with great intensity. They are placed in shell along with the bursting charge, to set fire to ships, build- ings, etc., and are extinguished with great difficulty. The composition for ornainiental fire-ivorks is usually charcoal, sulphur and chlorate of potash, to which are added various ingredients to obtain bril- liancy and the different colors. Fuses. — A fuse is a contrivance for communicat- ing fire to the bursting charge of a shell. It con- sists essentially of a paj)er, wood or metal case con- 116 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. taining a composition of the same ingredients as gunpowder. There are three general classes, — timer percussion and concussion, to which may be added the combination, which is both a percussion and a time fuse. A time fuse is one that can be cut or set Plate X. A?**cyer _ a,entagon. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Plate XII. 121 o cO ^ ■c o az >. o ^ Q ^ 5 t 122 MOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Its form is shown in Fig. 2, and its nomenclature is as follows : A-B, Exterior Side ; A-C and B-D, Faces; C-E and D-F, Flanks; A-F and B-E, Lines of Defense; J-H, Capital. In the construction of tield-works, the line of the interior crest (D, Fig. 1) is that from which all hori- zontal distances are measured. The command, or height of the interior crest above the natural level of the ground, should never be less than 8 feet; the thickness of the parapet not less than 12 feet ; the depth of the ditch at least 8, and its width at least 12 feet. If for defense against anything heavier than field-guns, both the thickness and height of the para- })et should be considerably increased. To ascertain, in a rough way, the width of ditch necessary to furnisli sufficient earth for a parapet of given thickness, divide the area of the profile of the parapet b}^ the assumed depth of the ditch. A revetment 1*^ a facing of stone, sod, sand-bags, timber, etc., for holding earth in position. A fascine is a bundle of small twigs bound together, with a usual dinicnsion of !)" x 10' (Fig. G, Plate XI). A (jahion is a wickr-r basket open at both ends — 2' x 2' 9" (Fig. 7). Both are used for revetments, and also in siege operations. PERMANENT FORTIFICATIONS. Ui> to the time of the introduction of rifled guns NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 123 of high power, all permanent works were of masonry, and of the most elaborate design and construction. In the permanent work of to-day, iron has in large measure superseded all other materials. Modern fortifications have taken the forms of turrets — revolv- iqg or stationary — cupolas, casemated and ironclad batteries, of cast-iron, wrought. iron or steel. All the continental powers, except France, have adopted the Griison chilled cast-iron plate for turrets. These are cast in curved form, the largest plates yet fabri- cated having a thickness of 49 inches at the center, and decreasing towards the top and bottom. Up to the present time, the English have used wrought iron exclusively- in the construction of turrets for sea-coast defense. Compound plates, of wrought iron faced with steel, or of cast-iron,- are likely to be used in future. In France the all-steel plate is employed in turret construction, alone or in combination w^th concrete backing. As regards cost, the Griison cast-iron plates can be man.ufactured for from $150 to $200 per ton ; wrought-iron })lates, from $220 to $330 per ton ; the French all-steel plate, about $380 per ton, and the largest compound plates, weighing about 50 tons per plate, about $450 per ton. In the construction of permanent works for land defense, as of a city, a continuous line would never be attempted. Resort would be had to lines of de- 124 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. tached works placed on commandiDg points and in defensive relation to each other, care being taken that no spot Ijetween adjacent works is unswe])t by iirtillery fire. The accompanying cut (Plate XIII) represents, in vertical section, a fortification of the old school, with the nomenclature of the work. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Plate XIII. 125 CQ «0 Q Ui k" tS i -^ ^ ^m mmm fi :.ir. r , '- ..-. Hr ,n, r , r-Hr; H CHAPTER XIV. SIEGE OPERATIONS. SIEGES are undertaken for the capture of places that can not be carried by open assault. The first step to be taken by the besiegers is, if possible, to completely surround the place, cutting it off entirely from communication with the outside world ; then to provide for defense against attacks both from within and without; to construct maga- zines and store-houses, and to collect all the material needed for subsec[uent operations. This is called the First Period. The point chosen for attack is usually the salient of a bastion and its adjacent out-works. When everything is ready the Second Period begins with the opening of the first parallel. The Parallels are wide ditches, tliree or more in number, having a general direction parallel to the besieged work, and of sufficient length to envelop the point of attack. Here are brought all the tools and materials to be used, and here the guards for the protfction of working parties are posted. The Boyaux are the trenches or zig-zags, run forward from the j^arallels. They are given such direction that they can not be enfiladed from any part of the besieged work. (12G) NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. 127 In running the parallels the " simple trench " can usually be employed, but for the boyaux,the " fly- ing sap," the "full sap," or the "double sap " will have to be resorted to, depending on the direction and severity of the enemy's fire. In Plate XI, Figs. 1 and 2 represent in profile the simple trench ; Fig. 3 a flying sap ; Fig. 4 a longitudinal, and Fig. 5 a cross-section of a full sap. In the simple trench, cover is obtained by excavat- ing to the required depth and throwing the earth toward the side of the enemy. In tlie flying sap each man, to obtain speedy cover, is provided with two gabions, which he plants side by side, and fills with earth as quickly as possible. In the full sap it is necessary to provide for protection ahead as well as on the side, and for this purpose a heavy sap- roller is provided. This is a large wicker-work or sheet-iron gal3ion stufted with fascines (shown in Figs. 4 and ">). Tiiis is placed at the head of the sap and rolled ahead a few inches at a time, the space being filled in with earth at once. The double sap provides for protection on both sides and in front. Two sap-rollers are used, placed end to end, and the excavated earth thrown in both direc- tions. While the boyaux are being pushed forward, and particularly after the construction of the second parallel, the batteries are constructed — Breaching batteries, to batter down tlie wall and make a practi- 128 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. cable breach ; Enfilading batteries to enfilade and dismount the guns along the faces of the work. In this way the besiegers gradually work their way forward up to the covered-way in front of the ditch. From this point an assault may be made, or the approaches continued down to and across the ditch up to the wall of the main work, which, in the meantime, is supposed to have been breached by the besiegers' batteries. The Second Period embraces all work from the opening of the first to the completion of the last parallel, and the Third Period the assault and ail sul)sequent operations. Mining and countermining are frequently resorted to, and desperate encounters often take place in these underground operations. In the days of smooth-bore guns the first parallel was usually opened about 600 yards from the be- sieged work, and three parallels were usually suffi- cient to carry the attack forward to within assault- ing distance; but under modern conditions the first parallel would probably be opened many times this distance. At the siege of Strasburg, during the Franco-Prussian war (1871), the (Jermans o[)ened their first parallel at 4,000 yards from the French works. Their breaching batteries were establishee |)referred, as it gives a current of large quantity and low tension, and is not likely to ex- NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 133 cite induced currents in tlie wires of contiguous mines. The positions of the mines of a system are care- fully located by means of intersection of lines from fixed points on shore. There must be no indication of their position above water. Fig. 1, Plate XV shows one method of fixing the position of and firing a system of mines by means of intersection of lines. Two operations are neces- sary, at A and B, at each of which points there is a break in the circuit, which, however, is closed as long as a hostile vessel is upon any one of the inter- secting lines. When a vessel is over any mine, both circuits are consequently closed and the mine is fired. The circuit may ])e closed automatically by the tele- scope of the observer, or it may be done by means of a key -board in front of him. Fig. 2. The ordinar}- huoymd mechanical mine. An arrangement of percussion nipples, or caps, serves to insure explosion on contact with a vessel. It w^ould be anchored from 10 to 20 feet below the sur- face of the water, depending, of course, on the depth of channel and the size of craft that would be likely to enter. Fig 3. A ground mine. Usually a hollow cast- iron body, and rests upon the bottom of the channel. It may be fired at will, by an electric fuse, or may be made automatic by a buoy having precisely the 134 notes on military science. Plate XY. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 135 same arrangement for closing the circuit, on contact, as a live mine, and with which it must be, of course, electrically connected. Fig. 4- A. spherical, buoyant mine. This form has been adopted by the United States. The case is made of two thin hemispheres of steel, the narrow flanges of which are welded together forming a water-tight joint ; that for the 100-pound mine is 32 inches in diameter and \ inch in thickness. It is fired by an electric fuse, and may be exploded at will, from the shore, or the contact of a passing vessel may be made to close the circuit and fire the mine. A system of submarine mines can, at best, be only auxiliary to guns andforts. Without the protection of batteries, mines can be readily removed, killed or exploded — an operation for which provision would always be made in the plans for an offensive move- ment against a harbor or channel. , TORPEDOES. Torpedoes are of two classes, — Controllable and Uncontrollable. In the first class, which are also known as locomo- tive torpedoes, the torpedo carries within itself the engine that supplies the motive power to propel it, and is steered from the shore by an electric cable, — a float upon the surface of the water giving it buoy- 136 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. ancy. The engine may be driven by carbonic-acid gas, by compressed air, or by electricity sup{)lied from the shore by cable. The range of this chiss of torpedoes is limited only b}' the length of cable that can be carried and the distance at which the flags or steering balls can be seen. Two miles seems to be the range claimed for the best of them. They are cigar-shaj)ed, varying in length from 20 to 36 feet, and carry from 200 to 500 pounds of dynamite or gun-cotton. The Controllable torpedo, of which there are various models, is essentially an American invention. Plate XVI re})resents the Patrick Torpedo. It is driven by a carbonic-acid-gas engine. Buoyancy is attained by means of a hollow coj)per float, which maintains the torpedo at a submersion of about three feet. The torj^edo is 36 feet long and 22 inches in diameter. It has a range of one mile. The float is 6 feet longer than the torpedo, to which it is rig- idly couiiected. Two flags alxive the float indicate to the operator the position of the torpedo. It is started, stopped and guided on its course by means of a two-wire electric cable in connection with 100 cells bichromate batterv. The wire is paid out from the shore station as the torpedo advances. It is charged with 200 pounds of dynamite, which may be fired electrically at will, or on contact. (Plate XVll.) NOTES OX ^rILITARY SCIENCE. 137 Plate XVI. 138 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. In the Sims-Edison tor[)eclo, the motive power is electricity, supplied by a dynamo machine on shore, through a cable. The cable is coiled in a compart- ment within the torpedo and is paid out as tiie tor- pedo advances. It is not only propelled, but steered and fired by e^ectricit3^ Buoyancy is obtained, as in the case of the Patrick torpedo, by means of a float. Two steel rods, carrying balls, project above the float and indicate its position. In the Nordcnfelt electrical torpedo, the motive power is supplied by storage cells. The storage battery and motor are within the torpedo, which is steered by a l)alaiiced rudder, manipulated from shore through a cable. It has a length of 35 feet, moves 6 feet below the surface, and has a charge of from "200 to ")00 pounds of explosive. Of the Uncontrollable class, or fish torpedoes, the Whitehead is the representative of European systems, and is the only type of naval torpedo in actual use aln'oad. It is a ('.igar-shaped body of steel or phos- phor-bronze, divided into compartments for the pro- pelling, directing, and exploding meclumism. The motive power is air, compressed under a pressure of about 1000 lbs. i)er square inch, and an engine. It has an extreme range of about 800 yards, and a speed, uj) to the half of this distance, of 30 knots per liour. Plate XVII, on page 141, shows its general ai>pearance. The explosive charge is carried in the NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. ISO" forward section, the air reservoir and machinery in the central sections. The Howell torpedo, the invention of Captain Howell of the Navy, has much the general a})pear- ance of the Whitehead, and is its principal rival. Tiie shell is of hrass, the other parts of steel or [)hos- phor-bronze. The propelling power is stored in a steel fly-wheel, given a high velocity of rotation before the torpedo is launched. The fly-wheel is geared directly to the propeller shaft. The degree of submersion is controlled by hydrostatic pressure. After Uxunching, it automatically takes the depth fjr which set, which it maintains. The fly-wheel can be worked up to 10,000 revolutions per minute, which will give a speed of about 22 knots for 400 yards,, and an extreme range of about 1,000 yards. The 8-ft. torpedo will carry 70, and the 9-ft. 90 lbs. of explosive. For accuracy it is superior to the White- head, but the latter has the greater speed and effect- ive range. The torpedo-boats designed for carrying fish-tor- jiedos are of special construction, and are remarkable for their phenomenal speed. The best of them have attained a speed of nearly 30 miles per hour. The torpedoes are discharged by gunpowder or com- pressed-air impulse, througli tubes in the bow or upon the sides, either above or below the water-line. The propelling machinery comes into play as soon. 140 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. as the torpedo strikes the water. Torpedoes and torpedo-tubes form a part of the equipment of most of the recently constructed war-ships. The best example of a ijurely j^'^'ojectile torpedo is that invented b}' the late Captain Ericsson, intended to be fired from a breech-loading gun or tube, built into a vessel especially designed for the purpose {the " Desti'oyer''). The gun is submerged some 7 feet, closed by two water-tight valves, one of which, of wood, is sujDposed to be shot away and replaced after each discharge. A gunpowder charge of 25 lbs. gives a range of some 400 ft. to a torpedo car- rying 300 lbs. of explosive. (Plate XVIII.) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 141 Plate XVII. CHAPTER XVI. GRAND GUARDS, SENTINELS AND OUTPOSTS. ''T^HE safety of an army engaged in active military J_ operations depends largely upon tlie alertness and fidelity with which its guard duty is performed. The guards may be said to be tlie eyes and ears of the main body. At all times, in peace as well as in war, every mili- tary post, camp or station has a regularly mounted guard. That for the protection of stores and build- ings, and to control the ingress and egress of indi- viduals, is termed the Camp Guard. It is never omitted in any weather or under any circumstances. In time ot war, in presence of an enemy, there are, in' addition to the camp guard, other jn'ecau- tions taken to observe the enemy and prevent a sur- })rise. This is done by an advanced guard, consist- ing of two or more concentric lines, spread out in fan-shaped order in front of the main body of the army, and so posted that no person can penetrate the line without being discovered. The duties of the advanced guards, or outposts as they are termed in foreign services, are the same in i\\\ armies, viz. : (142) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 143 1. To secure time for the main bod}^ to get under arms and ready to receive the enemy. 2. To obtain all {)0.?sible information respecting the enemy. 3. To prevent the passage of nnauthorized persons across the outpost line. 4. To secure undisturbed repose for the main body. The troops employed upon this duty vary in dif- ferent services. From one-fourth to one-eighth rep- resents the average proportion. They are spread out on four lines, u.sually — (1) grand guards, (2) out- posts, (3) sentinels, and (4) videttes. Grand Guards are usually made up of details fur- nished by the different regiments of the division whose front they cover. They are posted upon or near the roads or avenues of approach leading from the exterior line of outposts to the main body. They supply the men for, and act as support to the out- posts. Outposts. Outside the grand guard, and occupy- ing a much more extended front, are the outposts. These consi.st of a line of small posts, each under command of a non-commissioned officer, posted within sight of each other, and, when practicable, within view of the post of the grand guard. They should be concealed as much as possible from view of the enemy. A number of posts are placed under the supervision of an officer. 144 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. Sentinels. Outside the line of outposts are the in- dividual sentinels, who should be able to see and communicate with those on either side. At impor- tant points, or wlien an attack is apprehended, the sentinels are usually doubled. Upon roads or ad- vantageous points for observation beyond the chain of sentinels ; single individuals are sent forward to watch the enemy. They are called videttes. Patrols. To keep up communication between the line of outposts, the outposts and sentinels, and the grand guards, patrols are employed, who, passing constantly between the different parts of the lines, keep each informed of the state of affairs of the whole line. For obtaining information of the enemy, reliance must be had upon cavalry patrols, who often go out far in advance of the infantry outposts. As has been said, " Cavahy can hardly go too fixr or too often." Often it is necessary to have a fourth line, or line of reserves, between the grand guard and the main bod}^ to act as support. Tliese reserves may con- sist of artillery as well as infantry, and always there will be mounted men attached to the grand guards and reserves, to convey intelligence quickly to the main body. The strength of the grand guards and their dis- tance from the main line will dej)end upon t]\o im- NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 145 portance of the position, the facilities for defense which the ground offers, and the strength and en- terprise of the enemy. The grand guards will usu- ally be from one to two miles from the main line. The sentinels and outposts are never allowed to sleep, nor more than half the members of the grand guards at one time, and never when an attack is apprehended. The sentinels are relieved at stated intervals from the grand-guard posts. The horses of mounted men are always kept Sciddled and bridled. In case of attack, the sentinels fall back upon the outposts, they in turn upon the grand guards, who, after offering as stubborn a resistance as possible, Avould fall back upon the reserves, if there be any ; the duty of the whole being to hold the enemy in check long enough to enable the main body to prepare to receive the attack. The whole force of the advanced guard will, if driven in, enter the main line at certain designated and well-understood points. To protect an army on the march from surprise or ambuscade is more difficult than to guard one in position. Not only the front, but the flanks and the rear, must be guarded. For this purpose we have an advanced guard, flankers and rear guard. The advanced guard should consist of troops of all arms, and be of sufficient strength to receive the enemy and hold him in check until the main body 146 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. can come up. It must carefully examine every spot of territory in front, drive off small bodies of tlie enemy, and make a surprise of the maiu body im- possible. The flanhcrs march aloug each iiank of tlie col- umn and guard it from surprise in that direction. In an open country tliey would usually be of cavalry. The rear guard finds its true functions during a retreat. It must dispute every inch of ground, and; whenever the ground offers opportunity, halt and fight long enough to compel the pursuing force to deploy, when the retreat may be resumed. The accompanying cut (Plate XIX) will show the general methods of performing outpost duty in European armies. The Austrian system is essentially one of resist- ance. The havpt posts are posted where a vigorous resistance is possible, and iiere every possible means of defense must he exhausted Ijefore retreat is allowed, and sometimes a sacrifice of the whole force is nec- essary. In the French system the grand guard wouhl usu- ally be one company; the petit posts one-half the strength of the grand guard. The petit posts post double sentinels, and also eini»loy a fourth of their numl)er upon jmtrol iluty. Like the Austrian, the French system looks i'or stubborn resistance by the outposts. Plate XIX. Outpost Service. [Page 147.] ALfSTRIAN. ^">' ) hauptpost i (grand guard) ^^• — t RESERVE ^ '^ FRENChi. •l ' PETIT POST GRAND GARDE 9-JOo I ^ -| CORPS PRINCIPAL GERMAN- DOUBLE SENTRIES. II I ^^^H FELDWACH. GROS. IfRESERVE) ITALIAN. P^cCOU. GRAN GARDIEI Posr, 1 MAIN BODY 148 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. The Italian system is one of observation and re- sistance combined, and both are equally relied upon. The jnccoli posti consists of three or four men and a commander. The grand guard forms the line of re- sistance. In the German system the feldwach number 30 to 40 men each. These send out double sentries to the front, leaving one-third of their strength for patrol- ling. The position of the sentries and supports, as well as the details of the service, are left largely to the commander of the outposts. The posting of an intermediate body {piket), between the feldwach and the gros, is left to his discretion. The Russian system of outposts is one of observa- tion, that of the Swiss and Dutch one of resistance. CHAPTER XVII. MILITARY RECONNAISSANCE. MILITARY reconnaissance is the process of ob- taining information (1) concerning the enemy, and (2) of the ground with a view of conducting military operations. Reconnaissance of the enemy may be conducted ■either secretly or in force. If the former, an officer, either alone or with a small escort, approaches as near as possible to the enemy's lines, and from a concealed position learns what he can of his posi- tion, strength and intentions. In a reconnaissance in force, a considerable body marches oj)enh' to- wards the enemy, drives in his outposts and com- pels him to disclose his line of battle. This latter would be under charge of a general officer, the former by a staff officer or an officer of experience. The duty of reconnoitering a country is one that ma}^ fall to an officer of any rank and of any arm of the service, and his efficiency will depend upon his ability to appreciate and report upon its topo- graphical features, its roads, resources, obstacles, etc. To do this to the best advantage an officer should (149) 150 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. be able to sketch ground, even if but roughly; to judge distances by the eye, and to pace them cor- rectly if on foot, or by the pace of his horse if mounted ; to estimate approximately the height of hills and the slope and gradient of roads. The in- formation obtained is usually required at once, and hence the work must be done quickly. A note- book, a compass, a field-glass, and a piece of stout cord knotted in yard divisions, are all the imple- ments required. Reconnoitering duties likely to fall to the lot of regimental officers would usually be those of recon- naissance of a Road, a River, a Wood, a Railway, a Village, a Mountain, or a District. Of a Road, would usually be made on horseback, and slowly enough to enal^le the officer to take in all the necessary details of the road and adjacent land, and to make a sketch of both. Between tlie sketch and the report the thing to be shown are: The general direction and character of the road, its width, its condition, the soil, sand or clay ; if fenced, with what material; if bad, if a detour is practica- ble, or material at hand for repairs. All gradients above 5° should be given. Slopes greater than 8° are con.sidered impas.sable for lieavy baggage wagons without doubling up the teams. Artillery carriages can ascend slopes of 1G° or 17°. Full details of bridges, their length, breadth and material should NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 151 be given, and whether passable for all arms. A bridge strong enough for infantry in column of fours will bear guns singly or cavalry in file. Streams, roads, woods, and defiles which it crosses or through which it passes are noted with all necessary particu- lars, together with suitable places for camps and halting places. 0/ a River, would show its general direction, its width, average depth and strength of current, the character of its banks, whether crossed by bridges, fords or ferries, with all necessary particulars of each ; the best places for throwing bridges in the absence of other existing means for crossing, and any suitable positions for artillery on either bank. The surface velocity of a stream may be determined by throwing a piece ot heavy wood into the middle of the current, and noting the time required to pass between two points, as a hundred yards. Of a Wood, would show the extent, nature of the ground, the roads, streams, ravines that cross it, and whether all arms'can pass freely through it or must keep to the roads. The practicability of getting through a wood depends greatly upon the closeness of the trees to each other, the average height of the limbs and the character of the undergrowth. Of a Railway, would show its general direction, its gauge ; whether single or double track ; the number and character of the stations, and what platforms 152 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. they possess : tunnels, cuts, embankments, crossings, and bridges, and whether these can be defended; j)artictilars concerning the rolling stock and tele- graph lines, and the best points and surest way of interrupting traffic temporarily, or of permanently destroying the line. Of a Village, would show the nature of its site, the character of the houses, and the material of which built, and whether surrounded with hedges, fences or walls, and high or low ; what Ituildings would be suitable for hospitals ; material used in roofing; the quality and quantity of the water supply, and whether it could be cut off by an enemy. OJ a Mountain, would show the extent of the range, and its general character and steepness ; the ]»asses, roads and trails over it ; what roads or passes are practicable for carriages, for i»ack animals, and for footmen only ; whether streams are liable to sud- den rise, and all details as to springs and water supply. Of a District, would deal with the general features of the country; its roads, railways, woods and de- files; cannls and rivers, with means for crossing; towns, villages and farm-houses; the produce and supplies; the kind of animals employed, and the vehicles in common use by the inhabitants. CHAPTER XVIII. MILITARY TRANSPORT AND SUPPLY. THE efficiency of an army in the field is largely dependent upon the character of its transport : that is, upon the certainty and regularity with which its food, a iimunition, supplies of all kinds, are de- livered ; its baggage ke])t at hand, and its sick and wounded provided for. Military transport is usually of three kinds, as (1) water transport, by rivers, canals, etc.; (2) railway transport, and (3) by wheel vehicles, j^ack animals, and human carriers. The first has the disadvantage of being easily interrupted — a brief possession of a stream or canal being sufficient to enable an enemy, by sinking boats, cutting banks, etc., to render navi- gation for a time impossible. Railway transport is that which armies, operating in civilized countries, will usually depend upon, and is one that can be easily repaired when broken. AVhether in other cases, wheeled vehicles, pack animals, or human car- riers will be employed, will depend upon the char- acter of the roads, and the means of communication common to the country. Of railway and water transport little need be said, the ordinary rolling-stock of the one and tonnage of (153) 154 NOTES OX MILITARY SCIENCE. the other heiiio,- taken for military piirj)Oses, and phiced under military control. In campaigns in un- civilized countries, unusual means of transport must often be utilized. For pack animals, besides the horse and mule, camels, elephants, and l)ullocks have often been employed. In the Abyssinian campaign elephants were largely employed by the English, and were found very useful, especially in the transport of artillery. They were also used in Afghanistan. Camels were also used in Abyssinia, and formed the chief means of transport in the Afghan wars. The load of an elephant is from 15 cwt. to one ton ; that of a camel from 450 to 500 lbs. In New Zealand, against the Maoris, bullocks were mostly used by the English troops. A light cart, capable of carrying half a ton, was drawn by two or four animals, and did good service. The English have also made large use of human carriers for the purposes of military transport. In China and in India carriers have been employed, wliilst in the Ashantee campaign they had to be relied upon almost entirely for transport purposes. Besides his own kit of 22 lbs., each man in thiscam- [)aign was expected to carrv 40 lbs., bringing his load up to 02 lbs. The English have not ibund human carriers reliable. " Four-footed animals may stray away or break down, Ijut will not sysiematieally plan to desert to avoid distasteful labor." NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 155- Experience has proved that to be efficient, military transport must have mihtary organization. In the English service the mihtary transport is divided into three parts — regimental, which includes that placed wholly under the control of the battalion commander or other tactical unit, for the supply of its wants ; departmental, which embraces all transport other than regimental that accompanies an army in the field, and marches, camps, and works with it; and general transport, which supplies the connecting link between an army and its base. In the German service the work of providing for the wants of an army is divided into three branches — Intendance, Transport, and Supply. Intendance, which is largely non-militar}' in its organization,, has control of the finances, provides for the supply of clothing, provisions, train material, and stores in general, and the auditing of accounts. In the field it has charge of all the arrangements for procur- ing, storing, and distributing food and forage, and tlie formation of transport trains and provision depots. The Transport service has a strictly military organi- zation ; the personnel is organized in transport battal- ions, and is assigned to different corps, but is non- combatant. The Supplg branch embraces everything connected with the actual collecting, storing, forward- ing, and distribution of provisions, under its own officials, and is closely allied with the Intendance. CHAPTER XIX. TROOPS IN CAMPAIGN. THE general efficiency of a military force depends very largely upon the care exercised in prepar- ing the individual soldier for the field. For this the captains of companies are almost wholly responsi- ble, and it is proposed to state briefly the direction in which this cave should be exercised. The company, as the part of a larger force, is sup- posed to have received orders to prepare for a march. First, and most important of all, the captain must see that each individual is provided with the speci- fied number of rations required to be carried on the person, and that they are actually in his haversack, — the meat portion cooked; that he has the required number of rounds of ammunition in his cartridge- box or elsewhere upon his person, and that his arms are in good order. Next, and of the greatest im- portance, is the matter of the knapsack. Ordina- rily each soldier is supposed to carry in or upon his knapsack a change of underclothing, an extra ])air of shoes, towel and soap, besides an overcoat, a woolen and a rubber blanket. In this connection the ca))- tain must see that only the authorized articles are \l5G) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 157 present, and throw out, without compunction, every unauthorized article, however small, that he may find upon inspection. The proneness of soldiers to overload themselves, and the influence of each ounce added to their loads upon their marching power^ makes this caution necessary. Sometimes, for forced marches, the extra clothing is carried in what is called the " blanket-roll." The articles to be carried are placed inside the blanket, which is then rolled up lengthwise, the ends tied to- gether, and the roll slung over the right shoulder. If nothing else can be carried, an extra pair of shoes and stockings should be. To be able to march well the feet require constant attention. In the Rus- sian service the men, in place of stockings, are pro- vided with a long strip of woolen cloth which is wound about the feet, and can be easily removed and washed. Recent experiments have been made in Germany of dispensing with stockings, and in- stead, requiring the feet to be kept thoroughly greased. Tentage. In our own service, on ordinary marches, tents are provided — the common, or "A" tent, for the men, and wall tents for officers, which are carried on wagons. In the field the shelter tent alone is allowed. This is simply a piece of thick cotton cloth carried by each soldier, with buttons and eyelets along the edges, and by joining two 158 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. or more jneces, })art;iRl protection against the M'eatlier is obtained. In nearly all Earo[)ean ser- vices, where campaigning is in a thickl\'-settled country and towns numerous, the soldiers are bil- leted upon the inhabitants, and no })rovision is made for tentage. Marches. Ordinarily, the day's march should begin as soon after daybreak as possible, and imme- diately after the men have had their breakfast. At the end of half an liour, a halt of fifteen minutes should be given, to allow attention to the calls of nature and a readjustment of the knapsack, etc. Thereafter a few minutes' lialt every hour should be given. If an early canif) is to be made, the midday halt will bf a short one and no fires kindled. Other- wise, if wood and water can be obtained, fires will be built and coffee cooked. The day's march should end in time to allow the men to get comfortably established in camp before dark. In selecting a spot for a camp, wood and water are the first requisites; next, a spot that will not be flooded in case of a storm, and one that admits of good drainage. If a stream is to be crossed it should be done before the halt, and camp made upon the farther bank. In the arrangement of marches, the different regi- ments of a brigade usually alternate in leading the day's march. NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 150 The ground that can be covered in a day's march depends largely upon the systematic arrangement of the details. Two-and-a-half to three miles per hour is a good marching gait, and from twenty to twenty- five miles per day an ordinary da^^'s march. In forced marches a much greater distance can be covered. In July, 1810, Crawford marched his division 62 English miles in 26 liours, in very hot weather, and joined Wellington in time to fight at Talavera. The march of Marlborough's troops from the Rhine to the Danube, before Blenheim, and that of one of Davoust's divisions, from Vienna to the field of Austerlitz — 36 leagues in 48 hours — and the wonderful marching feats of Stonewall Jackson's ^'foot-cavalry," in Virginia, show what men can do under stress of urgent necessity. During a march no one is allowed to leave the column except by permission of his immediate com- mander. When soldiers leave the ranks, the arms and knapsack should be left with their comrades. In case of sickness and inability to march, the cap- tain gives the man a note to the medical officer in charge of the ambulance. iStraggling can only be prevented by the utmost care on the part of the compau}^ officers. CHAPTER XX. MILITARY LAW AND COURTS-MARTIAL MILITARY law is for the government of the mili- tary forces both in time of peace and in war. Art. I, Sec. 8, of the Constitution, says : " Con- gress shall have power to make rules for the govern- ment and regulation of the land and naval forces." The Regulations thus prescribed form the statute law of the army. This law, so far as relates to dis- cipline, is embodied in what are called the Articles of War, — 128 in number. These articles were originally largely cuj)ied from the English Military Code, or Mutiny Act. They provide for the punishment of every infraction of the military law, and either prescribe the punish- ment or leave it discretionary with the court. The Articles of War are enforced through the medium of a military court, called a Court-Martial. Courts-Martial are no part of the Judiciar}'^ of the United States, but simply instrumentalities of execu- tive power. They are creatures of orders ; the power to convene them, as the power to act upon their pro- ceedings, being attributes of command. Their judg- ments, when rendered upon subjects within their jurisdiction, are as legal and valid as those of any (100) NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 161 other tribunal. Nor are the same subject to be ap- pealed from, reviewed or set aside by the courts of the United States, or of any State. They are tri- bunals of exceptional and restricted power and juris- diction, — being confined to distinctive classes of of- fenses recognized by the military code. Their ju- risdiction is criminal, their function being to assign punishment. They have no authority to adjudge damages for personal injuries or private wrongs. A General Court-Martial may consist of from 5 to 13 members and a Judge Advocate. It is convened either by the President, by a General officer Qorama.nd- ing the army of the United States, a separate army, or a separate department. The Judge Advocate appears as the representative of the government, and acts as the legal adviser of the Court. He records the proceedings, and, with the President, authenticates the completed record, but he has no voice in either the finding or sentence. The senior member present is the President of the Court. The General Court-Martial has jurisdiction, as to person, over every member of the military forces, and, in time of war, over all " retainers ®f the camp," which includes employes of the staff departments, telegraph operators, guides, and engineers and con- ductors on railroads operated for military purposes in the theatre of war. 162 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. Its jurisdiction as io place is co-exteusive with the territory of the United States, and extends as well over all offenses of a military character committed in a foreigii country, when the offender is in such country in a military capacity and under military orders. The commander convening a Court-Martial re- views and acts upon the proceedings. He may either approve or disapprove the proceedings and findings of the court, and may approve, mitigate, or disapprove the sentence awarded ; and, except in certain specified cases, his action is final. These exceptions are that in time of peace sentences involv- ing the dismissal of officers, or the death penalty, and in all cases those concerning General officers, must go to the President, whose action is the final one. The indictment before a military court is termed the Charge and Specification. The Charge sets forth the Article of War under which the offense falls ; the Specification, one or more, the particulars as re- gards details, and as to time and place. It may be formulated and signed by any commissioned officer, or by a staff officer, by order of his chief. It is forwarded through the regular military channels to the officer competent to convene a court, who may order a court or otherwise, as he may see fit. The punishments that may be imposed by a NOTKS ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 163 Court-Martial are in part mandatory and in part discretionary. Of the mandatory punishments, ten of the Articles cover offenses for wliich officers must be sentenced to dismissah Tiiese are, (1) mustering a person not a soldier, (2) taking money on muster, (3) making a false return, (4) making a false certi- ficate as to absence or pay, (5) making a false mus- ter, (6) suffering military stores to be damaged through neglect, (7) as commanding officer to be interested in the sale of supplies, (8) sending a challenge to fight a duel, (9) drunkenness on duty, (10) conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentle- man. Offenses for which the death penalty may attach are thirteen in number. They are (1) striking a superior officer, (2) mutiny, (3) failing to resist mutiny, (4) sleeping on post, (5) creating false alarms, (6) cowardice, (7) compelling a surrender, (8) disclosing a watchword, (9) relieving an enemy, (10) corresi)onding with an enemy, (11) aiding or advising to desert, (12) violence to persons bringing provisions, (13) desertion in time of war. In addi- tion, there are two crimes for which the death pen- alty must be awarded by a Court-Martial — forcing a safeguard, and as against spies. Persons in the military service convicted of what may be called civil oftenses, such as theft, burglary, arson, etc., may be sentenced to confinement in a 164 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. penitentiary or state prison, but only when the offense is such as by some statute of the United States, or of the State or Territory where committed, or by common law, would subject the convict to such punishment. Under Act of Congress there has recently been promulgated a scale fixing the maximum punish- ment that may be inflicted upon a soldier for violat- ing any of the Articles of War, and providing for a certain increase in case of repeated offenses. In the finding and sentence of a military court the majority rule obtains ; except that in awarding the death penalty two-thirds of the members of the court must concur, which fact must appear upon the record. Besides General Courts-Martial, which have juris- diction in all cases, there are Garrison and Regi- mental courts. These have jurisdiction only in cases of enlisted men, and are for the trial of minor offenses. They consist of three members and a Judge Advocate. For the trial of trivial offenses a Summary Court is now provided for, consisting of the line officer next in rank to the commanding officer. No one can be tried by such a court if he objects thereto, nor is confinement usually imposed while awaiting trial. A Military Commission is a criminal war-court, which can have existence only in time of war, when, NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 165 the civil courts are closed and their processes can not be served. It derives its jurisdiction primarily from the law of war, and obtains in a locality where mar- tial law has been declared by proper authority. It can take cognizance of two classes of offenses com- mitted by persons not in the military service, or non- military offenses committed by soldiers : (1) Violations of the laws of war, such as conspir- acy or intercourse with the enemy, making and fur- nishing arms to the enemy, violation of parole by prisoners of war, aiding a prisoner to escape, cruel and inhuman treatment of prisoners of war, burning, destroying or obstructing bridges, etc. (2) Civil crimes, which, because the courts are closed, can not be taken cognizance of by the ordinary tribunals. In short, a Military Commission, besides exercis- ing under the laws of war a jurisdiction over offenses peculiar to war, may act also as a substitute, for the time being, for the regular criminal judicature of the State or district. It consists usually of three members and a Judge Advocate, and follows in its proceedings the methods of a Court-Martial. Martial Law is simply the military authority exercised according to the rules and usages of war. It can only be declared in time of war, insurrection, or rebellion, when the civil courts are closed, or when it becomes necessary to subordinate the civil 166 NOTE« ON MILITARY SCIENCE. to tlie military power. Martial law may be declared by the President, by Congress, by a State, or by an independent military commander. The Militia of a State may be called out by the Governor and certain other civil officers for the sup- pression of riots or to execute processes where serious resistance is offered. The militia may also be called out by the President in times of national danger for a period not exceeding nine months. The military forces of the United States can not be used as a posse-corn itatus to enforce the laws within a State {i. e., in cases of domestic violence), except called for by the Governor of that State, or by its Legislature when it is in session. The Federal forces may, however, enter a State of their own motion in case of invasion by a foreign power and insurrection against Federal authority,, and may always act in the protection of Government property and to {)revent interference with the mails. CHAPTER XXI. THE KRAG-JORGENSEN RIFLE. (Page 53.) I^^HIS arm has been adopted by the United States, manufactured and issuerl to the troops of the regular service. Like nearly every other military arm now in use, this is a bolt gun, — that is, the opening and closing of the breech is effected by a bolt moving in a direct horizontal line with the bore, carrying the firing-piti and the necessary spring-mechanism for discharging the piece. The plate on page 169 shows the principal feat- ures of the arm. Fig. 1, a longitudinal section of the breech mechanism, J actual size, shows the piece ready for firing. Fig. 2 is a cross-section of the magazine, and Fig. 3 shows the rifle complete. To load the piece the bolt handle is thrown up to the vertical position. This movement partially compresses the main-spring, unlocks the bolt and starts the empty cartridge case from its seat. By pulling the bolt to the rear the empty shell is thrown out and a fresh cartridge admitted from the magazine, unless the cut-off is on, in which case the chamber remains open for the insertion of a car- (167) 168 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIKNCE. tridge with the fingers from the top. In returning the bolt to its original position the new cartridge is shoved into the chamber, final compression given to the main-spring and the piece fully cocked. The magazine is a fixed horizontal box holding five cartridges, and is filled through a gate on the right side, the cartridges being forced up into the chamber by a spring. To use the piece as a single- loader the mouth of the magazine is closed by a gate or cut-off, after which it is manipulated like any other single-loading arm. The rifle is sighted to 1,900 yards. Its extreme range is more than double this distance. It has a calibre of .30 inches, and a weight, without bayonet, of about 9| pounds. The bayonet weighs a trifle less than a pound. It is rifled with four shallow grooves of a uniform twist of one turn in 10 inches. The cartridge consists of a bullet of hardened lead covered with a jacket of cupro-nickled steel, weigh- ing 220 grains. The charge for an initial velocit}^ of 2,000 feet per second is 43 grains of smokeless (Peyton) powder. The cartridge complete weighs 412 grains. It is intended that the soldier shall carry in his Ijelt 100 rounds of this amnumition. Tested for raj)idity of fire this rifle, in the hands of trained but not expert soldiers, delivered 15 aimed shots, loaded from the belt, in 1 minute and 24 seconds; the magazine being then turned on, its NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. 169 Plate XX. iti P-O- (Dn-z 2z; •»- cQ <<) t1- >o a 4- -! 5 "1 < 5' S 3 2 g V. n a to : :d .■ T ■ D 3 -5 • a a 7J 73 fl •XI - O '^l M O 03 > a 51 "^ 3 — o s D £ a 6 CO -^ ^^ CJl Powder, to CO CD CO c; CO LO *>• o CO o *>- ^ ^ *- N5 Smokeless. 2. < "! CB to to _- lO to ^ to o to S5 to CO Bullet. a-!J1^ CO o -^ "^ c;i wO bO "' ^ — H- — — _ ^ _- _ - - - Length of bullet, to )— ' o 'O to to X — 1 to — ■ — • o inches. C5 *^ ^ a. to JO ^ DO ^ -■' o o 00 CD - ^ CO CD o ^ X' o Twist in inches, one o> 05 *- CD 4^ J:^ TO » 'O inch. 03 Ul c^ Ui No. of cartridges in ox to en Oi 00 Oi Q> 00 00 .J" c en magazine. to o CO CO to o -T to to to o to o to o -D -D to Muzzle velocity, feet o o o 00 00 o o a. o CO 03 CO *- o o 00 CJ3 per second. CO to to to to to to to to to 00 to to to to 4^ Maximum range for o o to i4^ 00 CO o 05 00 -J to 00 o o CD 03 00 05 o which sighted, yds. No. of cartridges car- o o o o 0^ to o o o o to o 00 o o o ried by sol iier. 172 NOTES ON MILITARY SCIENCE. AMMUNITION SUPPLY. (Page 59.) The following table will show the amount of am- munition supplied to an army in the field, armed w4th the small-calibre rifle, by some of tlie Euro- pean powers. From the compan}', battalion or regi- mental wagons, which ai:)proach as near as possible, men are depended upon to carry the ammunition forward to the fighting line. All that carried by the division and cor23s trains would probably be available in a prolonged action. Bj the Soldier 100 1 By Company, Battalion or Reg- mental wagons, and at once available •. 42 44 By Division Train. By Corps Train Army Depot Total supply 268 57 44 25 307 120 68 69 48.5 110 50 415.5 80 20 270 150 76 100 18 170 514 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. m^mm R mfii 'mt ^^WAIS 3 1158 01148 4291 llliii f°'J™ERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FAC A 000 089 413 9 WM: ^^^M^'l^^^ ! ST '-^ 1