nn «M \ PR 203 D^ L890 E ANGLOSAXON POETS : o - CO : o 52 I o ON THE UDGMENT DAY. BY WALLER DEERING, alifornia jional ility SSSSLiimmiK HALLE. MAX NIEMEYER. 1890. V ^^' ,¥^ TO MY FATHER. Contents. Introduction 1 Divisions of the Subject. Material used 2 Cliapter I. The Foreniiiners of Jiulgiiieut 5 1. Belief in Judgment 5 2. Names of Judgment 6 3. Time of Judgment 9 4. Place of Judgment 11 5. The Coming of Christ to Judgment 13 6. The Summons to Judgment ^ 14 7. The Resurrection of the Dead 15 8. The Destruction of the World 19 Chapter II. The Last Judgment Itself 29 1. The Judge 29 2. The Jugded 35 3. Man's Deeds Made Known 30 4. The Basis of Judgment 39 5. The Good and Evil Separated 42 6. The Sentence Pronounced 44 7. The Sentence Executed 46 Chapter III. The Results of Judginent 48 1. Hell and Eternal Punishment 48 2. Heaven and Eternal Reward GO Chapter IV. The Sources and the Use Made of them 72 In the following pages Genesis (Gen.), Exodus (Ex.), Bi Domes Dses (Bi. D. D.), Christ (Chr.), Phoenix (Ph.), Metra {Met.}, Juliana (Jul.), Christ and Satan (CS.), Gu&lac (Gu5.), and Judith (Jud.), have been cited from Grein's Bibliothek; Andreas (An.), Elene (El.)., Beowulf (Beo.), Vision of the Rood (VR.), Speecli of the Soul to the Body (Wiilker's Rede der Seele an den Leichnam) (SB.) from Wiilker's Bibliothek; Solo- mon and Saturn (SS.) from Kemble's Dialogues of Solomon and Saturn, Be Domes Dceje from Lumby's edition. Introduction. Every thorough student of Anglosaxon has noticed the inclination of the poets to embody the various doctrines of eschatolog-y in their work. As companion pieces to their ac- counts of Creation and the beginning- of all things, we find frequent allusions to the destruction of the world and the end of human history at Judgment Day. The latter seems to have been quite a favorite theme; whole poems like Be D. D. and Bi D. D. are devoted to it, scattered references and short de- scriptions are found in Ex., El., Ph., Jul, CS., VR., SB., etc., while Cynewulf, in his Christ, has given us a picture of the day of wrath that has scarcely been equalled. Though Hammerich i doubtless goes too far in regarding this preference for the sub- ject as ' etwas speciell Englisches' , we may safely say that the Day of Final Judgment is the theme of some of the finest passages in Anglosaxon literature, one of which the poets were very fond, one which enlisted their profound interest and called forth their best efforts. These descriptions of Judgment Day have not, as far as we know, been made the subject of detailed discussion. Sepa- rate features, in individual poems, have been treated 2, but only in a very general way and as secondary argument and side issue in other questions. We deem the subject, however, in eminent degree worthy of a connected and detailed discussion for its own sake. And this, then, is the purpose of this essay. By careful search through the Ags. poetry we shall collect all the references to our theme and then attempt to construct ^ Alteste christliche Epik p. 236 (German by Michelsen). ^ For instance by Gabler, Autorscliaft vom Phoenix pp. 36 — 39. 1 from them, as from tiny bits of stone, a mosaic picture, as it were, which shall show us at a glance how the poets imagined the Judgment Day. Many interesting additional points might, of course, have been gathered from the prose writers, but as a thorough and consistent examination of such references was not possible within the limits of this essay, it has seemed best to confine our study to the poetry. Having settled as far as possible the teaching of the poets regarding Judgment Day, we shall turn to the question, next and naturally arising, of the sources of these ideas and ask ourselves where did the poets get the conceptions embodied in their descriptions. Though in the highest degree interesting, our task is no easy one. Where we have such numerous descriptions — pro- ducts of different minds and of different centuries — it is diffi- cult and delicate work to fit all the references into each other with such nicety as to form a smooth and perfect picture, which shall give us at once an adequate idea of the subject in hand. And especially as regards the sources of the various conceptions, we must often be content with conjecture in the absence of definite fact; for in a subject like this, common property of the christian world, it is often impossible to tell how far the poets are indebted to the Bible, to religious tra- dition, to the writings of others or to their own imagination for their material. Divisions of the Subject. Material used. To a clear presentation of the manifold events of the Judg- ment Day careful arrangement of the material is indispensable. The following threefold division has seemed advisable. I. The Forerunners of the Last Judgment. II. The Last Judgment itself. III. The Results of the same. Under I we may include the coming of Christ, the destruction of the world, the summons by the archangel's trumpet, the resurrection of men and other events preceding and prepara- toiy to the Judgment itself. Under II may then follow an account of the progress of the latter, ending with the final sentence pronounced by the Eternal Judge, while under UI we shall add, for completeness' sake, a brief view of the re- sults of Judgment, the final reward of the righteous in heaven, the eternal punishment of the evil in hell. Having settled these several conceptions, we shall attempt, as far as possible, to give the 'source' of each one. Lest the term be in this'^case misleading, we may add that only rarely are we able to give the direct and immediate source — in the usual sense of the word — of any poem or passage; our in- vestigation is rather a comparison of these Ags. conceptions with Bible teaching and current christian or heathen tradition and not so much an attempt to find for each some Greek or Latin original, which the poet may have translated or para- phrased. In the very nature of the case in hand, it is indeed doubtful that such an attempt could be successful. Of Caed- mon Hammerich aptly remarks': 'Ubrigens kann bei einem Sanger, wie Kaedmon, welcher gewiss das Meiste aus miind- licher Erzahlung geschcipft hat, von Quellen im gewohnlicheu Sinne gar nicht die Rede sein. Seine Hauptquelle floss in den gangharen Vorstellungen und (Jberlieferungen der Zeit . . .' We hope in the following pages to prove that such is the case also in our poets' conceptions of Judgment Day. For the present, therefore, we have mainly to do with the ultimate christian or heathen sources of the several conceptions as such. The immediate source of any passage will be given wherever this is possible. In a later and supplementary chapter (IV) we shall then put together all that may other- wise be said of the direct originals of the language in which, in each poem, these conceptions of Judgment Day have found expression. The passages from which we have gathered these con- ceptions are scattered throughout the poetry. The longest, most complete and detailed description is that in Christ, where our subject takes up the whole of the third part of the poem (v. 779 — 1694). Be Domes Die^e and Bi Domes Dse^e are de- voted entirely to it, shorter descriptions are found in Ph., El. CS., VR., SB., while other, perhaps merely accidental, refe- rences occur in Gen., Ex., An., Met., Jul, SS., etc. The long, ' Alteste christliclie Epik p. 41. 1* well planned account in Chr. is very detailed and contains all or nearly all the features of the other descriptions. The latter are much shorter and more or less general in character, some emphasizing the one feature, others some other feature of the common subject. Naturally, therefore, each of these shorter descriptions does not contain all the features which make up the whole; but as the poets do not contradict each other in any important point, the absence of any feature, in these shorter descriptions, does not prove that the poet did not believe or teach it; the omission may be due to the want of space for such detail. An exhaustive account of the relation of the several longer descriptions to each other, an examination of their similar or different tendencies would be impossible within reasonable limits; this relation is, however, indirectly evident throughout our discussion, where, under the several features, many similar passages are found side by side. t Chapter I. The Forerunners of Judgment. Precediog- and introducing this chronicle of the separate events of Judgment Day a brief inquiry into the time and place and some of the names of Judgment may not be amiss. And first of all we take up the poets general 1. Belief in Judgment. The Ags. belief in a last, great Judgment Day, the divi- ding line between time and eternity, when humanity shall assemble before the bar of divine justice to receive a final doom from an Eternal Judge is too evident in the following pages to need special argument here. For the present suf- fice a few passages which directly declare it and show the general terms in which the poets express it. Among others may be cited: BeD.D. 71ff. Ac se dfej cymeS Sonne demeS jod eorSan ymbhwyrft, pu ana scealt gyldan scad wordum wiS scyppend god and ]7am rican frean riht ajyldan. Chr. 782 tf. Is l?ain dome neah, ^aet we gelice sceolou leanum hleotau, swa we widefeorh weorcum hlodun geond sidne jnind. Ph. 492 ff. wile fseder enjla sijora sotJcyninj seonoS jehejan diiguSa dryliten, deman mid ryhte. Be D. D. 95 ff. ot55e hu ejeslic and hu andrysne heah-]?rymme cyninjc her wile demau anra gehwylcum be serdsedum. BeD. D. 19f. and hu mihtij frea eall manna cynn todseleS and todeuieS )?nrh his dihlan miht; 6 El. 1276ff. Swa l^eos world eall gewiteS, ]?onne dryhten sylf dom geseceS engla weorude. Of Christ ascended to heaven the two angels say: Chr. 523 if. wile eft swa ]>e&h eorSan maegSe sylfa jesecan side herge and J^onne jedeman daede jeliwylce ]?ara )?e jefremedon folc under roderum. VR. 103 if. 'He Sa on heofenas astag; liider eft fundaj^ 'on }?ysne middanjeard mancynn secan 'on domdseje dryhten sylfa, 'selmihtig jod and his enjlas mid 'Ipsdt he )?onne wile deman, se ah domes jeweald, 'anra jehwylcum, swa he him serur her 'on l^yssum leenum life jeearna]?: Ex. 539 ff. eft-wyrd cymS msegenj^rymma msest ofer middanjeard, daeg dsedum fah: dryhten sylfa on }?am met5elstede manegum demet5. Lot's wife shall await the Judgment Gen. 2569 ff.; so also Grendel Beo. 977 ff. Compare also the references: Bi D. D. 5 ff.; CS. 598 ff., SB. 5 ff., An. 1435 ff., 1498 ff., Met. 29, 39 ff., Jul. 724 ff. The basis of this belief is clearly biblical. It is taught in countless passages like 2 Cor. 5. 10, Jude 14. 15, Rom. 2. 16, Ps. 96. 13 etc. Christ 523 ff. was taken from Acts 1. 11, VR 103 ff. is the same in substance as Matt. 16. 27, Bi D. D. 5 ff. and CS. 598 ff. are somewhat like Acts 17. 31. The source of all passages cited from Be D. D. is the Latin poem Be Die Judicii ascribed to both Bede and Alcuin. The relation of the Ags. poem to this Latin original is discussed in chapter IV. 2. Names of Judgment. The most common of the names given by the poets to the Judgment itself is dom.- Among the manifold meanings of this word those concerning us are judicium, judgment, sen- tence, doom. Alone and with adjectives or genitives, it is very frequently used as a general term for the Last Judgment, the court in which the Lord Himself sits as Judge of all men. Thus Judgment is near 7^ patn dome neah Chr. 782, the Lord is coming to Judgment bonne dryhten sylf dom geseceti El. 1270, has power over Judgment se ah domes ^etveald VR. 107. It is the Judgment of the Lord dryhtnes domes V\\. A!^, Gen. 2571, of the Creator meotudes dom Ph. 524, of God cet ^odes dome SB. 160, the great Judgment miclan domes Beo. 978, dom pone miclan Be D. D. 15, the awful Judgment dom py retiran Chr. 790. Among other names are: ' ^emot = conventus, assembly, meeting; a word usually applied to a deliberative assembly (cf. witena^emot = the Ags. Parliament) and transferred naturally to this last and greatest meeting on earth. Thus men are led to Judgment on gemot Iceded Chr. 795, Ph. 491, it is the dreadful meeting ticet bib pearlic gemot Bi D. D. 36, the king comes to the meeting cyning on gemot cymet) Chr. 833, 943, to gemote Chr. 1027. meSel = assembly, judicial meeting: cet ?neble An. 1436, cet pam mceble Ph. 538; cf. on pam mebelstede Ex. 542. |?ing = assembly; a common Teutonic word denoting a meeting for deliberative purposes (cf. the modern Storthing of Norway) and used once in Chr. in reference to the Last Judg- ment to pinge Chr. 927. seonoS = meeting, synod; refers to Judgment in seonob gehegan Ph. 493. spraec = court, judicial investigation; nis pcet lytulu sprcec Bi D. D. 8, Aclames beam ealle to sprcece Bi D. D. 101. wyrd: the use of this word in the sense of Judgment is not clear, Grein reads Ex. 539 eft-tvyrd cymb, which he trans- lates: 'So kommt einst doch hinterher'. Bosworth-Toller de- fines efHvyrd = future fate, day of judgment, futurum fatum, judicii dies, citing this passage. In Gen. 2571 wyrde bidan, wyrde might be construed as synonymous with drihtnes domes in the next line, and therefore meaning Judgment, but in both the passages cited wijrd probably has rather its old meaning fate or destiny and does not refer directly to the Judgment. Gi-^in's interpretation of Ex. 539, making eft- wyrd = aefter- weard is also a very possible one. meotudsceaft = decree of fate, fate after death, doom; this half christian, half heathen word, usually denoting future fate, the destiny in store for one, possibly refers in Chr. 888 Weccab of deabe dryhtgnmena beam to meotudsceafte directly 8 to the Judgment, the latter being- that to which the arch- angels' trumpets weccab of deabe. And yet meotudsceaft may in this passage mean only the fate awaiting men, the lot falling to them as the result of Judgment. Indeed the latter construction is the more probable, since the word would thus retain its original and usual meaning. The term metod- sceaft seon Beo. 1180, translatied by Grein 'zu sehen Gottes Bestimmung', has doubtless no reference to Judgment but is merely an epic formula meaning 'to die'. Compare also Gen. 1743. The Dai^ of Judgment is referred to in terms- like dom- doez, cet domdcege Chr. 1619, 1637, on domdoege CS. 600, VR. 105, on pam domdcege SB. 96, oer domes dcege Met. 29. 41, the great day of the mighty Lord se tnida dtsg meahtan dryhtnes Chr. 869, the most terrible day daga eielicast Chr. 1022, the great day se mcera dceg Chr. 1055, the stern or cruel day se hearda dceg Chr. 1065 the august day se wlonca dceg Bi D. D. 50, the day hostile to (evil) deeds dceg, dcedum fah Ex. 541. Quite common also in this connection is the combination: preposition {in or on) + demonstrative + adjective + dceg or tid, mentioned by Gabler^ and Ramhorst2. Thus on pa?n miclan dcege Chr. 1051, SB. 50, 89, Jul. 723, An. 1436, on pam grimman dceg Chr. 1205, on pam mcestan dcege Bi D. D. 6, 104, on pam mceran dm^e SB. 150, on pam deopan dceg Bi D. D. 59, on pa snudan tid Chr. 842, on pa gcesnan tid Chr. 850, on (in) pa mceran tid Chr. 972, Jul. 731, on pa gri?nman tid Chr. 1081, 1334, on (in) pa openan tid Chr. 1571, Ph. 509, on pa halgan tid Chr. 1589, in pa frecnan tid Jul. 724, in pa geomran tid Ph. 517. Terms like dom, domdceg, se micla dmg and the combin- ations just cited may be regarded as biblical; gemot, ftiebel and ping usual designations for any deliberative assembly show genuine Ags. coloring and were transferred to this last and greatest assembly of earth either unconsciously or for the direct purpose of giving the reader, in terms he knew well, a clear and concrete idea of what might otherwise have been obscure 1 Autorschaft vom Phoenix p. 25. 2 Das altenglische Gedicht vom lieiligen Andreas p. 29. to him. Wyrd and meotudsceaft whether meaning Judgment or merely fate, destiny had doubtless lost most or all of their original personal and heathen significance. 3. Time of Judgment. The time when Judgment shall come is represented through- out the Ags. poetry as indefinite and unknown. It is put at the end of the world, is to attend the s"<5cond advent of Christ etc., but no attempt is made to determine the date more exactly. God alone knows the time. This whole idea is put in terms like 'the day shall come' sceal se dceg weortian Bi D. D. 34, ac sc dceg cymet5 Be D. D. 71 when God shall judge po7tne demeb god Be D. D. 71. Numerous references connect it with the second coming of Christ and make it in fact the object of that coming, but leave the time just as indefinite. Thus He has ascended to heaven, but will come again to visit (i. e. to judge) mankind mancynn secan on Judgment Day on do?ndcege VR. 104 f., He has determined to come again Hafah nu gepingod to us CS. 598, Hafa<5 hm gepi7iged hider Bi D. D. 5, on the 'greatest' day on pam mceslan doege Bi D. D. 6, on Judgment Day on dotndcege CS. 600, He will visit again the peoples of earth wile eft ... eorban mceg^e sylfa gesecan for the purpose of judgment and ponne gedeman doeda gehrvylce Chr. 523 ff. Com- pare also Be D. D. 97 f., Chr. 825 f., 833 f., 942 f. Again Judgment is to come 'long' after death: SB. 5 ff. Lanj bit5 sySSan I'set se jast nimeS set gode sylfum, swa wile swa wuldor, swa him on worulde ser efne }?8et eorSfaet ser jeworhte. The dead lie long in the grave peer hi longe heoti till tlie fires of Judgment come ot) fyres cyme Ph. 489 f. The departed soul is to visit its body during three hundred years preo hund tvintra, unless God destroy the world sooner butan cer peodcyning ccl- mihtig god ende worulde wyrcan wille SB. 12 fT. The term preo hund wintra is doubtless typical only, meaning a great number of years, for the following lines show clearly that the time is perfectly indefinite, known only to God and dependent on His will. In SS. 543 f. the typical 300 years have become 30,000; SynceS him I'set sy 5rea XXX SusenS wintra aer he domdiieges dyn jehyre. 10 Compare also the similar attempts to express the indefinite length of time to elapse before Judgment in the references to the home of the Phoenix se cebela tvong Ph. 43, which is to remain blooming hidet) sna geblowen until the coming of the fires of Judgment o& hceles cyme dryhtnes domes Ph. 47 and to the stars which shall not forsake their courses till doomsday: Met 29. 39 ff. Ne J^earft \>\\ no wenan I'set j^a wlitijan tunjl ]?8es jjeowdomes alroten weorSe ser domes daeje;! Again, indefinite in the other direction, Judgment is near Is pam dome neah Chr. 782. In the short exhortations, too, which frequently interrupt the narrative, the terrors of Judgment are mentioned, as solemn warning that men should live better, but the time of its coming is purposely left indefinite. Thus in Chr. 1205 f., 1560 f.. Be. D. D. 15 f., 94 f., Ph. 473 fi"., Bi. D. D. 46 ff., Cf. also Jul. 723 ff. With this idea of uncertainty Cynewulf couples the con- ception that Judgment Day will come suddenly and unex- pectedly, taking men unawares, like a thief in the night: Chr. 868 ff. fconne mid fere foldbuende se micla doeg meahtan dryhtnes set midre niht msejne bihlaeme?5 scire geseeafte, swa oft sceat5a fsecne l^eof J'ristlice, I'e on |?ystre fsereS, on sweartre niht sorjlease haeleS semninja forfehS slsepe gebundne, eorlas unjearwe yfles jensejeS: Apart from the fact that the poets would naturally make no attempt to decide this question, Bible teaching evidently induced them to leave it, as they did, — unknown, indefinite. Troughout the New Testament we find the same conceptions: that no man knows the day, not even the angels, but only Father Matt. 24. 36; indeed it is not meet for man to know, (Acts. 1. 7) nor necessary to tell him 1. Thess. 5. 1. The sudden and unexpected coming of Judgment is also strictly biblical, taught in passages like Luke 21. 34 f.. Matt. 24. 27, 38 f. and in the parables Matt. 25, 1 ff"., Luke 19. 11 ff. Chr. 868 ff. seems taken directly from 1 Thes. 5. 2, 2 Pet. 3. 10 (cf. also Rev. 3. 3; ' This passage was doubtless suggested by Boethiiis' line: sic ceter- nos reficit eursus, De Consol. Pliilos. Lib. IV, Met VI. 11 16. 15). The conception in Chr. 782 that Judgment and final recompense are near is taught in similar terms Rev. 22. 12 (cf. James 5. 8 f.). Christ and the apostles purpose lyleft the com- ing of Judgment indefinite, liable to be sudden and unex- pected, in order to induce men to lead better lives and with this teaching coupled exhortation and warning to be prepared. The Ags. poets have diligently followed their example. 4. Place of Judgment. On this point equally impossible for man to determine our poets have very little to say. Three passages, however, all in Chr., indicate that Cynewulf, at least, regarded Mt. Zion as the scene of the great event. After mentioning the sudden, unexpected coming of Judgment Day he tells us: Chr. 876 ff. swa on syne beorj somod up cyuiet5 msejenfolc raicel meotude jetrywe beorht and bliSe: and after describing the blast of the archangels' trumpets he says of Christ's coming: Chr. 900 ff. fonne semninga on Syne beorj suSan eastan sunnan leoma cymet5 of scyppende scynan leohtor, l^ionne hit men msejen modum ahycjan, ]7urh heofona jehleodu hider ot5ywe5. Zion is doubtless meant also in the passage describing God, surrounded by His angel hosts and throned in judgment over assembled humanity: Chr. 1008 ff. fconne mihtij jod on |?one mseran beor^ mid \>j msestan msejenj^rymme cymet5 heofonenjla cyninj halij scineS wuldorlic ofer weredum. The fact that the place of Judgment is mentioned only in Christ and not even hinted at in any of the other descriptions, though several of the latter would admit such detail, is a little remarkable and due, perhaps, to the indefiniteness of Bible teaching on this point. This conception was probably not well known or generally accepted, else we would find it mentioned in other poems. In explaining how Cynewulf, then, asserts it so distinctly, we can pro])ose only possibilities. It is possible, of course, that he heard it in some sermon or took 12 it from one of the Church Fathers; possible also that the idea is his own. Indeed we incline to the latter opinion. Wishing to describe the assembling of mankind before the tribunal of the Eternal Judge, it is very natural that, in order to make the great picture the more vivid and impressive, he should represent the vast multitudes gathered around a mountain, with the Judge throned in glory and majesty above them; and having determined to use this figure, what is more reason- able than that he should select the well-known Mt. Zion, the center of the Bible world, as the mountain in question. It is possible again that scripture teaching induced, at least suggested, this idea. Though the Bible does not expressly teach that Zion is to be the scene of Judgment, there are some passages which the poet may have construed to mean that. Thus Joel 2. 1 asserts that the day of the Lord is nigh and commands the trumpet to be blown in Zion, vs. 31, 32 refer to the great and terrible day of the Lord and the deliverance in Zion, Joel 3. 7, 12 mention the judgment over the heathen in the valley of Jehoshaphat, v. 14 the 'multitudes in the valley of decision', the 'day of the Lord in the valley of de- cision' (—Jehoshaphat), v. 15 the darkening of sun, moon and stars, v. 16 the earthquake and the voice of the Lord in Zion. Cynewulf, now, may have regarded these as direct re- ferences to the Last Judgment, or may have thought them typical of it, as in Isaiah 13. 6—14. In any case they may have given him the hint for his direct and positive statement that Mt. Zion is the scene of Final Judgment. 5. The Coming of Christ to Judgment. Having disposed of these more preliminary questions of name and time and place, we may now turn to the real fore- runners of Judgment, and begin with the coming of Christ, the immediate cause, the signal, as it were, of Judgment. That the Ags. poets taught a real and personal coming of Christ for the direct purpose of judging the world and assigning mankind to eternal states of reward and punishment, that He is, indeed, the central figure, ordering and controlling all the events of Judgment Day is evident from a great num- ber of passages, which need not be quoted here, since they 13 will appear in other connection in the following- pages. Suffice it for the present, therefore, to cite a few passages, which simply and directly declare that He will come, in person and to judge all men. He has ascended to heaven, but the angel says: Clir. .523 if. 'wile eft swa |?eah eorSan msejtSe 'sylfe jesecan side herje ^ 'and ]?onne gedeman dseda jehwylce ']?ara I'e jefremedon foic under roderum. CS. ()0() ff. tset bi(5 daja lenjust and dinna msest hlud jeliyred, jjonne hselend cymeS, waldend mid wolcnum in ]?as woruld fsereS: Once He came as the loving Redeemer of mankind; He shall come again and as the Judge in his righteous anger: Chr. 825 f. Bit5 nu eorneste l?onne eft cymeS ret5e and ryhtwis: He ascended to heaven He pa on heofenas astdg VR. 103, hut He will come again to earth Mder eft fundap on pysne middangeard VR. 103, in person drijhten sylf El. 1279, dryhten sylfa VR. 105, with His angels engla weorude El. 1280, and his englas mid VR. 106, to Judgment dom geseceb El. 1279, to judge mankind at doomsday mancynn secan on domdcBge VR. 104, pwt he ponne wile deman VR. 107. Compare also Cristes cyme Be. D. D. 97, fore Cristes cyme Chr. 1031 and Chr. 790, 833, 943, CS. 598, Bi. D. D. 67, Ph. 492, Jul. 725. In addition to such general statements that He will come and be present at Judgment, we are told more directly how He will come: Clir. 904 ff. jjonne beam jodes Jjurli heofona jehleodu hider oSyweS. Cyme? wundorlic Christes onsyn, aeSelcyninjes wlite eastan from roderum on sefan swete sinum folce, biter bealofuUum, jebleod wundrum eadjum and earmum unjelice. Chr. 901 ff., 919 ff. further describe His appearance and bea- ring towards good and evil, Chr. 1458 ff. shows that He comes in person, the same Christ that was crucified, who is to come in the presence of all creatures ealra gesceafta andweardne faran Chr. 926 with many signs and wonders mid mcegenwundrum mo7igutn to Judgment to pinge Chr. 927. 14 • This conception is the constant teaching of the whole New Test. The descriptions there — the situation, so to speak — are much the same as in the poets. Thus He is to come in glory and power, surrounded by the angels ; cf. Matt. 24. 30 with Chr. 900 if.. Matt. 25. 31 with Chr. 942, 1008 ff., Mark. 13. 26 with CS. 600 flf. Chr. 523 ff. is taken from Acts 1. 11. The Ijrilliant hosts of heaven . serve Him not only as a worthy retinue and proclaim with archangel trumpet His coming (1 Thes. 4. 16), but are also His messengers to carry out His orders. Compare Matt. 24. 31, Mark 13. 27 with Chr. 879 ff., CS. 600 ff. That He is coming, too, for the direct purpose of judging the deeds of every man is taught in terms very si- milar to those used by the poets. Compare Matt. 16. 27, 2 Thes. 1. 7 f with VK. 103—109, Chr. 525 f. Numerous other references showing a general agreement might be cited, but these will suffice to establish the point that while the poets have only rarely translated or para- phrased a Bible passage, they have dilligently followed scripture teaching throughout. 6. The Summons to Judgment. Prominent among the hosts that attend Christ's coming our poets pictured the archangels — His trusted messengers — who, at His command, sound their trumpets in the ends of the earth, proclaim the arrival of the day of final reckoning and summon mankind to appear before the bar of eternal justice. Thus: CS. 600 ff. drihten seolfa hateS hehenjlas hhidre stefne beman blawan ofer burja jeseotu ^eond [feower] foldan sceatas. Ph. 497 ff. swa se mihtiga cyning beodeS brejo enjla byman stefne ofer sidan grund, sawla nerjend: In the uttermost parts of the earth glittering angels sound their trumpets: Cbr. 879 ff. tonne from feowerum foldan sceatum l>am ytemestum eorSan rices enjlas selbeorhte on efen blawaS byman on brehtme, etc. 15 Throughout the broad earth geond sidne grund Chr. 948 the loud voice of the trumpet is heard sio hyman stefn Chr. 1062 weor't^etS .... hlud gehyred heofonbyman stefn Chr. 949, which proclaims the fires hrynehatne leg Bi. D. D. 51 and the terrors of Judgment egsan oferprym Bi. D. D. 52. Be. D. D. 128 f. and Bi. D. D. 100 f refer also to this proclamation although the trumpet is not expressly mentioned. The king of glory thus C(fmraands men to rise from their graves and summons them to Judgment. Chr. 1023 ff. |?onne wuldorcyninj hateS arisan reordberende of foldgrafum folc anra gehwylc, cuman to jemote moncyunes jehwone. This is again a strictly biblical conception, expressed by the poets with almost the same simplicity and in terms very similar to the Bible account. In the latter also the angel's trumpet attends the coming of Christ 1 Thes. 4. 16, is sounded at His command Matt. 24. 31 (cf. CS. 600 fif.), in the four quar- ters of the earth Mark, 13. 27, to announce His arrival and to summon man to Judgment. The 'situation' in both accounts is the same; the Ags. descriptions are just such as christian poets, familiar with the Bible, would write from memory, in- corporating scripture teaching, but without directly translating any particular passage. 7. The Resurrection of the Dead. The summons of the Eternal Judge is imperative and must be obeyed; at the sound of the angel's trum])et the long, fast sleep of death is ended, the doors of the grave thrown open and man comes forth to meet his final doom. Such an instantaneous, personal resurrection, — at the com- mand and by the power of God — of the body which was buried is the firm belief and constant teaching of our poets. Thus all men arise at the trumpet's sound, death is ended by the power of God. Ph. 495 ff. tonne seriste ealle jefremmat? men on moldan, swa se mihtija cyninj beodeS brejo enjla byman stefne ofer sidan ^riiii*^) sawla nerjeud: bi3" se deorca deaS drylitnes meahtum eadgum geendad; 16 Vast crowds arise to Judgment, the Prince of Life has loosed the bonds of death: Chr. 104] ff. micel ariset5 dryhtfolc to dome, si3San deaSes bend toleset5 litfruma. Though the body has lain long in the grave, covered with clay peak pe hit sy greote hepeaht, lie mid lame, it shall live again hit sceal lif onfon feores cefter foldan Bi D. D. 98 f. ; the blast of the angels' ti'urapets awake the dead of pisse moldan men onwecniati, who arise from the dust by the power of God deade of duste arisa^ purh drihtnes miht. CS. 604 f. The trum- pet sounds in the four quarters of the earth and bids men quickly rise to Judgment: Chr. 887 ff. weccat5 of deat5e dryhtgumena beam, eall monna cynn to meotudsceafte ejeslic of ]^aere ealdan moldan, hateS hy up astandan sneome of slsepe \j faestan. Men receive at once bodies, the rest of the grave is over and every man must arise and appear before Christ. Clir. 1028 ft', tonne eall hrat5e Adames cynn onfehS flaesce, weortJeS foldraeste eardes set ende. Sceal l?onne anra jeliwylc fore Cristes cyme cwic arisan. No one may escape, all must obey the summons. Man and woman iveras and wif Bi D. D. 60, all Adam's rsice A da?nes beam ealle Bi D. D. 101, eal Adames cnosl Be D. D. 129, the whole human race eal monna cynn Chr. 888, Be D. D. 19, all peoples folc anra ^ehwylc Chr, 1025, mankind mancynn VR. 104, the nations of earth eor^an mceg^e Chr, 523, all men ealle men on moldan Ph. 496, every one anra gehwylc VR, 108, Be D. D. 97. Ph. 522, good and evil so'i5fcest ge synnig Ph. 523 arise from the grave from moldgrafum Ph. 524, of hyrgenum Ph, 512, of foldgrafum Chr. 1026 and come to Judgment sece'Q meotudes dam Ph. 524. In addition to such general statements, our poets describe the resurrection, more particularly, as a reunion of the soul and body once separated by death. This is a favorite theme. Thus all Adam's race eall Adames cynn Chr. 1028, Adames beam ealle Bi D. D. 101, all the race of men anra gehivylc fira cynnes Ph. 535 are summoned gebonnen Bi D. D. 100 to Judg- 17 ment to sprcece Bi D. D. 101 and receive their bodies onfelit) flcesce Chr. 1029, fJcesce bifongen Ph. 535, receive their bodies and limbs ledt)um onfon and lichoman Chr. 1032; souls go into their bodies again gcestas hweorfdtS in hanfatu Ph. 519, body and soul are united again for the journey to the place of Judgment : Bi D. D. 102 f. beo6 t5oniie jejpedrad g^est and bansele gesomnad to J^am siSe, where body and soul are to stand united leomu lie somod and lifes gcest at the feet of Christ fore Cristes cneo Ph. 513 f. The same is said in tvyl Uot) gegcederode cet gndes dome SB. 160 and that body and soul are united again is taught in the numerous dual forms throughout the poem: une 103, 162, uncre 167, une hcem 88, yvit 100, 143, 163, wit . . . cetsomne 102, 161 and in such references as sa7vl mid lice Ph. 523, hu lie and sarvle Chr. 1037. That the body which is to rise is the same body that died and lay so long buried is directly implied in the pas- sages just cited. In the following also it is this same body which shall 'give account' at the Last Day. Thus the soul tells the evil body that it must give an account scyle rihi agildan SB. 98, ponne pu for une hcem andwyrdan seealt SB. 88, at the Great Day on pam mielan dcege SB. 89, for everything for aura gehwyleujn onsundrum SB. 98 and puts the terrible question : SB. 95 f. Ac hwaet wylt I'll |:'aer on )>amdom dteje dryhtne secjanV The virtuous body must also 'give account', but it has no reason for shame 8m 7ie 'Qearfl sceamian SB. 148, need not be troubled ne yfele habban sorge in liret5re SB. 164 for an answer pcere andsware SB. 164. Again we are told, still more definitely, that the good are clothed with their own deeds weorcum bifongen agenum doidum Ph. 527, which shine upon them Mm on scinat) brighter than the sun sunnan beorhiran Chr. 1041 f., while the sins of the wicked may be seen through their bodies as through glass: Chr. 1281 majon }?iirh |'a lichoman leahtra firene geseon on ]:'am sawlum: beoti ]7a synjan flaesc scandum l^urhwaden swa J^set scire jlaes, Jjset mon ySast majg eall )?urhw'litan. 2 18 In short upon the risen bodies may be seen everything, good or evil, w^hieh they did during life: Clir. 1033 fif. hafaS eall on him l?ses ]>e he on foldan in fyrndajum jodes ot)t5e jales on his gaeste gehlod jeara jonjum. One or two passages, novy, seem to indicate the belief on the part of the poets that these mortal, physical bodies which rise are, by the power of God, renewed and 'changed' (in the Bible sense) before they go to Judgment. Thus: Chr. 1030 flf. Sceal ]^onne anra jehwylc fore Cristes cyme cwic arisan edjeonj wesan. Ph. 533 ff. Swa biS anra jehwylc flsesce befongen fira cynnes senlic and edgeonj, Clir. 1040 f. tonne biS jeyced and jeedniwad moncynn {^urh meotiid: Wether these terms geyced = increased, geedniwad = renewed, cenllc = beautiful, edgeong = rejuvenesceus refer merely to the physical change of the repulsive dead body to the living body or to the change by which the corrupt, mortal l)ody puts on incorruption and immortality, by which the na- tural body becomes a spiritual body (as in 1 Cor. 15. 42, 52 f., Phil. 3. 21 and elsewhere) is impossible to say. Indeed it is probable that they refer to the simple physical process of giving life to the dead bodies. That these bodies are destined for and do really enter into eternal states of reward and punishment is, as will appear later, clearly taught. The poets do not, however, express themselves as to how or when this change occurs. The whole Bible idea of renewal, being made immortal at the resurrection, as in 1 Cor. 15. 52, does not seem to have been clear to them. The change to come over those "who are alive and remain" at the coming of Christ is not mentioned at all. The other features of this conception of resurrection conform closely to the Bible account, which also teaches that the dead, both good and evil (John. 5. 29, Dan. 12. 2), are raised by the power of God (1 Cor. 6. 14), by the archangel's trumpet (1 Cor. 15. 52, 1 Thes. 4. 16), which gathers 19 men from tlie four winds (Matt. 24. 31, Mark. 13. 27). Ezek. 37, 1 — 14 pictures the resurrection as a reunion of soul and body, in much the same way as the poets do. Great stress is laid on the resurrection also in Aldhelm's (?) De Die Judicii, in which v. 3 — 18 and 46 — 64 are somewhat like Chr. 885. 1028, though the resemblance is very general. 8, The Destruction of the World. The archangel's trumpet, which ushers in the day of final reckoning, proclaims the coming of Christ and summons man- kind to the bar of eternal justice, is likewise in the minds of the poets the death-knell of all the rest of creation, the signal for the destruction of the world and for other signs and wonders that 'show forth His coming' mcEgenwundrum mongum Chr. 927. This phase of the subject seems to have enlisted the poets' special interest and a number of their finest passages are devoted to it. To these then let us turn and inquire with the poet: Be D. D. 97 f. hwylce forebeacn faran onjianaS and Cristes cyme cvtiat) on eorSan? The central feature in these descriptions is the idea of the destruction of the world by fire. This seems to have taken deep hold on the poets' minds. The fire itself, its destroying ett'ect and purifying power are favorite themes, treated at great length and constantly recurring; and to this enthusiasm of the poets, which made them delight in and loth to leave the subject, we are indebted for some of their finest flights. A very imposing picture is the description of the fire, like a second flood, rolling over the earth and consuming every- thing before it. Thus the fire is compared directly with the flood : Chr. SOf) ff. Ur wses lonje lajufloduui bilocan lifwynna dsel, feoh on foldan : l^onne frsetwe sculon byrnan on bale: blac rasetteS recen reada lig, reSe scrit5e5 jeond wonild wide. Wonjas hreosa?5 burjstede bersta(5. Brond bi8 on tylite, 2* 20 and again we have the same idea of the rushing angry flood with waves of fire instead of water: Chr. 984 ff. fsereS aefter foldan fyrswearta leg, weallende wija, swa xr wseter fleowan, flodtis afysde. Be D. D. 165 f. taet re(5e flod raescet fyre and biterlice b8ernt5 j^a earman sawla Chr. 931 ff. DyneS deop jesceaft and fore dryhten faereS wselmfyra mjest ofer widne jrund, hlemmet5 liata lej The greedy, devouring flames se ^Ifre gcest Chr. 814, 973, weallende wiga Chr. 985 spread over the whole earth geond rvoruld wide Chr. 811, gimia grund Bi D. D. 12, ofer ealne fol- dan fce^m Bi D. D. 54, ofer eall heorht gesetu Bi D. D. 117, ofer fvidne grund Chr. 932, over everything fcer'iS fyr ofer eall Be D. D, 146, far and wide JiybatS wide gifre glede Chr. 1044. And not only are the fields and cities of earth to be covered by the burning flood, but its fiery waves mount high to heaven and fill the invisible, to us the boundless, air lyft biti onhcerned Chr. 1043, hryne stigeb heah to heafo7ium Ph. 520 and Be D. D. 144 ff. Ufenan eall ]ns eac byt5 gefylled eal uplic lyft attrenum lije eal I'set us |nnct) semtij eac jemearces under roderes ryne readum lije bi6 emnes mid py eal ^efylled; The poets seek to highten the effect of the picture by telling us how the fire, red and angry read and reat>e Be D. D. 152, roars and crakles and rushes hither and thither hlawat) and brastlab Be D. D. 151, rcesct and efeslet) Be D. D. 152, brondas lacab Bi D. D. 58, leg onetteb Bi D. D. 55, driven by violent winds: Chr. 940 ff. and on seofon healfa swogaS windas, blawaS brecende beahrtma inaeste, weccaS and woniaS woruld mid storme, fyllaS mid feore foldan jesceafte, and still further by allusions to the hot and dreadful fire se hata fyr Chr. 1063, hrynehatne leg Bi D. D. 51 , egesUc celed Ph. 522, the greedy devouring flames se gifra gcest Chr. 973, 814, glfre glede Chr. 1045, the angiy flames gleda . . . retira 21 bronda Bi D. D. 13, hibende leg Chr. 976, which fiercely seize and swallow up hal heorogifre Chr. 977, grcefet) grimlice Chr. 1004, gifre forgripet5, grmdig stvelgeti Ph. 507, the treasures of earth londes frcetrve Ph. 508 , like an angry warrior rveallende iviga Chr. 985 or a fire-dragon or some other fierce monster, as it were, in search of prey georne aseceb innan and utan eorban scealas Chr. 1004 f And not only are all earth and air filled with these rag- ing flames, but even the sea does not escape; all sea-animals perish and, strange as the contradiction seems, water burns like wax! Chr. 986 ff. tonne on fyrbaSe swelai-)' spefiscas sundes getwaefde: wsejdeora gehwylc werig sweltet5; byrneS wseter swa weax. The poet graphically sums up this destruction of earth and air and heaven: Chr. ;)65 ff. ]?onne eall )?reo on efen nimeS won fyres waelm wide tosonme se swearta lij: spes mid hyra fiscnm, eort5an mid hire beorgum and upheofon torhtne mid his tunjlum; teonleg somod }?ry?5um baernet5 j^reo eal on an jrimme tojsedre: Grand as this picture is, it becomes still more vivid and awful when we notice the details of the poets' account of the destroying eifects of this fiery flood. Cynewulf especially dwells with peculiar delight on this subject. His rich fancy found in it a worthy theme, and knowing well how to use details to increase the effect, he has painted a picture without a parallel in Ags. poetry. Thus cities and castles fall in ruins hreosab geneahhe tohrocene burgtveallas Chr. 977, hurgstede her- stati Chr. 811, mountains melt heorgas gemeltat) Chr. 978, and fall pa duna dreosa<3 and hreosati Be D. D. 99, the doors of the graves bend and melt heorga hlida hugat5 and myllat) Be D. D. 101, the tall cM's of the sea-shore heah cleofa Chr. 979, that have defied the storms of ocean fceste ivib flodum, slit) and stoidfcest stat)elas 7vi(5 tvcege and protected the earth fol- dan scehdun against the surging waves rvwtre windendum Chr. 980 ff. melt away under the all-consuming fire. 22 All animals, too, wihta gehwijlce Chr. 982 of earth or air or sea, beasts and birds deora and fu^la Chr. 983 and fish scefiscas, tvcegdeora gehwylc Chr. 987 f. perish swelab, rverig swelled Chr. 987 f. in this deadly fire dea(5lei Chr. 983. Then, true to his Ags. nature, the poet does not fail to remember the trasures of earth, the inherited riches of kings; alas! the golden rewards of generous princes in the mead-hall are swallowed up in the fire: Chr. 808 f. ]7onne frsetwe sculon byrnan on baele: Chr. 996 f. and joldfraetwe jleda forswelja'5, eall ferjestreon eSelcyninga. Chr. 812 ff. Brond biS on tyhte. 8eleS ealdjestreon unmurnlice jaesta jifrast, ]'8et jeo guinan heoldan, Ph. 504 ff. I^onne fir briceS Isene londwelan, lij eal I'igetJ eort5an sehtjestreou, aepplede jold gifre forjripeS, graedij swelgeS londes frsetwe. In short the fire pcet fyr Chr, 1003, hyrnende lig Bi D. D. 12 fiercely seizes grcefeb ^rimlice everything nimet) burh fol- dan gehvcet Chr, 1003 f., the whole sinful world burns up in shame peos woruld scyldwyrcende in scome hyrneti Ph. 501 f. and with it all the bright creation beorhte gesceafte Bi D. D. 12. And again this fiery flood is, in the poets, not only the greedy, merciless destroyer, but also the purifier. It lays hold of earth and animals to destroy them, of men to chasten and cleanse them, to melt away their sin. This idea of the cleans- ing power of the flames of Judgment frequently recurs. Thus the terrible fire e-^eslic celed is felt by many hat bit) monegum Ph. 521 and bitterly burns the poor souls hiterlice hcernb pa earman sawla Be D. D. 116; it tries the souls of men in the presence of the Eternal Judge Chr. 1059 ff. |?onne bryne costat) hat and heorujifre, hu jehealdne sind sawle wi5 synnum fore sijedeman. Men in crowds wander up and down in the fire: Chr. 987 ff. tser msejen werje monna cynnes wornum hweorfaS on widne leg, l?a jjaer cwice meteS cwelmende fyr, sumo up snrae niSer seldes fiille. 23 Still more detailed is the description in El. 1285— 1301, where men are divided into three parts on preo in the flames m fyres feng. Uppermost yfemest in patn ade are the righteous sobfceste, who suifer hut little, in the middle in pam midle the sinful synfuUe, who are thus punished, but may yet be purified and saved. Lowest down are the vile sinners awyrgede rvom- scea(5an for whom there is no salvation. While the last are forever lost, the others are cleansed from sin as gold is refined from dross in the furnace: El. 1307 ff. hie asodene beo5, asimdrod fram synnum swa smsete jold, J78et in wylme bit5 womma gehwylces |mrh ofnes fyr eall jeclsensod amered and jemylted: swa bi3 p'ara manna selc ascyred and asceaden scylda jewylcre, deopra fireua jjurh |:'ses domes fyr. In Ph. this purification is expressed in very similar terms: Ph. 544 f, Beo6 J^onne amerede monna gsestas, beobrte abywde J^urh bryne fyres. This fire swearia leg Chr. 995, celdes leoma Chr. 1006 burns away the sins of the wicked seot5eb synne on fordonum Chr. 995 and all the crime celeh uncyste Ph. 526 and foul deeds of shame on earth rvoruldwidles worn Chr. 1007. And not by fire alone is the destruction of the world to be acomplished; a migthy earthquake shall shake all nature hcofa^ eal heorlile gesceaft Bi D. D. 58, earth shall tremble under afrighted man heofab middangeard hruse under hceletium Chr. 882 f , eale eorbe bifab Be D. D. 99, the plains sink away n-ongas hrcosat) Chr. 811, cities fall in ruins hurgstede her stab Chr. 812. mountains are overturned eac swa pa duna dreosab and hreosab Be D. D. 99 f , in the uttermost parts of the earth the shock is felt pas fniclan gemelu middangeardes beofiab pomie Chr. 827, heaven itself is in commotion rodor bib 07ihrered Chr. 826, heaven and earth shall rush together at Judgment Day before one of his words shall come to naught: An. 1435 ff. 'so5 l^set secySeS 'msenig oet meSle on ]'am myclan dseje, ']?8et l^aet jeweorSet), j^set j^eos wlitije jesceaft, 'heofon and eorSe hreosaS tojadore, 'ser awpejed sie worda ^nij, '|?e ic ]nwh minno iiiiiS mceilan onjinno. 24 Such awful commotion is naturally accompanied by great noise, and to this the poets make frequent reference. Thus bi heofonwoman Chr. 835, 999. This heofonwoma, translated rather indefinitely 'Ilimmelsschrecken' by Grein, seems to mean pri- marily 'noise/, 'tumult' and is defined by Bosworth-Toller to be in this passage 'the sound heard at the day of judgment'. Heaven above shall resound dynet5 upheofon Bi D. D. 59, dyne't) deop gesceaft Chr. 931 (dynian^ from dyne, 'a din', 'a noise' = to make a noise). Compare also the expressions doomsday's din domd(Eges dyn SS. 545, domes dceges dyn SS. 650. The archangel's trumpet sounds out loud Mud Chr. 949 over the earth geond sidne grund Chr. 948 and on seven sides and on seofon healfa great, rushing winds roar with loud noise swogab windas, hlawatS hrecende heahrtma'^ mceste Chr. 951, a crashing storm }jcet ^estun and se storm and seo stron-ge lyft breaks up the broad creation bt^ecati brade gesceaft Chr. 992. This word gestun from stunian = 'to stun' is very expressive of the noise so great that it stuns man to listen. Terrible noise heard ge- brec, swegdtjnna mcest Chr. 954, loud without measure hlud un- moite, swar and swiblic Chr. 955, frightens mankind celdu?n eieslic eawed rveor^e^ Chr. 956, the greatest din dinna mcest hlud gehyred attends the coming of Christ in the clouds ponne hmlend cymet), rvaldend mid rvolcyium in pas woruld foit^eb: CS. 606 ff. The sea also takes part in the general uproar; men's hearts are sore afraid: BeD. D. 102f. and se egeslica swej imgedryre sses eall inanna mod miclum jedrefec^ Bi D. D. 38 f. ne bl3 ]^onne on jnsse worulde nymSe waetres swcg and frecne grimmeS fisces eSel And not only do earth and air and ocean meet so fearful a fate, but even heaven itself is included in the general con- fusion and destruction. As we have seen, the heavens burst heofonas berstatS Chr. 933, heaven and earth will rush together heofon and eort5e hreosab to^adore An. 1438, the glittering stars irume a7id torhte tungol shall fall ofhreosab Chr. 934, stedelease 1 Groschopp-Grein and Baskervill-Harrison give only dynnan, Bos- wortli-ToUer only dynian. ^ Doubtless a misprint for bearhtma. B.-T. gives only bearhtm not beahrtm. 25 sleorran hreosati Be D. D. 107, hrcosa(5 heofonstcorran Chr. 1044. Still more vivid is the picture of the stars, torn from their places and scattered far and wide by the storm: Chr. 940 f. and steorrau swa some stredaS of heofone |mrh )'a stronjan lyft storraura abeatne. The passage Met. 29. 39—41 also implies that the stars will fall on Judgment Day, though not before: Ne ]?earft \>\\ wenan j^set ]?a wlitijan tunjl )78es }?eowdomes afroten weort5e 8er domesdseje. The sun shall be darkened and turned to blood: Chr. 935 ff. }7onne weor5et5 simne sweart jewended on blodes hiw, seo ]>q beorhte scan ofer serworuld selda bearnum; BeD. D. 108. And seo siinne forswyrcS, sona on morjen. Likewise the moon, 'that once lit up the night for man' shall fall and be darkened till she 'has naught of any might that she the night clouds may disperse': Chr. 938 f. mona j^set sylfe, |?e ser raoncynne nihtes lyhte, niSe gehreoseS BeD.D. 109f. ne se mona nsefS nanre mihte wiht ]?aet he ]?sere nihte genipu mseje flecjan. The 'greater and lesser lights' of heaven are thus extinguished and darkness, so terrible in danger, covers all things: BeD.D. 104 ff. eal biS eac upheofon sweart and jesworcen, swiSe jewuxaS deorc and dim hiw and dolma sweart. The poems sums it all up by saying: Chr. !)89 f. taer biS wundra ma, I'onne hit senij on mode mseje a]?encan. Imposing as these pictures already are, the poets seek to make them still more impressive, to bring the scene still closer home to the reader, by describing the effect, on the minds of men, of these convulsions of nature. Cynewulf describes at length the terror and bitter lamentation of men in this dread- ful hour. The risen dead are terrified forht afwred Ph. 525, forht on ferhtie Ph. 503, the terrible noise of the sea affrights all men call manna mod miclum gedrefet) Be D. D. 103; great terror, that seizes the whole multitude peodcgsa Chr. 834, noise and tumult cirm and cwicra ge?iHnn Chr. 998, cwaniendra cirm Chr. 836, frantic rushing hither and thither earmlic celda ge- 26 drea^ Chr. 1000, wailing cearu, gehreow and loud weeping hlud wop Chr. 999 are heard hlud lehyred Chr, 835 and seen on every hand. All mankind Adames cynn Chr. 961, bowed down with sorrow leode zeomre Chr. 963, cearena full Chr. 962, heane hyge'^eomre hreowum ^edreahte Chr. 994 shall wail gretat) Chr. 992 and weep over their lot wepati wanende rvergum sfefnum Chr. 993 in this hour of trial fore pam mcestan mce'genearfet^um Chr. 964. Great multitudes, rich and poor, kings and people, lament with bitter, but unavailing repentance their lives of sin : Chr. 890 ff. tser inon msej sorjende folc jehyran hj-jegeomor hearde jefysed cearum cwiSende cwicra jewyrhtu, forhte afaerde. BeD.D. 158ff. )?onne fela msejSa folca unrim heora synnijan breost swiSlice beataS forhte mid fyste for fyrenlustum ]?aer beo6 f'earfan and f'eodcyninjas earm and eadig ealle beoS afaered. In short, as the poet tersely puts it: Bi D. D. 44 f. Ne msej gryre mare geweor^an sefter worulde and se biS wide cuS. The basis of all these features in the conception of the destruction of the world is clearly Bible teaching. Though some of the details are not strictly scriptural, the poets found the outlines of their pictures already drawn by Christ and the apostles. In addition to the fundamental scripture doctrine that the world is to be destroyed at Judgment Day, there are direct Bible references, though usually in very general terms, to all the 'signs and wonders' just mentioned. Without citing many passages we may note very briefly some of these. Thus fire is to melt the elements with fervent heat and burn up the world and all its works (2 Pet. 3. 10), is to attend the coming of Christ (2 Thes. 1. 7); the heavens being on fire shall be dis- solved (2 Pet. 3. 12); heaven, earth and sea shall be destroyed (Rev. 21. 1). Passages like 2 Pet. 3. 6 £, Matt. 24, 37—39 may have given the hint for comparing the fires of Judgment to a second flood, covering the earth; these same fires shall also test the works of men, shall chasten and cleanse from sin (1 Cor. 3. 12—15). The powers of heaven are shaken (Matt. 24. 29, Isaiah 13. 13, Luke 21. 26, Joel 2. 10), the heavens shall 27 pass away with great noise (2 Pet. 3. 10), there shall be a great earthquake (Joel 2. 10, Rev. 6. 12; 16. 18), cities shall fall (Rev. 16. 19), mountains be moved (Rev. 6. 14; 16. 20), sea-animals destroyed, waters dried up (Rev. 8. 7 ff.); the sun shall be darkened (Joel 2. 10, 30, Matt. 24. 29, Mark 13. 24), the moon shall not give her light (Matt. 24. 29, Joel 2. 10), shall become as blood Rev. 6. 12, Joel 2. 30), the stars shall fall (Matt. 24. 29, Mark 13. 25), shall withdraw their shining (Joel 2. 10); the sea roars (Luke 21. 25), all nations are in distress and men's hearts fail them for fear (Luke 21. 25, 26); all tribes of the earth shall mourn (Matt. 24. 30). But to the Ags. mind these bare outlines and simple state- ments were not enough. The poets evidently thought them too meagre for their purposes and therefore expanded them into long descriptions, adding many details. Some of the latter, not so emphasized in the Bible, are doubtless due to the Church Fathers and were at that time accepted as current christian belief. Thus Augustine (De civitate Dei 20) and after him Bede (De temporum ratione 70) taught the purifying power of the fires of Judgment. As proof that this doctine was well known and lived on we may note that /Elfric calls the fires of the burning world the penal fire witniendlic fyr and teaches ^ that 'p(Bt fyr ( — l?8et fyr on domes dfege) ne derab pam ^odum, Peak &^x monij beo5 on jemot laeded fore ousyne eces deman. Ph. 491 f. tonne mon^e beoS on jeuiot Iseded fyra cynnes: The emphasis laid on the idea that this Judgment is to extend over all mankind is evident from the frequent use of terms like wglm-ylc, anra gehtvylc, folc anra gehivylc El. 1287, Chr. 1020,1219, reordherendra El. 1281, fyra cynnes Ph. 534, eall mamia cynn Be D. D. 19, moncynnes lehwone Chr. 1027, Adames cynn Chr. 961, 1028, Adames hearn Bi D. D. 101, Adames cnosl Be D. D. 129. To make the picture more imposing, the poets like to refer to the vast crowds assembled for judgment, mcegenfolc micel Chr. 877, weredum Chr. 1011, weoroda mcesi Chr. 1070, WA^iele hweorfa'i), preatum pringat^ Ph. 500, and even resort to such enumerations as the following: Be D.D. 129 if. Eall Adames cnosl eorSbuendra, l^e on foldan wearS fedeud' sefre, o5Se modar gebfer to luanlican, oS5e ]7a J^e waerou, oSSe woldon beon o65e to-wearde jeteald wseron awiht. Chr. 1()G7 flf. folcdryht wera biforan bonnaS sawla jehwylce, I'ara ]?e si3 oSSe ser on lichoiuau leoSum onfenjen. This Last Judgment is to include good as well as evil: the prince of nobles cet^elinia ord judges all men eullum Chr. 846, peoda gehwylcre Chr. 848, good and evil leofum ge lat5um ^ Brand), Anglia IV. 103, suggests fcded. Cf. also ^efeded in similar connection in Wulfstan's XXIX homily, printed by Napier, Wulfstan p. 130ff. 3* 36 Chr. 847; every man anra gekwylc Ph. 522, good and evil so^- fcbst ^e synni^ Ph. 523 must come to Judgment secet5 meotudes dom Ph. 524. This conception is also evident in the account of the separation of good and evil CS. 609 f., SB. 148, Chr. 1222 etc., as well as throughout the speeches of Christ to them Chr. 1338 ff., 1864 ff. Here again, as in the description of the burning world, the poets seek to make the scene more impressive by describing the effect of the situation on the individuals present. Thus all mankind fear VR. 110 f., 115, even the angels stand in awe and fear before the Judge Chr. 1015—1020. Especially the evil, unable to rely upon a life of good works, are in great terror: Chr. 836 ff. cearge reotaS fore onsyne eces dcnian, ]7a p'e hyra weorcum wace triiwiaS. CS. 622 f. beoS beofigende, hwonne Mm beam jodes deman wille ]?urh his daeda sped. In the rune-passage in Chr. the poet expresses personal fear: Chr. 797 f. tonne Cene cwaca?, gehyred cyninj niseSlan, rodera ryhtend sprecan ret5e word. No man 7ie mce^ peer ceniman Be D. D. 169 may be bold ge- dijrstig rvesan Be D. D. 170 in the presence of the Judge detnmi gehende, but terror runs through all ac ealle purh yrnt) oga cet- somne Be D. D. 171, men are apalled, transfixed with terror, turned to stone, as it were, stane gelicasl Be D. D. 173. Compare also in this connection the fine description in Chr. 1560 — 1572, and frequent warnings like: BeD.D. 122ff. Ic bidde, man, j^aet )ni gemunne hu micel biS se broga beforan domsetle drihtnes ]?onne. stent he heortleas and earh amasod and amarod mihtleas afgered. The poets' account of the judged is the Bible outline ex- panded and detailed in true Ags. style. Christian and scripture teaching based on passages like 2 Cor. 5. 10, Rom. 14. 10, Rev. 20. 12, Matt. 25. 31 f. etc. is the source of their conceptions. 3. Man's Deeds made known. The Eternal Judge seated on His throne, the peoples of earth assembled fearful and anxious around Him, the real pro- 37 cess of Jiulgraent begins. Men are called upon to give an account of their lives and deeds on earth. One passage w^ould indicate that this is directly, by name: Chr. 1073 If. neode and nyde bi noman gehatnc, beraS breosta liord fore beam godes, feorcs frpetwe. Otherwise we are told simply that every man must and does make known his deeds: BeD.D. 75if. ]?a aua scealt gyldan scad wordum wiS scyppend god and Y^m rican frean rilit ajyldan. SB. 92 if. I'onne wyle dryhten sylf dseda gehyran hseleSa jehwylces, lieofena scippend, set ealra manna jehwjes miiSes reorde, wunde wi5erlean. Ac hwset wylt ]ni j^aer on )'am doradpeje dryhtue secjanV All man's words and works even the thoughts of his heart are revealed to the king of heaven: Chr. 1037 ff. sceal on leoht cuman sinra weorca wlite and worda gemynd and heorta jehygd fore heofona cyninj. All that ever happened, good or bad: BiD.D. 106ff. eal swyke under lieofonum jewearS hates and cealdes, jodcs o(5Se yflcs: jeorne jehyreS heofoncyninja hyhst hseleSa dsede. It is made known tionne bib gecybed who have lived in un- cleanness hwa unclcenisse lif alifdc Bi D. D. 62, Christ also knows all good deeds Crisl ealle mat gode dcede Bi D. D. 69, and the sins of the evil are seen through their bodies as through glass p(et mon ybast mmg eall purliwlitan Chr. 1284. No unrepented sin worn unheted can be concealed tiwnig bi- helan mce^, the whole multitude sees \i peer hit pa weorud ge- seob Chr. 1311 f Interesting for peculiar and exhaustive detail are the following: BeD.D. 134 ff. Donne eallum beoS ealra jesweotolude digle jeSancas on l^sere daegtide, eal f'set sec heorte hearmes jeSohte, o?55e seo timje to teonan jeclypede, o86e mannes hand manes gcfremede, on ]?ystrum scr?efum ]?inja on eorSan, eal )?fBt hwsene sceamode scylda on worulde p'set be senigum men ypte oSSe cyt5de; 38 )?onne biS eallum opeu setsomne jelice alyfed ]?8et man lanje hael; Chr. 1046 if. Opene weorSaS ofer middangeard monna daede: ne majon bord weras beortan 2e]?obtas fore waldende wibte bemiSan; ne sindon bim dseda dyrne, ac tJser bi(5 drihtne cut5 on I'am miclan .daege, hu monna gebwylc aer earnode eces lifes, and eall andweard, ]^aet hi ser oSSe sit5 worbtun in worulde. Ne biS j^ser wibt forbolen monna gebyjda, ac se ma^ra daej breSerlocena bord, beortan gej'ohtas ealle aetyweS: Having told us that all deeds must and will be made known the poets add that every deed, small or great, good or evil, must be judged. Thus Christ shall return to earth and judge pomie gedeman every deed dceda gehwylce that men ever did on earth para pe -gefremedon folc under roderum Chr. 525 f., every man beam ^eluvylc shall have recompense leanes fric^an for everything he ever did ealles pees pe we on eor(5an cer ge- worhton good or evil godes o(5^e yfles Bi D. D. 40 if. There is nothing so small, that we must not specially and separately give account for it: j SB. 97 ff. |?onne ne biS nan na to }?pes lytel liS on lime aweaxen, f'set I'll ne scyle for anra jebwylcum onsundrum riht agildan, j^onne reSe biS dryhten aet j^am dome. Every idle word and deed shall have its reward: El. 1280 ff. Sceall aijbwylc S^er reordberendra ribt gehyran dseda jehwylcra ]7urb I'tes deman muS and worda swa same wed jesyllan, eallra unsnyttro ser ^esprecenra, Iristra je]?onca. For this conception again we have simply Bible teaching as the basis. The scripture account is followed closely. Com- pare passages like Rom. 14. 12, 1 Cor. 3, 13. There is nothing hid that shall not be made known Luke 12. 2 f., Matt. 10. 26, Luke 8. 17. God judges the secrets of men's hearts and lives Rom. 2. 16, 1 Cor. 4. 5. Every idle word that men shall speak 39 is jiulged Matt. 12. 30 and even a cup of cold water has its reward Matt. 10. 42. The poets descriptions are strictly biblical, with the usual expanding details. 4. The Basis of Judgment. The measure of man's future reward or punishment in this final Judgment depends, now, in the poets, first and naturally, from what as just been said, on man's previous good or evil life on earth. Man shall be rewarded or punished 'according to his works'. This is the poets' constant teaching. Thus ac- cording to deeds he dcedum Be D. D. 121, cefter dwdum Chr. 803, by former deeds be m-dcedum Be D. D. 96, by deeds done on earth by mandcedum on eor<)an Be D. D. 16, according to works bi gewyrhtum Chr. 1220. 1367, purh cergejvyrht El. 1301, and then, still more definitely, men's doom is decided hi^ gcesta dom fore gode sceaden Chr. 1233 by their lives on earth siva hi gemorliton cer Chr. 1234, as they have deserved swa he him cerur her . . . geearno<5 in this earthly life on pyssum Icenan life El. 1282 f., according to deeds done in the body siva . . on worulde (Br efne peel eorbfwt cer geworhte SB. 7 f., siva ive wide- feorh weorcum hlodun geond sidne grund Chr. 784. The sinful life of the wicked involves shame on the great day scealt .... scea?ne protvian on pam miclan dcege SB. 50 and corresponding punishment thereafter: SB. 102 f. sculou wit ]?oiine eft ;Btsomne siSSan brucan swylcra yrrnSa, swa ]?a unc her aer scrife! while the righteous life SB. 145 ff. is no cause for shame pu ne pearft sceamian v. 148, or anxiety pcet pu ne sorgode v. 159, but is rewarded in heaven: SB. 161 f. Moton wyt }?onne setsomne sySSan brucan and unc on heofonum heahj^unjene beon: The poets like to call attention to the glorious reward of works wuldorlean weorca Chr. 1080, of victory sigorlean Chr. 1590, etc., and to remind and warn us how severely evil deeds will be punished. Compare passages like Chr. 828 — 832 , the wrablic andlean in store for eargum dcedum, and Be D. D. 92 f , the terrible punishment hu micel is pcet wite of the wicked pe para earmra byt5 for their deeds for cerdcedam. Future reward or punishment depends, too, on man's deeds, 40 especially in so far as these are iu direct obedience or dis- obedience to the law and express command of God. The poets strongly emphasize this point. Thus God gives a glorious re- ward wuldrcs lean Chr. 1588 to those who have obeyed Him pam pe him on g(estum ^eonie hyrat) Chr. 1591. The evil on the contrary have broken the law Hy brcecon cynin^es word, beorht boca bibod Chr. 16o0. f. and must suffer: Chr. 1631 ff. for Son liy abidan sceolon in siunilite sar endelcas firendaedum fa forS Jrowian. They have often scorned God's holy precept he gehyi-web ful ofi halgc tare Bi D. D. 70 and may have no hope of heaven no pees gilpan pearf . . . peel hyre sie s?vegl ongean Bi D. D. 68. The poet fears Judgment because he has not kept God's law: Chr. 782 f. )7a ic ne heold tcala, ]?8et me hgelend min on bocum bibead: the good who have kept the law Chr. 1350 — 1360 shall be rewarded : Chr. 1361 f. p'aes ge fsegre sceolon loan mid leofum lange brucan. while the evil, who have broken the law earge ge peel Imslun Chr. 1503 ff. must suffer sceolan hearde adreogan eternal punish- ment with devils tvile lo widan ealdre, wreec mid dco/him Chr. 1514 f. But not upon man's deeds alone, nor entirely upon his obedience or disobedience to the law of God does his future reward or punishment depend. Cynewulf lays especial emphasis also upon man's relation to Christ, man's acceptance or rejection of Him as the Savior, his gratitude or ingratitude for the won- derful love and sacrifice in the atonement. Thus with His death Chr. 1094 f , He bought life for man he leoflice ceapode Chr. 1096 and redeemed him alysde Chr. 1100 from sin lysde of firenum Chr. 1209. He was a beggar on earth Ic wces on rvoruld weedla Chr. 1496 that man might be rich in heaven pcet fm wurde welig on heofonum, He was poor and needy on earth earm ic wees on e<5le pinum v. 1497 that man might be happy in the home above pcet pu wurde eadig on minum v. 1497. All this the poet contrasts with the ingratitude of man: Chr. 1092 f. l>onc jode wom-wyrcende wita ne ciiSun. 41 Chr. 1213 f. liy fws eSles j^onc hyra waldende wita no cui^on. Chr. 1473 f. wiirde ]>n l?3es gewitleas, ]>sit j^ii waldende |nnre alysnesse Iponc no wlsses. In the descriptiou of the crucifixion he tells us Chr. 1129 — 87 how all lifeless nature in earth and heaven bewailed the sufferings and death of Christ and startles us with the terrible fact that man alone would not acknowledge the Savior: Chr. 1187 ff. Leode ne ciiSau modblinde men meotud oncnawan flintiim hcardran, )^a3t lii frca nerudc frani liellcwalc haljum mealitum. An interestiug feature in two of the poems Chr. 1065 f., 1082 — 90, Bi D. D. 105 is the cross, red with the Redeemer's blood, uplifted in Judgment as silent, but solemn testimony of man's ingratitude, and still stronger evidence are the wounds of Christ himself, inflicted by those he came to save and now mute witnesses against them Chr, 1102 — 1110. But the day of eternal reckoning has come and He will exact an awful recompense. Chr. 1100 ]?0es he eftlean wile )?urh eorneste ealles jemonian Chr. 1477 f. ac forjield me p'm lif, l^ses ]>e ic in ]?e min ]7urh woruldwite weorS jesealde: These Ags. doctrines that man's final reward or punish- ment depends on his own deeds, on his obedience or dis- obedience to God's law, on his belief or disbelief in Christ are all thoroughly biblical. The importance attached by the poets to the acceptance of Christ and the atonement finds its parallel throughout the New Testament (John 3. 36, 5. 24, 12. 48, Luke 12. 8, 9); it is the great commandment 1 John 3. 23, the grandest of all the 'works' of men John 6. 28 f., as in the poets, the all important condition of eternal reward. But not the only con- dition, so to speak. It does not exclude the fact that men shall be judged according to their works, which is also taught in terms very similar to those in the poets. Matt. 16. 27, 2 Cor. 5. 10, Rom. 2. 6, Rev. 20. 12, 13; 22. 12. Cynewulfs detailed mention of the poor, hungry, naked, sick and sorrowful Chr. 1350 — 1361, 1500 — 1514 is in close accord with the Bible account, Matt. 25. 35, 40, 42 ff. 42 That the cross shall be erected and Christ shall show His wounds as testimony against the wicked, though not in the Bible, is probably an old conception and not original with Cynewulf. It occurs in Muspilli and a number of other old German poems, cited by Miillenhoff.i The cross appears also, as vexillum, in an old Latin poem cited by Ebert^ and published by Boucherie^ as Hymne Abecedaire contre les Anti- trinitaires. B. assigns it at the latest to the 7"^ century and Ebert puts it 'friihestens in den Anfang der Karolingischen Zeit'. In this the cross appears as vexillum before Christ, shining fulgebit v. 123 instead of the sun and moon tecttsque lummaribus duobus principalibus v. 124. Compare also In caelo summi tropheum tunc fulgebit iudicis in strophe 21 of the poem De Enoch et EUa^, in the passage describing the return of Christ to judge the world. 5. The Good and Evil Separated. The final account having been rendered and the decision made on the basis just mentioned, the good and evil are now separated, to the right and left, to receive their sentence. CS. 609 f. wile iJonne jescearian wlitije and imclsene on twa bealfe, tile and yfle. SB. 148 f. I^onne sceadene beoS ]7a synfullan and j^a soSfaestan on l>aem mseran daeje, Be D. D. li)f. and hu mihtij frea eall manna cynn todseleS and todemeS. The good pa so^fcestan CS. 611, pa clcenan folc gecorene bi cysium Chr. 1222 if. are separated to the right hand of Christ Him .... on pa swi^ran Jiond CS. 611, on pa swi(5ran hond Criste sylfum Chr. 1222 f. The evil on the contrary to the left on pcet rvynstre weorud tvyrs gesceaden Bi D. D. 75. Chr. 122(3 If. ond }?3er womsceaSan on Jjone wyrsan dael fore scyppende scyrede weorSaS, • Miillenhotf und Scherer, Denkmiiler p. 272. 2 Allgem. Geschichte der Lit. 3. 163. 3 Revue des Langues romanes VII. 15 ff. * Ebert's Allgem, Geschichte der Lit. 3. 163. "43 luiteS him jewitiui on j^a winstran bond sijora soScyning synfulra weorud, In pronouncing- the sentence Christ turns to the evil to pam yflum on His left pe him bn) on pa n-ynstran hond Chr. 1364. Cynewulf then gives us, somewhat in detail Chr. 1235—1301 three points of distinction between the good and evil, indicating thereby the condition and feelings of each. Of the good he says that (1) they shine before all men, their works brighter than the sun v. 1235—1242, (2) they realize and rejoice in their own salvation v. 1243—1247, (3) they see the evil suffer and are therefore grateful for their own reward v. 1247 — 1262. Of the evil we read that (1) they realize their sin and see before them their terrible, inevitable fate v. 1262—1272, (2) they know others see their sin and are ashamed v. 1273 — 1284, (3) they see the happiness of the righteous, which increases their own suffering v. 1285 — 1301. The poets give us also other vivid pictures of the good and evil as they stand before the Eternal Judge. They know well, as we have seen in other connection also, how to heigh- ten the effect by details, to transport the reader, as it were, to the scene in question by describing its effect on those who are present there. The good are unspeakably happy in antic- ipation of their reward in heaven CS. 613, Chr. 1077 etc., while the evil, sad in mind, sari^fert^e Chr. 1083, full of fear and shame, trembling and terror-stricken egsa7i ge'breat Chr. 1564, at the thought of the doom they know is coming, expect no mercy arna ne wenab Chr. 1232, but bewail their lot and shed tears of bitter, but unavailing, repentance iearum geotab, ponne pees ticl ne hi^ Chr. 1567 in the agony of their despair. But alas it is too late ac hy lo sib dob gcpstum helpe Chr. 1568, God will not heed their weeping -giman nele ... hu pa wom- sceaban .... sare greten Chr. 1569 ff., no time is allowed them for repentance ne bib pcet sorga tid leodum ahjfed Chr. 1572, there is no hope of rescue Chr. 1573 ff. This separation of good and evil is based on passages like I\Iatt. 25. 32, 33; 13. 30, 49 etc. The comparison of the evil to goats is in strict accord with Matt. 25. 32 f. Of the signs distinguishing good and evil, we find in the Bible only one, viz: the righteous shine as the sun, Matt 13. 43, Dan, 12. 3. 44 6. The Sentence Pronounced. The crowds of good and evil, sei)arated from each other and realizing already their fate, stand, thus, before the Eternal Judge awaiting the final sentence. Of a process by which this all important decision is reached the poets, following the example of the Bible, say nothing. Men give an account of their deeds and we are told simply: Chr. 1233 f. Donne bi3 gaesta dom fore gode sceadeu wera cneorissum, swa hi geworhtun ser. The omniscient Judge, knowing the end from the beginning, naturally needs no deliberation to come to a decision. It only remains to proclaim the sentence, officially, as it were, giving it the sanction of Divine authority, to the waiting multitudes. This, then, is done by the Judge himself Jnirh pics dcman mut5 El. 1283. In loud and majestic voice He announces man's final doom: BID.D. lOOff. Nsefre mon )?aes hlude horn al^yteS ne byman ablawetJ, ]>mi ne sy seo beorhte stefn ofer ealne raiddangeard monmim hludre, waldendes word: wonjas beofiaS for ]?am serende ]?fet he to us eallum wat. Turning first to the good on the right, He blesses them with uplifted riglit hand and bids them welcome to the rest of heaven: CS. 615 ff. and heo geseuaS mid his swiSran hond cyninj ahvihta, cleopaS ofer ealle: '•5e sind wilciimau! jaS in wuldres leoht to heofoua rice, ]mer ge habbaS a to aldre ece reste. Cynewulf gives us a longer description Chr. 1337—1362. The high king of heaven heofona heahcynin^ turns to the good and bids them peace him frit5 heodei) v. 1341, bids them enter into the eternal joys of their heavenly home v. 1342 f. with the welcome word: Chr. 1345 ff. OnfoS nn mid freondum mines feeder rice, f'set eow wses ser woruldum wynlice jearo, bl«d mid blissum, beorht etiles wlite, j'onne ge )?a lifwelan mid }?am leofestum swase swejeldreamas jeseon mosten. Then follows, as in the Bible, an account of their kindness 45 and generosity to the poor, hungry, sick and naked, by which they have earned eamodon Chr. 1350 heaven and for which they shall be rewarded. Clir. 1361 f. l^aes je fejre sceolon lean mid leofiim lanje brncan. Turning then to the evil the Judge pronounces their sentence: CS. 020 ff. ac biS him reordiencle [rodera waldend] ece drihten ofer ealle gecwyS: 'AstijaS nil awjTjde in ]78et witeliiis 'ofestum miclnm, nu ic eow ne con. Cynewulf gives again a very detailed account, Chr. 13G3 — 1524. The Judge turns to the evil and, in righteous anger yri^inga v, 1373, proclaims their condemnation. He speaks to them sternly lat)um rvordum v. 1375 \ and they need not hope for mercy bib seo miccle mills afyrred v. 1371. Before pronouncing the sentence Christ recounts, as an earthly judge would also do, the crimes of the wicked and the evidence against them. He thus relates the Creation, the life and sin of man in Eden and reproaches them with ingratitude pu pees pone ne ?risses V. 1386 and disobedience to His commands: Clir. 1393 flf. I^a \>u lifes word leestan noldes, ac min bibod breece be jnnes bonan worde, faecnum feonde fnrOor hyrdes, sceSSendum sceaSan, l^onne f?inum scyppende. He then describes the banishment from Eden (1404 — 1414) and how, for love to His creatures. He came to earth to save them (1415 — 1420). Then follows an account of His birth (1420 ff.) and sacrifices for men on earth (1428 ff.) that man might escape punishment and have eternal life: Chr. 1420 lit". ic pe wolde cwalm afyrran, liat lielle-bealu, ]>set \>u. moste balig scinau eadig on ]7am ecan life: Then comes the crucifixion v. 1433 — 1460, the death He endured that man might live: Chr. 1461 ff. ic onfenj ym sar, ]?aet pvi moste gespelig mines eSelrices eadij neotau, and pe mine deaSe deore gebolite * Tliis righteous auger is a favorite theme. Cf. Be D. D. 17, 70, SB. 99 f., Chr. 152s f. 46 ["aet longe lif, \>xt ]ni on leobte si?55an wlitij womma leas wunian nioste. He reproaches niau with base ing-ratitude pinre alysnesse pone ne wisses v. 1474 and solemuly demands recompense: Cljr. 1477 f. ac forjield me ]'in lif, j'jes ]'c ic iu l^e inin jnirh woruldwite weor5 gesealde. Then follows a reproach for sin iu general v. 1481 — 1495 and for disobedience to God's law v. 1500 — 1513, Christ sums it all up: Cbr. 1513 ff. 'Eall je j^set me dydon ' to hynSum heofoncyninje ! I'ses je sceolan hearde adreojan 'wite to widan ealdre, wrsec mid deoflum jej^oliaii. and pronounces at last the awful sentence (much like the pas- sage iu CS. G2G ff.): Cbr. 1520 ff. 'Fara'S iiu awjTgde willum biscja'cde 'enjla dreames on ece fyr ')^£et waes Satane and bis gesiSum mid 'deofle jejearwad and )'a're deorcan scole 'bat and beorogrim: on j'ait je breosan sceolan. The closing verses of both these speeches, including the sentence, seem taken directly from the Bible; thus Chr. 1345 ff. from Matt. 25. 34, Chr. 1520 ff. from Matt. 25. 41. The references to the poor, hungry and naked Chr. 1350— 13G1, 1500—1513, differ slightly from the Bible account, but are probably due to Matt. 25. 35 — 40 and 42 — 45 where the reference also stands in direct connection with the sentence itself CS. 628 was probably suggested by passages like Matt. 7. 23, where, in the same connection, the same in substance is said. The long speech of Christ to the evil, though containing Bible doctrine has no parallel in Scripture. The idea of having Christ make such a speech may have been suggested by some Latin homily; may on the other hand have been original with Cynewulf. He thus gained another o])portunity to relate in summary the entire life, redeeming work and death of Christ, subjects he was loath to leave and which he thought could not be too much emphasized. 7. The Sentence Executed. The final sentence has been pronounced and must be executed. Of the good we are simply and briefly told that 47 they are led to heaven Ex. 544 ff. and, greeted by angels Chr. 1671 ff., enter into eternal rest. And then more in detail we read how the doom of the wicked, awful as it is, is also in- evitable. The Eternal Judge has spoken and there is no appeal. Repentance comes, bitter repentance, but it is too late (Chr. 1572); God's saving grace is removed from them (Chr. 1371), and they cannot avert their fate: Clir. 1525 ff. Ne magon hi f'onne gehynan heofoncyninjes bibod raedum birofene: sceolon raSe feallan on jrimne grimd, ]>a asr wiS gode wimnon. The Lord is angry with His foes rebe and meahli^, yrre and egesful Chr. 1528, none can withstand Him, but at the sweep of His sword of victory the wicked are banished forever from His presence into the place of eternal torment: Clir. 1531 ff. Swape?) sigemece mid )^sere swiSran bond, ]?8et on I'aet deope dael deofol jefeallafi in sweartne leg. etc. And there is no delay in executing the sentence: CS. 630 ff. Sona sefter j'am wordum werijo gastas belle bseftas bwyrftum scri(5a6" ]nisendm:ieliim and j'ider IsedaS in }>8et sceaSena scrsef etc. Then, as Cynewulf tells us, by the power of God, the Holy Ghost locks the doors of hell and the wicked are cut off forever from the presence and mere}' of God. Cbr. 1G24 ft', bonne balij gaest belle bilucet), morSorbusa msest, j^urb meabt godes, fyres fulle and feonda bere cyninjes worde: Compare also SS. 347 f, where God commands hell to be locked up: SS, 347 f. bateC j^ionne beabcyninj belle betynan fyres fulle, and }^as feondas mid. The simple Bible doctrine that the evil shall go away into everlasting punishment and the righteous into life eternal Matt. 25. 4(3 etc. is thus presented in true Ags. detail. Some passages, Chr. 1531 for instance, show a tinge of Ags. color, in harmony with their Germanic notions of the Judge. The idea of Chr. 1624 probably grew out of the conception of hell as a prison (see below), which must necessarily be locked when the criminals are in it. 48 Chapter III. The Results of Judgment. Judgment Day is over, the filial sentence has been pro- nounced and man has been assigned to eternal states of reward and punishment in heaven and hell. An exhaustive discus- sion of the Ags. conceptions of these vrould be out of place here and yet they are so interwoven into the poets descrip- tions of Judgment Day, that we may not omit them entirely. A short account, then, of the poets' heaven and hell considered as results of Judgment, an inquiry into what constitutes the reward bestowed and the punishment inflicted by the Eternal Judge may engage us here. The examination will be based mainly on passages more or less closely connected with the general subject of Judgment, others being cited only to supple- ment or explain these. 1. Hell and Eternal Punishment. Taking up first the fate of the wicked, we may ask what and where is the hell to which they are banished and in what do its torments consist. The generic word for hell in our poets is hel, originally, according to Kemble ' 'the name of the Teutonic mistress of the cold and joyless under-world', who received the souls of the dead, good and bad. Losing its personal significance almost entirely, the word came to mean the dark and cheer- less realm of the goddess, the place of departed spirits. The hell of our poets, however, the place of eternal punishment, does not correspond to this realm of Hel, but is a union of it with other and very different conceptions, both christian and heathen, which in the poets find expression in a number of terrible pictures. Thus hell is a deep abyss or gulf zmnd or hellegrund into which the wicked are thrown in hellegrwid El. 1304. They cannot avert the final sentence but fall into the horrible abyss 1 Saxons in England I, p. 392, and before him Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie p. 288. 49 sceolon ratie feallan on grimne ^rii)id Clir. 1526; directly after the sentence sona ccfler Jmwi rvordum CS. 630 they are driven by thousands to ^runde, where they must endure imprisonment in the cold abyss caldan grund CS. 636. These depths swallow u]) God's enemies gi-nndas swelgab godes andsacan Chr. 1594. There is the abyss of hell ac pa^r is hetle^rund Bi D. D. 24; the fire is in the depths on grunde Be D. D. 188. Compare also CS. 31, 91 where the angels are hurled into the dark abyss in pone neowlan grund, into the grim depths grmme grundds CS. 260, Gen. 407 and the references pone hiteran grund CS. 149, to grunde CS. 269, hatne grund CS. 485, sushi grund El. 943. The same general conception is indicated also: by the use of scrcef = a pit or gulf. The souls shall burn and wander byrnat) and yniu^ in the dark pit or cave 071 hlindum scrcefe Be. D. D. 230, the wicked are driven in crowds into the den or pit of criminals in peel sceatiena scrcef CS. 633. Compare also Satan's banishment into the pit of tor- ment in poet witescrcef CS. 691, pcet latie scrcef CS. 727, the devils take up their abode in the horrible pit pcet alole scrcef CS. 26, 73, 129, pis hate scrcef CS. 419, the pit of all evils cce scrcef yfela gehrvylces Ex. 537. by the use of dcel = a gult or den. The condemned fall into the deep gulf on pmt deope dcel Chr. 1532, so the fallen angels on pas deopan dalo Gen. 421, the evil suffer in pmt hate dcid Chr. 1542. Compare also the deep abyss se deopa sea^ Chr. 1545. These depths of hell are also pictured as a place of con- finement, a prison, provided often with bolts and bars like an earthly prison. Thus the Holy Ghost locks up hell hci/ig gcest helle biluceb Chr. 1624, the good are at the same time locked out hi(5 him hsl hilocen Chr. 1260. Hell is called directly a guard-house, a prison (custodia, career) on cweartern Be D. D. 216. The evil endure bondage and prison clom and carcern CS. 637 {carcernes clom prowade CS. 490), are confined in fire under li^es locan Chr. 1621 and may yet never loose their cold fetters ne mceg over losian caldan clommum Chr. 1629. They must give their limbs to be bound and burned hy leomn rcecat) to hindenne and to hcerenne Chr, 1622. In the descriptions of 4 50 Satan and the fallen angels, we have the same idea. Satan himself is laid in fetters damme helegde An. 119, must abide in bonds hidan in bendim CS. 49, bound fast feste gebimdne CS. 57, 103, 324 in iron bonds ac licgat5 me ymbe irenbendas Gen. 371 and hceft mid hrijiga gespanne Gen. 762, simon gescekd Gen. 765, m liotiobendum Gen. 382. In this same general sense hell is the prison -/- may be very expressive here of tlie great cold which pierces or penetrates like a spear. Though Grein con- siders the line corrupt and thinks ''gar fur die 'stechende' killte steht nicht ausser allem Bedenken^", he defines it as 'die schneidende kalte' and embodies the same idea in his translation 'und Frost furchtbar kalt, immer Feuer oder Frost'. The mention of the east wind as a torment of hell seems strange to us, but to the Ags., to the Northumbrian, perhaps, who had no doubt suffered much in life from the cold east wind it was an easy transition to make it one of the torments of hell. Winds are also mentioned elsewhere. Hell is, indeed, directly called the wind-hall rvindsele CS. 320, ivindiga sele CS. 136. Not only do we find in the poets' hell the contradictions of fire and water, heat and cold, but also that of fire and darkness. Instead of telling us that the surging flames lacende lig Chr. 1595 light up every thing with a lurid glare, the poets emphasize the fact that these fires burn with little or no light. It is the dark, bitter fire hlindum bileran ligum Be D. D. 241, stveartne leg Chr. 1533, se tvonna leg CS. 715 etc. And in other and more direct references the poets teach the eternal darkness of hell. Thus it is the gloomy home peosire ham CS. 38, dimman ham CS. Ill, 337, a dark dwelling-place heolstor hofu El. 763, pa mircan gesceafl Bi D. D. 26, the dark abyss blindum scrcef Be D. D. 320, veiled in eternal night sinnihte Chr. 1543, sinnihte beseald Gen. 42. The condemned > heo = the fallen angels = se feond mid his jeferum eallum. v. 306. - Bibl. d. ags. Poesie I, p. 10 foot-note; aud we may doubtless agree with him. 53 wander about in darkness helwyx forsworcenum swearlwn nihtum Be D. D. 198, on peoslre Clir. 1546; so, too, the devils pcostrum forpylmed El. 766 after having fallen into the dark- ness heohlor An. 1191, CS. 102, 280, 445. Indeed they are I black themselves hlace CS. 71, dim and dark CS. 105. Com- [ pare the pictures to the Caedmon MS., plates IV and XI, L where the devils get black as they fall into hell. We find also references to the swart hell swearian lielle Gen. 312, de- void of light leohtes leas Gen. 333, to the dark mists pas swear tan mistas Gen. 391, the smoke and darkness rccas Gen. 325, prosm and Pystro Gen. 326, Be D. D. 199. It thus has the darkness of fogs and mists as well as that of smoke, the darkness, therefore, resulting from both heat and cold. And then we are directly told in some fine passages that no little spark of light shines to the miserable: BeD.D. 2l8f. I'ser leohtes nc Icolit lytel sperca earmurn aenij. no glad light of day ever shines there: BiD. D. 19f. |?8er uyefre dseg scineS leohtc of lyfte, to disperse the shadows: CS. l()5f. ne her daej lyhteS for scedes sciman, sceppendes leoht. In accounts of the Judgment Day a few passages indicate the belief that hell, the place of the damned was filled with horrible filth and stench. Thus it is full of boiling pitch and vapor weallendes pices and prosmes Be D. D. 199, Satan measures how vast the black vapor is and hu sid se swarta et5m seo CS. 704. There is naught but fire and cold and loathsome filth Ui and cyle an(5 latilic fid Be. D. D. 205. Naught is smelled but 'immensity of stench'. BeD.D. 207 f. hy mid nosan ne niagon naht jeswseccan butan unstences ormsetnesse. This dark and filthy fire is also mixed with poison flor is on woelm atlre onceled CS. 39, flor atlre weol hat under hceftum CS. 319. These foul depths of hell are also peopled with monstrous beasts with deadly jaws and horrible serpents that wind around the naked bodies of men and gnaw their very bones 54 with fiery tusks. Thus the damned are tormented with fire and serpents fijr and ivijrm Ex. 536, the fallen angels with foul beasts with horns of iron atol deor monig irenwn hornum SS. 941 f.; bloody eagles and pale adders blodige earnas and hlace nceddran SS. 943 f., numberless worms, dragons and snakes wyrma preat, dracan ajid nceddran CS. 336, cruel ser- pents wrabum wijrmum Chr. 1548, with deadly jaws frecnum feorh^omum Chr. 1549 are found on every hand. Hell is in- deed directly called the hall of serpents wyrmsele Jud. 119, the hissing of snakes is heard nceddran sweg CS. 102, and tliese horrible monsters glide out of the half-liquid, poisonous filth and wind around the naked bodies of the sufferers, hnn- lum nacode men rvinnat5 ymhe rvyrmas CS. 135, tear them and gnaw their very bones with burning tusks: Be D.D.210f. and hy waeljrimme wyrmas slitat5 and heora ban jnagaS brynijura tuxhim. Dragons breathing fire guard the entrance: CS. 98 f. ece aet helle durii dracan eardijaS hate on hreSre: And, indeed, hell itself was conceived as a frightful monster — a very easy and natural transition in view of what has just been said. Adam calls it the black and greedy hell />« swear tan helle gra;dige and gifre Gen. 793, which might be heard raging from Paradise nu pu hie p^imman meaht heonane gchyran Gen. 794. Compare also the references on banan fcc(5me El. 766' and Whale 50—81, especially 76—81 where the whale is a type of hell, which catches sinful men in its terrible jaws, just as the whale gathers in small fish for food. See, too, the plates to the Csedmou MS. in Bouterwek's edition, where hell is represented as the distended jaws of a monster into which the rebellious angels are falling. Having thus drawn such frightful pictures of the horrors of hell, the poets might have left their readers to imagine the sufferings of the damned, but the opportunity of impressing these dreadful scenes was too good to be lost, and they cannot resist the temptation to add a few more strokes to their already horrible pictures and tell us again and again of ^ And Grein's note: „Die HuUe selbst ward als Drache gedacht" 5 K the physical and mental tortures of this eternal punishment. The immates of hell must endure grievous tortures c?vealma mcest Chr. 1G27, pearlic wite CS. 636, endless pain ece crveaUn Chr. 1541 and sorrow sar endeleas Chr. 1632, everlasting punishment ecan wltu Be D. D. 217, a multitude of torments wiles worn CS. 77, wiia unr'im Gen. 335 forever liearde wite to ealdre Chr. 1515, wretched penalties earmlice witu Be D. D. 189, the qualms of death deaticwale El. 765, swylt prowiab Chr. 1540, the bonds of torture wiles clom CS. 103, 157, 453, the terrible recompense of sin ?)iorbo?iean heard and heoro^rim Chr. 1613, terrible and vital evil ealdorhealu e^eslic Chr. 1615, torture susl CS. 40, 692, woe and torment 7vean and witu CS. 336, the greatest of all perils eallra frecna mceste Gen. 488. They are tormented by devils CS. 638 f., Be D. D. 203, are hurled into perdition in wila forwyrd El. 764, An. 1618, into the darkest and most terrible torments in pa sweartestan and pa wyrreslan witebro^an El. 930 f The distinctly physical pains also of hunger and thirst pirst and hungor SS. 945, fierce conflict pearle getvin SS. 946 lack of sleep a7id se earma flyht> uncrwftiga sla;p Be D. D. 239, toil geswinc Be D. D. 256, weariness cemelnys Be D. D. 260, sickness sivar leger Chr. 1663, disease and plague ne fefur nc adl age yld Be D. D. 255, yldo Ph. 614 etc, are directly brought out, in strong contrast to the joys of heaven, in passages like Chr. 1653 ff.. Be D. D. 255 ff.. Ph. 611 fif. The effect of these awful pictures is still further height- ened by the account of the mental agony of the sufferers. They must not only do without all the joys of heaven and all the pleasures of earth, but also endure bitter anguish Were care Be D. D. 213, great, constant terror anp^yslic ege and fyrlilu Be D. D. 225, eacne e^san SS. 947, gryre Bi D. D. 21, brogna hyhst Bi D. D. 23. This mental anguish finds ex- pression in dreadful lamentation heof SS. 935, weeping wop SS. 934, stearc heard wop and wanung Be D. D. 201, ungemelum wepab Be D. D. 193, in bitter repentance and gnashing of teeth gristhitung Be D. D. 226, Cs. 334, tot5a gcheaw CS. 339 that could be heard nearly twelve miles away twelf milum neh CS. 339. The damned have in short no more the attention or 56 raerciful presence of God Chr. 1537, El. 1301 f.; no ray of liope, no peace, no rest, consolation or help come to relieve their pain; the joys of life have vanished, its pleasures become loathesome and sadness, age, anger, woe and weariness, the wildest, bitterest, but vain remorse and repentance is now their lot Be D. D. 220—244. And lastly the poets seek to impress upon their hearers the solemn truth tliat this terrible punishment is eternal. The damned must sutler ece cwculm Chr. 1541, ccan tvllu Be D. D. 189, sar endclcas Chr. 1632 throughout endless night ia simdlilc Chr. 1632. They can never escape from hell: CS. 0H4 f. and no seoSSan, ]j8et hie up l^ionan sefre moton. There is no hope nc hi . . ccfre moton wcnan CS. 451, ne pcarf he hopian no Jud. 117 of return edcerres CS. 451, p(Bt he ponan mole of pam 7njrmsele Jud. 118 f, but they must suffer forever a to ealdre Bi D. D. 29, Jud. 120, to widan ealdre Chr. 1515, butan aide Bi D. D. 27, for many thousand years and wintra rim . . . pusenda feola CS. 420. All these sufferings ccghwijlc pissa earfo^a hist forever ece stande^ Imtan edwendc SS. 949 ft", and yet the fires of hell, throughout this eternity, can never burn their sin away. Vivid and awful as these pictures are, one of the poets, feeling, perhaps, that he could not do the subject justice, says of the torments of hell: BeD.D. 184if. /'« ofcrsicitiati sefan and sprcece manna gehwylces for micelnesse ufenig sprsec msej boon spellum areccan senijum on corSan eannlice witu. Summary: Hell, then, the place of eternal punishment, is, in our poets, a yawning abyss deep down under the earth somewhere, veiled in] the cheerless gloom of fog and mists, full of glowing fire and surging flame and yet dark as night and icy cold. Monstrous beasts and terrible serpents people its filthy depths. It was itself a frightful monster. Deep down in this horrible prison, bound hard and fast with fetters, the damned must lie, cut oft" forever from hope of release and suff'ering every conceivable physical and mental torture. Their 57 bitter, despairiiig- repentance is of no avail, the eternal fires can never burn away tlieir sin, eternal justice will never inter- rupt or abate their suffering-. Sources of these conceptions of hell. In no previous feature of our subject, have we found such a mixture of different and contradictory conceptions. But, strange as these may seem at first sight, they should not surprise us. When we go back to the sources of these conceptions and notice how the poets' general idea of hell was gradually developed from a union of several very different elements, each with strong influence on the whole, these contradictions appear quite natural. Some of the features involved seem taken from the Bible, though per- haps generally indirectly, through christian tradition. Thus Bible references are not lacking to the depths of hell (Luke 8. 31), to the bottomless pit (Rev. 20. 30) (cf. se deopa seab . . . grundleas Chr. 1545) the prison of Satan, to the gates of hell (Matth. 16. IS), to the punishment by fire (Matt. 18. 8; 25. 41), to the 'outer darkness' (Matt. 8. 12; 22. 13), to the anguish of mind (Rom. 2, 9) expressed in the howling and gnashing of teeth (Luke 13. 28, Matt. 13. 50, 24. 51, 25. 30), to the eternal torture (Matt. 25. 40), eternal banishment from the presence and glory of God (2 Thes. 1. 9), and delivery into the power of His enemies, without hope of release. These Bible teachings, as they had become current christian tradition and been learned and remembered by the poets, are doubtless the basis of the corresponding conceptions in their descriptions. Others of these conceptions, however, we must seek in Germanic mythology. We have seen how Ilel, originally the name of the goddess came to mean the place of departed spirits. As such, like the Hellia of old Germany and the Nifl- heinir of the North, it was a cold and dark and dreary land of shadows, deej) down under the earth, just as Ca3dmon's [ivUc hus — deop dreama leas, simiihle heseald, but differing widely from the last in that it, like Hellia ^ and Niflheimr, was not a * Grimm says, Deutsche M3thologie II, 668, that haija, hella implied, from the 4*'' to the 10th century, siniiily the under world, the realm of the dead, and adds: 'Seit dcr Bekelirung zum Christenthum hiingt an dem Begriff der Holle zugleich der von Strafe und Pein'. 58 place of pimisliment 1, but ouly the realm of the dead, of all who had not fallen in battle, both good and bad, like Hades. Quite different, now, in this respect was Nastrond, which Kemble^ describes as 'a place of torment and punishment, the strand of the dead, filled with foulness, dark and cold and gloomy'. Kemble adds: 'The kingdom ofHel was Hades, the invisible world of shadows; Nastrond was what we call hell'. In the course of time these conceptions of Hel and Na- strond grew closer together and finally the two were no longer separate. Just like Hellia, Hel took on the features of punish- ment and pain and became more and more identical with Nastrond. Of the two tradition gradually made one, connect- ing the chill and cheerless gloom of hel with the stench and foulness, the snakes and monsters of Nastrond, and to these thoroughly heathen conceptions, the coming of Christianity added the torments of flame. Thus we gain the foundation of the poets' conception. In deference to the new religion, the punishment by fire, the christian torture, was naturally greatly emphasized, but these other and heathen conceptions lived on side by side with this. Powerful as Christianity soon became, it was still unable to crush out these heathen traditions at once. In this connection Kemble aptly remarks: 'Even in their more orthodox descriptions, ecclestical poets, though naturally adopting Judaic notions cannot always shake off the old tra- ditions of their forefathers, but recur to the frost and gloom and serpents of Nastrond and the realm of Hel '.^ And herein lies the explanation of the contradictions we have found. In their efforts to make hell as horrible as possible, the poets naturally, indeed wisely, retained the well known, much feared torments of the heathen place of punishment, while they added, with all due emphasis, the new and christian tortures of flame. To these fundamental outlines, now, were added numerous d&tails — the shadowy forms in these vague pictures were touched up with glaring colors. In the numerous 'visions', 1 Grimm says, Deutsche Mytliologie II, 671: 'So traiirig imd freuden- leer Niflheimr gedacht werden muss, ist doch von Strafen und Qualen seiner Bewohner nie die Rede'. 2 Saxons in England I, p. 395. 3 Saxons in England I, 395. i 59 for instance, of those said to have died and risen again •, liell's horrors are portrayed with apalling vividvess. Fright- ful pictures of hell's pains — the heat, the cold, the hideous beasts, poisonous snakes, thick darkness, repulsive filth, hunger, thirst, terror, wails and moans of the damned — very similar to those in our poets are found in the dialogue between the devil and the recluse ^ and in the Hymue Abecedaire contre les Antitrinitaires 74 ff.3 In the Northern SolarlioS, also, we have mingled christian and heathen conceptions of hell very similar to those in Cicdmon. The same may be said, too, of Raban's Carmen XXXI =^ De Fide CathoUcaA Beda^ refers on the ground of Matt. 16. 18 to mferni clausira; in the Hymne Abecedaire, above cited, we read of diversorumquc carcerum (v. 24) and of hell's inmates qui nunc ligantur fascibus ergaslu- lorum nexihus (v. 43). On the ground of its name Gregory sees no reason for not believing that hell is situated under the earth.'' The Bible references to 'outer darkness', to 'the worm that never dieth', to the sulphur fires, dark and stinking', to the jaws of hell (Isaiah 5. 14) may of course have been in the poets' minds, while writing their descriptions, but their treat- ment of all these features is much more heathen than christian. The dragons guarding the entrance of hell CS. 98 flf. remind us of the same conception in Northern mythology. The con- ception of hell as a monster, in spite of Isaiah 5. 14, is doubt- less also heathen, handed down by tradition. Kemble*^, indeed, seeks here to find 'a remembrance which still lurked amonii- our forefathers of the gigantic or titanic character of the an- cient goddess, who in Norse mythology, was Loki's daughter'. ^ Especially the visions of Furseus and Drihthelm, related by Beda, Hist, eccles. Ill, 19 and V, 12. 2 Keiuble, Dial, of Sol. and Sat. p. 84 ff. 3 Bouclierie, Rev. des Langiies Romanes VII, p. 15 ff. * Migne, Patrol Lat. 112, lOO'J ff. 5 Hist. Eccles. V, 13. 6 Diall. IV, 42. Cf. also Rev. 5. 3, Ps. 86. 13. ' Compare the stench of tlic dark stream in the vision of tlic soldier who had died of the plague. Gregory's Diall. IV, 36. The conception, too, that the fires of hell burn hot, but with little light occurs also in Gregory. Cf. Sandra?, Dc carminibus etc. p, .51. ** Saxons in England I, p. 3!»5. 60 The east wind and the eagles in hell are doubtless also due to heathen tradition. The water, too, reminds us somewhat of the 'rausehende Strome' of Kiflheimr.^ Though proving but little regarding the immediate sources of our poets, such references show that these conceptions were well known and circulated at that time as current, accepted tradition.- Just how far the poets relied in this case upon any direct and immediate originals or how far they drew upon their own imagination or upon current tradition is impossible to determine. We incline to the opinion that, in their descrip- tions, the poets have made but little direct use of any Latin originals, but have for the most part simply embodied current belief — christian-heathen as it was — according to their own plans. Some degree of originality and genius they surely must have had. 2. Heaven and Eternal Reward. In marked and pleasing contrast, now, to the horrors of the sinners' punishment in hell are the poets' descriptions of the rewards of the good in heaven. After the welcome plaudit: 'Onfo(5 nu mid freondum mines feeder rice' Chr. 1345, '5e sind wilcuman, ^at5 in wuldres leoht' CS. 617 on the Judgment Day, the good, rojoicing in spirit glcodmode, led by the Lord^: Ex. 543 f. j'onne he (= dryhten sylfa) soSfestra sawla laedeS eadije jsestas on iiprodor. and greeted with angel welcome: Chr. 1671 ff. 'Nu j^u most feran, j'ider ]?u fundadcst 'lonje and jelome: ic )?ec laedan sceal. 'Wejas l^e sindou weSe and wuldres leoht 'torht ontyned: eart uu tidfara 'to |?am halgan ham! go upward to their eternal rest. A very brief view of the poets' conceptions of heaven and its rewards may follow here. And first as to the situation of heaven just hinted at. The regular system of contrasts in the descriptions of heaven and hell would of itself place heaven somewhere above the earth, 1 Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie II, p. 670. 2 Cf. xElfric's references to Bede's visions of Furseus and Drihthelm. Thorpe's Homilies of the Ags. Church II, p. 332 ff. and 348 ff. 3 Compare also CS. 402, 407, 448, 50.5 etc. 61 and this general conception is still more evident from the use of terms like upheofon Chr. 968, on vprodor Ex. 544, uppe oji roderum Chr. 1469, heofona hea^u Bi D. D. 31, heofona heabu gesli^an Bi D. D. 97, up heonan eard lestigan Chr. 514, on heabu stigan Chr. 498, heofones heahgetimbro Chr. 1182, uppe mid englum CS. 293, 591, grene street e up to englum CS. 287, up to earde CS. 458, 506, up to et5le CS. 461, upUcne ham CS. 362, upUcan ebelrice An. 119, uppe CS. 647, on heannesse El. 1124 and from the use of verbs of motion like up faran, astigan, up si(5ian, up cwnan etc. In short the references to the com- ing of Christ or the angels from heaven declare or imply a descent; their return and the entrance of the good are described as an ascent. Among the names applied to heaven, terms like heofon, up- heofon, rodor, swegl etc. occur frequently and mean heaven in an abstract, general sense. Other conceptions are as follows. Follov^ing the example of the Bible the most common con- ception is, first, heaven as a kingdom — heofonrice. The good receive as their reward heofonrice Chr. 1260, CS. 680, Be D. D. 252, heofona rice CS. 618, the shining kingdoms pa scinen- dan ricu Be D. D. 294, the kingdom of God ^odes rice CS. 614, 651, 693, VR. 152 of the Father ?ni)ies feeder rice Chr. 1345, SB. 140, CS. 308, of heaven rodera rices CS. 688 etc. But we need not multiply examples. Suffice it to say with Kent^ that, while the conception is thoroughly biblical, this kingdom was in general to the Ags. mind a much more concrete, 'definite and limited' one than that implied by the vague and abstract Bible terms, a kingdom in every way corresponding to their Germanic notions of the king Himself Part and parcel of this idea is the picture of heaven as a broad and beautiful land, fairer far than earth, with spread- ing green fields, dotted with cities, planted with trees and flowers, the home of the good, the native land of the angels CB. 2 1. "J ff. mycele fsejerre land ]?onne ]?eos folde seo: |?aer is wlitij and wynsiim, weestmas scinaS beorhte ofer burgum: l^ser is brade lond, hyhtlicra ham in heofonrice Criste jecwenra. ' Teutonic Antiquities in Andreas and Elena p. 15. 62 Compare also the picture of the beautiful landscape Be. D. D. 280 flf., where apostles, patriarchs and holy ones wander among the cities bur gum tomiddes v. 284, among heaps of red roses hetrveox rosena reade lieapas v. 286 and where Mary mcedena selasl V. 293 leads through the shining kingdoms a throng of maidens decked with garlands mceden-heap hloslnmm behangen V. 288. A green pathway grene sircetc CS. 287 leads up to this heavenly home up to Kif^lum. The term wang in neorxna-tvang, the name of Paradise, suggests also the pleasant, spreading fields. Compare also the Happy Land of the Phoenix as a type of heaven; just as the Phoenix wfler lijjbryne Ph. 577 gathers his bana lafe ascan and yslan Ph. 575 and goes to frean geardum v. 578, just so man after death, resurrection and the fires of Judgment: Ph. 5S3 f. Swa nu ajftcr deaSe |'urh drilitnes uiiht somod si(5iaS sawla luid lice enters sawla tnid lice, with his resurrected body, into his home in Paradise. Though not identified with it, heaven is here typified by the Happy Laud, which is described Ph. 1 — 85 as se (ctiela feld v. 20, torhte lond v. 28, se cetiela wong v. 43, covered with flowers blostmum geblowen v. 21, nnjnsum geblowen V. 27, with green woods wealdas grene v. 13, sunny groves mn- bearo vudu holt 7vijnUce v. 33, laden with fruit nxestmas ne dreosat) heorhte blede v. 34, and hung with blossoms bUvdum gehongen v. 7L Not only is heaven a beautiful land, but, following the Bible figure, it is in a narrower sense a city. The good enter into the city in burh, the bright city i}i pcere beorhtan byrig El. 821, to poire mceran byrig CS. 024, Ph. 033, wuldres byrig Ph. 475, in pcere wUtigan byrig Ph. 000. Such references cor- respond to the Bible description, but the poets go further and make it a fortified city, an old Germanic stronghold, as it were. The king of kings rules in heaven ceastrum ivaldeti Chr. 1082, the martyrs serve him in cestre CS. 057, Satan attempts to drive the king of cestre CS. 258, just as a rebellious Ags. prince might attempt to drive his king out of his fortified capital. The blessed may live in cestre CS. 298. Compare also the references to sceldbyrig, beorhle burhweallas, burg and breolne bold, burga ne bolda, pa getimbru pe no tydriab, pees i 63 holdes , heahgetimhrad, lieali^etmhro etc. all referring to the imposing buildings of heaven, but leaving us in doubt whether a city or only a great, fortified castle is meant. In fact we believe that both are meant and that the poets wished to pict- ure heaven as the stronghold of the blessed, protected and en- closed by hurhweallas^ within which rises the hereditary castle, as it were, of Christ the king. References like cesti^e and cyne- stol, burg and breolne bold {burg = the dty^ breotne bold = the broad building = the castle'?), burga ne bolda seem to in- clude both. A castle-hall is doubtless meant in pone sele frcet- weti Bi D. D. 92, rvloncra 7vmsele CS. 94. Other references, which lay the scene in the castle halls of the Eternal king, give us at the same time an account of the joys of the blessed and an insight into the poets' Germanic notions of the king Himself. Thus, called stgedri/iten, heah- cyning, engla ordfruma, rice peoden, rice frea, a^tSeling, cetielinga helm, ha^leba helm, beorht blcedgifa, eorla eadgifa, gifena dryhlen, burhtveard, rices hyrde, even casere, the king, in name and character very like an ideal Germanic prince, adorns the hall for His faithful followers se pone sele frceltvcti Bi D. D. 92, takes His seat on His throne on heofonseile Be D. D. 27G, heh- setl CS. 220, hehseld Ph. 619, CS. 47 from which the mild and gracious him bit) engla n-card milde and blide El. 1315, dryhlen weart) . . . hold on mode Ph. 446, lord of victory sigores brytta Be D. D. 277, the generous giver gifena drihlen dispenses to His faithful servants everlasting reward ece mede Be D. D. 278, the reward of victory sigorlean Chr. 1590, of battle rviggeslean El. 824, the gifts of the king cyningcs giefe Chr. 1663, rvald- endes giefe Chr. 1224, splendid gifts heahlic gifu, God's gracious, generous favor godes miltsa, every good thing Imn se wtiela cyning forgiefet5 goda gehwylc Ph. 614. He receives and honors, blesses, adorns and loves His devoted followers: BeD.D.27l ff. Ufenan eal ]ns ece drihten him ealra goda geliwylc jlaidlice |'enaS ]?aera andweard ealle weorSaS and fell]? and jeblyssaS faeder setsomne wuldraO and wel liylt fsejere frsetwaS and freolice lufac5 and in heofonsetle lieali gehrinecJ '. ^ Brandl, Anglia IV 1 03, proposes ^erimeti from geriman = locum dare. 64 The bearing- of the Eternal King- towards the blessed corres- ponds in short, in man}^ points, to that of a Germanic prince towards his followers and is the same as that already referred to in our account of the Eternal Judge (p. 34 f,). We need not therefore dwell further upon it. This same Germanic coloring is also brought out in the relation of the angels and the blessed to the King of heaven. They are His thanes pegnas, His retinue folga(5 CS. 229, His household his hired CS. 592, or family pam hirede CS. 423, His messengers cerendracan Be D. D. 285, His children beam CS. 144, 153. In happy gratitude for His care and kindness, they surround His throne and invoke a blessing on the best of princes. Ph. (119 ff. hcedre ymb ]?aet halje lieahseld jodes bliSe bletsiaS bre^u selestan eadje mid enjlum efen hleoSre ]'iis: Sib si l>e, so?) god, and snyttru craeft and ]'e {^onc sy l^rymsittendum geonjra gifena, joda jehwylces etc. Ph. 658 ff. l^ser hi dryhtue to jiefe worda and weorca W3'usumne stenc in J:>a mseran jesceaft meotiide brinjafj. And their chief pleasure and joy is the expression of their gratitude by singing His praises: Chr. 1641 ff. ac I'aer symle forS synna lease dream weorSiaS dryhten lofiaS, leofne lifes weard. In Satan's descriptions, too, of the life of the angels be- fore the fall, we find very similar pictures of heaven. CS. 46 ff. l^ser nu ymb j^one ecan seSele stondaS hcele?) ymb hehseld herijat^ dryhten wordum and weorciim. CS. 222 halite heofon|?reatas herijat) drihten wordum and weorcum. CS. 66.3 ff. swa wuldres weard wordum herija?* l^ejuas ymb }'eoden; |'aer is l^rym micel, sang 8et selde: CS. 143 ff. )73er sunu meotodes habbaS eadijne beam ealle ymbfangen seolfan mid sauge. 65 CS. 1 52 ff. fill oft wuldres [sweg] brohton to bearme beam hselendes, J^aer we ymb hine utan ealle hofan leomu ymb leofne lofsonga word, drihtne saedon. One passage especially sliows very plainly this Germanic relation between the heavenly King- and his followers. A band of faithful thanes surround the throne; the prince of angels rises in their midst and gives them His rich and gra- cious blessing; His devoted followers bow before Him, with becoming respect and courtly reverence, in recognition and thanks for His royal favor: CS. 233 ff. Hwset we in wuldres leolit wiinian moston ; l?aer we lialgan jode heran woldon and him sang ymb secjan sceoldon Jjegnas ymb l^eoden J^iisendmaeliim, l^ser we wunodon on wynnum, jeheredon wuldres swej beman stefne: bjrhtword aras enjla ordfruma and to )?am secJelan Imigan him sanctas: sijetorht aras ece drlhten ofer us jestod and jebletsode bilewitne hesip dojra geliwilcne and his se deora simu jasta scyppend.i In one or two passages, which refer to the sacrament, as a feast set for the faithful, we find reminiscences of the mead- hall, perhaps even of Walhalla: VR. 139 ff. I^aer is blis mycel, dream on heofonura, j'ser is dryhtnes folc geseted to symle, }?ger is sinjal blis: If we leave out heofomim, these lines could very well apply to the feast in the mead-hall of an earthly prince, where, also, the leader's followers dryhlncs folc were seated at the feast geseted to symle enjoying all the physical pleasure and noisy, jovial conviviality expressed by blis mycel and dream. Though dream and symbel had lost much of their original signification and come to mean rather the joys of heaven and the spiritual nourishment of souls, we may say that the poet has uncons- ciously (or perhaps purposely; in order to make it more ^ Cf. also the very similar picture in the Ileliaud. Vilmar: D. A. im H. 51. 66 attractive to bis feast-loving hearers?) transferred some features of an eartlily festal-board to tbe feast around tbe table of the Lord in heaven. In the passage Chr. UiSo f. ac him bit5 lenje husel geojuSe brucaS and jodes miltsa. the term geo^ut5e (Dietrich reads husel-^eo^utie and translates Abendinahlsjug&nd) reminds us of the Einherjer who feasted with Wotau in Walhalla (Compare also the similar term Imsel- beani applied to Gublac, Gut). 531). Here again we have to do with heathen features, applied by a not unnatural tran- sition, to a christian subject. In short this Germanic character of the king of heaven and His followers, of their relation to each other, is frequently implied. Satan persuades some of the angels to rebel and attempts to drive the king from His stronghold; Christ enters heaven with the multitudes released from prison after hell is conquered; His followers are like warriors, who receive the rewards of battle and victory after the struggles of this life; the intercourse of the good with the angels like the concord among the followers of a beloved earthly ruler. In their descriptions, too, of heaven as the home, the native land and inheritance of the angels and the blessed, the poets are true to their Ags. nature, and though they use a Bible figure their genuine Teutonic love for home and their own fireside runs through all their descriptions. Compare references like the heavenly home heofonlicne ham VK. 148, the holy home 1o pam kalian ham Chr. 1076, CS. 567, the happy home te f^isswn eadigimi ham CS. 660, hyhtUcran hames CS. 138, 216, the bright home pone mccran ham An. 227, the dear home deoran ham CS. 219, 257, the glad and joyous home in pam gladan ham Ph. 593, hlitian ham Ph. 599, the home on high uplicne ham CS. 362, so also irumlicne ham CS. 294, etc. In their descriptions the poets are also fond of ehel. The good enter on etiel Chr. 1343, and receive heorht et)les wlite Chr. 1347 of heaven the eternal heritage pret is se etSel, pe no geendad weortie^ into which the souls follow Christ up to eble CS. 461, 553, etiel VR. 156, engla ebei. Heaven ist also 67 frequent!}' referred to as the inlieritance of Christ, who like a Teutouic king inherits His kingdom. In striking" contrast again to tlie darkness and cheerless gloom of hell, heaven is full of light and glory and heauty. It is called directly the bright home, the shining kingdoms pa scinendan ricu Be D. D. 294, the beautiful land, fairer far than earth mycele fccgerrc land ponne peoB folde seo CS. 213, We have also gotten already a view of the lovely landscape (p. 62). This dazzling beauty is opened to the blessed rvul- dres leoht lorht ontyned Chr. 1674, the face of God shines brighter than the sun sunnan beorhtre Chr. 1652, the good shine in their glory on wUte scinap El, 1318, beorhte scmab scelige sawle CS. 296, leohle benmndene Chr. 1643, so also: CS. 307 ff. SoSfseste men sunnan jelice fsejre gefrsetewod in heora fsecler rice scinaft' in sceldbyrij. They stand with the angels glittering around the throne: CS. 220 f. and ymb j'set hehsetl hwite standa5 enjla fe?5an and eadigra and their beauty shines throughout the ages heora ivlite scine<^ ^eond ealra worulda woruld CS. 223 so also their good works weorc anra gehwces beorhte bliceti Ph. 598. Compare also the whole bright scene Be D. D. 271 — 298. There is no night there: Be D. D. 253 ]>ddr niht ne ^enip neefre l^eostra ]78es heofenlican seiman. but there is light and life peer is leoht, and I'lf Ex. 545, eternal day die^ butan peostrum Chr, 1657, In short no one can tell the bright beauty of heaven but God: CS. 350 ff, Nis nsenij swa snotor ne swa suudor-crpeftig ne }?8es swa jleaw nymSe god seolt'a, ]?8et asecjan raaejo swegles leoman liu scir sunu j'ser scineS ymbutan meotudes mihte jeond ]?aet lusere cynn. The joys of heaven consist not alone in the presence and protection and generous gifts of the king, nor in the happy association of the angels in the bright and beautiful home on high, but also in the conscious freedom from all those anxieties and labors and sufferings which constitute the tor- 68 meuts of hell or the burdens of earthly life. No hunger, nor thirst, no fire, no cold, no toilworu age, no sickness, suffering or sorrow, no want or weariness can enter there. Thus every thing that had made earth unpleasant is banished by the poets from heaven. The joys of heaven are thus negatively described in great detail: Be D. D. 255 ff. ne cymS ]?aerh sorh ne sar ne geswenoed yld ne ]>seT aenig jeswinc sefre jelimpeS o55e hunger o55e ]nirst o?5(5e heanlic slaep ne bit5 ]?8er fefur ne adl ne fserlic cwyld nsenes liges jebrasl, ne se laSlice cyle nis l^aer unrotnes ne )??er semelnys ne hryre ne cam ne hreoh tintreja ne biS ]?ser liget ne laSlic storm winter ne l^unerrad ne wiht cealdes ne ]>ssT hagulscuras hearde mid snawe ne biS j^ser waedl ne lyre ne deaSes jryre ne yrmS ne ajnes ne nsenigu gnornunj. Chr. 1653 — 1663 gives us a very similar detailed and negative || account, at the same time excluding by contrast all the pains ]| of hell the poet had mentioned before. See also Ph. 611 if. After referring to heaven's joys thus negatively, the poets, never weary of the subject, tell us positively with the same detail how great and wonderful are the rewards of the blessed. In heaven reigns ac peer samod ricxab Be D. D. 267 peace and prosperity sib mid spede v. 267, and virtue and cerfcesines V. 268 and eternal good and ece god^^ glory and honor rvuldnr and wur'^mynt v. 269, praise and life and loving concord lof and lif and leoflic ^epwmrnes v. 270. Free from hell's pains the blessed have eternal riches eces eadtvelun El. 1315, the glory of heaven nmldres bleed CS. 508, peace and happiness and rest for their souls sib and ^escelignes and scuvla recst Chr. 1767, bloed mid blissum Chr. 1347, lisse Chr. 1647, eadigne dream CS. 354, dream li(5es lyfes Chr. 1637, ece lean Chr. 1650, they dwell in joy ?mniat5 in tvymiiun CS. 508. 556, wuniat) tvuldre bitolden Ph. 609. In short no one can relate the rewards of heaven and the good fortune pone godes dcel awaiting pure hearts swa he ^earo slondeti cleenum heortum Bi D. D. 32. In ^ We cannot agree with Brand! (Anglia IV, 98) when he makes ^od in this passage mean God. It is here evidently the abstract good. i 69 a word the poets exhaust their vocabulary in their attempts to describe the indescribable. Corresponding to the eternal duration of the punishment of hell is the universally accepted, thoroughly biblical concep- tion of the poets that the rewards of heaven are also eternal. To this the poets do full justice. All the usual terms denoting- eternal duration are emi)loyed in expressing this idea. Thus on ecnesse Be D. D. 302, a to aldre ece reste CS. 617, to widan feore Chr. 1344, El. 1320, awo to ealdre Chr. 1646, a to feore Chr. 1678, to rvidan feore ece lean, eces eadwelan El. 1315, ecan dreames Ph. 482. Summary. Heaven is, then, in short an idealized, yet concrete and definite kingdom somewhere above the earth, a bright and beautiful landscape with spreading, green fields, dotted with cities, planted with waving fruit-trees and fragrant flowers: in a narrower sense a city, the hereditary stronghold, as it were, of the Eternal King, the happy home of his fol- lowers. The mild and generous Prince of Heaven sits upon His throne in His hall, is mindful of the welfare of His people and dispenses to them the rich gifts of His presence. His grace and love, while His devoted followers surround His throne and with becoming reverence express their gratitude and faithful allegiance in glad songs of praise. The good not only enjoy the presence and blessings of God, the fellowship of the angels, the light and glory and beauty of their heavenly home, but are also free from every torment of hell, from every care and sorrow and suffering of earthly life. And these joys of heaven are eternal. Comparing now these conceptions with those of hell, we are struck by the well developed system of contrasts by which the poets seek to heighten the effect of their descriptions. Thus heaven is the broad and beautiful landscape somewhere above the earth, hell the narrow abyss and fiery pit deep down under the earth. Heaven is flooded with light and radiantly beautiful and sweet with the perfume of flowers, hell is veiled in thick darkness, horrible in its ugliness, its stench and foulness. The one is the happy home of the blessed whither they have longed to come and where they delight to dwell, the other the terrible prison-house of the damned • Hammerich: Aelteste christliche Epik p. 269. 2 Grimm: Deutsche Mythologie II p. 783. « 70 whence they cannot escape. In the one is the fellowship of angels, in the other the taunts and torments of devils. The ^ood enjoy the presence and blessings of God, the evil are banished and forever forgotten. The former have every con- | ceivable joy and pleasure, the latter suffer every conceivable punishment and woe. These contrasts, though not unnatural, are also not accidental. In describing the one the poets were evidently thinking of the other and sought to make | the one, even in minute details, everything the other was not. In our search for the sources of these conceptions of heaven, we may look for the outlines of them all in the Bible. Thus there is no lack of references to the kingdom of heaven, to the glorious, eternal city (Rev. 21), with God's throne in the midst (Rev. 22), to the heavenly home and dwelling-place of the blessed (John 14, 2—3, 2 Cor. 5. 1), to its situation above the earth, to its light and glorious beauty (Rev. 21. 11, 23, 25; 22. 5), to the feUowsliip of the angels (Luke 20. 36), to the presence and blessings of God, to the eternal rest and joy of the good, to their freedom from hunger and thirst and from all other cares, anxiety and suffering of earth (Rev. 21. 4; 7. 16 f), to the praise and service of the multitudes around the throne (Rev. 19; 7.15), to the duration throughout eternity of heaven's rewards. As we have seen, the poets have taken these Bible out- lines and with fertile fancy adorned them with all the rich and beautiful colors earth could furnish in their attempts to describe and make attractive what is beyond all description. Many of the details, taken from every-day life and scenes around them, give us a glimpse at what they considered an ideal Germanic kingdom, while others are doubtless even relics of heathendom. Thus heaven is not merely a kingdom in the abstract Bible sense, but its green fields and cities and castles, its trees and flowers remind us more of an ideal Ags.-Germanie landscape, of the grmia heima of the Hako- narmal •, of the Folkvangr of Walhalla ', of the green plains of ISavollr, 'des zukiinftigen Paradieses in dessen Grase die Gotter goldtafeln'2. On this point Grimm says also: "Unsere I J 71 Altern, vcrmutlieh sehoii die liciduisclien Dicliter, daehten sieli den Himniel als ein giilnes Gefilde",i Compare also neorxna- wang, the Ags. Paradise, with the Gothic rvaggs aud the heijen- iiuang, godes uuang, groni godes uuang of the Heliand (v. 1323, 3083). Accepted tradition, then, was doubtless the poets' main source for this conception. More definite hints they may have gotten from the numberless 'visions' and legends of souls wandering through Paradise, at that time well known and common property, in which the 'traditionelle Ausmalung', as Dietrich calls it, of very similar conceptions is found.- As a city, the heaven of the poets is not so much like the 'heavenly city' of the Bible as like an ideal Germanic stronghold, with its shining gates and glittering walls sur- rounded by trees. Sceldbyrig Grimm regards as 'ein ent- schlupfender heidnischer Ausdruck'^ and translates it not re- fugium or sheltering city but = aula clypeis tecta thus com- paring it with Walhalla, which was covered with golden shields, as with shingles. Truly Germanic, too, as we have seen, is the relation of the heavenly king to His people. He is not so much the Bible 'king of heaven' simply, not 'the Son of Man', but the strong, brave and manly hero, the people's king, the prince of victories, the heir on the throne of his inheritance, mild and gracious in the midst of his faithful thanes, dispensing to them all the rich gifts of heaven. His followers, in every way a worthy retinue of such a prince, surround his throne, in the hall, rejoice in his favor, receive his gifts and return him gratitude and feithful allegiance. This relation of kindness and gene- rosity on the part of a king and of unfailing gratitude and fidelity on the part of his followers was a wide-spread, funda- mental Germanic conception. To the Ags. singer especially, nothing was so dear as his 'lord'*, his leader, his counsellor, his friend, his generous prince and no impulse was more sin- cere, no feeling more sacred than that of gratitude and fidelity ' Deutsche Mythologie II, 689. 2 Cf. Gregory's Diall. IV, 36; Bede's Hist, eccles. V, 12. ^ Mythologie II, .583. * Compare for instance the Wanderer 37 ft". 72 I i to him. It is therefore quite natural that we find many of the features of this relation transferred in exalted, idealized sense, of course, to the heavenly king- and His followers. In their descriptions, too, of heaven, as the home and inheritance f of the good, the place of refuge and rest after the battles of life, in their accounts of the fellowship of the angels and the blessed, the poets struck responsive chords in every Germanic heart and expressed ideas deep seated in personal, yes national, feeling and tradition. In general we may say, then, of these descriptions of heaven that the outlines are thoroughly biblical, the con- ceptions involved common property of the christian world and met at every turn all through the old Germanic literature. Many of the details were taken with due reverence, often doubtless unconsciously, perhaps even purposely, from scenes of every-day life and experience and transferred, in exalted sense, to heavenly scenes in order to make the indescribable more intelligible and attractive. The main sources upon which the poets have drawn were, doubtless, simple Bible teaching and christian tradition as they were understood and current at the time. Latin homilies, like that of Beda printed by Giles (I, 102) or some of the visions and legends referred to, some song or sermon the poets had heard may have given them more direct hints, but just what or how many we cannot say. Indeed in the case of such well known, universally ac- cepted doctrines, it were unreasonable to expect to find some definite passage which may have served the poet as the direct and imuiediate source of the language in which he has ex- pressed them. Chapter IV. The Sources and the Use Made of them. Under each of the features of the Ags. conception of Judg;- ment Day we have, in the preceding pages, attempted to give as far as possible the source of the same. But these have been, for the most part, the ultimate sources, as it were, of those conceptions as such, not the direct and immediate sources of the language in which the poets have expressed them. In- f 4j «i 73 deed in the case of such ideas of Judgment, already taught in the Bihle, for long centuries common property of the christian worhl, constantly modified by tradition and the rich fancy of early writers, it is exceedingly difficult, if not altogether im- possible to determine how far the poets, in their descriptions, may have relied on any such direct and immediate sources, how far their pictures are their own original and independent work or how far they have simply embodied Bible teaching and christian or heathen tradition. Finding the same con- ception in the Bible, in the Fathers and in current tradition, we are at a loss to decide whether the poet had the one or the other in mind while writing his verses or whether, after all, the language he uses is not purely and simply his own, his own way and means of expressing such well-known uni- versally accepted ideas. Though we can, therefore, positively assert but very little regarding any direct originals for these descriptions of Judg- ment, yet some few things may be said. These may find ])lace here, together with a brief inquiry into the manner in which all the sources, direct and otherwise, have been used. Of one of our poems, one too devoted entirely to our sub- ject, the immediate source has been found. As already noticed by Lumby and others. Be D. DA is an alliterative translation of a Latin poem of 157 hexameters, entitled De Die Judicii, printed by Lumby- and ascribed to both Bede and Alcuin. A detailed account of the character of the translation is not our purpose and has been, moreover, already furnished by Brandl.3 A short summary of the facts involved will therefore suffice here. The translation is quite a free one, yet not so free as might seem from the fact that it is almost double the length of the original, 154 hexameters becoming 304 Ags. verses. The Ags. verse, however, is often very short (cf. v. 41, 100, 104, 287) and rarely contains so much as a hexameter. The translator seems, throughout, to have understood his Latin original per- ' We may remark here that a very corrupt version of almost the whole poem (v. 15—283) is found also in Wulfstan's XXIX homily, printed by Napier: Wulfstan p. 13(3 if. 2 In his edition of Be D. D. p. 2-2 ff. 3 Anglia IV, 97 ff. 74 fectly. Even the mistake qui sold 23 = se ana imci v. 46, mentioned by Braudl, may be due to a confusion of solet with sola two lines before. In general the Latin ideas are closely followed; some passages being as literal as we could well ex- pect of an alliterative translation; cf v. 43 — 47 of 22 f, 212 — 214 of 106 f, 222—224 of 111''— 113, 253—267 of 128— 134; while others again are quite free, as, 122 — 143 of 62 — 71, 158 — 164 of 79 — 81. The omissions are few and of minor importance. The last three hexameters are omitted entirely — doubtless due to the fact that the close, v. 304, being quite a common one in Ags. poetry i, seemed to the translator a fitting con- clusion. Unimportant additions are numerous and serve mainly to expand and explain and impress the Latin idea just translated. Thus one Latin word, often doubtless, too, for metrical reasons, is frequently translated by two Ags. synonyms (cf. 7ment 51 = dreosat) and hreosab, tenebris 53 = srveart and gesjvorcen 105), indeed one Latin word is sometimes thus expanded into a whole line (cf. 69 with v. 136 — 139). Synonyms and appositive phrases, so characteristic of the Ags. poetry, are frequently put in to patch up the line and preser^ e the alliteration. A number of lines and half lines are added independently, either for metrical reasons or to explain or impress the Latin idea. Larger and more important additions occur in the description of the landscape v. 3 ff., of the sinner at Judgment v. 124 f , of hell V, 244 f , of heaven v. 277 i. and in the tribute to the Virgin Mary v. 288—293. Brandl also calls attention to some passages in which specific Latin ideas are substituted by more vivid Ags. figures. Thus attonila turba timore 86 = stane ge- Ucast 173. Single Latin words are often translated by Ags. compounds herbis 1 = wyn-rvyrta, homines 66 = eorh-buendra 129 etc.) and everywhere the cumbersome Latin periods are resolved into short Ags. sentences. We may now turn to the longest, most complete and detailed account of the Judgment Day, that in Christ. The immediate sources in Christ have not yet been very satis- ( ' Compare for instance the close of El., Ph., Whale, Seafarer, An., and Chr. 415, 439, 1362 etc. i 4 75 faetorily settled; probably never will be. Opinion on the sub- ject is, so far, as follows: Thorpe', supposing Chr. to be a number of separate and independent hynans, says of these': 'They are no doubt trans- lations from the Latin and too paraphrastic to admit of comparison'. Dietrich 2 also examined the sources of Chr. and finds: for part I (v. 1 — 440) a number of Bible passages, especially Matt. 1, 18—23, all used with much freedom; for Part II (v. 440—779) the Bible and the 29*'^ homily of Gregory the Great. Of Part III (v. 779 — 1694), the part directly concerning us, Dietrich says: 'Vom dritten habe ich nur den Inhalt einer Stelle des vierten Gesanges aufgefunden in der zehnten Homilie Gregor's'. The passage in question = v. 1128—1189. Fritzsche^, in attempting to conform Chr. to his canons for Cynewulf's use of his sources would suppose *, 'dass, neben den von Dietrich angeflihrten Quellen, dem Cy. wol ein aus- fuhrliches Lateinisches Werk vorliegen mochte'. F. bases his supposition on the ground that 'fiir die iibrigen Werke der- artige Quellen sicher nachweisbar sind', and that Chr. is one of Cynewulf's earlier works, written before Jul. and El. and at a time when the poet would be even more apt to use some such original than later. Giibler, on the contrary, thinks that the poet gathered 'den Stoff dazu aus zerstreuten Homilien und daraus ein ein- heitliches Werk schuf'^ and Kirkland believes that 'Cynewulf has in the composition of Chr., drawn not so much on any one work, as upon a number of sources '.^ Of these opinions, that of Fritzsche, assuming a detailed Latin original, seems the least probable. It cannot at least be accepted until that original be found — a discovery we may hardly venture to hope for. In the first place, as Kirk- land has already noticed', Fritzsche's canons are based on a ' Codex Exoniensis V f. ^ Hanpt's Zeitschrift f. d. A. IX, 19:} if. 3 Andreas und Cynewulf p. 18 if. * Ibid. p. 2:3. ^ Autorschaft vom Phoenix p. 35. « Harrowing of Hell p. 2:i. ' Ibid. p. 20. 76 study of Jul. and El. alone and are, therefore, not valid for Chr. That Jul. and El. have each a detailed Latin original does not make it at all necessary that Chr. have such an one. For poems on such definite limited subjects as Jul. and El., probably little known — certainly not in such detail — out- side of the originals containing them, Cynewulf was naturally compelled to resort to these originals for his information. But in Christ the case is entirely different; we have here not one single subject, but a great variety of subjects, all of which are not apt to have been contained in any one Latin original, however detailed, but all of which are found in the Bible and in christian or heathen tradition and were, therefore, perfectly familiar to the poet and well known to the people. For Chr., therefore, though written early in his career, Cynewulf did not so much need 'ein ausfiihrliches Lateinisches Werk' as he did for Jul. and El. Then, too, the sources of parts of the poem have been found, and not in a detailed Latin original, but in scattered Bible passages and Gregory's homilies. In the ab- sence then of much definite and positive information as to the direct sources of the third part of Chr., the part immediately concerning us, the most tenable position is that taken by Kirk- land', which satisfactorily explains the facts and which we, therefore, readily accept until more positive statement may be made. The idea of including a description of Judgment Day in Chr. was most probably Cynewulf 's own. Indeed, in a poem on the 'threefold coming of Christ', such a description could not be left out. True, the poet may have gotten a hint for it from Gregory. Just as in Phoenix the latter part was suggested by the last two lines of the Latin original 2, so in Chr. Cynewulf may have gotten a hint from the close of Gregory's 29*^ homily, which refers to the second advent and which he had been following more or less closely in vs. 600 — 779. Having determined to include a description of the Judg- ment Day the poet, himself, most probably conceived the plan and general outlines of the work, basing them on Bible teach- ing and current tradition. This does not, however, at all imply that he did not draw on other sources for details, whenever i V ' Harrowing of Hell p. 23. 2 Gabler, Autorschaft vom Phoenix p. 31. 77 he saw fit. Dietrich has shown that v. 1128—1189 are based on Gregory's 10*^' homily and Kirkland points out some general resemblances to De Die Judicii (ascribed to Aldhelm) and thinks 'we have no reason to conclude' that he did not use the Evan- gelium Nicodemi.i It is, therefore, more than probable that, in the course of the work, he got many hints for details from Latin hymns or homilies or other religious literature of the day, and used them more or less freely whenever occasion demanded. It is also as evident that many of the details, as well as the general outline, are his own. A poet of Cyne- wulf's genius surely did not need a 'source' for everything he wrote; we cannot deny him a certain degree of originality, at least, in creating ideas of his own or skill in using those of others. In his use of the Bible as a source, he conforms, as a zealous christian, closely to its teaching, though only in rare eases does he translate or paraphrase a scripture passage. Some few passages we may regard as taken directly from the Bible; thus 868 ff. from Matt. 24. 43, 1 Thes. 5. 2, 1345 ff. from Matt. 25. 34—36, 1520 ff. from Matt. 25. 41. But in general his descriptions leave the impression that they were written by a man thoroughly familiar with the Bible narrative, but without frequent, direct reference to particular passages. This, together with the fact that he credits Isaiah with a passage occurring in Ezekiel (v. 303 ff. from Ezek. 44. 1 — 3), goes to prove that he relied largely upon his memory for Bible references. Passages of a subjective character, like 789 — 808 for instance, we may regard as the independent work of the poet himself. In short, then, we believe, with Kirkland, that Cynewulf has embodied in Chr. the generally accepted christian teaching of his time, as he had learned it from the Bible or heard it from current tradition around him, here and there quoting a scripture passage and not hesitating to use a hint taken from the works of others when he saw fit, but in the main through- out the poem holding to the outlines of his own plan. Turning now to Phoenix, Juliana and Elene, we find that the Latin originals of all three offer no occasion whatever for 1 Harrowiug of Hell p. 25. 78 the descriptions of Judgment Day therein contained. We must seek the sources elsewhere. In the case of Phoenix, if we agree with Giibler, which, after his careful examination, we may very well do, that it is a work of Cynewulf, written not long after Chr.-, we may also accept as more than probable his opinion 'dass die Schilderung des jiingsten Gerichts im Ph. aus lieminiscenzen aus der im Chr. hervorgegangeu ist'. The two descriptions are remarkably similar and are in all probability both the work of the same poet, the one written shortly after the other. It is almost self-evident that the first, longer and more detailed description furnished the material for the second, shorter and more general one. The very brief mention of Judgment in Jul. (only a few lines), uncalled for in the original, occurs in the passage in which the poet gives his name in the runes, and immediately after, this in his exhortation to the reader to pray for him by name that God be merciful to him on the great day of doom. The reference is so short and so general and the whole pas- sage so subjective and personal and in such direct connection with the runes, that we need not hesitate to call it the inde- pendent production of the poet himself. In Elene the case is quite similar. With the 'Finit' of verse 1235 the original ends. The short description of Judg- ment is contained in the well known epilogue and as in Jul. directly after the runes containing the poets name. These references are, therefore, companion pieces to the passage in Christ, where the poet also gives his name in runes very near the beginning of his long account of Judgment. Like the close of Jul., the epilogue of Elene is very personal in character. In repentant contemplation of his previous worldly life, he speaks of the transient nature of all things earthly; the whole world is to perish in the tiames of Doomsday. Though the epilogue is so personal, the main feature of Judgment it con- tains viz: the threefold division of mankind in the fires of the burning world, seems not to be original with Cynewulf. In spite of the great detail in Chr., it does not occur in that poem. Neither is it to be found in Ph. or Jul. The poet was, 1 Cf. also Wiilker's Grundriss p. 185, § 101, ^ Ueber Phoenix p. 39. 79 therefore, most probably not acqiiaiuted with this idea at the time when he wrote these poems. He must have learned it later, and not improbably from the similar account in the Ke- capitulatio, Sors triplex homiuum in judieio of Augustine's Sermo CIV.i Other and more general references to Judgment in El., quite similar to those in Chr. and Ph., may very well be reminiscences from these poems. The fact that Judgment is thus described in four of Cynewulf's works shows what a favorite subject it must have been with him. It is doubtless also not accidental, that in three of these poems — the three in which he gives his name in runes — these runes occur at or near the beginning of a description of Judgment Day. This all goes to prove what a deep and personal interest he took in our subject, and may be somewhat of an argument, though indeed by itself of but little weight, that he drew largely on personal feeling and imagination for the material of these de- scriptions; in other words that he, regarding the Judgment as a judgment to come over himself, personally, has given us a great many of his own immediate personal views regarding it, in far greater degree than would have been the case in a subject which interested him only in a general way. Inas- much as the three descrii)tions in Ph., Jul. and El. are similar to those in Chr., only more general in character, and at the same time all three wanting in the Latin originals, we doubt- less need not hesitate to say they are based in large measure upon Chr. itself. The sources of Christ and Satan were discussed by Kiihn^ who finds that v. 470 — 664 'stiramt im Ganzen mit der bib- lischen Darstellung iiberein' and therefore assumes 'lediglich das neue Testament als Vorlage'. The description of Judg- ment, especially (v. 598 ff.) conforms so closely to the Bible account that, in the absence of any more immediate source, we may regard it as the embodiment of the Bible narrative in the poets own words. The descriptions of heaven and hell in the poem are probably also in large measure the work of the poet himself, based on the Bible and thoroughly mixed with christian and heathen tradition. » Migne, Patrol. Lat. 39. 1949. - Uber die ags. Gedichte von Crist and Satan. 80 The source of Met. XXIX is Metrum VI, Lib. IV of Boethius' De Consolatione Pliilosophiae. The short reference to Judgment, Met. XXIX 39 — 42, is doubtless an attempt to reproduce the idea of the line sic aeternos reficit ciirsus, and is a roundabout way of saying that the stars will continue long in their courses, until the end of all things human — i. e. till Judgment Day. A similar attempt to express a great length of time are also, no doubt, the references to Doomsday in SS. 543—46, 649 f. The description of hell v. 932 if. is based largely on heathen tradition, to which basis the christian torture of flame is added. The same may be said of that in Gen., to which we have referred in passing. The short, general reference in Exodus, occuring very unexpectedly and uncalled for in the source, is doubtless an invention of the poet, who for reasons of his own, saw fit thus to change the speech of Moses. This description shows merely christian coloring. Though after the essays of Wulkeri and Ebert^ we may no longer consider the Vision of the Rood the work of Cyne- wulf, as Dietrich, Rieger and ten Brink had done, we may regard it as probably the work of an imitator of Cynewulf, since it shows some general resemblances with El. and Chr. The short description of Judgment v. 103 ff. is not unlike Chr. 523 ff. and the poet may have had that passage in mind while writing it. The reference is moreover so general that we need hardly look for a 'source' in the ordinary sense of the word. The poet has most probably simply embodied Bible teaching in his own words, with a view, perhaps, to Cynewulf's treat- ment of the same subject in Chj'. The source of SB. says Thorpe "is a prose homily to be found in most of the MSS. of which no doubt a Latin original exists ".3 Thorpe does not tell us, however, where that homily or that original is. Rieger thinks also, that the source is some yet undiscovered Latin original.^ Kleinert^ seems to oppose 1 Anglia I, p. 501— 50G 2 Sitzimgsberichte der Kgl. siiclis. Gesellscliaft dor Wiss. Pliil.-Hist. Klasse. Mai 1884. Cf. also Ebert's Literaturgcschichte III, 70 ff. ^ Codex Exoniensis p. 525. * Germania III, 398 f. 5 ijber den Streit zwisehen Leib iind Seele p. T. 81 this idea and to regard the poem, the first part rather, as the independent work of the Ag-s. poet, the oldest version of this subject, the original itself, 'in jeder Beziehung die Grimdlage zii der Entwickelimg welche derselbe (dieser Stoff) in seinem weiteren Verlauf erfahren hat'. The description of Judgment, contained in this part which Kleinert thinks original, is very general and thoroughly biblical in all its conceptions and until Thorpe's original is found we may content ourselves to say that it is the poets own work, his own way of ex- pressing these scripture doctrines. For Bi D. D. we have been unable to find any direct original. Grein ascribes the ])oem to Cynewulf and indeed some passages do remind us of Chr. though the general ten- dencies of the two are different. Bi D. D. does not lay so much emphasis on the condemnation of the wicked as Chr., indeed devotes but little space to the real Judgment itself, but dwells especially on the destruction of the world and the precursors of the Judgment. In the several descriptions of the fire, the fallen stars, the trembling earth, the raging sea, the terror of mankind, the uplifted cross, the proclamation of the sentence etc. we are reminded of Chr. The whole treatment of the subject in Bi D. D, is much more general than in Chr. and it is quite possible that the author drew in a general way upon Chr. for some of his material. The short reference in Andreas 1425 — 1440 seems to be the poets way of reproducing the idea of Matt. 5. 18; 24. 35. The use of the Bible as the most important source of these descriptions of Judgment Day has already been indi- cated. In summary we may say that while only rarely a scripture passage has been translated or paraphrased, the Bible is still the ultimate source of most of the ideas brought forward, whether it be the immediate original or not. The whole character of these descriptions warrants the opinion that the poets, perfectly familiar with the Bible accounts, based their work on scripture teaching as they had learned or remembered it, but without frequent direct reference to def- inite passages. The Bible merely states in short, simple, often very abstract and general terms the facts involved, while the poets lose themselves in long detailed descriptions of situ- 6 82 atioiis ouly thus indicated. The abstract Bible langiiag-e grows more concrete and definite, its vague outlines become clearer and sharper, its shadowy figures stand out boldly on the poets' canvas. Some scenes attract us by their beauty and others impress us none the less by the awful magnificence of their coloring. And herein lies what we may call the specific Ags. or Germanic features of these descriptions. The poets have added but few conceptions to those of the Bible, but in the coloring of their pictures they have been true to their nation- ality and in many of their descriptions shown an originality, which in the treatment of a subject like the Judgment Day, common property of the christian world, is remarkable for those times and even yet worthy of praise. Thus, as we have seen, this Germanic coloring is strongly brought out in the pictures of the Eternal Judge and His splendid retinue, of the fires of Judgment like an angry warrior destroying everything before him, of the bright home and kingdom in heaven, its generous, gracious Prince and His relation to His loyal, grateful followers. True Ags. love of nature, at rest or in anger, stands out boldly in their descrip- tions of the broad, fair fields of heaven and of the wild convulsions of the elements attending the destruction of the earth. And now and then, though often faintly, we can hear the echoes of heathendom in some of the finest strains of the poets' song; thus, most probably, in some of the features of the destruction of the world, certainly in the cold and cheer- less gloom of hell, its ice and frost, its filth and stench, its poisonous snakes and frightful monsters. In their descriptions, too, of heaven, that fairer land than earth and yet, like the happy hunting-grounds of the Indians, much like the earth, the home of warriors, where the Prince of victory sits in his sceldbytig and bestows the reward of battle, prepares a feast for His followers around the table of the Lord, this heathen in- fluence is considerable. Indeed several features of Walhalla seem thus transferred to heaven. The similarity is, as Kent remarks, 'too striking to be accidental and too natural to be at all im- 83 probable'.' And yet in so christian a subject we should be careful not to overrate this heathen influence, but rather attempt to explain as much as possible on the basis of the Bible and christian tradition and only when these are indequate should we turn to heathendom for help. The Anglosaxons had early become enthusiastic christians; many of their poets were doubtless monks and zealous teachers of the Bible; but as the new religion could not at one blow crush out the old, heathen conceptions lived on side by side and more or less thoroughly nnxed with christian teaching. The poets have therefore naturally, either unconsciously or else purposely as a stroke of policy, incorporated some of these even in so biblical a subject as ours. Just where the line of demarcation is to be drawn, even the sharpest eye and the shrewdest judgment are often at a loss to decide. From these remnants of heathendom, however, we may draw, in conclusion and very briefly, one or two instructive lessons. And first as to the marked preference of the Ags. poets for this whole subject of final Judgment. All through this discussion we have seen with what deep interest they dwell upon it, with what real enthusiasm they describe it in all its phases and results. This is evidently not the interest and enthusiasm in a subject entirely new to them. In the darkest days of their heathendom, the Germanic tribes believed in a destruction of the world, in a Judgment after death, in a Hell, in a Heaven. All these subjects enlisted their pro- foundest interest and are described in their literature with all the enthusiasm of their strong and simple Germanic natures. When therefore the corresponding christian teaching came among them, it did not, so to speak, seem so strange to them, they appreciated it and, attracted by some general resem- blances to their own system, they gave it much the same interest. Much of the prominence of the subject is also due to the individual poets; in their desire to turn men to right living they are constantly holding up the terrors of Judgment and the horrors of hell as a warning argument, which they seek to im- press in the numerous exhortations which interrupt the narrative. ' Teutonic Antiquities in Andreas and Elene p. 17. 6* 84 # A natural consequence of this preference, this interest in the subject — itselt (this preference) a relic, so to speak, of heathendom — was, secondly, the gradual assimilation of christian and heathen conceptions of Judgment, hell cr heaven. Surely and rapidly did Christianity gain ground and drive back the corresponding heathen notions; and not so much by mere force, not by uprooting and casting away at once these heathen conception^, but rather by a process of assimi- lation. The heathen idfas of these things, to begin with somewhat like the christian conceptions, became more and more like these, until they became so absorbed in them as to lose almost entirely their own identity. It was not the so- called Germanic predisposition to Christianity, but rather the certain general resemblande in many points between christian and heathen views, that |nade the transition easier and less noticed. It was not hard for a people whose fathers believed in the Norns, in the Twilight of the gods, in Walhalla, to adopt the Christian teaching that 'the elements shall melt with fervent heat', that 'we must all appear before the jud- gment-seat of Christ', that He has gone 'to prepare a place' for us, and 'will come again' and take us to Himself that we be with Him always. Thus these general resemblances with heathen conceptions we may say in a measure paved the way for the acceptance of Christian truth. Thirdly and lastly these conceptions of Judgment are interesting as an index of the general religious advancement of the Anglosaxons at that time. As we have seen they are almost entirely christian, many of them in the strictest confor- mity to the Bible account, only here and there are traces of heathendom left. The transition period is over, the new has already driven out the old, in less than two hundred years after the landing of Augustine and more than a thousand years ago, we find current in England the same great truths of Christianity which her people accept to-day. HALLE, EHRHAKDT KARKAS, PRINTER. UnW. OF CALIF LIBRARY, LOS ANGELES UC SOUTHERN' "li„ f^t, 000 304 818 8 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 • Box 951388 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. OCT 2 2001 \ interest \