M Mb'l 55D iiiiiiiiiraiffliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiuyiiiiiiiiHiinNiiiiiiim^ """ SINIK IM 1 NM \I. in P.IK AlIONS oi' rill I^NI\'I'RS1TV OI- CAIIIORNiA 1S6S-191S STL'DIhS IN inHLICAL TARALLLLISM PART I. AR \1.1,1'.1.1>M IN .\\:(^S LOUIS I. NEWMAN PAR I" II. r.\R.\l.l.I.l.l>M IN ISAIAH, ClIAlTKRS 1-10 WII.l.IAM rul'PKR i:zU: 'M. KOHKWOHD The stiulits pi-fsi'iitftl in fhtsi- pajri's aiv in ^'icat iii.asun' tin- result of work done in the University of California in tin- year lyiiVll). Tiiey were pronipteil in the tirst instanee l)y a desire to arninj^e for elass-room work a suitable text-liook with whieli to introduce students of Hebrew to tlu' pro|)helie literature. Surely students of no other lan!ruaj;e nuist work with texts as full of diftieulties as is the most of that literature. Courses in the Prophets often eonsist niaiidy of leetures by the iiistruetor otferinyr ex|)lanations of linji;uistie and stylistic abnormalities; so loud is the ereakinjr of the critical ajiparatus that the student is constantly distracted from any literary appreciation of the text it.self. It seemed to me that in preparinjr a text for students the editor should not only renmve those evident errors which even conservative critics admit and which ai"e easily rectified, but he should also whcnvcr tln-re is a j;reat difficulty and a fairly stron^r [iresiunption of error boldly adopt some satisfactory emendation. It is jjenerally possible to find another and clearer pas.sa>re in the literature treatinyr of the same subject as does the suspicious pas.saj;e. expre-ssin-r what is evidently its intended thou':ht, and olferinjr a basis for emendation in a spirit which the eilitor can feel sure docs no violence to the ancient Hebrew. After such a tnatment of the text of Isaiah had been be;reatest difficulties in the present t"Xt are found just when- the parallelism is defective. It seemed a worthy task, therefore, to fro further into the subject ; rei^xam- ine sonu- er)nsiderab!e jiortion of prophetic literature from this standpoint; consistently apply the test of parallelism to every passage therein, and alouj? the lines sujj<;isted by that tist seek (iiij ^u-tnGO some solution for every problem, liowever difficult. Accordingly while I was mj'self working at the text of Isaiah, Amos was chosen for a similar study by the Hebrew seminar. The text was analyzed, certain problems were formulated, and a method of possible solution was suggested. ilr. Newman's article in its first form contained his answers to the questions raised ; later it was expanded into a thesis pre- sented for the degree of Master of Arts from this University, though for its final draft Mr. Newman gathered material while he was a student at Columbia University. After his study was almost completed several modifications were made on the basis' of George Buchanan Gray's Forms of Hebreiv Poetry; a reading of this book, hnwi'ver, did not affect Mr. Newman's results materially, exeejit when' indicated; its main influence was in the adoption of Gray's system of symbols for the schematization of the parallelism. While in Mr. Newman's Amos .studies the material has been classified by types, in my paper the first five chapters of Isaiah have been studied verse by verse, the Authorized English trans- lation given at the head of each paragraph or stanza discussion, the nature of the parallelism pointed out, and one or several emendations suggested wherever the parallelism either is itself defective or indicates other stylistic defects. In chapters 6-10 only those passages have been treated which are apparently defective or otherwise call for special comment ; the parallelism of the remaining poi'tions will be recognized upon reference to the translation of the reconstructed text. In not a few cases in both the Amos aiid the Isaiah studies the proposed solution involves a transposition of words and phrases; and as in a recent article in the Journal of Biblical Litroved thereby. As for the transposition of whole sections from their present serpience, this much is certain: Isaiah did not write his prophecies in the order in whieh they havi- been hantied down; for if hi' had done so, the sixth chapter woidd stand first in the liook. C^uite probably the prophecies were first written on ditTerent |)ieces of whatever writing material wa.s usi d and wtrc arranpid later, as wa.s the case with the Koran; and there can at least be no objection to transposinp chaptt'rs into ehronolofrical secpienci". or any other seipieiu-e which helps in an appreciation of the contents. Furthermore, since chapter divisions are known to be late, we may disregard them also in the transposition of sections where internal evidence warrant.s the chanpe. [v] The question of successive editions of prophetic literature has been raised several times in the paper on Amos. In studj-ing Isaiah I have touched upon this question but rarely, since in most eases it does not affect the question of parallelism. After an even larger portion of Isaiah has been examined, it will be of interest to determine whether supposed differences of author- ship coincide with variations in the nature of the parallelism. Mr. Newman's conclusion that Amos almost invariably uses the couplet structure in parallelism, and my own conclusion that it is possible to find many variations from this simple structure in Isaiah, suggest that there may have been individual prefer- ences in this matter on the part of the Hebrew wi-iters. My purpose of letting the laws of parallelism suggest emen- dations has induced me to neglect as far as possible emendations suggested by others; this was not possible, however, in the case of those suggestions recorded in the frequently consulted Browu- Driver-Briggs lexicon ; no doubt others of mj- emendations, also, were iu reality due to my previous readings on the subject, and I beg to be pardoned for not tracing them to llicir smirces and for not giving credit where credit may possilily he dnr. Typographical difficulties have led to the usu ol' Irausliter- ation^ in place of Hebrew characters in these studies; as this necessitates the insertion of vowels into a text written originally witli consonants only, it has the disadvantage that emendations sometimes seem to involve more radical changes than tliey in reality do. Moreover, for typographical reasons the printing of extensive poi'tions of the recon.structed text has not been attemjited, except in the case of the Amos Doom Song ; in general the transliteration has been confined to the emended words. In the case of Isaiah I have offered instead a translation of the whole of the reconstructed text. In tliis translation my purpose was again to emphasize the parallelism. Accordingly absolute 1 It was not found possible even to follow the system of transliteration generally accepted in the United States to-day; but the student of Hebrew will easily recognize that f represents the Hebrew gadkS (dotted s) ; q the Hebrew qOph (dotted k); x the Hebrew x^^th (dotted h) ; while simple s represents the Hebrew sfimcl-Ji and sin, and in a few cases Arabic sad (i.e., (;ad). Proper names, however, have in general been left without diacritical marks or accents of any kind ; e.g., Hariri instead of Xariri. [vi] literaliifss lias not always Ijceii iiisistod upon; activo niul passive t'()iistnictii)iis have scum-tiiiu's Itoi'ii intfrcliaiifri'il ; siii>,'li' words i'xpn's.siii;r tin- spirit »( tin- orifriiial iiavi- hrcn used wliiTf lit- eraliiess wonkl have dfinaiuli'd sonic loii!,'('r paraphrase: and unimportant particles have sometimes lieeu omittid (i'.>s.. the connective "and") where the mcaiiiiif,' was not tiici-elty altered. The attempt has been made also to repn sent somethin",' of the assonance, rhythm, and other stylistic characteristics of the Hebrew, all of whicli devices have been used in the translation in aboid the same proportion, thoufrh imt always at the same point of the couplet, as in the ori. 2 Hordcr, The Spirit of Ilrbrnr Porlni: translntion by Jiinies Mnrsli (Burlington, 1833), p. -13. Ilcr.ler gives one of tin- In'st nnnlysos of the paychologT of parnlleli.ini. (37] 2 Parallelism in A)nos forms." This feeling for organization and regularity guides the repetition ; and though it is possible for the poet to heap up a series of similar statements, as is seen in the most primitive poetry, it will lie found that a later process demands ordinarily the use of only two, in couiiht structure. Herein a principle of balance seems to enter whereby the poet consciously or uncousciouslj' places one statement opposite to another either synonymous or unlike. Two psychological rules thus appear •to- iutej-pljiy : one demanding repetition, in the same or different Wofds,' o"f a_.special thought; the other demanding orderliness '•aad res^t'ieting this repetition to a couplet formation. These two tendencies are apparent in the rise and evolution of primi- tive poetry. Evolution of P.\r.\llelis,m The origin and development of primitive poetry are marked by three great stages: first, indefinite iteration, unchanged, and unvarying; second, incremental repetition; third, artistic par- allelism.'' Iteration may be designated as the earliest form of poetry ; it was communal, the s^Dontaneous expression of emotion, beginning in the crowd, and carried forward and backward without cease, almost luider the influence of mob hypnotism. Usually a single verse, a statement of fact, or in the first in- stance, a fact stated not formally but by repetition of words in a rhythmic period, was the subject of iteration. ° Incremental repetition arises w'hen communal mass song is supplemented by the assertion of individual poetic genius. A variation suddenly breaks into the iteration from the lips of a daring singer, moved by an inner impulse. He supplements the stock of communal refrains with those of his own invention. At first, this must have occurred at the end of a long series of iterations, to interrupt the monotony; gradually, the series of 3 Kaplan, Psijchology of Prophecy (Philadelphia, 1908), p. 60flf. For a clear statement of the psychology of parallelism in its relation In the development of balance and rhythm, see Hupfeld, Die Psalmen (Gotha, 1888), II, p. xxviiff. 4Sr.' I. Ill MM !., l:., minings of Poetry (New York, 1901), pp. 208-209. ^Ihi.i.. y. _ V I iiiiiraere cites as examples of iteration the beginnings of the I -I, I. I'lated cries of the Africans, the Fuegians, the Boto- cudos, .-iii'i Mihii .-.a\af;e peoples. I'arulhlisni in Aiiius 3 ri'iM'titiims imist liavo biu'ii sliortoiifd Uy luoiv t'rc(iuoiit varia- tions, and finally, the iicridd of i-omplitc rrccdinn of variation luiist liavi- appcari'tl, thoii;;h this marks a late stajrc in tlic dcvt'lopnu'nt of poi'try." Parailolisni marks a third distinct major division in the t'vohition of ancient poetry. In order to trace tlic steps through which hald iteration became artistic parallelism, it is necessary to turn to those literatures of antioetic motif that it is discoverable in some deirree in almost every literature. Isolated couplets can be selecti'd from the Ureek," the Latin, Indian,'" Germanic" and An!.'lo-Sa.\on'" literatures. But it is of little value to frather these illustrations from all sides; they merely indicate an obvious fact, namely, that the tendency to express the same thoufiht in varyiiifi language is confiiud to no one group or ' I bill., p. 200-201; Guniiuore (fives ilhistrationa from English ball.iils (p. 20i!ff. ) mill iiiolmlfs theroin casies in which the sniiie line or stanza is sung imlefinitoly, with the nsc of a new naino, nnniber, or faet in each repetition. In songs of lament, labor, triumph, processions, festal refrains, the throefoM priM-ess of pcR'tic development is present, in almost all litera- tures. I Soo Schleusner, Dixtcrtalio de paralUUxmo memhrorum egregio inter- prclalioiiiji tubxidin (Leipzig, 1817), p. 1 1 ; Xonlen, Pii- aiitikc KuH.iti>ro.ia (Leipzig, 1898), II, 813-824; Schmidt, Vcbir dm biiu der pindarUchcn Stroiihfti (I^>ip7.ig. 1882), /«M.»im. » Friedrich v. Schlegel professed to have fonnd in the Sanskrit slnka a close nflRnity between the Indian proverb and the Hebrew, though the former is much more regular in its u.se of four et|unl measure, eight syllable feet than the free and loose Hebrew structure. Saemmtlichr tf'erkc; ed. 2 (Vienna. lS4t>i. I, 121-121. Rosenkranz, llaiidhufh d. ollg. Hinrbirhtr d. Pnijtif ill.ill'. 1^-J , I. 77. liii.U no basis for this comparison, and therein set uinil ^u, War/.e nimt ab, ' 'Cil(H-ken gehen Toten nach, AVnrzen gehn mit' there lies a genuine and original folk-poetry, a parallel- [•■59 1 4 Panilh Usui in Amos assi nilily of ])oi)])1ps. Imt is universal. It is imperative, liowever, to turn t;e : and, in their iiands it attained its most notabh- expression. NON-SEMITIC PARALLELISM Finnish I'akam.fmsm Finnisli poetry is remarkable for its sin;.nilar ri;:idity of form; it is terse and epifrnimmatie. and derives its style and aroma from a tradition datiiifr back ])erliaps liOOO years." Its two main peeidiarilies are alliteration, or the rhyme of letters, whielj is i)raetieed to siieh a di^'i"''' lliat often not only do the words of the same verse befrin witii tlie same consonant, as is generally the ease in old northern i>oetr\. hut also with the same following vowel; and ])arallelism. or the rhyme of sense. Its similarity in this latter respect to Hebrew poetry has been noted by several investigators;'- and it is in parallelism, called ninon kirto, that the Finnish regidarity and conciseness demonstrate them.selves most notably. "In Finnish the second line of a couplet is nearly always a repetition in other words of its predecessor and stands in apposition to it. If there is no sub- ject or no verb in the second line, this must be understood from the line above, though sometimes it is vice-versa."" Com- paretti states the following fonnulation of the |)rineiple: "Every line nuist contain a complete idea, or a part complete in itself of a greater idea, and this must be repeated in ditferent words in the succeeding line."'* The law of jtarallelism inHuenees the outward foi'in of Fin- nisli verse, for it renders almost necessary the rhyme of sub- stantival or verbal endings. Herein is the germ of developed >i Btllson, P(>;>M/(ir Portrti of the Finn* (London, 1900), p. 3. This contnin.1 n biblioKraphiral inilrx of works in En);li!ih, Kronrh, and Ocnnan on Finnish poetry. »= Brown, PropU of Finland in Archaic Times (London, 1892), p. 279- 280; nnd others mentioned l>olow, partiriilnrly rompnrctti, Traditional Pn-try of the Finn.i, trnnslatcd l>y Isabella Si. .\nderton (New York, 1898)', p. .1."); Porthnn, Vr Porsi Fe'nnica (Alio, 17»if> 1778), p. 20. " Abcrcromhy, " Majfic Songs of the Finns," Fulklnn (London. 18!tOK I, 22: Comparetti, op. cil.. p. .13. >♦ Ibid., p. 38. [61] 6 PariiJlflkiii lit Amos rhyme. Comparetti regards parallelism as a primitive rtwtif, prior and subordinated to regular metre. His opinions are valuable for a consideration of parallelism in Arabic literature, where an early parallelism seems to have been overlaid by intri- cate poetical devices. Wlien poetry is in a primitive condition and makes abundant use of parallelism and of consonances and assonances of every kind, then the metrical verse, if it exists, is apt to lie roughly indicated, unequal, or variable in length and in the number of its syllables. As soon as metre makes good its claims, imposes number in a measurement of lines, and fixes rhythmical rales based not so much on the ({uality as on the quantity of sounds, the verse becomes varied, and the law that governs the qualit.y and recurrence is either limited or lost. Alliteration also disappears. Rhyme remains, but no longer as free as in primitive poetiy^^ ; it is linked with the complex laws of metre, and becomes obedient to laws regarding distribution, position and combination of verses. It is important to observe that the Fiiuiic rune follows the eight-syllable trochaic un- rhymed measure. This adherence to a constant law may be a sign of the maturity of the poetry. At the same time, Finnish rune knows only this one kind of metre, and has not j-et arrived at the stage of producing various forms, as it has not yet learned to group the lines into stanzas, and "has not advanced beyond the use of such primitive, even archaic means as alliteration, free rhymes, parallelism."" Parallelism also affects the very substance and ideas of the poem. In lyric poetrj-, the repetition or the variation in other words of an image or thought does not make for monotony, but as Xavier Marmier has noted, leaves in the mind an impression of indefinable charm, of deep melody, of rich variations of thought ; parallelism colors, heiglitens, multiplies poetic expres- sion, generates emphasis and warmth. In the epic, however, in the narrative, traditional historical poetry, the sameness of verse and the smallness of resource afforded by parallelism prevent the attainment of this lyric warmth, movement, and 15 In Hebrew poetry, it will be seen that rhyme is accidental and rare. 16 Comparetti, p. 3(). [62] I'linilUlisni ill Amos 7 impetus;'' iiisti-ad of shurpiMiint; the outlines of the itleti, paral- lelisni ofteutiiut's rouilei-s it triMuuious, undeteriuiued, or fjenerie. Finding no exaet synonyii\ or iinat;e adapted to repeat an idea, the Uiiilaja, or popular sinfjer, substitutes another whieh he thinks appropriate; henee often the speeifie idea lieeonies iihirred and is for-jotten.'^ This leads to a statement of the prohahle orifrin of Kinnish parallelism. It may lie in mafjieal incantations, similar per- haps to the Sumerian and Babylonian-Assyrian. The first stafje seems to have been mere rciH'tition. Among the Samoyedes, the Shaman or magie-man begins by beating the magie drum, and singing a few words to gloomy awesome musie ; then another perfonner of less importunee comes in, and they sing the same words together, after whieh the first remains silent while the seeond repeats alone what he sang. The song of these Samoyede Shamans consists of a few words, and is almost entirely im- provised. Among the Lapps, the magical incantations, spoken in a sing-.song manner, accompanied by the roll of the magic drum, betray a rudimentary, oscillating and variable near-metre, a kind of rhythmic pro.se. The Finnish magical formula in a late periwl of development, though it was pronotmced by one l)ei*son, still contains much repetition. In short, while the evidence is not entirely clear, the earliest origins of Finnish parallelism may be traced back to magical riles whinin repe- tition i)layed the important rrile.'"" In Finnish epic poetry, richer evich'nee as to origin is avail- able. It is the ancient custom for the runes to be sung by two men, of whom one is the chief, the precentor; the other is his a.ssi.stant, the repeater, kertoja. Seated side by side, or oppcxsite to each other, they join hands; dnrinir the song, their bodies IT Ibid., p. 3.1. >* Ibid., p. 67. "The lauliija will say ttmt Vaiiiniiioini'n, Imvine falloii into tlie waters, ' went alwiit there for six years, there for seven aiiniiners, to^jM'd for nine years," where the nnmln-rs oseillnte l)y reason of the par- alleli.sm, ami we obtain the result of a lonfj, indeterminate period of time. Sneh a phenomenon ilo<'» not occur in Hebrew, where the seooml term serves rather to heighten than to obscure the clarity of the terms. Herein is one of the points which shows the ilifTerence in composition, surely in origin, of the Hebrew parallelism. '•« /hirf. S** also pp. 17Iff. ; B«'auvais, " Iji maRie chez les finnois," Rrxue dr l/i..»f«irc dr» Krligion». V, 1; VI, 2.11 (1SS2). [63] 8 ParaUelixm i)i Amos are in a constant swinging movement. One of the singers begins by singing a nine stiehos alone, in the last bar of which the other joins, simply repeating the stiehos, and so on to the end. During this repetition the first singer finds the needful time to reflect on what his next line is to be. The second singer when he repeats the line, generally introduces some word of approbation, but seldom does he correct the first singer, or vary, or add to his first stiehos. The Finnish practice, then, is mainly a feat of memory, dependent upon the conservative spirit of tradition, which relies upon the agreement of two memories; though it is also to some extent a feat of literary ingenuity, especially when the line is improvised, ^^ for the second singer must know, or guess in time, the end of the line that he is to sing with the first singer. If it were that the second singer took up the general thought of the first and repeated it in different meta- phors and images, then this phenomenon would indubitably deserve recognition as the basis of Finnish parallelism, as the practice of the Hebrew singing women at the Ked Sea, and the return of David, seem to suggest the origin of Hebrew par- allelism. But even as the matter stands, it must be concluded that within the general sphere of the epic song the method of the first appearance of parallelism is probably to be sought.-" The basic form of Finnish parallelism is obviously the coup- let, though combinations of more than two lines are frequent. There are many varieties of parallelism ; repetitions often occur in more than two lines, especially in magic songs, where they are continued for a great number of lines. Sometimes par- allelism is absent, and there are even lines whereof the sense is completed only in the following line; repetition also occurs not only from line to line, but also in the same line. For in the use of the various motifs of Finnish poetry, the Inula ja. though he is bound absolutely to the eight syllable troeliaie metre, and 19 Comparetti, p. 69. 20 Amongst the Karels, the ohl manner of singing is kept np, anil one meets with many of the old songs there (Brown, op. cit., pp. 278-279). It must be observed, however, that in some eases, though this is doubtful, the second singer repeats the thought of the first in different words. See Paul, The Ealevala (Helsingfors, 1885-1886), I, vii. But in several poems the thought does not bei-onie apparent until the addition of the second stic-hos. [64] I'lirolli Usui in Amos {) is liimiul ill a iiu'asiirf also In tlic nsi' of allili-ralioii. rli\ iiif ami paralli'lisni, ri'scrvi's ti) liimscll" full lil»'iiy as to tin- nioiii' of .•ni|)loyiii^' till" latter, so that ii.- can iiiiprovis.- without being uiiiliily huinpereil.-' Syiionyinous parallelism is ver.v lrii|iiriii in Finnish poetry. Countless examples are to tie found in the Kal^vala. the Finnish national epie, and other lonj^ poems :-- Miiny im-n that live to iiuirimir, Many wuiiieii live to censure. Many .speak with evil motives, Many they with wretched voieea Curse me for my wreteheil singing. Blame my tongue for speaking wisilom, Call my ancient songs unworthy, Blame the songs anil curse tho singer. Be not thus, my worthy people, Hlnme me not for singing bailly: I'npreteniling as a minstrel, I have never had the teaching. Never lived with ancient heroes, Never learned the tongues of strangers, Ne%-er dainieil to know much wisdom, Other* have had language nmsters, Nature wa.s my only teacher, Woods and waters my instructors Be this OS it may, my people, Thi.s may point the way to others, To the singers hetter gifted. For tho good of future ages. For the coming generations. For the rising folk of Soumi.=> '< Comparetti, p. 34. The u.se of a regtdnr metre takes the Finnish out of the territory of the Hebrew, for in the latter, as will bo ."n-en, the rules of metrical formation cannot be clearly formulated. 55 On the Kalevala, see Crawfonl, The Katrvatii (New York, 1889), Porter. SrUrlinnn from thr Kalrrala (New York, 18fiS). S«>e also Paul, KantfMar, die Volkslyrik der Finnrn ( HeUingfoni, 1882); Rctzius, and others. •^ Examples of synonyniou.^ ond mixed parallelism arc numerous in the Kalevala; this one i.i taken from AI>ercromby, p. 2fi: ' ' A maiden walked olong the air 'n edge — A girl along the 'navel* of the sky, [65] 10 Pnnillrlism in Amos This (juotatiou shows that the same problems which coufront the investigator in Hebrew are present in Finnish poetry. The dominant characteristic is parallelism, and the couplet is most frequent. There are several loose -monostichs, however; tliere are several triplets ; there are portions which show no parallelism, and which would be near-prose were it not for their stichic form.-* So-called synthetic parallelism is a frequent accom- Along tlie outline of a cloud — Along the heaven 's boundary, In stockings of a bluish hue, In shoes with ornamented heels. ' ' 2* Each printed line has at least a comma at the end of it, due to the division between line and line consequent on the complete idea, or complete part of an idea which each one offers; this establishes a rhythmic division in the ideas themselves in their order and succession, and this division is felt in direct proportion to the shortness of the lines. See Comparetti, pp. 33-34. An example of this stichic completeness may be found in the following selection from the Kalevala: "A hundred sayings do I possess. Fastened to my girdle, to my ring, to my side; Which every child cannot sing, Nor every lad the half of them. . . . My songs are my learning. My verses my goods ; From the roads did I dig them, From green boughs did I pluck them, I wrenched them from the lieatlicr plants; When I a little one was herding, A little child was tending lambs. Up from the honeymounds, Across the golden hillocks. Songs did the wind waft me. The air cradled them by hundreds. Verses surged around me. Sayings rained down like water. . . . My father would sing them as he fitted a new handle to his axe; From my mother would I learn them as her spindle twirled." Examples of monostichs inserted in the midst of good parallelism may be founil in tlie next (|UOtation. In may be noted that the number of incom- jilete, part stichoi in the Finnish w'hich depend upon the verb in another couplet is larger than in Hebrew. ' ' And the wind rocked him To lands without a priest. To countries unbaptised. Behold me, poor wight. Tossed on a rolling tree. Tossed on a withering trunk. . . [66] I'dnillt lisDi in Amos 11 paniiiUMit of trood parallelism; sim-o. Iiowcvcr. it must lie cou- ffilfil that syiithi'tio paralli-lism is not in nality parallflism at all. it iiuist !)(• i-oiu-IiuUhI of the Finnish, that parallelism is not the only, thou-rh it is perhaps the major, motif of its poetry; there is a twilifjht zone wherein jirose and poetry meet. This ^'eiieral eoneliision drawn from the Finnish may a.ssist in a determination of the eharaeter of the Hebrew. Antithetie parallellism appeai-s in Finnish proverbs, whieli have '"mueh resemblanee in their form to those of Solomon."-' ami frenerally display tiic saiur varieties of eomplete and of ineomplete parallelism witli and without compensation. Fin nish parallelism is also an aid in exe<;;esis; thougrh the text has not been injured through transmission, several instances obtain where the presence in a second stichos of a synonymous word serves to clarify the meaninjr of a dubious phrase corresponding to it in the first. Among peoples akin to the Finns, also, parallelism is found. Among the Lapps, for example, influenced by Finnish literature though themselves of another race, the Finno-Mongolic magical songs bear a slight resemblance in structure to the Finnish; while in the epic and mythical literature, especially that relating to the "Child of the Sun,'" the fonii of the Finnish rune is clearly recognizable with its m<'tre, alliteration, and parallelism -'" Finnish parallelism has been responsible for similar (loetry in a channel far removed from it. Longfellow's Hiawatha is built upon the Finnish scheme. The poet is known to have derived the suggestion for its form from Schiefner's translation of the Kalevala ; when he heard the trochaic measure, he pro- nounces 13 fvcr, is tlu- prt'si'MiH' of parallrlism in ('iiiiicsc litcratiirf. Its usajjc tluMviii was noti'il hy .1. F. Davis, whose work, I'uescos Sinensis Conunrntarii, "On the Poetry of the Chinese,""' lias beeonie staiulanl. Almost every investi-jator of Cliiiiese prosody siiiee 1S29 has restated and reaffirmed Davis' eonclusions."- Davis remarks that tlie dominant eonstruction of Cliinese poetrj- is foiuul in "lines of every li'iifjth useil in mt>asnred couplets, or sentenees in pairs, nieely balaneed in words and sense." He notes the "striking; eoineidenee" with lleiin'W poetry, and adopts the terininolofjy of IJishop Lowtli. ^'ivin^ the motif the name "parallelism" and dividinfr it into three types- synonymous, antithetie and synthetie. It is neeessary fii-st, however, to approach Chinese parallilism from the viewpoint of its three ma,jor eharaeteristic divisions — parallelism of tone, of y ranunar, and of tliou'rht. The first two are iiniiiue in Chinese literature, and present few points of eomjiarison with Hebrew; it is doubtful wlielhei- tiiey may be ineliuled un»ler the name of |)arallelism. Parallelism of tone demands merely that the syllables, instead of beinjr eounted, must follow eaeli other in tones that vary aeeordinn to rule, just as the eadenee of En<:lish vei-se is deter- mined not solely by rhyme and by enumeration of the syllables, but also by the relative position of the aeeented syllables and those on whieh no stress is laid."" Distinetion is made between two elasses of tones, the even or similar tones, and the luieven or dissimilar tarn's. The two even or e(iual tones are spoken with the siimc stress and strenfrth of voiee and are ditTerentiated only by a variation of tone levels. The three unecpml tones are the risin)?, the falling and the eontraetiiij;, "einpehende." that is, one in whieh the voiee rises upward, or sinks to the lower notes, or the tone breaks ofT abruptly. These tones or aeeents SI TransaetioM of the Roi/al .ttiatic Society (London, 1829), II, 410- 419. Rcpubli.-thwl in 19.14 ami 1870. Kor this work the 1829 paging is USCil. '5 Scarborough, finbolanti, Ilrilinann, Griibe, Bcthgo, ('hamhorlnin. Crnn- mcr Byng, anil (ithw. Kor thr usf of par- allelism in thi' intorprotation of iliflii-ult ami cvi-n nintilatnl passa;;<'s si-o partirularly S«'hlogt>l. l.ii loi da pnraUeHsmc in utijli- r/iiiioi* (l>-y.|i'n, l.S9i>). »i Chamborloin, Clti»*ical Porlry of tht Japanete (Boston, 1880), pp. 3—1; remarks on Chinese poetiral formations. [69] 14 Parnllelisiii in Amos must be divided according to definite rules, so that they stand in parallels.^* It will be seen that one of the most difiBciilt questions in a classification of Hebrew parallelisms is bound up with tlie use of the accents. Tlie Chinese system diflei-s from the Hebrew in several respects, not the least important of which is the regularitj- and constancy with which the accentual system is maintained. A parallelism of grammar or syntax also characterizes Chinese poetry. It demands that the single words in two suc- cessive verses shall correspond exactly not only according to tlieir position in the .stichoi, but also according to their gram- matical and sj-ntactical categorj-. For each noun, pronoun, and adjective of the first stichoi, the same grammatical value must stand in the identical place in the second : (On-the) mountaiu (the) Sun quickly (towards) the West sinks, (On-the) sea (the) Moon slowly (towards) the East rises.35 Another rule a.ssists tliis regularity. The fact that in Chinese each word is indicated Ijy a sign or character helps to bring to light the many-sided and changeful correspondence of the terms and the feet of the stichoi ; and the use of ideographic determinatives oftentimes of itself indicates to the eye the sim- ilarity of parallel word-concepts and word-d asses. Moreover, the characters are arranged deliberatelj' by the poet in artistic harmony. This de\'ice may be called parallelism of word-signs. It is peculiar to the Chinese, finding no counterpart in Hebrew.^" Parallelism of thought and figure, however, brings Chinese 3-1 ' ' Therefore in the 8 line strophe with 7 foot verses, the rule is that the unequal syllables, namely, the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th, may have an optional tone, while in the equal, namely the 2nd, 4th, and 6th, the tones must exchange with each other, so that when the 2nd syllable has an equal or even tone, the 4th must have an unequal, the 6th an equal, or vice versa. Moreover, in 2nd and 3rd, 4th and .5th, 6th and 7th verses, the corresponding equal syllables agree exactly in tone, and the first verse must correspond exactly to the 8th. In five foot verses, the first syllable of each verse stands" at the option of tlic p™-t : fnr n1) tin- ntli.T-. n ri'-i.l «,-lv'mn*ii- riil.^ exists." HeilmanTl, Clr'.. \ srji. I i/n! r.i.. ■."• ,'•■' ■/ ; '. ' •■. (''• , !i-x zur Gegenwart (Lciji-i^, ll'n:, , |i|,. xwni'i,, !,■ ,i. . /' . ,- • ,' ,-- atur, in Vic orirnlnhsri,, „ l,,i, y.,i „,, „ ,l,r,|./iu I:mi:; . ,, ,;H. >, . :iK(i below, Scarborough's rcm.irks on .'iiitithctic paralli-lisni. ^•■^ Gnibe, p. 342; Heilmann, p. xxvii. ■-'■ riabelantz. Z. f. ToeR-erpsych. X (1878), 230ff. "It is worthy of observation that out of this parallelism of form, the custom arises often- times to write without punctuation. The Greek ahso does not need punctu- ation for his Gorgias. " Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa, II, 8-24. [70] I'iiralhlisin in Amos 1;) ptn'trv witliiii tlie same domain as the llflniw: two siicccssivo vci-scs, ratliiT stii'iiiii, an- ji)iiit'il to-ri'thi-r liy a parallilism of iili'jus or of Hjrurfs, whii-li rests upon tlic i-oiuiition citlicr of similarity or of opposition; it is not nun-ly formal or ixtt-rnal, l)nt is internal i)arallflism. I'liinese difTcrs from the Hebrew (iiily in that the peeuliar strueture of the lan^uafre •jenerally and the striet observanee of the law of syntaetie parallelism men- tioned above, render the synonymity mneh closer aud more obvious; it is usually wt>rd for word, the one written opposite the other: The wtiito stone, uiifrai-turcl, raiiks as most prorious; The blui- lily, iiiibl isheil, emits the fuifst fragraiicf. The heart, when it i.s liarassoil, finds no plaee of rest; Tlie mind, iu the miilst of t)itterness, thinks only of (jrief. Be not disoontenteil, thou<;h your land lie narrow, and your );arden small ; Be not distnrbed, thongh your family be poor, anil your means con- traoted. Antitlietie parallelism is a favorite Chinese motif. It is eommonly perfeet both in sentiment and terms. "The Cliine.se is a stylistie eonnois.seur of the most delieate sensibilities, and jrreatly admires sharp antitheses." The symmetrieal fonn. wherein term answers for term, is even more refriilar than in llibrew. As in the Proverbs of Solomon, so in Chinese maxims and aphorisms antitlietie parallelism is used most extensively:''" With few oraviuK!) of the heart, the health i.s flourishinf;, With many anxious' thoughts, the constitution dei-ays. Unsullied poverty is always happy; Impure wealth brings many sorrows. Consider not any vice as trivial and therefore practice it. Regard not any virtue as unimportant and therefore neglect it. Prosecuting virtue is like ascending o steep: Pursuing vice, like rushing down a precipice. It mi^ht be noted here that there are several %..ioii.> ui parallelism in Chinese proverbs. Antithetie paralb-lism is kni>wn a.s the tui-tzii and i.s fonned aeeordinfr to strietly teeh- >' Davis, ilaximji (London, 182.TI, cited on p. 412 of On Portrjf of Chinete. [71] 16 Parallelism In Amos uieal rules/^ Aiiotlu'i- form of proverbs wherein antithesis plays a part is Uiii-chii. or "connected sentences";^'' while a third class of parallistic couplet-proverbs is composed of those that rin-me.*" Antithetic parallelism appears also in general poetry, where it is used less often than for aphorisms and wise sayings. But it is found to exist in every degree, from the strong mutual opposition of all the corresponding words in a couplet — the "complete i)ara!lelism"" of Gray*' — to that of some of them — "incomplete parallelism." Look on life as an uncertain guest, tliat cannot remain; Believe that death is fixed, and cannot be escaped. When tlie region of the heart is at rest, the body too enjoys ease; But the passions being excited, then disorders of the body arise. Supinely gazing, now I vent my sighs. Now, bending down, in tears my sorrow flows; The wealthy alien claims connubial ties, The needy kinsman no relation kuows.*- 3s Scarborough, Collection of Chinese Proverbs (Shanghai, 1875, pp. x-xi). "A tui-tzu may contain any number of words, but the most fre- quent number is seven in each line. It must be so written that the order of the tones in the first line shall be, firstly deflected, secondly even, and thirdly deflected; in the second line, firstly even, secondly deflected, and thirdly even, or vice-versa. Should the first, third or fifth characters violate this rule, it is of no consequence; the second, fourth, and the sixth cannot be allowed to do so. It is essential also that the last character in the first line should be in a deflected tone, and the last in the second line, in an even tone. The same characters may not be repeated in either line, and it is essential that there should be an antithesis, as well in the sense as in the tones, of the words composing the two lines of the couplet. It is also a rule that particles must be placed in antithesis to particles; and nouns, verbs, etc., to nouns, verbs, etc." 39 The proverbs of the class of "connected sentences" are very plenti- ful ; they are of various lengths, of different styles of composition, and are informal in all else but the corresponding number of words in each line. There is generally a sharp antitliesis between the first an The couplet-proverbs which rhyme are detected only by the native ear. The explanation of this is that in order to rliyme to a native ear, the tones must correspond. 41 See below, in chapter on Parallelism in Amos, p. 81. *2 It is imperative to bear in mind that these are translations; as in Hebrew the parallelism is evident through the translations; but tlie .savor of the original cannot be retained. [72] I'lirallt Usui in Amos 17 Sviitliilic |>aiall.lisiii is tin- must .■oniiiinji spici.s in Cliiiics.- poetry, lli'iv, as in llclirt'W, each word antl line does not i-xai-tly answer to its fellow as either eqiiivah-nt or opposite in sense; l>ut there is u marked eorrespoiideiiee and etiuality in the eon- sfrnetion of the lines, sueii iLs nouns iinsweriny: to nouns, verb to verh. niend)er to member, ne(iji( of Lantrrim (London, ISltii, p. .31. [73] and a hint of parallelism occur; it is to be noted, however, that three and not two parts, or stichoi, are present : The liighest order of men (called Shing, perfect or inspired) are vir- tuous, or wise, independently of instruction; the middle class of men {Heen, good or moral) are so after instruction; the lowest order (Tu. stupid or worthless) are vicious in spite of instruction. Another question arises with reference to the unit of Chinese parallelism. The couplet, as in Hebrew, seems to be the funda- mental form. "This may be accounted for by th& fact that couplet making is a favorite amusement of the educated cla.sses and that couplets when well turned, are objects of their intense admiration."" Dodd holds that the poem of four lines which had its vogue from 699 a.d. is the unit of Chinese poetry.^^ But in the majority of poems the authors leave sufficient space between pairs of lines to indicate that they intended couplet- groupings ; often, however, the series is in fours.*" Though this point has not yet apparently been emphasized in a discussion of Chinese poetry, it may be stated in view of the majority of distich formations that the basic unit of even the four-line poems, and of Chinese poems in general, is the couplet.*' The use of parallelism in Chinese offers additional evidence relative to the origin and age of parallelism. The oldest n ' ' Tlie Chinese are so fond of their parallelisms that tlie most com- mon decorations of rooms, halls and temples, are ornamented labels hung opposite to each other, or side by side, and called Tuy-leen, which has precisely the meaning of the English term. These are sometimes inscribed on coloured paper, sometimes carved on wood, and distinguished by paint- ing and gilding, but always in pairs." Davis, p. 418. *^ Chinese Poems (London, 1912), p. 21, in remarks on "Technique of Chinese Poetry. ' ' *« Bethge, Die chinrsisvlie Flocte (Leipzig, 1910). i' A suggestion of a form in Chinese poetry similar to the long swing- ing lines of Arabic rhymed prose minus the rhyme, and similar to several lines in Amos 3.12, etc., may be found in the following instances: ' ' From the Pine Forest the azure dragon ascends to the Milky Way ; From the Dryandra cordata, the crimson phoenix aspires to the borders of the variegated clouds. ' ' ' ' Experience and discernment of the human passions may both be called learning; Deep and clear insight into the ways of the world also constitute subtle genius. ' ' ' ' Fame and ambition themselves must have their intervals of repose ; Retirement and leisure are, after all, preferable to labor and anxiety. ' ' There is the same correspondence of terms found in Arabic rhymed prose, and in several Hebrew passages; these passages seem to hover near the edge of prose. [74] runillilixiii ill Amos 19 iiiithiiitif (locniiii'iits of Cliiiicsi' poetry in which |iaralhlisiii a|)|ifai-s arc supposed to be nearly three tlionsaiui years old. and even tlien the paralhlisni was so intrieately (h-veh)ped that it can Inirdly be ealled a primitive system. "In no otlier lan- ^'initrf eould parallelism be curried to sneh heitilits as in ("liine.se; the exaet e(|nality in the number of words whieh form each line of a poetieal eouplet, and the almost total ab.scnee of rceiirrinfr l>artiel(s that eneumber European lanjruagi's, admit of its adop- tion with peculiar otTeet" and its maintenanec despite the rise of metre and rhyme. The ipiestioii needs analysis and earefnl eonsideration to determine whether sueli parallelism represent.s relatively a lower form of poetieal evohition than the numerous forms of Islamie poetry and of moilern literature. Japanese poetry, elosely akin to Chine.se, betrays a rather freipient parallelism, but follows no refridar method." Its essential rule is that every poem must consist of alternate lini's of five and seven syllables, with generally an extra line of .seven syllables to nuirk its close. The parallelism used in Japanese pfK-try a.s an occasional ornament, sugrjrests the use of the un- rhymed trochaic measure of Hiawatha, whieh seems calculated to (live such parallel verses their due etTect.*" Examples of Japamse parallelism are found scattered through many poems: I fiill liiT every try, p. 8, and on Hiawatha, p. ' niamhorlain. p. iJO; He anil ."^he; Song. 1 Ibid., Elegy on the ileath of I'rince Hinami (fi89 .v.D. ), p. f75] l'(ir(inflisiii i)i A)iios XEAR-EASTERN PARALLELISM Egyptian Parallelism The similarity of Efryptian to Hebrew poetrj- has beeu noted by several investigators ; so close is the affinity that the lay reader who meets with skilful translations of Egj'ptian poems will immediately associate them with biblical productions f- they are wholly unlike those of the majority of the western nations.^^ Though the history of the ancient Egyptians was written in a dry and uninteresting style, the poetry was more highly advanced f* it will be seen, however, that in general even the poetical compo- sitions were restricted in scope and variety, and that' they failed to attain the standards not only of Indo-Germanic peoples, bvit also of other Semitic peoples. For this relative sterility, the antiquity of Egyptian poetry is responsible.^' Its beginnings are lost in the mists of the pa.st; though the oldest monuments betray the existence of a literature fairly I'ich in images and language, it bears the stamp of primitive origins. Hence is it valuable in a comparative study of the historical background of Hebrew and other Semitic poetry. 52 Ebers. "Alliteration u. Reim in Altaegyptischen, " Nord uiid Sued, I, 106. "The oM Egyptian can be compared with the Hebrew text minus punctuation"; also, "Der Klang d. Altaegyptischen u. d. Reim," Z. f. Aeg. Sprache, XV (1877), p. 43. 53 Budge, Literature of the Ancient Effijptians (London, 1914), p. 241. 5-1 Stern, Records of Past, VI, 127; Rawlinson, Histoni of Ancient Egypt, I, 132-133. r.n Egyptian poetry soon became the victim of fixed laws, which com- jircsscil it into an immovable mould. The conservatism of the Orient restrained free expansion. See Wiedemann, "Die Anfaenge dramatischer I'oesie im alten Aegypten," Melanges Nicole (Geneva, 1905), p. 562. In Mahaffy, Prolegomena to Ancient History (London, 1871), p. 411, the following strictures on Egyptian literary style occur : ' ' An honest critic umst therefore confess that a sense of form in literature, such as the Greeks possessed so perfectly, is almost totally absent from Egyptian writings. Its symmetry consists in wearisome repetitions of formulae, while the poetry is a clumsy parallelism which so frequently wearies in Hebrew, but which is so often there, though seldom in Egyptian WTitings, the vehicle for striking effects. This absence of form is not a shock in the everyday letters or documents of judicial character, etc., but when we turn to the properly poetical or more especially those which treat of noble subjects we feel a very great inadequacy of the expression as com- pared with the thought. ' ' [76] raralltlism in Amus 21 Mi'tn- exists in Etryiitian iiocnis; tlu' sliin't vrrsis intn whicli llic piK'nis fall sfi-m to indicate tiiis; since, however, only the consonants anil not the vowels are known, it is impossible to state the character of this metre.'" A favorite device of old Kjryptian is alliteration, a trait apparent in ainiost all early literatures. "■ Khyme also is present; this is imt a rcjjular re- current rhyme jit tin- end of the vei-scs, hut an ornament of poetical siiecch introduced hccaiise of the pleasiu'r character of similar musical sounds, and the desire to brinp into hannoiiy the sound of the poetry and its sen.se. The rhymes occur imistly in the mairical, never in the narrative texts.'^" Perhaps the earliest stage of Egyptian poetry was rejietition. It abounds in identity of phrase and sound, both throughout complete sentences and in the opening and closing words of a line. These repetitions must have comforted the Egyptian though they irritate the niodeni ear. The custom became so jiopular that it finally was fixed as a law of poetry; a thought which in modern piM'try is expre.s.sed merely through the verb, received in Egyptian its linguistic expre.ssion through the repe- tition of identical, or similar roots, first as a verb, then as a noun.'" This repetition, which at first nia\- have been nuiintained in exactly the .same words and forms over long periods of te.xt, both in magical formulas, .songs, incantations, and in prayers, later was varied and became incremental repe- tition; this incn-mental repetition, wherein part of the line was repeated, but either the end or the beginning was changed, contained the seed of parallelism in the same way that the repetition of the introductory or closing words of a vei-se was s" Erman, Die orffyptitche Liicratur in Die oricntalischrn Litrraturen (Loipzig, 1906), p. 29. s' S^fo Ebors, Alliteration, citeti above; also Ebcrs, "Ein Strophisch- niiKeorilnctor Text von einer Mumicnbin.le," X. f. Aeg. Spr., XVI (1878), p. .")0-51, (fives mimorous examples of alliteration. 5" 8oc Eliers, "Der Klang," p. 4.'). 5» The poot does not say, "I smell," but "I smell the oilor, " or still bettor, "my nose .smells the odor." Reiteration is foiiml on every siilc in Egyptian literature: .we the S<. 7ti. Kbors, ihid., XV, ."il, says that the te.xt falls into three sections, ilivi.lcil by an external sign, ami that each part contains live .sections. Strophic formation is also founil in El)crs, " Eiu strophiscli-nnjjconlncter Text von cincr Mumienbimle," Z. f. Aetj. Spr., XVI (1878), pp. '>0-r>'<. See Wiedemann, in Sl^liiiiptu Xicolf, pp. 3t!9-.')70, on strophe and dance. "■ Cook, loc. fit. In this poem, the first word of each .strophe is writ- ten in red letters, and each also has a red point at the close. The number of lines in each of the fourteen stanzas runs thus: 11, 8. 8, 10, 10, 8, 10, 11, 12, 10, 9, 8, H, 8. Compare number of lines in Amos 1.2-2.i"i, below. The resemblance of this poem to several of the earliest Hebrew poems has been pointed out by Cook in his /iitrorfurrion to the Book of Psalms, and \otes on Eiodus, in the Speaker's Commentary on the Bible. «»8ce Stern, toe. cit.; Goodwin, "Hymn to Amon-Ra," Rrc. of Past. II, 127(r. ; it is supposed to date from the fourteenth century B.C. (Ebers, /. /. Arff. Spr., XV, 4.i). For other examples see "The Stele of Bcka," Kee. of Past, X. 7; "The Foundation of the Temple of the Sun of Heli- opolis," ibid., Xir, .ilfT.; Breasted, .4ncient Ileeords of Egypt (Chicago, lOOrt), 4 vol.s., passim. 24 I'arallrlisiii in Amos An cxampli' of a poiin from the Old Kingdom (third milli'ii- nium B.C.) follows: No beggar was tliere in my days; No hungry in my time. The Song of the Harper, composed in the Eighteenth Dj'nasty, is "very remarkable for the form of old Egyptian poetry which like that of the Hebrew delights in a sublimer language, in parallelisms and antitheses, and in the ornament of a burden"; it seems to be rhythmic, having verses of equal length ;"" exam- ples taken from it at random, even through a rhymed translation, show the parallelism : As Ra rises up every morn, And Turn every evening doth set, So women conceive and bring forth, And men witliout ceasing beget, Each soul in its turn draweth breath. Each man born of woman sees Death."" Examples of antithetic parallelism are frequent : His hands reward those whom he cherishes, But his enemy he plunges into the flames.'i Ra is miglity, weak are the godless, Ra is exalted, lowly are the godless. Synthetic parallelism is most frequent in Egyptian as in all other literatures in which the paralldistic motif is current, though often fairly elosi- synonymity is i)rcscnt. The follow- ing example gives evidence of the interplay of couplet and triplet formation, while monostichs are also at hand : «i> Stern, VI, 127. The length of tlie verses can be seen from this transliteration : Urrd tirui pii ma Ta xhdu iicfir llwpcr Khrli, hrr s-rhl trr rel- Sa Jamau Jur at r n.s'/-.<;r». See also Stern, Z. f. Arg. Sjir., XI (1873), p. 58ff.: Duemichen. Historisclie Inschriftcn, II, 40; and others, among them Brugsch (see below). ''0 Rawlinson, I, 143. [80] 25 Honor his iiiajo»ty in your hearts, He is "Sa" of the lioarts, His eyes scuri-h cnoli body, He is the sun who sees with his rays, He ilUiniinates the two lamls with the sumlisk, Ho makes venlaiit more than the great Nile, He fills the two lands with strenifth, He is the life which eools the nostrils, Ho gives food to those who are in his train. He nourishes those who follow his way. He it is who causes what is, . He is the C'hnum of each body.^-' Ajra'm : How gentle is this in the hearts of the people, How beautiful is this before the (;oTed for this piiri>os.-: Breasted, Pi IUimni.1 in .Sof.m '(Berlin, 1891), pp. 4-.">; Brugs.di, "Pas lieilicht voni Hnrfeiispieler," /. /. .In;. .'>';"■., XXXII (18J)4>. 12:i-1.1»: Spiegelberg, Z. f. Ac<]. Spr., XXXIV (189fi\ 18. '•Junker, " I'oosie aus der Spaetzeit," X. f. Acq. S/ir., XLIII (190lc : SiiK-o tho vniml is goiio, tlio flood ovorflows, Since tlie clay is gone, the shore is destroyed.*? The (level(>|)ii»eiit of the Siimeriiiii liturjry ajiiiears to have traverst'll many eeiituries. The nhir orifrinaily was siiiin to nuisieal instniiiieiits, and was marked by insistently repeated nt'i-ains, and a eertain rhythmical motif which served to dis- tinjiuisli it from prose. At first the liturtrics consisted of a single son;!, but these later -rave way to a succession of shorter melodies. In early worship, it appears to have been customary to bow and sway the body; perhaps this may have assisted in the development of a rhythmical distich fonnation. Double and sinfile lini's served to mark off the divisions of the songs, but these have no relation to coui)let or strophie divisional marks, such as the horizontal lines fomul later in Babylonian-Assyrian; they were rather musical aids. The Snmerian liturfry seems to reveal an etTort towards metre; each line is an element in itself, perhaps the basis for the later usaye both in the Habylonian- A.s-syrian, and Hebrew poetry. Lines were sometimes divided into hemistiehs; but no regular system of prosody api)cai-s to have existed."" Clearly then the Sumerian literature diserves reerjgnition as the forerunner of Babylonian-As.syrian ; but the tincertainty which enshrouds its various |)henomena permits only an indication of the direction in which its evolution tended. Babylonian- Ass VKiAN Takallelism The wealth of material at hand in the Babylonian-As.syriaii literature, however, nuikes it possible to lay down certain general laws of poetics and prosody. In it both rhyme and alliteration are u.sed."" Metre and strophe are jiresenl, and will be dis- cussed below. Of primary impoi-tanci- here, however, is the abundant use of jiarallelism."" 'I LnnKl. '.s. p. 117. »!> HndK' . I "pon the Fourth Tablet of the Creation Series,"' /'."-/•.:. -- . '>-9; t'asanowio/., Pamnomtixia in thr Oldvn Timrn (Hostoii, 151* 1,, (.. Jl. <■<> It is not generally known that one of the first to note parallelism in Assrrinn-Babylonian was Eberhard Sehrader in Die Horllrnfuhrl drr [87 1 32 ParaUelisni in Amos The original iiLScriptious of Babylonian-Assyrian civilization clearly show the form of poetical works, whereas it has been necessary in the Hebrew to discover it by direct and difficult means. The hymns, praj'ers, and epic poetry are so written on the tablets that the various types of poetic structure at once become apparent to the eye. In the first place, each verse is written as one complete line; these individual stiehoi are shown to be in relation to the preceding or following verse by symmetry and proximity.'" The second important fact in tablet-writing is that oftentimes two stiehoi of poetry are marked off by a horizontal line from other verse-pairs or couplets which are similarly combined. This division into distichs and oftentimes into tristichs was a favorite device with the Babylonians.^- Many monuments show this mechanical designation of poetry, and several illustrations in works on Babylonian and Assyrian hymns have reproduced the phi-nomenon.-'^ Several questions arise, however, in eonuec- tioii with its extensive usage. It is found in manv bilingual Istar (Giessen, 1874); also in " Semitismus und Babylonismus : Zur Frage nach d. Ursprung des Hebraismus, " Jahrb. f. Protest. TheoL, I, 116ff. Helnrich Gunkel's work on Sclioepfung und Chaos (Goettingen, 1895), p. 401, n. 1, brought the question of parallelism and metre to the attention of Heinrich Zimmern whose numerous essays and books have presented the results of careful investigation on the two points. See "Ein vor- lauefiges Wort ueber Babvl. Metrik," ZA, VIII, 121; X, 1, 292; XI, 83, 339; XII, 382. Zimmern 's suggestion, ZA, VIII, 122, that editors and translators should show graphically tlie parallelism, metre, and strophes of poems has found echo in the work of several writers: Pinckert, Eymneii und Gebeten an Nebo (Leipzig, 1907), p. 13; Jensen, " Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen," KeiUnschrif. Bibliothek, VI, Teil 1, s. xiii; Mar- tin, Textes rcUgieux assyriens et babyl., Biblioth. de I'Ecole des Bautes Etudes, CXXX (1900), p. xxii; Hussey, Some Sumerian-Babylonian Hymns of the Berlin Collection (Chicago, 1907), p. 13; Gray, The liamas Seligious Texts (Univ. of Chicago, 1908), p. 11: "Throughout the hymn is found a parallelism wliich is strikingly similar to the parallelism of the Hebrew poetry, and which corresponds in general to the paragraphs." 91 Zimmern, ZA, VIII, 123. 82 Zimmern, ZA, XI, 87. S3 Bruennow, "Assyrian Hymns," ZA, IV, Iff.; V, 55ff. ; these two hymns to Shamash and Merodach, and a hynm to Nebo, and various smaller fragments "belong to a well-marked class, the distinctive feature of which is the horizontal line, occurring after every second or occasionally third line of the text, and generally, though not always marking divisions in the sense. ' ' Bruennow 's translations, however, do not demonstrate this practice. See also Craig, Assyrian and Babiilonian Beligious Texts (Leip- zig, 1895), I, passim. It is found on tablets, K. 3474, 8232,- 3312, 3182, 2650, 8233, 3459, 8298, 8236, etc. [88] I'lmilltlism i„ Amos 33 liyniiiN, thi- first liiu- luiiij: Smmriim. and liciii-c iinn-Si'initii'. Ilif second line Assyrian. Diil tluii tliis prai'ticc arise throujrli the n-pi'tition of tlie sainc thoiifrht in ditTi-rciit lanfruajji's ; ninnovcr, did Babylonian-Assyrian parallelism orijrinate from the same eustoni? This hypothesis is weak, for in reply it may lie saitl that tlie horizontal lines occur most freipiently where the two stiehoi are in the Assyrian lanjiuafre, and where the thoiifrht thoujrii the same, is expressed in dilTerent terms in each stichos. Again it must be iioti'd that the horizontal lines are used not merely to desifrnate couplet and triplet divisions, but oftentimes they nuirk otT •rrou])s of two, three, four, five and more lines;"* tlK)u;rh in several tablets they m-cur with such rcfrularity at the end of every two lines that the inscriptions have an almost striped appearance, and though in others they mark off eipial stropiies at regular intervals, at times they are employed indis- criminately without scheme or plan. It may however he asked: Since till' Habylonian-As-syrian originals used dividing lines to mark otT distichs and larger eombiiuitions, may not the originals of Hebrew poetry, even including prophetic literature, have had n similar device to differentiate poetry from prose, and above all to mark off the couplets and strophes? The (piestion of the unit of Babylonian poetry lias concerned several investigators. It is evident that strophes exist in the compositions."^ Oftentimes these are indicated by the oiien spaces between the various stanzas, as well as by horizontal lines."" JIueller busies him.self with .strophes of six, eight, ten, and twelve liius, and neglects entirely the couplet ; for him, the normal strophe consists of eight lines."' Delitz-sch regards the »< In ("rnig"!! olition.s, II (1897), 14. lines arc ii.sed in K. 2.'>."), obv. col.. I, in the nrrangpnient o^■^ + 2-^-•^-^-2 + 4, etc., ovidontly n rogular stropliic arrani;<*nirnt built upon the couplet a.s a unit. But in K. 2'i'i rev. col., I, the combination is 8 -)- 5 -f .") -I- ."} -f 1. I" Zimmcrn, Bab})loni»chf Biurjmalmrn (Leipzig, 188.»), p. fiti; Lenor- mant, A'.Mni di rommnilairr dra fragmrntu cofmofionuiucn de Brro»t (Paris, 1872), p. 4.'>8; Haupt, "Die Akkaili.sche Sprache," p. xixv to p. 2r>. Perhaps the most significant works are Mueller, Die Prophrtrn in lArrr uritprurnglichrn Form: I. Strnphmbau und Re»pnnitU>n in der Kril- sfhri/ttitrratur (Vienna, 1896); DclitziM-h, Dir babul. Wrltsehoepfungiifpos (Leipzig, 189fi), Abh. d. phUhial. Clauf d. k. mtchji. Gm. d. Wist., XVII, Num. 11, poMnm. »" Dflitzach, p. 68. »' Mueller, p. 8. 34 r„ralU'lls,ii in Amos four-line strophe as the basic form; where without artificiality a complete strophe is not possible, lialf-strophes of one plus one stichoi maj^ be formed but these, he saj's, are soon compensated by a second half-strophe if they stand in the midst of a longer strophic arrangement. He groups his text in four stichic com- binations, and paj-s little heed to the couplet. Zimmern takes issue with both Delitzsch and ilueller. Xot in strophes, which afford only accidental evidence, but in the verse and the distich is the real basis of Baliylonian poetical forms to be fciuiid. .Mueller overestimates the ]iart which the eight-line str()i)ln' plays in the Creation Epic; Delitzsch also ignores the obvious couplet structure of this poem; Zimmern asserts that the distich combination is vital for a proper under- standing of the text. Herein the motif of parallelism plays an all-important role. The tablets show the horizontal lines which designate the couplets only when the two stichoi are bound together by inner reasons, of sense and thought-rhythm.''* This makes an appi'eciation of parallelism imperative for an under- standing of the meaning of the lines, for the synonymous, anti- thetic, or synthetic relation of the first to the second stichos is a key to an interpretation of the text. Prom the standpoint of thought, it is apparent that the couplet is the fundamental unit of Babylonian-Assyrian, as it will be found to be of the Hebrew poetry ; it must be remembered however that couplets do not follow each other in unbroken succession, for as the hori- zontal lines and internal data prove, various larger combinations are not only possible but fre(iucnt. From the standpoint of metre, however, the unit of the poetry is discoverable in the hemistich. Each distich is made up of four quarters; each of these four parts has two tonal accents, or stresses. This quartering is often portraj^ed by the mechan- ical device of perpendicular lines dividing each hemistich."'' It seems certain that the Babylonians employed consciously a regular metrical scheme, and that they counted and correctly apportioned the number of accents in each hemistich. Tlu' tonic osZimmeru, 7.1, XI, Stiff. S'^Guukel, p. 401, n. 1; this occurs ou the original tablet (Lo Sp. II, 2(;.i a.). See Zimineru, ZA, VIII, 121ff. [90] I'aralhlism in Amos 35 aci'fiiliiatiim staiuls in ckisc a^'ri'cmiMit with the llt-lnvw and Aramaic iiu'tliods, and in thf strony;(st cDntrast ti> tin- I'lassieal Arabii'.'"" The profrross of the sohoine of Assyrian-Babylonian piH'try si'oins then to be from the hemistieli to the sliehos, to tlie eonplet or ilistieh, to tlie stroplie or mnltistieb. Examples of the various types of ])arailelisni arc nninnons.'"' Synonymous parallelism is fouuil thus: Whore is thy name not hennlf Whore not thy ilcrrooM/ Where nre thy iiniifjcs not niaili-f Where are thy teniples uot foumleil i Whore art thou not groat J Whore art tlioii not exalted? Aim, Ellil, and Ea have exalted thee, Among the gods have they increased thy dominion.ios Kxamples of antithetie parallelism ean be found frecpiently; the follo\vin<; is taken from the so-ealled Babylonian Job: In a moment he is singing anil playing. In an instant he is howling like a oomplniner. Now they are hungry ami are like a oorpso, Again they are full and are like unto God.'<" looZimmorn, /.I. XII, 384. Ho believes also that the similarity of Asayrian-Bahylonian metre to the Hohrew may assist in the solution of the' riddle of Hobri'W verso-eonstruotion. See Gray, Ftirmn of Ilibreu- Poetry, p. UOff. Martin, p. xxii, discusses the various lengths of the hemistichs: he shows that the two homisticlis are sometimes unequal in length, the shorter boing the second, the longer the first. See Zimmorn, "Ueber Rhythmus ini Babylonischen," ZA, XII, 382fr; also " Babyl. Hymnen umi (iobete," Drr altc Oritnt, VII, '>; and Britractje cur Kinntniji il.' habyloniufhin li'lif>ii>ii (Leipzig, 1901). Uolitzsch, p. tilflf., gives four laws for metrical arrangement of the hemistichs: 1. Each line falls into two half-linos. 2. The .second hemistichs are subject to a stricter rhythmical law than the first. 3. The law of the second hcmi.stichs is that they shall have not more than two main accents, consisting of two accented syllables, whether long or closed (a vowel followed by two con.sonants). 4. The first half-verses are subject to a loss strict rhythmical law: (a) for some, the rule of the soconci hemistichs is also oper- ative, namely, the demand for two main accents; (b) but the first hemistich can also have throe main accents. i»i Zimmern, "Babyl. Hymnen," Dir ollr Orirnt, VII, lOO.!; XIII, 1911. For a bibliography, sec Bezold, ttabyl.- Aiutiir. Liltcralur (Leipzig, 1886), pp. 17l-18fi: Zimmern. Drr nltr OrirnI, XIII, .12; Koenig, SlilUtii; Shrtorik, Portik (Leipzig, 1900); p. 311. Rogers, Cunrifnrm ParaHrU, gives excellent translations of many hymns, incantations ami epics. '"Rogers, p. l.>4. Hymn to Ishtar; se«> also p. I.">9. 103 Ibid., p. ItH-ItU. [91 1 36 ParalJflism in Amos Examples of synthetic parallelism iutermingle with regular synonymous parallelism : The sewers of the city shall be thy drink, The shadows of the walls shall be thy dwelling, The thresholds shall be thy habitation. The drunken and the thirsty shall smite thy cheek.iM Oftentimes there is a kind of alternate parallelism: In a dispute when I take part The woman who understands piltvm am I: In a law suit when I take part The woman who understands the law am 1.105 This is a sisrn of elementary strophic interparallelistie structure, which is foimd highly developed in other poems. Several acrostic hymns are at hand, comparable to the Psalms.^"^ The practice of autiphonal singing was apparently common, and gave rise to hj-mns wherein refrains were maintained in identical words for long periods. These repetitions resemble several of the incantation refrains common in Egyptian poetry. The pro- cessional Hj-mn to llarduk was sung antiphoually. the priest singing the first half, the people responding with the recurrent refrain : The city cries out to thee ' ' Best, " " may thy house rejoice in thee. Babylon cries out to thee "Best," may thy house rejoie* in thee. The great Anu, father of the gods, cries out to thee ' ' Best at last. " ' May the mighty mountain, father Bel, cry to thee "Best at last.-'i''' Schrader cites several examples of liturgical songs in tie Temple which he affirms were sung antiphoually : the following is the Song of the Seven Spirits : (Strophe) Seven are they, seven are they, In the sea 's deep, seven are tiey In the sky's blue,, seven are they, In the sea, far down, their birth. lo^rhid.. p. 128, Ishtar's Descent to Hades. See Schrader, BU BocUrnfahrt. passim : Jeremais, Die Bahyt-assjir. TorgteUung r. Leben nach dcm Todc (Leipzig, 1SS7), p. 9. 505 Hnssey. p. 13. lOGZimme.m. ZA. X, I.t: see Bezold, Catalogue, p. 905 with reference to K. S204, and p. 1.549: Pinches, Terts, p. lof. If T The word ''Best"" hexe and elsewhere in the hymn is an abbrevia- tion of the words of the old formnla in the incantation teits, "May thy heart be appeased. " ' The hymn was sung after the manner of the Hallel Psalms. [92] J'aralhlism ,n Amos 37 (Altornato Strophe) Not innlo aro they, not female tliey, Wife they take not, son they have not, Both law anil onler know they not, To prayers and wishes hark they not. (Eml Strophe) S<>ven are they, seven are they, The Seven Adisina thcy.x" Another cxamiilc of liijrlily devt-lopi'd stroiiliic stnutiuc. wlicn-in tlio parallolisin is perfect, is the hymn : (Strophe) Who is sublime in the skies f Thou alone, thou art sublime; Who is sublime upon earth t Thou aloue, thou art sublime. (Alternate Strophe) Thy mighty command is proelaimeil in the skies, The Gods then prostrate themselves; Thy mighty command is proclaimed upon enrtli. The Spirits then kiss the ground.!"" Two major questions are involved in a diseu.ssion of Assyrian- Baliyhmian parallelism. The first concerns the regularity of till' eouplet formation. Despite imperfections and corruptions of the te.vts, it is certain that repular couplets are uuiintaiiu>d for fairly loiip intervals. The number of unattached or floating nionostichs, al.so. is very large; they creep into the poems at the most unexpected places, and interrupt the regularity without any law or scheme. Though in several instances complementary or corresponding lines have disappeared beeatise of text muti- lation, nevertheless it must he admitted that as in Hebrew, unaecotintably placed lines appear in othenvise regular struc- ture."" Again, a-s in Hebrew, several lines contain a heaping-up '"« Sohrader, BorUrnfahrt, p. 110-11,'5. The first strophes may havo been .lung by half-choirs, pnd the closing strophes by the general choir. '"•Schroder, pp. 111-11.^, calls attention to the "specifically Hebrew" strophic system. He links (pp. S.VSfi) the highly (levelop«'d strophical scheme with the advanced Babylonian civiliiation as Ewald had ilono with the Hebrew strophe in relation to He*rew culture. The part played by magical incantations ami formulas in the development of the strophe and parallelinn is as significant in Babylonian Assyrian as in Egyptian, Fin- nish, and other literatures. ""See the Lsolateit stichoi in Amos, below. Martin, p. xxviii, saya: "These combinations, too irregular to deserve the name of strophe, do [M] 38 Parallelism in Amos of terms, especially- of iioims, complemeutary to the subject in the first stiehos of a couplet : Shamash, he who goes his way in fear prays to thee, (....)> the traveler, the tradesman, he who carries the weights. O Shamash, the hunter with the net prays to thee, The hunter ( ? ) , the cattleman, the tender of herbs. The second problem concerns the relation of poetry to prose. As in the Bible,'" verses are found not merely in the hj'mns, the epics, and other texts of obviously poetical character, but also in the historical texts of "elevated style.'' An example may be found in the Shamashshumukin tablet of Assurbanapal."- It may be that these poetical sections were quoted from other poems; yet on the other hand, the occasional presence of what seems to be rhythm in historical narratives, points to the authen- ticity of poetical sections as native to an apparently' prose work."" Though on occasion, Babylonian parallelism may be the result of no conscious artistic process, but the natural outcome of rhj-thmically exalted speech,"^ its presence in com- positions of patently prosaic character, or under the spell of no great poetic emotion, is proof that it was a deliberate and recognized poetical device. It may be concluded that in Baby- lonian-Assyrian as in Hebrew, there is a mixture of poetry and prose, wherein the limits of the former are more or less deter- mined by mechanical aids : but the widespread character of synthetic parallelism, and the narrative character of several poetical epics, permit the conclusion that the interplay of poetry and prose is almost as intricate and indefinable as in Hebrew. A word may be said on the value of parallelism for exegesis."'' not seem to be inspired by any rule of prosody. ' ' They seem to have had no other rule than the development, more or less long, given by the scribe to his thought. Ill See II K. 8.12, etc. ii2Zimmern, ZA, VIII, 123; IX, 338-339. 113 Jeremias, p. 9. IK Schrader, p. 60, compares the stiehic form of the poem on Ishtar's Journey, to the writing of the Song in Deut.. chap. 32. See also West- phal, Allgcmeine Theorie der musil-alischen EhytJunik (Leipzig, 1880), p. 37. 115 Dhorme, Textes religieux assyro-babyloniens (Paris, 1907), p. 4, and passivi; Martin, pp. 24, 48; Zimmern, Bussiisalmeii. pp. 12-13, 24, 42, 43, 99, 104, and jtassitn; an emendation on p. 97 is "confirmed bv the parallelism." See also ZJ. XI, 335, 339. [94] rurallilis-m in Amos 39 An examplf of the assistaufC wliieli it roiidors in tlie deeiplier- ment of imitihitfil or dubious words may be found in tiiis st'leetion: For fooil, 1 will out tin- ihiy, For ilriuk, 1 will drink (tlie wiitor) That I may weep for the men who have left their wives, That I iiiuy weep for the women (torn) from their husbands' bosoms, That I may we.>p for the little children (snatch.'d away before) their aay.ii-' The relation of Babyhmian to the ori^'iii nl' IIcIhtw |);iralK'l- ism will be discussed below."" Arabic I'ailvi.leusm CLASSICAL (iNCLUDISa PERSIAN AND TURKISH) The elose relationship between Arabic and Hebrew literature has often been noted."" Thou« Rogers, p. 123. iif See p. 61. '•'Jones, Fnr.nriu Asiatirar rommrnlarinrium lihri nex (London, 1774), pp. 2.>-»i5; Wenrii-h, Dr pnr.nron Ilrhrtufoe atijui' Arabicac orifjinc (Ijeip- ii({, 1S43), piiAtim. Ewnld, Pe Uetrit Carminum Arabicorum (BriinswicK, 1825), p. 96; De Ritis, / Metri Arabi (Nnple-i, 1833), I, 82; Steiner, Vebrr hebraeitchf Potne (Basel, 1873), pp. 12, 23. n'Chenerv, AtnembUrt of Al Hariri (London, 1867), I, 45. [93] 40 ParaUelism in Amos the viewpoint of form as a relatively primitive class of literature. The multitude and variety of later Arabic poetic and rhetorical forms have rendered it difficult to select any one as dominantly characteristic ; while the scarcitj' of primitive Arabic poems, con- temporaneous with the original Hebrew compositions, has made it hard to discern the fundamental rules of prosodj' and poetics which govern them. Hence the presence of parallelism, the out- standing trait of Hebrew poetry/-" has been in the Arabic alternately championed and disputed.'-' It is therefore neces- sary to reexamine the Islamic literatures in an endeavor to determine whether parallelism is to be found therein. For this task investigation in Arabic poetry is not sufficient; Moham- medan-Persian literature, which is based upon Arabic poetical canons, and also Ottoman poetry, which is indebted both to the Arabic and the Persian, offer fruitful evidence. It is advisable to group these three under one classification, though minor vari- ations between them exist. Repetition in Islamic poetry nuist first be noted. It may be categorically affirmed that repetitions after the manner of the Egyptian, the Sumerian and the Babylonian-Assyrian poetry are absent from the Arabic; but a close approach to repetition is found in the rhetorical device called 'aks "inversion." Here two parts of a distich are so arranged that the same words which begin a sentence are reversed to conclude it ; in its various mani- festations, it sometimes takes on parallelistic character. In the Arabic, this example may be cited : And their black hair became white, And their white countenauce black.1-2 120 Perhaps the first investigator to note parallelism as such in the Arabic was Schleusner, Dissertatw, p. 11 ; but Sehrader, due to the de- ficiencies of his Arabic scholarship, affirmed a century later in 1875 that no parallelism existed in Islamic poetry. Though he expresses wonder at its absence among those tribes most protected from foreign influence, still this agrees with his preconceived theory of the non-Semitic origin of parallelism, which he attributes to the ancient Akkadians. Mueller however, in his discussion of the strophic structure of the Koran, asserts that the main characteristics of the verses and also the multistichs and strophes are parallelism and antithesis. 121 Die Propheten, p. 59. i22Mehren, Die Rhetorik der Arabcr (Vienna, 1853), p. 104. [96] I'aralUlism in Amos 41 Fnim the Pi'rsian : lu your I'ouiitouaiiec, I boheKl tlio Ijoaut.v of wliiih 1 liiul lionnl, That beauty of whii-li I had honrd, in your fouiittMiaiuT I lK'holil.i=' From the Ottoman : The seasou of youth is the time to ai-quire kiiowletige; The time to acquire knowledge is the seasiou of youth. is* Sometimes the words are rend botli baekwards and forwards, in the manner of the anagram, exeeptingr that tliere letters, and here whole words are transposed: You posse.Hs money and you possess liberality; Liberality you possess and money you possess.'^' It ean be seen here at once, however, that the device is not bnilt upon repetition, bnt upon inversion.'-" Another form of repetition or reiteration is found in tiie iinikarrar, a form of paronomasia, wherein a wcn-d is repeated in tlie .sann' distieh its hemistich. Thoufrh parallelism is not neee.s-sarily attendant upon the nnihiirnu-, these exanipli-s are clearly marked 1>.\' it : Whosoever seeks something and e.xerts himself, will find it. Whosoever knocks on a door and perseveres, will enter.' =? From tlic Persian : Your cheeks resemble two leaves, and each leaf is the sun; Y'our hair hangs in ringlets, and each ringlet is a cord. From envy of these leaves, the leaves of the rose are expanded; From envy of those ringlets, the spikenard becomes twisted.>2» 'S' Ciladwin, On the Rhetoric, Prosody, and Ehyme of the Persians (Calcutta, 1801), passim; Rucckert-Pertsch, Grammatik; Poctik wid Rhftohk der Pcrser (Gotha, 1874), passim. 15« Gibbs, History of Ottoman Poetry (London, 1900), 5 vols., passim. • 23 Glailwin, p. 27. An example of the manner in which good par- allelism may occur in this formation can be seen in this quotation: "In lil)orality you are Ilatem, in dignity you are Caesar; In command you arc Asaf; in argument you are Jesus." Reversed it becomes: "You arc Jesus in argument; you are A.saf in command; You are Caesar in dignity, you are Ilatem in litwrality. " i=«Ciibbs, I, n.">. He mentions also the lard u'ais or tpandos which consists in forming the second line or a distich from the reversed halves of the first line, as in the example quoted. Sometimes the conversion is "perfect" and sometimes "imperfect." As an example of this same usage in English poetry, Gibbs quotes Milton: "O more exceeding love or law more just. Just law indeed, but more exceeding love." 12* Mehren, p. 100. The paronomasia does not iK-come apparent in the tran.nlations. 1" Glmlwin, p. 29. (97) 42 PaniUplisw in Amos An even closer approach to parallelism is found in some of the varieties of the tajnis motif, also a form of paronomasia.^-" It occurs when the author employs in verse or prose, two or more words resembling each other in their letters, but having different meanings. Oftentimes the general effect is of parallelism, especially where the motif occurs in a distich. The tajnis tdmm or "perfect similarity and homogeneity," occurring when two words of different meaning have the same sound and form, without any variations of the vowel points, creates several par- allelistic couplets, of which this is a type: If I compare your cheek to the rose, I committeil a mistake; And if I called your hair musk of Tartary, I uttered an impro- priety.130 Among the varietii's of imperfect similarity, couplets of parallelism occur, but not so frefjuently. The jiiuls al-qalb contains an inversion and antithesis, apparent in this couplet of Ahnaf : In 3'our sword victory for your friends is prepared: In your lance death for your enemies.i^i A Turkish example of tlu^ jinfis inuxarraf or "altered similar- ity," wherein the letters of the terms are all alike except that the vowel points differ, is present here : The fame of her beauty increaseth in the city ; The praise of her rose-cheek is the theme of every tongue.132 Another rhetorical device which approaches but does not attain parallelism is found in the tg,qsim or "division," a term applied also to mathematical division in the works of Euclid. That it was taken to mean a species of parallelism can be tinder- stood from a comment of Tlia' alibi on the style of Mutannabi that among the beautiful and original features of liis works he employed the tiKishu, thus dividing his sentences into parallel parts : We were in gladness, the Greeks in fear; The land in bustle, the sea in eonfusion.iss 120 Mehren, p. 154fE. 130 Gladwin, p. 6ff. 131 Mehren, p. l'>S. 132 Gibbs, p. 116. 133 Nicholson, Literary History of the Arabs (New York, 1907), p. 311 ; Dieteriei, Mutanabhi viid Scifuddanla ans der Edelperle des [98] I'anilhlistn in Amo.i 43 Hut (.•loser I'xaminati"!! of ollior exaiiiplos l)ftrnys flu- fact that luqs'iin is not {jeiiuino parallflisni : in a lifinisticli, or a stii-lios, tlic poet recites several |)artii'iilars, ami afterwards in another lu'inistieli or stiehos, introchiees some others in eonneetion with them, anil assigns each to eaeh reffularly : I mil pivnaed with love and wine becnuw tliey nre not friemls; Neither love with the libidinous, nor wine with the lips of the pious man."* In a sense, this motif produees a triplet formation, of which the first .stiehos is loiifr. and the other two are shorter; parallelism lying only between them, and not involving the first : A soul and a heart I had as profit from the moans of existence; A stealthy glance took the latter; Vour flattery stole the foriner.'^s Several other rhetorical devices of the jioetry of the Islamic literatures might be cited as near-parallelism, but they are delib- erate and con.scious poetic devices; they are chiselled out by a eureful method, and lack the spontaneity and freedom of Hebrew parallelism. Moreover they are historically late, and none suf- fice to indicate the path to a solution of the question whether the Arabic contains genuine, sustained and regular parallelism, similar to the Hebrew. It is therefore necessarj' to turn back TiiuUibi (Leipzig, 1847), p. 72. Tha 'alibi introduces as confirmation of his judgment the opinion of Abu 1 "Kasim of Amid, who in his book If'cigh- iiiff of the Poems relates the following tale: "Once a stylistic connoisseur li.jinl the verses of al-Abbas ibn al-Ahnaf : 'Your union is separation; your word hate; Your as.sent is dis.sent; your peace war. You iM'ar within you through God 's grace harsh thoughts, And all tenilcrnesa is obstinate.' Then he said: 'By Allah, this is finer than the divisions of Euclid. But still more worthy of this praise is the vers*- of Abu Tayyib' (quoted in the tc.\t). Tha 'alibi also ninke.s mention of the fact that Mutanabbi arranged his conswcutive similes in brief .snnmetrical clauses (Nicholson, p. 310; Dieterici, p. 68). "She shone forth like a moon And Nwaycil like a morning bough, And shod fragrance like amlxTgris, And gazed like a gazelle. ' ' iVhIwnrdt, Porsir uml Pnrlik drr Arabrr (Gothn, 1856), p. 7-1, also notes the parallelism in J/u('«Gla«> In ail'lition to tho i/tK/dniiit of Hariri, parallolixm of the »aj' i» to bo fouDil in tlic J/ii(;ilm>i( of alllanmilhani (hoc al>ove), in tlio ilaqami'il of the Jewish pool nl'Hnrizi (sec Iwlowr i ; and in the imitation of tho itaijdmUt of Hariri by Nn.iif al-Vazaji of Beirut (Chenery, p. 98). '•I Chenery, p. 48, anil above. i«2Goliliiher, p. »>4. '•>On tho U!ic of tho »aj' by niafnrian.i| anil divinem, sec Ooldiiher, p. 69fr. A comparison ran bo instituted between the use of the $aj' [101] 46 I'araUcUsiii in Amos theless he himself wrote the Koran in saj' or rhymed prose motif. Mohammed's utterances, it is true, though unmetrical, make a nearer approach to versification than the ordinary rhymed prose, because their rhyme is continuous ; Mueller is cor- rect, however, in his discovery of parallelism and antithesis in the Koran, though these are by no means the dominant styles. After Mohammed, the Islamic preachers adopted the saf for their weekly exhortations in the. mosques; and rhymed prose, with emphasis laid more and more on the rhj-me, now became so widespread that it was used in the introduction to most books, throughout others (particularly histories), and almost in com- mon conversation.'" In the Thousand Niyhts diid n Night "it adds a sparkle to description and a point In iir(i\ci-li, epigram and dialogue ; . . . and, generally, it defines the boundaries be- tween the classical and the popular styles.'""*" In conjunction with the parallelism of the saj' arose a regular metre, the rajaz. This was employed long before the end of the Period of Ignorance, and was the favorite vehicle for the sententious utterances of chiefs and warriors, wise men and diviners."'' Fundamentally rajaz is nothing but rhyth- mically disciplined a'o/."" Parallelism existed before the intro- duction of rhyme, and surely before the introduction of the rajaz metre. When out of rh.^-me and the rajaz there is devel- oped verse or poetry proper in all its multiform ramifications and artifices, parallelism still continues; but it is buried under a mass of poetical devices. It is crowded by metre, bounded and modified bj' rhjTne ; but none the less even in the genuine poetry by the soothsayers, and the words mentioned with reference to the yidd''- '6mm in Isaiah 8.19. There mahghn can refer to the cooing of the turtle dove, just as mcgaphg'^pliini refers to the chirping of the birds. This woukl seem to point to the usage of tlie saj' by the soothsayers of the Hebrews, and hence to lend evidence to the hypotiiesis that the saj' may also have been at some time or another a form of the Hebrew parallelism. The Arabic saj' may be related to tlie Hebrew sliugga' "to be intoxicated with prophecy. ' ' "iChenery, p. 52ff. Arbuthnot, Arabic Authors (London, 1890), p. 27, asserts that the irregular, half rhythmical, half rhyming sentences of the Koran were the first attempts in the direction of prose in Arabic literature. 144II Burton's translation, Introduction to Vol. I. n= Chenery, p. 49. "0 Goldziher, p. 76. [102 I'anillrlism in Amos 47 of the Arabs, tlic Persians and the Turks, it eoiitinues ti> iiiaiii- fost itself now ami then. For the eharaeter of the Islamic lan- puages lends itself with siieh readiness and responsiveness to jiarallelisni that the latter eoiild never be entirely overwhelmed.'" And it was probably due to the inii)ress of its parallelistie orifjin that the Arabic poetry has always maintained an extreme sim- plieity and brevity of syntaetie strueture, deniandintr that the vej-se (i.e., line) stand by itself as a syntaetie unit. It is true that the line may contain as many as thirty syllables, and that, tlioufrh each line must in {reneral consist of two metrically c(|ual hemistiehs, the caesura dividing.' the hcmistichs may fall within a word and the line as a whole become the syntactic unit as it is normally the rhyme unit ; but in the rajm the older jKX'ts treat the single stichos (the hemistich) as the unit and rhyme all the hemistiehs; and the fact that in all cla.ssical poetry the tii-st line nnist be so treated — the rhyme must appear also at the tirst caesura — shows that orifjinally the hemistich was the .syn- tactic unit. The lonp usage and development of the saj' through the mazes of Arabic poetry has resulted in its division into several branches, not all of which are valid for comparison with Hebrew parallelism. The individual stichoi arc usually of the same length, but the second and sometimes the third stichos can be longer than the preceding; the finest type of saj' is found when the individual stichoi contain only a few words, from two to ten; long sentences of twenty or more words are unwieldy and weak. This agrees substantially with the Hebrew, where terse sentences are favored. Synonymous parallelism is found in several forms in the Arabic and kindred literatures. The saj' niuivtizan is the closest appiiiach thereto. It occurs when the end words of the stichoi i«* Stoingnss, AMcmhliea of Ilariri (London, 1897), p. iv: "Arabic ran do very vroll without punctuation iK-cnusp in plompntary ronipositions tho cxtrcmp simplicity of it.i construction scarcely roc|uirPs such external signs of subilivision, while in works of a more eintiornto style the saj' offers a surtioient equivalent for them. The rhyme in its repetition or in its still more frequent recurrence not only ilistinctly marks out the nienitiers of a proposition, but is aUo in combination with the parallelism of elevateil Oriental diction, a great help to tho reailer for supplying the nece».snry TocaliiatioD. ' ' ( J03 ; 48 Parallelism in Amos agree in form, but not necessarily in rhyme; the result is close parallelism : He is the sun in majesty, while the kings are stars; He is the sea in generosity, while the nobles are brooks. If all or at lea.st a majority of the individual words of one stichos are similar in form to the corresponding terms of the second stichos, this figure is called mumdthala.^*^ This verse of Abu Tammam is an example : (Maidens) beautiful as gazelles, only that tlie latter are tame; Slender as reeds, only that these are without sap. The use of the root mattial, meaning to be like, to resemble, proves valuable in a discussion of the term mdshul as the Hebrew name for synonymous parallelism."^ In the Persian, the saf muitdzan shows the same identity with the Hebrew parallelism : The Shah art thou, the might of whose steeds serves as a guide ; The Moon art thou, the victorious strength of whose swords serves Or: The envy of my verses devours the liver of Hussan Sabi The arm of my prose smitetli the neck of Sehbane Wayi Kueekert says of this form: "Both the tarsi' and the saf )nuwuzan are the most perfect, yet at the same time most rigid form of the Hebrew parallelismus membrorum, which also in many eases is a complete parallelism of all the individual words. ' "^ This parallelism occurs with the most highly devel- oped metres, which heighten rather than hinder the synonymity of the terms. Slightly similar to this figure, yet showing a parallelism neither so perfect nor so constant is the saf mutawdzl. Here at the end of two periods of prose or at the close of two stichoi of verse, there are two words agreeing in measure, rhyme, and in the final letter, the number of words in the stichoi being also equal. Though it is not always the case, the remaining words n* Mehren, p. Itififf; Rueckert-Pertsch, p. 104ff. See below, p. .59. H9 Rueckert-Pertseh, p. 105. 150 Gladwin, p. 10. Gladwin's transliteration of the proper nam retained. 151 Rueekert-Pertsch, p. 106. I'ariilUlism in Amos 49 of one stiehos may correspond eitht-r in t'luni uv in rliymc with till' nspectivt' words of the otlu-r: Without support am I tlirougli the cMitii'i-iuont of those loi'ka full of ringlets, Without slit'p mil I through the flnttrry of thnt oyo full of ardour. Syiioiiyinous purallelisin may also be found in the tijrure saj' miirassa' , tliougli it will be seen that in the form of the tarsV it oeenrs more often as antitlutie parallelism. The saj' murassa' oeenrs when all the words or the majority of those in one section agree in form and in rhyme with the correspondiiifi words of the second : He studietl the parts of speech with the jewels of his words; He intlueni-es all ears with the warning-calls of his preaching. This formation is not distinctive of rhymed prose alone, but occurs also in many forms of verse; in this selection from Abu Tamnmm, all the sections have the same rhyme: Through him is my reason enlightened; through him niv haml well- filled ; Through him my brooklet became a stream; through him my tinder a torch. This motif ditfci's from the saj' muwazan in that it has itlcntity iif rhyme and .sound, as well as of form. Antithetic parallelism has many varietiis in the Arabic and kindred literatures. When each stiehos of the antithesis con- tains several ideas arranged in order, which stand exactly oppo- site to each other, the figure is called muqahala; the number of these opposing concepts ranges from two to ten.'^= For three and three, the number most common in Hebrew antithetic par- allelism, this verse senses as an example: IIow beautiful are faith and riches when they are united: How ugly are unl)oIief and poverty in one and the same man. Five and five are illustrated by a verse similar to this one from Ibn Mu'tazz. when- the individual mtmbcrs an- heaped up in rows :'" Be noble, composed, friendly, well-esteemed and peaceful ; Or be faithless, arrogant, surly, despised and belligerent. 15S On antithesis, see Mehren, p. 97ff. ; on muqilbala, p. 99. >»i Ahlwardt, p. 74-75 ; Dieterici, p. 32-3.'>. [105) 50 Parallrlisiii in Amos This tj^pe is also called taficlf. and is employed on occasion by Mutanabbi. In the figure of tarsi' , which springs directly from the saj' miirassa' . antithetic parallelism is also found. The tarsi' is the complement of the saj' muwdzan, or synonymous jiarallelisni. and occurs in all branches of Islamic literature : Verily the righteous are in heavenly enjoyment; But the accursed are in Gehenna. In the Persian also, the tarsi' sometimes occurs without antithesis : The shower of God 's grace without calculation is open to all ; And the table of his kindness is prepared in all places.isi At times the tarsi' is joined with the tajnls, becoming tarsV ma' tajnis, wherein antithesis occurs most often, but where synonymity is also possible : I shall not be distressed, if you do not distress me; I shall be wishful, if you are sportive. i-''^ Examples of antithetic parallelism occur often in proverbs : Faith is the medicine of every grief; Doubt only raises up a host of cares. Mere falsehood should be by its face recognized. But truth by parables and admonitions.i^e Syi^thetic parallelism can be said to exist as such in Arabic even less than in Hebrew. In Hebrew, where the dominant motif is parallelism, synthetic couplets are usually encompassed bj' numerous genuine synonymous or antithetic couplets; so in the Arabic khutha and maqdma which alone show long arrays of parallelistic couplets, and of course in strict poetry, where parallelism is the exception, not the rule, synthetic couplets are engulfed in the lab.yrinth of couplets which are characterized by various rhymes and metres. The multitudinous types of rhymed and metrical couplets, it is true, may have evolved out of the synthetic couplets; but the line of demarcation between 15* Rueckert-Pertsch, pp. 88-89; Fleischer, Kleinere SchrifUn. II, 20(i. 155 Gladwin, p. 5. 156 Nicholson, p. 301. Also: ' ' Man 's life is his fair name and not his length of years ; Man 's death is his ill name, and not the day that nears. ' ' [106] I'iinillrlism in Amos 51 so-eulk'il syntlu'tie parallelism ami noM-paralii'listif couplets is so thin that it is futile to distin'ruisli any other types tiiuu tin- elear synonymous and antithetie. Examples of the lonr rh.Miiiil prose strueture nuiy lie seen in this exeerpt from llMriris (luuiihrni ealleil tlie ••Revei-sed":'^'' Mail is till- croaturo of kiiiilne.is, Ami the porfooting of a benefit is the lieed of the liberal; Anil the disposition of the generous is n treasure of praise. And the gain of thanks is a gathering of happnicss; And the index of generosity is the light of cheerfulness. .\nd the practiec of courtesy leads of need to affection; .\iid the bond of friendship demands sincere counsel; .\iid truth of narrative is the ornament of the tongue; .\nd elo<|uence in speech is witchcraft to hearts; .\nd the net of desire is the bane of souls; .\nd impatience of disposition is a di.shonor to mortals. .'Vnd evil desire consists not with self-restraint; And the clinging to prudence is the leading-cord of safety ; .\nd to seek occasions for blamings is the worst of faults: .\nd the dwelling upon failings overthrows friendships. The pa.s.sape eontinues in this strain for many parafjraplis. and the same sustained parallelism can be found throughout the entire work. The synonymity between the terms at times is elose and at times distant, yet the parallelism is ind\d)itable. The followinie poetry whieh is sunfr by the eonnnou people totlay atTorils nniny i)arallels to the aneient Hebrew. A eollee- lion »)f Arabic songrs entitled Sonys of an Erjuptuin Peasant portrays the three major stapes of early poetry, iteration. y^ incremental repetition, and i)arallelism."'' Iteration is not so frec|uent JUS incremental repetition, of which the following example.s amon^; many suffice : Oh Stmiiimr, wlmt has become of me, Sliiimmc, WTiom thou lottest restlos-sly wnmliT nl>oiit, Shnmmc, Whom thou lottcsit hun|;or, Shanimo, i"' Cirny, p. ■^^. In rersinn, the pro!«» consists of thrcr typos: 1, poetical prose, hnvinj; nn-asurt' without rhyme; 2, hnvin(» rhyme without any moa.s- uac; 3, simple prose, ilevoiil of rhyme ami measure. Neither rhyme without mea-'ure, nor measure without rhyme is |M>etry; it is necessary that both should be combined to form verse. (jlailwin, p. 1: Ruecks, p. 20<*« Littmann, " Lieiler der TiKreStnemme," Publicaliont of Princtton [111] 56 I'ardlleli.siii In Ainos 1 will glorify thee, O Lord, Thy deeds are marvelous! This night he created, And he created this morning; This milk he created, And he created this corn ; This sun he created. And he created this shadow. Or Be but still O Heramad, If you would appease me! When the elephant is tamed, And with burdens of milk returns homo ; When the female elephant is bound, And with the cows gives milk. When the lion becomes a shepherd, And is at peace with cows and calves. When the panther protects. And from a bound udder drinks. When the mountain-goat rolls straight up the mountain. And remains hanging on the precipice. When the torrent turns round. And pours on the highlands. When the heaven becomes a field. And the tribes wander over it, When the field becomes heaven, And spreads wide over us. Xorldcke affirms that the mrtrieal form of these poems resembles ill some respects the ancient Ilehri'w."'" Though the comparison witli this Mk i>oetry of near- Palestinian and Palestinian eountries exteiuls to only a few isolated phenomena, yet these are valuable as throwing light upon the ancient Ilelirew; it is true that they bear little on the snlijeet of iiarailelisiu. f(ir aftei- all, no such regularity as in the liiblical |)o('try is iiiaintaiiicd, repetitions and prose being con- tinuously interspersed, the former particularly in large degree ; but the character of the ancient Hebrew rin-thm and metre receive some elucidation from them, because they appear to have guarded the. i)riiiiitive forms for centuries, untouched by any alien influence. Expedition to Abyssinia, ITI, IV (Levden, 1913-1915) ; selections fr 856, and 775-776 respectively. ^'■■'■'ZA, XXXI (191C), l.S. [ 112 J Parallel imil in Amus 57 llKllKEW I'AHAI.I.Kl.lS.M Till' earliest appeiinuice of parallelism in Ileliivw poetry eaii seareely lie ileteniiiiud. I'lieliaiifred iteration after the manner of the E^ryptian an;/, il, In him.vi./hc, which closely rcs.'ii.l^Ii - th. i^i iMi|ii' ..f ji:!! :illi-l)^i;i in ll-lniM inirtri, but also their affinitv :,i,.l |.n- lilr.-u.... m, ici.mr i Irs likr tlir I lirvuinu and thr b.t;ll .rlij.M. of tlio Ly.liau ln:i <.i f ..ni :: -iipiiort to tills asscltiuu. If tlH'N'nri' :!s u.' have reason to is a continuity between the 'J'riKjl, mrlihlirs and those of tl; ■ • \ iiagogue, a comparison be- twri'ii th,' l:itt(T and the so-calh-! ■ kiIi- imjiius' of the Church can be instriH-tiv in islablishing once for nil tlir d.-ivc of influence of the Temple on the early Church in the field of music," p. 639. [lU] I'dnillilisiii ill Amos 59 ••aiisw.-rs" to aiiotliiT in tli.- i-oiiplrl ; fur this (•..miotatioM, liuw- I'vor, MO instaiKH's are at liaml."-' It is .•.iiiaily ilirticiill to tell wlietht'i- the word iiu'islu'tl refers to parallelism. In the Araliie, it has been seen that the saf iiiiiiiuHhU denotes synonymons parallelism. The correspondin'r llihrew verl) iiidshi'il orijjinally means "to rejjresent, to be like"; and for the aneient Hebrews, the noun ntdshfil was used, usually in the Wisdom literature, of soutenees constnicted in parallelism, but oeeasionally of other types;'"' it moans also a "parable," or "sentenees of (loetry." It does not. however. ap])ear to desi>;nate sharply and dircetly the formation of parallelistie eouplets, thoujrh the parable, the proverb, the riddle, or the prophetic jrive to parallelism a distinctive api)ellation. The fact that seemingly the ancient Hebrews had no definite term to apply to the specific process of formiii'T ciuiplets of parallelism, but referred rather to the type of poetic result or totality, namely the poem itself, mi-rid indicat<' that the use of parallelism was not a deliberate or fixid si vie; but this conclusion is bv no means a necessarv one. CONrLrsiON.s It is now possible to present conclusions on the ori'^'in of parallelism. Parallelism has its seat in a psycholofrii-al tiiidency of tlu" human mind to repeat a favorite thoutrht in ditlVrent words; tliis impulse operates most freely and vigorously in moments of lyrical excitement, though guided and chastened by a .second psychological propensity towards orderliness and organ- ization. The nmnifrstation of thise poetic principles appears in ancient literatures, where they take fii-st the form of reiteration, then of incremental repetition, and finally of artistic parallelism. '"Brown, DririT ami BricKft, .1 //. /.-. ir .1.1./ H„,ihj.li l.,j BDB] (Boston, lUOii), p. 777. >'3 Ibid., p. eO.'j. (II.-,) GO Parallelism in Amos The earliest iise of parallelism seems to be bound up with the antiphonal song of the poet and the crowd, and the formulas of sootlisaj-ers. Parallelism being the result of a universal human instinct maj- have arisen independently in the numerous literatures where it is found. In Chinese literature, its rise and develop- ment are indigenous and date back three thousand years; in Finnish literature it is equally old, and is apparently entirely native, being unaffected by foreign influences. Though bound by a special metre, Finnish is nnich looser and freer than the Chinese parallelism, which is assisted by several external mechan- ical devices which tend to make its forms stereotyped and rigid. Both stand entirely apart from the parallelism of the ancient peoples of the near-East. These include the Egyptian, Sumerian, Babylonian- Assyrian, Arabic, and Hebrew literatures. Each of these may have cre- ated and developed parallelism by entirely local agencies; no alien influences may have been at work. Yet the geographical proximity of these peoples and the fairly complete chain of chronological evolution points to some contact and interplay of influence. The earliest extant parallelism obtains in Egyptian literature. Thcragh fairly constant, it is marred by frequent repetitious; its couplet structure is vagiie and irregular. By some it is supposed that Hebrew parallelism took its origin from the Egyptian. On the assumption that the Egyptians were a non-Semitic people, though this of course has been disputed, Breasted asks: Did the Semites obtain this style of verse from the Egyptians, or vice-versa ?^'^ Philo a.sserts in De Vita Mosis (I, 5) that Moses was taught by the Egyptians "the whole theory of rhythm, harmony and metre." But such evidence naturally counts for little ; though Hebrew undoubtedlj' borrowed much from the Egyptians, the period and extent of this influence can- not be shown. The high state of Hebrew parallelism and the low stage of Egyptian, indicate a broad hi.storical gap between the two wliich. if a nexus between them can be estalilished. nuist be bridged. 1-4 Bihiinil Wui-ld, I, 56. -- _^ [116] l\ir,ill,lisn, i„ Amos Gl Simn'riaii imnilK-lisiii st't-ins to ln' the iii'Xt step after tlic p]^'\ ptiaii. Without entering: into tlu' ilflmtable (iiit'stiou of till' racial patrimony of tlif Suincrians, two liypotlirscs on tlu- appt-arant'i' of parallelism in their literature are possible. Either the Kjryptian literature atfeeted the Suineriaii and thus stiiiui- lated it to an advanee in the refiularity of its parallelism, for de- sjiite its repetitions, it shows a more obvious eou[)let strueture; or Sumerian parallelism arose loeally and of its own aeeord. without any interehanj^e between Efryptian and Mesopotamian cultures. Thus if it be aeeepted that both Kjryptians and Suinerians were non-Semitic peoples, the substratum of ancient parallelism may have l}ecn in eontradislinclioii to the usual opinion, non-Semitic. The third link in the chain of near-Ejmtern parallelism may l>ind the Sumerian with the Babylonian-A.s.syrian. The fact that so many of the As.syrian hymns were copies from the Sumerian, as the bilingual texts prove, may indicate that the latter undi'riies the varied Babylon ian-A.ssjrian parallelism. Sehrader champions the view that the "Akkadians" were the profjenitors and earliest teaehei-s of parallelism to the Semites, tir-st to the Habylonians and then to the Hebrews. But little evidence is at hand to show that the Hebrews learned parallelism from the Suiuerians '•durin<;r their sojourn in Siiu-ar, in I'r of the Chaldees before they wantlercd to the North and WtsI, in order to settle pernumcntly in Canaan."'"' Even if the Hebrews luul been introduced into parallelism fnmi this source, its further development must have come from contact with Babylonian ]iar- allelism. For the transmission of Babylonian-A.s.syrian forms to Hebrew literature eon.stitutes the next link in the chain of parallcli.sm. The similarity of Babylonian to Hebrew strophic and vei-se forms — the metrical, accentual, and other likene.s,ses — points to direct interplay between the two civilizations and literatures.''" Though the Babylonian staiuis clearly ahead of the Sumerian '" 8<>hrn.li>r, ' •S.Miiifisniiis. ' • I, iLMff. i'«BauinanD, Dii- SIrtnk und d. A. T. (Tucbiiim-ii. lOOr,), pp. .".2 ."..T; Borgpr, "Loa ori(tii>es iMibyloiiions k (if .IiiliiK-cs, till- Apoi-alypso of Hanieli ami 1\' Ksdras, also L'ontaiii i>assaj;i's of parallclisin. Ciray selt-cts from tlu' Apocalypse of Harm-li, i-liaptiT 4S.1-47 as '"aiiuuij; tin- most ri-fitilar and siistaim-d i-xamplis of parallelism in the whole raii'^e of Ilelirew liter- ature."'"" It seems plausihie. then, that i)arallelism was used in formal lit(>rature anionjr the Jews as a rejrular Diolif at least until U)0 A.n., the approxiiiuite date of the Apoealyjise of Esdras. In «;rkbk Oni(iiXAi.s iiv .Ikws A word nuist he said on the use of jjarallelism in Greek literature eontemporary with tlu' later Hebrew. Tobit 's Prayer, the I'rayer of JIanasses. the Sonjr of the Three Holy Children, the latter part of Barueh were, aeeording to the viewpoint of several investipitors, written ori«rinally in Greek; yet the par- allelism remains fairly pure. It has already been noted that the eharaeter and form of the orijriual Hebrew poetry were re- taiiu'd, with the exception of a few errors and misinterpretations, in the Septuasrint.'"" In- the New Testament Parallelism is evident also in the New Testament. Amon-r lho.se fii-st to recorrnize it therein weri' Home, Wakefield. Farrer, Ainuion, A. Clarke and otliei-s.'"" Hut Hishop .lebb was per- • "'* Forms of Hebrew Portri/, p. 27. '■o Professor Max Margolis has pointed out that no translator of the Hebrew Soriptures couM fail to notice the parallelistic structure of Hebrew poetry. The uncials show oftentimes liv sticliic writing the nature of the perioilic ami couplet character of the |)arallelisni. The omission of lines, in I'roverbs anil Job, for example, must be ntuilleil carefully anini is shown by the fact that in a I'ly not bn.snl on a Hebrew original, or in the npoc- rypl: I ly mentioned, parallelism is present. The extent to whirl I- observeil in the other versiiuis is doubtful. Neither Joseptiii-. i>ri:;.ii. nor Jerome understooil the fumlamentnl principles of Hebrew poetry, but they laboreil under misconceptions drawn from their knowledge of Oreek. An interesting chapter on the recognition of par- alleli.Hni by trnn.slators of the Bible throughout the centuries could be written, but lack of space forbids the inclusion in this study. "oJcbb, Sacred Literature, pp. 94-9.">. [1211 66 I'arallrlisiii in Amos liaps the first to ili-v(ite himsrlf to a thorough study of New Testaiuent parallelism ; he was followed by Thomas Boys, who iu his Tacita Sacra and Key to the Book of Psalms attempted to show a correspondeuce, uot merely of lines, but of wliole paragraphs. John Forbes carried these investigations still fur- ther in his Symmetrical Structure of the Scripture and Aim- lytical Commentary on the Epistle to the Bomans.^^'^ Richard G. Moulton accepts many of the results of Forbes and selects illustrations for the various types of parallelism,' rather than devote himself to a close investigation of the material.^**- Recent translations of the New Testament have sought to make use of the conclusions of these scholars of the last century, though care must be exercised in a selection of their evideuce.^*^ Among the poems which are of Hebrew origin, parallelism is clear. The Magnificat and other New Testament canticles show excellent couplet structure,"* and the material embodied in quotations from the original Hebrew still retains the parallel- istie form : these quotations ma.y be : (1) simple and direct quota- tions of single pa.ssages ;^**^ (2) quotations of a more complex kind when fragments are combined from different parts of the poetical Scriptures and wrought up into one connected whole ;^*'"' (3) quotations mingled with original matter; here one or more passages derived from the Hebrew are so connected and blended with original writings that the compound forms one homogeneous whole, the sententious parallelism equally pervading all the component members whether original or derived."' Parallelism is present also in original portions of the New Testament apparently untouched by any direi't influence of biblical poetry. Parallel couplets abound:'" triplets are fre- isi Edinburgh, 18.34, 1868. i^-Literani Studu of the Bible (Boston, 189(i'i. 1^3 See Torrev, "A Possible Metrical Origin of tlie Lord's Praver," ZA, XXVIII, ?,12ff. Moffat, The Historical New Testament (Edinburgh, 1901). I s* Gray, p. 26; The Magnificat, Luke 1.46, must of course bo compared with Hannah's Ode in I Sam. 2.1-10. Burney, Journal of Theological Studies, XIV, 414-424, regards Matt. 25.31-46 as a Hebrew poom. is^Matt. 2.6, 18, 4.15, 16; Heb. 12.5, 6, etc. iscMark 11.17; Rom. 11.33-35; II Cor. 9.9, 10, etc. is7Rom. 10-13-18; Matt. 21.42-44; Acts, 4.24-30, etc. issLiike 1.46-47, 12.48; Matt. 5.42, 7.2, 12.35, 15.11; John 5.29: .lames 1.9-10, 4.8, 20.13, etc. ri22i /'(/;•rleel of the couplet character of both Old and New Testament parallelism throws doubt upon the entire method of Forbes. His over-exact and arbitrary seliematization of the Decaloi/ue is as (piestionable as are JIueller's discu.ssions on the strojihe in freneral ; by this method, from almost any elevateil prosi- a sort of ■■])arallelism'" could be obtained. The uncertainty of Forbes himself that every part of St. Paul's epistle was arranj;ed "desisaic. The spirit and native character of the poetry of the Psalms, the Pro|)hets, and the Moralists have been replaced by a eondiination of a.s.sorted devices of a new literary i-ra. ""Matt. S.20, 12 ••'. .1 .I.I. ;•..-. fl Tlicss. 2.8; Ju.lo 1.11, cto. '"oMntt. .1.11, I'J l.«; Luke 12.22, 23; I Cor. 12.2iV. etc. •oi " Annlytionl ' Romans," p. 63fT.; " Symmetrirnl Strii.-tur.," p. nrr. ...i.l.i^ion on tlio fact that tho figuro of ••• 111." an ilis.-ovcreil by Bishop Jet.t. I ns priiiif is the oinploymrnt of -i the <'oiii|M>sitiiiiis. But this prill ; th.. |.:ir.ill..|i-.ni. Ihul.. p. Sli. I 1^3 1 i\inUUlii:nt in Amos Syriao Uteratuiv affonls aii iustaiKV of the ootuseioiis inter- luixtutv of tho Jewish poetie motif of ^larallelisiu with the Latin aiid Oret?k rules wUieh demaiKltHi regularity of eousiruetiou and equality iu the number of luetrieal feet. \Vhile parallelism seems to haw deeayeil thn.>ii^h sheer internal decline within Hebrew poetry during the talmudie period, its eontaet with outside literatures beyond the evuitines of the Jewish group br\>ught it into eontliet and synthesis with pre^-ailillg non-Jewish deviees. The Gitvk and Latin literatnr>» eherished by the new I'hristian eimuuuuities of the beginning of the Common Era, gradtially minglei.1 with the statel\- Hebrew h\-mnoU^v of tra- ditioxi ; the lyrieal poetry of the heathen converts soon ehalleuged the supremacy of the jmrallelism which, through the Psalms, had imbedded itself iu the earl\- Christian liturgy.*** Little by tittle, the Hebrew style surreiulered. and metrical rnles. after the bent of original ptvts. gained eimtrol. New Grwiau melo- dies aiul measures were intrvnUiced — the heptasyllabic. anacreon- tic, tetrasyllabic, and the do»,lecasyUabic. Through Ephraem Syrus and other minor poets and hxmnologists. Syriac literature receivetl a permanent Greek stamp; despite this, however, par- allelism especially of alternate, antithetic species, is combinevl with the intricate metrical structure : The worUl calls thee; Go fiwUn to laKmr; The gtaiv«» calls th^w. Cwuw rvst thou w-tfarv ouo. Glory t* to Him vfho gtves thm)7tVs ^.^Si53V• P- xxiiiff. »*s Ibid., p. 9. "The death of youth." If* Ibid,, p. -K "The death of ohildreu." Hi- n Kiiunl to niiiie fy<>, TImt it look not stonltliily, Ho a mmr.l to tlii- oar, Tliut it hear not wickfiUy.ii's In Raiuiinicai. Litkkatiue raraltilisin in ral>l>inioal lilrratiin' was ))iili:i|>s liisi dlisiivrd li\- .)fl)li, in 1S2(),""' will) di'votod niiu'li alti'iitioii to tlu' fonn (if tlu' apluirisnis and provorbs (if the Raliliis ; lie failed, however, to mention (lie liturgy. The form of even the ntost aneient prayers (lilTer((l from that of tlie Psalms and other eompositions admitted into tiie Tanon and supposed to have tiieir orifiin in the times of the Sopherim, by "entirely diseardinjjr parallelism, that dwollinf» upon one favored sentiment in a variety of ways, as if loath to ]>art with it"; instead, it expressed the idea "in the most elear and eoneise form, and by its lan}rna.. and the blessinp^s aeeompunyin;: the reeitation of the sin imi' , show traces of par- allelism; this is due in larpe meiusure to the fact that they preserved many of the sublime phrases of the Bible and a sup- jrestion of its spirit. An example of paralhlisni in the liturgy nniy be found in the ',1/'7m7 prayer: It in onr duty to praise the Lonl of nil tliin)r8, To njo-ribo projitnesa to him who fornnnl the worlil iu the l>o(jinnin|i, Sinco h(< Imth not ninde us liko the nations of the other lamls, .\ned unto us n portion as unto them, Nor n lot as unto all their multitude Who stretcheil forth the heavens And laid the foundations of the earth. The .wat of whose glory is in the heavens above. And the alwde of whose mi({ht is in the loftiest hei);ht.s. . . . '»» Ibid., p. 95, "A prayer to the Trinity." '»« Jebb, pp. 7fi, 88-90. i"- Portry of Ihr Tolmud (New York, ISSOi, p. 22. 70 ParaUilisiii in Ainos On the whole it maj- be concluded that parallelism is a frequent but not a dominant phenomenon of the liturgy, wherein elevated prose mingles with reminiscences of biblical poetry.^^* The rabbinical proverb, or mdshdl, expressing sententiously a moral counsel, appears sometimes with and sometimes without parallelism. The Book of Ecclesiasticus or the Proverbs of Joshua ben Sirali.(e. 180 B.C.) is the only systematical book of proverbs dating from the times of the Sopherim. The Mishna tractate I'irqi' 'Abhoth. or "Ethics of the Fathers," contains examples wherein varied forms are observed ; this saying attrib- uted to Rabbi Hillel is marked hj a string of subjects with corresponding predicates, in almost arithmetical progression ; the couplet structure has disappeared : The more flesh, the more worms, The more riches, the more eare; The more wives, the more witchcraft; Tlie more maid-servants, the more lewdness; The more men-servants, the more theft; The more Torah, the more life; The more scholars, the more wisdom ; The more counsel, the more understanding; The more righteousness, the more peace. ('Abhi'iih,2,S) Sometimes, a figure comparable to the Arabic 'als occurs, e.g.. this saying of Rabbi Eleazar V). Azariah : Where there is no Torah, there arc no manners; Where there are no manners, there is no Torali. los Examples may be found in Sekles, passim. The following shows couplet structure, though not of exact synonymity; the parallelism is rather of a constructive variety: ' ' Oh, Lord our God, endow us with knowledge to know thy ways. And surround our heart with thy fear; And forgive us tliat we may be among those redeemed. And remove us from all injury. Satisfy us with the blessings of thy land. And collect our exiles from the four corners of tlie earth. Judge the erring according to thy holy will. And over the wicked stretch forth thy hand. Rejoice the just by rebuilding thy City, And by the restoration of thy Temple; By the sprouting forth of the horu of bliss of David thy servant. And by the restitution of the liglit of the son of Jesse, thy annointed. (Brraklioth, 29.) Tliis prayer was composed by a poet named Samuel in the third century. [120] raralUlisiii in Ante Wliori- then' is no wisdom, is no fear of Hod ; Where there is no fear of Cioil, there is no wisdom. Where there is no knowleiljje, there is no ninlerstandinf;; Where there is no understanding, there is no kuowledne. Where there is no meal, tliere is no Torab ; Where there is no Torah, there is uo meal. ( 'Ahliiith, 3, 21 ) An t'.xaiiipK' of tlic iiitfrplay bftwccn pmtiy and prose, touelnd liy paralU'lisni, is fonml in the following': Warm thyself by the fires of the wise, But beware of their glowing eoals, lest thou be burnt; For their bito is the bite of the fox, And their sting is the scorpion's sting; And their hiss is the serpent's hiss; And all their words are like eoals of fire. ( 'Abhotli, 2, 10) Several examples of aiititlietic proverbial couplets oeeur: If ^hou art toUl, thy friend has died, believe it; Thy friend has beeome riih, believe it not. (Gittin, 30b) In whom this is, there is nil ; In whom this is not, what is there? Has one gotten this, what lacks he? Has he not gotten this, what has he gotten? (.V'-ver maketh himself little on account of the law in this world. He bie freo in the world to come. (tiiiblui M-'i.-i' d, 84, 2) Numerous examples of this nwlif are discoverable in all the tractates of the Minhni'i and G'mdrii.""' Oiw feels, however, that i»<> ' Erubhin. 17b; Shabbiith, 114; .Si/.fcr.i, fol. 104, 4; Midhnuh T'hilKm, to I's., chap. 9; r.i-'nir/i, fol. 7, 1. See Rosenthal, Cbcr dm [127] 72 ]'(,nill(lisi,i In Amos tlie pmigeiK'v of the biblical proverbs has in large measure beeu lost. The talmudic period pio]iir is succeeded bj' the geonie, the literature of which still shows traces of parallelism in the gnomic or proverbial writings; e.g., the "Alphabet of Ben Sira," in the Hebrew proverbs, but not in the Aramaic ■,-°° and the 'Ahhoth d'^Rahbt Ndthfin, in which, however, the diverse forms which have arisen for the aphoristic writings almost entirely obscure it.-"^ In the didactic works of the medieval poets, also, several of the proverbs are couched in the traditional antithetic form, though by this time parallelism no longer appears as a constant motif. It is not surprising that it was preserved longest in the proverbial literature of Jewish writers, for, as has been noted, antithetic couplets or quatrains lend themselves most readily to the expression of aphorisms and acute sayings. The scant poetry proper of the Talmud also offers some examples of parallelism. It appears, for example, to a slight degree in the elegy on the death of Hanin, in Mo' cdh Qdffni, 25b, though marked by some ambiguity of reference.-"- A poem fi-om the pen of a Palestinian sage of the fourth century, R. Isaac bar Napaha, is "composed not only in pure Hebrew, but is also written according to the parallelism used in biblical poetry, and observes an equality of syllables in its lines. ' '-"^ Zusammcnhang der Mischna (Strassburg, 1909), p. 117. Here rhyme of varied orders, parallelism, and other formations in the Mishna are dis- cussed. As examples of a kind of prose parallelism, Babhd Bathrd 8, 1, B<:Icli6rdth, 8, 1 ; ' Ugsj'Tn, 3, 1 ; K<'rlt}wtli, 1, 3, and other instances are cited. 200 Delitzsch, Geschichte d. jued. Poesie (Leipzig, 1836), pp. 204-20-5. 201 Baumgartner, Poesie gnomique jxiixe depuis le cloture du canon liehreu, jusqu'au XVIe siecle (Geneva, 1886), p. 17. 202 Forms of Hebrew Poctri), p. 30, cites an example also from H"(]h'iciha 15b, which, hovrever, is not parallelism even of the synthetic type. 203 Sekles, pp. 99, 146. (It may be objected that this poem shows rather a heaping up of dcstri]itivc plirasfs than a genuine parallelism of clauses.) Examples nf i - v. Inli -I ,,\v a trace of parallelism are scattered through Seklrs. Ii i^ , •. ■ •.. note that in connection with the statement of the Mislmi, 1/ . ,' , :;, 8, that female professional wallers were employed at luiiiiul^, tin Taliiiml states that these exclaimed as a general formula: "Woe to him who went away, "Woe to those who are left behind." The parallelism of a brief and abrupt kind is evident here. I'ardlUlism in Amos 73 Rojoicc, rcjoioo, O tlimi Ark! Arise in all of tliy sploinlor; Eii(;irt with bniul!* of t;ol>l, Ailonii'il with i-hoicost (joniH, Exhaltoil iu tho saiictimry of tho Toiiiplc. (' .l(.;io(//ioetry in the Talmud is insuftieient to lay down rules of metre or i)rosody, nor ean it be iletermined nnder what for- eisrn influenee. if any, the talmudie poets eomposed their works. It is possilile merely to note the oeeasional presenee of bil)lieal forms intirmi.xi il with luw eh inents. I.s- Mediev.m, Jewish Liter.vtike llel)riw poftry enters a new stage about the tenth eentury; the end of the (ieonie period marks the befrinniiifjr of the Arabie period. Even at the time of Ilai (iaoii, the influenee of Arabie poetic Hio/i/.s- of rhyme and metre become ajiparent. In the Miisar lla.iki'l attributed to him occurs perhaps "liie first at- tempt at rhyme, containing 1S9 distiehs of which many are merely Biblieal pas.sages rhymed."""' The introduction of rhyme is a.scribid also to .lannai, and it was employiil by Kalir, both of whom lived in or before the ninth century A.n.-"" Tliere- aftiT despite vigorous opposition by Menahem ben Saruk, his disciples and a whole .school during the Middle Ages, Arabic 30* Ciray spt'ak.s of tho Ral)l)is "examining scripture with oycs Wind to paralli'li.iin " (p. '2'), ami hrin^H .loveral instances to show that coninien- tntors throin»h the seooml eentury a.D. faileil to unilerstanr in the "MiKjihiKi of the Tnluippy Mar- riaire May God make long thy days, Anil keep the l>enuty of thy eheok.s, And thy fruit forever flourish. Thou art fovect and l)oauteous to my Raze, Ami pleasant unto my si^ht. Thou (|uirkenest all hearts liy thy Wauty, Thou drawest unto thee all souls hy the freshness of thy cheeks.= //.irf.. p. !.-..->. I bid., p. -.0. Ki. niit' V, '.'.I .',i' ; . A.-/j- Pitririe andnlumschfr Dichtcr «uj» d. It. l.')8SK contains trnn.slations ami com- veral other poets of the time. Mini dfi Ilarisi, pnjwini. [ 131 I 76 ParnUclisDi in Amos Tlie Piyyutim-^''' of the Aliddle Ages also show onlj- slight traces of parallelism ; metre and rhjTne and other poetical figures, refrains, puns, acrostics, abound and obscure even the genuine parallelism of the numerous biblical quotations.^'^ It may be concluded then that the infrequent parallelism which appears in medieval Hebrew poetry is neither indigenous nor significant. Though the synthesis between historic Hebrew phraseology and the many-sided prosody and rhetoric of the Arabs-^* produced many notable poems, it brought to light no parallelism which holds an important rank in its expansion and influence.-^" Ix iloDERx Hebrew Literature An important era in the history of Hebrew parallelism begins with tile modern Ilaskdld, or "Enlightenment," movement in Germany and Russia.^^" Moses Hayyim Luzzatto sought to emancipate Hebrew poetry from the tradition of the Middle Ages and to free it for self-expression under biblical influence. His Mighdal 'Oz and La-Y<^sMrim Tchilld show indications of a re- turn to biblical style, but parallelism is not constant or frequent. Mendes and Wessely followed in Luzzatto 's footsteps, the latter 's Sh'ire Tiph'creth betraying some parallelism.--^ The Mishle 'Asaph of Isaac Satanow--- are true to the character of Hebrew gnomic literature, and as in the proverbs of all peoples, parallel- ism is at hand : 2iii Hyiims aiWcil to tlio Hi-lirew liturgy after the seventh century a.d. 21- See Sulzbacli, /''. // Ihimcse u. weltliche Poesle der Juden (Trieste, 1893). Sachs, F,sl,i,h,l. ,1, r Israeliten (Berlin, 1860), app., p. Iff. 218 On Arabic puctiy l.y Jews, see Noeldeke, Die Gedichte d. Juden in Arabieti (1864), passim; also Bacher, Die hehraeische u. arabisclie Poesie der Juden Jemens (Budapest, 1910), p. 73: "Die Form der Diehtungen. " 219 Credit for priority in the discovery and designation of parallelism belongs to the medieval Jewish commentators Levi ben Gershon, Ibn Ezra, and David Kimhi. (Gray has brought the data together in Forms, pp. 17-18). Azariah de Eossi devoted a chapter of his if'or 'Enayim. "Light of the Eyes" (Mantua, 1-374), to the study of Hebrew poetry, wherein he recognizes parallelism and the true character of its poetical rules. This work underlay Lowth 's famous Praelectiones and to it he assigns due place. =2»Sce Slouschz, Eenaissanee of Hebrew Literature (Philadelphia, 1909), ■passim; La poesie li/rique hebralque contemporaiiie (Paris, 1911), passim; Waldstein, Modem Hebrew Literature (New York, 1916). 221 The selection made by Casanowitz, Jewish Encyclopedia, IX, 522, is not good, for synonymous parallelism is absent. 222 Berlin, 1789 and 1792. _ . [ 132 ] I'tiralUlisin in Amos 77 On the \viii^' illusli-alioiis arc cadi part of lar<.'cr scttiiifjs, the first three, iiiimis a major vcrl>, the lourth, the central jxir- tioii of an envelope const met ion : With shoiitiiiij iiitlio ilny-of liiittle, Witha tonipost iiitlie-ilay-of tlicwhirlwiii.l. 1.11b C'leauiu'ssof tcetli iu-all-ypiir-cities, Aiirt'il of-thoni a-rcfujji'e. O.M The permutations of the three-term complete parallelism arc found in soim* measure in Amos: fhoiijrh a|>parcMtly there arc no e.xamphs of the forms a I. c Amll-will-ciit-ofr thojuilgo froni-tho-miiist-ofhcr, Andallher-prini'os I-will-slay along-with him. 2..T The prejiosition ' immn corresponds here to miq-qirbdh, but the use of the prepositions here is doulitful. The form a I. b' c' a' : Whooan.ioth-to-bur»t violi>n<'0 npon-tho- .stronj;, Ami (lovn.stntion iipon-thcfortretm brings. .l.Q The ehansje from i/ilhlio'. "comes." to fiiihhV, "lirinv's," im|irovcs the parallelism. Take-from-mc thenoiseof thy-songs, An-molo.4a The terms '• ivory" may tie ])aralleled by the suffix fnn, "their," but this is doubtful. it-dovourod thc-great deep wiiiild-liave-eaten tho-land. [142] I'iintltrlisni in Amos ! The word rabbd, "fjivat," in the Hebrew is the third term the tirst stiehos; it is diftieult. us with tiie word rabhiiii. "many, helow. to shiiw this in the translation. HwiULso tlioy-linvorojirtetl tlii-lawof Ynliwi', Aiitl'his-statutrs Imvc-thoy not kept. 2.4b lablior tho-prulc-of Jacob, Aiul-his-palaocs do-I-liatc. G.8a Ami tliorosliall-drop thcniountaiiis swcet-wiiic, Aii.lallthe hills shall-mclt. 9.1 3b Tl>e lenj^rth of these two stiehoi in tlie Hebrew is almost equal bteause tiie rediiplieated root tithmOghaghnu. "shall melt," has two beats. And'hc-sliall-bring-down from-thco tliy-.strfnKth, And-pluiulered-shall-bc thy-palacc.s. 3.11b Shallnot-darkopSMbc the-day-of-Yaliwe, and-not-light, Yea, doop-darkiu',13, ainl-nobrifjlitness-init f 5.20 Another arrangement eould be in the form of an alternate par- nllelism as follows : Po-tlii>rcriiii iipon-tlie-rock liorses, I)ncs-oup-plou|;li (there) with-oxou. n.l2a Doubt attaehes to tliis verse. Harper (p. 153tT.) reads the .second stiehos "Does-one-plough the-sea witli-oxen"; he break.s up the unusual plural habb'qdrim into bab-bdqnr i/ain. Though the reading and seheme piven are substantiated by the Jewish Translation, this emendation seems plausible; the .scheme then l-hatt>, I despi.io yourfensfs, Andl-trill-not-smell in-your-feiitivals. [U3] 88 ParaJhlinin in A)iios This couplet has two verses metrically equal, thougli the first stichos, perhaps for emphasis, has two verbs. The schematiza- tiou luav be : t'onipai-i' 4.9a. and below, ou redup' a 2 b Aud-there prophesy. 7.12b Tliough this couplet is part of a larger whole and may constitute only one stichos with two parallel hemistichs, it may be treated independently. In this arrangement" though the word sham, ' ' there, ' ' interposes, ' ' eat-bread ' ' is taken as a compound double term. If they be separated tlie scheme becomes : b' a In eitJier of these two forms, tlie principle of fresh terms is intro- duced, of which numerous illustrations are found in Amos (see below). a b c a' d And-cut-off-shall-be the-hornsof the-altar, And-they-shall-fall to-the-grouud. 3.14b Perhaps a third term should be added in the second stichos, though no evidence points to the nature of the term. Another possible arrangement of this is : For-three sins-of Damascus, Yoa-for-four, I-wiU-not-revoke-it. This occurs as the introductorj' formula in the Doom Song, 1.3a, 6a, 9, 11a, 13a; 2.1a, 4a, 6a; in each case, the name is changed. The two stichoi are metrically equal; though the first itself has no verb it is understood from the second stichos; the use of the terms "tlirec" and "four"' is the link which binds the two stichoi into a parallel couplet. [ 144 ] WITH COMPENSATION Double Strui-turc Iiu'oiiiplcic paiallilism with i-ouiponsatioii, in its variotis types, is assisted l>y tlie iU)ublc tt'rni structure and l>y tlio rnsh tt-riii motif. Exauiplts of tlu' doiiMe t>Tins iM)m])cnsati(Pii arr as follows: a b V b' c'2 Vnliwo froni-Zioii roars, AiulfromJenisaleiii lieiitti-rs liisvoice. 1.2a I'roelaim over-tlie-palaccs iiiAsluloil, Aiul-ovor-tho-palaofs iiitlielaiulof Kgypt. :i.!'a The woril hashwl'fi, " proelaim, " is hero a part of tiie parallel- ism, and is different from the phrases of postlude and prelude wliieh tlie prophet employs before and after his main speeches. Anil-he-slinlllift-up you witli-Iiooks, Aiulthelasit-of-you witlifish hooks. 4.2 Doubt nttaehes to this vei-se (Harper, p. Sfj). It is diffieult to render in the translation the faet that dfiyhii is the third term in the .steond stiehos; it shoidd in reality be read: "hooks of tish"; it is also diftie\ilt to sliow in the translation the double eharaeter of the compound phrase. Oo-to Bethel aniltransKrcss; To-Gilgnl anil-nuiltiply transgression. 4.4a Woe-to thnso-that-arc-at-oase iiiZiun, Amlthosc-thataresecure inthe-mountain-of Samaria. 6.1a Aiiil-thooe-who-oat lambs oiit-of-the-flock, .-Viid-calves from-the-iniilst-of the stall. 6.4b The preposition uiittnkh receives here a full word accent. Hear this, yethat trea.l thenee.ly, Anil-ye-whowoiiMniakeceaso the poorof the earth. S.la .Vjraiii as in 3.9a a prophetic prelude i)hrase receives a word accent and is aeeoiinted a.s part of the parallelism. Moreover in the first stiehos the word 'ibhijon. wliich has but one accent, is parulleled in the sicond stiehos by 'anhiv-'iri\; which has two accents. [ l-»5 90 ParaUcIism in Amos b'2 c' And-I-will-cut-off the-inhabitant from-Bikath-Aweu, AnJ-the-holder-of the-seeptre from-Beth-Edeu. 1.5b, 8a Bring every-morning your-sacrifices, Every-three days your-tithes. 4.4b The phrase li-sh<^l6sheth yaiiihii translated by the Jewish Trans- lation "after three days" gives difficulty (Harper, p. 92) ; the schematic arrangement, however, is unaffected. a b c c' b'2 Because-they-sell for-silver the-righteous, And-the-needy foi'-the-value-of a-pair-of-shoes. 2.6b To-buy for-silver the-poor, And-thc-ueedy for-the-value-of a-pair-of-shoes. 8.6 These two almost identical verses both have in the second stiehos tlie preposition h(i-'"lili fir, which means "for the sake of" or "on account of." Thduijh m prcjiosition, it receives a full word accent, as did mit-tokli in (i.4b, and hence is translated "for- the-value-of" in order to sliow tliat it is a distinctive element in the thought. And-they-sliall-ean tlic-husbaudiiian to-nioiirniiig, And-to-vailing those-sliilled in-lamentatiou. 5.16b This couplet occurs in a larger setting; Harper treats it as cor- rupt and omits the second stiehos entirely, thus destroying the parallelism. The error may perhaps lie in the first stiehos of verse 17 (see below). Difficulty also attaches to the grammatical construction. (Harper, p. 126ff.) But-let-wen-iip like-waters ju.stice, Aiid-righteousuess as-a-stream pvcr-floiving. 5.24 Tliey-hate liim-tliat-in-the-gate reproveth, Aiid-oiie-who-speaks uprightly they-abhor. They-ivho-tnni to-woriinvood judgment, Aud-righteousncss to-the-ground they-east. [146] I'ariillilisni in Aiikis 91 A -lii,'lit tl.ml.t attiiclics to this coiipltt ; tlic sflifin.' may he: a b (■ c' il a' a b c c'2 b' Wlio-likc-the-hi'ightof tlic-oodars wnslii" liij;li, Aml-.stroiiK washo likf-tlii>-iiaks. 2.9b This L-miph't pcriiiits of othiT st-lnniatizatioiis : a2 b b'2 a' This takos in the Hi'st stii-hos k'- o'K" word accent. Hut it is lietter to :.'ive hiii' ill itself one aeeent and retain tlie first sehenie. For ye-haveturiiO(l topoison justice, Ami tlio-fruit-of ri);litoousness to-wornnvood. 0.12b Fn.ih Tinn Slructur,: Ineoinph'te parallelism with eompensatioii by means of a fresh term or terms appears in several variations: The forms have no instances in Amos. The fresh terms may ln' either one, two, or three in number, a b a' b' .1 The couplets in S.lab, 8.8b, and P.ob may come under this ela.ss- iHcation. but they will be diseus.scd under others below. .Viiilthore shall porisli tlip-liousos-of ivory, Anil-tluTcslinll-coaso many Iiousom. 3. Mb As in 7.4, the translation d, 11c 94 Paralklisiti in Amos W-thoplies qeshcth 16' ya'"itwdh w^-rokliebh has-stls ydiviis 15a, 15c, Kib And-there-shall-fail refuge from-the-swift, And-the-speedy-of-foot shall-not-escape, And-the-strong, notsliallavail his-strength, And-the-warrior not-shall-he-deliver himself, And-he-that-handles a-bow shall-not-stand, And-the-rider-of-a-horse shall-flee. This arrangement is by no means free from criticism. In the first couplet, there is a repetition of the word qal which on the principle that identical repetitions mar the form, is not satis- factory, despite tlie fact tliat the phrase in reality is qal b<^-ragldw, "speedy -of -foot." In the second couplet, the first stichos seems justifiable, but the second demands the change of the words: yiiifilli't iiaphsho to ijaggll luiphsho to avoid repetition (cf. Amos 3.12; Is. 44.20, etc.) ; or the root pdl-at might be substituted for mdlat in one ease. The third couplet has the virtue of bringing together the stichoi which contain a subject with a modifier, which in the schematization becomes a2 and a'2. The difficulty lies, however, with the word 'drum in verse 16. There the words ir' -'inn mil' I ililn'i baij-gihhorhii aii]3c'ar to be a dittograjihy or \ai'iaiit of ji' 'aiiuiu'c qdxi~> if -jjibbor in verse 14, hence they can be omitted. It is significant to note, however, that verse 16 is the only stichos which declares fiiglit not in the negative^ but in the affirmative. In tlie arrangement given above, the word 'drum is omitted, though it may be inserted in the second stichos of the tliird couplet, giving: "and the rider of a horse naked shall he flee." It may be possible, however, to place the word 'drum in tlie first stichos of this last couplet, and to interpret the word "naked" as meaning "without weapon." The form then becomes : And-he-that-handles-a-bow naked shall-stand, And-he-that-rides-a-horse shall-not-flee. In addition to the change remarked in the first stichos, it is seen that tlie 15' is transposed to the second stichos; this makes the sense that even the one best equipped to flee will be unable to do so. The schematic arrangement of these suggestions becomes: [ 150 ] a2 I. a-2b b' In- last cDiipli't is: WliatcviT may In- llnni<.'lit of tlieso suggestions, it seems iiulisput- alili' that a sextet of stielioi, divided into three jiairs, may have been in the original text. Ilenee the prineiple of eouplet par- allelism has proved hero a valuable aid. The long line, appar- ently prose, in verse 16 has shown itself to be illegitimate, once more vindicating the principle that a breakdown of the par- allelism and tiie presence of an unattached single line, whether isolated, or supposedly a part of a triplet, in Amos are in reality due to textual corruption (see below). I'ofR Term \'ariatii>ns Four term variations ai'e not frei|uent in Amos, and there is MO instance of the form : a I) (■ il a' b' o' ,1' Hut tiie following scheme is present wherein the second stichos is shorter than tlie fii-st : a b c .1 a' c' iV Aiiat lioiiae iiito-spliiitorx, Anil-tliosmall lioiiso intocliips. fi.ll Again it is difficult in the translation to show that the terms "great" and "small" occur after and not before their nouns in the Hebrew. Sorwill-wml a-firo int<>tlip|ioii,s<>-of ilnznci, Aml-it-willdovour tlie palaoesiof nonliailail. l.-l This instance from the formida of destniction in the Doom Song presents a different scheme from 1.12; 2.2. ij. The formulas in 1.7. 10, 14, depending on the fpiestion whether one regard the ( 1-1 1 96 ParaUrlism in Amos word armc noihi'lid , "its palaces," as deserving of one accent, or of two, wlu'reby tlie suffix cM. "its," corresponds to the name of tlie ri'spfctive city, can take either tliis scheme : a b c d a' c' or this : abed a' c' d' So-I-will-send a-fire on-the-wall-of Gaza, (Tyre, Eabba) And-it-willdevour its-palaces (or, the palaces thereof). Forms with three terms in the first stichos and four in the second are found in numerous combinations: a 1) c d a' b' c' Who-twitter to-the-sound-of the-harp, Like-David they-devise-for-themselves instrumciits-of song. 6.5 This couplet is dubious : the word k'^-Ddwldh is probably a gloss (Harper, p. 147) ; if omitted the scheme becomes: a b c a' h' (■' Doubt also attaches to the distrilnition of the accents in this couplet; the word Idhciii. "for themselves," being reckoni'd in with x''*'/' ''''''''■ "tlii'v di'visr." the total receives but one licat. In-all the-broad-places there-shall-be-lamentation, And-in-all the-streets they-shall-say :Alas,-Alas. o.tOa This couplet occurs in a setting wherein corruption is evident. This schematization of the text regards, contrary to the cus- tomary usage, the word h'-khol in both stichoi as wortliy of a full word accent. Harper (p. 126ff.) suggests that the word '"(lln'indi at the end of the iirophetic phrase introducing the couplet be read 'arnin, "I will cause shouting": I-will-cause shouting in-all-the-sqnares for-mourniug. And-in-all-the-streets they-shall-say :Woe,Woe. This gives to h< -l-hiif-r'\dhdth and bf-khol-xugdth only one word accent, thus roiifdrniiny- with the Massoretie nwqqeph (see Gray, pp. 138-140). The arrangement thus becomes: [152; a l> e b'2 c"2 Wlu'M tlieri'shnllovortakc tlioploiinlinmii tliercnpor, Aiulthc-trcadpr-of grapes liim-wlio-soweth scoil. 9.\3a Again tlu' (|Ui'stioii of word tout' i-ntiTs to throw doubt on this nrraiiponient. Tlierc arc liero four words of major character in the second stidios to exjiress two compound ideas corresponding to two simple nouns in the first stichos witii only one accent each; the scheme may thus be, though with less plausibility, The following couplet contains several peculiarities; the first is the phrase i.tht'kha bd-'lr, •'thy wife in the city," tin- second the doid)le subject in the second stichos, together with the unusual idea 'Mhy daughters shall fall by the sword." As the eou])let stands it reads: Thy wife in-tliocity simll-lio-a-linrlof, Aii.l-tliysoiis nnil-thy-iianulitcrs by-tlic sword sliall-fall. 7.17a a b a'2 .1 c' A rcassortmont of the phrases here would be necessary to give a good parallelistic couplet ; the omission of the word II hh' nnthikhi'i would nuike the scheme: Another doubtful couplet occurs in 8.13. As it .stands it falls into this .scheme: a b c b- d Thore-shall-fnint thcboautiful virKins, AnJ-tho-youths from thirst. [ l.-,3 98 FarallcUsm in Amos The Jewish Translation glides over the difficulty by translating without regard to the parallelism : lu that day shall the fair virgins, Aud the young men faint for thirst. Harper (p. 183 fif.), recognizing the flaw in the text, transposes the end period of verse 14 and makes this combination : There-shall-faint the-beautiful virgins, And-the-youths shall-fall and-not-rise-again. Tliis gives the schematization : A suggestion may be made that the emphasis upon the word hay-ydphoth, "the beautiful," is unnecessary, and that instead a form of the root yd'eph, "to be weary," or "faint," should be substituted. This is borne out by Is. 40.30, where the root is used of youths, n^'drhn, as a parallel to the word used by Amos, baxiirim. Moreover in Is. 44.12, the root is used in connection with hunger and thirst, both of which are mentioned immediately before this ver.se in Amos 8.11-12. In Judges 8.15, the par- ticipial adjective is used of weakness from lack of bread, and in II Sam. 16.2 from lack of drink. The following emendations may be suggested : 1. tith'^' cphoth, w'^hah-haxiirim yi^md 'ft. There-shall-faint the-virgins who-are-weary, And-the-youths shall-be-in-thirst. 2. titW aUaphna hah-bHMloth, n-<:-iiri'<'pliu lidb-haxiirlm ha^-gama'. There-shall-faint the-virgins, And-there-shall-grow-weak the-youths from-thirst. The schematization of this couplet thus becomes, a b a' b' c This form is unusual, but it will be noted that the redupli- cated root tith'allaphiifi may take two beats, as in the case of tithmdghaghnd in 9.13b. What may be citlier a four or a three term structure depend- ing upon the distri])ution of word accents is found in this couplet : [154] rardllt Usui in Ainos 99 Lo.st-it kiniiU' likolirt- tlio-housp-uf JoHopli, Anilitdevour with iioiioto oxtinKiii»h for-Bethol. n.til. The Septungiiit, sdiiu" innmiscri])ts, and tlie di-niaiids of |):ir;ill{ ■ tor Hctlirl.'" Mon-ovt-r tlie terms an- not entirely clear in sense. The selieiiiatie arranfrement becomes: There are fonr terms iiere referrint; to tire: in the second stichos the phrase H'-'i'n m'khabbv, " with-none-to-exlinsiuish," receives one accent; it is doubtful whetlu'r it should be taken as a new term, or as a synonymous term to kd-'csh in the first stiehos; moreover the name Beth-Yoseph receives here two word accents; it may be better to jrive it only one; anotlier sehennitie arranfre- ment thus becomes: RKDI'PI.ICATION Reduplication or internal synonj-mity oecni-s often in Amos. This diffei-s from the mere double synonymous term or double compound term species, in that in the .same stiehos there are two shades of the same idea; the two hemistichs arc parallel each to each; tlie synonymity and parallelism extend also to the second stiehos. so that there are cases where three terms for the same thought are employed. It will be seen also that this redupli- cation results in a type of triplet formation. (Sec Gray's reiinuks, ])p. ir)9-lGt). ) Anil-thoro-iihall-poriiih intuniult Monb, With-shoutiiig nndthC'Sounil-of tlic-triinipct. Andburn of-lcavoncd-brca55 I 100 ParaUellsii, in Amos on that of the offering itself; perhaps then the text is corrupt, and a parallel term to iiit-xdmei;, "of leavened bread/' should be soufjht to replace /u/.s7ni(7' (^ "make them known." I-liate, I-dcspise your-feasts, And-I will-not-smell of-your-festivals. 5.21 This has alread.y been discussed under the form | ":^ ^\. The arrangement given here eliminates the confusion attaching to the use of the symbol a2 for a double synonymous term in the same stichos, which may thus be viewed as reduplication. Compare 8.17a. Dhniuishiug-the-ephah, aud-enlargiug the-shekel, And-perverting balances-of deceit. 8..5b This form may be regarded either as a triplet, wherein the first two hemistichoi lieeome stiehoi of two stresses each, and the third contains three sl)-csscs; nv the fir.st stichos maj' continue a.s here to hold two hemisticlioi of two stresses each, giving a couplet wherein the first stichos contains four and the second three accents. (See Gray, p. 164.) It is virtually impossible to fix a rule for the determination of all instances of this character; each must be decided on its own merits, though a guiding prin- ciple may be the strength of the pause or caesura between the two first hemistichs. aba' b' a" c b" Hate evil, and-love good, And-establish in-the-gate jxistk'e. 5.15a Here there is an internal antithetic jiarallelism in tlie first stichos, or if 5.15b be regarded as a tri])li't. bi'twecn the first and second stichos; the term hash-sha' ar is the only alien term in the scheme, for the three verbs and the tlirrc objects are respectively either synonymous or antitlietical. a b a' b' a" b" a" ' 2 [ 156 ] Not-n-propliet ninl, nniliiota-prupliot '.s-son ninl, But-nslii-phord niii-I, aiul-ailro»»iT-of syoniiiorc's. 7.14 lltiv the i|iit'stioii wlu'tluT tin- luniisticlis should lie fouiiti'd as full stii'hoi, iiulepcndcnt and composed of two stresses, thougli part of a larger st'ttiii'r. receives furtiier eoniidieatioii. The first stiehas has already been treated independently as a two stress distich (see above). It is therefore i)ossible to treat this verse either as a double distich, or as a two part couplet. It is almost impossible to determine which is preferable. The usual niunber of stresses is three; four are infre(|uent, two still more infre- ipient ; hence it is a choice between considering this as a four or two stress scheme. It is to be noted that the fourth part of the i|uadruple form breaks the synonymity of language, but retains the necessary number of stres.ses. Viewed independently the second line can be: u l> a. 1) (• a' a"2 (1 Aiiil-thy-lanil by-tlie line sliall-bc-dividod, Aml-tliou onaiiunclrandand shalt-die. 7.17b This presents an involved type of parallelism ; a third stichos complicates the pa.s-sage, though this couplet appears to be inde- jiendent (see below). Here the word "land" in the fii-st stichos fiiuls in position and thought a complement in "thou" at the head of the second stichos. The parallelism does not cea.se here, for there is a parallelism of language and an im])lied antithesis i>f thought al.so between "thy-land" in stichos 1 and "an-unclean- land" in stichos 2, the former being "clean and holy." The schematic arrangement here given serves to bring out in a measure the double parallelism, though it neglects partly the grammatical construction of '-me occurs, but the caesura between the individual parts is strongly marked (Grav, pp. 62-63). a b c [| d e a' b' c' II d' e' ■ ■ A seri&s of alternate parallelisms of this type occurs in Amos (3.3ff.) : verses 3, 4, 5, 6, conform to this type; verse 3, how- ever, contains only a single line which splits into two parts; verses 4, 5, 6 have two lines, thus giving to each Massoretic verse four sections, two main and two subordinate. Verse 7 breaks the stretch of alternate parallelism, but verse 8 resumes it, though tlie form is slightly changed, four instead of five terms being present: a b II e d a' b' II c' d' Tlie lack of a second stiehns in vcrsi' 3 lends the impression eitlier that the vei-se is in tlie nature of an introduction, setting the keynote for the series, or that a complementary stichos has dropped out. Tlie arrangement of verse 7 is difficult. For tlie moment it may be arranged : xa b c x'a' c' d2 [158] I'tiralltlisin in Ainus 103 Tilt' paralli'lisiii in tlu' IK'ln-t'w is not so close as tlif si'lu'iiio iiulifiitts; till" viTsi- lias a tnulitioiial proplictie eharai-tcr, and must be Voiisiiloivil under the eate<;ory of near-prose. Sufj- gestions have been made either to phiee it after verse 8, or to omit it etitirely as a ploss. The first sufrf,'estion would trive five eonseeutive verses of excellent alternate parallelism : (3) Do tliori'walk two to|»ctlior, Exfppt thi'V-bi' a<;roi'tl ? Doos-there-roar a-lion iii-thoforost, Wlienajirey ho-lintli-not f I>0(".sthi"re(;ivi"-fortli-his-voicc a-youuK-lion from-liis-don, I t'-lioliatli-iiot takon-somotliing } (5) DocS'thcrc-fall a-bint in-a-snarc-on-tlicgroiind, If-a-hiiiiter tliercbo-not-for-it f Dopsthere-springup a-trap from-tho-grouiKl, Without-capturing anythingat all f (i.e., unless it Ijo sprung). (6) SliaIl'tliprp-sounc a clarion-blast in-the-city, And-thc-pcoplc not-risc-in-tcrrorf [159] 104 ParalhlLsm in Amos But there seems little ground thus to omit and substitute; rather as first suggested, verse 7 seems more indefensible and mis- placed, and sliould either be transposed or ruled out. ' Compare Hosea 10.10, 11. Another series of alternate parallelisms of a similar char- acter is found in 9.2—4. Again, however, difficulties arise, for verses 2 and 3 each have two stiehoi hikI four subordinate pai'ts, while verse 4 diverges from this phtii. The schematic arrange- ment is as follows : (2) a Ij c II d e a' b' c' II d' e' (3, 4) a b e2 II d e f a' 1/ gc'2 |! d e2 f Noting the lacunae, the text at ]iresent reads : (2) Though thcy-dig-through to-Slieol, Thence shall-my-hand-take-them ; And-though they-elimb to-heaven. Thence will-I-bring-them-down. (3) And-thougli they-hide-themselves at-the-top-of Carniel, Thence ivill-I-search-them-out aud-take-theni, And-though they-hidc froni-l)efore-niy-eyes at-thc-bottom-of tlie-sea, Tlionce will-I command the-scrpent and-it-will bite-them, w And-though they-go into-captivity before-their-encmie.s, Thence will-I-eommand the-sword and-it-will-slay-them. The schematic arrangement shows that as the text stands it contains a couplet and a triplet, or two quatrains, and a half quatrain. \'arioiis suggestions have been made to explain the use of "serpent"" in verse 3, one of which is to make it refer to the Leviathan. Amos, however. s]ieaks of the serpent a.s a creature of tlie fields and of the liouse (5.19), not of tlie sea. The suggestion that a scribe may liave omitted the fourtli part of riGO] runilhlisiii Amos 105 v.Tsi- :!, and till' lirst part uf tlir third t|iiatraiii in nrdi-r ti) make thf wliolf iM.nfdrin to tli.' l^i'viatlum Irfjcnd, is far fftclicd, for tlioiifjli lie inijrlit c'haiijft' h few words, it is doiibtftil wiictlu'r ho would omit a whole si'iiteiK-o. MorooviT the Ma.ssorctic vi-rsi' 4 lias after the fiid of the (|iiatrain arraufieinent, the sen- tenee: " Aiul-I-shall-i»laee iny-eyes upon-theiu for-evil and- iiot-for-giHul. " The iuissin<; sci-tions may find some liiiit for restoration here; verse ."1, part :{ mentions tlie faet that tlie sinners would escape from God's eyes; the arranjrenient lueoines perhaps : Aii.l-tliou|icli tlioyliide from beforcniycyos iit tlieliottoiu of tlie- l-will-plai-o myeyos upouttiem for-evil, aml-uot-forgooil. This would mean that only the fii-st part of the third (piatrain is ahsent. However, it has been supgested that the phrase minnnjhidh 'I'luii, "from-before-my-eyes," be omitted in verse 3: the last part of verse 4 may have been inserted on the basis of this expression, which itself may have been an insertion. It is evident that the vci-scs are in confusion, and that they have been jostled together for one reason or another; a restora- tion is difficult, the one here suggested being poor, because among other things it neglects the use of the phrase viijth-shdm at the beginning of each second part and fourth part of the quatrain. The sciiematic character in its proper form, to be filled in with the missing portions shotild be: (2) W a b c i; .1 c a' b' c' 11 r-lie-Ioaneont. l.i.l 1 108 Panillelism in Amos In 3.12, the same pheuomenon of an approximation to near- prose is present. Tlie language is prosaic; the prepositional- conjunction ka-'"sher heads the combination, while the conjunc- tion ktn, "thus," or "so," heads the third part, unlike 5.19. The thought is divided clearly into two halves, the first dealing with the escape from the lion, the second dealing with the application of the figure to the escape of the Israelites. Though the lines are excessively long, the metrical length and rhythm are vir- tually the same. Synonymity is maintained throughout, except that in the tliird part of the quatrain, the phrase niip-pi ha-'^ri, "from the mouth of a lion," is balanced by hay-yoshebhim h'^ -Shorn'' ran, "those who dwell in Samaria." Oort and Bau- mann regard the disturbing phrase as a later insertion and omit it ; Loehr also omits it as a gloss. Instead of it, the suggestion has been made to read: mip-p<'ne hd-'dycbh, "from-before the enemy," to jjarallel "from before a lion" (Harper, p. 81). The present scheme is : x'a' b' b"2 II d" e" d" ' e" ' It can be seen from this schematization that alternate parallelism with a type of reduplication exists here. The emendation sug- gested would eliminate the disturbance in the sense, and improve the rhythmical quality of the text. The scheme thus becomes: x'a' 1)' c' II d" e" d" ' e" ' As there-rescues the-sliepherd from-the-mouth-of tlie-lion Two-legs or a-piece-of-ear, So shall-escape the-children of Israel from-before-the euenn-, With-the-eorner-of a-coueh, and-with-the-leg-of a-bed. In view of the character of the passage, it may be asked : Is this comparable to the parallelistic prose of the Arabic rhymed prose? The short, terse, three term character of the usual couplet is missing; is it that the alternate parallelism is a door to a special tj-pe of prose parallelism? It is to be noted also that tlie subordinate parts are not complete in themselves, after [164; r,ir,ill(lisi,i ill Amos UMI till" mamiiT of .").!!•. Imt arc ilutai-lii'd portions similar to 'J.S U-f. 7.101.1. SiiitSjimiiiiimous SiiJ' Xi-ar-piosc ain»'ars to be present ajjaiii in 7.1()l>. This distieh i.s part of a narrative wliieli seems to be in prose, but wliieh, it will be seen on elo.ser examination, turns out to be mostly parallelistie poetry with th<' addition of several prose l)lirases. Amu!< liii!< coiispirfil u^jaiiiNt tlicc iii-tlu'iiiiilst-uf tlii>-lu)iisi'-of- Isrnol, Not-nl>lo i,s-tlic-laii(l to-l)ear all-liisi-worils. ( g h \ i-2 Hliytlimieally tlirsr stielioi tlioujjii extra long in eharaeter .seem equal. No synonymity exists between the two cxeept in tiie jreneral eoneept of eonspiraey : no terms are eorrespondential with the ptKssible exeejjtion of "tlie-land" and "hou.se-of-Israel." It seems possible that alternate parallelistie .sehematization may be employed for tiie distich, similar to the usage in 2.8; thus: Amo.s lias-i-oii!„„s 11:1 hi ra.-ll of tlusc ui.iiplfls, til.' sc.Miiul stirlios t-oiitailis the pivposition "then'iii," which is syiionyiiiDiis witli '"tlu'-fiirth." Tliiiv is mort' synonymity in tlic iii-st than in tlic st-i-ond I'ouplet ; altlioujrh the latter t-ontains in its first stie-lios two vcrlis tlir sn-ond of wliivli, "ini'lts," may l>i' complementary to the verb in the seeond stiehos. the first verb, "touehes," has no complement. The spirit and languafie and environment of these two couplets sliow that they are clearly poetry; the exact correspondent ial charaettr of normal jiarallilism is how- ever absent. Ala#-for those-who-Ioiijjfor tlio-ilay-of-Yaliwe, Wliprcforo-is-this to-yoii tlio-re.ssir inslance where synonymity may bi' present but where the .sense is doubtful is tlie following: Because he-pur.sued with-the-sword his-brothcr, And-destroyed his-compassiou. 1.1 lb For a full discussion of this distich see below on the Doom Song. A corrupt text is possibly to be seen here : Who-erush the-head-of the-poor on-the-dust-of tho-enrth And-the-way-of the-humble they-turn-aside. 2.7a By the onussiou of "on the dust of tlio eai-th" tlie form liecomes (llarprr, p. f.O): 1/2 [170], I'ltnilUlisiii in .l»/i(),s" ll'i OthiT iiistimws i>{ iloul)iriil synthetic (•cmplots an- si-at- tcrttl lliri>ii';li(iiit this study, and are found tabulated lulow. •'THAT SAY," OH QeoTATUINAl. OOflM.F.TS Amos eoiitaiiis several eoujilets wherein one sticlios is lenjith- iMied by the use of the apparent eiiuivalent in Hebrew for quotation nnirks. namely, a forni of the word "say," wliieli is found standing; usually at the head of the stiehos as a partieiple, sometimes in the midtlle as an infinitive. This creates a s|)eeial ehuss of parallelism, for it will be observed that the synonymity between the stiehoi is not cli>se, sinee the (juotation usually adds a new thought to the complex. Hoar-tliis word, yc-kinoof Baslinii, Wlio-aro (dwoU) in-thc-niomituin-of -Samaria, Thatoppress tlic-poor, Tliat-i-riiiili the-neoily, Tliatsav untothcirlonls: Hriiij;. tliat wi'iiiavilriiik. -1.1 There are indications of symmetry here, though the vei-se ap- proaches closely to pnxse ; u relative '"slur in the second stiehos complicates the vei-se; moreover it is doubtful whether the open- ing prophetic phra.se "Hear this word" deserves to be included in the scheme as nmjor words, receiving toiud accents. Par- allelism exists here between the terms e f ami e' f. The participial construction which Amos employs in the last three stiehoi is a favorite with him (first stiehos: 2.7; 5.7, 8, 9, 12, 18; 6.1, :{. 4. .'i. 6; S.14; .second sticlio.s. 3.10, 12; Th-l) ; h.-re it knits the teniis together throughout the entire verse. Another schematic arrangement for this vei-se whereby two couplets are prcKlueed which are rhythmically but not correspondent iaily -symmetrical, would be : t g r «■ b i j k [171 1 J'draUvlisiii III Amos Vho-rejoicc i n-that-ivl liich-is-not, Vho-say: By- our-oivu streugth liavc ^we-not-takeu for-ourselves horus? 6.13 In addition to the fact that M'-dm'rlm, "that say," serves to lengthen the stichos, there is no correspondence between the terms, though the thought is in general the same in both stichoi. The scheme mins: By-the-sword sliall-die all-the-sinners-of my-people, Who-say:Not-shaU-touch or-befall us disaster. 9.10 Doubt on tlie validity of this text exists because of the length of the second stichos and the presence of two verbs therein denoting the same thought. No correspondence of terms exists, the second stichos adding to the first a characterization, from their own lips, of those who will die. The schematic ai'range- ment is : abed f g2 h i But-ye-niade-drink tlie-Nazirites wine, And-the-prophets ye-c-ommanded (saying) :Do-not-prophcsy. Or In tlie light of verse 11, whicli deals with the same thought in an iuversed couplet, it is clear that parallelism is intended here. Doubt attaches, however, to the text, and Harper (p. 54) sug- gests that the words Wmor ' al-tinndhh<"u could be omitted as a gloss, thus restoring the line to a length commensurate with the first stichos. In tlie face of other examples where the le'mor construction is used, this seems plausible. Harper's arrange- ment becomes : a b c V a' But-ye-madc-drink the-Na/.irites ivine, And-on-tlie-propliets ycdaid-proliibition. [ 1'2 ] Pttrallilism in Amos 117 It may be eoiu'liuliMl with ri-rtTciicf to tin- "wlio say " clauses: fitliiT tlu' tfrin nvfivi's a full word accent as in 4.1. where ltd 'oiif^ roth is used with a niodifyiii'; noun Ui-'Ulhoiu'lii niAhmxtih this latter terui may not be t;cnuine; or the plirasi- 'whosay" in its various forms should not be reckoned as a major word ill the sehemati/.ation, worthy of a full tone, but more like the ((notation marks in Kufjlish. The majority of cases seem to fuv(U- the second hypothesis. thou<;h each casi- must be jud;red on its own merit. •'IX oKI>KK THAT," OR CONJl'XCTIVAI. COl'PI.ETS A st-ries of conjunctival clauses whicli are introduced either by the conjunction I'nui'an or the relative '"slur atTect the parallelism, which by the absence of correspoudenee is almost eliminated. The I'liui'nit, "in order that." clauses contain in the second stichos. at the head of wliieh the coujunetioii usually stands, a new thousrht which is the result or the purpose of the event or act mentioned in the first. Borau ttioy-rippoilup tlu>i)rp;;iiantwi)ini'ii-€if Oilmil, Inonler-to pnlnrf;(< tlioir-l)or(lor. 1.13b No eorrespondenee of the terms exists here; the text is dubious; there is a lum-siqititur iu the idea.s of the couplet; in a plottin<; ■ f the text, the conjunction I'tiui'an receives a full word accent. An. 2.7I> Atrain the text is dubious; the lines are lonper than usual; Harper emends to read: "And-a-man and-his-judpe deal aceordinp-fo-apre<'minf.'" The lbt is seen in the si'home: n2 b <• .1 <- f2 Sc<>k eoorief ilistieh, n text for the diseu.s.sion that follows; or the line niny Ix' prttuix'd with the next loin; prophetic lino, [173 1 118 raralUIism in Amos making thus two loug lines; or as Harper suggests, they may form a ((uatrain similar to alternate parallelism: Seek-good and not-evil, In-order-that ye-may-live, Tliat-so-may-be Yahwe-God-of-Hosts with you, As-ye-liave saiil. But this is doubtful, and must lie accepted with reservation, althdugh it nuist he noted that tins (puitrain is followed hy another (verse 15) of similar foi-nuition. Iii-oi'der-that they-may-possess the-remnaut-of Eiloiii, And-all-the-nations over-whicli is-called my-name. 9.12 Here le-ma' an occurs at the head of the entire couplet in the first stiehos; moreover the presence of '"sher in the second stiehos complicates the form. The lines are long, and approach close to near-prose; unless it occurred in the midst of genuine parallelism, it would be classified without hesitation as prose. The text is doubtful, and seeuLs to he part of a post-Amosian insertion. The schematic arrangement is difficult ; slight corre- spondence may be present between the words "Edom"' and "nations'": n h (_• d d' e f g It may be concluded with reference to the Jf-m-a'an clauses that the use of the conjunction is accompanied by a breakdown of synonymous parallelism ; correspondence between terms is missing; the lines are usually extra long, and approximate closel.y near-prose. Moreover the text is usually doubtful. RELATIVE COUPLETS The '"s/i pr-relative clauses may be divided into several cate- gories. The first usage is in couplets where the relative does not affect the regularity of the parallelism, as in 2.9; auotlier usage is in a mixtvire of prose and paralleli.sm, as in 4.1, where the relative may affect the parallelism, and yet, depending upon the construction of tlie passage, may fall in witli the parallelistie arrangement. It may be used merely as a relative in sheer prose, as in 1.1, the superseri|ition ; but its nuiin usage is in [174] coupli'ts wluTo there are tnu-i's of paralli'lism ilistmlicd Imw- I'Vir l)y the use of tlie relative. Aniltheroled-tlii'ni-nstrny thoir-lii's, Aftorwiiioh tlicrewnlkoil tlioir-fiitlicrs. 2.4 The text here is dubious ; no eorresi)oudeuee of terms is present ; •jraninuir and .si-nse are confused. This couiih't nuikes possible however a ditferentiation between essential and non-essential r'lative elauses. The presence of the suffix "their" attached to "lies" shows that the relative clause lierc is iion-e.s.sential. An essential modifier, i.e. one which cannot be logically omitted, cannot be a parallel logically; a non-essential is somewhat of the nature of a synonym, and hence may be regarded a.s a parallel. The same nuiy be saiil in some measure of the hri-'nin'rhn clau.ses aln-ady discussed; in the same way that the second stichos was an additional characterization, not im])erative to complete the meaning of the first stichos, but employed to till out the couplet structure, so the relative is used here anc-]>ioec wliori-on it-rniiietl-iiot withorcd. 4." The relative occurs in the middle of the second stichos, and though it lengthens it, is not responsible for the luicertain character of the couplet, for the style is tame; this stanza of the Grief Song has a superabundance of stichoi; this distich is surroundetl by another in weak parallelism, verging on bald repetitir)n, and by a long and dubious pro.se line. In .").2l). the relative is u.sed in a conventional phrase, "which ye made for yourselves"; it may be part of a triiilet; the text also is doubtful; a similar use of '>'shir has been noted in 9.12 ; again in 9.15, the words "which I have given to them"' are used as a conventional phra.se with reference to the "laud"; the words .seem to be "tacked-on" as it were. On several occasions it is fouml tliat at the end of a chapter or of a projihetic book similar conventional combinations are attached. In :{.l, the relative is used in a conventional, introductory prophetic phrase with no pnrnllelism, apparently no rhythmical principle; tiie lines are long and the verse savors of the historical traditional |>hrases u.sed by the prophets at the head of their deiuineiations. [>7 120 Puralhlisiii in Amos KA 'asher or simile couplets The k(i-'"shir couplets also present varieties of usage. It has been seen that in 3.12 and 5.19, two couplets of similar struc- ture, the ka-'"sher stands at the head of the couplets and does not interfere with the parallelism; in 3.12 it is a correlative of l-i'ii, "thus,"" ill the second sticlios, and in .').19 likewise by implication. In 5.14, it is used in a conventional prophetic near-prose line, wlicrein no simile and hence no parallelism are present; the wmd hi'n is used iu conjunction with ka-^°shci- in this line also, hut no simile is involved as iu the other examples. In 2.13, ka^'cshcr oeciu's in the second stichos of an extremely doubtful couplet. The text is apparently corrupt ; various suggestions for its emendation have been made, among them one by Harper (p. 60), but the supposed metrical principle which he employs is unjustifialile and violates even the elements of parallelism preserved in the coui>let. As it stands the verse by reasons of its imperfections approaches uear-prose. The brevity of the Jewish Translation does not bring out the char- acter of the Hebrew text which is long and overbalanced : Beliold, I will make it creak under you. As a cart creaketh that is full of sheaves. The first stichos of the couplet appears to be genuine; a com- pression of the second is necessary to give a genuine couplet. In 9.9 an almost identical structure and difBcultj' are pres- ent ; in fact, were the two passages combined, they would make a mutually supplementary picture, since both deal with images of threshing. As in the previous instance, the ka-'osher stands at the head of the second stichos, making it almost seem that the presence of this conjunction in the second half of a couplet is in danger of obscuring the parallelism and the text. In 9.9, however, unlike the other instance, the kn-'"shrr section may be formed into two stichoi : And-I-will-sift amoug-all-the-natious tliohouso-(if Israel, Just-as-one-shakes with-a-sieve, But-not-shall-fall one-kernel to-the-ground. Again a disturbance in parallelism is accompanied by the pres- ence of the conjunction, and by a dubious sense. [176] I'antltilistn in Aiiias 121 A typ.- of i-oiist ruction wliicli plays a ivlc in .lislnrlicl paralli'lisni is found in Amos 4.11; it appears to lie a lonjj: continuous prost' lint'; the Jewish Translation ohseures the inec|ualily in the len-rth of the two parts into whi.'h it divides the line, by translatinjr : I liave-oviTtlirown soiiu'-of-vou, A.stiotl overthrow So.loiii aii.l(i<>morr.ili, wliieh in the Hebrew is: huiihakhtt bhiikhrm k''miihi>i'kath '''lohim elhS'dhom u""-('//i-'"mi'r/i. Mere tlie word bCt-khnn is jjiven a full word aeeent ; Harper and others lielievc that soiuethiiif: has fallen out of the text, and so intlieate in their arran-renients. This phrase eoneerninfj the destruction of Sodom and liomorrali (rives difWeulty throufrii- out the prophetic books; it either creates a species of continuous, rhythmical parallelism, near-prose in eharaeter. or it breaks ili>wn apparently jrood jiarallelism. Only rarely does it form a part of jfood parallelism. It is found in jjrose in Dent. 29.22; it has no correspondin(? stichos but is attached to the end of a couplet in Is. I:i.l9; in .Tor. 49.18 it stands at the head of a vei-se the end of which is a trood synonymous couiilet ; so also in .ler. r)().4(). On several occasions the words "Sodom" and ■■ Gomorrah ■' are used ju; correspondinjr terms in jiaralhl couplets (cf. Zejih. 2.9; Is. 1.9; .ler. 2:5.14(. The phrase of eomi)arison in Amos is not u.sed in the customary style of j)ar- allelism, thoufrh it mifjlit be firoupcd with the kii-'"sher type, i.e., with simile parallelism; or, if the text were simply "as the overthrow of Smlom and (iomorrah," it woid-lioiisp.s-of ivorv, Atiiliilinll-bo-ilc»troyi>(l houses ninny. This is n distiiu-t type of strophe, and wlieii tlie pluiiomi mom is repeated in stanzaie form, complete symmetry results. It may be observed that the parallelism between thi' two short lines is unite oxaet, and tho parallelism between either one of these and the longer first line is also pood; the doubt arises through the presence of two stiehoi parallel to tho first. In 3.11, despite the need for a slifrht textual ehanjre in the tii-st line, an apparently good triplet is present, tlioujirh the synonymity between the terms of the first, and those of the second and third lines is not dose In '■!.>> the first stichos stands somewhat alom-, aiul .seems to need a complemi-nt. thongrli the use of the participle, as well as a thoufrht similarity, binds it to the coupli-t. In Job 9.9 and 3S.31, the same terms are used ami eoujilets are present : this stichos may be a later in.scr- tion in Amos on the basis of tin- Job passajres. It is danfrerous to nuike poo.l(i. 17. ^'erse IT has a stichos in virtually the same form aixl language as the fii-st stiehfKs in the couplet at the head of vei-sc 10. The repetition of the word iiiispulli, and the fact that the dominant structure here seems to be the couplet, nnike it possible either that some- thing has dropped out in verse 17 which would .serve as a com- [179] 124 ParaUclisin in Adios plement to the doubtful stichos, or that it is a later insertion. The triplet formation thus appears to be doubtful. The same question attaches to the third stichos in 5.18. Harper wishes to regard the striking second stichos to the first couplet as an interpolation, and make the first and third stichoi the genuine couplet, but Loehr and others would omit the third as an inser- tion, basing their action on the groiuid that it is derived from 5.20a. In favor of tlie present triplet arrangement it may be said tliat Amos uses the third stichos as a climax to the imme- diately preceding remarks; or the stichos may be divided into two parallel parts : It-is darkness Aiul-not light. This is doubtful because of the extreme brevity of tlie periods, and the frequent use of a line in the scheme a b b'. Whatever decision be championed with reference to the text, it is certain that the triplet cannot pass by entirely unquestioned. Doul>t is present once more in 5.22. Harper wrouglj- regards the second stichos of the couplet as an interpolation; it is far more plausible to regard merely u-)iiin''xdthekhcm, "and your meat-oft'erings, " as a gloss explaining (see Brown-Driver-Bi-iggs, p. 585) the striking phrase in 5.21, second stichos: 'W''-ld' 'dria^, "and I will not smell in your solemn assemblies." Doubt again follows the triplet in (i.(;. The first two stiehoi form ail admirable synonymous coiqilet. Other investigators have made various suggestions as to the replacement of the third stielios. wliieli seems to be in good proi^hetic language, contains three terms, but has no complement. Wliatever may be its correct position, it appears certain that the triplet forma- tion here is not original. In 6.8, the fir.st two stichoi form a good parallelistic couplet, but the stichos "and I will shut \ip the city and its inhabitants," seems to be an isolated stichos, the remnant of a eoiijilet, or inserted by a later commentator because the verb is in the same person as the verbs of the couplet, and the noun corresponds to "palaces" in the second stichos of the couplet. Doubt further attaches to the validity of the stichos because immediately following it is a long prose [180; I'drnllitism iti Aitnn: \'2'> IHirtioii fl.'urly out of plai-c in tli.' t.-xt. If aiiotliiT stirlios lie iK'inaiHlril to ronii a i-uupl.t. piTliaps .'..I'T iiii^'lit sirv<>. (Cf. l.G, 10.) Ni'ithiT 7.1) nor 7.17 is five from qinstioii. Eai-li lias an isolatocl stk'lios at tin- tMul of tlio verse: moreover in 7.11 Amos is (pioteil as siiying : By-tlie-sworJ sliall-ilio Jeroboam, ADtl-Isruel sliallsurely gointocxilc from-itslaiul. If the two isolated stielini in 7.9 anil 17 are l)rouj;lit to<;;etlier, this eoiipltt eiisui's. as the ])ropheey whieli Amos is said here to attrilnite to (Jod: AiuI-I-sliall-rise against-tlio-houso-of Jeroboam witlitbeswonl, And-I-srael sliall-siiroly go-into oxilc fromita-laml. As the te.xt now stands oidy one-lialf of Amos' prophecy in verso 11 is vindicated: this arranp;cnient provides for both parts, and disi)oses of the isolated stichoi. This is another of many instances where siiiijiosed triplets in reality are eoiipiets plus a stiehos out of place. In !S.6 a third line follows a good synonymous couplet with which it appears to have no firammatical or lojrieal connection. Elither this stiehos may be rejected, or it may he taken \ip into the second stiehos of the first couplet in verse .'). This latter pi>ssil)ility is nejrated. however, liy the fact that nashbir is already used there; the words in veiNe C may tlu-refore he a variant reading. In 9.1 a possible triplet is obscured by the apparent corrup- tion of the text; the isolated stiehos •'and-their-residue with- the-sword will-I-.slay" is in Amos' style and seems to deserve a place in the text as a survival of a good couplet. In r>.."j a couplet with a reference to Hethel antl to Gilgal is followed by a stiehos containing mention of Beei-sheha. A couplet succeeds this group wherein (Jilgal and Hethel are men- tioned, though a play upon Reersheba is conspieuo\is by its absence. The suggestion that the first stiehos of the first couplet a-H stated abovi- be taken with the "text " in verse 4 is inde- fensible becau.se of the combination of stii-hoi in the .second couplet of verse ."J. Either Haumann's suggestion that the [ 181 126 raralldism in Amos Beersheba stichos be omitted must be accepted on the gTound that in 4.4 only Gilgal and Bethel are mentioned, while 8.14 refers to Dan and Beersheba without the other two ; or it is necessary to add a stichos to 5b, punning upon the name of Beersheba. It is easier and more plausible to omit the trouble- some stichos as an interpolation. In 6.1-2 similar difficulties are encountered. A good couplet heads verse 1 ; a doubtful distich follows ; in verse 2, three stichoi apparently in triplet formation are present ; then follows a final couplet in verse 2, which must be regarded as part of this strophe. Various ways of reading these verses may be sug- gested. Harper (p. 141 fH.) regards the second distich of verse 1 as a good ci)U])lrt and the three stichoi of verse 2 as a good triplet, but he omits the second couplet in verse 2 : his rendering of the second couplet in verse 1 is : Wlio specify themselves the chief of the nations, And make a prey for themselves of the house of Israel. The Jewish Translation offers for this couplet the following conventional and traditional rendition which clings to the pres- ent text but solves none of its difficulties : The notable men of the first of the nations, To whom the lioiise of Israel come. The schematization of the couplet together with the following triplet becomes then : The following suggcstidiis may now lie nft'orvd. Either the IhiIc i.f till' lil'st stielios, ii'qfihhf rfshllh h,t,i-;/,l,inH . sIkuiUI 1)c uittcd; this wiiuld jilacc tlif next stichos at the head of a iiatfain, rliaiigiiig fi-hhil'fi into ho'u, an imperative; or the niiliinaticiH of consonants from iiCqubhe and the next word 'sliUI). (j-h-r. suggests the possibility toiiio, oli-Soii»-of- Israel, Diilnot-Israel IbriiiR-up from-tlii'-liiiiil nf H;;y|it, Anil-thp-Pliilistiups from t'liplitor, And-Edom from-Kir. Tlif first two lines an' allifil pi-rhaps li_\ tin' ailiniiy nt thim^lit, ami oxtenially by the use of the same iiitroduetorv interrofrative h"l('i', "not," and the use of tlie term Yisn'i'i'l in botii stiehoi. It may be asked wliethor the two end periods should not be eoinbined into one stiehos, thus jrivinc a triplet instead of one loufj rhytinnieally parallel eouplet and one semi-indopendent couplet in close parallelism. One notes that this loni; near-jirose passajro deals with traditional historic material. The schematic arrangement can be cither e g c K It may be conchuled with reference to triplets, therefore, that the bona fide triplet combination in Amos is rare: frc- ((uently tlie text of the supposed triplet is corrupt or dubious; unless the tristich .shows perfeetion of form and sense, it is necessary to invosti<»ate carefully Ijcfore it is pronounced jren- uine. Each triplet must be weighed on its own merits, and none should ho accepted without aiudysis merely because it is known that triplct.s do exist elsewhere in prophetical literature. COSVF.NTIONAI. HiSTORIC.M. PROPnETIC PlIK.VSES The prophets employ ci-rtain typical projihetic phrases whicii nuiy have been part of the stock in trade of the schools and even of the independent prophets. Most of these lines are sinple stiehoi; they have a traditioinil flavor and hark back oftentimes to the historical events deeply rooted in the past of the ppople. Some of them are mere ejacidations, inserted apparently without rule or rea.son ; .sometimes however they ser^•e n.s a climax, sonietimes a.s emphasis for a special point. f 183] 130 ParaUfUsiii in Amos 2.11b is au ejaculation, apparently out of place in its present location between two couplets which reflect phases of the same thought ; 4.5b is also an ejaculation which may serve to end a series of couplets ; it stands outside the parallelism as an isolated stichos. 5.14b and 15b are long and prosaic; they may be regarded either as isolated stichoi, may be combined to form a distich, or may be part of a stanzaic arrangement. 5.17 falls somewhat outside this category, for it has not a traditional flavor; it seems to be an isolated stichos, the remnant of a re- frain, or the end to a series of couplets; it may be taken with the preceding single stichos to form a distich, but no synonpnitj' exists, and the combination is doubtful. 5.25 i.s a long prosaic verse referring to the sacrifice of offer- ings in the desert period ; it is clearly not parallelism, and seems to have little place in the text, unless it have some bearing on verse 26, which is also doubtful. Why the prophet should sud- denly insert this line is unclear; why also he should desert the parallelistic form he has maintained immediately previous over five verses, is a mystery. It serves again to show the disjointed nature of the Amos text, and to confirm the supposition that only a few scattered sections of the original utterances of Amos have been preserved and pieced together in their extant form. 9.8b affords another instance of the manner in which verses may be inserted. It is almost certain that the line "Save that I will not destroy utterly the house of Jacob, it is the oracle of Yahwe " is a later interpolation ; it is in entire dissonance with the pi-eceding material, and has the tone of a later period. The same applies to 9.14a, "And I will bring back the captivity of my people Israel." This seems to be part of the patchwork text interpolated by a post-Exilic editor. Several of these conventional prophetic historical phrases occur not only as single isolated stichoi, but also as couplets, or triplets. 2.10 is an example of a single line followed in veree 11 by a couplet in good parallelism, while vei-se 10 itself, historic in character, appears to be prosaic in style. The line divides itself into two parts; llie words "to possess the land of the Amorites"" attached at the end may either be omitted. [18G: Piinill< Usui iti Amos 131 rt'inaiii as they arc, or lio pivcfdcil l)y u-ri-'''hliikhnii hi'inn'i, ••ami 1 l)rmi«rlit ymi liitlii-r," ^riviii-.' tin- verse tliereliy a lri|)let fonnatioii (Harper, p. r)4tVJ. Ami yet itwiiMl wlio-broUKlit-.vou upl'iom thr laiul nt" K^'vpt, Amilcil-you in-tlie-wilileriii'ss forty-years, (Aiiil'brouKht-you hither) to-possess thc-lnmlof the-Ainorite. This verse seems (pnte eleurly in the t\vili)::lit zone between prose and poetry, resembling; larfrely tlie rhymed pro.se of the Arable. The same phenomenon of hm;,' prosaie lini's, yet witli a sliyrht traee of parallelism in the n'petilion of tlu' word •/// in each period, is notieeable in 3.1 : Hear this-word which the I^onl hath spoken against you, oh- ohildrou-of -Israel, Agaiust-the-wholc-faiiiily that I-brouglitoiit-offlielaiiiiof E^jypt. Here ajrain is a referenei' to God's withdrawal of the Israelites from the land of Efjypt. An approximation to the saj' is noted ajrain in 3.2. where the periods are lonn "(Ihihidl, and loiifrcr plirases and cpitlii'ts api)lii'al)lo to (.iod, '"tloiuii sh'mo, '"domii <,'bhri'dth sh' iiio, and others, also a))iu'ar, to stand ontsido tlie |>aralifiisni. Tlic plirascs in the |)nisc-po('tic' narrativi- in fliaptfr 7 will rffi'ivc spci'ial tn-atnunt below. On occa-sion as in S.l) ami 11. tiiou>jli I'Vfu tlu'.si- two cast's arc doubtful, the i)hrasts sccin to fall into two parts, riiytliinically c(|ual. It may lie concluded tlien that in the preat majority of cases, these jihrases play almost the same part as (piotation marks in Ensrlish; they stantl beyond the territory of parallelistic struc- ture, i.e., they arc not to be included as part of the distichs, and hence stand in a separate rhetorical catef.'ory. STKOl'HIC FOKM.VTIONS Amos contains several special strophic formations which demand separate treatment. These embrace the Doom Son periods. Hut the t'l.iirth lu'ri...! of tlic existing' stan/a is apjiar- ciitly I'oriiipt. It is in'cossary to omit tlu' i-opula u bi-foiv bh''appikhim in onlcr to give ulnrity. Yet even witii this cinon- (hitioii tile sceond scetioii, tiioujjli eomposed of two stiehoi, does not show tlie elose synonymous parallelism of similar seetions in stun/as 1 and 3. The first stiehos eontains three members, the seeond four; the omission of the word "and-in-your-nostrils" would L'ive in the seeond three members, and would have tiie ailditional merit of a snffixal rhyme between baxitrvkhim and i)utx"n)'khii)i. Whatever be the deeision on these points, merely to omit the marrinj? third period in the present fonu would briny: the stanza into struetural eonsonanee with the first and third. Stanza 5 is not so ea.sily dispo.sed of. The introilnctory period ha.s already been discussed (p. 121 ) ; it is suttieient to note here ajrain that the lon^r prosaic line may be split up into two parts, as Loehr, Baumann and others sujrgest ; but the shortness of thi> resulting .St iehixs, haphakhtl bdkltim, "I-overthrew among- you," would entail the inssertion of another phrase, perhaps the word 'I'irhit, "eities," in the form 'dn'khcm, "your cities." This would ])laee the line kr-iiiahpikhalh '<'lohhn, etc., as a second stiehos, dependent upon tin- introiluetory period, and would not result in conformity to the structure of the single line intro- ductory period in .stanzas 1, 3, and 4. Moreover the second section, which in the other stanzas is a couplet, is here a mono- stieh; there are no indications in Amos or other prophetic passages to show that a line has dropped out or that some portion could be restored as in the Doom Song to furnish the missing complementary stiehos. Thus even if the first long period be split up and the number of periods thereby become four plus the closing phra.se, as tin- model stanza seems to demand, yet internally the stanza departs from the nece.ssarj- type. And if it be suggested that the first periiMl remain as one, merely onutting the word ''lohim as superfluous because (Jod him.self is supposed to speak thi> sentence, the number of periods becomes three plus the closing phrase, an even greater divergence from the model stanza. It is probable then that the stanza has not 191 1 ];]C raraUclisiii in Amos been handed down in its original furni, and that responsible in large measure fur its doulitfid eliaracter, is the presence of the conventional, historical, prophetic reference to Sodom and Gemorrah. Stanza 2 possesses even greater difficulties, since it throws into still greater darkness the relation of prose to poetry in Amos. The whole stanza is tautological and defective. Loehr and others omit tiic entire passage, verses 7 and 8, as a later insertion. IIar])er is not so drastic and correctly makes the following' olisi-rvations: The words in the first section wliich follow the introductory period, namely, "while yet there re- mained tliree months to the harvest" may be a gloss based on a meteorological calculation. It may be said in addition that till' extreme length of the Ma.ssoretic verse 7 is suspicious; for it may lie asked: Does not a Massoretic verse usually contain four periods of poetry, or two couplets, and infrequently six periods or three couplets? The first couplet in verse 7 appears to be genuine, for though the second stichos is merely an inver- sion of the first, yet correspondence of terms is present. But the second couplet appears to be redundant because of the repe- tition of the numerals and the word for "rain," and also because of the looseness and tameness of the style; the relative clause in the second stichos of this distich contributes to its weakness. Hence it deserves to be omitted (Harper, p. 96). Verse 8 is a long prosaic line, resembling 8.11-12, to the strophe of whicli it may belong; it may be divided into two portions, but solely on a rhythmical and not on a parallelistic basis; there is again repetition of the word "city"' and in general prosaic garrulity entirely unworthy of the style of Amos. It seems justifiable to urge its omission ; the stanza would then take on a form entirely in keeping with the model stanza, containing foTir periods plus the prophetic phrase : I-also-it-was-who withheld from-you the-rain, And-I-sent-rain uponone-city, While-upon-another-eity I-sent-not-raiu. But-ye-did-not return unto-me. It-is-the-oracde-of Yahwe. 4.7-8 [ 192 J l;,ntll,lls„i i„ Amos 137 This staii/ii is sfciir.'.l liy tli." easy task nf nniissii.ii. Iiiit I'm- this then' scfiiis jiistitifaliidi mi literary, syiitai-tiral. ami otluT grounds. Tlie i'oiK-liisi.)iis as to tiic Ciriel" Stiiiectid\ "repent-now," is paralleled by x"dhal-nd', "cease-now"; in verses 3 and 6, the second sticlioi of the last line of the refrain differ only by the addition of gam, "also," in the latter verse. The refrain itself shows no internal parallelism and it is doubtful whether it should be written as four lines, or as six periods. The parallelism is extensive, that is, it reaches beyond the contines of the strophe and becomes, through similarity to the same portion in the other strophe, interiiarallelisni. Tiie nal difHeulty in tiiis tirst pair of visions lies in the substance of the prophecies between the identical opening- phrase and the similar refrains. In the first stanza, lA-2. tlie lines as they stand read : Anil behold he was forming locusts iu the beginning of the coming up of the aftergrowth, And behold there were full grown locusts after the king's mowings, And it came to pass when they were making au end of devouring the herb of the laud. Except for the repetition of the word "behold" all parallelism seems to have disappeari'd ; three long prosaic periods are here found, whereas in the same section iu the second strophe, one good couplet at least is present, though another prose line begin- ning "and-behold" precedes it. The text in the first strophe is unclear; the Septuagint is confused and formless. The several suggestions for its reconstruction do uot restoi'e parallelism. If the text remain as it is, then it must be accepted that the prophet could throw in prose at will, and destroy thereby the regular character of his compositions; but if it be felt that the text in its present form is irretrievably corrupt, then the conclusion seems justifiable that absence of interparallelism is generally accompanied by a badly preserved text and an unclear meaning. In the second strophe, the only flaw lies in the line: "And liilidld was-calling to-contend by-fire the Lord Yahwe." w-hich pieeedes the good couplet. Should this line remain in its pres- ent form, or is it the remnant of a good couplet? In Is. 66.16 where virtually the same thought is expressed, parallelism of the most regular and beautiful kind is present. [104] ranilUlism in Am.,s HW It may Ix- cinu-ludod then from this poem: (1) either it con- tuins a mixture of prose in h)njr lini-s anil short, tofri-ther witli paralK'lisni and interparallelisni throufrli the presenee of {rood eouph'ts and almost identieal refrains; (2) or tlie two stanzas, harrin^r minor elianges, were identieal in the niimher and eliar- aeter of their lines, and the present text eontainint; lines did)i(ius in sense and iinelear in •rranuuar has been tampereil with, so tliat a reeonstnietion of the text shoidd restore parallelism and inti'ri>arallelism. SECOND r.MR The seeond series of visions in 7.7-9 and S.\~-\ eontains two stanzas alike in form and suhstanee. Between these two stanzas is a lonfj narrative passage of seven verses, evidently inserted lieeause it deals with the word "Jerohoam," mentioned in verse 9 (sec below). Thoufrh these .strophes both befiiii with the words: "Tluis hath-shown -me," the additional words Yahtrc ''luhhn are mi.ssinj: from the fii"st ; the seeond has, however, as snbjeet Ytiliui. The eontext of this series diflVrs from that of the tirst j)air of visions; perhaps they were written at difl'erent times and were i-ompiled into their jiresent jiosition bicanse of the similarity of their openinfr words as well as the similarity in the use of ti"'-hhnu', "and beholil.'' The followinfr points are to lie noted : in stanza 1 of this series the period beginnin'j u'-hinnf is a line showiiif; some parallelism, due to the repetition of the word '"iKlkh in the phra.se "and-in- his-hand a-phnnmet," thonpli Harper wfinld omit this as a f;loss. Stanza - has in this seetion merely the phrase "and-behold a sumnn'r-basket." The next variation between the two stanzas lies in the faet that stanza I has "and-said Vahwe luito-me," while stanza 2 has merely "and-said." Hut in the next pro- phetie phra.se. to whieh it must be admitted no -rreat importanee ean be attaehed, .stanza 2 hits "and-said Ytihin' tinto-me," while stanza 1 has "And ''Ulhntmi .said." There is no loeal or internal parallelism in the stanzas until the lines descriptive of the punishment are reached, but barrinp these slitrht varia- tions, interpiirallelism between the stanzas is present liefore the ngular couplet.s. [ >»■■• I • 140 I'araUclisin in Amos After a description of the facts of the vision, follows a single line playing upon the name of the object seen in the vision (cf. Jer. 1.11 ff., where there are two similar visions, the second one being extended to greater length than the first) ; this single line is accompanied by a second which contains a refi'ain: "I-will- not-continne again to-pass by-them" (cf. 5.17). There is no sj-nonymity between these two lines looked at as a local unit in each stanza, though togetlier tlicy may be taken to form a rhythmical distich. Stanza 1 contains in verse 9 a couplet in perfect synonymous parallelism; a third stichos follows, but as has already been pointed out, this appears to belong with the isolated single stichos in verse 17. Stanza 2 has here, in 8.3, for the couplet which should eoi-respond to 7.9, a sadly distorted group of lines. Harper has wrongly shifted the group, and has in fact missed the entire strophic character of the two visions; here his dis- cussion carries little weight. As the verse stands it reads : AiKl-shall-be-howlings the-songs-of tlie-palace, On-that day, said Yaliwe Elohim ; A-multitude-of corpses; In-every place he-shall-cast-forth silence. It is clear that tlie text is in cunfiisioii. A conventional pro- phetic phrase in tlie second pi'i'iod liei-c interrupts the major portion of the text, and if retained should be shifted to the end of the stanza ; otherwise it is necessary in view of its present position and the absence of a similar i)hi'ase in the other strophe to regard it as a later insertion. Various suggestions for the reconstruction of this passage can lie made. On the supposition llial this last section in stanza 1 is a quatrain, and that the single stichos in 7.17 should be transposed to 7.9, thus giving four stichoi. it will be necessai'y to restore here a tetrastich. Tliis would imply that the word hrniil in 8.:3 would fcn-m the remnant of one stichos; shirnth lu-UtiH. the fragment of the tliini stichos; h'-khnJ iinhjom. the remnant of the fourth; and hislillkh plus vaJih h(ip-p(riiial hfxln'i, '■they-sliall-fail," as in "i.'j:!, intended as a eorreetion of In'lllu, but inserted as hils, and as hiuihlikh by another eopyist ; the reading ean then beeinue : AnilthereshiiU-fail tlio»ongs-of thepalaee, Many shall'lH' theoorpses inevery-pliioe. Ajrain it may be ur^eil that the first stiehos is genuine; liinhUkli has may be re-jariled as a gloss; while nihil hap-pt tjlu r b''-khul miiqi'nn nniy lie taken as the seeond stiehos; this wouKl give a eouplet only slightly ditTerent from the one just sug- gestefl. Or if it is |)ossibie to take has as a imun meaning "siienee," tiien an emendation of hishUkh to hoshhikh, with an omission of rahh hap-pn/hir would give: "In every plaei- is silcnee ejist." litit to this emendation, as to the jiresent Masso- retie text, the objection might be raised that a prediction of howling and one of silence are mutually contradictory. It may be well also to consider Harper's eniendation of shlriilh to shi'in'ilh, "the singing women." making the couplet: And the singing women of the palneo shall wail, In every place shall there he n nniltifude of corpses. Or if it be thcinght that has is a ditlograpiiy and aliiuwiatiou of hoshlokh, the couplet becomes: And the singing women of the palace shall wnil, A multitude of corpses! In every place they are cast. It is of course impossible to deciile ilefinitely upon any one of these suggestions and conjectures. It is sufficient to note that where a break in the interparallelistie arrangement of the strophes oceui-s, there also the text is corrupt. It may then bo concluded witii reference to this series that tliese two strophes conform to a \y\u- stanza wherein deviations arc cau.S4>d by .slight and minor changes of the text, and nnijor variation.s by corruptions and textual errors. Where internal and extensive parailelisni is weakened, there a dubious and [197] 142 ParuUelisiii in Amos vague tpxt is found. It may perhaps be decided that if the correct text of this poem were existent, a perfect poem of exactly the same number of periods in eacli stanza would be present, and this would lend further weight to the idea that Amos and the proplu'ts employed completely regular stanza poems. PROSE-POETIC NAREATIVE: 7.10-17 It is believed by some scholars that the more important of tlie early stories had their first literarj- expression in poetry and that their prose form represents a subsequent stage of de- velopment. This i^rineiple may apply to the later narratives found iu the prophetic books. Amos 7.10-17 is a narrative account of the encounter between the Prophet and the High Priest, Amaziah. It seems to be written in prose, but is in reality a combination of prose lines and extremely regular parallelism. The conclusion that this passage represented a combination of prose and poetry was arrived at independently of any commentaries ; a glance at the work of other investigators confirmed the results reached. Harper's arrangement neglects the fundamental differentiation between the phrases of address in Amos, which it has been seen almost always stand outside the major portions of the text, and the real narrative and par- allelistic material of the piece. In addition. Harper does not observe the couplet structure, but .several times splits one stichos, complete in itself, into two portions, thus violating a funda- mental rule of parallelism that only in cases of alternate and qinu parallelism, can a stichos so be broken up. The primaiy evidence that this piece contains poetry is of course found in the many parallelistic couplets. It includes no less than eight clear cut couplets, wherein synonymity is marked, and one couplet of a certain rhj-thmical balance but without the synonjTuity or terseness which would stamp it as parallelism. This verse, 10, has already been discussed and has been designated as a species of rhythmical non-parallelism, approaching the Hebrew prototype of imrhymed saf . The phrases of address in verses 10-17 stand apparently outside the parallelism, and need not be taken into account in a eonsider- [198] I'lirallilisin in Amos 143 atioii of tilt' coiipli'ts. Vi'i-scs 12-lU form somctliinj,' of an uci'iilt'iital strophif arnuif^iMiu'iit : Oh Si-or! Cio lire tliee iiiitu tlu' IiiikI of Jixlnli, Ami cat broail tlicro, And tliiTo proj>lie.Hy. But nt Bethel thoii sliiilt no lon^jer prophesy, For it is the kind's sanefniiry. And it is the royal residence. Ill this tlm-c lint' strophii- nrraiitri'imnt. tlu- twti iiitrndiiftory lines are about otiiial in Icngrtli and are rliythmieally similar tiioiipli there is no synonymity lietween them. Hut tiie shorter lines viewed loeally eonstitute a synonymous couplet in each strophe. If it is felt tliat tiie stiehoi of these couplets are too short, then they can each be combined into one fairly Ions stiehos compo-sed of two hcmistiehs. It is to be notetl that these words are placed in the hiph priest's mouth; surely it was not eiistomary for speakei-s thus in ordinary conversation to use parallelism; po.ssibly a later author made into parallelistic struc- ture whatever he suppo.sed the priest to have said. In verse 11, however, he tpiotes Amos, and there tlie parallelism is so definite as to be indisputable. It may well be that Amos in the heat t)f his ilenuiieiation spoke in parallelism; this phenomenon is present, as has been observed, in tin' Arabic hhutha. If the priest usually spoke in parallelism in his oracles (and such seems to be the ca.se in Finnish. Arabic, Babylonian and other literatures), here he may have done so out of force of habit. Jloreovcr, Amos is suppo.sed to attribute to the liij;li jtriest a paralleli.stie couplet in vei-se 16. The kind's words, (pioted by the hi>rh ])riest in warninf; Amos, are not couched in synonymous parallelism, but seem to constitute a rhythmical distich. All those points appear to sujrgest that even thoufjli the words here attributed to prt)phet, priest, and kiiip were not (U-ijjinally spoken in parallelism, a later compiler and narratiu'. visibly undt-r the effect of prophetic style and method, has employed parallelism better to make the pa.ssajre seem the jrenuine work of Amns. Another seeminply rhythmical distich appeai-s in verse 1.'). If the phra.se of address, "and-.said TitKl iinto-mi'," is repardetl [199] 144 raralhlisiii in Amos as eciiiivalent to neutral quotation marks and hence outside the paralh'lism, then the conibiuatiou becomes: And Yahwe took nie from behind the sheep; "Go prophesy against my people, Israel." This distich has no synonymity, and has the additional dis- advantage of combining: a period of narrative and a period of discourse. Hence doubt may be rightly thrown upon this arrangement. It has already been noted tliat verse 9 may be transposed to complete with verse 17 a full couplet, so that it may correspond to the words imputed to Amos by the priest in verse 11. It may be ol)jected here that this would make verse 17 longer than the usual ilassoretic verse, since it would contain the phrase of address, and three complete couplets. This, however, does not outweigh the arguments in favor of the transposition. Thus it will be observed that the only factors which play a part in the non-poetical portions of the narrative are: (1) the near-prose rhythmical distich in verse 10; (2) the prosaic narra- tive lines in verse 10, and possibly in verse 14, though the latter may belong to the following class; (3) the customary phrases of address, such as "saying," "and Amaziah said to Amos,"' "and God said unto me." the unusual "and now harken imto the word of Yahwe."" and tinally. "therefore thus saith Yahwe," together with the mocking taunt attributed to the king, "for thus saith Amos,'" in verse 11. These apparently stand outside of the major parallelism, tliough Harper's arrangement into two strophes of exactly fifteen lines each includes them in tlie distich and strophic scheme. The conclusion therefore is that it is imperative to examine any so-called prose portions of the prophecies with exceeding care to determine whether parallelism can be discovered. Moreover the pi-esence of parallelism in a supposedly prosaic pa.ssage appears to be further indication that the prophets attributed parallelism not merely to the words of God, but also to the speeches of their contemporaries and opponents, who used it for no divine, but for a purely human, utterance. This may dovetail with the fact that parallelistic rliymed prose was so common with tlie Arabs that even tlie [ 200 ] I'anillrlism i„ Amns 145 woiiH'ii ami cliildrcn ciiiitloyiHl it in oriiiiiary spiH'cli. Any chilioratf I'dni'lnsioiis, Ikiwcvit, on llir Imsis of sncli sli-.'iit ivi- dfiU'O, are danffcmus. Tin- ((lU'stion wlictlicr Amos or anollicr writrr t'onipostil tliis still rcinains iinanswt'rt>(l. Tlu- style is that of Amos; the text is clear and apparently unimpaired. On this point it may be obsi-rved that an uneorrujjted text usually shows uneorrupted parallelism — a eonvei-se to the eonelusion reaehed above that a marred text is usually accompanied by broken ]iarallelism. For these various reasons, then, this passajre afTords fruitful data for a determination of the de;rree and scope of interi)lay between prose and poetry in Amos. [201 146 CHAPTER III THE DOOM SONG, AMOS 1.3-2.8 RECONSTRUCTION OF STANZAS 1, 2, 5 AND G (Stanza 1) Jro 'dmar '"dhondi 'al sheloskd pishe'e dammeseq w^-al 'aril a' a 16' '"slnhhennu 'al lax"i:(iti w'^-dhushan 'eth-hug-gW ddh ba-x"rn(;oth hali-bar (Stanza 2) 'dmar '"dhondi ' al shelosha pish^ ' e ' azzd W-' al 'arbd'd 16' '"shlbhcnr. 'al haghlotJiam gdliith sh'^lci U-hasgir '%r u-mHo'dh u'l'-slidhixii 'fsh b<^-bhl bax't %r'- nhdln 'am- '") J bc-bhetlt-' edhc) qJrd -stiUhixtl ■■'akit'la csh t'^-xomof/j ' azza mfnotheha -hikJinittJ i/oslu'bh -me- '-thomckh shcbhet me- 'ashqcl6n wa-lfshlbhotlil yadhl 'al-'eqron W-'dbh'^dhu sh^'erWi pelislittm ' al shf^losha pLfJii'i hh'-m' w«-'al 'arbd'd 16' '"sKbhf 'al biqc'dm ' dre ghddh I'^-ma'an liarxibU 'eth-g^blulldh 'al slf-'lushd pisM'f: md'dbh ii-<:-' al 'arbd'd 16' '"shlbhennu 'al sorepho '"gdrndth lam-molekU way-yizbax 'ddhdm lash-shedh w'^-hif-^'attl 'csh b^-x<>inar of Dama.setis, And the gates of Bikeath-Awen I will hew down. And her youths shall fall in Beth Eden; And the people of Aram shall };o into exile. (Stanza 2: Amos l.tJ^S) Thus saith Ynhw^: For three sins of Gaza, Vea for four, I will not Beeause they have exiled a complete capti To deliver up the city and its contents. So I will send lire into the wall of (i.nza, And it will consume her palaces. And I will cut off the inhabitant from .Vshdoil, And the seeptrcholder from Aslikelon. And I shall turn my hand against Rkron, And the remnant of the Philistines shall perish. (Stanza '>: Amos 1.13) Thus saith Yahw*: For three sins of the Ammouitca, Yea for four, I will not revoke it. Bocaus* they have pierced through the In order to inrrra«c their borders. ( 203 148 Parallclisin in Amos So I will kimllf a fii-f on the wall of Rabba, And it will eoiisume her palaces. Ami I will visit him with a day of war, With a whirhvinil in the day of tempest. And tlieir king shall go into exile, He and his princes together. Stanza 6. Thus saith Tahwe: For three sins of Moab, Yea for four, I will not revoke it. Because they have burned bones to Molech, And sacrificed men to a shrdli. So I will send fire upon Moab, And it will consume tlie palaces of Kerioth. And I will slay in a tumult Moali, With shouting, with tlie sound of the trumpet. And I will destroy the judge from her midst. And all her princes I will slay with him. Saith Yahwe. VERSE AND STANZA PARALLELISM It is evident that chapters l.:i-2.8 are cast in the form of a poetical unit. There are patent indications of sjTnmetrj- be- tween the lines and between the various oracles. This fact has been noted bj- every recent investigator of tlie Book of Amos, and is at once observable to the general reader. The poem deals with judgment to be inflicted upon the principal nations bordering on Israel and Judah — Damascus, Philistia, Tyre, Edom, the Ammonites and ]\Ioab — witli the pur- pose of showing to Israel that as all the peoples have offended God by their acts against common morality and humanity, so Israel will suffer punishment for great or greater sins. The law of righteous retribiition will be the standard for meting out merited doom to the nations. This Doom Song is similar to others scattered thrnu,i;lic)ut the iirophetieal books, Zenner, [ 204 ] rnnilltlisn, i„ Autos 149 MuflliT, Ellioi-st. Loehr. Sicvci-s, t'ldidaiiiiii, Hmiiimmi. .Marti, Xowuck, llarpir ami otiifi-s liavf iiiadc valuablf sii^'irtstioiis willi iftVri'iua" tt) tlif pntpiM- arraiiyrciiieiit of the poem, liiit nearly all have prdcfitli'il ii))()ii lian^froiis assumptions ntranlinjr slroplii- and nu'tro; tlic prim-iplc of parallelism lias liccn nc^lcctfd to a larfje decree. This study is an attempt to apply tlie canons of parallelism in a roeonstnietion of the Doom 8on;r. An endeavor will he made on the basis of the internal and other evidence to learn whether complete symmetry can he i>.\l>eeted in the poetic arranre- vents close adherence to a model form is textual corruption. It will be clear from an examination of the Doom Son;; in Amos that the diverresence of [>arallelism is indubitable. The indications of stanza symmetry or interparalhlism are more obscure and intricate, tlioujrh none the less i)resent. Eifjrht times, at the head of each jrroup, stands the coui>let : "For three sin.s," etc.: this leads to its desifrnation as the •' introductory couplet," marking: the beginninfr of what nuiy now be called stanzas. Each of the right stanzas contains the couplet: "And I will send fire," etc. Interveninjj: between these two constant formulas, are either a lonjr line (1.8, t> : 2.1), two stiehoi (1.9, l:?), or four stiehoi (1.11, 2.4). These stiehoi state the specific otTense of each nation. After the fonnida of punishment there occurs in some of the stanzas additional material, relatiufr in detail the manner of the [uinishment. four lines oeenrrinsr in 1.5, 8, 14-15: 2.2-.{: three of the stanzas close with the |)unisli- nieiit formula. It must be statid without - the name of a king in stanza 1. (if a city in stanzas 4 ,6, 7. Seetion 4 lietrays puzzling variations. Stanzas ;5. 4. 7 omit entirely the section with the postlude; stanzas 2 and .5 have apparently jierfect parallelism; stanza 6, except for the repeti- tiim iif ir'-hikhratti and the suffixes, has apparently good parallel- ism; stanza 1 is the most difficult of the set. It has four lines, the second and third forming a couplet which is in excellent parallelism, but which also stands at the head of section 4 in stanza 2. The first line of the fourth section in stanza 1 prophesies the destruction of the gates of Damascus; the fourth stiehos foretells exile for the population. That tliis fourth section has undergone corruption is undoubti-d. A final variation between the stanzas occurs in stanza 2, where after a seemingly intact section of two parallelistic coup- lets, not the final phrase, "saith Yahwe" biit "saith my Lord, Yahwe" occurs. Tlie reason for this will be attempted below. These discrepancies, which will increase in number as the study advances, suffice to demonstrate the intricacy of the prob- lems and the danger of any effort at dogmatic solutions. Their greatest value is to raise certain fundamental questions, which though they busy themselves iimnediately with the text in hand, yet extend themselves in import to the whole mass of biblical literature, and involve the most far-reaching points of disagree- ment in modern biblical criticism. These questions, which have already been suggested in the last chapter, are : 1. Why do the variations occur between the various lines of tlie poem and between the various stichoi in seemingly jiarallel- istic couplets? 2. AVliv do the variations occur between the stanzas? :i. Dois a type cMiuplct I'xist fnnii which the variatii)iis (icciir without law, or (Iocs Ihi- t\p>' coiiijlc't iiurdy siTvi- as a siib- stratuiu for variations jruitli'd In cirtaiii and i''-<.'nhir laws of l)arallolisni? 4. Dors a typf stanza oxist which, dospitf the variations, was ori<,Mnally the niodcl for the divisions of the entire Son;;? In order to be able to propose answers to these (|uestions, it is lueessary that the text under discussion lie minutely cxanuned. ANALYSIS OF THE KIGIIT STANZAS Stanza 1. — Damascus The oracle on Damascus is apparently p-nuinc and in the main ori'UQdth hnb-liarzel. Because they pressed by force GUead, And tlireshed with implemeuts of iron. The event to which Amos refers is quite clearly the o|)i)res- sion of Israel by Hazael, king of Syria (II K. S.Sff. ; 9.14, 15; 10.32; 12.18, 19; 13.3ff.). This oppression covered a period from c. 830-790 B.C. The specific nature of the offense can be perhai)S seen by a eoiiiparison with II K. 1:1.7. Ileri-. afti;r the pure prose, "For he (Hazai'l) h-ft to Jchoahaz of the people none save fifty horsemen and ten chariots and ten thousand footmen, " ' occurs a couplet in perfect parallelism : For tlie Icing of Syria "destroyed them, And made them like dust for the thresliing. The use of the phrase ke-'dphar Id-dhfish points to tiie identity of the events referred to by Amos. In II K. 13.4. with regard to the subjection of Israel to Ilazael, occurs the noun hixn^ ; the verb, meaning '"to ojiiu'ess, to squeeze" makes an excellent synonym to dilsli and is further sanctioned by its usage in Amos 6.14. 2. ' al diisliam 'eth hag-Gil' adii h-'dphdr, wa-tjeslmuhu l'am-md(; la-dhnq. Because they liave tlireshed Gilcad to dust, And made him as chaff for tlie pres.sing. 3. 'al dusham 'eth hag-Gil' culh ha-x''rusdth, way-ya(ar bi-irfghcroth hab-harzrl. Because they threshed Gilead witli implements, And sawed him with iron saws. One group of reconstructions still remains. The Septuagint leads the way: its translation for the second section of stanza 1 reads: "Because thev sawed with iron saws tlir women [210; I'liralUlisin in Amos 155 with fliild of tlio (iulaaditcs""; ami fur tlie same soi'lioii in stanza 5: '•Bicniisc tlu'y rippt'd u() tin- women with child of the lialaadites. " Either the Iranslatoi-s did not nndei-stand the text in 1.8, or they confused it with 1.13, or what is more likely, the orifjinal text of tiic two sections stood in intimate relationsliip. In stanza 5, there is somethinfi of a nuit-si quiiitr in ideas between tiie lii-st and second stichoi of the couplet in the second section; moreover no historical evidence is at hand to show that the Ammonites committed the barbarity on the people of Israel. Hut a fruitful j)a.ssa<;e in II K. 8.12 attributes this very act to the Syrians vuider Ilazacl. Tiiis pa.ssage, which contains two poetical couplets in tlie midst of prose narrative, is a prediction by Elisha of the deeds of Ilazael as kin;.': Tlioir stron);lioM.H wilt thou set on tire, Ami their youup men wilt thou slay with the sworj. Ami thou wilt dash to pieces their children. Ami rip up their women with child. The followint appear to be ori^rinal with Amos, but contains in.sertions and later additions: (1) The ideas are more numerous than in any other fourth section of the Doom Soiij; : 1211 I 156 ParallcUsm In Amos destruction of buildings, presumably of ]mlaees ; slaughter of iuhabitants ; slaughter of ruler; exile for the nation. (2) The lack of close parallelism points to a faulty text; stiehos a has no parallel as in the other stanzas ; d has no complement ; nor can they be combined to form a couplet. The central location of the parallelistic couplet b plus e violates the form of the other fourth sections. (3) The repetition of the central coup- let at the head of the fourth section in stanza 2 operates against its authenticity in stanza 1 ; it is entirely in place in stanza 2, which conforms to the model stanza in its structure in the fourth section, whereas in stanza 1 it is out of place. How then did this section come to have its present form ? In II K. 16.9 occurs the passage: "And the king of Assyria went up to Damascus and eomiuered it and led it into exile beyond Kir and Rezin he killed.'" The phrase ivaij-ijaglehd (i.e., tjilhl ■(uii-'"ratii) (Jlra bears so striking a resemblance to the Amos jilirasc (/illri ' nhn mC-Qir seems to sanetion the juxtaposition of the two names in stanza 1. In support of the hypothesis that the fourth stiehos in Amos is u later insertion on the basis of Kiii^rs, it nuiy be aildueed that the i)lirase referred to in i).7 either makes the stiehos in stanza I ille'iitimate. or is itself dubious. "Aram from Kir" indicates that Kir was the ancient iiome of the Arameans out of wiiich tiod broufrht them, as He did Israel out of Etrypt anil Philistia out of Crete. Profe.s.s()r Jlax Mueller objects that "if Kir was the orijjinal homi- of the Arameans, the Assyrians would never have deported them back to their own country where they would have found remaindei-s of the orijiinal stock of the nation and would by union with them become stroufr a^rain." He su}r<;ests that l..")d was inserted on the basis of 9.7. Against tin- notion that the plirase waynagUhii (Jinl was interpolated in II K. 1G.9 it .seems more plausible to believe that the historian would remain true to the fact.s, while the Propliet would be more vajrue and ii(M?tically indefinite, and an editor would adjust the prophecies fj- post facto to the actual events. That the plirase in question is in.serted so abruptly in the middle of the sentence shows that it was written in the marjrin, or over the other words, and that a later copyist em- bodied it in the te.xt proper. Additional evidence for the p-miinene.ss of the line in Kings may be found in II K. ir).29, where the writer refers to the punishment of Pekah by Tijjlath- Pileser: "And he exiled them to A.s-syria"" (imy-yai/hli'm 'AshshfinD. If it be urged that the line in Amos is authentic and that the events, as he prophesied one generation earlier, actually occurred, it nuiy be wiid with justice that this accuracy is in itself suspicious. [213] 158 FaraUelism in Amos Anotlier ground for conceiving stichoi b, c, d as later inser- tions is found in a consideration of the central couplet, b-c, which evidently seeks to express the idea of the destruction of DamasciLs royalty. In II K. 16.9 this thought is expressed .speciticalh' in the words: "and Kezin he slew," an event which took place in the .year 732 B.C. iu the generation immediately following Amos. Isaiah refers in 17.1-3, dedicated to the "bur- den of Damascus," to the fact that "sovereignly shall cease from Damascus." This prophecy appears to have been written after the formation of the Syro-Ephraimitish alliance between 736 and 732 B.C. Upon the foundation of these two passages, a later redactor maj' have thought it necessary to include the death of Kezin in the prophecy of Amos. Finding close at lumd a couplet whicli expressed in true Amosian language this very idea, he borrowed it bodily- from the fourth section of stanza 2, its proper location, and inserted it in stanza 1, regard- less of the disruption of the parallelism, the omission of the original words of the Prophet, and the repetition. This change may have been made when tlie event was still fresh in the mind of the nation, perhaps after tlie fall of Samaria in 721, or be- fore the end of the century. It may be definitely stated then, tliat the central couplet is out of jilace, and except perhaps for tlie jiroper names, was not genuine with Amos. The section as it now stands in need of emendation may be portrayed graphically as follows: 1. The three stichoi, b, e, and d. are latrr insertions: this gives as the only extant words of the prophet here : Ami I shall break the bar of Damascus This makes necessary the suggestion of thi-ee new lines to fill tlie gaj) : one parallel to a ; two, c and d, parallel to each other : or 2. Merely the couplet b-c is a later insertion : And I shall break the bar of Damascus Ami the people of Aram shall go into exi' [214] I'unilklisn, in Amos 159 Tliis tlomaiiils tin- siilistituticdi of two new lines, I) paralli-l to a, uiiil I- paralltl to d ; ami the at'ci'ptaiK'f of tin- liypotliosis that stichos d is jji'iiuiiii' with Amos, and thi> words in II K. 16.9 a later insi-rtiou. The Hrst eoui)let may be reeonstiiutid as follows: u-'uhilbharti bn])lets Lam. 2.9: I's. 147.13; Xa. 3.1.3; x"»"'- "wall." used in eom- bination with b'n<'x. Deut. 3.5; II Chron. 8.15, 14.6. The word }tnbh<;(ir, "fortress," is referred to in II K. 8.12, wherein Elisha ami Ila/ael eonverse, and may be used here on the jirinciple of poetie justiee. The jiarallelism between shablinr and (jt'idha' , "hew down," or "into pieces," is established by numerous usages; they are used as .synonyms in two perfectly parallel eouplet.s, I.s. 45.2 and P.s. 17.16; they are also used in other parallelistie couplets but without exact correspondence. Varia- tions of the couplet sufTfjested above are jios-sible, some of them e.xeliulinsr the name of ISiq'iith-'ihn ii, othei-s alTecting the form of (jiulhiV . For the second couplet the following n-eonst met ions are suggested : 1. A restoration of two lines for the second couplet can be made on the basis of Jeremiah's prophecy on Danui-seus, 49.23-27. H.-r youths shall fall in th.' strcot.t .\iiil all her men of war shall be silent. Since Damascus has treated Israel barbarously, it will be ]i\in- ished in kind; in 11. K. 8.12 Ila7.a<-1 is destined to "slay youths [ 2ir. 1 160 raraUcUsw in Amus witli the sword. ■■ and a reference in Amos to the same punish- ment for Damascus on the principle of poetic justice would be appropriate. This very retribution, indeed, is mentioned in Jer. 49.26 in the oracle on Damascus, which shows points of striking resemblance to Amos; ver.se 27 is an almost. exact dupli- cation of the punishment formula in Amos 1.4; Jeremiah uses the couplet again in 17.17, 21.14, 50.32. The possibility of a nexus between these two oracles permits the assumption that words taken out of Amos may in another text have remained, and that Jeremiah, with .slight changes, incorporated them into his own prophecy on Damascus. 2. A restoration of one line and the retention of tlu' proper name may be found in this suggestion : Her youths shall fall in Beth-Eden, And the people of Aram shall go into exile to Kir. A similar grouping of the idea of death and exile is found in Amos 7.11 and 17. Though the parallelism here is not close, the synthetic relationship of the stiehoi is found often in Amos. Another suggestion based on the idea of exile is found in one of the many forms of which this is an example : And Beth-Eden shall go into captivity, And the people of Aram shall go into exile to Kir. In conclusion it may be urged that a possible reconstruction of the fourth section take this form : And I will break the bar of Damascus, And the doors of Bikath-Awen I will hew down. Her youths shall fall in Beth-Eden, And the people of Aram .sliall go into exile to Kir. The oracle on Philistia is apparently genuine and in the main original with Amos. The first evidence for this conclusion is the strophic structure of the stanza. It is divided into 1 + 2-|-l-f2-l-4 + l periods, after the manner of the tirst stanza. The two formulas are correct; the fourth section consists of two perfect couplets and is therefore apparently cor- rect and genuine; the closing phrase varies in this stanza from [ 216 ] ranilhlu^m in Anios 161 all otluTs, U,v it lias ••|iatli my L..nl Yaliw.'- sahl." instead of "liath-saiil Yaliwt"'," as in six otlicr I'ascs. Tlic most iiiipurtaiit ilivt'r<:i'iuH' frtuii the type staii/a is in tiie seooiul sfi-tiini : Hoi-nusf tlu-y Imvo exiliul a tomplcti- .•iii>tivity to dolivor to IMoin. Till' line is fvidently corrupt bfi-aiise it is a loiijr [irosc iiiio, wlicre two lines in h couplet are needed; its nieaninjr is doubt- ful ; it is repeated almost identically in stanza 3, section 2. Stiinzu 2. 'ill liaphU'itUiim giiluth sU'Winu I'hosiiir l<-'s and the Philistines raided Judah. and "they came up into Judah an-19 oitui-s a pii-tun' of the distress of Judah : "For ajrain tlie Eiloinites liad eonie and smitten Judah and carried away eaptives. Tlie Pliilistines also had invailed llie eities of the low country, anil of the south tif .hulah...." Thoufjh this passage is douhtful, it nu-ntions the activities of Etioni and I'hilistia apparently in union; and thou<;h Edom is here rrferreil to as the captive maker, I'hilistia, too, uuiy i)e rejrariled as an invader and slave-trailer. Additional evi- dence for the hypothesis that the historical hackjrround for the offeuse of Philistia may lie in the {jeneration immediately follow- inp Amos (as is tiie case in the central couplet in stanza 1, .section 4), is found in Is. 9.11, where the I'roiihet mentions ■"Syria on the East and Philistia on the West"; 11.14 showiujir Philistia "s hostility; 14.28-.'52, deliv.-red after the death of Ahaz. and pointin;: to the hitterness between the two nations. This ennuty nuiy have {riven rise to a revision of Amos' prophecy in order to nuike it more specitic and in line witii events after its delivery. A .second sufrjiestion is that the prophecy on Philistia was revised in IIm- light of the text of Jeremiah. Jer. l:J.19 and the oracle in Jer. 47.1-7 show several affinities with the text of Amos which will he remarki-d in a discu.ssion of the fourth section helow. A third suggistiou is that tin' prophecy was remothlh'd in post-exilic days. Ezek. 2o.ir)-17 proclaims the offense of Philistia as perpitual hatnd (see helow, on Edom), and cxidtation at the downfall of Judah in .5.S6 i«.c. Thouph the sin of the nation differs from that mentioned in AmiKS, yet the similarity of lan- puajjc in the fourth seetion appears to demonstrate an inHuenee of Amos on Ezekiel or vice versa. Zeph. 2.4-7 and Z, and tiic parallelism is good. All tliesc sug-gestions, lidwevrr, have omitted the word l,-'<,lhoni, ••to K.loiii.-' It lias Ikmmi aftiniird tli;il this is a gloss at the time of the destnietioii of the Temple (see discussion of stanza li. .Mitchell in his ,'nmmentary on Zeehariah (p. 237), suggests that the phrases "tn di'li\cr them to Edam" in verse 6 and "to Edom" in verse 1) are expianatoi'v glosses suggested by Ezek. :{:).:>; this would hn.l \vi-ht to llie i(h-a that the line was reworked after the Kxile. jiiit it may he that, Ir ''illiniii is a corruption for a word which w.uild ph the line in good couplet lorm, and givi' a kind of syncjuymity ; it will be seen liehiw that the word "Kdom" in stanza (i nnist !,.■ emcmle.l to a form 'inlhrnn, '■man'': eitluM- kiil '•'ulhniii, "every human licin--' ..r k„l h,i^'"illi,iiii,i. ■■all the laud," mav hav," been th.' HiTiiiisc tlicy liavo exiled a complete captivity, Ti) ililiviT uji all the land (or every liiiman being). • The strophie .strueture is 2 -f 2 -f- 2 ; the omi.ssion of the fourth seetion aiul the postludi' makes the stanza the shmti'si iif the whole series, frainst Tyre; the only new stiehos introdueed is the line on the brotherly eovenant. (e) "If the •;eojrraphieal order prevailed as elsewhere from .\orth to South, verses 9-11 would have preceded verses 6-8" I Harper, p. 28). (d) The historical data do not afford suf- tieient evidenee in support of the authentieity of the oraele, in view of the events whieh followed the lifetime of Anios. The Prophet seems here to think that the violation of the brotherly eovennnt is a sin; but if the alliaiu-e l)et\veen Tyre and Israel was abhorrent to the Prophets, it is not likely that they would be an^rered if this covenant, jjrovided it ever existed, were broken. Hence it would appear that stiehos b of the secoiul .section is not ori(;inal with Amos. The lonp suecession of prophecies ajrainst Tyre whieh i.ssue from the sueces-sors of Amos indicates that a later redactor in- 170 J'anilhlisiii ill Amos s.Ttrd this orade in Ames. Tlic (Icmni.-ial ion hy Isaiah, 23.1-14, iiiiiy he rctroartivf in its witiirss to a Imstility between Tyre aiul -ludah at the tiinr of Anids; Imt it is iu(,rc pn)hal)lc that tlie Amos stanza was iiit iMclin'cd a1 thr time of Isaiaii. as was the ease with srvei-al wonis and stiehoi in stanzas 1 and 2. The Isaianie i)i-i,]ihecy is placed hy (!i-ay (ICC, p. 386) after the "long siege to which Tyre wa.s sul).ieelcd liy Shalmaneser "' (727- 722 i!.(\) ; Isaiah mentions no off'ense hy Tyi-e ai;ainst .Indah. It has already been stiggesteil that scjine coiuieetion may exist lirlwr,.,, thr (irarles of .len'miah and tliesc of Amos; -lereniiah mentions Tyre in IT).:;-: and '21.:',. hnt dedicates to it no special Song. If it he hclicvcd that .Icivmiah wrote with a te.xt of Amos lief(,rc him. it may lie snrndsed, then, that one text was revised hy a rcdactoi' after 721) n.c. around tlie time of Isaiah's acti\il.\ : lull that -leremiah |iossessed a text nnrevised and gen- uine with Amos. A third edition may have licen made on the basis of tiiese two texts, coinhining them into one (see eonehi- sioiis below t. Or since H/.ekiel. ciiaps. 2(1 2S, contains a long and brilliant oracle against Tyre which oiaginatcd around :)7(l n.e.. appaivntly during an era when T.\iv was at the height of its ])rosperity, the Amos oivndc may have been add.',! at this date. .loci 4.4-8, too, ofl'i'i-s significant I'vidi'iicc. .loel speaks of the slavery acliviti(s of both Phoenicia and Philistia; but in the place of Ivlom, as in Amos, the countries of .lavaii f(Treeee) and the Sal.acans liguiv; the ncipimts of the slavis whom the I'hoeiiicians s,dl ar.' the (Irccks (.se,. Kzek. 27.1:! i. I'x'wer iJCC. p. P'.Dir. I stat(s that these vcrs( s in .lo<'l were written with ref- erence to the behavior (jf the Persians under Artaxerxes Ochus. around :l.'')2 n.c. : the writer added tlesc verses on the behavior special condemnation. They were the slave-t leaders and mer- chants to whom the Persian soldiei's had sold their captives and their hooly." On the (piestiou, then, of the oll'ense in Amos, the following ])robalhlities an- suggest cd : (a i The redactor may have inserted I'ltrnllilisiti in Amos 171 to liiid the tlioufjlit that it ori^'inatrd witii Amos, (li) Tiic iH'dai'tor may liavi- liascd tin' otTcnsi' on K/.fk. 127. IH (see above) ; Eduiii is not iiu'iitioiied iiere, however, luit Javaii (as in .loei 4.4-8), and it would therefore he iieeessary to rey:ard the jilirase h-'ulhom in Amos as a jrloss. (e) The otVense eoiipii't may have been ehanjjed later on the basis of .loel 4.4-S, thoti'ih the outline of the oraele iiuiy date from tlie time either of Isaiah, or Ezekiel. A wonl must be .said on the disposition reseiit ; there is no reference to an alliance either with Pliili.stia, Moab, or Israel; it would be in- appropriate in the .weoiid section of stanza 1, for the passatfcs oil the alliance between Aliab and Heiihadad, 1 K. li().:J4, and between Syria and Israel, I K. l.").l!) and II Cliroii. l(i.:i. are insufficient to fonn substantiation for the transposition in the face of other weakne.s.ses of parallelism and seii.se. The tiiial and most plausible snppestion for the presence of the verse is tliat it is a variant reailinp of the stiehos 'nl ntilh'^pho 172 PiiraUcUsiii in Amos ba-xerehh 'axhc.''hccauiie he pursued with tlie sword his brother," in stanza 4 on Edoni ; its presence in the margin or above the line may liave furnished tlie hiter redactor with a stichos out of wliicii to form a distich in the second section of the prophecy which he constructed in order to secure an oracle presumably frciHi Amos; a combination with a stichos from stanza 2 made a distich, and hence gave the oracle a flavor of genuineness. But whatever may have been the process by which it attained its present status, it seems quite certain that it did not proceed from Amos. Hence in conclusion it may be affirmed that the prophecy on Tyre is late. It may have been introduced either after 720 B.C. or after 570 B.C. ; possibly it was interpolated at the first date and reworked after the second; moreover, after 350 B.C. it may have once more been retouched. This would tend to sliow that three editions of the entire Doom Song were made. Stanz.v 4. — Edii.m Edom plays an important rrle in the Doom Song, for it is mentioned four times, once in connection witli the slave trade of Pliilistia, once in connection witli the shive trade of Tyre, once as the victim of lloab's offense in stanza 6, and again as the theme of stanza 4. It is generally agreed that this oracle is late ; it is supposed to date from exilic or post-exilic times. The first point to show the lateness of this stanza is its strophic structure. The number of stiehoi is 1 + 2 + 4 + 2, as in stanza 7 on Judah. Tlie sceond siction contains two couplets where only one is needed fm' the type stanza. The fourth section with the pro]ihetii' iiosthule is missing, as in stanzas 3 and 7, which are also jilaci'd late. The second evi- dence for the lateness of the stanza is the nature of the offense mciit ioncd in the second section. Tradition early described Edom as a brother to Israel. In early historic times Edom was sub- ject to Israel and for two centuries was under its domination (I K. 11.16; II K. 14.7). Edom is hostile at the time of the Exodus, and at the time of the revolt of Iladad during the reign [228] I'tirnllelism in Awos 173 of Solomon, an cvnit too niiiotc to serve as the basis lor Amos' proplieey. In tlie days of Jonim (e. 893 n.c.) oceurn-d anolluT revolt of Ej; Amaziali of .Iiidah around the year 795 it.i'., a little more tium a <:enei'ation before Amos bejfan his prophetic activity. The defeat is thonni^h, for in verso 12 it is stated: "And ten tiiousand left alive did the ehildren of Judah earry away captive and broutrht them unto the top of the rock and cast them down from tin- top of the rock and they all wore broken to i)ieees. " (On stanzas 2 and .'}. it is instructive to note here that Edom is made the captive and niit the recipient of Judaean captives.) II ("hron. 2(5.2 also tt'lls of the eontiiuicd humiliation t>f the Edomites, for I'zziah, the kiufr contemporary with Amos, took the city of Elath from them and restored it to Judah. The (pnstiou may then leijifi- mately be asked: Since Edom was so soundly defeated both siiortly before aiid contemporaneously with Amos, why should the Prophet direct iifrainst them an oracle forctellin'r a doom wiiich had already fallen ujion them? Notice further Amos' use of the term "the remnant of Eisni'ss whii-li has natioiuil doiniiiatioii as its aim? Sev- iTal t'UU'iKlations may be pmposid in tlic lijjrht of historical ami Hhilolofjii-al evidence : 1. • III ffiir'sluim miru»liDluitlu) 'ith Giidh l'-mu'ai> liurxihl) 'cth includes a reference strikiiifjly similar to the phraseolo<»y of .ludjres. chapter 11: "And behold they requited us by coming to cast us out of thy pos.se.ssion which thou hast ^ivcn us to inherit." This verse is evidently tin; work of a later poet fcf. Ezek. 21. :{.'>, the prophecy ajrainst Amnion, which has the line: "l will judffe thee in the place where thou wast created, in the land of thy nativity." referriiifr thus va<:uely to this central thought ). Jer. 49.1-7 ajrainst the Ammonites contains the nu>st impor- tant sugK<'stions for the Amos i)a.s.sajre : I'onrornini; the Amiiiouite.4, Thus saith YahwA, Hath Israel no sons? Hath he no hcirf [23o] Why then doth their king inherit Gad, And his people dwell in his cities? Therefore behold the days are coming, saith Yalnve Tliat I will cause to be heard iu Rabbah of the Ammonites an alarm of war And it shall be a desolate heap. And her daughters with tire shall be burned, And Israel shall be heir unto them who were his heirs, saith Yahwe. Howl, O Heshbon, for Ai is spoiled ; Cry ye daughters of Kabbah, Gird yourselves with sackcloth ; Lament and run to and fro by the hedges; For their king shall go into captivity. His priests and his princes together. . . . Thi.s prophecy appears to he in a corrupt state of preservation. It is made iip of two separate strands, interlaced and combined, one a song of exultation and lament, the other a doom song or denunciation. The song of lament wa.s written either by Jere- miah, or a contemporaneous author; it is in great confusion. The denunciation affords significant data for comparison with the Amos oracle. The major discrepancies between the two denunciations are: (a! omission in Jeremiah of the introductory coujili't formula of Amos; (b) four lines of offense in Jeremiali to two in Amos; (c) formula of punishment in Amos shifted in place and language in Jeremiah ; (d) line on destruction in war shifted in place and with a different complementary stichos in Jeremiah. The similarities are: 1. In thought: (a) offense in both cases is dispossession ; punishment in both cases is war, cry, tire, and exile. 2. In language: (a) /iv7 'dmar '"dhonai; (b) the word indlkdni is used twice; (c) tirrnthiifi to matcli v'-hirraftl in Amos; (d) the words tcnValh ,iiil^,hml to match in Amos hi-th'ru'd h<^-yd»i iiiilyhinl: (e) the last couplet in the denunciation is identical, ixct'|>t for the use in Jeremiah of koh^ndw in place of Amos' sdrdir. The question arises: Did Jeremiah borrow from Amos, or did a later i-edactor reconstruct Amos on the basis of Jeremiah? If the former supposition is true, then it is evident tliat the Prophet injected enougli of his 236] I'linilli Usui in Amos 181 Kwii thoiiv'lit ami i)lirasi'(il(iry east of the Jordan except Bashan, in contrast with Canaan, west of the Jordan ; it stands specifically for the territory of the two and one-half tribes. Gad, Reuben and half- Jlana.sseh. However, Gad and Gilead always stand in close relationship: sometimes Gad's territory is jjlaccd in Gilead; sometimes the two are joined (see Harper, p. 17); sometimes Gilead is used alone when Gad is unmistakably included; in- deed, "Gad" and "Gilqad" are so closely synonymous that oftcntimrs the temus are exchanged; and so in Amos. Gilead may have included Gad; "Gilead" may have been, a general t< rm, with (Jad specifically in the I'rophet 's miml. Moreover, in defens«' of the term "Gilead." it must be admitted that though if is a rej)etiti<)n. it docs not mar the form of the poem in any grent .!.•._'>■■.. I -'•'<: 1 182 Parallelism In Amos On the other hand, the use of "Gad" as the victim of Ammonitish cruelty would add to the effective reconstruction of the stanza. Josh. 13.24 shows that the boundaries of Gad were all the cities of Gilead and half of the land of the Ammon- ites. In Deut. 33.20 occurs the significant sentence: hdrukh ham-marxiih 'cih Gadh, "Blessed is he that enlargeth Gad," using niarxlbh as in the second stichos of the Amos distich : he who broadens Gad is blessed; per contra, he who broadens him- self — i.e., as in Amos, extends his boundaries at the expense of Gad — is cursed. Hence the anger of Amos maj' be due to the fact that the Ammonites had diminished the already small tribe of Gad. To make a coherent couplet, it may therefore be neces- sary to have tlie first stichos apply to Gad, so that the thought may lead up naturally to the second stichos, wherein Jiarxtbh is used. In Jer. 49.1, the offense of the Ammonites is against Gad; this part of the oracle is genuine, as the parallelism and sen.se are good; and the affinity between tlie two oracles leads to the supposition that Jeremiah secured his stimulus for the thought from Amos; hence again there would seem to have been in Amos a reference to Gad. The term "Gilead" may have been inserted in post-exilic times, for the evidence points to the fact that after the fall of Samaria, the Ammonites occupied the territory of Gad or Gilead (cf. the doubtful verse in Obad. 20). Therefore to restore the Amos. text to the form from which Jeremiah took suggestions, it is necessary to supplant "Gilead" with "Gad." In the couplet which has been suggested as the first reconstruction, the term "inheritance" is used as in II Chron. 20.11 and Jer. 49.1 with reference to Gad. The phrase garash nnrushshd is incorporated on the foundation of the passage in II Chron. 20.11 whieli refers to this act by the Ammonites. 2. ' al hiq'-'am 'arc hag-Gadh, I'^-ma' an Imrxiih 'eth g^bhuliim. Because they have pierced through the cities of Gael, In order to widen their boundaries. This substitutes 'drf In Josh. 13.25 occurs [238; cities," for hdr ■dth. "jiregi lant women. 1 reference to " all the citi( _^s of Gilead. Piiriilh Usui in Attws ISI! •IiT. 49.1 reads, "and liis pi-oplc have taken their resideiiee in his cities." Tlie word bfititi' , "pieree tlirou<;li," with "eities" is sanetioiied liy II fliron. 32.1; II K. 25.4; .ler. :?9.2 ; Ezek. :}0.16, 24.10; .ler. .")2.7 ; and by other pjus-sajies in which it oeenrs in warlike operations: "to nnike a hreaeh in the eity walls" (ef. 11 C'hron. 21.17 and Is. S.t^ with reference to -hidah). lu place of hdroth the word ht'irf, "mountains of," has been suggested by Jewish commentators, who .sought to mitigate the barbarity of the pas-sage (Harper, p. 36) ; the Ammonites were thus guilty of breaking the law of boundaries (Dent. 27.17). Kittel anil A'aleton suggest the reading bfi;iiroth, "fortified places." Another group of restorations grows out of the onus.sion of the seeoiul stichos of the couplet as a later aildition on the basis of the Ammonitish attacks against Gilead and Gad inunediately after Amos or during the e.xilie days; this would leave authentic here the tii-st line and invalidate several of the suggestions made in stanzii 1 which transposed this line to its second section. Though there is no mention that the Ammonites were guilty of the cruelty referred to, this does not imply that it did not occur. 3. Bot-ausc tlioy have ripped up the prejfiiant women of Gilead, And the young children they dashed into pieces. This is ba.sed upon the parallelistic iisages in IIos. 14.1; II K. 8.12; and upon the presence of the phra.se "their children shall be dashed to pieces" in several other pa.s.sages that prophecy d.-struction: Xah. 3.10; Has. 10.14; Ps. 1.37.9; Is. 1.3.16tT. Another suggestion is to read for the second stichos, "and the fruit of the womb they pitied not" (ef. Is. 13.1S). It is difficult to determine upon the best of the.se suggestions; the evidence is so complicated that a categorical decision is out of the question; they suffice, however, to point the way to the difficulties in the text, and the j>robabilities upon which recon- structions can Iw founded. The third s«H'tion of stanza 5 has instead of ir''-.v/ii7/rtx'i, and I will send," m'<'-/iiVc«"'. "and I will kindle." The thought that the author through superstition and fear of exact [239] 184 I'aMlldi.siii in Amos ayumu'tvy in the formulas cluuiged the word here, is baseless, especially since other words are changed throughout the con- stant couplets. The word w<^-higgatti is verj^ popular with Jeremiah ; tlie close nexus between this, prophecy on the Ammon- ites by Amos and that in Jeremiah, chapter 49, points to the conclusion that in Amos' original text u•'^-shillaxt^ may have been used, but that a later redactor inserted w''-hii\-attT on the basis of Jeremiah. It cannot be said that the entire Amos prophecy was written on the pattern of Jeremiah ; it is more feasible to support the notion of an interplay of influence ; Amos affected Jeremiah; then through a later compiler and editor, Jeremiah's text affected Amos. This would indicate that sev- eral texts existed with different readings in the minutiae and that the final redaction was made through a synthesis of the variant readings. The fourth section of stanza 5 has two couplets in apparently excellent parallelism. The first couplet differs from its equiv- alents in the other three tj-pe stanzas in that no direct verb stands at its head. It is not imperative that this verbal motif be employed, for the arrangement here used is found in other prophetic passages. An objection may be made to the use of hi-fh'rri'fi, "with shouting," however, since in section 4 of stanza 6, on Moab, the same w'ord occurs. Though the Septua- gint has the same phrase in each place, it seems necessary that one of the two usages must be omitted in order to present a text free from careless repetitions. Moreover, the context as it stands is awkward ("and it shall devour the palaces with shouting"), w^hen compared with. Amos 2.2 and particularly with Jer. 49.2. The second stichos of this first couplet in the fourth section of stanza 5, though in excellent parallelism to the first line, jiresents some difficulties. Harper -in order to maintain his three line strophic arrangement states (p. 35): "The clause ... is but a weak repetition of the preceding clause and there is nothing to correspond to it in the parallel section on Jloab ( 2.1-3 K although in every other respect the parallelism is per- fect." This omission of a line in perfect couplet formation [ 240 ] rdrallfli.iin in Amos 185 IS luiwarranti-d, for tlie disruption of a imrallclistic i-ouplct i-aii niily ranly Im- tolfratud ; mort'ovi-r llic lojriral sulii-ini' of tlu' |ioi'm in c'onfornianee to tlu> model stanza would he lirokcii. . For this stiohos, tlu' St'ptuagint reads: "and she shall hr shaken in the days of her destruetion." This presents the followint,' probaliilities: (a) either the Septnajrint wron-rly read the text; ill defense of the text as it stands may he eited Ps. 8:i.lG, Is. •J9.6, Nah. 1.3; or (h) in the text whieh the Septua-rint trans- lators po.sses.scd there aetually was a basis for the variant leadiiifj. If the latter was the ease, perhaps the variant was a marginal reading intended to replaee the bi-lli'ri'i'd of stielios a whieh has, indeed, been shown to be snspieioiis^ ; the trans- lators, however, read it in.stead a.s a variant of b'-sa'ar, "with a tempest," possibly because its railieals resembled those of v.rur. This would sanetion the retention of b^-sa'ar in the >.eond stiehos and the sub.stitution in tin- first for hi-Ufrfi'd of ;i verb in the Hebrew ba.sed on the tireik deiaOtjaerai. Finally, even if bi-tlt'rCru be retained here, and the Greek verb be rc- gardtd mi rely as a translation of the root sd'ar (cf. Zeeh. 7.14), it would still seem neee.s.sary to insert a verb at the head of the first stielio.s. Among the po.s.sible suggestion are: ir'-r(7'".s7i(7, it shall shake" (ef. Amos 9.1) ; ir'-ZiiV ".s/W/. " 1 shall shake" (ef. I's. 60.4. Hag. 2.7) ; n'lii'drti. "and I -shall shake"; best of all ean be us(d u'-hiphqailhthr. "and 1 will visit him." Though the exaet verb eaiinot of eour.se be suggested, it is sufficient to point out the flaw and the pos.sibility for correction. The second couplet of the section is in perfect parallelism. I'herc is doubt as to the exaet meaning of DDtlkdm : it may be •.Mileoni," the name of the Ammonitisli deity, or merely "their king," or both. There is also the (picstion whether Av*/i"hJw, "his priests," should be substituted in Amos for lift', on the l>asis of .ler. 48.7, and 49.3, an almost identical repetition of the .\mas couplet. But it is not neces.sary or even advisable to make the substitution; for however great the similarities between prophetic oracles, identical repetitions arc few; each author tiiuchis his Imrrowings with his own individuality. This couplet allows affinities ImMwccii the .\mos and Jeremiah texts, but to [ 241 186 Parallel ism in Amos make tlie two absolutely identical would violate even the little that is known of the psychology of literary borrowing. It may then be concluded that stanza 5 is for the most part original with Amos. A first revision of his utterance may have been maide immediately after the Prophet 's death, perhaps after the invasion of the Assyrians and the fall of Samaria; the date may be placed around 720 B.C. A later redaction may also have been made ; for though the historic offense of the Ammonites was dispossession of Israel, another sin is credited by the Prophets to their neighbors after the time of the Destruction: Ezek. 25.1-7 and Zeph. 2.8 toll of the pr(>sumptuous boasting of the Ammon- ite.s at the occasion tiehf>s is to refer to this event, it cannot remain as it stands. It nujy be that the verse was doiditful aiul was reconstructed by a later redactor in order to nuik"- it conform with this episode; for that the event made a profound impression upon the mind [243] 188 I'araUc'lisw in Amos of Israel is seen from the words: "And there was great indig- nation ii^Don Israel, and they departed from him and returned to their own land." Still, it may be asked if this event, occur- ring in 850 B.C., did not occur too early to become the foundation for Amos" prophecy, (b) In II Chron 20.1-30 is a glorified record of this same campaign. Herein no specific act of bar- barity is related; moreover the enmity of Moab and Edom is due to tlie will of Yahwe ; whereas Amos mentions an act committed wantonly against the dictates of common humanity. There is sufficient evidence, liowever, to afford the following reconstruc- tion : a. 'al sor'^plio '"gamotlv lam-mOlel-h icaii-yiziax 'adliam lash-sUcdh. Because they burned bones to Moleeh, And sacrificed a human to a demon. Here a parallel couplet is secured in conformance to the demands of the type stanza. The various phrases in this restoration are justified by bil)lical passages; sdraph '"cfimofh occui-s in I K. l:!.2 : II K. '_':i.lil, 21), and II Chron. 34.5, though in the sense of boin's burmd upon the :iltai' in order to render it unfit for use ; it must be admitted that the phrase in connec- tion with liuman sacrifice to Moleeh does not appear. The words mclekh 'cdhihu. are changed in this restoration. The reading '(^dhum. indeed, is clearly out of place. It may have arisen out of a misunderstanding of the word nuhkh in conjunction with '"cfimoth, and the frecpu'nt occurrence of iiiilrkh ''(Ih('i)n nuiy have led to its insertion — at a time when "Edom-phobia" afflicted the Prophets — i.e., a desire because of Edom's ti'eatmeut of Judah at the time of the Destruction to show its suffering upon any and every possible occasion. The fact that Edom is the cause of Moab's punishment and hence appears in the light of Judah 's ally may have escaped the redactor. The reading 'a.Q'^moth 'ddham (ef. I K. 13.2, II K. 23.14, 20) is proposed by several other investigators; Zenner in D-ie Chorgesaengcr iiii Biirhr d. i'salimii (1896), proposed it first, while Hirscht reads: • nr'ninlli 'ildhdin Um-nwlehh l-ash- shfdh. This suggestion, liowever, gives merely a prose line, and not a ]iarallel couplet. [244] I'arallfllsm in Amos 1S!» Lum-molikh is justititd liy luiintrous passafrcs. Alnlfcli was tlie God to wlioin the Israelites and tlie other nations saerifieed hy fire in the valley of llinnom. It niijilit lie rif;litly jjrotest.il. however, that the Goil of the Moahites was not Moleeh, luit C'lieniosh ; l)ut no referenees of ehild saerifiee to the latter are extant, and it is necessary to postnlate saerifiee before lloleeh hy Moab in eonjunetion with the other peoples. Keferences to this sin on the jiart of Judah appear in II K. 2:J.10; Jer. 32.35, witii the words lu'bhir bi'i-'fsli, "to pass throngrh fire" (ef. BDD, p. 718). A pa-ssape wliieh may perhaps lie at the bottom of tile Amos i)hraseoloiry oeeiu-s in Lev. 20.2, 3, 4 ; here oecurs a prohibition for the Israelitts or any stranjrer to saerifiee children to Moleeh; vei*ses 3. ."), contain the phrases hihnlth, W'-hikhratti, and iiiiq-m lonh-ghtdhim. lien- Ilosea refci-s to the sin, not of any other nation, but of Judah, and human sacrifice is suppo.sed not to have existed in Israel until a time much later than Ilosi-a, namely around the reipn of Ahaz. Hut if the IIo.sea text is correct and can In- read "saerificei-s of mankind," then it affords a basis for the restoration of the Amos stichos; Moab nuiy have l)een one of the surrounding nations from which .ludah learned the practice of human saerifiee (ef. Deut. IS.IO, 33.17; II K. 16.3). The combination znbhax UishshrfUi is found in I's. 1()().37. "and they sacrificed their sons and daughters to the shrdhhii not-(ti-iiius the section into even chis.T cniifoniuinc.. to the type stanza; Inr in ea.'li there staiuls al the head of the fourth section a fiiriii wliich makes it a|.i)eai- as if (iod himself \ver,> speaking of his nwii act. A second suggestion is to take w'-hikhrattl fniiii llie lie;id of the second couplet of the section to the first stichos of the first, and to transpose to its place fi-mffh : a third suggestion is to plac.' ic-li isli niuillin. '-and I will destroy," at the head of the section, to cliiiiinate n-liikhnillJ and to substitute il-innh I sec bcl.iwl. The word h'-sha;-,H is jiistitiable despite suggestions made by several to cliang,' it; for even if the mean- ing were doubtful, the pa rall.'lisiii would supply the sen.se (cf. Hon. 10.14, I's, 71.23; \',\)\\. p. 9sl). The phrasc ii-theril'd b' -(/nl slr'.phiir is entirely in jilace here, for hi-th'ru'n in stanza 5 was olllillid because of its correct iisage heiv (ef. .Icr. 4-19). I'arallelisiii in A in us 191 Tlu' si'L'oiid I'tmplct also is in almost perfect form, ilispiti- sfviM-al minor irrojjularitics. The word ir'-hikhratti is a n-pc- tition from stanza 2, si-c. 4; tin- use of tlu- fcminino snftix in miq-qirbuh needs explanation; here siirihfi, "her ])rinees, " is used, whereas in stanza 5 sdrdw, "his princes," oeeurred ; more- over 'iiiuno witii the maseuline sufiix is present in the second stiehos. It has already been sujjtiested to read for u'-hikhrrives a slight variatio!i which ailds to the literary iiuaiity of the stiehos. The root is used in eonjunetion with kdrath and parallel to it in P.s. 37..'JS and Is. 4S.iy; mostly of ])ersons. however, as in Amos 9.S, 2.!); Deuf. 1.27, 2.22 (cf. mm, 1029); of .Aloab as a whole in Jer. 4S..S, 42 (nishnulilh) ; with niiq-qirb'khnn, "from your midst," in .losh. 7.12 (ef. also Ezek. 14.9; Lev. 17.10, 20.:{. .'). Gl. The words xhi'iphit and silr are jjarallel in Ex. 2.14; Zeph. :{.!! (where a couplet .showing several likent.sses to Amos appears); I'rov. 8.16: llos. 7.7, I.'J.IO. In place of miq-qirhCih it is snuly two biblical pa-s-sages where it occurs. Tin' word si'inhd follows perhaps the repeated mention of "the princes of Moab" (Num. 21. 2S, 22.8, etc.). Isaiah 24.12 ex- pres.se.s with reference to Ednin a thought almost identical with the one mi-ntioiied here of Moab: "and all her i)rineis' shall be nothingness": perhaps some relation between the two stiehoi exists. Tlu- form iitinto occurs in Jer. :i9.12, the only other instance of its use in prophetical literature. With reference to the doom of Moab, Jer. 48.7 has a ef>uplet almost identical with Amo«< 1.1') on the Ammonites; Jeremiah nuiy have been iuHu- eneed by this eouplit not only in his own prophecy on the Ammonites, but al.so in his oracle on Moali: or the couplet in 1 2-17 I 192 Parullclisiii in Amos Jt-rciaiali may have prompted a latt-r scribe to iiisei't a eouplot in Amos suggesting it; it seems entirely in keeping with the evidence, however, to affirm the validity of the entire fourth section of the Amos oracle, and hence, for the most part, of the entire stanza, for it contains words and phrases used bj' him alone; its parallelism is good; its strophic structure, after slight emendations, conforms in detail to the type stanza. StaXZA 7. — JUDAH Tlie stanza on Judali must be considered as late, for several reasons which Harper (p. 44) states: (a) the fact that the intro- duction of the oracle removes entirely the force of surprise which the Israelites were to feel when an attack was launched against them; (b) it is impossible to suppose that Amos would have treated Judah so cursorily; (c) the weakness of the stj'le; (d) the term "Israel" in 2.10 includes Judah; (e) the sin described, transgressions against the statutes of Yahwe, was too indefinite to call for a special oracle; the offense is out of harmonj^ with the formula "for their transgressions," etc., since it cannot be men- tioned as one of three or four. An argument of still greater force than these which Harper mentions, is the strophic structure of the stanza. It is identical with the stanza on Edimi, i.e.. 1 + 2 + 4 + 2. It is also similar to stanza 3 on Tyre, tlmngh the second section here contains not two but four slielioi. The doubt thrown on these two stanzas attaches also to the oracle on -hidah. The second section contains four lines, the first two of which form an apparently good parallelistic couplet while the second contains a relative clause (see above), the sense and grammar of the passage being doubtful. If the stanza is genuine, then it is nece.ssary to omit two lines in order to make it agree with the model stanza, and to restore an entire fourth section of foiir lines, or to affirm that for some unaecountabh' i-eason the latter has disappeared; if on the other hand, the stanza is not genuine, as seems to be the casi', then it is merely necessary to discuss its various phenom- ena, and to devote little attention to a reconstruction. It may be that stanza 4 and stanza 7 are by the same author. [248] I'linilhlisiii in Aitms \'Xi The t'voiit ri'tVrrcil to in tlie'sfi-oiul section is, doubt liil. Tlie sill of .liulah is apostasy, as the first t'oupK-t portrays; the sec- ond couplet may refer eitlier to tiie activity of the false propliets, or to idolatry and apostasy also. Tiiouj^h tln-rc were several kings liefore Amos who had been fruilty of apostasy, durinj; the time of the Prophet the kinjjs Ama/iah and Uz/iah were on tiie whole ri;rhteons nders. followinij: in the path of Yahwisni ; it does not appear to have been such a period of national aposta.sy as would occasion a denunciation by Amos, tlioufih it may be admitted tJuit at no time was the religious life of the nation so pure that an attack by a prophet was impossible. But since no occasion of real note ofTei-s it.self durinj!: the time of Amos, it is necessary to look elsewhere for material underlyin*; the oracle. The reign of Aha/, immediately following the death of Amos, may have furnished the occasion for the fii-st couplet, and the reign of JIana.sseli for the second. The first couplet of the second section apiu-ars ti> refer to the reign of Ahaz and lloshea (c. 721 ii.c.). In II K. IS.TtT. appears a long .statement of the sins of the king of Israel which finally brought on the destruction of the Northern Kingdom. The reference to Judah occurs only in verses 19-22, but the language and the thought, though ai)plying specifically to Israel, may have referred also to Judah. Linguistic similarities in this ])as.sage to Amos are numerous, especially in verses 7, 8, 12. l:}, 14, ];">, 18. The use of the sentence, "and they walked after vanity and did vainly" (verse 1.5), which appears also in ■ler. 2.."), suggests a late origin for the passage. The linguistic iiiiiitities point to the possibility that the redactor wrote the second .section of the oracle in Amos with a view to linking the prophecy with the events of the two great periods of national backsliding, namely, during the days of Ahaz. and of Manasseh tiS(>-641 u.t). It ha.s been urged, too, that the language of the Amos pas.sage is Deuteronomic in character. During • '>>siah's reign (II Chron., ehap. :J4) the phra.ses present in Amos • re freipiently employed and may then have received currency; iiid this may had to the impression that the passage on 'ludah was remwlelled after the reign of .losiah (689-608 h.c). In [ 240 11)4 Panillilisiii in Amos view of this fact, it may \w said that the redactor of the Judali prophecy maj' not have intended any specific era in Judah's history, bnt mereh' compiled a list of sins from the Deuteronomic code, sniBcient to give the prophecy a semblance of originality and authority. To find affinity between the lan- guage of the passages referring to the reign of Ahaz and Manasseh and the Amos phrases, then, would be far-fetched and dangerous (cf. Is. 5.24, where almost the exact phraseologj' of Amos occurs : this might point to the origin of the Amos couplet around the time of Ahaz). The following conclusions on the first couplet may, however, be offei-ed : (a) either it refers to the period of apostasy during the reign of Ahaz; this would bring this redaction into harmony with the redaction of the other doubtful stanzas; or (b) the prophecy was edited after the reign of Josiah, and is of a general Deuteronomic character. The .second couplet is indubitably late. Harper regards it as a gloss. The Septuagint's rendition gives this type of appositional parallelism : And their lies led them astray wliicli they did, After which their fathers walked. The event referred to in the passage is doubtful. In II K. 21.1-9 and II Chron. 33.8 f?. there are accounts of the apostasy of Manasseh of Judah, which show striking linguistic identities with the Amos couplet. In verse 9 of each passage occurs the phrase "and-led-astray Manasseh," inni-jiath' I'm M^nashshe and waii-yetha' 31<^n.ashshe 'eth-Y'^hudhfi : in II K. 21.10ff. is a record of the activities of the prophets during the period of Manasseh ; they did not "go astray," but aetrd as tlie mouthpiece of Yahwe (cf. Is. 34.11 and 28.17). A closer examination of the language used offers further evidence for the probable date of the passage. The word td'd, "to err, ■■ appears in IIos. 4.12 with reference to idolatrj-; Isaiali uses it, but nieri'ly in the sense of aimlessly wandering, or walking. It refers best to the activities of false prophets and may perhaps have been inserted in Amos by a later redactor because of his own attitude towards tlie jirofessional foretellers (ef. 7.17 i. It is used of these fals,. prophets in Mieah 3.5: [2oo: I'arallrlism in Amos 1!)') .ItTfiuiali, who is wry bitti-r iifjainst tlicni. uses it in liis ilcmiii- ciatioii in 2.1.9-41); vcrsi- 1:5 iias: "tlifv proplu-sifd in Haal and causfd to err my ]>f(i|ilc Israel' " (wuiz-yath' ft) ; vei-se :32 has: "aiul tiii-y caiisfd to irr my people by tlieir falsehoods and by their lifrlitness. ' Tliis passajrc in the lifiht of other similarities may be the foundation of the eouplet in Amos; Ezek., eiiap. Vi, also furnishes data for the interpretation of tiie passatre as applicable to tlie false prophets. I'pon tile interpretation of the word kiz'bhrhcin will depend in lar<:e degree the construction of the eouplet. To understand the word as "idols" is entirely unsatisfactory; in no otlier instance dws the idea of idols "leadintr a.stray" occur; it is usually a person, not an inanimate thing, that is resjionsible for the error. If it is desired to make the stichos refer to idols in order to create a sort of conformity with the second stichos, it is ncces-sary either to insert an entire new line or to add ircr- tain words which will nuike tiie stichos siiecify definitely idols; for two probabilities exist: (a) either stichos 1 of this eouplet must be brought into correct ri'lationship to stichos 2; this would necessitate the omission of tiie present first stichos. or an emen- dation to include definitely the word or idea of "idols"; (b) or the fii-st stichos must be taken to refer to false jirophets, as almost all the passages demand that it should be interpreted; this will necfssitate the emendation of the second stichos to l>ring it into relation with the first and in order to produce a eouplet in good parallelism. Emendations on the basis of tiie idea of "idolatry" arc numerous: 1. .\ml ttic soers of lies Icii tlicm n.stniy to Baals, After wliieti their fotliers walked. • uray-i/iith' um qus'mc khacabh tab-b''alim '■'nhrr hiit''kliS '■>bhotham VixTr/icni. For the phrase qos'mc khdzi'ibli or x''''' klulziibh, "dreamers of lies," see Eztk. l^J.S. Except for the ambiguity concerning the subject of the verb in the fii-st stichos, tiie following suggestions might be acceptable: 2. Anil they led astrnr by their lies the people. And after other gods they walked. [251] 196 I'anillcli.sm in Amos The fdriii h' -kli ii^bhflicin, "l)y their lies,'" is sanetioned by a similar usage though with different synonyms in Jer. 23.32. For the phrase "to lead astray the people," see Is. 9.14^15; Mic. 3.5 ; Ezek. 13.19 ; Jer. 23.13, 32 ; Is, 3.12. A comparison of this prophecy in Amos with Ezek., chap. 20, p pn-cctlintr proplicts and particularly of Ezekicl. (4) Or it may be that tiioutfli the oracle was composed in some form at an earlier time, it obtained admission into the text after the Exile; it seems almost certain that an eilition was made in post- exilic times. Stanza 8. — Iskaf.i. The stanza on Israel, apparently the climax to wliicli Amos has been leading, bejiins in conformance with the other stanzas; the prophetic prelude and the introductory formula occur as elsewhere in the Sonjr; the openiiifr word of wluit siiould be the second section is Uil with an infinitive plus the plural suffix; a couplet in good parallelism seems to indicate that the stanza will conform to the type. H\it then the break comes; parallel- ism is maintained, but the prophecy continues in the strain of denunciation for several couplets; the offense of social injustice is elaborated ; the punishment formula couplet is entirely miss- ing, as well as the fourth section and postlude. Thus its strophic structure is .seen to depart entirely from the type stanza. Several questions arise. Did Amos deliver the prophecies on the nations at one and the same time, begiiniing with the foreign nations of Syria, Philistia, the Ammonites, and Moab, and finally proclaim the sins of Israel? If so, was the stanza on Israel originally composed in agreement with the model stanza? Or did the Prophet merely use the intrfxluctory pre- lude and formula to link this pro|)hecy on Israel with the others, and then launch into a spirited attack wherein his prophetic mood would have free play. unliDund by the demands of exact regularity ? On the other hand it nuiy be asked: Did Amos deliver the l)roi)hiciis separately, each at a ilitTereiit time and on a different occasion? This would imply that at .some future date he edited the entire serii-s, having used the stanza structure in each, but remodelling them in the fonn of one continuous piece. Or did Amas deliver merely the prophecies on thi> surrounding nations at one time, while the oracle on Israel came at a later date? This supposition sicms plausible. The stanzjis on the neighbor (233 I 198 PuraUelism in Amos ing: peoples may constitute one poetic unit, while the oracle on Israel is either in itself intact, or the compilation of several pronouncements. Amos himself in his own edition may have inserted the introductory phrase and formula in order to add psychological weight to tin' denunciation, and to make it appear one of a series of which it is the climax. Or, as .seems more credible, a later editor, reviewing the entire text, and making the additions on Tyre, Edom and -Judah, may have sought to join Isi'ael to the Doom Song, and hence placed at the head of a group of prophetic utterances the identifj'ing prelude and formula. This tendency' to include all the nations in the list of doomed peoples may have been stimulated and encouraged by the practice of the later Prophets, who denounced the surround- ing nations and at the same time their own ; a later redactor seeing the texts of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah in the form of one continuous work, may have turned back to Amos and noting the presence of a list of doom songs, brought them by modifications and additions into line with the plan of these later prophets. This would further support the hypothesis that the most important redaction of the Amos text, or at least, of a part of it, occurred after the edition of the works of Ezekiel, or prob- ably even later. Hence the apparent discrepancy of the oracle on Israel need not disturb the belief in a type stanza. For the utterance falls entirely outside the discussion concerning a model formation because of its own intrinsic peculiariaties. The existence of a type stanza still remains a strong hypothesis. DATE OF THE PROPHECY The internal evidences of the date of the Doom Song are of course not entirely trustworthy ; as they stand, however, the following data have been gathered : Stanza 1. Stichoi b, c, and possibly d of section 4 ajipear to be later insertions after 721 B.C. Stanza 2. The second section of this stanza points to the fact that the text wan retouched either (1) after 721 b.o. ; (2) after the ajipcarance of the projihecies of Jeremiah (c. 600 B.C.) ; l-anillrlism in Amos litl) ('A) after tlie apiu-ariiiK-o ul' the jirophooics ut K/ikicI in post- I'xilii' (lays; thi-n- is a siijrlit possibility of aiiotiuT rcdaflion aniuiul H')() II. r. The ftdirtii section shows I'viili-m-f of rcchu'tioii in the lij;iit of tiii' ICzt-kicl passaf;es in jxtst-exilif days, with a l)ossil)ility of anotlii r ndai-tion around :i.")() it.c. ytanza :i. This stanza may iiavi- ln'cii iiilindiu-c'd and iv- t-dit.-d (1) aft.T T'Jl n.r. ; rl) aft.r r)7() n.r., on the basis of material in Ezekiel. Another redaction took place perhaps around ;jr)() ii.i'. Stanza 4. This iirophecy may have been inti-oduced by Amos and n-i-dited (1) after 721 u.c; {'2) after the propiiecies of .Jeremiah (c. 600 n.c.) ; ('.]) most |>roimlily in post-exilic times after 586 n.c. Then- is a jirobability of aiiotlier redaction around HoO n.c. (time of Nehemiah). Stanza '). The stanza may have bei-n retouched (1) after 7J1 II. c. (second section) ; (2) after the prophecies of Jeremiah (e. (JOO 2.U.). Another redaction is probable after the Exile. Stanza 6. This prophecy is lace. perha|>s durinj; the days of .Mana-s-seh, or later after the prophecies of Jeremiah (c. 600 B.C.). 4. Another redaction appears to have been made after the Destruction, undi-r the influence of Ezekiel's works (e. 570 B.C.). 5. There is a slipht probability of another minor revision .ironnd :l.")0 B.C. 200 Parallelism in Amos It is thus evident that many hands went into the formation of tlie text which has come down to the present day. Houtsma is surely mistaken in ascribing the entire prophecy to post- exilic times ; the degree to which his surmise seems to be correct can be seen from the tables here given. COXCLUSIOXS ON THE DOOM SONG In the light of the evidence deduced from an examination of the Amos Doom Song, the following tentative conclusions may be proposed : 1. There is a type stanza consisting ofl + 2 + 2-f-2 + 4-fl periods. There are four main sections, the first on the general offense which remains constant ; the second on the specific offense which varies with each nation; the third on the general punish- ment which remains constant ; the fourth, consisting of two couplets, on the specific punishment wliieh varies with each nation. There are a short prophetic prelude and postlude which remain constant. 2. Four stanzas of the Song conform to this type, namely : stanza 1 on Syria; stanza 2 on Philistia: stanza 5 on the Am- monites; stanza 6 on Moab. The vai-iations within these four type stanzas are of a minor character and are due either to cor- ruptions of the text through the passage of time and freqiient redactions or to the insertion and addition of stichoi and phrases by later editors who sought to bring the text of the prophecies up to date ; tliere are several slight variations of phrase due to the interplay and influence of other texts in tlie proplietieal and historical books; there are minor variations due either to the whim or carelessness of the original or later author and redactor. 3. Three stanzas do not conform to the type, namely: stanza 3 on T.yre; stanza 4 on Edom; stanza 7 on Judah. These are the major variations of the Song and may be explained as later insertions and additions, either to bring the prophecy of Amos up to date, to complete the series of oracles in tlie light of the works of the later Prophets, or to give vent to the liostility against nations which during the time of tlie redaction or slightly [ 2.56 ] I'arallilisiii in Amos 201 bi-fore had mist rent iil Israel and Judali. Siiu'c these portions are not orijrinal with Amos, they do not atlVet tiie eonelusion that tlie laiia- tioii. ••(n-miiiif" paralli'lism iiK-liulcs llius.- stichi.i in parallel couplets wliieii are puruliel as tliey stand, tlioutrli sometimes a slijiiit textual ehanjre is Meeessary. I'sually the style of tiiese -stii'lioi is synonymous or antitlietie parallelism; the u\nnl)er ot' terms is dominautly three, thon-rh in the examples of alternate pariillelism (in the tahle each stiehos of alternate parallelism counts as two periods), more than three terms are present. The term "syuthetie"" parallelism is used to ilesignate the paralh'l stielioi which are not in close synonymous parallelism. \m\ which are rhythmically symmetrical and in a complementary or appo- sitional relationship. Such synthetic couplets are called here '•dear*' when dose thou^'ht ai)iiroximation is present and the text is unmarred though corresjiondence of terms may he lack- iu'r; ••douhtful" desifTiiatcs those stichoi whcn-in parallelism seems to he concealed while merely rhythmical ecpiality appears and the existing; text is obscure in sense and jrraunnar. liider Table 1.— P.vrallelistic Poetbv synthetic Clear Douhlful Ctiaptor 1 3r> .... 4 l'lmpt.r 2 34 .... 2 Clin|itrr 3 29 .... 4 Clinpttr 4 It! 4 6 t'lmi>tiT .'> 42 t> 4 Clmptor t) 24 2 2 Clmpfor 7 20 .... 4 (.'tinpt.T 8 24 .... 10 Clinptor 9 30 2 14 42 lirainl total Normal pnrallt>li»in (Bpnuiiic and clear syn- Irrojiiilar parnllcliiiin ."4 Table 2.— Sheer Pkosi: Siipt-rsoription 1.1 ( 2.19 204 raraUdisiii hi A»ws the heading "synthetic" are ineluded also the "in order that," the "that-say" and the relative clauses discussed above. It must be noted, then, that the term "synthetic" includes stichoi which only by the slightest degree may be included under parallelism ; which, in fact, were they not surrounded by par- allelistie couplets, would not be considered parallel any more than similar distichs are in modern poetry. Though these couplets are clearly poetry by reason of their elevation of lan- guage, their imagery and when measured b.y other canons, yet they stand in the twilight zone between parallelistic and non- parallelistie poetry, and incline more to the latter than to the former division. Table 3. — Twilight Zone Between Prose and Poetry This table includes those stiehoi which are in the middle ground between prose and poetry. The category "mixture" designates the verse wherein prose and parallelistic formations are combined; thei'e are two cases where ka-'^xher is used, and the styh' lii'cniiirs doubtful: there aiv s.'vrral "traditional" expressions whii-li may liave bfcn coiivriitioiial with the ]U'ophetic schools; tinally tlnrr is tin- lldnvw prototype for tlio s,if of the Arable; here there are two classes, the first, which is iion-synony- mous, and the second, which is startlingly synommious; rhyme, of course, is missing. All the.se lines are extra long and have not the terseness and three-term structure of the usual poetic parallelism. Traditii Chapter 2 2 Chapter ti 6 Cliapter 4 Cliapter r, 2 Chapter 7 Chapter 9 4 14 [260] I'lirttlltlism in Amos 205 Table -1. — MoNosTicns AiiotluT table is lU't'issary in a foiisiilcratioii of tlic t\vili>;iit /one betwei'ii prose and poetry in order to show tiie eliaraeter and value of the various isolated stiehoi whieh are present in Amos. A jiroup eonies more properly within the donuiin of poetry jii-oper, i.e., the stiehoi whieh appear to be "survivals" of ori-riiud couplets; the stiehoi whieh are remnants of eouplets but whieh are now in "triplets" differ slifrhtly from the former eatefrory in tliat the eases there ineluded will be found to be separate sections of the Doom Soufr. Single stiehoi make up "refrains" in poems where interparallelism is present, and cer- tain "introductory" -stiehoi in interparalleli.stic stanzas likewise are minus complementary stiehoi. Xear-prose material includes the "prophetic," and the "traditional" and "narrativi'" stiehoi. t'liaptor 1 i ( 'Imptor 2.....'. ~ 1 ClinptiT 3 „ _. (.'linpter 4 _ I'linptor 5 _ L'Imptor 6 t'lmi>ti'r 7 t'hnpter 8 _. ._ tlinptor 9 _ Nr..\RPROSE rrophptic Trndit Chapter 1 Chapter 2 1 2 Chapter 3 Cliapter 4 2 .... 1 Chapter 5 5 1 1 Chapter 6 1 ._ 2 Chapter 7 — .... 12 Chapter 8 3 .._ 2 Chapter 9 2 .._ 1 [261] 206 Paralh'Usni in Amos CONCLUSIOiS'S The following conclusions with respect to the two problems referred to above can thus be drawn : Sheer prose iu Amos is very rare, the only two pieces which maintain it over am' stretch being the superscription and a doubtful narrative poi'tion. Genuine parallelistic sticlioi prcdomiuate, being found to the extent of nearly five-sixths of the instances. Between these two poles there are many grades of poetry verging into j^rose bj' ascending degrees. The so-called synthetic couplets con- tain clear stichoi iu a rhythmical, symmetrical, but non-corre- spondent relationship. Doubtful s.ynthetic couplets embrace those iu a rhythmical arrangement wherein the text is doubtful, and at times the degree of unity of thought between the two stichoi is weak. Several special forms, relative, conjunctival, and quotational, fall within this category; they are undoiibtedly pfietieal but liave lost tlieir jiarallelisin. The twiliglit zone between prose and poetry contains various shades of parallelism and non-jjarallelism. Traditional conven- tional phrases are grouped in rhythmical couplets wherein synonymity is lacking; simile couplets are emploj'ed, headed in one stichos by the conjunction "just as," wherein a prosaic style is noticeable; a mixture of prose and parallelistic poetry is found in rare instances. Finally close to prose, is a saj' form which either occurs without synonymity but with a certain rhythmical balance; or, as in the Araliic, is niai-ked by synonym- ity and fairly close correspondence of terms. All these lines arc loui:': some are a form and an outgrowth of alternate par- allelism. These are fruitful examples for an investigation into the rhythmical priuciples back of Hebrew poetry and prose. It would seem also from the synonymous and correspondent character of the saf illustrations that parallelism marks not merely the terse bona fide iioetry. but also the near-pro.se of Hebrew. In addition it may be thai herein is to be found the third type of Ilebi'ew ])i'()sody wliieh (iray seeks, but does not find, in his analysis (see Funiis. p. 4(j ; also above, p. 53). [ 262 ] I'antllillsm iit Amos 207 On tin* prolili'in of tlie ivlation nl' I'liuplfts to triplets ami nioiiostii'hs, tin' foilowiiifr i-onelusioiis scciii jiistiliablf : Till' I'ouplot is tlu" (ioiniiiaiit struct me of IIcl)ir\v poetry. Amos has at least 127 eouplets of ^emiiiie parallelism, seven of clear synthotie, twenty-one (loul)tful. and six irrejiular; tliere are, however, only ahout twenty jjossihle triplets, nearly every one of which is marred and caused hy a duhious text. If the triplet is admissihle, tln-n its fri-ijucncy and orifriiuility m\ist be hesitatin«rly aecei)ted ; careful invest ijrat ion is necessary for each case. The disposition of isolated monostielis supports this conclu- sion. Twenty-five stiehoi in Amos appear to he either survivals of corrupted eouplets, or interpolations attached to ■rood coup- lets. In the tield of jfoetry, introductory stiehoi head stanzas of a strophie poem and lack a complementary stichos becatise, perhaps, of their interparallelism with the corresponding^ stiehoi of the other stanzas. The same is true of refrains which thou'jrh a sinirle line are interparallelistic with reference to the same stichos in the other stanzas. These fall therefore in a sense within the realm of parallelistie poetry. A •;roui> of sinjrlc stiehoi, however, semis to fall outside of the poetry proper; these are the narrative stiehoi which some- times are interparallelistic with eorrespondiufr stiehoi of other stanzas, hut usually arc purely prosaic or near-prosaic in char- acter; sometimes it is possible to combine two such stiehoi into a rhythmical distich, thoujrh this is unusual. Several traditional stiehoi accompany the traditional distiehs refernd to above; these are not entirely pro.saie, but lie within the intermediate territory between pros.- and poetry. The same applies to a .series of prophetic ejaculations and phi-ases which occur at intervals, irrejrular and unconstant, throu;;hout the text. The reiLsons for the departure from re-rular <-ouplet struc- ture are diflieult to undei-stand. That the Propiiet was not content merely to nmintain strict piH'tie .symmetry throujrhout his work is evidi'nt, if the present text is to be trusted. It has been fre(|uently observed in the discussion that a break in the parallelism is usually aeeMm|>anied by a break in the text and [ 2fi.-? 1 208 Paralhlism in Amos vice versa. Yet this docs not account for the several cases where the Prophet deliberately departs from the balanced couplet formations. Traditional prophetic formulas, historical conventional references, ejaculations and, other devices sometimes account for a breakdown of the parallelism, though all the cases cannot thus be explained. The method and the psychology of proplietical utterance is as yet little understood. Perhaps if tlie original text were in existence, exact parallelism would be discovered ; it is safer, however, to assume on the basis of the data available that the Prophet followed generally the poetical canons of parallelism, but that he permitted himself sometimes under the influence of other poetical or rhetorical laws, but sometimes apparentlj- unbound and unguided except by his inner impulses, to roam into the realm of near-prose, of prose, and of unparallelistic poetry and parallelistic prose. It is imperative tliat we should examine prophetical literature on the basis of the hypothesis tliat behind every divergence from regularity of style a rhetorical law has operated; thus it will be possible to combine and classify the data; in the end, how- ever, a residue of examples will probably remain which cannot be fullj' understood; therein in Hebrew, as in all other lit- eratures, the mystery will rest; for one of the secrets of the strength of Hebrew proi^hecy may be in tlie fact that not all its phenomena can be pigeonholed. [264; I'araUdism in Ainus INDEX OF VEUSES IN AMOS t'lmi-tor 1 VERSE PAOE 1 81 t'Laptor 3 VEKSE I'AOE 1 „ 131 Clmpter 5 Cliapfer (Continued) vEKSE VERSE PAGE 1-3 ....139 b 120,130 4 15a 100 5a b 130 b 16 96,123 r,a 17a 123 b b 130 7 18a 113,115 8a b 114 b 19 107,120 9 92 20 87 10a 21 87, 100 b 22 124 f 8 •AOE -14? 2a 89 b 113 3-15 146ir. 3a 88 b 122,153 4 95 5a 122,155 b 90,155 c 155 2 131 89 3 4-6 .. 7 s .103, 122 ...... 103 .103,121 103 106 100 90 125 9a .... b .... 10 lla .... 89 128 .114,115 123 132 112 93 133 6a 88 b 122,161 7 95 8a 90,166 b 92, 166 9a ..; 88 b 114 10 95 11a 88 b 114,175 b .... 12 108 13 14a .... ...87,123 115,120 132 131 8.S 86 86 92 24 90 25 130 26 119,128,130 27 125 Chapter (i la 89, 115, 12ii b 126 2a 126 b 93 3 115 4a 86 b 89 5 96,115 fia 84,115 b 124 7 112 8a 87 b 124 9-10 81 11 „... 95 12a 87 b 91 13 116 Chapter 7 1-6 ...137-139 4a 86 7-9 ...139-142 9a 84 b 125 10-17 81, 142-144 10b 109 11 92,125 12b 88 13b 83 14a 82 b _.. 101 17a 97 b 101 c 125 b 15a 123 b 91.123 Chapter 4 12a Sii b 13 97 14a U.- h 8 Chapter la* ,12i; 3, 98 c 84.176 12 92 Ua 88 2a* .. b .... 3 4a .... b .... 5a .... b .... «>-ll 6b .... 7e .„. 9b .... lla .... 132 89 114 89 90 99 130 .133-137 83 b 117,178 1 4a .„ 95,183 9 132 b 83,184 15 185 Clmpter 2 1-8 145ff. b d ..„ 2-4 4a b oa b „ 6a b 7 8a 114 125 83 104 85 121 113 112 b ...„.122, 187 2a ..„ 92 b 99, 190 3 83, 191 12 13 .122,132 111 92 84 Cliaptor 5 112 128 131 b 87 110 b 130 e 119,194 3 92 3 lin it 10 120 116 82 b 90 7a 114,115 b 117 1) ... 6a 85 ■[OO 1" 118 13a 97 87 8 106 9a' 130 b ... 7 ...99.114 90 1 1 5 lla . 130 106 b 91 c . 86 10 130 8a ... 1. . . 115,123 St .... 112 1 - 119 11a 86 ...83, ll.-> b 130 90 12 .... 116 lla 111 13 120 It 105 14-16 93 12a . . 8-. 13* 130 14a ... 117 * Ven«>!i mnrkeil with an a.iteri.ik belong by clajwification on the pages citcl, though not specifically mcntiono-4 1 The VanitT of the Daughters of Zion 219 4.2-(i _ The CleansiuK Storm 220 5.1-7 The Vineyard „ _ 221 5.*- 10 Wo to the Goilless! „ _ 222 -..11, 12ii, U . 222 .i.lS, lit _ „ 222 ?.'>.:\ 5.20nb, 23, 24a-a 223 -,.24e-2.'> Still is His Hand Outstretched „ 230 3 2i>-30 The Coming of the Assyrian The Call of Isaiah ?H'> r..l-13 223 7.1-9 _ The I'lot of Israel and Aram _ 225 7.10-1« Imniaiiuel 226 7.17-19 The Kgvptian Fly and the Assyrian Bee .„ „. 229 7.20 The Assyrian Swor.l 229 7.21. 22 The Un..,l of Milk and Curds _ 229 7.23. 24 The Land of Thistles and Thorns 229 8.1-4 The Ijny and the Testimony _ 22(; 8.,V8 Thi> Assyrian Flood 227 8.9-10 Immaiuiel „ 226 8.11-20 The Law and the Testimony _. 22t; 8.21-22 _ The Assyrian Flood _. „ 227 8.23 _ _ _ 3.-| 1 9.1-.; The Birth of the Prince 2:'.>'' 9.7 20' Still is His Hand Out-' '■• i 230 10.1 4 Still is His Hand Out 231 10.,-, 1.-, The Assyrian Rod... 234 10 ir. lo; Ili"Vf, 7. 8. 9, 10, 11, 18nl). 17, 18c, 19i-, 19nh, 20. t The verses are translated in the following order: 16, 18bc, 17, 18a, 19. [ 2«7 ] I'tiralhlisiii ill Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 TRANSLATION OF THE KECONSTRUCTED TEXT ISRAEL REBELLIOUS I Hear, Oh ye Heavens, Chaptei Give ear, Oh tliou earth. For it is the Lord that speaks: (2al Sous have I reared. Daughters have I brought up — But agaiust me they rebel. (2t An ox knoweth its owner, An ass its master's crib — Israel doth not know. My people doth not take heed. (3ab< Ah ! nation of sin ! Raee laden witli wrong! 8 1 that hrccdctli rvil! Cliildrcii hnit on rrime ! (4abcd) Your la And Zi They have forsaken the Lord, They have contemned the Holy of Israel, They are estranged from Him, They have turned back. (iabxc) Why would ye be smitten more. And to your anguish add? All the flesh is sore, All tlie heart is faint, Frdin head to sole of foot no spot is sound- Bruise, And stripe. And bleeding wound. Unclosed, Unbound, Unsoftened with ointment: C'*^"* Your country lies waste. Your cities are burnt with fire, land is eaten by strangers before your eyes; ("abci) s daughter is left like a booth in a vineyard. Like a hnt in a eucumber-field. Like the tower of a watchman, (8abc2) (3a) (6b) iTse 9 see p. 243. ]' For verae 16e sec p. 248. [ 2rt9 I'aruUelisiii i„ Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 The earth's good sliall ye eat; If ye refuse and are rebellious, Of the sword shall ye be eaten : For the mouth of the Lord, hath spoken. THE CITY OF FAITHFULNESS How hath beconi(> like a harlot the Citj' of Faithfulness, She full of justice, In whom lodged righteousness! (21abc) Thy silver is turned to dross, Thv wine with water is mixed: (22ab) Thy I'ulers are ruleless, A l)and of robbers, A mnrderers' crew: Each one lovetli bribes, And seeketh after boons : The orphan they right not. And widow's cause comes not before them. Therefore saith the Lord, The Lord of Hosts, The Mighty of Israel : Ah ! I shall avenge me of mine enemies. And take vengeance of mine adversaries; And I shall turn my Iiand upon thee. In the furnace smelt the dross of thee. And take away all the alloy of thee ; And I shall establish thy judges as of old. And th}' counsellors as of ancient time : Then shalt thou once more be called Fortress of Ri Citv of Faithfulness. (23ab, 21(1) (23cd) (23ef) (24a) (24bc) (25) :hteousness, (26cd) [ 270 1 runilhtism in Isniah, Cliiipti rs l-li TlIK tiUOVKS Ol" IDOLATUV Tlirou'fli justice shall Zioii be saved, Tlir()iif,'li rijfliteuusiu'ss, lier people; cJ'ab) Ami sinners shall cease, Ami transgrressors abstain, And tlesortei-s of the Lord be no more. i^Naiii For ashamed shall ye be of the oaks ye have loved, Ye shall blush for the gardens yc chose, (29ab) When they shall be like oaks with withering leaves. Like garilens whose waters have failed, cfOahi And the sturdy oak shall be turmd into tlax. And its branches into dames, At once together shall they burn, And nonk shall qiench. (3lab) TIIK AKHITEK UI' TIIK NATIONS Ami it shall b, at tin nul of time that The mount of the Lor«l shall be fixed as the fii-st of the mountains, xVnd be exalted above the hills; (2ab) Thereto all the nations shall stream. And numy jieoples shall flow, saijiny: (2ab) "Come let us climb to the mount of the Lord, To the house of Jacob's tJod. (3bc) "That he may teach us of his ways, That we may follow in his paths; (3(le) "For from Zion instruction goeth forth, From Jerusalem the word of the Lord; (3fR) "Between the nations shall he judge, Among nuiny peoples arbitrate; (-tab) "And they shall beat their swords to plough-shares, And thi'ir spears to pnining-hooks; {iei) "Nation shall not raise the sword to nation, Neither shall they learn again to war" — (•*«') Come. then. O house of .laeob, let us walk in the light of the Lord. For thou, O house of Jacob, hast forsaki-n thy (Jod. (•'>, fia) [271) ParaUcUsm in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 2 THE LORD ALOXE IS EXALTED I Crawl 'mid tlie cliffs I Burrow in tlie dust! From before the fear of the Lord, And the awe of his majesty. As He rises the earth to affright. (lOabedx) Let mortals crouch, Let man bend low — Be the Lord alone exalted, on that day. (9abs) For man has filled the land with the luxury of Philistia, He is glutted with the ornaments of strangers; (6bc) And his land is filled with silver and gold, To the count of his treasures there is no end; (7ab) And his land is filled with horses. To the count of his chariots there is no end; (^od) And his land is filled with images, To the count of his idols there is no end; (8ax) He worships his own handiwork. The work that his fingers have wrought. (8bc) Hide in the caves of the cliffs And in the caverns of the ground ! From before the fear of the Lord, And the awe of his majesty, As he rises the earth to affright. (lOabcde) And man's pride shall be humbled, And mortal haughtiness brought low. And the Lord alone exalted, on that day. (H) For the Lord of Hosts hath a day for all exalted and high. And all that is lofty and proud; (:2ab) And all Lebanon's cedars, And all Bashan 's oaks ; (I3ab) [272] l\,r,ill.lh,n in IsauiJi, Chniit.rs l-lo uii.vrTER :; Anil all the iiiouiitains lii'rli. Ami all the lofty hills; (!•»»'') And all tho towci-s tall, And all the toworin}; walls; (^-'''a'j) And all tin- Tarshish ships. And all tin- niaj.-sti.' harks. (16ax) Crawl in tin- rifts of th.- n.rks, And in till- i-l.fts of the eliffs, From before the fear of the Lord, And tlie awe of his majesty. As he rises the earth to affrifrht. (21) And man's pride shall lie hundiled. And mortals' hanjrhtincss hronjiht low. And the Lord alone exalted, on that pay. (I7abe) And ON' THAT DAY shall man tlinf^f forth his idols of silver And his idols of pold, (20!ib) The work of his liands. What he wrought to adore, (iOv) The talismans treasured. The amulets dear, (!"•>. 18 f) The searabs of beetles, The earvinfrs of hats. (20(lc«) For verse 22 see [). 272. [273 Paralh'lisin in I.saiah. Chapfcrs 1-10 THE EULEES OF ISEAEL or lo ! tlu^ Lord, the Lord of Hosts, will remove [from Jerusalem the staff And from Judah, the stave, (l) Strong man and warrior, Prophet and judge. Counselor and elder. Notable and prinee. Necromancer and diviner. Man wise in magic and expert in charms; (2, 3) And youths will he set as their rulers. By childishness shall they be swayed; W And the people shall press man upon man. And each upon his neighbor. And they shall rush, the young upon the old, The humble upon the honored; Yea, thej' shall seize each man his brother, Even the son his sire : (5-6a) "Come be Ihou ruler over us — This ruin be uiulrr thy hand."' ("be) And oil that daij hi shall answer, saying: "I cannot be restorer: In my house no bread. Nor anj- clothes — Make me not the nation's ruler." (7) Yea. Jerusalem is ruined. And Judah is fallen-. (Sab) For their tongues have been perverse toward the Lord, And their eyes against his glory have rebelled; The insolence of their faces is witness against them. Their sin like Sodom have they told, Like Gomorrah, they have not hid — (8c-9b) Wo to their souls ! for to themselves have they dealt ill. And the fruit of their deeds they shall eat. " (9c, lObs) ily pi'ople — its leaders ari' childish. And women over them rule — I'anilhlism in ls,iiah, Chaijlns 1-10 219 Cll.M'TKH 3 Jly people! thy -.Miitlfs an- mis^Miiiliiifr, The eoui-se of thy piiths tln-y eoiil'oimd. ('2) For trial the Lord doth stiiiid, He rises to judge his people: The Lord enters into jtidfjnient, With his people's elders and prinees: (13a-14b) 'And yi- — ye iiave stripped the vineyard, In your homes is the plunder of grapes — ■What mean ye by crushing my people, By grindingthe face of the poor?" (14c-15) Oracle of mij Lord, the LonI of Hosts. THE VANITY OF TIIK DAUlillTERS OF ZIOX Ami the Lord hath said: (l*5a) Beea\ise that the daught«'i-s of Zitm are vain, Bending of neek. And ogling of eye. While they walk with tripping gait. And ihey .sway upon their feet. (iiK.iifi The Lord will strip the heads of Zion's daughtei-s. The Lord their huttoeks will lay bare: (17) And on that day the Lord will remove the glory of their [sunlfts and thrir moonlcts Thi'ir pendants and their chains, Their veils and their turbans. Their armlets and their bands, Their finger-rings and their nose-rings. Their amuh'ts and tln-ir eimrms, Their pni-ses and their mirroi-s, Their tunics and their nibes. Their mantles and their cloaks. Their hoods and their veils : (18-23) And there shall be in place of balsam, dust. In place of girdle, a rope. In place of braids, baldness. In place of garments of joy. a girding of sack — Tears, in place of beauty. (24) Parallel ish) hi Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 3 Thy men shall fall by the sword, And thy strength, in war — (25) Yea, lier gates shall mourn, And her doorways lament, And desolate shall she sit on the ground. ' (26) Chapter 4 And seven ivonien shall seize on that day one man and say, "Our bread will we eat. Our own elothes will we wear — But let us be called by thy name. Put an end to our shame." (4.1) TPIE CLEANSING STORM And OH that day The flowers of the field shall he splendid in brauty. And the trees of the land be glorious in majesty For the saved in Israel, For those destined to life in Judah ; (2abc, 3d) And the remnant in Zion And thev that are left in Jerusalem Shall "Holy" be called, "God's People" be named. (3abcx) When the Lord shall have washed away the filth of Zion. And from Jerusalem shall have rinsed away the blood. With a storm flood of rain. And a burning wind : (4) The Lord will create over all of Zion's mountain And over all her sacred site, A cloud of smoke bj' day. And the light of a flaming fire by night ; (5a-d) Yea, his glory shall cover all of her, And a canopy o'er her shall there be, As a shadow from the heat, And as a covert from the storm. (5e-6) [276 I'tirnlli Usui in Isuiiili, Chiipti rs 1-10 221 CiiArTKR ;■; TiiK vi.\i:vAi;i> Lit inc sint; now of my bflovctl, Of my vineyard, a song of love : (la. ^> A viiuvanl lia.l 1 us h.^lowd, jMTtilr, OM II llill. (led) And 1 du-r il. Anil 1 I'leaivd it. In it plantcil i-lioici'st vines; In its midst 1 Imilt a tower. And in it hewed a vat : (2a-c) Tlii'ii I hoped it would yii'id me [grapes, r.iif it yielded— galls. (2fg) And now, Jer\i.salem"s dwellers, And Judah's men, Judge, I pray, between me And between my vineyard: (3) Wiiat for my vineyard eould I have done That I left \indone? Why did I hope it would yield me grapes And it yielded galls?" (4) Well, then, let mc answer to you — What to my vineyard Til do: ('nb) Destroy its hedge That it be rninrd. Break its wall That it be erushed ; (Sd) And I shall make it a thieket^ It shall be unpruned. And thistles and thorns shall spring up — It shall be nnhoed: And the elonds shall I eharge. Lest they rain there any rain. (6^ But the vineyard of the Lord Is Israel's house And the people of Judali Are his eherished vine, (7ab) And he imped for equity. But beiiold. inirpiity ! And for righteousness. But behold, frightfulnesvs! (7c i^a?) Therefore, doth Hell with greediness gape. And unending wide her mouth doth ope, And down shall go their splendor and noise. And tliere tlieir din be swallowed up. (14s) III Wo ! those wlio drag sin with ropes of wrong, And guilt, with cords of evil; Who say: "Let hasten, let hurry, His work, let us see! Bring on, Bi'ing in, the plan of Israel's Holy, let us know!" " (18, 19) Therefore " \ crsc 22 IS a variant: Wo to the valiant — in l)out.s of bibbing, To tlie valorous — in mixing drink. •For 12bc, 13, see after 21. sFor ^'>, Ki, 17, see the notes. [278] I'linilhlism ill Isiiiiili. Clniiitirs J-10 Wo! those ill their own sijrht wise, 111 their own eyes, understanding, (21) Wliile the woriv of the Lord they do not regard, And the deeds of his iiand they do not sec; (I2ed) 'riureriire. my peojde shall perish- in want of knowledge. In lack of imderstandiii'r shall they he undone: (l^ax) Her Hollies shall famish with huiiger. Her throngs shall he parehed with thirst. (I3bc) Wo! those who eall had go.ul and good eall had. Who turn light into darkness and darkness into light. Who for a hrihe justify sinners. And of justiee defraud the just : <-Oal«. 23) Therefore, as when stuhhle feeds tongues of fire. As when chaff falls befori' flames. Their roots shall rust into mold, Th.-ir flo\Yers unfold as dust. (24a-di>) TIIK (ALL OK ISAl.VH In the year that king I'zziah died. T saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted up, and his train filled the temple. Ahove if stood the seraphim: i-aeh one had six wings; with twain he covered his fa<'e, and with twain he covered his feet, and with twain he did fly. And oiu' cried unto anotlur, and said : "Hold. holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts: The whole earth is full of his glory." (1-4) And the jiast.s of the door moved at the voice of him that eried, and the house was filled with smoke. Then said I : "Woe is me. for that I am undone: For that I am a man of unclean lijis And amid n people of unclean lips do T dwell; For mine eves have .seen the King, the Ijord of Hosf.s." " (■«. r,) l"..r vrnM-s 24i'-2.'), !><•<• p. 2.10; for vrriM's 2r>-20, wo p. 2.12. ( 279 ] Parallel ism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Then flew one of the seraphim unto me, having a live coal in his hand, which he had taken with the tongs from off the altar. And he laid it upon my mouth, and said, "Lo, this hath tducbcd thy lips, And tliinc iiii(iuity is taken away. And thy sin is ]nn'i;'ed."' i^h"!) Then I heard the voice of the Lord, saying: "Whom shall 1 send. And who will go for us?" Then said I : " Here am I : send me. " ' And he said : "Go and tell this people : 'Hear ye. hut understand not, See ye, but perceive not. Fatten this people's heart, Deafen its ears. Blind its eyes, Lest it see with its eyes. And hear with its ears. And understand with its heart. And turn. And be healed." " (8-10) Then said I. "How long, my Lord?" and he answered: "Till cities be left without dwellers. And houses without man ; Till the Lord make wide the waste in the land, ilake broad the desolation in the midst of the earth ; And there be therein but a tithe, And there be still but a remnant. Like an oak left in a clearing. Like a terebinth standing in seed-land." (11-13) [280 I'anilhlisnt ill IsiiKih. Cluipt, rx I-IO TIIK TLOT OF ISRAEL AND ARAM And it caiiu- to pius-s in tlic iluys of Aliaz, the son of .lotliani, tlie son of I'zziah, kin«j: of .hulali, tliat Rezin the kinj; of Syria, and Tckali tin- son of Hiinaliah. kinjr of Israel, went up to Jeru- salem to war against it. Init eoukl not prevail against it. And it was told the house of David, sayinfj: "Syria is eonfederate witli Ephraini"; and his heart was moved, and the heart of his people, as the trees of tlie wood are moved with the wind. Then •liiifr-l)l(iek. Ami as a stmiil)liii};-st()iic, Ami as a rook of offence To till' House of Israel, Ami as a sjin. And as a snare. To the dwellers in .lerusalem. Ami tliroufrli them niaiiv shall stuniMe, Ami shall fall. Ami shall he lirtiken, Ami shall lie snared. And shall be eaufjht. (11-15) Hind up the testimony for my follo\vei"s, Seal uj) the law among my diseiples; (l") \]id wlu'ii men say to you : "(Jo to the neeromaticcrs and wizards. Those that mutter and ehirp — To the dead in behalf of the living — " "Should not a people f. rv /-/( CllArTEK 7 THK Er.Yl'TlAN FLY AND TUK ASSYRIAN BKE Till- Lord -shall briii;? upon tlicc luul upon tiiy people, and upon thy fatiier's house {lays that have not eonie since the day tiiat Ki>hraini separated from .Indaii. (7-17) And it shall came to pass on tluit day: The Lord will iiiss to the Hy at the end of the rivers of Egypt, And to the bee in Assyria's land. And they siiall all eitnie and light in the canons of tlie steeps And the crannies of the ciifTs, In each thorny-copse, And in each grassy cove. (18,19) TIIK ASSVKIAN SWOIil) 0)1 that dun My Lord will shave with a razor of hire And with a blade that is strange The hair of the head and the feet — Yea, the beard will it sweep o(T. TIIK LAND OI' TIIISTLKS AND THORNS And it shall come to pass on that da;/: Each place where grow a thousand vines for ten thousand (liiii> > Shall be thick with thistles and thorns; All the fields and the hills that are hoed with the hoe. Shall be thick with thistles and thorns; Thi-re the ox will tramp and the Hocks will tread. There will men go with arrow and bow. For all shall be thistles and thorns. {2.'J-24) Verse 21 : The Land »r Mn.K and C'iiu>s And it ahall e»n\r tn />»,«.« on that dau : Eaoh mnn slinll nniiriiili n cnlf of the herds. And n shofp of the florks. And from the rich yield of milk. All left in the Innd shall eat curds. Hebrew: 'lUpIt grplun b''ilii>h ktnt-jdi. [2*-. 230 PdniUclism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapters o, E) STILL IS HIS HAND OUTSTRETCHED I For they rejeotrd tin- law of tlie Lord of Hosts, Aud the word of tlie Iloly of Israel spurued, (5.24ef) Therefore, the Lord's wrath against his people was hot, He stretched forth his hand against them aud smote, And the mountains flowed with the blood of the slain. And their corpses lilje rubbish lay in the streets — With all this his wrath turned not. Still was his hand oi'tstrktched. (25) But the jieoplc turned not to their smiter, Tlie Luril of Hosts they did not seek ; (9-12) Their leaders were ever misleading And they that the.y guided, misled, (l^) For all of them were wicked, profane, Each mouth did godlesslj- speak — (leed) Therefore, the Lord from Israel cut head and tail. Branch and rush in a single day, (13) In their youths he took no delight. To their orphans he showed no love. And their widows he did not spare — (ifiab) With all this his wrath turned not. Still was his hand outstretched. (I6ef) III A crash sent the Lord throughout Jacob, And ruin upon Israel; (7) But the people, all of them, mocked. And said in pride, with insolent hearts: (8) "Bricks have fallen, we will build with stone, Sj'camores are cut down — cedars we'll replace": (9) So the Lord exalted against them their foes. Their enemies did he spur on: (10) [286] ]'(iralhll.s,ii ill Isiiiiih. CluiptTs 1-10 2:51 CllAI'TEKS !), 10 Aram in I'miit. IMiilistia rroiii ln-liiiul, And Isiwl liy moutlifuls tluy atf— (llal)c) With am. this his wuath TiKNicn not, STII.I. was his hand (HTSTUKTCHKl). (IMe) IV By the nifje of the Lord was tlir world intlaniod. And tlif pcopK- wen- as tin- food of wrath, ( l«i>l)i For wiokodncss burnt as a fire. That C'onsinnos the thistles and thorns, (17ab) Whih' the forest tliiekets blaze. And the valleys roll up in smoke; (17cd) (Tiiereforc) no man i)itied his brother, Each ate the Hesh of his friend, (I8e, I9c) Cut on the rif;lit, and was hungry, DevoiH-ed on the left, nor was full : (19ab) Menasseh, Ephraim, Ephrnini, Menasseh, Together they two against Judah — (20abc) With am, this hi.s wrath tirned not, Stii.i. was his hand oitstretched. (20de) Wo to d p. 234; for 1 0.1 2- 1. "> soo p. 23.'>. (287) Parallel ism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 THE COMING OF THE, ASSYRIAN I And lie will raise a flag to a far-off folk. And hiss them here from the end of the earth, Aud see ! with haste, With speed they come : None of them tires, None of them trips, Nor does he slumber, Nor does he sleep ; Nor does he loose the cloth of his loins. Nor does he snap the lace of his shoe; And his arrows are sharp. All his bows are bent. The hoofs of his horses seem like flint, His chariot-wheels like the whirling wind. He roars like a lion, He growls like its whelp. He seizes, he carries away his prey — And none can save. (5 5.30 is a variant of 8.21: And on that day will he growl o'er him like the growling Then will lie look to the earth, But lo! distress, And for the light- In the clouds is night. [288] I'arallilhni in Jsiiiah. Vhaptos 1-lU 2:33 (.■hapter 10 (From the Nurtli) he comes, lie has jiseemled to Ai : He has crossed by Mijrron, 111 Miehma-s his ba{:gag;e he stores: He lias pas-seil over The Pass, At Geba Lodjje he lias lodged. Ha-rama is iiorrified, Uibeath yaiil has Hed : Madmena is moved. The people of (iebim refuge seek : Shrill thy eall, Bath (.iallim! Kaise thy voice, O Betii-Azmaveth ! Listen, Layisha! Answer, Aiiatlioth ! — Still today on Nob he will stand And his hand will wave — O Mount of Zion's daughter, 0JERISALE.M-SI1ILL1 (10.28-32.0) For 10.33, 3i »«•<• p. 284. [289] 234 ParaUilisin in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 10 THE ASSYRIAN EOD I AVo Assyria, rod of my wrath And staff in the hand of mine ire, (5) Against au impious people did I send him. Against the folk of my anger, give him command : To bear away prey, To seize upon spoil ; (tJa-d-c) But lie not thus was minded, His heart iK)t thus devised — Destruction was in liis lieart. The annihilation of nations not a few: ' (7) For he said: "Are not my captives together all kings? Is not like Carcemish Calno? "Is not like Arpad Hamath ? Is not like Damascus Samaria? (8-9) "As my hand to these kings and their idols hath reached. Shall it from Jerusalem and her icons fall short? (lOax) "Nay, as even to Samaria and her images have I done, So also to Jerusalem and her gods shall I do." (H) But wluMi my Lord sliall have ended his work on Zion's mount. And his task on Ji>rusalem, He will punish the haughty pride of the heart of Assyria's king, And the boastful arrogance of his eyes; (12) Bfeausf hr said: "By the .strength of mine own hand have I acted, And by mine own wisdom liave I wrought; (I3ai)) "The boundaries of the pei]|ilis have I moved. And I have despoiled their stores; (13cd) "I have brought down the glory of their habitants. To be trampled like the mire of the streets, (13^, «c) I'drallilixni in Isaiah, Chaptns 1-10 ClIArTKIl 10 "My liaiid liatli rciU'lud for tin' iiiit ions' sti-ciif.'lli as for a iicst- As nuMi {ratliiM- etrsrs have 1 iiatlH'rftl the i)o\vi'r of tlu- earth — ■'And iioiu' Happid liis wiiifr Or jiartod his heak to pci']i" — (l- Shall the axo boast ajrainst him that with it licws? Shall thi' saw vaunt ajrainst hini that it doth wield? — As thoufrh a staff should wield him that raised it I As thou-rh tlie rod should lift iiim— that is not wood! (l''- Ul Thnforr thus sailh mi) Lord, th, Lord of Hosts: O my people, do not fear, O dwelhrs ill Zion, he not dismayed Of Assyria who smites thee with a rod. And who raises apainst thee his staff; For yet a little and my wrath shall pass. And my anjrer ajrainst tin'e shall all he spent : Then a-20 !f similar formation, the two strophes together formintr a symmetrical wliole (strophic parallelism). The em])hatic position of the word "Lord" in the Hebrew of this strophe should be noted: "when it is the Lord who speaks, even the heavens listen"; the theme of obedience is thus subtly implied. 2. (rpests that it may oripinnlly have formed two lines. A comparison with Is. 23.4, where the same pair of .synonyfns. "nourish" and "brinjr "p." oeeurs. followed by a masculine [293] FmrsiJIllfliism »« IsmHioh. CkaptTTf 1-M hjK .. .^^rmm~3asdi'm& 3!Hak« it: eercasia tisat Aj', ailtsr- an; VsiS in. fci> ti!.i->i!i£fti!:s. M«)ire«>T¥-r, tfcuSPe ' r-SEio^Trfii ■caae- ik -Isie al'^r^j;. anspiici'Bus eases «f the > - s3^-.f Sie -srr,ii|,i lEiiis- lie iA^iatiisal im form -iritii the pc-. snrpjii- .ni-m ratjiiiriiimij- TTsr.n Hmts el'Dselly sriaoniTTiiiMMis. idlis'iirc^i iy a 'TTfTiiT 5iL if-:umwii.a,T:f,T-hrf^W jmipire (SisEanit paraHelisni ' . to iriiiiefc. "— ."-in. amtiiiiie^if tiniiraiiEiiit pansIldlisiiBi as ii: ... ""- rus liKrea. VO' Gif«i tiuionDigfe Israel refmses " - - " - - ""soans"" m t&e He-bireTr ,€ Zsiani : Tine iSBupliiasorf i«lea ©f IsemI -. foirtes ttn? mimd i imij sdll n>r pirest-inr s? ffindertoanes. i- 3. TTa^f nr k^-xiwTrci iis •F»-aer. il.'t aa»i tSie- ^sS Itife aiic5Jia > The i rTti . 'S i T i 'g v- ftwiM ti/r tfepe^ liiae tO' tke fwrar line scraplBe inuate £ ^QSD- c . Ti SiT'gr m tliie Spip?. r]!!i,:„Tffi|:t!i ilie TiTajnsitiiciiiffi is a smblie 'I'OL'r. TIk- usrm '"'O'-wiaier." qH'iid?. h very eluse, im agTnratire lasage. -.'} "fsidKrr ": in IV-Et. g2-(5 tiie inr©' Tensas, "faitiner" and "onrmer"' A. V. . --hsz iiDss Ti'ii'i-nsiT Tki-*"' ■' euf^iinr tengetfeier. Butt im the ifrr'-ai si-rsHi-rr •■•;■: Tjie paralielism feer^ the "woi^ ""erfb^* C«r srinsrr &.-i> -■: ^ri-r 3cl-fa. Oif dis^bediejuee tine s5iii«^estiiMa of m:rT-sz:ryir sei ,i_>: -c sr-zLriiirry. in Israel's failoTe to re«^SHiie ^^ >'"r---_rf iLiT-r-V ■ :->.>i:igs- Tiie last ttro stidnod «f 1*e 5;:^^ '7'^-. — .-^r i-j.^i^ai- - .. - --. . --55^-, fjmuQjg^^iately preeeding, £1^ —*'■ r^^^-i r^ - _:r kas £WEe before. "Dotfe m-ic kz,:--" ii,i -■,: _-• ^^^ .giiikmA e3:pr>fssed Wjt^r: : :.L:- iirzii- ,-3- , V rjirii.-,iu,.5Ei sTirp^pHes t&e objee* im tlbomgbt: I'aralliliniii in ImiUih, C'hiipttrs l-li> '2'-i9 C'llAPTWI I "Israel ds not know and reeoirnize me"; but also, without olijcft : ■"Israi'l is without knowh-d{?f and understandinjf." in all thf implications of those terms. The whole propheey to this p<»int. then, is in a way summed up in these two lims. Tin- s«'etioii consists of ten lines; and it will In- seen that about ten lines are fre<|U(ntly piven in Isaiah to the development of a th<-mt — a statement which does not implj-, of course, that the |)rophet counted the lines. 4. (a) Ah, sinful nation, (b^ n people laden with ioiqnitj, (e ) a MtM of evil-Uoern, (eeome ■ ly : "they are Is. 42.17. 50.5: • ' 'turned (away) back." lu'umjhu Vi^»>r; 1, that the words "fnim Him" "they have turne«l, iiM-'diAir. nAf'njku, havi- fallen out, and that th'- [29.-. I 240 I'artdhlism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 1 strophe should be restored to one of four lines like that pi-e- ceding, and without any linguistic gaucherie. 5. (a) Why should ye be strickeu any more? (b) Ye will revolt more and more' (lit. "add revolt''). Even if these two lines are read as parallels in form, with "why" (.or "where") repeated in thought before the second, they are not logically parallel: and if "why" is not supplied, the second clause would seem to be subordinate to the tirst, a circumstantial clause in form. P.sychologically there seems to be no reason here for the avoidance of parallelism. There is no climax and no sudden injection of a new idea in the word "revolt" — indeed, that idea has been repeatedly expressed in the four lines just preceding; in the tiret line of this new stanza, the address turns from the heavens and earth to the people themselves, and the thought turns to jmnishment; and, with tht' exception of the line in quest inn. wliirh blurs the artistic unity of the structure, the theme of punishment is developed in par- allelism through verse 9. Moreover, the natural expectation of parallelism is strengthened by the fact that "any more," 'odh, and "more and more," tosifu, are, indeed, parallel terms. It is barely possible, of coui-se, that like other words denoting an attitude toward God, .s(7r(7. "revolt," by a species of metonymy, dcnoti's at the same time thr rceiin-oeal attitude of God toward the revolter, i.e., desertion of man by God, hence punishment and disaster (cf. 'aicoii: both "iniquity" and "punishment"; so also x^ ^' / {'^dhdqd, "righteousness" and "sal- vation"; hdrckh, "kneel to" (lit. "adore") and "cause to prosper"; kdhhdd, God's "glory," and man's "reverence"; see also the note on hldhdr, '2.11). But it is far more likely that in the course of ritlicr written or oral tradition, when the orig- inal stylistic beauty of the prophecy came to be neglected, sard replaced some word denoting specifically "pain," "anguish," e.g., the approximate homonj-m (^drd (cf. Jer. 49.24, where i^drd denotes physical anguish; and with the restored phrase "add anguish," i.e.. "increase your anguish," cf. Is. 29.19: "the meek shall add joy": "increase their joy"). [296] I'linilhli.sni ill Isaiiili, I'liii/jtirs l-IO 241 t'll.M'TKK 1 5-fi. (."c) The whole head is sii-k, (■!) iiikI tlio wliolc lieart faint. (m occurs only in these two pa.ssapes; its formation is some- what irrepular, and it was quite possibly coined by Isaiaii him- self, in which cjuse the phrase in tiic Psalms would seem to be a iiuotation from Isaiah, and to preserve the oritrinal form of the expression. 6. (t>) Wounds, and lirui.sos, ami putrifying sores; (o) tliey li.ive not been flost>d, neither bound up, neither mollified with oint- ment. If the preci'tlinp is a three line strophe, then this section also inipht be jlividod to nnike two three line strophes, each consist- iiifr of two sinple synonjnns parallel in form (mascidine), plus a third synonym (feminine) modified by an additional word. In thoupht, also, these two stmphes are parallel to the |)reced- inp: the body is sick; it is all one wound; it is not treated. (297 1 2-1:2 Parallel ism in Isaiah, Chapiers 1-10 Chapter 1 7. (a) Your country (is) desolate, (b) your cities (are) burned with fire: (c) your land, strangers devour it in your presence, (d) and (it is) desolate, as overthrown by strangers. This strophe is identical in meaning with tlie last, witli the substitution of literal for figurative terms; it is an antistrophe in thought. Stylistically, the last phrase ("and it is desolate," etc., lit. "and desolation") is oflfensive: it contains a repetition of two words already used in the strophe, "desolate" and "strangers"; or of one term, if for "strangers" be substituted the reading "Sodom," as suggested by some critics: "and deso- late like the overthrowing of Sodom"" — which, in its turn, is objectionable from another standjioint (see below). Prob- ably the words "desolate" and "strangers" have come from some marginal note on these words, while "overthrown," k'^- )nahp(~khath, similarly is due to the reference to Sodom below; thisc words were tlien taken up by a copyist and combined into the awkward appendage to the strophe. Without it the verse consists of two normal lines plus a third longer line, the third, perhaps, excessively long; possibly l'^-neghd''khem, "in your presence,"' also has come from the margin, in reality a gloss d^gha)i'klinii. "ynur corn," exjilaining "your land."' 8. (a) And the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vine- yard, (b) as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers, (c) as a besieged (lit. "guarded") city. Again, apparently, a three sticlioi strophe, this time with the longer line first; in form it is inversely parallel to the preceding strophe. The thought parallelism, however, is obscured in 8c ; for the phrase "like a guarded city," k'^-'ir n^qurd, is not parallel to "cottage" (lit. "booth"), and "lodge.'" "Guarded city," if it occurred elsewhere, would certainly be interpreted "city i>re- served from danger" or possibly "garrisoned," like the Arabic madhia niaxrfisn or maxfufha; or "city formerly guarded" (cf. 1.21, "the [once] faithful city"; 27.10, "the [once] forti- fied city is desolate"). To read (or understand), instead, "blockaded city" still leaves the picture blurred; the assump- tion must be tltat Isaiah left the picture of absolute loneliness expressed in the first two lines as clear as it is left in 30,17: [298] /'.in(//-//.sm in Is„i„h. ClKiplns 1-10 '-M:! ClIAPTKU 1 ••till y.' 1m' l.-fl as a mast [torni; A. V. ■iM-aiM.n') upon tin- top of a mountain, and as an cnsi-.Mi on a hill." I'crliaiis tlic sim|)li'st coiTfi'tion woukl he to omit the last "as." A', and ivatl: "as a lodjrf in a jrardi'ii of cucuininTs (is) the ( t;uardfd i-ity"; the strop'i*' w«>idd then eonsist of two lines of ii|ual lenjrth. Hut it .seems more pr(>l)alile that tlie form of the strophe as handed down is eorreet. even if some more violent ehan«:e in tlie te.\t is neees.sary to restore its eonsistency. Tlie word )i'\i'iri'i svigtre-sts the Arahie ualhiira (ef. Aramaie ndtonl), applied to the lijrht seatTold on whieh the watehman stands in the orehards around Dama.seus; ]ierhaps in ' ir. "city." there is a eorruption of simie sueh word as 'onii (with the n repeated from the next wordl : in the .Jerusalem Talmud to Jii'ibil lialhnl i.\.16il oeeurs •Inhiyri (root 'iiran or T/r.') : "llolzfreriiste worauf die Wiieliter der Felder zur Tmsehau standen" (Levy, Nculub. W'lirlrrbiich). Finally, there is tin- possibility that ' ir n^\'urt'i is a eorruption for ' ir h'\riril. and this an a.ssoeiative lapsiiit liiitjiuii for iiiifihfltil /i'. 9. (n) Except tlif Lonl Iinuld have been"), whereas elsewhere throughout this propheey. ami. indeed, praetieally alwa.vs he identifies himself 244 I'anillvlism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 1 entirely with the diviue voice (sueli an exception as the term "our God," in verse 10, is without significance, while that in 2.5 will be explained later). The words sound like an "aside," injected at a later time; for they blur the evident intent to pic- ture a process of destruction still threatening absolute extinction unless reformation is iniiiicdiatt' ; ef. 2.22. Leaving aside the objection to tlie first piTson, the verse might be restored to parallelism and consistency of theme by omitting the protasis, and reading simply: "almost are we become as Sodom, do we resemble Gomorrah." But there is still the strong objection to i^erson, and to the further fact that it weakens the force of the following lines ; the whole strophe is probably a gloss. 10. (a) Hear tlie words of the Lord ye rulers of Sodom; (b) give ear unto the law of our God, ye people of Gomorrah. These two lines are an example of perfect parallelism ; and yet, while submissive to the self-imposed resti'aiut of form, the Prophet-poet in a characteristic manner, which gains in dramatic force just because of that formal restraint, by the twist of a single phrase turns his prophecy into a direct and scathing denunciation of his audience. The address "Hear the word of the Lord, ye princes" contains no suggestion of the bitter sar- casm to come at the end of the line ; indeed, if verses lOff. belong with verses 2 to 9 as one prophecy, the first words of verse 10 intentionally recall the parallel address ("Hear, heaven!") in verse 2, and allow tlie listening princes the expectation that they, too, are to l)e called upon to hear of Israel's troubles and faults; a recital to wliich they are ready to listen sympathet- ically, since according to the fashion of human nature, they have not realized their own share in guilt. "With the end of the line ("Sodom") the appeal becomes suddenly a condemnation. Again, in the next line, the ordinary course of parallelism would probably have led the hearer to expect parallel to "princes of Sodom" such a phrase as "leaders of Gomorrah" (see e.g.. Judges 5.3: "Hear, ye kings; give ear, ye princes"") ; but, instead, the people themselves are swept into the denunciation. Sucli a sudden sarcastic turn to a phrase is found also in 5.22 ill Isiiiiih, Cluiptirs J-IO (••All! tliosi" wild arc mitrlitv — in ilriiikiii;,' wiiii-I" St'o fiirtlior- nion; the note to 3.6). 11-13. (Un) To what purpo.ii" is tlio iniiltituilo of your sucrilices unto mof .snitli tlio LonI ; (li) I iini full of tlif burnt ofToriiiKN of ruMi.t, (o> and tlie fat of fi'd beasts; (d) anil 1 doli(;lit not in the blood of bullocks, (e) or of lambs, or of lie goats. (12) Wlien ye fonie to ajipear before me, wlio liatli required this at your baud to tread my rourtsf (13a) BrinR no more vain oblations: (b) incense is an abomination unto me, (e) the new moons and sabbaths, the i-alliuR of assemblies, I eaniiot away with; (d) (it is) iniquity, even the solemn meeting. (14a) Your new moons and your appointoil feasts my soul hateth; (b) they are a trouble unto me; (e) I am weary to bear (them). (15a) And when ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine eyes from you; (b) yea, when ye make mauy prayers, I will not hear: (e) your hands are full of blooil. Ill this .series of voi*sos the general intent of parallelism seems evident; eaeli phase has at least one parallel (exeept "saith the Lord." whieh, not forming' |iart of the propheey, may always ill- refrarded as parenthetieal ). As the text stands at present, however, the parallelistie order does not always stand ont as elearly as it has in previous strophes; nor is the theme developed in (|uite the lojrieal nninner one is led to expeet in Isaiah. Surely tile elear visualization of a xeiiie of fornml serviee sueh as is here deserilied would result in plaein^ at the l)ejrinniny a copyist in the wronp place. The transposition produces at the .same time structural parallelism at the openinii, and " l>ui'nt-offering.s, "' 'oloth; in apposition with which foHows a series of specific terms. It should further be noticed that with these slight transpositions there results also a natural progression in the description of the divine attitude toward service : from a rhetorical questioning of its utility through an expression of satiety, displeasure, weariness, and loathing, to the climax in verse 15, absolute rejection. In verse 13, the words "vain," shdw, and "iniquity," dwcii, are striking; they soften the idea, expressed up to this point, tliat God rejects formal hand and lip service — they liave the appearance of an afterthought ; for surely the logical place for such modifying terms would have been at the beginning or at the end ; it could not have been Isaiah 's intention to condemn all other service, whether "vain" or not, and condemn only such oblation as is "vain." Moreover, the word "iniquity," dwen, is awkwardly inserted into the middle of what would otherwise be a perfectly natural phrase, "the calling of assemblies and [R. V. "I'vi'ii""] the solrmn meeting." q'rd' hiiqrd' \ra-' "rdrd. Evidently the interrupting words have come from the margin ; Id' dlihal was ^vritten tliere because accidentally omitted from its proper place; while divoi (like the corresponding s/iaiii above), was the addition of a reader who wished to soften the absolute condemnation of service. If, nevertheless, 'dwen and shdw are to be retained, they must at least be placed in parallelism. Surely, too, in verse 14 "your new moons,"" ^^odhshi'khriii. is a careless slip: thr new moon lias just been mi'Utioned in verse 13; intended was evidently "your fi'stivals," \ag-17. (Itia) Wash you, (b) make you clean; (c) put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes; (d) cease to do evil; (17a) learn to do well; (b) seek judgment, (c) release the oppressed; (d) judge the fatherless; (e) plead for the widow. The syntactic parallelism is evident because of the nine im- peratives; but elo.scr logical parallelism grovips the following (lairs: "wash" and "cleanse"'; "cea.sc to do evil," "loarn to ( 303 1 248 Parallel mi! in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 1 do well"; "judge the fatherless," "plead for the widow." The first couplet ("wash you," "make you clean") is a figurative general introduction to the whole series of specific, literal terms that follows, and at the same time forms a parallelistic connec- tion with the end (verse 15) of the last strophe as restored (your hands arc bloody, your lips defiled: wa.sh you, i.e. your hands; cleanse you, i.e. your lips). Noticealile is the excessive length of the line "Put away the evil of j'our doings from before mine eyes"; the line is suspicious also because of the repetition of the i-oot (though not the exact form) "evil" ; "put away the evil of your deeds" and "cease to do evil" are too nearly identical to justify the repetition even in a passage as detailed as this; for surely the addition of the words "from before mine eyes" to the first of these phrases cannot be meant to be emphatic (i.e., do your evil deeds elsewliere) ; "put away," lidslru. by itself means "make an i-nd df" (cf. verses 25 and 3. IS; Ji-r. 4.4). The similar phrase "before you" has been noticed in verse 7; see again in 13.16; also Amos 9.3; it is a phrase which might readily slip off the tongue (or the pen) of a reader or an editor. Sj-mmetry is secured by omitting this line of glosses; read hds'irn for 'ashshfru (lit. (a) "lead" or (b) "call happy") ; and correct the a-n-a^ Xeyofj-erop \'r7»u7r to x">»'''S ("violence," "injustice") in 17e. 18-20. (18a) Como now, and let us reason together, saith the LorJ: (b) Though your sins be as scarlet, tliey shall be as ivhite as snow; (e) though they be red like crimson, they shall be as wool. (19) If ye be willing and obedient, ye shall eat of the good of the land; (20a) But if ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured with the sword; (b) for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it. A double pair of parallels, each of the four stiehoi in the form of a hyjiDtlietical senlenec, stand between two single lines (18a, 2()b). whicli t(i a certain extent, also form a parallel; i.e., an example of the "eiiveln]ie" eonstructiou : at the same time the last stichos. "I-"(ir th.> month of the Lord hath spoken." is parallel to a phrase in the first strophe of tlie whole prophecy (verse 2). [ ;^04 ] ranillillsni ill Isaiah. Cluiiitns 1-JO 1249 ClI.VPTKK 1 Of til.- four iiit.Tv.iiinj,' s.'iit.'iici-s, the s.roiul pair ("if yi- bo williii;;. cti-. ") (.•oiitaiii a I'li-ar statcuifiit of tlio lojiiful, just n-siilts (if Israel's i-oiuliK't ; aiul the first pair, east in exaetly the same forin, must he interpreted also as expressiu'r a lo^ieal auil just eonelusioii: if a man sins, he must reiient and make reparation, tind the ileeper the sin, the frreater the neeil of re- pentanee; "if your sins arc as searlet. tiien sluill they beeome (shall you make them) white as snow; then if they are white as snow (if you are wholly ohediont), you shall prosper; but if you are rebi-llious (if your sins do not beeome white as wool and snow), your punishment shall eontinue even unto absolute destruetion." Sueh must be the emphasis in these verses if there is any signifieance to the parallelism in formal and syn- taetie eonstruetion. 2\. (a) How is tlio faithful I'ity booonic nii linrlot! (li) (it was) full iif juil);m>-iit, (f) righteousness IoiIki'iI in it; (cl) hut now uiunloriTS. The propheey extendin;: from vcrsi' "Jl thniuf,'li verse 2U .-.hows almost |)erfeet parallelism. Thoujjrh the riiynie also is notieeable. it is jiossibly aeeidental (see also •J.ti): inileed, it is sometimes impossible in parallelism to avoid that defrree of rhyme whieli extends only to verbal aiul nominal syllabie snftixis; anil this faet may explain the oripin of rhyme in the Arable suf . In verse 21 the terms "faithful city." "the one full of judfr- nunt ■ (or "justiee"). "in which abode riphti-ousness" are not oidy thonpht parallels, but also, to a jrreati-r extent than the Knplish reveals, syntaetie parallels. Tlie eonstruetion of noun i;overninp a following abstraet penitive so freijuently takis the plaee of noun and (in Semities followinp) adjeetivc that the two eonstrnetions become almost identical to the linguistic con- sciousness; and both in later Hebrew and in later Arabic the tendency is to n'vc to the adji-ctivc the construction proper to the abstract noun. The relative clause, also, is so closely iden- tical with the adjietive (or participbO appositive that in strict 30.-) I 250 PardUelisHi in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 1 Semitic syntax it must submit to the same law of deliuiteuess as the adjective; and on the other hand, as the adjective itself may always be used as an independent substantive (e.g., in verse 24 "the mighty of Israel"), so the relative clause may take the place of a substantive (see e.g., 2.8, 20, and the note to 2.22) ; here the clause "righteousness lodged in it" may be a relative clause, with relative pronoun omitted (cf. 10.24) ; it is prac- tically the equivalent of "in which righteousness used to lodge," "the former righteous one"; and its appositional parallelistic nature is made certain by 26c, the refrain, where "city of righteousness" is substituted for it. ^lon'ovcr, inasmuch as ydlln, "lodge," is frequently used of abstract qualities whieli "continue. ■■ the cUmsc is not entirely inconsistent with the per- sonification of the city introduced at the beginning of the strophe; although at the same time it is " righteousness " ' which in this stichos is personified as the inhabitant of Zion. In anj- case, all three lines are figurative; the next strophe is also figurative (though the figure changes) ; and figurative terms continue to verse 22. Thus the one line (21d), "and now murderers," stands alone in its literalncss, at the same time that it is grammatieall>- awkward. In defence of the line in its present position it lui'/ht be urged that its very awkwardness and concreteness give it a spiMMal cliniaetie emphasis; but. as a matter of fact, that would be emphasis misplaced: for, as the poem develops, greed, not murder, is seen to be its real sub- ject, and the following stroplie, since it contains no similarly emphatic term, would then be a decided anticlimax. The phrase is probably misplaced. "Whether a three iif four line stmphe, it contains a long first line, with paraUels only for the latter half, a not uncommon type (see verse 8, and 2.12, 2.20, 3.1, 3.18, 7.19; cf. also 10.12) ; the slight feeling of asymmetry holds the entire poem here in sus- pense until the concluding strophe, which is of similar forma- tion (though consisting of only two lines) and also of almost identical ]iliraseology, a variety of the envelope figure applied to a whole poem instead of merel\- to a strophe or stanza.. [ 300 1 I'linill.lism in Isnmh, <'li,ii)t of Israel, (d) Ah, I will ease nie of mine nilver- sjirii's, (e) and avenge mc of mine enemies. If the introductory words (24a-c) stand witiiin the strophic arraiif'tinent. it is easy to divide them so as to make either another two line .strophe (one loii-2)>. (2.'>a) And I will turn my hana) And I will restore thy judges as at the first. (l>) and thy coun.sellors as at the iM'ginning: (e) afterward thou shall again be ealleasi' to be." parallel to shi'tbluith in 24.8, e.g.; ef. Judjres 5.6, 7). If, on the other hand, a two line vei-se was intended, it is diffieult to see why the superfluous i/axddic was addetl to a line sufHeiently lonj; without it. The three line .strophe, if restored, is ajrain one in wliieh the third .synonym, "desertei-s of God," ditTers sli^rhtly in form and in di-gree of synonymity from the first and seeond. 29. (a) For they .shall Iw a.shamod of the oak.s whiih ye have ilesireil, (li) ami ye ehall bo eoiifoumled for the pirileii.s that ye have The eorreetion "ye" for "they" (shall be lushamed) in stiehos a is demanded by the parallelism in b; Septuagint, how- ever, reads third person thmughoiit. If the seeond person is oorreet, the validity of the interpretation advaneed for the previ«ms verse is strenpthened : those who are to be redeemed are the very sinners to whom the Prophet is addre.ssing himself here. "To be ashamed of," of eonrse. is "to be disappointed in," and "eome to a realization of the uselessness of." .309 1 254 I'anilhlism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 1 30. (a) For ye shall be as an oak whose leaf fadeth, (b) and as a garden that hath no water. Two facts of style are noticeable here: the repetition of kl, "for,'' at the beginning of verses 29 and 30; and the repetition of "oaks" and "gardens." If verse 30 belongs here and is in the proper form, the second kt, which is then parallel to the first, might be translated "yea": "for ye shall be ashamed; yea, ye shall be as oaks." But the repetition of "oaks" here, in a figurative usage and in no way parallel to the same tenn used literally in tlie previous strophe — as though it were an after- thought due to the first reference — seems too casual to be due to Isaiah. It were better to think its position here due to a reader, or. if the verse is really Isaiah's, to the compiler of these prophecies. If, however, the verse was placed here by Isaiah himself, then, despite the ki (which as in 3.8 then would become subordinate to the previous ki), it would be better to suppose an error in the person of the verb, and again read, with the Sejituagint, "fur tliry (shall be as an oak," etc.). the subject being "oaks" and tlie preposition "as" (k'') being, perhaps, the so-called "kaf veritatis" or "kaf of the predicate"; though the comparison might in reality be due to the fact tliat implied in the terms "oaks" and "gardens" in verse 29 is the idea of idolatrous worship : the intent of the comparison would then be to liken these sacred trees and groves to ordinary trees and groves, and still further to those trees and groves which wither and like which they, too, will prove useless and will be deserted. 31. (a) And the strong shall be as tow, (b) and the maker of it as a spark, (c) anil they sliall both burn together, (d) and none shall quench. The main difficulty in tliis verse as it stands, lies in the absence of any clear reasdu for the comparison lictwccn "maker of it" and "spark." In what sense can a man be likened to a spark ? At the bases of Isaiah's figures of speech there is always some easily recognizable natural phenomenon. The objection is not satisfied even if "strong"' lie interpreted as "strong (man)" and if instead of ■•maker of it," p,y"lo. Uwrc be read [310; ranilhlisiii ill Isiiiiih, Clniitl, rs 1-10 2.').') ril.M'TEK 1 "liis work," /;(/"/'( -uiiliss, iiiilrcd. the "stroiij; mair" is thi; smith, anil "his work" is the objiH-t ht- is ti)rf:iii'r at tho anvil. Sti-ophii- paralh'iisni. and tho lofrical di'VchtpnuMit of the thoiin, in its oidy other oeeurrenee (Amos ■J. 9) is used in the fifrure "stronlaees the preilieate atljeetive iidhhon, "established," in the more natural position, after the verb, instead of in tiie emphatic position whieh it has in Isaiaii. Whiehever position is ori<;inaI, there is here ineontrovertible evidenee that in the eourse of the Hebrew oral or written tradition of these verses, transposition lias taken plaee. The shorter of the two lines in Isaiah is ex- eeedinjily short by eomparison; it is probable that the extra pro- noun /i((' of Jlieah is oriiriiud. 2c ;iii. (I'll Ami all nations shall Mow into it. (Sal Ami many people shall go ami say. Sinee "ffn,"w'-bnl'khri, in Hebrew is applied to the move- ment of waters (e.fr., l.s. 8.G : "the waters of Sliiloh that ^o softly"), the parallelism bi-tween the two stielioi need not be doubted. The word w'-(htici'f('et regularity in the parallelism of these six coup- lets, as well as of the preceding (bari'liiu' tiie introductory line) is ll(itieeal>Ie; likewise the alisellee of aiiv three line strophe. It should lie noticed that Micali has an additional verse: --IJut they sliall sit ev<'ry man under his vine aud under his tif; tree; and none shall make them afraid, for the mouth of the Ijord of Hosts hath spoken it." This verse is possibly an addition to the poem from another source ; unlike the rest of the poem it refers specifically to the lot of the individuals (suffixes therefore are in singular instead of plural) ; and the nature of the parallelism is different also; to give the sentence "and none shall make (them) afraid" its natural position as the emphatic final short sentence of the poem, it becomes necessary to include "aud under his fig tii'e" in the preceding line, yielding one which is then excessively long by comparison with the rest of the poem, and which contains within itself two parallel words. It should be noted, however, that such a couplet, matching the irregularly balanced first couplet of the prophecy, might not be unexpected in Isaiah ; nor would the concluding phrase ' ' for the mouth of the Lord of Hosts hath spoken it," balancing the introductory "And it shall come to pass in the last days." be unusual. o-6a. (5) O house of Jacob, come ye and let us walk in the light of the Lord. (6a) Therefore thou hast forsaken thy people, the house of Jacob. That these lines stand outside the previous poem is no less evident than that they nevertheless refer to it. Verbally, they are linked to it by the terms "come and let us walk" and "House of Jacob," echoing verse 3b (lienee also the first person [314] I'arathlUn, in Isni.ih. ('h,ii>l,rs l-lt) 2.')!) ClI.M'TEK U |)liiriil: thiT.' is id si'jiiili.'ari.-.'. tli.ii, in the I'act lliat tlir Prophet [Isiiiali?! Iii-n- identities himself witli tlie jjeople). Verses ■"> and (Ja l»)th eimtain the plirase "House of .laeol)'": it is evi- dently einpliatie, tlien, niarkin'r the eontrast lietween "the nations" of tlie preeedin'r linis and Israel. Turninj? to Mieah, we tind there also an appenda>.'e to the ])oeni : "For all the nations walk eaeh in the name of its ;_'od, and we will walk in the name of the Lord onr (iod forever"; i.e., with a eiirinusly illo-jieal twist: "Sinee all other nations are loyal to their jrod (not, as we should expeet : Sinee even all the nations that now follow other {rods will eventually turn to our tiod), we must be loyal to ours." This appendajre is similar to that in Isaiah in its general intent: a eompari.son between "the nations" and Israel, and for Israel (by implieation disloyal) a lesson drawn from the contrast. Both eontain the phrase "we shall walk"; •Mieah s "in the name of our God" is Isaiah's "in the light of till' Lord." 'I'he voeative "House of Jacob" is absent from .Mieah; but the emphasis produced by the repetition of that phrase in Isaiah has its virtual parallel in Mieah "s emphatic pronoun "we," '"tta\tif(. In Isaiah the line "for (not, as in A. V. "therefore"! thou hast foi-saken thy people, the Iloust- of Jacob," while more emphatic than .Mieah, contains, like Mieah, a non stquiliir. Its intention must have been to express the present disloyalty of Israel; it is tluM-eforc ipiite probable that "thy people" is again an as.sociative lapsus for "thy (Jod" (less likely a defective reading of "the (Jod of thy |)eople"). This hardly seems more improbable than that the rrophet, who has just addressed the Hou.se of Jacob in the second pci-son, is now addressing (Jod in the .second jierson, without indicating the change by the intro- iluction of a new vocative; or is guilty of such an illogical sentence as: "Come, House of Jacob, let US be faithful to (ioliy Iruni tlw » with wliii-li the next word hi-'riiis, as a divisional mark liftwccn tlic vi-rscs, or as ail t'ditorial i-orn-rtioii (for still aiiotlu-r siifrf^fstioii si-i' In-low), as to 1)1' lu'-jlifrible for I'vidi'iico. IiuK-od, tlio siilijeot of tla- poem tliroufrhout is '(hlham, "man.'" trcati'd as a siii, "his land" (the Sei)tua}rint has "their land"^ : with a repetition of ' from nidl''i'i and of il (for r). and with the m from miq-qiilim corrected to i- (a not impossible confusion in the oUier al|)habet), we might find the rest of that word, on the supposition that 'adhnrn was omitted and then written over 'ai\<'>, while a later copy resulted in the present confused text. But the word '(in'irim, "soothsayers." also is suspicious. The rest of the first stanza develops two eharfrcs afjaiiist Israel : proud luxury and attendant idolatry: the second stanza deals with pride, as exemplified in things "tall": while the third returns specifically to the subject "idols of gold and silver": but ".sootlisaying" is not mentioned again either in the jiarallel lines of stanza 1 or in stjuizas 2 or :?. The comparison "like the Philistines," moreover, is not especially appn»|iriate in a charge of soothsaying; it is appropriate, however, in the condemnation of luxury developed in the rest of the pmMn. For both Phoenicia and Philistia. as coastal countries, had their trade connections westward, Philistia particularly with ?]gyj)t : Philistine cities I ••«17 ] 262 Parallelism hi Isaiah, Vhapiers 1-10 Chaptek 2 were centers for the importatioD of Egyptian jewelry and lux- uries. Perhaps, then, for 'on' mm we might read '"dhdmm, usually "'dainties," but occurring with the desired more general meaning in II Sam. 1.24 ("clothed you in scarlet and other delights"; though this passage is suspected). If '"dhdium. is to be read here, parallelism would suggest also for the difficult u-hh<'yaldhe, "in the children," of the next line u-bha"dhi, "in the ornaments," which occurs with '"dhdmin in the Samuel passage just cited. Inasmuch as yasplqu, "they please them- selves," is parallel to "fill." of the two possible meanings for its root, "be sufficient" (or "plenty"), and "slap" (or "clap") (here, on the basis of the Arabic, in bargaining, trading), the former ought logically to suggest itself to the mind. The mere fact that sdphaq in this sense is found onlj^ in two other, probably later, passages of the Old Testament (hence supposedly due to Aramaism), is not sufficient reason for denying to Isaiah, with his rich vocabulary, acquaintance with the word. If an abso- luti'ly unknown word stood there, or, in fact, only a blank space. l)arallelisni would supply, as has the Septuagint. the idea of "till." iloreover, saphaq in Arabic (with tlir Ik avicr .s'. though as in Hebrew, the two sibilants are confused in this word), also means "to fill" (the wine-cup: probably the dt'vrlopment of the idea is: "clap," "clap closed," then "tilT'i; it should l)e noted, moreover, that in the sense "clap," sdphaq in Hebrew has a disagreeable connotation : that of remorse, sorrow, mockery : in neither sense is the causative conjugation used, as here. Read possibly yispoq, "he has a sufficiency of," or siphqo, "is his suf- ficiency," or, retaining the causative, yasptqchd, "he fills it" (i.e., his land) ; the couplet would then read: A 7 millr' 'adhdm 'arQO '"dlidnlm l-ap-Polishtim uhlia-'"dln nokhrlm yaspXqehd. 7-8. (7a) Their land also is full of silver aud gold, (b) neither (is there any) end of their treasures; (c) their land is also full of horses, (d) neither (is there any) end of their chariots; (8a) Their land al.so is full of idols; (b) they worship the Tvork of their ovra hands, (e) that which their own fingers have made. [318 l'(irull,lis„i in /.«ii.//i, Ch.iiilirs 1-10 263 ClIAI'TEK 2 Till' [uTl'ii't rijriilarity of llu' four olausts coiistitiitiii',' verse 7, with tlie first elosely parallel to the third, ami the seeoiiil par- allel to the fourth — all the elauses heiiif; also in i less intimate* parallelisni^aml the preseiiee of a elause in verse S (a) elosely parallel to the first ami tliinl of verse 7. most eertainly lead the uiiml to expeet also a inemher between Sa and Sli, parallel to the seeond and fourth in verse 7; ami the disappointment due to its ahsenee is heijihtonod by the faet that perfeet |)ar- allelisni is found a^ain betwi'en the last two stiehoi of the stanza. Sb and 8e. That a stiehos ""neither (is there any) end to their images" (or "their altars") has fallen otit seems far easier of belief than that Isaiah, without any eoiiceivable reason, deliberately built up a strueture perfeet in its symmetry exeept- iw^ for this one point. The intent at |>arallelism is made all the more evident by the last elause, "that whieh their own (iiifrers have made." whieh is absolutely superHuous except as furnish- injr a desired parallel — and, perhaps, rhyme, since the rhyme uthdw is noticeable (ef. 1.21). If in the missing line there stood the form 'otx'hhodifiw (lit. ""his injuries," "jiains, " u.sed because of the rhyming feminine ending instead of, and jis a play in true Isaianic fashion cm '"i^ablu'iu': "his idols"), there might be found here the source of Ps. 16.4: yirbi'i '(U^Cbhothdm, "their sorrows shall be multiplied (that) hasten [after] another [god]." in whieh the intention is evidently: "their ulols multiply or "they nudtijily their idols." "'they hasten," etc. The word >(i(H"V''/>/i''^/i;ivoii more ililiiiitt'iu'ss liy its iiuiiiriliati- coiiini'tiini witli anotlicr vi-rh, to wliioli it is little more than an auxiliary. Kviii in jjrosf the miuv I'liipliatiu \V(>r'\ribhi". in verse 10. it is nrees.sary to supjiose editorial revision in the two other occur- rences of the root, in the repetition of the refrain. On the other hand, if bo' is orifriual. it nuiy have been elio.sen because of its extreme brevity (and of its assonance with biK^-cilr), and the force of the |)hrase would be best reproduced by imiitt ill'.,' the verb, and translatinj; simply as an exclamation: ■"Into tlie rocks I ' ■ The parallelism between pny^ndh. "fear." and lnhllnlr, ■■yrlory," in verses 11. 1!), 'Jl is worthy of notice also; the latter word po.s-sibly replaced in the course of tradition or of edition a better parallel, \rnliitli, "terror"; otherwise hihlhar means here not jrlory, but rather the result of (iod's ^[lory : nnui's rev- erence and awe (see the note on siln'i, !..">). , The parallelism bitween the simple preposition in mi'h"(Huir and the compound iiiip-p'nr would >rive tft the latter its ordinary mcaniiifr after v.rbs of rteeintr ("from [before]." with the addrd idea of canseK and iirevciit the more literal translation "from the face of" (i.e., "from tlie terrible countenance of," as the ]ia.s.safre is sometimes translated). The phra.se "lofty looks" (lit. "eyes of loffines-s") in verse 11 apparently represents a conflation of varyinp forms in which this refrain was handed down; the word "eyes" here nutkes the line lon>», has no parallel in the other half of the couplet, is not found in verse 9 or in verse 17, and is folli>wed by a sinjjular instead of the necessary plural predi- cate. Anotlier version of the refrain is found (possibly out of [ •''21 1 ClIAPTEK 2 place), ill 5.15; there struction, but 'a,lhs, leaviiif: tlie piiralltl "oaks'" witliout any. Tlie adji'ctivi's arc rcdiiiidaiit from tilt" stand-point of lim* Icnfrth; and also from that of thonglit : lii'caiist' in tliis vci-sc niodifyingr adji'otivfs liavi- already Ix'oii replaced l)y modifying proper novins: "cedars of licbanon" and "oaks of Baslian." Evidently a varyinietures") — there might be ren.son for believing it (-orreet Ikmv ; but the summary has beiii indicate ans a term which might in a summary be njiplied to the objects here eniimerati'd. The Siptuagint reads: "every aspect ( Ot'av \ of ships of beauty"; the insertion [ .12.1 268 I'ltrallclism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 2 of "ships" may liave b^eu due to a very unusual attempt to establish the missing parallelism, or to the faet that a word for "ships'" really stood in the margiu. The Targum Jonathan paraphrases the whole couph't tlius: ■'upou those who live in the islands of the sea and wIki dwell in beautiful palaees," lirdnydthd shapinrdn; Jewish commentators translate: "palaees paved with precious stones'' (because of Lev. 26.1, where occurs the phrase "image of stone," lit. "stone of picture" [maskith, from the same root as s^kiyoth]) — all of which indicates only the difficulty in accepting the illogical line as it stands. Failing better explanation, recourse might again be had to the theory of misplaced lines. With the meaning "precious images" accepted on the basis of those passages in which maskith occurs (e.g., Prov. 25.11, "silver carved images"; more particularly, referring to idolatrous worship. Num. 33.52; Lev. 26.1; Ezek. 8.12) and those in which x^nidd and other words from the same root are found (e.g., Hos. 13.15: km xcmdd) the line belongs naturally in the defective and mutilated third stanza. At tlie same time it is necessary to assume another line in its place here, one referring also to ships, parallel to "ships of Tarshish." "Tarshisli," like "Lebanon" and "Bashan" above, takes the place of a common adjective, as it does in all the eases in which the phrase "ships of Tarshi-sh" is used: "able to go to Tarshi.sh, to foi'cign .shores," a "large foreigner." T^nfortunately, un exactly parallel phrase is to be found in Isaiah: but in :i:i.'_M occurs ci 'addir, "majestic ship," as the opposite of "■row-boat." Cl itself is apparently a foreign (Egyptian) word, hence its connotation might again be "foreign ship"; and if this phrase be an acceptable emendation here, compare in verse 6 of this chapter the parallelism between the proper name "Philistines" and the common noun "strangers." 17. (a) And tlip loftiuoss of m.aii sliall lie l)o\vc(l .lown, (],) aii.l the haughtiness of man he made low (c) ami tlie Lord alone lie exalted on that day. See the note on verses 9-11 above. Possibly the rest of tlie refrain sliould be repeated at the end of stanza 2. from the end of stanza 1 (verse 10). [ 324 ] I'liralhlism i„ Lsuiah, Chupt.rs l-W 269 C'lIAITEK 2 IS U». (IS) All.) thr i.lols ho simll iittorlv iiholisli. (litiil Aii.l tlu-y xliiill Ko into tin- iiivi-a of tlic ro.ks (l>) ami into tlio oiivos of the rartli. On vi-rsf IS sfc In-low. tin- not.- to virsf '20: on 19, see verses y-ll al.ove. L'O. {n) On that .lay a man shall I'ast his idols of silver, (b) and his itlols of gol.I, (i-) whii-li they made eai-h one lor hiniself to wor- ship, (d) to the moles aud to the bats. The loiijr first line here, with a parallel ('20h) only lo the object, has the appearanee of bein}? the first line of a stanza parallel to the other two stanzas. The |)hr!uses "his idols of silver" and '"his idols of frold,'" and "whieh they made (eaeh one) for hini.self to worshij)" eeho the phrases of the first stan/a (verses (>-S) ; the parallelism (as against siiborilination) of the relative elanse here is fi.\eil by 2.8, where rm of condition," or "renew a former state"). On the supposition that the stichos, written in the margin, was very illegible and was "edited" to make a eomplite proposition beeati.se of the mistake in the place of ins<>rtion, we might read [ 325 ) 270 Parallel ism h, Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 2 for !jax"l'''ph a parallel lo Jia-xCDidd, e.g., ha-xcphc(; ("desire," supposing a change of <; to I, and its transposition ; and the sign of the imperfect instead of the article). In kalU, "entirely" (hiTc the mily (iccurrein'e (if the word as an adverb) there might be i'<„uid k'U: the phrase /,'7( y /»,7,7 is found in Nah. 2.10; Hos. 13.15: "vessels of desire" (A. V. "pleasant vessels") ; Jer. 22.28 : kHi en xepheg bo, "vessels wherein is no pleasure"; particularly I Sam. 6.8 and 15, k<'le haz-zdhdhh, "jewels of gold," referring to the "images" of mice in verse 4. With hil-''li'lhi> k'lf ha- xcpheg in apposition to ver.se 20, the thought would run: '•they shall east away their idols of silver, and their idols of gold — the gods they have made with their finger.s — their precious thing- gods." Hd-''lilJiii. however, might be a mere gloss, or might reiDresent another synonym hap- pisllhn. "idols," or ■"images." The phrase "to the moles and the bats" in the ]Massoretic test and the English is made the indirect object of "cast," from which it is removed by quite a lengthy clause, however. The scene pictured by this connection is liardlj' a logical one. It seems most likely that the Prophet pictured the idolators casting away their idols when the terror comes upon them, and fleeing from them — not eari'ving Ihem along with them to the caves and the "holes in the ground," as would seem to be necessary if they cast them to the moles and the bats; for surely he did not mean to imply that moles and bats were found about the homes of the wealthy. At best, if the connection is correct, the trans- lation should 111' "east them away for the moles and the bats," which, supposedly, are to take jiossession of the palaces and estates attei' these jiave ialleii into ruins. Targum, Peshitta and Septuagint connect differently: "the idols which they make, in order to bow down to vanities (A. V. 'moles') and bats"; i.e.. the idols themselves are the "vanities and bats." Still another iiite7-])ivtation would be possible: "they shall cast aside their golden idols, in order to bow down to moles and bats": i.(>., to bend before them as they crawl into the caves — which would be another example of Isaiah's grim humor. None of these interpretations, however, fulfils the rc(iuir(>- [82(i] I'aiuilhlisiii ill IsiiNih, Chiiiiln-s l-lo 'JTl (lIM'TKIt - in.nts lit" the t \ p.' i.l" parallelism iiscil in tlic otlicr staii/.as. The vi'i'l) ••(•asf away" dms luit iircessariiy liavc an indirect object; ff. Ezek. 20.7 : "Tlien said I unto them, Cast ye away (/i<;.>7./i7.7i» ) every man the ahoininations of his eyes, and defile not yourself witli the iilols of E mifrlit easily have been mistaken for figures of bats. The detailed enumeration still lacks two lines even if this hypothesis is correct, or one. if the (|uadriliteral '"lnlli'phhii aiul the reduplicated form \''p(irpi'iroth mifrht be eonsidered as sep- arate stichoi (so also, passibly rommnti in 2.2 if hiinoth be not in.serted, and ' "qnliiitUoth in Judp's 5.6). It is hardly po.ssible to find tracts of the reuuiininn mi.ssinp lines below, in the super- fluous verse 22. [ 327 1 272 I'anillrlisin in Isaiah, Chaptrr.'i 1-10 Chapter 2 21. (a) To go into tlie fk^t'ts of the rocks, (b) and into the tops of the ragged rocks, (c) for fear of the Lord, (d) and for the glory of his majesty, (e) when he arises to shake terribly the earth. Sec above on verse 10. In "to go," Id-bho, the preposition iui,L;lit lie temporal (cf. Is. 7.1"), b-dha' to, "when he knoweth") : "wlicii he enters," "as he enters. "" It is more probable, how- ever, that the whole verse belongs at the beginning of the stanza, in the imperative or infinitive absolute, as in verse 9. •22. (a) Cease ye from man, wliose breatli is in his nostrils, for wherein is he to be accounted of ? This verse is (pute distinet in tone from the rest of the chapter, though verbal eonnection is e.stablished by hd-Tulhi'im, "man"; but "man" who is rebuked throughout the three stanzas is presumably Israel as a whole, including those to whom the prophecy is delivered or addressed, while here the audience is addressed as though standing apart from "man" who is re- buked; the absence of any vocative also is noticeable. The term "cease from" is obscure. It would nornuilly mea)i "cease paying attention tn," "do not trouble" or, less fre- quenlly, "desert" ( Ezek. 2.7: "refuse Ic hear"). With the first meaning the vei'se would sound rather like the remark of a reader, wearied with the contemplation of man"s perversity; and in .such an interpretation might be compared with the interjected remark in verse 9, "do not forgive them." If the meaning is "desert," the implication woulil supposedly bi' : do not trust (any longer) in man (but tuiii to (iod). In (>ither case theri' is felt the aliS(^nce of a parallel verb defining "cease frum" m.ov ch'arly. The siMMind member of the verse: •'wlldse breath is in his uiistrils." is in the English given an emphasis which it has not in the Hebrew, which is: "in whose nostril is breath" or "a breath." This relative clause is again of interest from the stand- point of parallelism: if it is of the same nature as the relative clause in verse 20, i.e., parallel, the sense is: "Cease from num. the creature who is characterized by having a bi-eath in his nostrils"; but if it is subordinate, the sense is: "Cease from [328] ranilhlism in hiiiiih. ClKipt, that mail in wliosf nostrils is hnalli," i.r., Iroiii man whn is alive, nr while he has lilV (i-f. .loli L*7.;{, "as lon^' as my Itivatli is ill me. and tho spirit of CJod is in my nostrils: i.e., '"as loii^' as I live'). It is the former that is iiiteiiiled here, of eonrse, but in either ease the emphasis is ii|)on man as a liriinj bein<:^: ef. (Jen. 7.22: '"all ill whose nostrils was the breath of life" — every liviiifr thiiijr. To {rive the words any point at all here, it is neeis.sary to plaee upon them an emphasis and iniplieatinii wliieh they do not elearly express; either: "whose breath is in his nostril" (unti lasihi pllor ami the eiiiiiiinK artificer, (r) auil the elo<|Uent orator. Ill form and development of theme this stniiza is, on tlw> whole, like the middle staii/n of the last propheey : a long first [ 329 J 274 Parallel ism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 3 stiehos (la), with the followiug short stichoi parallel to its last syntactic member; a first couplet or strophe statiug the theme in general terms, while the remainder elaborates it is in a specific, exhaustive enumeration. But in some respects as the text stands, the general form is obscured. In the first place, the opening line is over-long: though "Jerusalem"" and "Judah," "stay"" and "staft" arc clearly two pairs of parallel terms (cf. verse 8) they are not distributed in parallel stichoi; but with proper distribution ten stichoi result. Secondly, the coup- let "whole stay of bread and whole stay of water," repeating one of the words used in the preceding line, adds qualifying genitives ("bread and water") clearly contradicting the quali- fying appositives in the following stichoi, whose implication is that "staff and stay'" are the supports of the government, not the supports of liuman life. At the same time it must be noticed that in the second portion of this chapter there is a combination of the two themes of want and anarchy (cf. also 4.1). It is quite possible, then, that these two lines have replaced another couplet which was more appropriate to the theme of "government," while they themselves belong to another stanza which, in a series of phrases repeating the framework of "every stay of bread and every stay of water'" (cf. the framework of 2.12ff.), developed the jii'tdiction of famine, thirst, dearth of clothing, and similar misfortunrs. Thirdly, the detailed enumeration of the members of the official class is not in all respects logically arranged at present ; the English, in translating qfiseni (lit. "diviner") as "prudent," conceals the disorder. By transposing the terms yo'eq, "coun- sellor."" now in •'>!), ami ejdsan, "diviner," now in 2c, logical order is reestablished in the beginning and end of the enumera- tion: inr llie last jiair of ti'rms also apparently refers to species of diviners, instead of to "the cunning artificer and the eloquent orator" as the versions translate. Another difficulty in the text lies in the fact that "captain of fifty," sar x"niishshhn, as a mili- tary tenn stands between two terms referring to civil life: zdqf)} il-irsil' phdnhii. "the ancient," and "the honoralile" (cf. [330] I'tirnllilisii) ill Isiiiiili, Cliiipli rs l-lii Is. !t.l4, a possilili- jjloss, Imt iicviTllifli'ss slmwiiiy: tin- natural Di-tlcr of tlu-so tfi-ms). "(."aptaiii of lifty" is, of course, a i-om- 1111)11 term; but the suspii-ioii aritusoil hy its unusual position Ihmv justifii's tin- (pu'stion why a military title denotinfr this suliorilinate rank was sinsrlctl out, rather than one of more jjen- eral api)lieation or at least referrinj: to liitjher rank {siir (,•«/)(]', siir \(i!iil. sar 'ilif, sar mc'i'i, etc.) ; it is as thoajjih one should group to-rether in a fienoral ilenuneiation "soldiers, judges, sena- toi-s. magnates and suheaptains." Possibly, then, x"niijihsh'iin was a misreading of some form of tiie root iifixiisli, e.g., in'mtxi'sh, or iiddhi'"' mlxilsh or h'xJ.v/mhi, "skilleil in divination," in- tended to be in.serted together with qi'mi'in alongside of ,x"A7uj»ii X'Tilshim (read singular?) and n'bhoii hixiixh. This as.sumption woidd leave xtir, "noble," "ruler." or "eliief," in its usual gen- eral signifieation, and in a natural position (ef. verse 14: "the elders and prinees of his people"). Jlorcover, there would then be ten stiehoi again (ineluding Ibe or two others in plaee thereof). 4. (a I Aii.l I will Kivo i-liililrou |to be) tlioir priiu'cs (1.) nii<] ImiIws shall rule over tlicm. For the English "babe.s," and the Septuagint "nioekers ' (possibly reading the root lii'iujh: so also in 66.4). the ^la.sso- retie te.xt has lii'"luniii, which might come from any one of four ditTerent roots with identical consonants and denoting respec- tively "act severely," "insert." "glean," and (a denominative verb) "play the child." To the hearer, then, the word did not necis.sarily by it.self convey clearly and singly any one of these ideas; it is absolutely certain, however, tliat here because of the liarallelism it must at least have included the last named (by paronomasia, if "wantoiniess" is the primary intention); and this i.s further evidenced by :{.12, where Wnlil is clearly a denominative from "child"; evidently the intention in the two pa.ssages is identical. Ta'"li'inm is in form an infinitve or abstract: it is here parallel to a concrete; it occurs again only in 66.4. as an antithesis to another abstract shikktii;hn ; but both are there used in place of concretes: "their soul delighteth in [ 331 I 276 I'aridhUsm in Isidah. Chapters 1-10 ciiAi-TEH :-; their abominations [used regularly for "idols""] ; I also will choose their wantonness" (A. V. "delusions"; i.e., that which or those who will delude them, or deal cruelly with them) ; it is not impossible, indeed, that despite its form the word may have had a concrete signification : compare the development of iahnldh. "teaching,"' then "disciple." 5-1). (5a) Aud the people sliall be oppressed, every one by anotlier, (b) and every one by his neighbor; (c) the child shall behave him- self proudly against the ancient, (d) and the base against the honor- able; (6a) when a man shall take hold of his brother (b) (of) the house of his father. Intended in this set of pai'allels is a detailed explanation of the anarchj- predicted in verse 4 ; the parallelism is clear as between the various parts of verse 5 (a to b, c to d, and ab to ed; but in form, a more closely to c, and b to d) : stichos 6a, despite the fact that it begins with hi. "for" (A. ^'. "when""), is also parallel to 5a and 5c ; the h'l. then, should be translated as a climactic "yea." The stichos hrth 'ilhhhn (6b) is difficult, even if translated "in the house of his father""; for in breaking the parallelism it becomes especially emphatic, but emphasizes an unimportant detail, with an emphasis wliieh is all the greater because of the contrasting phrase "in my house"" in 7c. The suggestion offered by parallelism is that 6b should represent a climax: indeed "father" is the climax of one set of terms: man, neighbor, ancient, honorable, brother; hcth, "house," then, is probably an error for brn, "son," the climax of the contrasting series: "yea, a son (shall seize) his own father."" G-7. (()(■) Thou hast clothiug, (d) be thou our ruler, (o) aud (let) this ruin (be) under thy hand. (7a) In that day he shall swear, saying (b) I will not be an healer; (e) for in my house (is) neither bread nor clothing: (d) make me not a ruler of this people. The absence of any word introducing the direct discourse in 6c, contrasted with the long introductory line (7a) to the discourse beginning in 7b is mitieeable: jiartieulai'ly the jilirase "in that day," whieli elsewliere is always pnipi-rly empliatic, is here emphasis misplaced, in the middle of a scene instead of at the beginning or end; it adds nothing to the )iicture-propheey [332] r„r,ill,lism 1,1 lsiiiii till- vi-ry day" of liciii'; askfd tlic man shall answer. 11' rrtaiiutl. tin- line, as in otluT cast's, is an "asiilf." The phrase "thou hast cdothiii;,'" also is without any parallel. Mut the referenee to elothinj; here antieipates and so spoils the suddenness of the eliniax in 7e ; and. on the wimlr, the picture of two brothi-rs unaware of the eondilion of each otinTs atVairs — one atTiriniiif,', the other denyinj;, that he has elothiu'; — is rather absurd. .Moreovir. the reply in 7a is one to a remark eoneerninir rather food than elothiu}; as the more important fac- tor. By the omi.ssion of 6e ("thou hast elothinbhi'sh: from the root "to biiul," it means botli to dress wo\inds (here these of the in.jured state) and to rule (ef. Job :14.17: "shall even he that hateth ripht RovernT" iia\"l>lii'ish : this meaning is derived probaltly from that of "harnessinjr," "restraining'") ; apiin tlie j)rimary thought is made clear by tlie parallelism between x"'''"-'''' ""t' '?'^C'" ("ruler"). The offendinp elnu.se siiiild I'^khii, "thou hast (lit. "to thee is"! clothing," possibly had its oripin in a marginal [ .1.1.1 ) ill Isaiah, Chaptrr.s 1-10 mainlrdhd. "i-uli',"' a true g'loss on iiidkhshi'lil, or in a coiiHatioii oi' tliat inai'tiinal word with an ()ri.triiial I'kha ("come": i.e., "coiiif. I'liln- shall tiiou he ovn- u.s"i ; notice that /'/,■/((] is written with the final /(. 8-9. (8a) For Jfriisuleiii is ruiiieeause"") ; Sa, b docs not cxpivss the cause of the fact of ruin, but of the author's use of the term iinihhshrlH in tlic i)revions stanza; i.e., it is ex|.lari:itory : if retained, the tirst /,■/ mieht be translated "yea,"' or "ijide.'d." From the standpoint of jiarallelism the strophe Sc-9 is not always clear. On tiic whole, it emphasizes not the sin whicli the sin was .■ommitled. This is the note struck by the oiuMiin- word "their ton-ue"": and it is rep,.ated in the third line by "their faces"": in the fourth, by "they pi-oclaim. they ilo not coll.'eal." The second slich..s, "t(, provoke the (ys of his f^iory," Ihoueh it is not deal-, is not out of harmony with the main theme, "impudeiu f the toneue"; the only word, then, that clearly adds a variant idea is "tlii'ir deeds" in the tirst stichos (,Sci. Criticism, then, should be directed toward this word. As a matter of fact a double subject in one sentence, when not paralleled by a similar eonstructiou, is always suspicious; this is true even if the doidile stibjeet consists of synonyms; but when one of them cxpi-essi's an added idea it becomes liy contrast lame. .Morcovi'r. the const rui't ion is extremely awkward; liter- ally; "their toiiiiue and then- deeds (are) toward the Lord."" It is perhaps more than a coinciden.'c tliat the Septuaji-int .'vidently did n.d n^ad the word iinr al< hh, ,ii "their deeds,"" [ :';« j I'linillilism ill Isiiiiih. Cli,ii>lirs l-ln 'JTit fiiTit (ii'o^ias-. clear i'iii(ii>;li to lead to tlic coiii'liisinii that it (•liaii>.'e»l purposely to iiiake licltcr sense. I'erliaps, then, its text really eoiitaimd a form of the root 'thnil, and iifawwld, ■'aet wrontrfiilly,'" shouki he read; this ileiioiniiiative partieiple oeeiirs ill Is. 26.10; and the root is fairly freipient in eoiiiieetidii with ••ton-riie" and "•.speeeh" (Job ;-).Ui, I3.M). 1:5.7, 27.4; Mai. 2.t>: I\s. 107.42; Is. ;">9.:J : l>sh(hi'kh< ,11 ■iiiihl th,h.lo: "the eyes of the lofty [i.e., proud) shall be humbled." The ehnii^e re(Hiires merely the addition of the siiflRx luiii, "their," to "eyes"; it is this very sufli.x which is siiperfluons (ina'al'lihi III) in the line above, if our surmise there is correct; the word "eyes" i.s written defectively in the Ma.ssoretie text (without its medial 1/), and the Septiiajiint also points to illegi- bility, rendiii;ain contains the lettciN h and hi. The slight additional chanpe of Uniiroth to iiuniirolh (i.e., partieiple instead of infinitive: so the Septnajrii't reads airtiOovirrf^ , "disobedient") restores n perfectly normal, intellijrible. parallel line: if tiumiroth 'I'liihnii k'^bh'idht'i (or, if the error arose from the fact that 'I'ni'him was misplaced and then written in: w -' I'lu'ln in iiuini- rnlh k'bhodhn). ( .13.-, I 280 I'araUelism in Isaiah. Chapters 1^10 Chapter 3 In stichoi 8c and Sd the parallelism is clearly established by the verbs "witness" (but literally "answer," "speak": Uni'thd) and "declare"; and though tlie subject of "witness," namely "show," hakkarath, is not entirely clear, the underlying thought in both stichoi is undoubtedly "their guilt is plain to all." Since then the verb hikkcr ha.s sometimes the meaning "recog- nize," "acknowledge," the phrase may well mean: "the acknowledgment (i.e., acknowledging look) on their faces," which, in turn, is eiiuivalent to "the impudent look on their faces." It is a linguistic coincidence that hakkarath might, on the other luuul. be derived from hakar, which in Arabic denotes both "to be sleejiy" and "to be astounded" — hence possibly in origin "to have a fixed look," and here "an impudent look"; in Job 19.3, where the same root appears, a translation "ye are shameless," or "shamelessly, brazenly, persistent, toward me" would be possible. The extreme brevity of 9c, "they hide not," a stichos par- allel to 9b. may be due to the fact that it is tlie last line of the stanza. However, it is possible that, parallel to "like Sodom," "like Gomorrah" shciuld be inserted: indeed, the absence of reference to (loiiioi-rah wouhl lie sti'iking and apparently sig- nificant; compare Is. 1.9, 10, 13.19; Amos 4.11, Jer. 23.14, 49.18, 50.40; Dent. 29.22, 32.32, as against only Lam. 4.6, and Ezek. chapter 16, in the last of which the particular nature of the reference precludes the addition of Gomorrah. 9-llc. (9d) Woe unto their soul! (e) for they have rewarded evil unto themselves. (10a) Say ye (to) the righteous that (it sliall be) well (with him) ; (b) for they shall eat the fruit of their doings. (11a) Woe unto the wicked! (b) (it shall be) ill (with him): (e) for the reward of his hands shall be given him. While in some details the text here is obscure, the |)arallelisni is fairly evident. It is clearest in the folluwiiiii- stielmi : 9e, "for they have rewarded evil unto themselves": lOb, "fur they shall eat the fruit of their doings"; and lie, "for tlie reward of his hands shall be given him." (^f the remaining three main clauses two, !»(1, "Woe luilo their soul" and lla. "Woe unto the wicked," are also elearly parallel, wliih- th.> miildle one in r 336 1 I'arallilism in Isaiah. Cliai,t,rs l-JO 2Sl ClIAI-TEK 3 tin- series. 10a, ••say v.- (ti.) the ri-rlitcoiis that (it sliall l)o well) witli liiiii." tli(iu>,'li ill llioii-^lit antitlii'tically parallil, is in form not oloarly parallel; on the other hanil, one nieniher of this clause ■"that (or 'for') well" seems to he paralhl to tlie one word in the stanza not yet aeeounted for, "ill," in 111); which would then rc<|uirc, however, the insertion of tin' word "that" (or "for") before it. Mut the clause lOa: "Say ye the ri^'hteous that [or 'for'l wi'll" is a stylistic, if not <;rannnatical, impossibility : and it is just here, also, that the text underlyintr the Septua^riiit varies a^rain : "sayin over tlieni. (i*) O my people tliey wliicli \oa<\ Ihro i-nu.ic tliec to err, () repeats, in jrcneral, verse 4, but the wording; in I'Ja is not entirely clear; liti-rally: "my people, ( 337 1 282 Parallelism in Isaiah. Chaptrrs 1-10 Chaptek 3 its oppressors [plural] plays the child [singular]." Aside from the grammar, there are here expressed two thoughts: the rulers are oppressors, and they are childish (or perhaps "are Nvautou'") : it is possible, however, that nogh^sdw, "oppressors," has till' more geueral meaning here "rulers," as it has in Zech. 10.4, and as the parallelism with "rule," mdshclu, in verse 12 might suggest. The natural force of parallelism to noghfshdw in the meaning "oppressors" has led Targum, and possibly the Septuagint, to read in place of nfishlm, "women," in 12b, noshim, "creditors"; both versions, also, understand m'^' oMim to mean "gleaners"" (sec, on the rout, verse 4b), fitting in admirably with their understanding of iiushhii: "thy creditors, or those that collect the taxes from thee, glean thee, strip thee clean"; and notice that in verse 14 the figure of the vineyard reappears. Another suggestion is offered by Amos 2.8, where one of the sins of Israel is again described as "drinking the wine of the condemned [lit. "mulcted": '"nushlm] in the house of their God." The Septuagint in this Amos passage translates '"nilshim by (TVKori'kh<'i, "they that lead thee," if not a variant of jidsJuir, "be straifilit," at least sujisiests it; cf. Prov. 9.1;3: hiim-m' nashsh'rhn 'orxolhdni, "those making: straight their i)aths"; so that the contrast be- tween iifashsh'n'khil and math'hti ("cause thee to err '; root "deviate") is exceedingly nice. At the same time tlw word 'dshur, "footsteps." is suggested in ni'iishsh'n'khfi, establishing a closer parallelism with "way." "path" in the following stiehos (12b). The use of bilirii. "d.stroy " (lit. "swallow"), parallel to tiinlh'iiii, "pervert," is striking; one expects 'ifiq'shfi (Is. 59.8; Mic. 3.9), hiltii (Ps. 125.5; Prov. 17.23), or ' iwwu (Is. 24.1; ef. /if' 'MM, Jer. 3.21). The same parallelism, however, occurs in 9.15; and with other forms of the root bdhr , in 2S.7. win re in addition to nibhl'" ii and tiV fi occur shih/hii. "swerve," "reel." and pi'iqfi, "reel," "totter" (cf. Ps. 107.27: "they reel to and fro, and stagger like a drunken man. and their wisdom is swal- lowi'd up." tilhhitllo' ) : and in 19.3 '•'bitUi'"' is parallel to «•'- itilbh'qii. translated "fail," but in its turn parallel both to 'iinrii, "twist," or "distort," and bdlaq, "lay waste," in 24.1. In some *)f those pa.s.sages it i.s almost impossible to find anything of the idea "to swallow" in bCiUi' . It is true the metai)hor swallow up the road" occurs in Arabic, of a horse that runs swiftly ; but in the j>resr.l stnii'leth up to plen-1 Ami stnnilelh to jmlgc his people. The Lonl will enter into jmlKment [Anil plend] with the nncients ami princes of his people. M-l.">. (l»c) F'or yo [lit. "ami ye — ye") have eaten up the vincynnl; (il) the sjMjil of the {K)or (is^ in your hous<» and frr'ud the fares of the poorf (e) saith the Lord Cio.l of II. .^t^. t 311 1 286 l-anilhlism ui Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 CHAI'TEH 3 The abrupt passage to the dii-eet discourse is agaiu noticeable, but not unusual (cf. :!.6). The emphatic we-'attetn, "and as for \i)u,'" is, however, ahuost imique at the introduction of a (lisc'onrsc, for it usually marks a contrast or an especial emphasis upon till' sulijcct : so even in Ps. '2.6 where it again occurs at the bt'ginning of a spcrcli tlic contrast and emphasis are clear as between the first person jilural in the speecli of the kings of earth and the first singular in the speech of God. Moreover the reference to the vinej-ard in Is. 14c is abrupt ; one expects at least "my vineyard" (contrast chapter 5 with its careful elaboration of the figure of the vine,yard) ; the definite article is very noticeable; indeed, it is this probably that led the ver- sions to fiiul a ]U-evious reference to a vineyard (see above, the notr til vrrsc 12). On the other hand 15a begins with a phrase which is characteristically the introduction to an indignant direct discourse: "What mean ye."" etc. (lit., "what to you"'; cf. 1.11, also 22.1, 16). Possibly, then, the two couplets should be transposed; the pronoun ir'-'att:ain tok Troi/aij', "with their feet," in stichos f (cf. the repe- tition of na^alpa in :L'2")). Possibly, then, the text was not dearly in order; if the second ti'UxkhnCi (stichos d) bi' omitted, hiil'ikh ir'-tdphoph woidd be a circumstantial accusative infinitive phrase dependent upon the first lilnkhnii, and paridh-l to the circumstantial participles in b and e and to the circumstantial imperfect in 16b (cf. the probably similar parallelism in S.S) ; or if the first ti'hikhuil be omitti-d, the j)articipial phrases w^h'iuoth 't/droii and w'^auqq'ri'ilh 'luiitjitu, '•stretched forth of neck and wanton of eyes." modify the main clause in stichos a just exactly as tWi'iph v"'/'' and "phi'ld m'nu(Ul is sdxdhh in II Sam. 17.13). In 16f occurs f'' akkas}id ; the translation "making a tink- ling" depends uiion the noun '"khilshii (sing, 'chins) in verse 18, translated "anklets." The root oecni-s again in Hebrew only in Prov. 7.22, where 'ekhes, however, if correct, certainly does not mean "anklet"; indeed, this translation is very dubious (see below) ; it rests upon secondary Arabic connotations of a root meaning "to rever.se"": "to )>ut a halter on a camel" — but in such a manner tliat the idea of turning or twisting (either the rope or the camel 's head ) is included : hence ' ikds is the rope with which su<'li tying is done, and perhaps sometimes simply "a hi>lilili'. " But the jump from this meaning in Arabic to that of a "metal anklet worn by a woman" in Hebrew, and still fur- ther to a denominative verb denoting "to make a x'inging sound with such anklets," especially since the word neeui-s nowheri> else, is a far one. The Targum manili' :,hi. " lunvuking to anger," read perhaps a root kd' as fur 'dl.ns: thr Se|)tuagint Trat^ovaai^ "sporting," also challenges the translation, and is evi- dently nearer to the intention of Isaiah. In Job 21.11 irpoaTrai- i^ovaiv is the translation of rdqadh,"vm\ with leajis and bounds" ; but it might also represent the Arabic ralada. "move the feet," which would be in Hebrew rdkag, if found, or possibly rdkas (the matter of sibilant .shift especially in rare words is not clear yet) ; and the fact that 'akam and rakasa in Arabic are s.ynonyms, if not variants df (inc and the same Semitic root, suggests further possibilitirs in the ]iresent Hebreiv of Isaiah. At any rate, the Arabic rakada means not only "to dance," but also "to kick the skirts of the garment and the anklets with the feet."" bi-rijluiha ; and it is the motion made in a peculiar manner of walking that Mohammad evidently prohibited when he said (Sura 24.31) : "let them not strike with their feet, so that these ornaments of theirs that be hidden be made known." It is true that here again, in this Sura, commentators geuerallj- introduce the word "anklets"' after "strike" and then cite it as a support of the [ 344 ] Purallilisiii in Isaiah, ('liai)t< is 1-10 28!) ll.MTEK 3 translatinii •niiklft.s" in Isaiiili; Imt wliilr in tmtli pli ees SUeh a i-i-fi'i-fni-f may lie iiiclntltil, it tines nut lif in tin- woi ds used: till' Anibie (Itiniba, "strike," hero means •'striiie out." "wave," ami ean he said of the arms as well as the feet or lejjs and the ■"ornaments" ia<;ain supposed to he ""anklets") are properly interpreted hy Savary when he trnnslati's: "Let Iheni luit move ahout their feet so ns to allow thosi' eliarms to be seen whieh ouylit to ho veiled" (i.e., their physieal eharms; compare Ezek. 16.7 Ithoiifih the Massoretie text has been (luestionedj : "thou art eome to exeelleut ornaments ['"/>«iY. "smite with a scab." is supposedly a denominative from sappa\ath (with the heavier sibilant), "scab"; as such it is not found again in tie Old Testament. The Septuagint varies: its TaTreiitMrei. "humble," might represent I'ither shdfil or shax; and its ap^otxrai might represent a margiiud variant ri'isln'. 345) 290 I'linillelisni in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter ?, "heads,"' for qodhqudh, "crown." Sippax is, indeed, suspicious because of the parallel stichos, in which, however, there is the difficult pothhcn, translated "their secret parts," but not found elsewhere; the Septuagint lias ax^JM'^, "form" or "appearance," which, while it might be merely an avoidance of the difficulty, might readil.y represent a reading shlth (in Prov. 7.10 this word is translated etSo?, "appearance," "form") ; hence possibly the original reading was shithhPn, which occurs in Is. 20.4: "so shall tile king of Assyria lead away the Egyptian prisoners and the Ethiopians captives, young and old, naked and barefoot, even with their buttocks uncovered," x"^^'Ph<' shcth, an expression of grief and shame at tlie same time (see Wellhausen, Reste arahisch(H Ildch nihuiiis. p. 177, note ?>. for a reference to the uncovered buttocks in mourning). At any rate y^'dre, "dis- cover." in this stichos suggests a parallel in the preceding: the very word found in Is. 20.4, xSsaph, with a mere transposition of the consonants of sippnx; in Is. 47.2 again occurs "uncover thy locks (veil), make bare the leg, uncover the thigh" (lit. "train": xospl shfihhel) : here then w('-xasnph qodhqddh, "will lay bare, uncover, the crown." The verb sdphox of the Hebrew, on the otlicr hand, is used l)y Isaiah in .■').7 in (piite a ditt'erent sense: ".shed, pour out"; and in 14.1 (with the heavier sibilant and licuce aiijtarently even closer to "scab") in the meaning "join," "attach," where the parallel (Idwd) leaves no doubt as to which particular sdphax is meant; while in 5.7 the word is chosen for its paronomasia. It is fairly clear, then, that Isaiah would not have used the ambiguous sdphax here without a parallel to make it clear. And if the line from the Septuagint regarding the trailing cloak be restored, the revised reading "lay bare the but- tocks" offers just that jirophecy of poetic justice which the Semitic feeling demands: instead of the cloaks trailing behind there shall be nakedness of buttocks; on the thought compare, besides Is. 47.2, Jer. 1.3.22: "thy skirts (train) are discovered." It is possible that this couplet is only the fragment of a larger stanza introduced by Jdhhrn, "therefore." the omission of which word (it is suiijilied in the English) is unusual; for the formula [346] ill Isaiiili. Cliiiiilirs I- ID i/(/'.ni k'l, ••lirraiisi' tliat. " nci-urs a<.'aiii in Is. li.lti, 7..'). S.(), always with some oiHTt-lativi" in tlio apodosis. An easy cliaii'ri'. howi'vi-r. i.r III -sippii\ into tlic impi-rfwt i/>s(ippi'>x would yifUl a normal t-onstrui'lion ; and pnssiMy tln' I'ouidct is to In- joined directly to vel-se •2\. IH 2;!. (18) III tlitit iliiy till' Lonl will take away tlic bruvi-ry of (thoir) tiiikliii); orimnioiits (about tlifir feet), (their) cauls, ami their roiuul tires like the iiiooiis, (19) anil the ehaiiis, and the braee- lets, anil the inuOlers, (20) The bonnets, ami the ornninents of the legs, and the heail-bamls and the tablets and the ear-rings, (21 ) The rings and nose-jewels, (22) The ehangeable suits of apparel, and th" mantles, and the wimples, and the erisping pins, (23) The glasses, ami the line linen, and the hoods, and the veils. Tlii'iv is no reason for reirardiiig this list of terms as noii- Isaianie; the very wealth of detail makes its own appeal and effeet (ef. 2.12. for instance), althoujjrh it js possible that this stanza is misplaced (see the note at the end of the last stanza I and formed part of chapter 2, or a similar poem, referrinij to the proud luxury of women as that does to the pride of men; the introductory words "and on that day the Lord will take away" would then he a similar line to 2.12 or 2.20 ("and on that day man shall cast away.M etc.;i. Whether this be so or not. there can he no ilouht that there is some disortler in the list of objects enumerated. As the te.\t .stands there are twenty-one objects in.stead of twenty, nmkinjr if coupled in pairs the freipient ten line or five couplet stanza. Some of the apparent confusion may be due merely to misundcrstandinir of certain terms in the li.st; ainontr them are several not found elsewhere: and the specific meaning of terms for clothinir is subject to ehanjrc in the course of time. The objects enumerated in the list have been divided into two (or three) proups: articles worn on the hciul and those worn on the rest of the body (or orruiments for the head: those for the rest of the body; -rarmcntsl ; this is a natural order: in 16. and ajrain 17. first head and then feet are mentioned. Hut in any ea.se '"kilsim, as usually translated, Eu}.'- lish, "tinklinp nrnaments about the feet," ilisturbs the order. und there .seems to l>o no rea.son why just the nnklets should be tliu.s emphasized ns a sipn of pride or of immodesty. [ 347 I 292 I'tiralhlifnii in Isdiiih, Chapfcrs 1-10 Chaptek 3 It has been supposed tliat 'olvushn was placed at the head of the list just because tf'akkasiM, "tinkle," was the last mentioned act in verse 16 ; but see on that word the note above. The Tai-- gu)n translates "sandals," mfsanayd; but whether this was m('r(4y a guess ; or represents a different reading again : ;r ' al'uii (cf. Is. 5.27, 11.15) ; or is based on 'akas and 'aqas, "twist," or ■'plait'" (sandals were sometimes made of woven-work; and ni.'-m'Hd means also "basket"), it is difficult to say. Later Jew- ish commentators attempt an etymological justification by de- scribing them as sandals made of the skin of the viper, 'ekes, a word uliich Eashi cites also in connection with f'' iikl-iisml : '"they stamp with their feet and give signals to young men in tiie mar- ket ]ilace. to arouse in them evil desire like the poison of the asp, '(/,(.<." which later IIel)rcw word, however, seems to be only the Greek ep^ty. At any rate neither etymology nor tradition justi- fies ' ' anklets. ' ' The Septuagint evidence is not certain ; its fourth term, fj.rjvia-Kov;, is the Hebrew third, sahcronlm (cf. Judges 8.21, 26) ; its third, Koavfi^ov; , is the Hebrew second, sh<^bhlslm (cf. Ex. 28.14, 25, 39, with f for s in the root) ; therefore the Greek second, ifxirXoKiov, might be the Hebrew first, '"kiishn: the Greek means "braid, fashion of wearing a woman's hair," which is the exact meaning of the Arabic ' iqfig (here again there is a not unparalleled confusion of 'okas, aka^', 'aqa^, 'aqash, etc., cf. Hebrew (^cixnq, suxaq, and Arabic daxika, "laugh," where gut- turals and emphatics again are the cause). The Greek first term ifiaTia/jiov would then be an insertion, or else might represent a doublet of '"kdshii in the form tn''kassim ("gai-ments" in Is. 23.18). In otiiir words, the text was not certain; and it seems (|uite |irol)able that the troulilesome '"kil^hii was itself originally miTcly a dittography or variant of the following sh<^bhM7n (notice that the older commentators associated it with shaba^, "weave" or "plait"), or had its origin in a marginal reference to the ('"'akkasna above. 'Without it there are ju.st twenty terms, the first pair of which becomes hash- sh'^bhlsim w'^has-sah^ronlm, "ornaments in the form of .suns and moons" (so several modern commentators) ; if '"k(lsJ))i be retained, it should be translated, [348] I'antlli Usui in Isaiah, ('hai)tirs I- In Willi . I. 'wish coiiiiinMitatcn-s. •■Iiraids," or •'plaiti'tl ornaiin'iils of the liair," I'nniiinj; a pair with sir lihlsim. in llic si-iisi- 'liair-iH't or hair onianu'iit." The fourth term in the IIol.ivw, (i'/i/(7. conrspontis to the fifth ill thi- (ircck, Kcidefia (tin- root nfitaf means "dro])," "pour" in Arabii-; and st) KaOiiifii ""lit fall,"' also "pour"); but for tlie fifth and sixth of the Ilehn-w [slu'roth u"hd-r<'aloth : "chains" and possibly "veils," thnujrh the latter, from nV al to "(luiver," shake." nii^'ht mean "baii'rles"; aeeordiufj to ilaimonides, "little bells"), the Septuagriiit apparently has the one phrase /coo- /ioi' toO ■rrpoaiim-ov ainwv. "ornaments of their faee"; possibly, however, this represents only r'Tiloth, while shfriilh is either dittography in the Hebrew and to be omitted (if '"kdshit above is retained) or is the extra term which the Septuajrint has between the pres- ent twelfth and thirteenth of the Hebrew. The Hebrew and (irei'k seviiith thus correspond : p' 'i'rhii, which later means "tur- ban.s," but which apparently was taken by the Septua^'int in a more jreneral sipnifieance, "ornament," closer to the roof, and translated ri)v avvOtaiP tov Koa/iov rf;? S6^i)<;. "a combination of gloriotis ornaments" (so in 61. :3 p''i'r is Bo^ap) ; and the eifrhth ^'•dflhoth is ;^X\viii<; the same error: and in tlie Jer. 'rar,'h this occurs &ga'\i\ in Is. 62.3 and is translated BiaByjp.a. On the whole, then, the evidence points to uncertainty in tradition; and the probabilities of error in a list like this are so great that variations from symmetrical {>;roiii)ing should far more likely be a.scrilied to copyists or cditoi-s than to the author. 24. (a) And it shall come to pass tliat instead of sweet .smell there shall l)e a stink; (b) ami instead of a girdle a rent; (c) instead of well-set hair, baldness; (d) instead of a stomacher, a glrdinR of sark-cloth; (e) (and) burning instead of I>eauty. In this five line strophe the parallelism is maintained throughout, tliouph in form the last line varies sliphtly, as is often the ca.se with odd line strophes: the order of words is changed, and the line is short. The versions read tlie fifth line ditTfrently and join it to the next verse. The condition prophesied in the strophe is apjiarently one of mourning: this is clear from the reference to baldness and sackcloth; to "rent" al.so, but the translation is faulty; while "stink" in the first stichos and "burning" in the last are doubt- ful. But the word translated "stink" is nrnq; the root means "to decay": u.sed of flesh, then, "to fester," but of plants, "to mould" or "turn to dust." The latter is doubtlessly its mean- ing in r).24: "their rwit shall be as rottenness." t»dq, made plainer by the parallel "their blossom shall be as dust," 'dbhaq; so in Is. 34.4 the underlying figure in tuinmqqu is not the "fes- tering" of thf hosts of Heaven but their "decay" into mould or dust, and the figure is continued: "the host .shall fall down a.s the leaf falleth from the vine"; notice that in the precixling verse (.34.3> "stench" is the proper figiire because human bodies are spoken of. '•Dust" is tin- nn-aning r"<|uirfd in tlu' present I 3>l 1 296 I'aralUlisui ii, Isniah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 3 stichos. since bf>si m, "sweet smell," literally "balsam," "spice," is a vegetable product ; the Septuagint translates KopviopT6<; (which it uses for 'dbhdq in 29.5) ; and so Is. 61.3, apparently based on this jirojihecy and reversing it, reads "beanty instead of dust," p' '("/■ hi^iith 'epher; and from an allied root comes muq, "dust" in Arabic. The thought, then, is: instead of using the normal product of the tree, its spice, they shall have only its mould or dust ; this figure is all the more natural in that the "balsam" product was used in the form not only of ointment but also of spice,, as incense. Niqpd, "a rent," found in no other passage, comes from one of two roots meaning respectively "to strike off" and "to go round." The Targum and Jewish commentators choose the former and interpret "wounds," "bruises"; the Septuagint the latter, and translates ' ' a rope ' ' ; the former is more apt with "scab" and "fester"; the latter with the figure of grief and captivity, and, of course, with its own immediate complement "girdle." In 24c, iiia'"s( niisqslu, "well-set hair." literally "work of iiiiqshe," is again difficult; iiiiqshc, as a masculine noun, is aira^ \ey6p.evov ; as a feminine it occurs apparently with the mean- ing "hammered metal work," hence the Septuagint here "golden ornament"; but the Targum "curling," "crimping of the locks," 'aqqdphfiih puthd, is more apt. Ma'csc seems super- fluous, then, since it always denotes "an object"; quite possibly it came from the margin ; if it was intended to refer to this line at all (but see lielow) it ])i-obalily indicated a reading mn'<'qdshd or iiHi'"qdsd ('dqash or 'dqas. "to twi.st " : hence "braid") in- stead of i)ia"sc iniqshe. Even today in the Arabic world to leave the hair unbraided i.s a particular sign of mourning. The word translated "stomacher," pHhlghU, is an aira^ Xeyo/xevovof such unusual form that if correct it may be a foreign word. However, since it is coupled with the compound phrase nvax"ghdrcth saq, "girding of saek-cloth," p^thtghtl may be the remnant of a similar phrase; in Is. 61.3, again, occui-s nm'o-te ih'hilld idxiith ru"\ Tii'hd : "garment of praise for tln' spirit of [ -'S ] l\inill,lls,„ in Isaiah. Chapl.rs l-JO L'!»7 Chapter 3 lioaviiu'ss"; liiTf possiMy \vi' slnmlil rrail llicii iini' "Irphrth . (n) Thy m«>ii •ilmll fall by the swonl, (l>) ninl tliy niiKhty (lit, niiijht I ill the war. The pandleli.sm In'tween the eonerete noun "men" and the abstract "might" is to be noticed; especially sinee the singular feminine is left without a verb oxprcs-sed, and must be nuule in 298 I'nrdUrlism iu Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 3 thought subject of the third plural "shall fall""; otherwise the couplet is normal. But that it does not form part of the previous poem is evident. Not only is the enallage striking, but it implies a previous personification of Zion as a woman (see particularly the next strophe), instead of a literal reference to the women of Zion. Again there is the significant coincidence that just where internal evidence arouses suspicion the versions also seem to have had an obscure text, the obscurity coming at the point of the editorial or copyist junction of two prophecies, or addition of a fragment of one to the end of another complete in itself. In addition to the differences already noted, the Septuagint repeats the whole plirase ' ' shall fall by the sword ' ' in place of the Hebrew "in wnv" ; but it also attaches to this verse the first word of versi' 'Ji;, ir'-'diitl, "shall mourn," but in the form ir'-'ilnri ( Ta-n-eLt'(i>d)j(TovTai : "shall be humbled"; cf. Is. 58.10) ; if this actually was l)ased on an original td'"nc, "thy power shall be humbled," cf. Ps. 102.23: "he weakeneth my strength," 'innd qox}. The Septiiagint also adds in the first stichos ov .ciyaTra<; ; and it has been noted that the Targum also has an additional word (a repetition of some form of yophi) : aside from this the Targum offers a better parallelism than the Hebrew: possibly (/ihhnnniikh and )ii''th<~ x'''''/>''. m- iii'thr ijhfbhurdthekh and 'aitshr xr/rA/), wrrc tile original tmns; if the missing x^^^^h, "thy strength, ■■ stood in the margin, it is just possible that the Septuagint tov Koafiov vfimv of the next verse represents it in tlie form xP^y<^kh, "thy ornaments." At all events, the annexing of verse 2.5 to 24 sliows that the prophecy of the latter was understood to refer to mourning for the dead, and not to disease or other bodily suft'i-ring- (e.g., not to "scab" and "branding"). 2(i. (a) And her gates shall lament ami mourn; (b) ami (she, being) desolate (lit. "purged,'' or perhaps "emptied''), shall sit upon the ground. The tist of parallelism sliows in this strojilie the following facts: aiKitlier enallage (third person, instead of the second as in verse 2."), wliicli itself contains a change from verse 24) ; the [ 354 ] rarallilism in Istiioh, Chapt'is 1-10 2!»9 I'lIAl'TEK 3 intnuliu'tiim of tlic word "■tratrs." not only without a parallel in stirhos 1>, but obsi-uriiif; tlii' personifii-atioii (Ziou as a woman) apparently intondcil in vcrsi' 24 and certainly present apain in stichos 'JGb; the jiresenee of two synonyms for "mourn" in 26a, paralleled perluips by a participle and a finite verb in b, but the parallelism as well as the motaplior obscured. That these arc real difficulties is shown by the versions: the Septuagint changes the third person to the second, has a dilTercnt (though even less appropriate) term in place of "gates," and translates, for "purged" or "emptied," "left alone" (the English luus "deso- late") ; the Targum attempts to adjust the personification by translating "the gates of her city"; the English, by setting off the pronoun "she" in an emphatic and contrasting position to "gates." allows a double metaphor which to some degree glos.ses over the Hebrew difficidty. That the English here expresses what should be expected in Hebrew becomes clear from a com- parison with Jer. 14.2: "Judah mourneth, and the gates thereof languish ; they are black unto the ground ; and the cry of Jeru- salem is gone up": i.e., change in the syntactic form of the last predicate retpiires a new and expres-sed subject. Here then we should expect : "Ziou shall lament, and her gates shall mourn, and .leru.salem shall sit di.scon.solate upon the ground": cf. Is, 19. .S, where the same verbs as in 26a occur (distributed) in a three line strophe: "the fishers al.so shall mourn, and they that angle shall lament, and they that spread the net shall languish." But there is here another pixssibility : aside from .syntax, "gates" in the first stichos is a thought parallel to "ground" in the second: so Targum makes "ground" the subject of the sentence; moreover, pethuy^ is rather "doorway," "door" of a house than •"gates" of a city (Is. 13.2 is too obscure to be offered in support of Isaiah's usage of pi Ihux^ ; but whether door or gate, the couplt>t may have been: "and she (Zion) shall mourn and lament at her doorway, and sit di.scon.solate upon the ground" (or the second person is to be read throughout). Of course, "the pates shall lament" means the .same thing; the objection i.s to the involved metaphor and slipshod syntax. [ 3r,r. ] ;!()() PuraUdism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chaptek 3 Niqqdtha, English "desolate," is a fairly common word frcmi a very common root; it means "purged," "freed from punish- ment," "exempted from obligation," "restored to innocency." Perhaps primitively the root meant "be empty," and Isaiah may well be credited with a consciousness of this primitive mean- ing ; but it is impossible that he used it with entire disregard of what its connotation must have been to his audience, especially since there is no parallel term to make clear the unusual inten- tion. There might, perhaps, be found here another grim double or triple meaning: Zion "]nirified"" through punishment and grief; "emptied" of her men; "divested" of her ornaments. But the reference to innocence is as out of place as it is inevitable in the present reading. Some word is required parallel to " mi ill in ' and applicable to Zion both as a city and as a woman; l)evliai)s iiixi'iftd, literally ".shattered" and figuratively "con- founded," "dismayed," "abashed"; said of nations under divine j\;dgment, of the grox;nd, of people ; ef. Is. 20.5, where this verb is used with hdshfi. "be ashamed," which in turn in 19.9 is in the scries: "nimirn." "lament," "languish," "be confounded," "lie broken." Chapter 4 1. (a) Ami iji tliat day seven women sliall take lioM of one man. saying, (b) We will eat our own lirea.l, (e) ami wear our own apparel; (d) ouly let us be called by thy name, (e) take aivay our reproach. This vci'.se belongs in tliougiit witii chapter 3 rather than with what follows here; its tlimif is still tlic dearth of men. But in method of presentation it differs from the last verse of the pre- ceding, in which Jerusalem is personified, and attaches to the .still earlier picture of the fate of the individual women (3.16). Prom aiiiither viewpoint, however, it resembles more clearly 3.6; tlicrc till' rulership goes begging; here wifehood goes beg- ging; and even the phraseology ("seizing hold," "garments," "food") is echoed. But the full development of the picture there, with its introdTietion leading to the climax, and its answer [ .3.50 ] l'(irull7 I 302 Parallel ism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter i 2. (a) In that day shall the branch (lit. "sprout," "gro«-th") of the Lord be beautiful and glorious, (b) and the fruit of tlie earth (shall be) excellent and comely, (e) for them (that are) escaped of Israel. The strophic formation in the prophecy contained in verses 2-6 is unusual. In this first stanza (verse 2) the stichoi a and b are in normal parallelism; but the third stichos, li-plfletath Yisrd'el: "for the escaped of Israel." is a dependent phrase, standing outside the parallelism, and modifj'ing either or both of the stichoi a and b. Moreover, it would seem that it is a uecessarj' part of those sentences, that a and b are not logically complete without it ; this fact is obscured by the English, which in translating li-c'^bhi fil<^-khdhhddh (lit. "for a beauty and a glory") "beautiful and glorious" interprets the preposition as in 1.5: "to" or "for sickness," i.e., "sick." Such a trauslation here, "beautiful," is very seductive; but the idiomatic phrase "be for a glorj', " or "beauty," in Hebrew seems always to be followed by another dative (indirect object) in the sense: "be a distinguishing mark for someone or something," "that which distinguishes him in beauty or honor from all others" (cf. Ex. 28.2, 40; Ezek. 20.6, 15; Jer. 13.11). The underlying verse form in this first stanza would then be the so-called qlnd strophe : a sentence divided into two unequal parts by the caesura, which parts are not of necessity parallel or syntactically independent; i.e., omitting for the moment 2b: "In that day shall the branch of the Lord be for beauty and glory — for the escaped of Israel." But the first portion of the line in the present instance is doubled by means of parallelism; such parallelism, within the syntactic structure, might be called "suspensive parallelism"; cf. 5.24. To a certain extent the same scheme predominates through this whole prophecy; with this difference, that the modifying phrase also is doubled by parallelism. The middle stanza (verse 4) shows this formation best : the washing of the filth and blood of Zion is expi-essed in a couplet; then the instrument or means of washing is described in another shorter, dependent couplet; the parallelism in this stanza is then perfect, and the question is accordingly raised whether there is not missing from verse 2 [ 3.58 ] rural!, liiiii in Isaitih. Ch.ipt.rs I-IO 11 parallfl to •"tin- fscain'tl of Israol" -a i|iicslioii wliii'li pi-rliaps ri'ei'ivts its aiis\v> r in tlif snpi rtliioiis slidios of llic mxt stroplir (vtM"si' 3). Tlif parnllflisiii in I'a ami b botwi'i'ii •■liraiu'ii of tiu' Lord" ami "fruit of the oartli" is striking; one would expect, pcrliaps, for "tlu- Lord" eitlier "tlie field," has-sddke or "tiic ground," hu'"dhum(i (Gen. 19.25; Ezek. 16.7). But evidently the parallel lui'iirti; means here not "the earth," but "the land," i.e., Pales- tine (as is elearly shown by the words Zion and Jerusalem), God's own land. There may still inhere in the phra.sc something of the Semitie phra.se "field, ete., of Biuil," with Yahwe substi- tutid for Haal ; even though there be no ncecssity of insisting on the implication "naturally watered" fields and plants as eon- tnisttd with those watered by irrigation. At any rate Ps. 104. l(i provides a similar interesting parallelism: "the trees of the Lord are full (of s error is one thu- to asso- ciation with 3.7. All intcristiii'; (iiustioii ol" style and |iaiiiilelisiii is involved in the metaphor used here. The phra.se for "wash away the tilth" used here is not a trite, eonveutional one; and the ii-rure is enliv- eueil in its freshness and vividne.ss by the parallel in li, "rinse,"' Hthlhh'x, whieh oecurs ajrain only in Ezek. 40.38; II Chron. 4.G U>'>tl> literally), and Jer. r)l.:54 (tifiuratively, but possibly an error there; so A. V. "ea.st out"). Somewhat eurious, then, is the means of washing: "the spirit of jud-rment \n't<'\ mishpdt], and the spirit of dcstruetion." Ii!i'i<'x niishpat occurs in 28.6: "The Lord of hosts shall be . . . for a spirit of judprment [i.e., justice] to him that sitteth in jud^'mcut" — an idea neither appropriate to the general context here nor sup|)orted by the; inuneiliate parallelism with "spirit of destruction." In verse 5 the ch)ud and lijrhtnin}; are definitely mentioned, and then the divine presence is represented as a refu: "with the heat [? the versions have "might") of his spirit" or "wind"). Parallel to riV'x in this sen.se occurs in another picture of the storm, zirim, "tempest." 32.2; and the ((ualifying word in place of mkhpiit, parallel to biVir. might be shnU'ph. On the whole picture compare Is. 28.2: "Bi-hold the Lonl hath a mighty and strong one, as a tempest of hail and a destroying storm, as a fl.M.d of mighty water ov.-rtlowing" ; 2S.17. IS: "hail sitall sweep [301] 306 Parallelism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter i away the refuge of lies, shall overflow the hiding place ; . . . when the overflowing scourge shall pass through." Compare also the parallelism in Ezek. 13.13, for instance: "I will rend it with a stormy wind [ru"x s^'droth] and there shall be an overflowing shower [gesheni shotef] in mine anger." If the present prophecy is Isaianic, it would be peculiar, then, if just at the point where the words "wash" and "rinse" would lead one to find a refer- ence to the destroying flood, such a reference should be lacking! 5. (a) And the Lord will create upou every dwelling place of Mount Zion, (b) and upon her assemblies, (c) a cloud and smoke by day, (d) and the shining of a flaming fire by night. Again there can be no mistaking the nature of the stanza formation: a couplet of parallel stichoi, followed by another couplet, not syntactically complete in itself. In the first couplet, however, the first stiehos is overlong, the second very short ; as a matter of fact, in the phrase kol m^khon har Qhjon, "the whole site [A. V. "every dwelling place"] of Mount Zion," m^hhon is redundant: "upon the whole of Moiuit Zion" is perfectly normal, while in stiehos b yniqrd'ehd, "her assemblies," as can be seen from 1.14, Ex. 12.16 ; Lev. 23.4, etc. ; Num. 28.18, is a noun of action, or a time noun, before which one might naturally expect such a word as mekhon, "site of," or "place of." That the Septuagiut felt the need of greater length is shown by the insertion of "all" again; but for miqrd'ehd it read 7repiKVK\co; if this is mighrdshehd, "all her surrounding territories," it per- haps points to an original miqdashekd or miqddshdh, "her sanc- tuary"; the latter appears in the Targum translation of the first stiehos, while for miqrd'ehd it reads: '"thar heth sh^kinto, pos- sibly "place of his sanctuary" (Heb. m'^qom miqMshd). Tliis may or may not represent an uncertainty in the text ; at the least it indicates an unconscious attempt at glossing over the stylistic defects pointed out. For a phrase mfikhon miqrd'ehd, "site of her assemblings," compare m'-hhrm shihhtd, "place of his dwell- ing" in Ps. 33.14. Another possibility is that in the almost unintelligible clause appended to this stanza, kl ' al kol kdhhod x'ippd: "for upon all [362] I'anill'lism in Isnuih, Chapt, rs 1-10 '.Wt Cll.WTEK 4 tlu' jil.iry slmll In- a (li-f.-iKr" {\\\. a ••i-aiiopy.'" (ir ••cliaiiilier"). (lio phnisi- ■rlory"; the word "frlory" in a thi'ophanic I'oiuuH'tion is most apt to n-tVr to Yjiliwt' — is, in fact, a synonym- and it is (piitt' likely that in tlu' present prophecy, as in other tlieophanies, it is God himself who appeal's as, or in. the eioiul ; compare Is. 60.2: "The Lord shall arise upon tiiee. and his glory be seen upon thee," il-kh'bhodhu 'iiUiyikh jjfrCi'c; this would neci>ssitate reading in stichos a for u-bhdriV some word like W-nir'd ("and shall appear," instead of "and shall create"; the Septuagint read tt-bhii', "and shall come"; bard', indeed, is .striking; though used in the latter part of Isaiah, its objects are such tliat it may well be translated "shape" or "fashion," or "to fashion, create anew, transform"), and to treat stichoi c and d as vague appositions: (!od will apjiear (as) a cloud; or ir;ul "in a I'ioud." In stichos c the order of words in the Hebrew is "a cloud by day and smoke"; so that "and smoke" is joined by the versions to the next clau.se (d), which would make c very short: but both Septuagint and Targuni insert the etpiivalent of the Hebrew word mf<;dl, "shadowing," with "cloud." This denotes, per- haps, merely that a feeling for balance led to its insertion in the versions, as parallel to "flaming," which modifies "fire," in the ne.xt stichas. Quite ptxssibly, however, it was due to a mar- ginal variant of u"-'d.ihdn, "and smoke," e.g., ye'shan or 'dsht'n ("smoking"), belonging after "cloud": "a smoking cloud by day, and a flaming fire by night." 3-6. (5<>) For upon all the glory (shall bo: Heb. no verb, i.e., "is") a defence, (tin) Ami there shall l>e a tabernacle (b) for a shallow in the ilaytime from the heat (c) and for a (place of) ri'filue and for a covert from storm and from rain. Though the beginning of this stanz)t is most awkwardly worded, the end seems to show the .same construction as the previous part of the prophecy: a couplet (or here a triplet) in parallelism, but the stichoi not syntactically independent. I 3«3 308 Panillclisiii in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 4 For the bufiiuiiiiiK of thu stanza parallelism seems indicated in the words "canopj^" (5e) and "tabernacle"' (6a). The former word occurs again only in Ps. 19.6; Josh. 2.16. ajjpar- ently meaning "chamber"; the root occurs, however, in a significant passage, De\it. 33.12: x'^P^ftph 'uldw: "(the Lord) shall cover him": such a verb is indeed read by the Septuagint (aK€7TaaO)']aeTai) : i.e., !/dx<'>ph or (from the cognate root) yexpc. But while the meaning of tliis couplet is clear, in its present form it is much mutilati-d. If the phrase "for upon all glory" is not to be disposed of as above suggested, we might read: kT 'al kiilkih k'^hhodho ydxdph, ic'^-sukka iihij!: (add (jh^-' fithdl) : Yea, all of her his glory shall eover, And a tabernacle shall (there, it; or insert "his majesty'" or "over her ' ' ) be. For this thought, compare Is. 60.2, cited above; Ps. 57.6: "thy glory is over all the earth"; Ex. 24.16: "and the glory {kh<'bhndh) of the Lord abode upon Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it"; for "tabernacle," sukka, as the equivalent of the cloud in which God appears: II Sam. 22.12, "He was seen upon the wings of the wind; he made darkness pavilions (sukkdth) round about him, dark waters and thick clouds." And for the thought of God"s glory, i.e.. God himself, as the refuge from the storm, compare Is. 25.4: "For thou hast been a strength to the poor, a strength to the needy in his distress; a refuge from the storm, a shadow from the heat." The simple parallelism at the end of this last passage {maxs' mk-zerem gel me-xdrrbh) suggests that our closing couplet 6b, c probably also was originally as simple; i.e., exactlj' like the cor- responding member of tlie other stanzas. The word iifnnCun. "in the day-time," is omitted by tlie Septuagint; it may be either simple dittograpliy from verse 5 ; or it may wath ulf-niistor, "and for a covert," represent the distorted missing portions of the first couplet of this stanza. Mistor in itself, though super- fluous, is not objectionable; but indtdr, "rain," after zerem, "flood," is remarkably weak and anticlimaetic : wnUlr occurs often in the Old Testament, but always as a symbol of blessing [ 3r>4 I'linilhlism ill Isaiiih. (•Iuit>l>rs 1-10 .U)!) I'llU-TF.K 4 atiii ri'ri-islmii lit. invir itt (listniiMioii ; I'mv. liS.:{, which mif^ht bo thi' appaiTiit fXi-fjJtioii, in reality shows the imrmal use of the word; the kiiijr, who is expeeted to lie the ehainpioii of the poor (ef. 72.1), luit who instead op|)resses them, is likened to u lain (beeaiise the rain is expeeted to hrinj;; hiessinffs) whieh pros- trates, so^iph, the rtaiit rli'iiii'iit ill tlir paralili': it is (ir(i|ip<'il witliiiiit i-oiiiiiu-iit ill vi'i-si' :{, lU-spitf till' fai't tliat '"bcldvcd" is used tliivc tiiiii's ill till- iiitnuhiftioii — a ri-pctitioii that must In- takiii as iiiilii-a- tivi' of aiUli'd fiiii)liasis upon the word. And. iiidfcd, tin- idea of love is tin- iinportant one in the par- al)K': but it is not tliat of the siniLrt'r's love for the Loi\l, or vice v«i-sa: it is tin- Lord's love for Ills vineyard. The word "be- loved." ifdh'uihi, expros.sos just tliat idea wherever it occurs in the Psalms and elsewiiere in passages referrin«r to the Lord; thus Deut. '.Vi:l, "lienjamin is God's beloved; the Lord shall cover him all the day"; in Jer. 12.7tT. Israel is tiie "dearly beloved of my (Uod's] soul, my heritage, »i,i/ rincyarfl." If in the present pa.ssage sticiios la stood by itself the natural inter- pretation would then be: "I will sing now of my beloved " and the seipiel would show clearly that, as is usual, the Prophet is identifying himself with the voice of God, and that "the be- lovetl" is his, i.e., God's, vineyard, on wiiich he has lavished his loving e;iie (tlie enallage to the third pei-son in verse 2, "lie fineiil it." is then the usual enallage: the Prophet alternates between the two without marking the change; the Septuagint, however, keeps the fii-st pei-son consistently throughout). If ll'dh'xlhi has its usual meaning the failure to exiilain it in verse 7 would not be nniarkable; neverthebss, it really is indirectly explained there as referring to vineyard, though for yddh'ulh is substituted a synonymous term, .tlia' shu'riw, which, since the identity of the "beloved" as the "vineyard" has already become evident, is chosen because it eaji better be api)lied both to a vine- yard and to a person; so siM'shil'im, "pleasant," is used in Jer. 31.20 in eond>ination with iidrrUi: "Benjamin was to me a pb-a.sant child." where the parallelism hi'n i/dqir shows its mean- ing to be ••precious." "dear," "belov<'d," "fondled" (ef. yaqartii in I.s. 43.4 ); ef. Is. ()6.12: "ye .shall be born U])on her sides, and be dandled (I'^sha'sha' u) upon her knees." To nmk<" the first line consistent, then, it is neci'ssary only to read the eon.sonantal text as preserved (or changed) by the Seplnagint ; reading, however, a different vowel from that wliich [ .167 312 I'linilhlisiii ill Isaiah, Chapio-y; 1- H) Chapter ."> it svipi>lic(l: ilnilhai Un- its dndhl: "Now will I siiio- of my bcldvrd, a sdiij^- (if my liivc for my vineyard."' This at the same time is what iiai-allrlism (lemands. Tiie second stiehos (lit. "a vinej-ai-d was to my helovfd," kerem hdyd Udhldhl) would then have to lie read: "a vineyard was to mo fas") beloved," l-crnn hdyu li h-ijddlfidh; cf. Gen. 28.21, w'-hfuia Yah a-; U Irhilnia. "and Yahwe will be to me for God." The ednsli'iictiiin is used particularly of personal rela- tionships (father and sons, husliand and wife, etc.), a fact which is in keepinp' with the i)ersonitieati(in suggested by the use of "beloved" in this first verse. It should be noted that the Sep- tuagint omits the jironoun of "beloved," reading perhaps as ]>n)|M,sr,l, I' aadhidh for Udhldhl. J!'-I,hn;ni Inn shrni,,a. "in a very fruitful hill," is literally "in a horn, son of fat" ((jr "oil""). The use of "son" in such phrases is fairly frequent; normally, however, it is applied to that which is the result of, is produced by, that comes forth from, or goes into, something else; i.e., whei'e the original mean- ing of the term is preserved in a sort of personification. Thus "sparks" are the "sons of the Hame": "arrows" are "sons of the quiver"; particularly in Is. 121.10: Babylon is likened to corn that is threshed, and this is called "son of my threshing- floor"; on the other hand, the hill itself would be "father" of fertilitj' (see the note on 6.13). It is curious that in the present verse, where Israel is likened to a vineyard, and the vine^-ard is personified, the metaphorical use of son .should appear applied not ta Israel nr the vineyard, but to the "hill." which has no The word qeren itself occurs some seventy-five times in the Old Testament; only here does it denote anything but "horn." The translation "hill" is based on the Arabic, where qar-n de- notes sometimes the spui' of a liill ; also the higlier part of a desert, or a eorniT; icddls also have proper names compounded with (Juni. Indeed, the choice of qcren here, instead of any usual wiinl for hill, and as emphasizing the "horn" or "spur" of a hill, is curious; vineyards are planted on hills, it is true; I'anillilisiii ill Isiiiiih, Clniiitirs l-IO hut nil th.- slo|),s pivf.Tiil>ly ,.r n.lliii;; hills, not on isohiti'tl pt'aks. The iiitin- jihra-sc is cviihiitly very poitifnl, and not litiial ; it wdiihl l)i' so cvi-n without thi- word bfii, "son"; qinn sill in < n means "horn, Hask of oil" (I Sam. 16.1) and its appli- cation to a liill wii\ild su^jii'st a m('ta|)iior; hut particularly would it hi' apt in personification; tji n ii happukh, "iiorn of antimony," is a proper name. IVriiaps, tlii'ii, tlio propositioh /(', "in." should he omitted, and the phrase, (icirn brit shcnien, should refer directly to, and he in apposition with, "the vine- yard." The chau'ie restores i)arallelism at the same time. 2. (n) Ami he fonccil it, (b) and pitlieroil out the stoiie.s tlicroof, (CI anil plantnl it with choicest vines; (-•). (5b) I will take nway tlip lieOgo thereof, (c) ami it sliall be eaten up; (il) nnil break down the wall thereof, (e) and it shall bo trodden down, (lia) And I will lay it wa.ste: (b) it shall not be pruned, (c) nor (shall it be) didRed: (d) but there shall come up briers and thorns: (e) I will nlsu commancl the tlouds (f ) that thoy rain no rain upon it. The extreme, almost savage, terseness of the Hebrew infini- tives in .")b and tl ("take away," Ju'ist'r; "break down." pilroi^) is not revealed by the English finite verbs. The ten cbuises of this pa.ssagc can again be read as a series of (five) lines, each with a distinct caesura; the tuievenness in leeigth f>f the two parts, however, is absent; on the other hand, with the exception of one line (6ef) each might clearly be read as two, all to a certain extent parallel, but with closer jiarallelism between the alternate lines. The arrangement is not cnlinly dear as the text stands, (ia aiul fib evidi-ntly belong closely together; In' jii::iinu'r probably is a circumstantial clause modif.ving wa-'"sliUlu'lii'i hhiithii: "and I will lay it wa.ste, it not being pruned." This would snggi'st then that the corresponding /«' iii'tidhfr, "it shall not be hoed," belongs after, not before, 6d, thus: "then' shall come up briers and thorns, it not being hoed." Otherwise, 6a-d might form an "envelope" patallelistic quatra.stieh : [ •■'■1 1 316 Parallelisiii in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 5 And I shall make it a waste, It shall not be pruned, And it shall not be hoed, And thorn and thistles shall come up. At any rate there is a clear relationship of cause and effect between the growth of thorns and thistles and the absence of hoeing ; as there is between removal of the hedge and being eaten (but see the note on 6.13), between breaking of the walls and being trodden. This leads to a closer examination of the word hatha, "waste," in its relation to absence of pruning. Bdfha is a a-n-a^ Xeyo/Mevov, assigned to the root bdthrt-i/'i-«it; 'iilrhd b'^^tiutfgi"' , Saadia interprets the lirst two words, "and lie eonunanded upon it," as a eonipUte proposition, and so the English translates, "eoni- niandeth it not to shine," inserting the last three words. But if the sentenee in Isaiali is regarded as one long stieiios, it is still parallel to the rest of vei-se G. 7. (a) For the vine.varj of the Lonl of Hosts is the liouso of Israel, (b) ami the men of Juilah his pleasant plant; (c) and he looked for judgment but behold o|)pression; (d) for righteousness, and l>ehold a cry. Stiehoi a and b are a di.stieh in ordinary eoniplenientary parallelism; neverthekss, there is a species of caesura within each stiehos, and there was (piite probably in delivery of the prophecy an actinil, dramatic pause: "for the vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is — the house of Israel!" Indeed, whenever in a propiksition s\d)jeet and predicate are exactly synonymous and coextensive, there residts a form of inner parallelism. In stiehoi c and tl the caesura is logical, and again these two lines might be divided into four. In either ca.se /i-^"f//i(7rd mispii\. A. V. "oppression." in contrast to inlsh p'll , "jur," from tln' in'xt liiic; (luito i)ossil>ly, then, lliis word was at Hist omitted l)y mistake, was written on the luarfrin, and then edited by a eo[)yist into tlie wron-,' pliu-e. For tlie use of miiqom, "place," i.e., "vineyard, ' 'lield, ' "estate," i-ompare Is. 7.23: "in every plaee {miiqinn ; i.e., "estate" or "vineyard") where there were a thousand vines"; and on tlie res.sed here eonipare the words of Aliab to Nahotii in I Kinps 21.2: "(iive me thy vineyard, lieeause it is near (qdrobh), along- side of mine house." Line 8d seems to hear in itself other evi- dences of eorrujition. The use of the second peraon (the Ena- lish translates as third) in this one line, while the rest of the stan/a and of the whole prophecy is cast in the third, which is the usual construction after hi/i, "ah!" or "alas!" may not be tlisrejirardetl. Moreover the use of the ho/jli'iil form htlshabhtnu, "ye be caused to dwell," is most i 1 logical : there is certaiidy no idea of causation intended. Tiie Septnagint translator felt this, and read (or interpreted) the initial h as the particle of inter- rogation: "will ye dwell." Parallelism with the preceding line suggests the infinitive W-shlhhirini. "and (until) their dwell- ing," and I'-hhudiliim. which was changed to I' -hhadil' klu in to agree with the misread verb. In 9a the phra.se "In mine ears (said) the Lord of Hosts" .stands outside the parallelism, as has been noticed in the ea.se of similar phra.ses introducing the direct discourse. The sentence it.self, without a verb, is suspicious; the consonantal ti-xt might as well be translated: "In the ears of the Lord of Hosts" (ef. Xuin. 11.18, 14.28; I Sam. 8.21); or even as an oath, "by the ears of the Lord!" Possibly its mutilated form is due to the fact again that it was an editorial nuirgiiud insertion to explain the following construction 'tin lo', literally "if many houses shall not be next line") as tin- hath is identical with the 'Cphd. On tlie otlier hand "ten" may be marginal, as an atteni|)t to explain the proportion betwi'en kdr I'imillrlisni ill Isiiiah, Chaptirs 1-10 .{21 CllAI'TKK .') aiul biitli, yiiii4 r aiul 'i plul, tlie latter ut' ivicli jiair of tcriiis ln-iii^; just ttii times tlif foniu T. At all ivi-nts tin- passajjf is intircst- ing, if it may hv assiimoil that the normal proportionate yield of the vineyard and the tield wrn- about the same as today. Ten aeres of vineyard on the averajre yield live thousand y:allons. Professor Hioletti informs me, instead of whieli Isaiah prediets eight gallons, i.e., one instead of sL\ hundred and twenty-five. If "ten"" be omitted the prediction beeomes one instead of sixty, whieh would still denote absolute ruin. Siipposiu".' a teii-t'old yield of whtat (Gernuui eolonists in Sharon enjoy an ei;:lit -fold yield), the proj)ortion of prophesied to normal yield would be one to one hundred. In Gen. 26.12, it is true, Isaae is said to have enjoyed a hundred-fold yield apparently (so in Matthew U.S. hundred-fold, sixty-fold, and thirty-fold yields are men- tioned) ; if sueh yields were usual, the proportion of prophesied to nomml yield of grain might be one to one tlunisand, but pos- sibly "one hundred fold" represents not the returns of a single harvest, but of a year — or else is oriental liyiierbole. 11-14. (lln) \ViH> unto tlieiii that riso up early in the morning tliat tliey may follow .strong ilrink; (b) that continue until night (till) wine inflame them. (12a) And the harp ami the viol, the tabret anil pipe, (b) ami wine (arc in) their feajfts; (12c) but they reganl not the work of the Lord, (d) neither con- sider the operation of hi.s hands. (13a) Therefore my people are gone into captivity (b) bcrausc they have no knowledge: (c) and their honorable men (are) famished (c) and their multitude dried up with thirst. (I4a> Therefore hell hath enlarged herself, (b) and opened her mouth without measure; (c) and their glory and their multitude (d) and their pomp, and ho that rcjoieeth, shall descend into it (Ilcb. : anil shall descend their glory ancl their multitude and their pomp, and one rejoicing, in her). In this exeeedingly long pas.sage it is notieeable that verses n and 14 eaeh begin with "therefore," introducring two dilTer- ent threats of puni.shment : hell ami eaptivity, for the one crime of intoxication. Either of the.se "therefore" pn.s.sages is as good a conclusion for one of the several "woe" passages whieh, as at present arranged, oeeur later in tliis chapter without any "there- 322 I'aralltU.siii in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 5 fore" passage. Another fact is noticeable: verse 22 is in thought a doublet of verse 11, referring again to drunkards. The illogical arrangement is self evident ; and the transposition of the passage 12c-13 leaves a stanza, clear and logical, of the same formation exactly as that foxind in verses 8-10 : strophe and antistrophe. As the passage stands, moreover, the feeling for style is out- raged by tlie fact tliat the word hdm6)i occurs twice (verses 13 and 14 1 in two quite distinct meanings: once denoting "the nuiltitiiile" 111' "people" (contrasted with kdhhod, "honorable men"; cf. Is. Ki.l-t), and once denoting "noise," A. V. again "multitude." It was perhaps just this word which led the com- piler to put tliese passages together (see on yinhom, below). Parallelism in 11a and b between yirdnphii, "follow," and i/ailhUqfiii. "till wine inflame thciii." iiivulv.s at the same time a play on the latter word, wliieli, at least in the simple iqal) conjugation, means also "follow," "pursue" (Ps. 10.2; Lam. 4.19; Gen. 31.36; I Sam. 17.53) : in the morning they pursue wine ; in the evening wine pursues them. Moreover there is here again the characteristic twist of thought: "Ah! those who are industrious in pursuit of — wine I ' ' In 12a and b, as the text stands, there is displayed an ex- tremely awkward style : four names of musical instruments are joined witli the word wine to form the subject of "their ban- quet," though "wine" has just occurred in the preceding line. in parallelism to its .synonym "strong drink." Certainly the second "wine" is out of place; and it is probable, in view of verse 14. that this series of words shoiild be read and emended in somi' such way as follows: ic'-hdyd kinmr wa-nebhel h"iiinii<'im toph w<'-xaUl sW^'On mishtdiii, "the harp and the viol are their tumult; the tabret and pipe are the noise of thrir banquet." For the inserted word sh^'on, see below, on 'dl)': hdh. In 14e the reading' li" rt'iuliiij; ■■tlicir •riory" for ■"lirr ■:lory'"i is diif to tlic iiiHiu'iiei' of tlu> fi'ininiiu' sutUx in the prfCfdiMji line ("'''•'i' mouth") — aiiollu'r elejir evidoiice of i-opyist's cari'lfssuess. W'-'dlfz btih, litirally "ami oiu- who ri-joiccs, in her," a paftieiplf added to a series of ahstraets eaeli with its siiltix, is stylistically impossible, and the sejiaration of the final prepositional phrase, "in her," from its verb ""fro ilown" in this manner is also not likely Isaianie. Nor is the proper \isan";f. i.e., 'aiishi' b'lhja'al (cf. I Sam. 25.2.'), e.fr.), in which 'aiisht rei)rcsents a double readinj;; of shd'dn in this vei-se, or a marginal reading of it intended for insertion in verse 12 (see above) ; while h'lh/a'al nniy represent an original ijibbdl'Ti, "shall be swallowed up" (with bdh, "in hl K<'<"l I'vil, (b) that put TF,K :> oiitstivlclioa." tlif same i-hiusc llial ofciirs licrc in sticlios f, rtMniins Ix'lon- it just siu-li a passagi- as vi-t-se -'■>: "tlu-rofore he liatli stretelied forth liis hand." On tlu* other liaiul it has been nottil tliat the passatre be^imiinfr lO.l-i*. ""win' unto thusi' who tleereo unrijrhteous tleerees," seeuis really to lielon;r willi tlie series of "woe" stanzas in ehapter 5. The one weakness in verse 25 lies in stiehoi e and d. These can hardly be eaMed paralh'ls; and moreover in d "and liieir ear- easses" absolutely disregards stiehos e ("the hills did trend>le") and ivfers baek to "people" in a and b. Stiehos e, moreover, is very short ; either a pair of stiehoi. then, have fallen out, one after and parallel to e, the other before and parallel to d; or else from e t lit re has fallen out a phrase wliieh would make it |)ropirly paralh 1 to d and eontain an antieedent for "their" in the latter. In the first alteriuitive, Is. 24.20 would sujiply a basis for a parallel to "aiul the hills did tremble," namely, "and tiie earth nniovtd out of her place"; while 'M.'.i and 1').;', wouhl offer a parallel to "their earea.s.ses were torn in the midst of the streets"; namely, "and the slain were east in all the squares." U'a-x>'l'ilim hiishl'khi'i b'khol r'xi'thln'ith. But as a matter of faet. tlu' reference to the trend)lin}: of the hills seems out of plaee, re- garded as reference to an earthquake, and the second alternative seems to recommend itself. Head "and the hills did shake with the weight of the slain," or, better still, with v'"'"'-?'/'' for itinj'zii. "the hills did flow with th.- blood of the slain," the tigure found in Is. :i4.:i: "and the mountains shall be melted with their lilood"; ef. al.so Ezek. :{5.8, "and 1 shall (ill his moun- tains with his slain men." Other suggestions are: wiij/iiirhu hit-\"h'irnii b'khol 'iinnt, "and the slain were numy in all the citii-s" (Gfi.H!). or "in their mid.st." h<--qirhi'im. Possibly the missing word is to be found in the supert1uo\is qmbli, "the mitlst," in the next stiehos; b''-hfii;>''th, "in the streets," is even l>etter than "in thi- »»iiV/. will lift up an ensign to the nations afar, (b) and will hiss unto them from the end of the earth: (c) and, behold, they [lit. he] shall come with speed swiftly. (27a) None shall be weary nor stumble among them [lit. there is none wearying, and there is none stumbling in him] ; (b) none shall slumber nor sleep [lit. he does not slumber and he does not sleep] ; (c) neither shall the girdle of their [his] loins be loosed, (d) nor the latchet of their [his] shoes bo broken: (28a) whose arrows (are) sharp, (b) and all their [his] bows bent, (e) their [his] horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, (d) and their [his] wheels like a whirlwind: (29a) Their roaring (.shall be) like a lion [lit., a roaring to him like the lion], (b) they shall roar [lit. either "and he shall roar" or sim- ply, "he shall roar"] like young lions, (c) yea they shall roar [and he shall growl] and lay hold of the prey, (d) and shall carry (it) away safe, (e) and none shall deliver. Whether this highh' dramatic and formally almost perfect prophetic poem belongs with what immediately precedes or not, is uncertain. If it does, it emphasizes still more strongly that the two words in vi'rs(> 25 referring to earthquake are to be emended. As divided above the prophecy contains sixteen lines ; but 27a and b might each be divided into two stichoi (four in all), giving eighteen. Except possiblj- at two points, the parallelism is absolutely patent ; the distiehs group themselves ; a closer affinity between some of the distiehs makes possible also a stanza divi- sion. The fir.st possible excejition is 26c: "and, behold, lie shall come with speed swiftly,"" ;\liieli has no exact syiuniymous par- allel. Nevertheless, it does form a complementary parallel to either 111- both of the first two stichoi: God signals to them [him], lie calls to them, they answer him ; i.e., there may be here a three line inti-oductory stanza exactly like the opening of chapter 1. On the other hand the line also is parallel to the following stichos, 27a : Swiftly they come : none wearies or stumbles. This would make of the second stanza (beginning, then, with 2()c i one of an odd number of stichoi. And finalh' there is the jiossibility of regarding 26e as a distich in itself, for it contains two synonyms: [ 386 ] I'aralhlisni in Isaiah. Chnptirs I-IO X.\\ ClIAlTER .") "spi'fdily" and •■swiftly"; aiul (l.si>itr .loil ^.l, wlu-iv thi- siinu' two lulvcrbs art' joiiu-il ulosely tojfctlu'r to modify one verb again, Isaiah may luivc intcndi-d a stron"; cat-sura: "and behold ! speedily — swiftly they eome"; or else the donlilc adverb with sinjrle verb here may be a seribal error due just to the fact that sueh was the eominon pi-ose usa^e ; Isaiah's muhi'r shCildl ^tlsh biK in S.l, ;t : "Swift |is| booty, speedy (is] prey," showini; parallelism even in a proper nann', may indieate that orijtin- ally there stood lu-re hinnr ni'ht'ni i/i;'"/* or tiiiqum, qui iiabho: "lol swiftly he rises; (piiekly he eonies"; or simply ir^'-hinui' y'lmihi'r, qi'il iidbhn': "lo, he iiastens; swiftly he eomes. " That, despite the simplieity of the ti'Xt, the eopyist has manajred to err is shown by i/iiiiini, "tuitions, " iu verse 26a, a plural for the intendeil sinfiular. It should be noted that ;/«//. "nation," with- out the plural endinp, mi'^ht be a eoUeetive, and hence be treated as a gramnuitieal plural in syntax; and still the author has de- liberately treated it as a sin<,'ular in the same sentence ("he will hiss ti> him," In' and fifteen times in the whole passajre. It would be ehariliible to the copyist to suppose that he found the letters i/»" on the nuirpin, intended jus a correction of a imihfr, found in the text, to y'nuihfr, as jiroposed above; and that he mistook thasi- letters as a correction of yoi/, found iu the text, to yoyhii. At all events, it must be repeated that the line 26e as it stands cannot be definitely claimed as a non-])arallelistic stichos. The other possibly doubtful point oeeurs in the tinal stanza, 29a-e, which yields a pentastieh as I have divided it. There is no reason why Isaiah shoidd not have used a closin4.soretie tratlition in regard to the exact form of the root (WshiVayh or yigh'iiyh) shows possibly sfinie disorder here. thou|.'h this point [387] 332 Phralhlisiii in Isaiali, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 5 cannot \w pressed bj- itself; but again just here the Septuagint, whicli lip to this point represents exactly the Hebrew text, shows a variant reading. Notice, now, that in the Hebrew there stands by itself a synonymous verb, yinhom, inserted after "he shall roar like young lions"; the English addition of "yea" before it is an attempt to gloss over the inelegance of the Hebrew. At- tempts to show that there is intended a real progress of ideas in passing from yish'agh, "he roars," to "yinhom, "he growls" or "moans" (see BDB, s.v. nlihmn, referring to W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, p. 243) are not entirely satisfactory; that the roar "marks the moment of his spring, the sudden moan- ing that follows shows that the pr( ij is secured" is contradicted by the Hebrew text itself, which has this order of words : roar, growl,' then seize. Curiously enough, the Septuagint has made the transposition demanded by W. R. Smith's interpretation : kuI iTri\r]-\jr€TaL Koi iSorjaeL a>? 6r)piov: "he seizes and growls like the wild beast." in which the last word may represent kat-toreph, lilerally, "like the seizing one," instead of the Hebrew tercph ("prey."" without the preposition "like"). But the Septuagint also avoids the double occurrence of sh.d'a(jh, "roar": and that this is nut due to the translator's feeling for style is sho\m by the fact that he does repeat the other word yinhom ("moan": ^oriaei in verses 29 and 30) . For the second occurrence of sha 'ar/h it reads irapeuT-qKav. i.e., either w^-ndgash (or yiggash), "he draws near"; oi' ivJi/sslgh (or yasstgh), he will "reach," "overtake" (with sin foi- sa-melih). which would indeed be an a]ipi'o|.riiite word in the eoiite.xl : cf. Wn-. (i.l4: w'-lhassri/h w'-lf>' iaphllf. "take hold (or reaeli) but not deliver" (tlie hist is the same W(U-d translated "carry away safe" in the ])reseiit Isaiah passage: yiiplilil). Either tlie Septuagint has the better text, or els(> its variations show at least some disorder in the ti-adition. The combined evidence points to the following: yisli 'aijli was written by mistake ; yinhom was written over it or in the margin, and meant to replace it ; the copyist instead added it after l{ak-k<'phlrim, while the Septuagint added it after yoxez, supjiosiiig that the mark or line indicating erasure of y/.s/i 'rrry/j nternil only to one of its consonants, the middle 'alcf. f .188 ] i'iinilhlisw ill Isaiah, Cluiiit.rs l-IO :<:(:! t'llAlTEK .'i The last ami I'l.iu-lmliii^' liiif of the po.'iu ir'-'fii mrtvc''. "a<' pres<>nt one and like if eontains th'' simile of the roaring sea. Ileri- then iiinhom might refer either to the rebuke of (iod administered to the wandering sin- ner, or to the groan of the wanderer himself. The .synta.x in stichoi b, e is most obscure; literally "ho will bxik for the land and behold darkness (of?) di.stress and light is t •■'89 Parallelism iit Isaiah. Chaplers 1-10 darkened in her elouds"" [ba-'"rlphnia : a dira^ Xeyo^i-et'ov; Eii<;. "in the heavens thereof"). The suspicious repetition of the root xashakh is avoided by the Septuagint, which omits it in stichos c, together with 'dr. "light"; 8.22, however, shows that its occur- rence in stiehos b here is superfluous. Possibly for ha- oriphehd simply '"rdphii should be read (cf. Deut. 4.11) : "deep dark- ness," without preposition or suffix: so the Septuagint: o-ko'to? (TKXrjpov ; though it attaches the preposition to qara apparently : ev rrj a-TTopia (cf. 8.22, where cnropia is <;drd) ; at any rate tlie Septuagint shows clearly the crowding and confusion of the words as evidenced by the Massoretic text itself. The original form of the verse may then have been : He looks for [or to] the land, and lo! distress! For light — and (behold) darkness and cloud [or 'and darkened are the clouds']. The style and parallelism resemble, then, tliose of 5.7: "He hoped for justice and lo I bloodshed : for righteousness, and lo ! a cry"; even the paronomasia, striking there, has its counter- part here, thougli the play is more subtle: on hd-'dre(;, "the land," and, with tlie same consonants in reverse order, gdrd, "distress"; Id-'ilr. "fur tlie light," and with quasi-assonance, '"rdpJx'l. "clouds." Ch.vpter 6 Chapter 6 describes the Prophet's call, and down to vei-se 8 it is mostly pure prose narration. Where, how^ever, direct dis- course is introduced, parallelism may possibly have been in- tended; also, even in verse 7. wliere Tsaiali merely repeats his own thoughts, Woe is nie, for I am undone; For I am a man of uufdean lips. And amid a people of unclean lips I dwell ; For mine eyes have seen the king. Lord of Hosts — a form of "envelope" parallelism may be discerned. But the fdrnial i)aralle]ism here mav lie due mereh- to force of lialiit ; the Isiiitih, Cluipti tliiiiitrlit paralli-lisiii is iK.t ixrlict. A^'airi in v.rsf i. \hr words lit' tlir SiTapli, put ill tliu form of ilii'fct discourse, Tliinc iiii(|uity is tnkrn iiway, Ami thy win purged fni-iii a paralU'listii' distii-h ; the pn'i-cdiiiy stii-lios, howovcr, "Lo, this liath touuhod thy lips," stands alone; and althoujrli it mifrlit be omitted as an absolutely superfluous line, sinee it follows the words, "he laid it upon my mouth," the parallelism itself may be ajjain mere foree of habit. Similiirly, in verse S. when- in the words of (iod, Wlioiii xhM I ri.n.l, And wlio will (JO t'or ii.s t stieliiis b is a parallelistie repetition of stielios a. However that may be. the moment that the words of God in the form of a pro|)heey i)roper — an oracle for the people — bepin, ])arallelism beeomes perfect and the diction poetic: vei-se 9 is a perfect distich: verse 10 consists of two perfect parallelistie tri- stiehs with additional inverted intra-parallelism, line answering to line in a manner more exact even than the Enfilish reveals, since "shut their eyes" is in Hebrew haslui' , "cause to be smeand. ' of the same linguistic formation as the jxirallel hiisluiiiii and luikhbi'dh, "cause to be fat" and "cause to be heavy." The Hl-st possible difficulty occurs in the last phrase of verse 10: '•and convert and be healed," niishiibh u'niphfi' h'l; but there is absolutely no reji-son why these words here shoidd not be read as a distich : Aii.l |l('^>t| it return, Aii.l he henleil; for each verb is n complete proposition, and the parallelism is complementary as is shown clearly in 1J).2'J: Tliey ahnll return (ii-- i«/ihti'um]; with w hich compare Hosen 6.1 : Come let us return to the Lord ; For he hnth smitten and will henI us. N'o prejnilirment as to the nece.s.sary length of a line — that a sin- [391] 336 ranillctisiii in Isaiah. CJurptcrs 1-10 Chapter 6 gle word, even if it is a eomplete proposition, may not form a thought and line entity — should outweigh the patent evidence of parallelism. And if nevertheless these words be considered one stichos, they still could not be considered as clearly not in parallelism to the rest of the strophe since "lest they be healed" is clearly synonymous with "lest they (the blinded of eyes) see." Verse 11 begins with the words of the Prophet to God, in the query. "IIow long?" No parallelism is to be expected there. But the answering prophecy of God begins in verse 11 with a tristieh. of which the first two stichoi are in perfect parallelism, while the third, less exact, is suspicious; it continues in a distich (verse 12) of almost perfect parallelism; but ends, in verse 13, in a series of phrases in which, while some of the elements of parallelism can still be seen, the form is blurred, while at the same time: (a) the thought not only lacks clarity but is seem- ingly illogical; (b) the .syntax is correspondinglj^ involved; (c) the choice of words is remarkable, involving not only the weak repetition of one woi'd but the iisi' of it in an almost unintelli- gibly perverted meiinin^': (di the Septuagint shows important variants, while in the rest of the cluipter it shows none. The following suggestions are offered. Verse 11. SJul'il, "be wasted" in stichos a, and tishCi't, "be wasted" (Eng. "be desolate") in stichos c, show inelegant repe- tition, while '(/(//( '"shcr 'iin, literally "until that when." in stichos a is a rare and overloaded phrase in place of the simple 'adh (with the imperfect in Is. 22.14, 26.20, 32.15. etc.: wi1li 'iin in Is. 30.17.) : the redundant '"shrr. (hen, points to a re;il variant reading: 'adh iiishsIxV'Tri or 'adli 'iiii iiiah'")-!! in stichos a. oi' to ti.shrrrr in e: the whole of stiehos e, however, ir' h ,1-'" [ri\(iiilii] till- liiiiiiKlarit's <>t' lli<- land"), aixl inaki's it parallel to tin- vcrl) ill tlif parallel stii-lids. It was proliahly a i-drrcct l)Ht inisiiiuicrstdod grloss sho'iilh ("ilcsolatidii," iiitciulcil to cor- rict 'I'th, sigu of ai-ciisativf) whifli was rcspoiisiMc for the iiiforroi't slul'Ci in 11a, ami for the ti.ihiVf in lie; while sh'tni'inul ill lie was another <;ldss on the same word 'rth; sho'dlli, found also ill 1().:{. 47.11, Wdnld l>e strietly parallel to liii of" as in 17.9. Kcconstruetioii : ic"'-rix« isuiiih. ciuiiitos 1-10 :?;{;> ClIM-TKK 11 '•iifrain" and ■"still") Itccoiiu's clnir rnnu lO.li'J. wliicli can mraii only: '•tlioujfli thy pt'oplo, O Israel, an- liki- the saiiil of the sea, a reiiinaiit (ami only a remnant) shall still lie therein [notice the preposition] : destruetiou is decreed" — not "a remnant shall return: captivity is decreed." There is perhaps in this use of i/dskiibh some reference to ytshebh, "remain" (as in its use with sli'biilh, "captivity," there is a play on the root of that word) ; Hdshiibh \w\i\g used because it means also "repent": tiie full thought then is: "a n'liiiiaiit shall ivp.nt and (therefore) be- come again a nation." If this change be possible the way is elear for a reconstruction of the remaintler of verse 13. The picture back of the simile of the oak and terebinth as a symbol of the remnant is suggested by a characteristic feature in .sonu' parts of the land. Thus on the road from Danuiseus to Brak and the Leja (Ilauran), on a hill- side in the midst of an otherwise treeless but only partly culti- vated plain, grows a single oak that because of its isolation is a laiulmark and gives to the hill the name Tell Abu Shajara: "Hill. Father of the Tree." If now for the impos-sible tiiiii,u;ibhilh the partlL-iple >iiuri;i bin III. "caused to be standing." i.e., "left standing." be read, the very significant pa.s.sage Judges 9.6 is recalled: 'floii )}iU(;<,('ibli, "the oak left standing (Eng. "plain of the pillar") by Shcchem"; this, if the text is correct, also refers to a single oak left when the valley was cleared to make way for the orchards of olives and fields of grain. H'shalUkhrlh (Eng., "when they ea.st"), would mean then either "at the time of felling" or "in the place of felling,"' "in a clearing." For '"shir, "which," read, with dittography of the >i from the preceding 'iiUon, uish'dr, "remaining," par- allel to iiuii;i;ibhith and referring indirectly to ,s/i' Mr. restored above. ISitm :irn' ("in them," ".seed": such is the Hebrew order of the words) should be read together bam-mizra' , "seed- land," occurring again in Is. 19.7, and common in Arabic, iiMzra'a, in that sen.se; here parallel to "clearing." The final two words shoidd W omitted. Lifting the stiehos ii-kho-'alldn '"slur I i.e.. ni.ih'or) b'shalli khi th from its disturbing position, [ 395 ] 340 Panilhlisni in Isuiah, CJuiptrrs 1-10 Chapter and pliK'iiig it j)arallel to instead of in tin- heart of the other stiehos, there results: Kd-'tla mui'fchlii'th ham-mizia' W^kha-'alUm nish'dr bf-sluill-elheth. Like a terebinth left standing in a sowu-land, Like an oak remaining in a clearing. Compare tlien also 10.19, where Isaiah again uses sh'''dr: "and the remainder of the trees of the forest .shall be imf in number. ■" Notice that the restoration of the couplet above, aside from the omission of the last two words, involves nothing but transposition, and a disregard in places of the (late) ilassoretic vowels. C'H.tPTER 7 2. See on verse 4. 3. The reference to the scene of the pi-ophec,v as at ""the Upper Pool" (probably the Pool of Siloam) possibly was in- tended for chapter 8; these two prophecies are absolutely par- allel, and refer probably to the course of the same event ; the refei-ence to "the waters of Shiloh" in 8.5 receives a peculiar appropriateness if brought into connection with this reference to the pool in chapter 7; and the reference to the Prophet's son Shear-Jashub here in 7.3 ha.s some point if eonueeted with S.2. where Isaiah's wife and unborn son are mentioned. 4. "From these two tails": "two" is possibly an error; read "from these tails," referring not to the two kings themselves, but their agents in a plot to overthrow the dynasty. The his- torical introduction in verse 1, if it implies that the two kings themselves were at the time of the prophecy actually besieging Jerusalem, must be disregarded (see also on verse 14) ; it is at variance with verse 2, according to which it was told merely "that Syria is confederate with Ephraim." literally, "has alighted upon Ephraim" — a remarkable verse if the Syrian and Israelitish kings were actually near the gates, as would be also verse 15, promising relief from the supposed siege only after several years. In verses 5 and 6, too, the prophecy is directed [ •■'9'! : J'arall' lixiii in Isaiiih, ( 'ha fit < is J- In ". H ClIAl'TEK 7 ajiaiiist Syria ami K|)liraiin ■■l)ccaiise they saiil "let us ffo up" — not ht'caiisf "fliry huvi- (•(imc uj)"; set' also on vci-sc H. •"Tails," then, has licri- a doulilc iiH'aning: thi- conspirators, or thrcatt'ii- inx"" '"/'ft ifffn iihlii liji' nmljiiihi'i : From thc!( words remains as in II f'hron. 21.17: irniiija'''lii hhihudhii uaijiiibhqiV iilni, "tiny tame up into Jndali and broke into it." 342 ParaUplisiu in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 7 "And set a king iu the midst of it, .(even) the son of Tabeal": the casual nature of the final phrase is hardly con- cealed by the English insertion of "even." The indefinite cognate accusative (lit. "let us make king a king") should properly denote that the name of the king is unknown or to be concealed, the emphasis being placed on the appointing power; here practically then "let us exercise the king-of-kingship"; this interpretation, too, would explain the unique u.se of the phrase "in the very midst of her." The proper name may have been appended: (a) as a later gloss (like other proper names in this series of prophecies) ; or (b) to produce appositional parallel- ism: "we will place a king in her midst, [will place] the son of Tabeal"; or (c) to call particular attention, liy the very un- usualness of construction, to the personality of tlie chosen king; in the last case, the effect in the present instance is that of sar- casm : the son of Tabeal is, indeed, otherwise unknown to history, and the name as here vocalized seems to mean " Son-of-good-f or- notiiing. " instead of "Son of God-is-good," as the consonants would normall.y be vocalized to indicate. But the words are put in till' moutli of the Syrian and Israelitish kings, and the sarcasm, as well as tlie emj^hasis, would be misplaced; in any case, they are probably a later addition. 8. "For the head of Syria is Damascus, and the head of Damascus is Kezin." This crj-ptic utterance is generally in- terjireted as though it read: "For Damascus is the head of Syria," i.e.,. of Syria alone, and will not be head of Judah ; but this is not the natural implication of the words. The sentence recalls in form a very well-known type of proverb : "Everytliing has a head, and the head of .r is .;/"; e.g., in Arabic, "the head (principal part, essence) of religion is the fear of God"; "the head of kindness is promptness"; in Hebrew (Ps. 119.160), "the head (essence) of God's word is truth." Such an interpretation is possible here also if the interpretation suggested above for verse 4, with its emphasis on the word ' ' tails, ' ' be accepted : the "heads" of the conspiracy against Judah are at Damascus and Samaria: the " heads "" of the capitals are the kin.us : si-il., when [398] l\inill,lism in Isaiah. Vluiplirs l-ln WAW (jotl hriiitrs aliout //i« /> il.'ffjit (at the liands of Assyria?) tlic conspirai-y and plot fall to tlie {jrouiul. Soe also on 8.9-16, with till' cmpliasis on plans and, possibly, f()iisi)iracy. "And within tliri'i-score and Hvi* yeai-s shall Ephraini be liiiikiii, that it bi- n(it a pcoph'. " Plai-fd so as tti explain the ref- en-nee to Aram — not to Ejihraim — and interruptinf:? a perfeet parallelism, but itself without a parallel, this line offers perhaps the most eonvineiuf; evitlenee of two faets: the presenee of mar- ginal notes, and their subse(pient insertion and misplacement by copyists. 10. I'arallelism in the .seetion 10-17 is not elear; nor, indeed, is there here the ordinary kind of oracle, the simple word of (iod; but it is prophecy by means of "signs" and symbolic names; and despite the fact that verse 10 begins "and God spoke again to Ahaz, " it is evident that it is the Prophet who is speaking, and speaking not in the usual entire identification of himself with the voice of God. In diction, also, the prevailing tone is that of prase and not ecstatic poetry ; the contrast is vivid between this seetion and verse 18, for instance; and prol)ably, then, in this sort of omen and symbol prophecy no parallelism was intended; though the habit of speaking in par- allelism may have unconsciously led to such a phrase as is found in verse 11 : "JIake it deep as Sheol, or make it high as Heaven"; so also verse 12: "I will not ask, and I will not try the Lord," with which compare 8.16: "Bind the testimony, seal the law among my disciples"; in both, the .second line contains a word or phrase ("the Lord," "among my disciples") which belongs in thought also in tlie first lini'. See also 8.1-5. 14. "Behold a virgin shall conceive"; literally "behold, the young woman." The inadetpiaey of the introductory setting in verse 3 becomes unmistakable when viewed in the light of this pas-sage. Evidently in place of the Prophet's son Shear- jashub, who plays no part in this scene, there shoidd have been intro- duced in anticipation of tliis particular prophecy "the young woman" whose presence is presupposed in verse 14. As the text stands the conclusion is inevitable that the "vounjr woman" 344 Parallel i.vu in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 7 stood ill some relationship to Isaiah; possibly she was the wife of the Prophet's son, Shear-jashub ; in that ease there would be some point to verse 3; possibly she was the Prophet's wife, called "the prophetess" in 8.3; this would mean either that the two pniplieeies refer to one and the same event, the two names being variant traditions of one and the same; or that they refer to two events distant from one another by a considerable lapse of time, reference being then to the birth of two sous of the Prophet. There is a curious lack of appropriateness in what is appar- eutlj' intended to be the explanation of the name "Immanuel": "The land shall be deserted whose kings thou fearest"; it con- tains no direct reference to that name. Contrast with this 8.3 : "Call his name ' Swif t-is-booty, Quick-is-spoil, ' because the riches of Damascus and the spoil of Samaria shall be taken away""; or 9.6, where at least tlie word shdlom, "peace," appears in the explanation of the nann' contained in verse 5. If the name "Immanuel" is indeed correct in 7.14, it is at least necessary to read after 7.16 the poem on Immanuel now standing in 8.9flE., and ending "ki 'immdnu-'el," "for God is with us," which is exactly such a phrase as should be expected somewhere after verses 14—16 : tlie poem is out of i)lace where it stands, moreover ; and on the otlna- luind 7.17, wliich does follow here, is also de- cidedly out of jilace; notice, too. that the theme of the poem in 8.9 is the fru.stration of a "plan," '^^-(7, the same root that occurs in 7.5 ("because Aram and Ephraim planned against thee"). The prophecy 8,llff. also seems to belong in this chap- ter; i.e., either both chapters refer to the same event, or there is considerable misplacement of verses. 15. "Butter and honey shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the good"' is nothing but a conflation of two marginal passages, both of which are found also elsewhere in the text : one is in verse 16, immediately following ; the other in verse 22 ("butter and honey shall every one eat"). Omitting this intrusion, with the resultant (verse 14) "She will call his name 'Immanuel,' (verse 16) for before the boy knows," etc., compare 8.3, "call his name 'Quick-is-Booty, " (verse 4) for before the boys knows," etc. rarallilism in Isnmlt. Cluiijl.rs I- 10 'M'^ t'llAPTEK 7 Iti. StH- aliovc. Ill) viTsi- 1."). 17. Thf vi'i-sf is misplacid; it licloiijrs with S.4. 'Elh whkh 'Ashshfir, "tin- kiiifj of Assyria" is ajraiii a trliiss; licri' it al)- surdly stands in apposition witii tlie word "days." lt»-24. A st-rifs of paralK'listic stroplifs, |iroltal)ly di'tadu'd, and wliieli if tlioy l)olonkhiir 'tthhi'iri'mh tCsa'ar hii-raithlnyim u'flham 'ith hiizzOqan tispf (or .i/i*/ih lustph lasli-shdmir w'^lash-shayith tihye; w'-l-hnl hd-'dreg w^-khol he-hdrlm '"slier bavi-ma' dhCr yc'ddhCruii shdnur wa-shayith yihytl ; - - 402] ■iillk till- evidence of the purcha.se, both that which was sealed {h)\rilhi'im) . . . and that which was open (lind-f/dlui)." seems to show, as suggi stt'd in I.saiah, two separate documents (i/illuifoii, fCidh'i), one open, the other sealed and to be opened at the fulfilment of the prophecy for which the Prophet waits tS.17) : u"^hiqi]ithi I'^-Yahirr, recalling in the Ilabakkuk pa.ssage men- tioned aboie haqqf lo, "though it tarry, wait for it." 6. "And rejoice in Hezin and Ramaliah's son," it-m'^nna 'rth //'"i-i/i ii-bhi II li'mahjiihu. Syntax and style show that this |)hra.se 403 I 348 raralklism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 8 can not be original; 'eih K''cui R-bhcn R'nuihjdhu, like 'dh melekh 'Ashshfir w'^-'eih kol k^bhodho, "even the king of Assyria and all his glory," are appositional glosses, and to be rejected; this leaves u-mesos, literally "and rejoicing," to be coupled with I'^-'at, "softly," and formal parallelism with verse 7 is thus established. Masos is perhaps governed by the preposition in I'-'at ( ef. I'-phetha' , "suddenly" in 29.5 : I'^-shdlom, "peace- fully," Ueu. 44.17) ; or it is an adverbial accusative (Geseuius I. 118, 5c). There is probably a reference in the term so used to an underlying root-meaning other than "joy"; words denoting "agile, ■■ "light" are derived from the Arabic shush and shfis; and it is a striking coincidence that iniishrrtcisli (var. mushdwis) denotes water "not to be seen, or hardly to be seen, by reason of its remoteness from the surface of the ground" -(Lane; this signification, however, is derived by Arabic lexicographers from the root-meaning "look with the corner of the eye") — an ex- cellent description of the waters of Sliiloh. The root Difisas (with saiitckh) also would yield an ajipi-opriate term, "faintly," though this root, literally "to luflt,"" is normally used onh- of the heart; if i^sus is an infinitive from this root, as it is in 10.18, cf. for the construction Is. GU.14: hdl'^khil sh''xd'% "come bend- ing. ' ' 8. ■•And the strctchiug nut of his wintis shall fill the bn-adth of thy land, Immanuer": the absurdity of directing this re- mark to the unborn or infant Immanuel is self-evident; little better is the interpretation which leaves "thy" indefinite, and translates ' itmndnu-'i'l in its pi-csi'iif jmsition as an exclamation, "God is with us": witii or without a [ireeeding k'l. "for," re- placing file sulfix kil. "thy." if belongs with what follows, verses 9 and 10, whieli in turn belong after 7.14 (q.v.). The metaphor in k< iidphdw, "wings of tlie flood," need not in itself be ([utstioned; ef. "wings" of the wind, "wings" of a garment (i.e., skirts), "wings" of the land or earth (its regions or extremities) ; there is by implication perhaps a reference to the "wings" of the invading army which is "the flood." But the line is over-long, and the syntax not above suspicion. [404 I'arallilism in Isaiah, Chuiitns I- 10 :{49 CUAITEK 8 \V'-liln (thus: "and [the Hood shall be] a spreadiii}; out to its [.ludah's) ends." i.e., "shall spread to its farthest ends"), or a jiassive partieiple, predieate to k'ndphdw, thoutrh here slaudiuf: before it (thus: "its [the Hooil's] win«rs are outstretelied" I ; for the type of resulting strophe, with eireunistantial elauses. see below, verse •22 (where the reeonstrueted te.xt will be found) ; also :!.!(! ; and for the .syntaetie variations in parallel elau.ses. ].:21. Probably there should follow here verse 21 (((.v.). y. liifu, "as.soeiatc youi-selves" (but also "be broken"; or "be evil," or, readinfr nVCi, "shout") and trd-xotti'i. "and ye shall be bri>ken in picees," in stiehos a are evidently due to a n»ar/. ;-.v 1-10 :}')! C'UAI'TF.K 8 to such an iilioin as ■■saiu-til'yiii'r" "r ■'(.•onsccratiiis" war (Joel lit; Mil-. :j.5; Jor. G.4, 22.7, 51.27, 2S ; in Is. i:!.:i wqiiddilshai i> "iny coiisecruted warrioi-s"). W<-lo' lha'r'n:>'>. "nor be afraid": insert as oh.jict w'-itli ina'"rii;i'>, '"that wliieli, or those who, eanse tlieni to lie afraid." paraUel to miird'ri, "tlieir fear." 14. ir'-/i«»i/<; I'-itiiqdasli, I'll'-'cblii n nnjluph, ete. : "and he .-h;dl lie for a sanetnary and [En;;, "but") for a stone of -Mnnbiinfj and for a roek of ofTenee": the subjeet of the verb is • vidently not "He" (Ciod), but "it" ("the saying 'eonspiriiey,' lioly' "), or "tiiey" (read we-hfiyil or i<""/ir»i>ii(i) ; and miqdash is evidently an error for some word denoting; "stumbling-block"; not oidy logie demands this, but also parallelism; the threi' verbs ".stundile," "fall," and "be broken" point to three eor- responding nouns, a.s the two verbs "be snared" and "be taken" are parallel to the two nouns "gin" and "snare." ^ Lagarde's propo.sed niiqqi'ish (from tiilqa.sh, "strike," henee "stund)ling- bloek"; ef. BOB, s.v. miqdash) is then, very likely eorreet ; it is logical, restores the parallelism, and preserves ]iaronomasia just at the point it is required; cf. Prov. 20.25 cited above; cf. also Ex. :{4.12: Josh. 2:3.l:{ (eovinant with the Canaanites is a "snare"); and for the type of .sentence, I.s. ;}0.2, 3: "(Woe tlnKse) that . . . strengthen themselves in the strength of Pharaoh ; for the strength of Pharaoh shall be to you a shame." "For the two houses of I.srael": "two," sh'ni", is probably an error due to a conflation of bclh, "house of," and 6<"/if. "ehildreii of," or shokh'iu, "inhabitants of"; the latter would be the natural parallel to y'lsh'^bhr in the next stiebos. The Septiuigint reads "for tl>e houses of." 15. RabbUii, "many": perhaps dittograpliy from jueeeding letters; ef; 28.13. 16. From liere thn>ugli verse 20, simple jirose may have been intended; the words are the Prophet's own wonls. not Yahwiy's. In verse 16, "Bind up the testimony, seal the law, among my di.sciples," the last phrase has no parallel (cf. 7.12); but the Septuagint at the end of verse 15 has an ndibd phrase (arfip(OTroi) [407 1 351' raranrnsiii in Isaiah. Chapicrs 1-10 Chapter 8 h) aa(})a\ei'a: jxissiblv Ifi-bhcfax (C'f. Gen. 34.25. Lev. 26.5) and originally l<^-bhOt^'x(^' ■ "for those who trust in me"; if this phra.se really belongs after "bind up the testimony," read also l''-Unninldhtti; "for my disciples." 17. Parallelism in this verse would be restored l)y transpos- ing from the end of 18, where it is decidedly inconsequential, the phrase "that dwelleth in Mount Zion, " parallel and in contrast to "tliat hideth liis face from the house of Jacob." Perhaps the niisphircmcnt is farther I'carhini;'. and verse 18 should stand be- fore vcrsi' 17; at jn'i'scnt vei-sc 17 follows verse 16 without any iiitrodiictoi-y word to mark the transition; while verse 18 has the iutidcliictory word Iniiiir, '•behold." where it is not needed. ]y, 2U. "In behalf of the living to the dead": by reading this ])hrase after the words "that peep and that mutter," as parallelism suggests, fairly good order is restored to the passage ; "shall not_a people turn to its god" belongs in the answer to be made by the true believers, parallel to "to the oracle and the testimony"; it is probably a proverb, or based on one, like that quoteil also by ^lieah (4.5) : "every people walks in the name of its god." Tlie two interrogatives halO'. 'iiii hi' are parallels (ef. 10. Si, witli the force of particles of "recpiiring witli urgenc.v": "surely you [tom^ru for yom^'ru; or 'surely they," i.e., mj^ disciples] shall say"; the whole passage thus becomes clear: "Behold I and my children are prophetic signs; and I shall now wait for the fufilment of those signs; the 'testimony' is sealed among my disciples; then when any appeal to their oracles to win yon to tlieir views, your answer sludl be : 'a people turns unto its God' — "to thi' hiw I to the tcstinuiny I " " Then' is a sarcastic contrast implied, then: they say "turn to the dead in behalf of the living"; but you answer: "turn to (the living) God" (ef. Is. 37.17). "Becau.se (there is) no li.uht in thcni," litendly, "to which there is no dawn," '('n lu shaxiir: if this is a prose passage, not balanced, ;uid this jihrase belongs here, sh^xar is possibly rather "enchantment," "magic": they shall answer with the simple phrase "go to the testimony," which needs no accompaniment of [408; I'lirallilisiii ill Isiiiiih. CViup/. c.v l-IO 358 • llAITER 8 iiu-aiitatimi, as iloi-s tin- siiiiiiiionin^r <>!' tlii" (load. Or .s/Kjyf/r is frotii the mot '•tii set'k" (parallel to ildnish iifro, as in Ps. 7S.:!4 . and the clause is a di'fi't-tivi' icninaiit. Hut if tiic ivlVr- fiu-i' to till' dawn is i-orrfi-t. the ])lirasi' liclon-is at tlic end of vorsf •_'!. '2\. Tiiis fits admirably on to verse S (i|.v.); portion of another version or line is found in 5.'M (ij.v. ) ; viewed tojretlier, tlie picture presentetl is one of the most strikiufr iu Isaiali: the Assyrian rivers rushiii<; neek-deejj and roarin^r like the oeean itself against the struj,'<;ling, Heeinjr Judah, who looks in vain for solid earth Und for light, and is weakened by hunger and anguish until he eurses his god — and is engulfed: for death ean lie the only outeome of sueli a eui-sc-. Hut tin- picture as it stands is ol)seurc(l. "When they [lit. "he") shall be hungry": for this w<'ak repe- tition of "hunger," i/ir'abli, read a |)sycliologically more fitting word, such as i/ikli'dbh, "be in anguish." as exiircssing a state that would lead to the curse: ef. .Inb •_'.."): "yea, all that a man hath will hi- give for his life: but . . . loweJi his bom- and Hesli, and he will curse thee to thy face"; or 'J. 1:5, 3.1 : "for they .saw that his grief {k''i'bh, "anguish"; cf. Is. 17.11) was very great. After this opened Job his mouth, and cursed his day." Or read perhaps ylz'itph or ijikh'iis: "when he will be angry and vexed." "Curse their [lit. his] king and their [his] God" (ef. I Kings Jl.lO; Lev. 24.1;")) ; the Hebrew "by his king and god" is i>rob- ably an attempt to soften the original wording: notice that the Septuagiiit for the same purpase reads "the ordinances of your fathers" in place of "their God." But this must be the climax and the eiul of the picture; transfer it to the end of verse 22. "And look upward": the dotdilct in I'l.^O (q.v.) adds "there is darkness (cf. Is. .'jD.D, "we hope for the light, and lo. then- is darkne-ss") ; tlio missing line, however, is j)erliaps found at the end of verse 20 ("where there is no dawn"^ : or. as a rem- nant, in "darkness" in the next verse (further evidence rtf confusion in the text). 22. "Dimiu'ss of anguish \iii'"i'iph (.Tc/'/] and driven into 354 Parallel ism in haiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 8 darkness [ica-'"phela m'-'nudddx]" : The second phase, literally "darkness driven," though syntactically unusual, is still prob- ably correct: cf. in 16.2 the even more remarkable qen m<'$hulhx< "nest-driven" for "driven from the nest." But read for m''' uph the form found in 23, iniTuph, and derive from yiV aph, "be weary"; cf. Dan. 9.21, mil' aph bVdph, "wearied with weari- ness." "Wearied with anguish," "in darkness driven" are parallels to "hardly bestead and hungry" in verse 21, and probably belong immediately after. The text to this point might be then : 8.8 H"-x'''"P'' bihudha slmtOph W-'ahhoi- adh gawmdr yaggi"' u-kh^naphdw muttoth ■w<:-hdya melo' roxahh 'argo [-3.30 W-yinhom ' aldw l:''nah"math ycim.] 8.21a W-' dbhar hah niqshe w<--rd' I'bh 8.22e ma' aph giiqd wa-'^phOla m'^nudddx 8.21c ii-phdnd lo-nw'ld xv<^-hinne x'sheJcM iv'-'et 'ereg yabblt w^^-hinne gdrd 8.21b w''-hdyd Tel yikh'abh W-hithqaggaph w'-qilWl malko ivelohdw. 23. (Eng. 9.1) : "Nevertheless the dimness shall not be such as was in her vexation," hi Id mu'dph la-'^sher mUqdq Idh. This (and the remainder of the verse) forms a gloss to 9.2 (Eng. 3), which in the consonantal text reads: "Thou hast made great a nation, not hast thou increa.sed joy," and was evidently under- stood by the glossator: "thou hast made great a nation whose joy thou hadst not increased"; to it then are added two glosses, or a gloss in two parts; one uses the phraseology of the lines immediately preceding: "Not is (now) darkness [or weariness] to her [i.e., the land] that was [formerly] oppressed"; the other interprets 9.2 with greater geographical precision: "At the first he dishonored [Eng. "lightly afflicted," heqal] the land of Zebulon and the land of Naphtali, and afterward he honored [Eng. did more grievously afflict, hilhhldh] the way of the sea. beyond Jordan. Galilee of the nations": here Id' hiijhdaltd, [410] I'aralli Usui in Isninh, Chuplirs l-IO litorully ••tlimi ditlsl not iiuTcasc," is (jlossid by lu'fial, while hirbilhd: ••tliou liast miiltiplioil," is -ilossed by hihhbUlh. Tlio tri-ofrrapliii'iil scttiiifj is diit', pi'i-liups, to a "rloss on tlic words htujW'H- '"'. "''»' I'ntioK. not." iiamoly, ;/i/, or (j'lld, "rej()ii'iii|)I>ies.s()r. " «)n the type of stro|)lie in this vei-se and the next, with parallelism introdiieed before the syiitaetie strueture is eomplete (in the Hebrew the predieate "thou ha.st broken" stands after the three subjects, not before), see 4.:5. Add par- allel to "the day of Midiaii," k'-i/otx <>r b'-tlhrrckh mn^riiii'im, "after the manner of Kuypt." as in 10.2G. ,"). For b'ru'ash, "with confused noi.se," read bi-rmi'm, bi- r'^phos, or b''-miriiu'is, "with tramplinir" (ef. Is. 16.4, "the trampler has e« nsed from thi- earth"), or some other synonym of yhiid.i, "violence." as a fitting parallel to "bloodshed"; the Septuajrint ni)pareiitly read b'^-miniui "with deceit." For thi- * Kijfiires rpfor to vorws nn numbered in the Kn);li!<)i Bit)Ic; verses in the Hebrew text are numbereil one leas; e.g., Englmh 2 = Hebrew 1. In the tmnslntion on pp. 2.10, 2.11, 2.1(5, however, the Hebrew nuniliorinir is given. [411] 356 Farallrlisin In haiah, Chapiers 1-10 Chapter 9 probable correetiou m<'gh(')' h'l III -III isn't is iiuTi'ly a synoiiyui lor tlic word "nili'," for wliich till" laii^uat;!' i)<)sst'sscs st'Vi'ral instantly iveofrnizabK' words. If till' olansi' is ki-pt, some otluT nii'aniii'r must in- sought for hiiiii-iiiisn'i, ilfn(>tiiin of the name in verse 7 this appellation is left uiinotieed; this is suffieient evidenee that the startlinjrly uniipie applieation of the name ■■frod" to the ehild was not intended: the Septuajrint omits the word '»■/ entirely. Parallelism with the term "wonder of a eounsellor" re(|uires that 'fl yibln'ir be interpreted in aeeordanee with 'I'lt' ijibborim in Ezek. 32.21 ; i.e., "nii«rhty one of a hero." or even "strenfith of a hero"; 'rl is almost a synonym of x"!l'l '" the latter case; aiul as pclr' .i/o'r^- stands for iiiaphlV ' I'l^d (cf. 28.29) so '(■/ gihhor would reeall ijibbor x",'/''- Moreover, had the term ". AVith this verse bepins a .series of sections each ending' with the refrain "For all this his anper i.s not turned away, and hi.s hand is outstretch.d still" (verse.s 12. IT. 21, and chapter 10. [ 41.1 1 358 Paralldism in Isaiah , Chapfers 1-10 Chapter 9 verse 4). The siime refrain occurs also in 5.25, at tlie end of a number of stichoi whose subject matter, moreover, would form an admirable introduction to the series of passages in chapter 9 ; there is then some justification for using the term "stanza" for each of these sections, and for assuming a dislocation of the one in chapter 5; indeed, quite possibly some of the stanzas in chapter 9 also are transposed; the words "but [A. V. for] the people turned [A. Y. turneth] not unto him that smiteth them" in 9.13 would follow most naturally after stanza 1 (5.25) ; and the transposition of the stanza 9.13-17 would at the same time leave in juxtaposition the two stanza.s which have most in com- mon. 9.S-12 and 18-21 ; for immediately before the refrain in 9.12 occurs what might be considered a three line strophe, with characteristic variation in the third stichos : The Syrians before, And the PhDistiBes behiud; And they devoured [A. V. will devour] Israel witli opeu.niouth; and similarly in 21 : Maiiassfli, Ephraini ; And Ephraim, Manasseli; And they together against Jmlah. These two stichoi, notice, are also the oiily two wliicli con- tain proper names, and which can clearly be read as tristichs; although 9.17 contains the three parallels "their young men," the "fatherless," and "widows." which might possibly iiulicate an original tristich in this stanza also: The Lord shall not take joy in their young men, Xor shall he have mercy on the fatherless, Nor shall he pity their Tvidows. This tristich would again stand before the refrain if the natural transposition of the following distich, "for every one is an hypocrite," etc., to an earlier position in its stanza (see below) be accepted. But the other stanzas show no trace of this tristich variation ; possibly the tristichs, then, are to be read as distichs ; on the other hand, the variation may be due to a difference in time of the composition or in the authorship of the respective stanzas. [414; I'tirulldisiii ill Isiiiali, Chuiilirs l-li) i!.')!) I'llM'TEK t» Sdiiu' i)t° the staii/as in cliaiitiT !l I'Diitiiiii in adilitioii to tlio rt'fraiii tivi- slroplics, Dtlici-s six, all of wliii-li, fxi-fptiiij; those iiifiitioiii'd abovf, arc distichs and, witli one or two defects, in normal parallelism. In eaeli stan/a there are eontaiiied refer- eiiees to the jieoplo's sin and to (iod's punishment therefor, though in on'- instance particidarly the two themes are not kept distinct. Details arc as follows: Stanza 1. (5.24e-'25) : 3 stroiiiies, of wiiieh 1 in the "sin" section, introduced by Af, "btc^iusi ," and 2 iu the punishment section, introduced by '. (10.1-4) : 6 strophes. 3 referring to sin. 3 to punishment. There is some doubt whether the stanzas are to be interpreted as narrative, or as prophetic; the last (10.1-4) certainly refers to the future; the remainder seem to refer to till- i)ast : for while [ 41-' 1 360 Panilhlism In Isiiiah. Chaptirs 1-10 Chaftek 9 it is true that some of the verbs are imioerfeets. and would normally, if in independent clauses, refer to the future, most of them can be explained as circumstantial imperfects, deriving their time limitation from the main verbs. Possibly the refer- ences to the attacks of the Philistines and Arameans (read "Edomites"? Cf. 11.14, also II Chnju. i^8.17, IS) upon Israel, and of Manasseh upon Ephraim and of both upon Judah are to be considered as general and typical rather than definite and particular: Philistines and Ai'ameans typifying foreign foes; Manasseh, Ephraim, and Judah interti'ibal combatants; other- wise the conflict between Manasseh and Ephraim may be the division between the sous of Joseph as reflected in Gen. 17.14, while that between Manasseh and Ephraim together as against Judah is the division between North and South mentioned spe- cifically in 7.17 ("days such as have not come since Ephraim separated from Judah"); and with this should be compared the hope expressed for the future in 11.13, 14: "the envy of Ephraim shall depart and the adversaries of Judah be cut off; Ephraim shall not envy Judah and Judah shall not vex Eiihraim ; but they shall fly n]ion the shoulder of the Philistines on the West, and shall spoil them of the East, together they shall lay their hand upon Edom (notice, not Aram!) and Moab," etc. In the following suggestions it is assumed that there was originally a series of stanzas with some measure of uniformity: (5.24e-25.) See 5.24d ; probably two distichs have fallen out before the one beginning "for they have rejected.'" Possibly the poem began with some phrase such as Iwi 'am surer u-)ufir( : "Ah! nation rebellious and stubborn," etc. (cf. 1.4 for the sequence of ideas) ; this would account for the inclusion in chapter 5, a series of stanzas lieginning witli ••hoi": see also stanza 5 (10.1), below. 9.8. "The Lord sent a word into Jacol), and it hatli lighted [Heb. shall light] upon Israel" is a very illogical introduction to what follows. The Septuagint reads for "word," ddhhdr, Odvarov, "death." which might be simph- dehher, "pest"; but read ]n-obal)ly sh'hh,r, "a crash," "destruction"; cf., e.g., Jer. [416] I'dnillilism in IsumIu Cluipti is 1-10 'Ml C'llM'TEK i) 4.G: ••for 1 will l.riiifT ovil fn.m lln' North, ati.l a ■jrrcut dostnu-- lii)ii," shibhir tjadhi'il; also Amos G.6 : slu hlur Yi'isi'ph: for the word ill Isaiah, i-f. 30.13; for tiie eoiistriK-tioii, 10.16, "the Lord shall sfiul [i/'shalUix] leamu'ss." Parallel to it ivad for inlplinl. If phol, "a falliiijr." or niapijuld. •"riiin.'" or m fir. ■■shattfrint:'" ; cf. 30.30. 9. ir''-t//r(//i'" H, "and shall know." also, is illo'iical in view of what follows; iiiort'oviT li'itn'ir. ■sayiii-:'" ( Kii-r, '"that say"), prosuppost's an antecedent verb iiiiplyinj,' nsc of the voice; read u-ai/ydlo'u (cf. Job 6.3; Prov. 20.2.'>). '•they talked wildly," or w(iii-iit'ilii;u (cf. Is. 28.14), "scotTed," or trtiti-i/ir^'ijhi'i, "mocked." "Epiiraim and the dweller in Samaria," is probably merely a jrlass on "the people all of them." preeedinjr; it is superHuoiis, since tin- previous verse iiulieatis clearly who "the people" are; and "people" is n.sed throufjhout the prophecy without any similar modifier. Its omission restores a normal distich here. However, if on the basis of I's. 17.10, a phrase like iniifdhabbtr phr be introduced before b>-(jha'"wii, the followiii'i results: Ami the pi-oplo all of tlioiii nuu-keil, Epiiraim and tlir dwellors in 8amnrin ; Th'?ir mouths spoki' prouilly, In stout iio!>:< of heart thev .saitl. Milt this, while it would make a six strophe stanza, would place four of the strophes iii.stead of three in the "sin" section. 11. Wa-y'sayytbh: Here the sin section be-jiiis without the conjunction '«/ knt, "therefore" (thou};h the Entrlisli so trans- lates) : possibly a di.sticli be};iiiniii<; thus, and containiii*;: the siiperHuoiis line from above, as well as the name "Rezin" found at present niisplnced in verse 10. really has fallen out ; this would ajrain make six instead of five strophes. Notice that the word irii-y'sayyibh, literally "made hi>:li (the adversaries," etc.). ofTers just the appropriate hint of poetic ju.stice to be expected; Israel sought to set hijrh wliat (Jod threw down; therefore (Sod set on high those who will humble Israel. Y'sakhsikh ("urge on": Enp. "join together") is either a circumstantial imperfect or should be read as n p.rf..t m7./iv, A/i, as parallelism with "he exalted" demands. [ ii: ] 362 Puralldisin in Isninh. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 9 13. See above on the transposition of this whole stanza; more- over, the strophes within this stanza should also probably be transposed (notice that the Massoretic text makes a break be- tween 13 and 14), with the following order: verses 13, 16, ITcd {ki kulld xof'^ph, "for all of them, etc."), 14, 17ef ; probably also 'al ken, "therefore," from verse 17 to the beginning of verse 14, since in its present place it forces the imperfects in verse 17 to be understood as futures ("shall have no joy," etc.), while without 'al ken they may be circumstantials (cf. the im- perfects in verses 19 and 20, depending upon the perfect in verse 14 ) . The n suHaiil logical order of ideas is then : The people turned not to (loil, Init their leaders were false and the people were misled — all nf tlicm wi-re iniquitous; therefore God cut off leaders and folhiwcrs, jiityiiig neither young nor old, orphan nor widow. 13. "The aiieiciit and honorable," etc.: this was po.ssiblj" a gloss on the pn-ei'ding, tiiough it is also possible that in the form "the ancient and honoui'able, the prophet and teacher of lies" is represents in wiiole ^ tliistlcs and thorns." This imtiiphor is intflliijibli' and usual in rct'iTi-niM' to tiod's wrath; cf. 10.16. 17, of which this passa^re is almost a duplicatf; and it is sin it.solf wliicli is i-onsunicd hy the fin'. h'ish'il, thill, po.s.sihly cither is a inisreadiiifj, or is editorial, due to the necessity of pivinpr the pa.s.sa; this sup- ports the probability that vci-se 19 bcloiifrs before verse IS, as is indicated also by the fact that vei-se 19 l)y its woi-dinj^ seems to be the bepiniiiiifr of a new thoufrht. Wail-ilitli'abb'khi'i, "nin\ they mouiitrd up." not fimiid else- where in Hebrew or other Semitic lanfruages, is possibly due to the precediiifj sibh'khf; the Septnajrint read the two roots 'I'ikhal and sftbhabh. (if'fith ("lifting up"; usually "ma.jesty," "pride") is also very suspicious; the Septuagint read ij'hhrroth, "hills"; read perhajjs "the valleys {[/''di/oth] are surrounded," or "roll up" (iiitlisobli''bhu), or "are clouded" initli'abb'qri, lit. "ilust.d"; cf. Xa. l.ii), "(with^ smoke"; cf. 1 Kings 18.45: "and the heavens are blackened (with) clouds." 19. Nc'tain, "darkened": this aira^ Xeyofievov, doubly siis- |)icious because masculine whereas feminine is expected, is per- haps to be compared with '"iiinii in 11.15; it is the meaning attaching to the latter root in Arabic that would justify in the prc.sent pa.ssage an unusual word for "burned," ".scorched"; since f/hiiiiii in Arabic denotes "internal heat," "rage," the thought might be here: "by the wrath of the Lord the world is enkindled into blazing hatred" (cf. 7.4: "that .smoke by the wrath of Resin") ; tills would be the qin'ath 'Ephraii'im, "jeal- ous anger |Eng. envy] of Ephraim." of \\.\'-\. Read, perhaps, then, for m'tam, iiil'oiiuith (i.e., iiii'oiiiu) 'iirii;. Ma'klidh th 'I'sh, "fuel of the fire," occurring again in verse 5, is in good par- allelism as far as the distich is conccnied, but difficult in view of what follows. If the stanza as a whole is to be regarded as original, read perhaps A'"-V.«/i 'nkhihlh, "aa a consuming fire"; or k''-tnn'"khi'>hlh 'dph. "as the fui-l of wrath," "consumed with [419] 364 Parallelism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 9 wrath," whioli would permit the transition to tlie idea of mutual destruction. Ish 'el '«x'"' 1<~> ijaxiiioh'i: possilily the distieh, verses 19c' and 20c, "no man shall spare his brother, they shall eat every man the flesh of his neighbor" (read so with BUB; the Massoretie text has "of his own arm," Ish h<^sar z'^ro' 6 yokhelu) is a gloss or variant, placed here to effect some semblance of transition from the picture of fire in verse 19 to that of the ravenous beast, bird, or perhaps sword, in verse 20. That the couplet was written in the margin is evidenced by the fact that the two stichoi are at present unnaturally separated; the repetition of the verb "ate" (201) and c) also is suspicious; notice too the plural verbs {i/axmolu and ijokhelu) in the Hebrew; if the coup- let is original, the imperfects are circumstantial, and the singular should be read; the metaphor "eating flesh" is used to denote bitter enmity in Ps, 27.2; .lob II). 22; hence it is a close parallel to "spare not." 20. Way-iiiiih:,-,r. --and lie sliall siiateh"; lleb. ••and he cut" (but read po.ssibly iniij-jfii/h-dl i ; if the tigure intended is not that of the beast or binl of prey (cf. 11.14: "and they shall fly upon the shoulders of the Phili-stines"), but merely that of extreme human anger, it may have a literal basis; notice, e.g., II Sam. 12.31 : "and brought forth the people and put them under axes" (lit. cutting instruments, niaghzernth). For 2()c, see preceding note. 21. "Together they against Judali": the jiarallel passage 9.12, as well as the change of construction (.accusative to prcjio- sition) suggests the loss of a vei^b; the Septuagint TroXtopKtjaovai represents x'lmi'i' "encamped against," for hnintta, •■tiiey," but it might also Ik (;ara, "besieged," witli which cf. again 11. l)!; "Judali shall not vex [lldeor] Epiiraim." Possibly all that is in place in this stanza, besides the refrain, is the following ; And they tore ou the right, still huiisry. And they ate ou the left, uns.ited, Manasseh, Ephraim, And Ephraim, Manasseh, And together [they pounced] upon Judah. [420] rtiriillilisiii in Istiiiih, Chiipti is l-IO (.'llAITKU U) 1. Tla- prt'i'fdiiig: stanzas wt-iv diivettd ajjaiiist "tlic pt-oplc"; tliis Olio against a particular class tliat oppressi-s the people, who iienee are ealled eoinmiseratini^ly in verse '2 "my people" (ef. tiie tone of 3.15) ; this i)assage luus a eloser aflinity witli ehapter .') than witii ehapter 5). Note in verse 2 tlie pity expressed for widows and orphans, who in 9.1G [17 J are iwt to he pitied. It is perhaps tiie very words "orphans and widows" whieh led to the juxtaposition of these stanzas; while sh'ltllam, "their booty" and iiahli''>::fi, "tiiat they may rob," tofjether with hoi, "woo!" "ah!" aeeount for tin- ju.\taposition of the following section, lt).r)tr., beginning "Ah Assyria" and containing in verse (J shdlt'il and Ul-hho: bnz. The refrain "still is his hand outstretched" is not a natural conclusion for the .section 10.1— i. 3. ',1/ »(M tilni'isu h-'i:rd, 'iiiu'i thn'iiz'hhfi k'hhi'uUv khaii , "to whom (Ilob. upon whom] will ye tleo for help, where [Ileb. whither) will ye leave your glory": transpose the two intcr- rogatives; ef. the construction in IJO.G, where "whither ye shall Hee for help" occurs even after a noun antecedent; while 'fizabh takes properly the preposition 'til in the meaning "entrust to"; cf. I'.s. 10.14. K' hhi'„lh'kli< in is "thi- glory of your wealth." i.e.. the spoil and booty mentioned in verse 2; there is al.so a reference to the root-mi'aning "heavy" — hence the next couplet: 4. miti khiirn' l(i\ath 'iis.tir, W-tlui^dth h"ruf the burden" (.see vei-se 3), or "under the feet of the enemy" (cf. II Sam. 22.40). The Septiiagint reads correctly "ye shall fall" instead of "they shall fall," another careless copyist's mistake. The imperfect, as fre- (|uently, continues the infinitive construction. 5. r-i»i«//r hii' bli'i/ihlhi'iin zti'ini: literally "and a statT he in their hand my anger"; for this cojiyist's awkward jundile of 1421) 366 Parallelism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Chapter 10 words parallelism suggests simiolj- u-matie za' ml, "aud staff of mj- anger"; other simple emendations yield: "a staff is he in the day" {h'^-yum for h<'-yddhdm) or, "against the people" {!)''-' am; but see the next verse), "of my wrath," or "a staff is he in the hand of my wrath"; less likely is rt-iiuittrhil ydrhii h<'-za'mi, "who raises his staff by my anger," although in verse 24 {u-mattehu yissd' 'dlekhd) it is Assyria that raises the staff. 6. "I will send him against a hypocritical nation": the im- perfect here is rather: "I was sending him,"" "I would send him," i.e., "I thought to send him." "To tread him down like tlie mire of the streets": if this line is in place it makes with 6cd a tristich of the type described in 1.2; the Septuagint "to trample cities and to make them into dust" yields another normal distich. But the figure of speech here indicates destruction, and weakens the apparent intention of the author, aud the contrast with what follows ; it is just de- struction that the Assj'riau was 7iot sent to effect ; he was merely to take spoil (there is an evident reference here to 8.3, 4). The line wa.s probably misplaced and edited here; it may belong at the end of verse 7, or better still, at tlie end of verse 13 (q.v.). 8. "For lie saith, are not my princes altogether kings?" This is vague, and is not a logical introduction to what follows; "altogether" in the sense of "all" is not correct in this phrase; and the Septuagint shows a disordered text. Read for sdrai, ' ' my princes, ' ' either 'asslr, ' ' captives, ' ' 'assirai, ' ' my captives, ' ' or 'uss^ru, "captured," "bound," i.e., with repetition of the 'dleph from h"l(~i', and confusion of the sibilants; cf. Is. 22.3: 'uss<'rfi yax'^dw : "all thy rulers are fled together, they are bound by the archers: all that are found in thee are bound together." 10. "As my hand hath found tlie kingdoms of the idols [Heb. idol] and whose graven images (did excel them) of Jerusalem and of Samaria" (text simply: "and their images from Jerusa- lem and Samaria"). The text is evidently in disorder; read for hd-'<^lU, "the idol," hd-elle, "these" (cf. 36.20) ; insert before "from Jerusalem" a predicate: "so it shall not fall short of." In' tiqvar (cf. Is. 50.2: "is my hand shortened that it cannot [422] I'iiralhlisiii in Isitiuh. Cluiplirs 1-JO 307 CllAITER 10 r.-(li'<-in"; also ."17.27. and partimilarly .')!).!) ; or lo' Ihirpf, "it shall not be too iVeble for" (II Sam. 4.1). And for "from Samaria, " whieli has oomi- from the next verse, read "and from her images" (uniim-imiiis'khothrlnl ; ef. IU).;22, 48.5) or umi<;- i■lly witli i-luiptvi-s 7 and 8; wrtaiiily tho emphasis on sh'Tir in vci-sis 19, 20, "Jl. •_'•_' would •rive point to tin- nn'Mtion of Shcaf- jashul) in 7.:i. The rest of this chapliT. too, is in .•onsiderahlf disorder. •■The re fore shall the Lord, the Lord of Hosts, send among his fat ones leanness, and under his r Yurd'i'l I'' lehiibhii itq'dhitsho yi'ijadh kiqiidh 'rsh: "And the Light of Israel shall lie for a flame, and his Holy One burn HS when a fire is kindled." Further confusion in the text is seen in the collocation of u-bhu'<'rii w -fiklvU'i . insti-ad of their distribution in parallel position.s. Probably, too, for k'hhodh ya'ro, "glory «»f lii.s fon'st," read ii; ija'ro, "the trees of his forest": k^bhodh is due to dittography from verse 16; tlie cor- l <25 ] 370 Panillrlisiii in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 10 rect reading 'cc ya'ro stands now in verse 19, into which it was written from the margin; read: d-hha'^rd eg ya'ro W-kharmillo w<^ -ahWla sliitlw u-shnmlro b^-yom 'exfidh: "and it shall burn the trees of his forests and garden-land, and devour his thorns and thistles in a single day." Min-ncfesh w>^-'adh hdsdr y'^khalle, literally, "from soul unto bodj' it shall consume," certainly belongs in the figure of the consumptive man, and not in that of a burning forest (see above, to verse 16) ; for the phrase cf. Job 33.21; Prov. 5.11; Ps. 73.26; read for y^khaUe, yikhle: "he shall waste away"; note that as the text stands the subject of y^hhAjllc, "consume," is "it," i.e., the "flame" of verse 17, wliich is a feminine noun, while yfkJiaUc is masculine. Wf^-huyd ki-m^sos noses ("and they shall be as when a standard bearer fainteth"; Septuagint, "and he that flees shall be as one fleeing from burning flame ' ' ; for the last phrase, see on verse 16, above) : for nv^sos in the literal sense "wasting away of the body," cf. trmes in Ps. 58.9 ("as a snail which melteth") ; names in I Sam. 15.9 (if the text is correct, "consumptive" for the A. V. "refuse"); masnidsd in the Talmud (the "rotting away" of any organ of the body). If noses is correct, it must mean something more forcible than merely "a sick man" (see BDB), which would be xole or nax"le; pei-haps "a dying man'" ( in Arabic naslsa is ' ' the last breath of life " ) . 19. For the transposition of 'eg ya'ro, "trees of his forest," see verse 18 ; this leaves here u-sh^'dr mispdr yihyu; which, with repetition of the wi from mispdr (i.e., u-sharts of Isaiah only in the psalm-chapter 12 (in 5.16 it has the article; in 14.1:{ it means simply "heaven"; in y'lultrbh {'inynii inc- 'Axluhiir baslisliebhef i/akkckkii I'lmatfthu yissii' ' lih'khii. t'li ini- >i,iii/.i loiistruetion ef. 7.4: "fear not, neither be faint- hearted, from these two," ete. Here bashslubhrt iinkki kki'i is probably a relative elause (ef. the note to 1.21). 25. Kead zu'm'i, "my indigimtion," for zii' am ; and for 'al tabhlUhilm, "upon their destruetion," 'nl hbhrl yiltom: "(and my anger) against the world [ef. 13.11] will be finished" (of. the parallelism in 16.4); or 'I'llfkhd (kiilln) jiiltom: "against thee will all be finished." 26. For shot, "seourge. " read shibhti'i. "his stalT." parallel to iniittihii, "his rod"; the exact repetition of the terms slirbhrl and (H(i//»" from verse 24 is stylistieally .safisfaetory and em- phatie. but the repetition of one and variation of the other obseure.s the emphasis: "Fear not from A.ssyria, who smites thee with rinl and staff; for .soon the rod and statT will be turned against him." The Septuagint omits .s7i/" •.M'i Cll.VI'TKU 10 iiiii;,' ■"Kaiiiali is afraiii"") p'u'turc tlu' alarm of places i-itlicr ;iliing:, (U- near, the roiito iif iiiaivli on the uoininj: day; the elinuix 111 vei-se 32) is not char in form or purpose. There is a stroii-; presumption that orifjinally the eouplet formation, whieh at present is indieateil liy a eloser affinity between some of the verbs used, was eonsisteiit throuj^hout : the ti'.xt is not without internal evidence of corruptions. Another factor to be taken into account is assonance; within the following stichoi there is a repetition of at least one letter in each case: 'iihhar b'-mir/hron; 'abh'ril Dui'bhurd; mdlon Ifinii ; Y'dhd madhmfnd; b'ndbh . . . ij'itdphfph. INissibly the selection of the place names for mention was jrov- t-rned in part by this i)rinciple. 28. bd' 'dl 'Ai/j/ath, "he is come to Aiath," means rather "he has jronc ajrainst Aiath"; assonance is missing: this ttrst stichos is possibly, then, defective; perhaps 'al, "against," rep- resents another verb, 'did, while bd' belongs in a missing preced- ing stiehos. 'Abluir />'"-i(iiV//ir'/H. "he is pa.s.sed to Migron ': 'dbhar here nd immediately afterwards in verse 29 is crude; possibly orig- inally another verb, with a more exact alliteration, stood here. 1/ -niikhiiias ijaphqhUi ki'ldw, literally "to Miehmas he will entrust his baggage": the preposition should be b'' ("in"; the verb, then, "store up") ; tlie imperfect verb, while all others down to verse 32 are perfects, is unjustified; alliteration is aksent ; the line is long; it does not stand in clear parallelism; and the nuestion nuiy be asked, why the author nmkes the army spend the night just one hour's march beyond its impedimenta, instead of in the same plai-c with them — especially since the gain of one hour in the next day's start could not be of much imjior- tanee; for the entire distance from Miehmas to .leru.salem is only three or four hours' march. Possibly the answer is that there is a play on the name Michma.s. if the root kdnui.i, actually (cf. Deut. 32.34), or by approximation to kdfias, denotes "gather," "store up. " From the standpoint of parallilism. this stiehos in I 431 ] 376 Parallel ism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 Chapter 10 form and thought might he joined with "they Imve taken up tlieii' hjdg:ings in Geba"; but another stichos intervenes. 29. "They are gone over the passage"; the omission of the proper name of the Pass is .striking; perhaps the nest word, Geba, is to be joined to this stichos; the pass between Michmas and Geba might as well be ealled Geba Pass as Michmas Pass (I Sam. 13.23). Gebha' mdlun hlnu is literally either "Geba (is) a lodging for us" or "Geba (is) a lodging (which; cognate ace.) they have lodged"; either is suspicious. If Geba, as suggested, belongs with "Pass," mfiloii represents a enrnipt pi-oper name; e.g. (with dittography from Gebha'), h'-'dlinoii Id ml (of. Josh. 21.18) ; the Septuagint sub.stitutes here a repetition of the tirst stichos of verse 28. 30. Q'ah"U qdlckh is literally "neigh thy voice"; doubly curious because the absolutely superfluous qulckh makes the line too long, and because qah"li is elsewhere used only of jo}', praise, desire, not fear. The Septuagint omits both words. Since, moreover, there is an odd number of stichoi in this section, it is probable that, together with n(si', "raise," the proper verl) to govern golekk, some place name has fallen out after (•ah"ri. per- haps Azmaweth (north of Auatlioth), not mentioned until later times, it is true; but Gebim (verse 31). also is an otherwise unknown place. Corresponding to a couplet containing the.se two verbs "shriek," "raise thy voice," is the couplet formed by the remainder of this vei-se : "Listen, Laisha ; answer [read '"ni for '"nljiyd] Anatoth." 31. Possiblj- the couplet "Madnienah is removed [i.e., fled], the inhabitants of Gebim have sought safety [A. V. gather them- selves together to flee] " belongs at the end of 29; gebhhn means pits or cisterns; and there may be a play on the thought of the pit as a place of hiding (cf. I Sam. 13.6, where the Philistines are described as hiding in pits when Saul advanced to Michmas). 3l>. "As yet shall fhe) remain at Nob that day," 'odh hay- ynin h'-iidhh la-'"viddh: rxlh is perhaps an eri'or; the peri- phi-aslic iiilinitive la-' "iiirnlh , if correct, denotes either necessity. [432; fanill.lisni in Isiiioh. Chaptirs I-IO Ml CllAI'TEU 10 ■"111' iiiust Stay," or iimiiiiH'iu-f, "is alimit to stay"; only the latter is lo>;ical liero; and 'oilli, denotiiif,' ('(Hitiniiant'e, is then eonl'iisin^r: it" eorreet, it must liave tlie unusual meaning "still to-day," i.e., even totlay (b'-'i(;iin haiz-iioin lutz-zt' ; or u'-'wih hay-yom ijddhol) ; hut it may he onl.v dittography from the preeeding word, wliieii tiie Septuagint repeats instead of it; luiiiyotii, "today," is suflieient. It should he noted, however, that the sentence eontains no subject, wiiieli is all tiie more remarkable in that tin- implied subject is not that of the imme- (liateiy preceding stichoi, but one last referred to in 29b; 'odh stands just where a subject might be expected. lAt-"modh, if correct, is not liere "tarry," but simply "take his stand"; Nobh was evidently a hill overlooking .leru.salem (possibly because of !/• iii'iphi ph, Hi'tbh suggests noph, "height"; cf. Ps. 48.3), on wiiieh he "is to take his stand" to give iiis signal to his armies for the attack. Y'tiophiph (read possibly ir'-nophrpli) occurs only here, and replaces the usual form nditiph (ef. II.!;"). l.'i.2. 19.16, etc.^ simply for the sake of the jissonance. "The mountain of the daughter of Zion, tlie hill of .leru- snlem": as aceu.satives of place after the verb "wave" the construction is remarkable; the verb is followed always iiy a pn-position, or else is used absolutely (cf. 13.2) ; liar bath (Jiifdn and ijibh'ath Y'rCishdl/ii/im are evidently parallels: possibly, linn, they are mere vocatives. 3.{-."14 constitute a stanza, at present of live stichoi, all jiar- allel, but with a closer affinity between the first ("the Lord shall lop the bough with terror") and fourth ("and he shall cut down the thickets of the forests with iron"^ ; between the second ("and the high ones of stature shall be hewn down") aiul third ("and the haughty shall be humblfd") : and perhaps brtwien these and the fifth ("and Ii« I IN THE OKAI'I.ES OF Isaiah l-Hi Tutal iiumlxT o •period.' C'h-ar par.ll.'li.m With trace* pnrjillcli Non parallfli .tic f !• Km* -.»■ end of ' Cb>pl.-r No. I'ercpnlaico of whoU' Othcm 1. 93 83 87% 8 2(3) i(n 1 2. 71 03 88% 5 3 ;t. 81 •>7 83% 10 3 I 4. 24 18 7-.% 4 .... 2 5. lot 87 8r,% 12 1 2 ti.Ob-lO, 110-13' 17 U ti4% ti 7.4b 9, 18-2.V 40 22 .-..-.% IG 1 .... 1 8.ft-10, 12-13, 21-23' 4.^. 30 6f.% 15 .... .... 9. 74 71 98% 2 .... 1 1 10. 99 78 78% 17 1 3 Totals 6-17 330 82% 95' 7 3 14 'o.i-n«. n«. HV-JO arr pmrtly Thouch eontaming in thf. lal.l.. = A li«l of the cl.>r> not rxixl. (nil arr narrative and rtitobiofn-ap narralivo. partly prraonal, and a ronsidvratilc amount of par r,.r»es ;n which pnr<,llelisin i« i hical; 7.1-3 partly deal illelimn. the) «l clear, nn 10-1- with n have well ns : and 8. mes and not been tho.e in !-.'■>. 11, iS^id which it List op Pass.koes i.v Isaiah 1-10' sot in Clear Parai.i.emsm Knd er With traces of parallelism Knrmulns of stania Others [2cf]; 3b; 9a; 12a, b, e; [2i-ri;24 20b 18a (intro.I. wor.is 13c, d; 13c; [24T] of exhortation) 3; 6a; 9c; 18; [20d?] [20dJ; 22a, b, c (not in Septua- gint) 1."m'; li'ia <>c (contains words ropoutcd in 7c) la; 3c 9a 5n: tic, d 26c; 30a, b. c, d 6. 9h; 13a, b, c, d, c 7. 4c: 3a, h; 21; 22; 23-23 8. «c; 7c: [Mt]; [lOcT); 21 23 9. 3d; 8c 8; 10; 18a; 21; 22a. b; 22c, d; 24b. c; 25; 27e .Mrr note (o preTiooa table for pssMicea lOcl fik 4 23 24 f (rei)eat.-d in i-erw 27 ) [ *3-, 1 380 Parallelism in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 111 the preceding tables under "clear parallelism" are in- cluded those slichoi which are generally called "synonymous." But it must be noted that in parallelism this term is applied to series of words other than those cited in the dictionaries as synonyms or antonyms; there are not many stichoi, as a mat- ter of fact, in which the corresponding words are exact synonyms, as they are, for instance, in 2.17, where gahhuth and ruyn each means literally "height," 'ddhdvi and '"ridshlrn mean respec- tively "mankind" and "men," and sJuix and shdphel, "prostrate oneself" and "lie low" nr "prostrate." Moi-e often the tenns are synonyms only by s.ynecdoche or some other variety of metonomj', as in 1.29, where "oaks" is used as a sjTionym of "gardens" or "groves." Perhaps, then, a broader term than "synonj-ms" should be used, such as "complements," denoting terms which as they are used by the author are seen to belong to some one logical category. Such complements Isaiah is fond of heaping up; e.g., in 1.11-14, terms referring to ritual service (offerings and sacrifices of various kinds, oblations, incense, fes- tivals and feasts) ; 2.7-8, to riches (silver, gold, horses, chariots) ; 3.18-23, to di'css (21 items) ; 2.13, to height as a symbol of pride (mountains, hills, cedars, oaks, towers, walls, ships) ; 3.2, to pub- lic life (mightj- men, warriors, judges, prophets, necromancers) ; 3.0, 6, to mutual human relationship (man, neighbor, youth, aged, lowly, honorable, brother, father) ; 7.19, to landscape (valleys, caves, bushes, meadows) ; 1.6, to treatment of wounds (pressed, bound, softened) ; U, to destruction (wasted, burnt, eaten) ; 1.11 to aversion (satiated, displeased, abominate, not tolerate, hate, find burdensome, wearied) ; 5.2, to viticulture (clear and fence land, plant, build watch-towers, hew vats) ; and to many other vague sj'uthetic ideas implied in the use of such regularly associated complements as heaven and earth ; sea and land ; light and dark- ness ; hear and speak ; command and obey. Sometimes, however, the complementarj^ nature of the terms is not due to regular association but rather to the special, often metaphorical, use in the stichoi in question: e.g., "flint" and "whirlwind" to connote hardness and swiftness as the attributes respectively of horses' hoofs and chariot wheels advancing for an invasion. In all these [436; runillilisnt in Isuiuli. Cluiiitirs l-IO :!81 cases it is ijiiite eviilont that the lists of terms used by tlie Prophet inisjht be either eiihirfjed or diiniuished without etTeetiiifj; ills main purpose; eoiiipare 1.26 with 3.2, two passages referring to oflieials; the fact that the fonuer mentions only judges luid .iiunselloi-s wiiereas the latter mentions many other classes does iiiit imply that the Prophet is predicting the existence of a state ui which there shall be oidy those two classes of officials; but as in all such eases, each stichos mentioning on.' species of tlie genus implies the whole genus. Aiul so tiu' term "complementary" can be applied to thought units or periods as a whole, to two or more lines each of which expresses an eciual part of some one eompli'X idea. It will be seen, then, that lyric, prophetic, or didactic jHiotry must not be viewed as would be an historical or geological treatise; in the light of parallelism a list such as that in 3.18 is poetical and cflfective; a.s archaeology it might be interesting, but it is tedious and defective. Aiul here the rule should !)!■ enunciated that in a ])aralli'listic .setting, i.e., when surrounded by other couplets or strophes in evitlent parallelism, any two lines nnist also be read as parallel- ism if this is in any way jiossible; just as in the scansion of poetry a doubtful line must be scanned if possible in the light of the dominant metre. For examjile ').'2i>: Therefore is the anger of the Lord kinjlod acain.st his penplo. Ami ho hath stretrhend smitten thoin. If this were simple imrrative, it might be said that the fact detailed in the second line was sid)se(|uent to that described in the first. But I.saiah is not here concerned mainly with writing history or making a psychological analysis; the second line is not Miily a logical compb'ment of the fii-st, but by implication one is a repetition of the other: from the standpoint of prophetic philo-sophy God's anger implies of necessity i)unishment; or at last punishment implits his anger. So the couplet in Amos ."i.S, iliseussed by Mr. Xewman undir .synthetic parallelism, I should Miihesitatingly ela.ssify as clear parallelism : He that calls for the waters of the s4>a. And pours tl^ ■ '■• •' >l' the earth. I i;;r ) 382 Pdrallclistii in haiab, Chapters 1-10 This, again, is not intended primarih- as a scientific description of the formation of rain ; each line means simply : God controls by his word the phenomena of nature. At the same time objection must be taken to the indiscrim- inate use of the term "synthetic parallelism" in reference to any two lines in couplet formation. Following the Isaiah passage last quoted is this couplet (5.25c, d) : And tlie liills did tremble And their carcases were torn in the midst of the streets. In a general way, it is true, each of these lines means that when God is angry, the whole world (nature and man) feels the effects, but the two stichoi first quoted speak specifically of God's anger against men ; the last stichos still is limited to the same narrower objective. Moreover, it is difficult to group the subjects "hills" and "carcasses," and the predicates "tremble" and "torn," re- spectively under any one category. On the other hand, "hills" and "streets" are or may be parallels; and, in the light of the evident awkwardness of style (with the pronoun in the fourth line referring back to the second in absolute disregard of the third), and of the comparative shortness of the third line, I have classified the couplet as one with "traces of parallelism." Another possible area of doubt is presented by incomplete propositions or clauses as elements in parallelism. Cases in which the incompleteness is inei'el\- rhetorical need not be con- sidered here; i.e., those in which an incomplete phrase or clause is in apposition with some \v,\vt of a complete sentence, and hence assumes from it the missing syntactic elements, as 1.8, where "as a lodge in the cucumber-garden" is parallel to "the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in the vineyard"; or 1.6, where the series of detached nouns "wounds, aud bruises, and purif\nng sores" is in apposition with "all the head is sick" and with the following series of vei'lis, "nut ]iressed. not l)onn(l, not softened witli ointment," or may l)c considered in itself as a series of three parallel lenns; or again 9.20, 21, where "Manasseh, Ephraim, and E])hiaiui, ilanasseh, and together they against ['nl] Judah" ai'c jKirallel clauses deriving their .syntactic construction from the previdus sentences, "each shall [ 138 ] I'iinill.lism in Is^iuilt. Chiii>t,rs 1-10 :{S:j eat tlu' Hosli of liis own arm," or "or liis iK-i-rlihor. " ami ■"he shall cat on ['al\ the rinlit liaiiil. " A sei-oiul variety of iiifoini)li'ti' parallelisni is seen when to a "iiplet syntaetieally eoinplete is added another parallelistie I'ouplet expressinj; a non-essential (inalifier, v.g., 2.10: " Knter into the roek, and hiile thef in the dust," to whieh is added, "for fear of the Loril, and for the {rlory of ids majesty"; here afjain the j)arallelisn» is elear ; but in verses 20 and 21 a tiiird prepo- sitional phrase is added: "when he rises to shake terribly tiie earth" (lleb. "at his risiiifj: to terrify the eai'th"). Here "fear" and "terrify" are assoeiated terms, though used in varying syn- tactic construction; and it is (piite evident that "for fear of the Lord" might be omitted, without altering the sense in any way: "lliile thee in the dust wiien the Lord ris.s to terrify thi' earth" implies the fear. However. I have reckoned the additional phra.se as om- showing merely traers of parallelism, in order that 1 might not be chargeil with exaggerating tiie number of cases iif clear parallelism, it should be remarked, moreover, that even if there were no stiehie i)arallelisni here, there woidd still be stropiiic parallelism, since the whole refrain is repeated in the sjime form. A gp'jitcr variation from tiir siinjilc ty|)i' of i)arallclism arises in what 1 have called "suspensive" parallelism, seen in quatrains in wiiieii neither .set of parallel stichoi is .syntactically complete without the other: e.g.. 4.."! ; 9.5 (Eng.). .Still, these seem to me undoiditedly j>arallelistic in principle. But it is possible that in the use of this form there lies the beginning of non-parallel- istic formations in Hebrew juietry, for it accustoms the mind to the u.se of incomplete stichoi as units of poetic structure. An intermediate .step between the suspensive parallelism and non- paralltlism is perhaps to l)e seen in a couple of examples in whieh, while the first part of a proposition is repeated in a par- allelistie couplet, only a single stichos is added to complete the meaning; e.g., 4.:}; Ho who U left in Zion An,. cnll.Ml. [ <39 1 3S4 Farnlh'lisiti in Isaiah. Chapters 1-10 Or 9.4 (Eiig.), with tristic-li instead of couplet: The yoke of his burden, And the staff of his shoulder, The rod of his oppressor. Hast thou broken in the day of Midian. It would be possible to regard these two instances as being the reverse of the species of appositional parallelism exemplified in 1.26cd and 1.8 (quoted above) respectively, i.e., with a long second line, the first being in anticipatory apposition with part thereof : He wlio is left in Ziou And he that reniaineth in Jerusalem shall holy be called ; The staff of his shoulder. The rod of his oppressor hast thou broken as in the day of Midian. But in these two instances I believe that the text is faulty : at any rate I have elassitii d the odd stichoi as doubtful. In all of the eases of the use of incomplete clauses or phrases diseussed thus far (excepting the last phrase in 2.19), syntactic parallelism was present. But there are also cases in which apparently clauses of diiferent syntactic construction may be parallel : Relative cloKses. — In these the relative is the double relative ("lie who,"' or "that whicir'i. and the clause is not restrictive or (sscntial, but is an ai)i)i)siti(iiial modifier. In 3.28, "whose arrows are sharp and all whose bows are bent," are two such clauses in parallelism with each other; nevertheless they estab- lish the use of the relative in parallelism. But in 2.8, 2.20, are relative clau.ses in apposition to nouns (see there, and the dis- cussion on 1.21) ; and in 9.2 ka-'"sher (lit. "like what," i.e., "as") before a finite verb, "they rejoice," is parallel to the simple preposition /." , "like," before a noun, "the joy." Other relatives appear in 2.22, 5.5, 8.20, 8.23 [9.1], all in doubtful passages. Circumstantial clauses. — These contain verbs in the imper- fect, the English generally translating as independent sentences. Examples are: 8.8, "Reaching (imperf.) even to the neck," par- allel to "it shall overflow and go over"; 9.18. "devouring the [440: rartilhlisii, in /n.oWi, Vhaptirs l-IO :}85 l)rii'rs and tliorns." |iaiallc'l In ' ' iMiriidli as a tire": !».!!•. '•facli catint; tin- Hish of liis own arm," parall.l to ••|if i\U- upon tli.- Ifft"; 5.6, "not boinj; pnini'd" paralK-l to "I shall make it a waste" (SCO also tin- note on 1.5). In ;}.16 thf cirennistantial iniptTtVi-t, "walking and mincin}? as they i^o" is in parallelism with the participle, •'ofilin-r with their eyes," and both arc in parallelism to "they are haufihty." Sometimes the circumstan- tial imperfect is difficult to di.stinjruish from the relative clause with relative omittpendent and independent con.st ructions interchange freely, that protasis and apodosis even in prose may be expn-s-sed as parallel clauses; e.g., \um. 14.15. "if thou slialt kill all this people, the nations will .sjiy" is literally: "And thou shalt kill all this people and the nations will say." Compare also with this the parallelistic construction in Is. 5.7: "What was there (411 386 Panillclism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 still to do to my viiieyiird, and did I not do," which is the equiva- lent of "if [or when] there was anything to do to my vineyard, did I not do it?" or, as the English actually translates, "what was there that I did not do?" A closer examination of Is. 1.18 shows as a matter of fact that the condition is merely a rhetorical one; the thought is: "Your sins are now as scarlet; the.y shall [or must] Ijc white as snow." Another example is contained in 7.9 : If ye are not firm (he'^mlnu) Ye shall not be confirmed {tc'amilnH). Here, perhaps, a real condition is involved; nevertheless the intention of parallelism seems certain because of the repetition of the root 'a man; and the same intention would seem to be evidenced by tlie unusual insertion of kl before the apodosis, as a formal parallel to "/;)( in the protasis. Again in 10.22 the conditional sentence is merely rhetorical ; the thought really is this : Thy people are now as the sand of the sea ; they shall be but a remnant. In the table this sentence ha.s been counted as showing traces of jjarallelism. Temporal clauses. — An example is found in 10.12, "When the Lord," etc., which means: The Lord will perform his work on Mount Zion (i.e., punish it), And (then) he will punish the pride of Assyria. How small the difference is between the two types of construc- tion is exemplified by 5.4, where the Hebrew is literally : Why did I hope it would bring forth grapes. And did it bring forth wild grapes? while the English tran.slates : "Wliy, when I looked that it should bring forth grapes, brought it forth wild grapes?" With this compare in verse 7 : "He looked for judgment, but behold, op- pression." which is the equivalent of "when he looked for jud-meiit, he beheld oppivssi.ui. ' " Filial rlaiiscs. — Final clauses introduced by If-maUtn occur in 5.19 ; but there are two of them, parallel to each other. Final infinitives introduced by Z« occur similarly as a pair in 9.6 [7] : "to order it. and to establish it"; a single such infinitive is found in 2.20 {l'-hishtax''iri''tli ), but the passage is not clear; imperfects [442] I'antlhlism in Isiiiuh. ('h,ii>l> rs l-lo :IS7 witli If an- fouiul ill '2.'.U\. Iml a-raiii in parallrlism t(i i-acli otlnT. I'l-rliaps 7.13 also contains a tiiial clause: I.s it too little for you to woary inon, Tliiit yc would wi>ary also my God J with whidi compare tlie eoofdiiiate clauses in Num. 9.10: l» it too little a tiling to cat up tlie good pasture, And will ye tread down tlie rest of tlie pasture witli your feet? Ciiiixiil claiu^is. — Intfodnced by ki, causal dausis occur fre- iiuently. but fjenerally in paii-s. so that the parallelism can not be doubted: in S.6 and 7. li..\vev.-r. oeeiirs a parallelism of cause ami effect : Because this people refusetli the waters of Shiloh, Therefore the Lonl will bring upon them the waters of The River; here the jiarallelisiu sujrjJi'sted by the repetition of the word • waters" is strenjjthem-d by the correlatives "becau.se" and •therefore." Ciniiparativf clanxis. — The parallelism between the two mem- bers of a comparison is self-evident ; every simile is in its e.s.scnce a form of parallelism, particularly where the correspondence between the objects is complete in all respects. The Hebrew shows this by its use {>f correlative prepositions, e.gr., "like the priest (is) like the people"; or of correlative conjunctions. .■.-. 10.11: .\s I have done to 8amurin and lirr idols So shall I do to Jerusalem ami her idols. Finally, there is the possibility that certain clauses of nearer dcHiiition. added to verbs which are complete in scn.se when used without such clausis, are iuteiuled as parallels to those verbs; the examples are confined to chapter ">. verses 1, 5, 6 (q.v.) ; these have not been reckoned as parallels, however, in the tables. On the whole it may be said that the ijresumption is very strong of an original intention of regularity in structure through- out the oracular portion of these ten chapters. More than eighty per cent of the subject matter is in parallelism as it stands. An additional foiirtei-n per cent shows clear traces of j)arallelism ; ill most of th««e cases there is evidence of textual corruption irn^pwtive of the question of parallelism, and the defects are 388 I'araUellsm in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10 removed when parallelism is restored ; iu the remainder of this fourteen per cent there is the possibilitj* of regarding the text as parallelistic in its present form, dependent iipon the acceptance of the parallelism of subordinate clauses as explained above. Of the residual six per cent some sentences are introductory and final clauses of announcement, and phrases of a conventional tj'pe standing at the end of oracles, in which the absence of par- allelism does not effect the question of the contents of the oracle itself; in the case of other isolated stichoi, within the oracle, their glossatory nature is shown by the presence of words re- peated weakly from near-by coupUts. or by the evidently intru- sive nature of the subject matter. Tlie numV)er of cases in which regularity of structure does not exist but in which the sense is nevertheless clear is very small, indeed ; the possibility of a stichos having fallen out in the course of centuries of tradition is so great that this may well be assumed to have taken place. It should again be noted that the above tables and remarks do not appl.y to those passages which are narrative or auto- biographical; nor should their implications be extended to any section of prophetic literature in which non-parallelism and parallelism are intermingled iu considerably larger proportions than in Isaiah 1-10. But the analogy of other literatures that mingle prose and verse is not in point here ; to find a proper analogy to account for the psychology of our text in its present form one should have to offer examples of poetry marred by a few isolated and unaccountable splashes of prose ; or of poems of perhaps one hundred lines, eighty -five of which are in perfect metre, while the remainder are hopelessly unmetrical, with no assignable reason for their lack of sjTnmetry. No explanation of difBeult passages in the oracular portions of Isaiah 1-10 should be accepted unless it is based upon parallelism ; or, at least, no emendation of the text sho\ild be accepted which does not restoi-e parallelism. [444] 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, ot on the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewals may be made 4 days priod to date due. Renewed books are subiect to immediate recall. 197281 - REC'DLD -^"N ZlZ'UmS ^^- JUL2 3 1973 5 6 slkft HftYgDU REC. CIR. APR 5 'IS General Library University of California Berkeley --'04500 3Sir?r «v» UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY I!! Il|!i (Ilii