GREEK GRAMMAR
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS,
FROM THE GERMAN OP
PHILIP BUTTMANJV.
SECOND EDITION OF THE TRANSLATION.
CUMMINGS, BILLIARD, AND COMPANY.
ANDOVER FROM THE CODMAN PRESS,
Flagg & Gould Printers.
1826.
DISTRICT OP MASSACHUSETTS, to wit :
District Clerk's Offict.
Be it remembered, that on the first day of May, A. D. 1826, and in the fiftieth year ot
the Independence of the United States of America, Cummings, Hilliard & Company, of the
said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as
proprietors, in the words following, to wit : " Greek Grammar, for the use of schools, from
the German of Philip Buttmann. Second edition of the translation." In conformity to the
Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of Learn
ing, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of such
copies, during the times therein mentioned :" and also to an Act entitled, " An Act supple
mentary to an Act, entitled, An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies
of maps, charts and books, to the proprietors of such copies during the times therein men
tioned ; and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching
.
EXTRACTS FROM THE PREFACE
to the first Edition of the Translation.
THE deficiency of the Greek Grammars in use in this coun-
try, has been generally felt and loudly complained of. Till a
comparatively late period, use was made almost exclusively of
the small Latin compend, usually called the Westminster Greek
Grammar. The Gloucester Greek Grammar was chiefly trans-
lated from this, and imperfectly supplied its numerous deficien-
cies. Of late years Valpy's Greek Grammar has been exten-
sively used, and with great advantage, being in many respects
worthy of high commendation. x That it is, however, but an in-
sufficient guide to the student who seeks a thorough acquaint-
ance with the language, will be generally admitted, and it is al-
so *not wholly free from the imperfections of the former scho-
lastic compends.
Under these circumstances, the translator has been led, not
less by his own reflection, than by the advice of judicious friends,
to prepare a translation of the most approved of the Greek
Grammars in use in Germany. It is well known that the Ger-
mans have paid a greater attention to philological pursuits than
any other people of the present day, and that among themselves
the study of the Greek has been carried much farther than that
of the Latin. In consequence of the zeal with which every de-
partment of Greek literature has been pursued in that country,
IV PREFACE.
that of grammar has been enriched with many very valuable
elementary works. It will be sufficient to quote the names oi
HERMANN, BUTTMANN, MATTHIAE, and THIERSCH. Buttmann
and Matthiae have particularly distinguished themselves as the
authors of the Greek Grammars in most extensive use. Con-
sidered as an historical analysis of the language, the Grammar
of Professor Thiersch may be thought to deserve the preference.
It is, however, as its title indicates, a Grammar not so much of
the classical language as it appears in the mass of the writers,
as of that earlier form of it which is called the elder, the Ho-
meric, or epic dialect.* While it needs but a slight inspection
of this Grammar, to feel the necessity of studying Homer al-
most as a work of another language, this fact itself equally sug-
gests the conclusion, that, a Grammar, particularly founded on
this more ancient form of the language, is not well adapted to
be a guide to the classical writers at large. The larger Greek
Grammar of Matthiae was translated into English by the late
Mr Blomfield, and is thought to have made a great accession
to the stores of grammatical criticism accessible to the English
student. As a philosophical and practical grammarian, howev-
er, Professor Buttmann, of the University of Berlin, is allowed
by his countrymen to hold the first rank. Three Greek Gram-
mars, drawn up by him, are now before the public. They are
his Greek Grammar for Schools, the larger Greek Grammar,
and the Complete Greek Grammar. The latter work, as the
title suggests, is intended to contain a complete grammatical in-
dex of the Greek language, in which all the facts furnished by
the study of all the authors, should be referred to their systema-
tic place, so far as they establish principles or exceptions to
principles. The first volume of this work was published in
* Griechische Grammatik vorziiglich des Homerischen Dialects, 2d ed.
PREFACE. V
1819, and not till the larger Greek Grammar of the author had
attained its eighth edition.
This larger Grammar is a work of more than 600, for the
most part, finely printed pages, and is that by which its learned
author attained, in the public estimation, the place he is now al-
lowed to fill as a Greek philologian. That it is not adapted to
the use of schools, might be anticipated even from its size, and
is not less apparent from the minuteness of critical detail into
which it runs. The author was in consequence led to prepare
an abstract from it for the use of schools, which, under the name
of the School Grammar, has gone through many editions in
Germany, and is the work which is now presented to the Amer-
ican public in a translation.
Although the superiority of this work, not only for philoso-
phical investigation but learned criticism, can scarcely fail to be
apparent to all who are able to judge of it ; the translator is
not without fear that, at least at first, it may be found somewhat
in advance of the state of philological studies in this country.
Though professedly an abstract, for the use of schools, from a
larger work, itself but an outline, filled up in a third still more
complete, there is nevertheless reason to fear that some portions
of this grammar may be thought beyond the requirements of
some of the American schools. The great improvements, how-
ever, which have been made in elementary instruction in some
of these institutions, and the consequent elevation of the stand-
ard of excellence in this department, authorize the hope that
this farther contribution to the same end, will not be unaccep-
table to judicious teachers and diligent learners of the language.
The translation of the valuable tables of Mr Thiersch, by Pro-
fessor Patton of Middlebury College,* has already served to
of Nassau Hall. Princeton. X. .1.
VI PREFACE.
awaken the public to the value of the German works in this de-
partment of learning, and it is hoped that the Grammar of Butt-
mann will raise them still higher in the estimation of scholars.
#***##**#**###*
In making use of this grammar for the purpose of elementary
instruction, much must be left to the discretion of the judicious
teacher. While it probably contains nothing, of which use may
not be made in reading the Greek authors usually studied in
our schools and colleges, it is not designed of course to be com-
mitted to memory or studied at first without discrimination. It
must be remembered that if the grammar be the first book put
into the learner's hands, it should also be the last to leave them,
and that it must therefore combine elementary principles with
critical detail. A Greek accidence, which should embrace only
that which it is absolutely necessary to commit to memory, in
commencing the study of the language, would probably be found
useful to beginners ; and such a one it was the intention of the
translator to compile from the grammar.* He has for the pres-
ent omitted it, from the consideration, that it is in the power of
the judicious teacher, to attain nearly the same object, by mark-
ing the portions of the grammar, which it is necessary to com-
mit to memory.
The translator trusts that he shall be thought to have ren-
dered a service not wholly insignificant to the study of classical
literature. The increased attention, which has lately been paid
to this department, leads him to hope his labour will not be unac-
ceptable. The translation of Mr Thiersch's tables by Profes-
sor Patton, will be found a valuable contribution to the means
of cultivating this study ; and the English Greek Lexicon, which
*A work of this kind has since been compiled and given to the public by one of the editors
of the present edition of this grammar.
PREFACE. VII
is in preparation by Mr Pickering, will remove one of the obsta-
cles to the pursuit of the Greek in our schools. It is the design
of the translator to adapt for use in this country the text-book of
Mr Jacobs, a work of singular merit and of extensive use
abroad, and which, as it refers throughout to the Grammar of
Buttmann, will be particularly useful to those who are well
grounded therein.*
EDWARD EVERETT.
Cambridge, Aug. 1822.
This work has since been published, and is now extensively used in this country.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
In preparing a new edition of the translation of Buttmann's
Greek Grammar, the sole object has been to follow the original
with exactness. Nothing has been added, and nothing omitted,
except an occasional remark relating to the German idiom and
not true of the English. The division into sections, though not
common in our school books, has yet been retained. The pa-
ges of the former edition are marked in the margin of the pres-
ent, so that references already made to the Grammar will not
lose their value. Our opinion of the general merits of the
Grammar and its adaptation to the purposes of instruction need
not here be expressed. In what manner we have acquitted
ourselves of the task of preparing the new edition the public
will judge.
GEORGE BANCROFT.
GEORGE H. BODE.
Northampton, May 1, 1826.
OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL.
1. 1 HE Greek, like all other languages, had various dialects,
which however may be all reduced to two fundamental dialects,
the Ionic and Doric, belonging to the two great divisions of the
Grecian race, which bore these names respectively.
2. The Dorian tribe was most extensive, but its dialect wa s
rough, and upon the whole less cultivated. A branch of this dia-
lect was the ^Eolic, which early attained a considerable degree
of improvement, particularly in the JSolian colonies of Asia Minor
and in the neighbouring islands.
3. The Ionian tribe inhabited in earlier times for the most
part what was afterwards called Attica ; and sent out from this
quarter its colonies to the coasts of Asia Minor. Inasmuch as these
colonies attained a high degree of refinement, earlier than their
mother country, or any other Grecian tribe, the appellations of
lonians and Ionic were appropriated to them and their dialect,
while the original lonians in Attica were called Attics and Atheni-
ans. The Ionic dialect, from the multiplication of vowels, is the
softest. But the Attic soon surpassed the others in refinement, by
avoiding, in the ease peculiar to itself, the Doric harshness, and
the Ionic softness. Although the Attic race, geographically speak-
ing, was the original, the Ionic dialect of the colonies in Asia
Minor is considered as the mother of the Attic dialect, because it
attained a high degree of cultivation at a period, when it had least
departed from the common source of both, the old tongue of the
Ionian race.
4. As mother, however, of all the dialects, we must assume an
original ancient Greek language. But of this it is only by means
of philosophical deduction that we can ascertain or rather conjec-
ture the forms. Every dialect naturally retained mor^ or less
from this ancient language, and of consequence each preserved
1
2 UF THE GREEK LANGUAGE [ 1.
in itself, from the same source, much that was gradually lost in
kindred dialects. Hence may be explained the fact, that the
grammarians speak of Doric, JSolic, and even Attic forms, in the
old Ionian bard Homer. In general, it has been the practice to
name that, which was customary or of frequent occurrence in a
dialect, after that dialect, although it should likewise occasionally
be found in some other. In this way we must explain the Dori-
cisms, so called, in the Attic writers,* and the Atticisms traced in
authors not in that clialect.t
5. To this same original language belong, for the most part,
the poetical forms or poetical licenses, as they are called ; for the
oldest poets formed themselves a language, out of the manifold
phraseology of their age. Many peculiarities of this phraseology
became obsolete : but the later poets, having their predecessors
for guides, were unwilling to lose this richness of language ; and
thus what was originally dialect, and ought to be classed as such,
got to be, in the end, poetic peculiarity, or as it is commonly
called, poetic license.
6. In every cultivated nation, some one of its prevailing dia-
lects generally becomes the foundation of the common language
of literature and of good society. This did not take place, at an
early period, among the Greeks. Cultivation advanced far among
them, while they were still divided into several states, separated
from each other by position as well as political relations. The
language of literature, therefore, as well poetry as prose, till near
the time of Alexander, depended upon the dialect to which the
writer had been educated, or which he preferred. Hence arose
Ionic, jEolic, Doric, and Attic writers of poetry and prose ; from
each of which classes more or less is still extant.
7. Meantime Athens attained a political elevation so impor-
tant, that it possessed for some time a sort of general government
) over Greece, and became, at the same period, the
* The Doric future in aovftai,
t Such as the Attic declension in w ; gvv for Gvv &c.
1.] AND ITS DIALECTS.
centre ofliterary improvement. Greeks from all the tribes went
to Athens for their education, and the Attic works became the
models in every department of literature. The consequence was,
that when Greece soon after, under the Macedonian monarchy,
assumed a political unity, the Attic dialect, having taken rank of
the others, became the language of the court and of literature, in
which the prose writers, of all the tribes and of whatever region,
henceforth almost exclusively wrote. The centre of this later
Greek literature formed itself in Alexandria in Egypt under the
Ptolemies.
8. With the universality of the Attic dialect, as was to be ex-
pected, began its degeneracy. Writers introduced peculiarities of
their provincial dialects ; or, in place of anomalies peculiar to the
Athenians or of phrases that seemed artificial, made use of the
more regular or natural forms; or instead of a simple phrase,
which had become more or less obsolete, introduced a more popu-
lar derivative form.* Against this however the grammarians, often
pedantically and unreasonably, struggled ; and, in their treatises,
placed by the side of these offensive or inelegant modernisms,
the true forms from the old Attic writers. And hence it became
usual to understand by Attic, only that which was found in the
ancient classics, and was in the strictest sense peculiar to them ;
and to give to the common language of literature, formed in the
manner indicated, the name of xotv^ l the vulgar,' or * AA?;i>x>J,
1 the Greek, i. e. the vulgar Greek.' Hence also the subsequent
writers were called ol xowoi or oi' JSMrjvfg, in distinction from the
genuine Attic writers. Their language, however, is not to be
viewed as a separate dialect ; for after all this xoivrj dtuXtXTog re-
mained essentially Attic, and of course every common Greek
grammar assumes the Attic dialect as its basis.
It follows from this, that not every thing which was called At-
tic is on that account peculiar to this dialect, even in the classic
age. Moreover there were several Attic forms, which were not
* For instance vr t %tr>&ut for vtlv, to swim, and ttOOTQinv for
lo plough.
4 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. [ 1.
exclusively used even Jn Athens, but which were interchanged
with other universally adopted forms, as (fdohj with qt/Uo?, and
vv with avv ; as there were also several Ionic forms not wholly
unknown to the Attics, as the not contracted forms in the place of
contracted ones.
9. To the universality however of the Attic dialect an excep-
tion was made in poetry. In this department the Attics remained
the models only in one branch, the dramatic. As dramatic poetry
from its nature, even in tragedy, is necessarily the language of
actual life, the Attic stage admitted nothing but the Attic dialect,
which was retained in the sequel on all the other Grecian thea-
tres. In addition to this, the dramatic poets, particularly in the
dialogue, especially in that part written in trimeters, with the
exception of a freer use of the apostrophe and contraction, indul-
ged themselves in but few of the poetical licenses, as they are
called, and substitutions of other forms.
10. For the other sorts of poetry, particularly those which
were composed in hexameters, viz. the epic, didactic, and elegiac,
Homer, and the other elder Ionic bards, who continued to be read
in the schools, remained the models. Among them the old Ionic
and Homeric language was retained, with most of its peculiarities
and ancient forms, and became, as had been the case with the At-
tic dialect in prose, the reigning dialect or universal language in
this department of poetry in all ages. It is therefore best denom-
inated the Epic language, as its origin was exclusively in the epic
poetry.
11. The Doric dialect, however, even in later days, was not
excluded from poetry. On the contrary it sustained itself in
some of the subordinate branches of the art, particularly the pas-
toral and humorous. When, however, the language which pre-
vails in the lyrical portions of the drama that is, in the choruses
and passionate speeches is called Doric, it is to be remembered
that the Doricism consists in little else than the predominance of
the long a particularly in the place of, 7;, which was a feature of
the ancient language in general, and for its dignity continued in
use in sublime poetry, while in common life it remained a pecu-
liarity of the Dorians.
PART I.
ACCIDENCE AND ETYMOLOGY.
CHARACTER AND PRONUNCIATION.
The Greeks borrowed their characters principally from the
Phenicians, as sufficiently appears from the oriental names of the
letters in the Greek alphabet. They are the following ;
A
a
a
'Atya
Alpha
B
/3 S
b
JlrJTa
Beta
r
7 ~
o;
rdpna
Gamma
/i
d
d
z/e'/Utt
Delta
E
f
e
' E tytAOV
Epsilon
Z
^
z
Zrjra
Zeta
H
V
t
HTCJI
Eta
e
ft 6
th
1]TOC
Theta
i
i
i
ICOT&
Iota
K
A
*
k
1
Keen R a
Aa(JLJdct
Kappa
Lambda
M
fjL
m
Mv
Mu
\
V
n
Nu
Nu
A
i
X
v*
Xi
O
o
6
"O [jLixgor
O micron
n
ji ta>
P
Hi
Pi
p
9
r
'Pco
Rho
^
s
Zfyfia
Sigma
T
T 7
t
Tav
Tau
T
V
u
" T 1 '
Upsilon
(p
ph
&l
Phi
X
7.
ch
Xi
Chi
&
ifj
ps
IFi
Psi
SI
CO
V2 pey*
Omega
CHARACTER AND PRONUNCIATION. [ 2. 3.
1. The twofold mode of writing some letters is indifferently
, with the exception of a and g : (J is only used at the begin-
ning- and in the middle of a word, and only at the end.* The
latter is not to be confounded with g.
2. Of the abovementioned letters, a large number of abbrevia-
tions and characters have been formed, several of which are less
compendious than the common letters themselves, for which they
were designed as substitutes. Their use has accordingly been
much limited in modern times, and little difficulty will be found
in reading recent editions of Greek authors, if the following char-
acters are understood.
stands for ov g stands for GT
cS" for a# l for xai
for o? % for a%
Several of the characters, so called, are mere contractions of
the common letters, as M. for AA, &c.
3. The Greeks made use of the letters of their alphabet as
numerical signs. To fill out the numbers the stigma g was intro-
duced after *, the ^ after TT, and the V) after co.* All the nume-
rals moreover have the accent, as ' 1, @' 2, g' 6, i 10, ice 11, x
20, xg 26, (/ 100, a' 200, aA/?' 232, &c. The thousands begin
with , but with a mark underneath, y , ^, &c. fal/? 2232.
3.
1. It is impossible to ascertain the ancient pronunciation. Among
the modes in which Greek is pronounced in modern times, two
principally may be distinguished, the Erasmian and the Reuchlin-
ian. The pronunciation adopted in England and partly in Amer-
ica, resembles the Erasmian most nearly in the consonants, but
differs from both in the vowels.J
* Also by some modern writers at the end of a syllable, a distinction
however which leads to great difficulty, if extended beyond the most fa-
miliar compositions, as those with the enclitics and with 7I00, i/, 1$
and perhaps dv.
t g is called sti or stigma, Cy koppa, and ^ sanpi.
J We make use in this grammar of the Erasmian, because it incontest-
ably approaches nearest the ancient. This appears from the manner in
which Greek names are written by the Latins (as in the names of the let-
ters above in the alphabet,) and Latin names by the Greeks. There are
^ 4.] DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 7
2. F before another y and also before x, jr, , sounds like ng ;
e. g. tyyv?, eng-gus, like r?g in angler, or in the Latin word angustus ;
avyxQKJig, syngcrisis ; '^yylayg, Angchises ; ^(fly^ Sphiogx.
Z does not correspond to the English z, but has the sound of ds.
K in Greek words written in Latin, even before e and t, is rep-
resented by c ; as is also the Latin c represented in Greek by x ;
as Kipwv Cimon ; Cicero jfrixtprnv, the Romans having always
pronounced their c like k before a vowel.
4. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS.
1. The Letters are divided into Consonants and Vowels.
2. Among the consonants are first to be distinguished the three
compound letters, , , i/, each of which in reality consists of two
letters, represented however by a simple sound; of $?, of x?,
and ip of TIG.
3. The simple letters are divided, a) according to the organ*
with which they are pronounced, viz.
/?, 7i, <f, |U, are labials.
#, T, #, v, A, p, (7, linguals.
y, x, #, palatics.
b) The letters, according to their qualities, are either
SEMIVOWELS,* which are the following, A, /u, v, p, called also
liquids, and the simple sibilant a ; or
many internal arguments against the Rcuchlinian. According to this pro-
nunciation ri is pronounced liks i, at, like a long, and ft, Ot, V and f*
are all pronounced like , and v when it is second in a diphthong, with
the exception of Of, is pronounced like/, as civrog aflos, Ztvg sefs. This
pronunciation grounds itself on the modern Greek pronunciation, though
it can be proved that the latter has in the lapse of time departed from the
ancient. It is called, from the multiplication of the iota sounds, iotapis-
mus, or from the sound of r\ [I on the continent of Europe] itacism ; the
Erasmian, etacismus.
* So called by the ancients, as forming by their humming or sibilant
sound a transition to the articulate sound of the vowels.
DIPHTHONGS. [ 5.
MUTES, which are
aspirates qp, #, a*>,
medials /?, y, <J,
soft TT, x, r.
From this it appears, that each organ possesses the three
mutes, and that the nine letters, arranged thus,
ft yl *,'
7T, X, T,
correspond to each other, both in the horizontal and perpendicu-
lar directions.
4. No genuine Greek form terminates in any consonant, except
a, v, p ; for those which end in | and ip are to be considered as
terminating in xff and ng. 'En and ovx form the only exception,
and these never occur at the end of a clause.
5. DIPHTHONGS.
1. The ancient pronunciation of the diphthongs is the least
known. The manner in which they were pronounced by the
Romans will appear from the following examples.
at, tywdpog Phaedrus Phadrus on the continent of
Europe.
et Nffhog Nilus Nelus
Avxtiov Lyceum Lycaum
ot, BOIWTIU Bceotia Baotia
vi Ei).ti&via Ilithyia
av P\uvy,og Glaucu?
fv ^ fivpog Eurus*
ov Movoa Musa.
It is to be observed, that the Latin usage is not uniform, partic-
ularly in the case of it. This appears from the different modes of
writing tyvytvtia Iphigenia, Mrjdua Medea, 'UpaxfaiTog Hera-
* It is a modern error to write the a,v and fv before a vowel in Latin
with a v. It would be more correct to write JLgaue, Euan,
Evav.
6.] BREATHINGS.
clitus, J7bAuxAfro Polycletus, as also from the examples above
given ofNilus and Lyceum. A few Greek diphthongal forms in
ata, ota remain unchanged when written in Latin, except that
the i probably passed into the j according to Latin usage, as Mala,
ia, Tyo /a, Maja, Achaja, Troja.
2. From the above mentioned diphthongs are to be distin-
guished those which are called improper diphthongs, which are
formed by iota subscript placed under the following vowels,
, y, o).
The sound of these vowels is not affected by the iota subscript,
which serves only to indicate the derivation of the word. An-
ciently perhaps it was heard in the pronunciation. The ancients
moreover wrote the iota in the line, and in capital letters this is
still practised, as THI 2,O$>IAI, TTJ ao^m, TOJ "Adty or udy.
6. BREATHINGS.
1. Every word beginning with a vowel has over that vowJ
one or the other of the two following breathings, viz.
( ' ) The spiritus lenis or soft breathing.
( e ) The spiritus asper or aspirate.
The aspirate is our modern h ; the soft breathing stands where
in modern languages we simply begin with a vowel,* as
tyoj ego, 'AnQ\\ti)v Apollon, ajftog omos, IOTOQIO, historia, "OfAV}-
po? Romeros, vduQ hudor.
The two sorts of words, for all purposes of grammar and pros-
ody, are alike considered as beginning with a vowel.
2. In the case of a diphthong in the beginning of a word, the
breathing is placed over the second vowel of the diphthong, as
EvQinidrjg, ofo. This, however, is not the case with the improp-
er diphthongs, as " A&rft, q
* As the aspirate is represented in modern languages by h, so the soft
breathing is the oriental Jllif, and it has an actual force. Every vowel
uttered without a consonant, and of course every one which is pronounc-
ed separately from the preceding letters, must be pronounced with an au-
dible, though gentle impulse or breathing. The ancients were led to de-
note it the rather, as they wrote without a division of words.
S
PROSODY. [ 7.
3. The aspirate is always attached to Q when it begins a word,
and two p in the middle of a word are thus written, pp. This had
its foundation in the mode of pronouncing, for it was retained by
the Latins, as pfjreop, IIvQQog, rhetor, Pyrrhus.
The ^Eolians in several words made use of the soft breathing
instead of the aspirate ; which was also sometimes done in the old
Ionic. We accordingly find in Homer v^iv for Jju/i/, q&iog for
^fA*o, &c. The ^Eolians moreover had in many words a peculiar
aspiration of their own, denoted by a particular letter /, which
from its form was called digamma or double gamma, and was
pronounced like v or f. It is probable that this sound was origi-
nally found in the Greek language.
7. PROSODY.
1. Prosody, as now understood, includes only the subject of
quantity, that is, the length or shortness of the syllables*.
2. Every word and every form had for each syllable (with a
few exceptions) a fixed quantity, which followed the pronuncia-
tion of common life, and which must therefore be learned, in or-
der to pronounce correctly.
3. Quantity is denoted by two marks, (") for short, and (-) for
long, thus
short a, a long a, d uncertain or doubtful.
4. Every syllable which cannot be proved to be long is to be
considered short.
5. A syllable is long, first by nature, secondly by position.
6. I. A syllable is said to be long by nature, when its vowel is
long, as in Latin amdre and docere. In Greek, this is partly ascer-
tained in the character itself, as y and co are always long, and
o always short. The three others
* The elder Greek grammarians included under the
not only the quantity, but the accents, and breathings. The subject of
quantity is here treated not in reference to poetry, but to pronunciation
in general.
7.] PROSODY. 11
are, in Greek, as in Latin all the vowels, both long and short, and
for this reason are called doubtful (ancipites.j*
7. Among the sounds naturally long are also to be reckoned
those, in which two vowels are united into one sound.
a) All diphthongs are accordingly long without exception, as
the penult of puatttiog and tnadw.
b) All contractions for the same reasons are long ; and therefore
the doubtful vowels when they serve as contractions. Thus in
axo)v for aYxojf, i in Igog for ityog, and i; in the ace. pi. POTQVQ
for poTpvag. This does not extend however to such contractions
as are to be regarded in the light of elisions ; thus the penult of
ttnafta for ano-ajrca is short.
8. All the other cases, in which a, , and v are long, are ascer-
tained by usage alone, and can accordingly be learned, for the most
part, only by observing the use of them in the poets. As far as the
radical syllables are concerned, this must be acquired by every
person by his own observation, with the exception of a few rules,
which will presently be given. The quantity of the syllables us-
ed in the formation and inflection of the words, and the cases in
which the radical syllable changes its quantity in the inflection
and formation of words, are taught in their proper places in the
Greek grammar.
It is moreover to be considered, that in general those cases
only are noticed where in the inflection or formation of words
a, *, and v are long, and syllables of which nothing is said, or
where the reverse does not result from the general rule, are con-
sidered as short ; as the penult of TTpay/uaToe, iTvipdftrjv ; and in
the formation of words, as |iU*?eff, ftxatowity
9. II. A syllable, even if its vowel be short, is long by posi-
tion ; that is, when it is followed by two or more consonants or a
* We are not to suppose from this, that there is in the nature of the
vowels cc, t, V, in every case something doubtful and wavering between
long and short. All the single vowels are in certain words positively long,
in certain others positively short. But only in the e and o sounds did
the Greek alphabet contain for each case a separate sign or letter. In the
other three we learn their quantity in each separate case, from the usage
#f the poets, as we learn it in Latin in the case of all the vowels.
12
PROSODY.
double consonant ; e. g. the penultimate of Ityfa&at,
10. A mute before a liquid, however, is in general not consid-
ered in position; accordingly the penult is short in zrxj>0, di-
<tya;^uo?, ytvt&hri, dv^noxfjiog, &c. Nevertheless, the poets use
these syllables as long, and hence it is often said that mutes before
the liquids make the syllable doubtful.*
11. A true exception to the rule of mutes and liquids is formed
by the medials /?, j>, $, when they precede A, ju, i>, in which case
they render vowels long by position. Thus in the following words
the penult is long, ntnteypai, TtTQufiifihog, evodpog ; but in the
following it is short, jfapadpa, Mtheayoog,
5. The following are the most important cases, where the
doubtful vowels are long in the penult, and which it is of great
moment to learn correctly.
tattle
sorrowful
turban
companion
proud
with words derived from ayoj and itywpi and ending in
captain, vavayog a shipwrecked person.
TlttQCC
onadog
Givu.ni
knave
pure
mustard
jaw
as
o ycdwog
GlKlVOV
KVfAlVOV
o xlvdvvos
o
tvftvvr]
stove
rein
parsley
cumin
cyclamen
ax
Jiask
danger
ditch
account
an old man
shell or pod
crowd
o
Titdihov
VXOVITOV
\ r
TO
TllTVQQV
ayxvoa
yt'qvau
ohvoa
fruit of the pine
sandal
swallow
labourer
exact
aconite, a poison
pickled Jish
papyrus, a reed
spoil
bran
anchor
bridge
a sort of grain.
Great care must be taken in these cases to ascertain whether the
be not long by nature, for then it must remain long ;
which comes from $Ao, which is contracted from
, long. ,
and has its
PROSODY. 13
So too ia%vQog strong (from io%va) I am able.) On the other
hand i%vQQ? and oyvgog firm (from i% c / /ioW) have a short u, like
other adjectives in upo.
It is safer to pronounce the following with the penult long.
though they sometimes are found short :
[tvQtxr] tamarisk xoQvvr] club
TitiiwvQu flood TOQVVV trowel.
The following proper names are long in the penult:
* '
Qtavw^ 'luawv," Apaoig,
(Serapis.) t v
, 'Evinfvg, Zigicpog, 7$<mxog, JTa/xo?, Jfcfc'Atro?, Oai-
' , Alyivu, ' '
waoq, '[Afiypvoog, Kafipvoijg, 'AQiviug, Kw-Avrog, Br t -
"Afivdog, Bi&vvog, IIa%vvov, KtQXVQa (Corcyra.)
6. The first syllable of the following words is long :
i//jAo bare fjuxQog small
o %ikog fodder Tif^rj honour
Htf-iog hunger vixrj victory
77 Qivog skin xktvij couch
lixog simple divr} ^ vortex
6 ftvpog mind o %vhog chyle
6 pvpog pole of carriage 6 TVQog cheese
6 %v[i6g juice d nvpog wheat*
6 %QV6og gold yvhr] tribe
%wog common i'A>; wood or matter
bent tout] gri^f'
soul
Of the verbs which terminate in a simple co attached to the
radical syllable it is to be observed in general, that the a is short,
as in ayoj, ypagrtw. The t, and^ 1 are long, as in T^/^W, avgaj, yv-
^0), excepting yXuyw I engrave, which has the v short.
The case of cu'to, * v w, and vvo) will be separately treated below.
Of the contracted verbs, the following, whose first syllable is
long, require particular notice :
xivtro I move dtqaw I dip
I shudder atAaw / plunder
I am silent (i'daco / blow.]
* On the contrary niJQOg, the genitive of TO Trup, fire.
t The learner should be taught to apply these quantities to ascertain
the pronunciation of derivatives like ctTl[40g, a\pv%0?, tTQifiov, diaTQi"
/?cu, f'A.^Qi'&rjg^ aovhov, &c. also of the proper names, as Hennotimus.
Demonicus, Euphyle, &r.
14 ACCENTS. [ 8.
7. Some words are deserving of notice, which, being derived
from verbs, instead of the long vowel of the present, take the
short vowel of the second aorist Thus some substantives in /, as
TQifir}, diuTQlfir), a'ipi>/*7, 7[a(ja\pv%?}. But tyv%?j is long.
And some adjectives in rtf gen. tog. Thus
8. The rule, that one vowel is short before another, which
wants certainty in Latin, is still less certain in Greek ; although a
long vowel occurs seldomer before another vowel, than before a
consonant. The nouns in tog, wv, *, have the i always short,
with these exceptions, where it is commonly long, viz. xwAta nest,
xovia dust, dv/a sorrow.
The termination of the present tense in vw and lot must be
learned from observation. It is very often long.
The penult of the following words deserves notice, as being
long:
o* laog people ^ thaa the olive
xaoj for xaioj I burn xAaw for xAa/cu / weep
o vaog temple 'vvw Bellona.
Those also in daw and /wi/, which take o in the genitive, such
as the comparatives like (fteArfoy, and proper names, have their
penultimate long ; as Jtfitjracw, ^uf#ao>j/, ^[.Hpiwv, 'fjif^iwv^
gen. oi>og. On the other hand the penult is short in ^fnouxA/fw,
0oo[Ai(jDv, gen. (ovog. Proper names in aog^ compounded from
Aoco?, are of course long, in the penult, as JfcfttUcrofT* '^//ugp^a^o?
is long, but Oivo[Auog is short.
9. The accents are of great use in deciding the quantity of
many words.
/
8. ACCENTS.
1. Besides the quantity of the syllables, the Greek language
recognized a tone (rovog) or what we call the accents ; of which,
however, it is difficult, according to our ideas, to make any use in
pronunciation. Inasmuch as the accent is found as often on a short
syllable as a long one, we cannot express it as we usually express
accent, without injuring the quantity, as in r
* In English we still pronounce Amphi'on, but use has established
Hype'rion ; see Walker's key, ( 29.
t The modern Greeks, however, even in reading the poets, pronounce
according to the accent?, and their own versification is wholly founded
upoo them.
9, 10.] ACCENTS. 15
So long therefore as it is out of our power to indicate both the
quantity and the accent in our pronunciation, it is safer to follow
the quantity in reading the Greek.
2. Notwithstanding this, an acquaintance with the accents is
essential to a thorough knowledge of Greek ; nor are they without
advantage even for common use. They often indicate, by their
position, the quantity of a syllable ; many words and forms of dif-
ferent signification, but otherwise written alike, are distinguished
by the accents; and even in cases where they are not thus of im-
mediate use, they serve to fix the laws of their position, by which
we are to be guided in the cases where they are of use. The
following are the chief rules relative to the accents.
1. Every Greek word, generally speaking, has the accent on one
of its vowels, and this is properly the acute, 6t7u (nyoaotdia accent
being understood,) that is, the sharp accent, which is written thus '.
2. Of every syllable, which has not this accent, it was held by
the ancients, that it received the heavy or grave accent ; that is
that, in which the voice descended, pugf7a or gravis. The mark
of this is \ which, however, is not in common writing affixed to
the syllables to which it belongs.
3. A long vowel, moreover, may receive the circumflex, call-
ed in Greek nfQionw^itvri, that is -wound about, and written thus ~.
Such a syllable is to be considered as composed of two short vow-
els drawn together, of which one has the acute and the other the
grave accent ; thus oo, whence oj. When, however, two short
vowels marked thus oo pass into one, it is written o').
10.
1. The accent, acute, grave, or circumflex, can only be plac-
ed on one of the three last syllables of the word ; the circumflex
only on one of the two last.*
* MTWI and the like will appear, under the head of enclitics, to be
>nly apparent exceptions to this rule.
10 ACCENTS.
2. The character of the last syllable, in respect to the accent,
gives a name to the whole word. According as this syllable has, 1st
the acute. 2d the circumflex, or 3d the grave, the word is called
Oxytone, fcs fttoG, og, Ttrvyxag
Perispomenon, as . quAoj, vovg^
Barytone, as tv7iia),7r()ay{*a, Trpay/wara.
Thus barytone verbs are distinguished from the contracts,
which are perispomena or circumflexed.
3. Again all barytones, which are dissyllables or polysyllables,
according as they have the acute, 1st upon the penult, 2d the an-
tepenult, or 3d the circumflex on the penult, are called
Paroxytona, as Torero),
Proparoxytona, as Tvmofifvos,
Properispomena, as 7rpa/|
4. Barytones of one syllable, or words wholly without accent,
are the following, all beginning with a vowel :
ov (oJx, ov%) not, wg as, tl if, Iv in, */ff, lg <o, l, (Ix) out.
And these nominatives of the prepositive article,
o, ?J, ol, m.
When it is said that these words are without accent, it is meant
that they take none, in their connexion with other words. But
when at the end of a sentence, or after a word dependent on them
in the construction, they are sometimes written with the acute :
~ v n * ct ~ '/v.
Q ov ; frtog tu xctxcu)/ eg.
When an oxytone precedes in connexion other words, the
acute accent is considered as softened into the grave, and the ' is
changed into the \ which, except in this case, is never written. But
at the end of a sentence, or before a period, or colon, the mark of
the acute accent is retained, thus
OQY J } $* TioAAa dgav avayxafet xcrxa.*
The interrogative T/?, j/, is the only exception to this rule, as
will appear in its place.
* Care must therefore be had not to regard words ending in x as bary-
/ones: on the contrary, they are-all oxytones with the acute accent qui-
escent, on account of the connexion with other words.
vS 12.] ACCENTS. 1?
12. PLACE OF THE ACCENT.
On what syllable each word receives the accent, is best to be
learned from observation and the lexicon. The following rules,
however, particularly in reference to the choice between the two
kinds of accent, may be applied with advantage.
1. The circumflex requires a vowel long in itself, and not
merely made long by position. Thus xv?o, #w, itl%og, ovxog,
oi*Tjyfia. Also Ti t uaT{, yplv, TT^, for in these words the doubt-
ful a, , r, are long. A short vowel can accordingly receive no
accent but the acute, as tTtgog, (ttvos, 'iva, TtjpO?, TtoAi/, nltygta.
This furnishes an instance of the use of the accents in deter-
mining the quantity of the doubtful vowels; for since a circumflex
cannot stand over a^vowel which is merely long by position, the
a in npaypcc and ^laV.ov is recognized as long in itself.
2. The acute accent may also stand on a long vowel, as
3. The cases in which the last syllable, being naturally long,
receives the circumflex, can only be learned from the lexicon and
some rules which are to follow in other parts of the grammar, es-
pecially the rules of contraction and declination.
4. If the penult, when long by nature, is accented, it must al-
ways be with the circumflex, whenever the last syllable is short,
or long by position only, as p?; ( , oivog, i//#o, /?wA (G. xo.)
This accent shows the learner that the a in pa and of
these words is short, and the v in tyi>%o<s long.
This rule, however, does not apply to the cases where an
enclitic forms a part of the word. We accordingly write f/Vf, ovTf ,
W7Tfp,, IjTUS, rOU&, &C.
The only real exceptions are words formed of */and vat by
protracting them, as t'i&f would that, and vui%t> yes certainly.*
5. If the last syllable is long by nature, a circumflex cannot
stand on the penult ; for instance (5?jrojp, otvy, */w#w, #w'p (G.
* JYca Jfi, which is found in some works otherwise correct, is erroneous
3
18 ACCENTS. [$ 12, 13.
6. On the antepenult no accent but the acute can stand. If
fhe last syllable is long, whether by nature or by position, the an-
tepenult can receive no accent whatever ; accordingly we write
7. The terminations at and <H, however, though long in them-
selves, are regarded as short in reference to the preceding rules.
Accordingly we find TV7iTO(,icti, ctvOgconoi ,c. TiyoqijTui (plural of
ngo(fji]Tiig) and 7rwAof, &c.
Exceptions to this principle are, (l) The third person of the
the optative in Oi and *, as tyfvvoi, noninv.i ; (2) The adverb
oixoi at home, although (HY.OI houses follows the rule ; (3) The words
compounded of enclitics, as o'ifjiot, woe is me.
The a) in the terminations of the Attic declension, though
long, also admits an accent on the antepenult, as noAftib?, and roj-
yfO)v- also the Ionic genitive in fto.
From the preceding rules, the use of the accents in ascertain-
ing the quantity of many words is apparent, e. g.
1. The circumflex shows the syllable on which it stands to be
long.
2. By rule 4, the acute in such words as KUQxlvo^ Pft&poV)
shows that the penult is short.
3. The accent of such words as 7i?p, U'GOVQK shows by 4 and
6 that the last syllable of these words is short.
4. The acute on the penult of /o'tga, Ai$v. &c. shows by 4, 5,
that the last syllable of these words is long.
Even in words and forms, from whose own accent no imme-
diate inference as to their quantity can be drawn, the comparison
with other words will furnish us often with a direction. Thus
we shall infer that aatro? has its penult long and fttoqdus short,
because a7cos has the circumflex and qikog the acute. So of adi-
xog from <5'/x;, dimti. But the circumflex on monosyllables will
afford no inference with respect to the lengthened forms, because
monosyllable nominatives of the third declension are always long ;
as nvy, /wi)?, TIVQO?,
13. CHANGE OF THE ACCENT BY INUNCTION.
When a word undergoes a change by declension, conjugation,
or in any other way, the accent is variously affected-
1. The accent is necessarily affected by such a change, when
the word is so altered by this chnnge, that the accent cannot re-
main as it was, without a violation of the above rules. E. g.
\ 14.] ACCENTS. 19
The circumflex must pass into the acute, as oivog, oivov
( 12. 5.) (jijuot, ytjuuiog ( 10. 1.)
Tii- 1 acute must pass into the circumflex, as qptvya), imperative
ytvyt (5 12, 4.)
Or the acute must pass from the antepenult to the penult, as
ut'&'jamo? dv&GConov, uoovgu aoovoaz ( 12. 5, 6.)
2. But even when the accent might have remained as it was,
without violating the rules, though not altered indeed in this case,
yet it is often made to change its place. E. g.
It is thrown back, either when any addition is made to the be-
ginning of the word, as TVTCTOJ TVTiT,odog Gl>vodo?,T[OtidVTO
cniaifcirtOG, or when the cause is removed, which in the radi-
cal form fixed it to the penult as Tiuidtvco, naldevf.
It is thrown forward, principally when the word receives one
of the terminations which are marked with an accent, either al-
ways, as TtTVffu TTV<pojg, or in certain cases, as &r t o, #>;po?.
<J 14. ENCLITICS.
1. There are a number of words, which, considered in them-
selves, have an accent like others, but which some always, some
commonly, and some often connect themselves so closely by
sense and pronunciation to the preceding word, as to throw their
accent upon it. This is called fy/.hat? or inclinatio toni, and
the words subject to this inclination are called enclitics.*
2. The following are enclitics.
a) The indefinite pronoun tfc, TI, in all the cases, with the
forms TOV and rcjT belonging to it.
b) The following oblique cases of the personal pronouns, pov
(.101, (Lie, aov, 6oi, of, oi', of, t, (.itv, viv, and some of those which
begin with oq.
c) The present indicative of itfii and qr^ii, with the exception
of the monosyllabic second person singular.
* In opposition to this name, every accented word, and of course an
enclitic itself, when not thus deprived of its accent, is called orthotone,
OO&OTOVOVllfVOV.
20 ACCEM>. [,14-
d) The adverbs jiw'ff, XT?}, rco/, TIOU, JTO#I, no&t'v, noxt, which
are distinguished only by their enclitic accent, from the correspond-
ing interrogates TTW?, 710^, &c.
e) The particles 7ra>, r*, ro/, #?Ji>, j^', xe or xtV, vv or i/wi/,*
7r*p, {>, with the inseparable particle tie.
3. If the preceding word be a proparoxy tone, as ai/#0omog, or
a properispomenon, as acu/sa, the accent of the enclitic is thrown
upon tie last syllable of such preceding word, but always as an
acute, whatever be the accent of the enclitic in itself considered.
Thus uv&Qtanos tart, (7w/4a (tov.
If the preceding word has no accent, as , it takes that of the
enclitic, as ft rig.
4. If the preceding word has already an accent on the last
syllable, or an acute on the penult, this accent serves for the en-
clitic. Moreover in this case the acute accent on the last syllable,
instead of being written like the grave, as it would otherwise be
according to 11, is written as the acute, as ainjip vis' xui oot'
cfdaj of yvvawwv nvwv avdpa, T6' fa'ytig 11.
5. If, however, the enclitic be a dissyllable, the accent of the
preceding paroxytone will not thus suffice for it, and it retains its
own accent, as Ao'/o? noil, Ivavrlos oqr/aji/, which is also done when
the preceding word undergoes an apostrophe, as noMol d' flolv.
6. If one enclitic follows another, in general, the first, while
it throws its own accent on the preceding word, takes on itself the
accent of the second, and the second of the third, and so on ; so
that the last enclitic alone remains without accent, as et zls rwv,
7. The enclitics remain orthotone, only when some peculiar
emphasis lies on them ; and as this can never be the case with
many of these particles, they are never found but as enclitics.
As many of these enclitics are so closely united with the pre-
ceding word as to constitute but one, and to have, as such; an as-
certained sense, it is usual to write them as one, as wgro, ovzt,
ologxe or oiogrt, /ufWot, ogxiQ, WVTLV^V. Tl^e enclitic &, which
* Distinguished by its accent from vv v now.
15, 16.] STOPS AND MARKS. 21
must be carefully distinguished from the conjunction fit but, occurs
thus in o&, toiogdf, tads, tiopovdt, &c.
15. STOPS AND MARKS.
1 . The period and comma are used in writing Greek as in Eng-
lish. The colon and semicolon are not distinguished from^each
other, but are both written by a point at the top of the line, as
ovx %\&ti>' /U . The note of interrogation is the semicolon
( ; ) of the modern languages.
2. The comma is not to be confounded with the diastole or hy-
podiastole, which serves to indicate more distinctly certain words
compounded of enclitics, and to discriminate them from words not
otherwise different ; thus 6,rt neuter from ogrig, and TO,T and
that, to distinguish them from the particles OTI and TOTS.
Apostrophe, (').
Diaeresis () placed over a vowel which does not form a
diphthong with the vowel that precedes it, as o'i'g a sheep,
mild, pronounced o-is and pra-us.
16. CHANGE OF LETTERS; CONSONANTS.
1. In the formation and inflection of words in Greek many
changes take place, principally for the sake of euphony, which
often make it hard to trace the root, but which still are common-
ly made on fixed principles.
2. Those consonants, which are of the same organ, or of the
same corresponding character in different organs, are prone to
pass into each other, when a change takes place in the inflection.
3. This is the foundation of the diversity of the dialects, as the
following sketch will show.
REM. 1. The dialects interchange frequently:
a) The aspirates with each other, as &Kuv, Att. qkav, to crush.
b) The medials, as /A^/oji/, Att. 8Kr)%wv, pennyroyal; for/*/,
the old Dor. is da, earth.
22 CHANGE OF LETTERS. 16.
c) The smooth ; thus the interrogative and kindred form?, in-
stead of the common JT, as in Trot;, TIMS, nolo$, onolog, "ic, &c. have
with the lonians always x, as xo, xw, xo?o?, dxoiog, y.oj. So too
for niv T6 five, the ^Eolics say n^nne.
d) The liquids ; thus the Dorics for ^A^ot'Said t}v\)~ov^l came;
the Ionics for nvfupwv said nkviia)i> lungs. The Ionic fiiV /u'm
is with the Dorics and Attics vlv.
e) The letters of the same organ. Thus the Attics preferred
yvaqevg to xvaqevg a fuller ; and the lonians occasionally chang-
ed tfie aspirate^ into the _corresponding,.?woo/z, as dixofjiut, for fa'/o-
t uai I lake ; avTi>g for ctv&i>G again ; Att. anqapayog, Ion. ff7To-
, asparagus.
f ) The a with the other lin^uals, particularly
with r, as for au, Doric TU, thou ;
with v, as for the ending ptv, the Dorics have ^f?, as TVHTO-
[A.tV, Doric TV7lTO t Ut.
g) The double letters with the corresponding single ones, par-
ticularly d with C, as oj> another form of d6$$ a roe ; paddi*. Dor-
ic for f.ida dough, &c. Still more commonly for C, in the middle
of a word, the Dorics make use of ad ; as avyiadco for avytaj, I
whistle.
2. We must not, however, think that these or any similar chan-
ges prevail throughout a dialect without exception. The dialects
have only a tendency toward certain changes, which we must make
use of to explain the cases, that actually occur. Sometimes the
change takes place only in a single case, as for instance for GVV
the old form is vv, which change of i and | is found in the be-
ginning of no other word whatever. Two changes are so frequent
as to deserve specification, viz.
XT and GG
QQ and (>o
of which TT and QQ are favourite forms of the Attic dialect, and <JG
and pa of the Ionic. Thus
Att. f lon.
Tcc(j(jt,v to arrange
tongue
male
cheek.
The Ionic forms of these words are found, however, occasion-
ally in Attic writers.
17,18.] ASPIRAT 23
17. THE ASPIRATES.
1. Each aspirate may be considered as having had its origin
in the kindred smooth mute, combined with the rough breathing ;
hence the mode of writing them in Latin pk, th, ch.
2. When therefore in the composition of words a smooth mute
comes in contact with the rough breathing, an aspirated letter is
formed ; thus the words r/, dt'/.u, ca/ro'?, after an elision of their
last syllables, form in combination with qptQa day, ly^iifpoz, 8s-
oj, av&yfifQog.
3. The same happens in two words not thus combined ; thus
oi-x becomes 01.7 in or/ oWw?, and with the addition of an apos-
trophe ,TO, V, becomes dq\ asa^' oi, and Vr/. UI-T\ becomes
av ft , as uvfr o)i'.
But the Fonians retain the smooth mute in both cases, as *V
for ftf&HJTair(xi from
1. It was a principle in the Greek language that two successive
syllables should not each begin with an aspirate. This rule was
not without exception ; where it operates, however, the first aspi-
rate is usually changed into the corresponding smooth mute. Thus
from q.uf7i> and /coc^/Vare formed, in the reduplication, TifyiJiijxa,
and xtyojoijxv., instead of q*q>ilijxa and ;^/ojp?;xa.
2. Some few words have, in their radical form, two successive
aspirates, of which the first agreeably to this rule, passed into the
corresponding smooth mute. But in those parts of the word,
where the second aspirate undergoes a change by other laws of
inflection, the first aspirate returns. E. g.
From the root QPE<& is the present tense rptqa) I nourish ;
future 0prtyra.-. Derivatives, r^ogr?;. t^rrr/^oi/, ftgtuna.
From the root QPEX, present 10*70) I run ; future middle
t>pt'o/4cu. Derivative tQOjpq.
3. In a few words of this kind, the first aspirate retains its place
in the leading forms, such as the nominative of a noun and the
present of a verb, and not in the derivatives. E. g.
24 CHANGE OF LETTERS. [ 19.
From the root SPJX, nom. ?? #p/ hair, gen. Tpt%og, dat. pi.
&Qt,%iv. Derivative igi^oa).
From the root A<&, pres. -frdnTO) I bury, aorist pass, trdyijv.
Derivative roccpog. %
4. The second of two aspirates is seldom thus changed. It is
regularly done, however, in the imperatives in &i-, as dtrt, rvcp-
&r}Tt, for tit'tit, iiHp&y&i.
REM. 1. In some words the Ionics change one of the aspirates
and the Attics the other; thu's o %wwv, Ion. XM^OJI/, a garment,
tVTfv&tv, tvTavtia, Ion. ev&tVTfV f IV&UVTK.
REM. 2. The passive ending &rjv, with its derivatives, has the
effect of changing the preceding aspirate into a smooth mute
only in the verbs ftvtiv to sacrifice, and ftiivcu to place ; as ITV&IJV,
eT&hjv 3 Tf&fi?. In al\ t other verbs, no^ change is effected in this
way ; as IftvlhiP, eJ{>i?oji9^j/ from OQ&oa), ftoi.cp&fiz, i&Qicp'&rjv, l-
&&X&11V, Morover in most of the remaining cases of derivation
and composition the same license prevails, and we say navT<x%6-
REM. 3. This rule perhaps extended not only to the aspirated
letters, but to the rough breathing, which it turned into the smooth
breathing. Of this, however, there is but one trace remaining,
viz. from the root 'EX is formed present t%w I have, fut. co, de-
rivative tKJtfttog, where the aspirated breathing is changed into
the smooth breathing in the present, on account of the following
aspirate /, but reverts to the rough breathing in f|w and xr*xoV,
where | and x take the place of /.
ID. MULTIPLICATION OF CONSONANTS.
1 . The Greeks avoided every roughness arising from the se-
quence of consonants not easily pronounced together.
2. In pursuance of this, three consonants, or one with a double
consonant, can never (except in the case of composition like dvg-
<p&apTog, 6X7ira>fft?, *xt//u^o>,) stand together, unless the first or
last be a liquid, or a y before the palatics y,' x, #, as tUfup&tlG,
(7xA?}po, Tfy^ca. In other cases such a concurrence is avoided
or a letter dropped.
3. But a roughness may be produced even by the concurrence
of two consonants, which is avoided by the application of the fol-
lowing rules.
20.] CONSONANTS. 25
REM. 1. In a few rare cases the pronunciation is relieved, by in-
troducing a third consonant. As when e. g. the liquid (A or v, by
omission of a vowel, comes to stand directly. before A or p, then the
middle mute corresponding to the first of them (/?, d) is interposed ;
thus from ijintoa day is formed ptdijpjpQlu south, from ^e^if^Tai,
arose the epic form |U///2>U?cu, and avijp man has in the genitive
REM. 2. A consonant is sometimes, but not often, by transposi-
tion, placed where it will be more easily pronounced, aS ijrpa&ov
from ni'p-&co, and xa^<)Va, epic form x@adi?] heart.
20.
1. When two mutes of a different organ meet, it is the rule that
before a smooth mute nothing can stand but another smooth, before
an aspirate nothing but another aspirate, before a middle nothing
but another middle mute ; as TITU, VVXTOG, (f&tva), a%&os,
2. When therefore, in the formation of words, two mutes of an
unlike character meet, the former commonly assumes the charac-
ter of the latter. Thus by adding the termination TO'?, dqv,
are formed from yaaqa) I write, ypanTog, yQapdrjv, and from
/ twine, nlt%&tig.
3. But of two like mutes already combined, one alone cannot
be changed, but always both together, as from imu, OXTOJ are
formed zfjdoftog, oydoos, and when of two smooth mutes the se-
cond, by the addition of the rough breathing, becomes an aspirate,
the first becomes an aspirate also ; thus from tnTo. and yfJiiQa. is
formed iq-ftr^ifooc; of seven days ; and from VVXTCC, vu%& bhrjv the
"whole night*
4. The preposition ^x alone remains unaltered before all con-
sonants, as
* The Greeks probably made as much audible difference between y,
and */, as \ve hear between T and -O". We are unable in English to make
this distinction. On the other hand, most of the continental nations of
Furopc distinguish between x and y, but confound T and t9".
4
26 CHANGE OF LETTERS. [ 21, 22, 23.
1. The doubling of the same consonant is not very common in
Greek. It takes place most frequently in the liquids, and next
to them, in T.
2. When p stands at the beginning of a word, if a simple vow-
el is made to precede it in composition or inflection, the @ is usu-
ally doubled ; thus tpptnov and appfnyg from Qtnw with and a,
nfQipQOo? from ntgl and Qtw. This, however, does not hold in
the case of diphthongs, as fupatfroy from v and Qtavvvpi.
3. The aspirates are never doubled, but instead thereof an as-
pirate must be preceded by the kindred mute ; thus 2anq.-<o,
REM. 1. Those poets who do not use the Attic dialect, double a
consonant very often for the sake of the metre, as oooov, OTTI, tv-
1/67T6, for Odor, &c. This however is not wholly arbitrary, but
takes place often in some words, and never in others, as i'xi, tTt-
REM. 2. The poets also make use of the opposite practice, in
employing the single consonant, where the common dialect has
the double, as Wjg^Ui/?, 'Odvows, for '
When /?, TT, (jp ; and y, x, /, come before a, they pass with the
a into the kindred double consonant ip or . Thus, in the future
ending, which is regularly <reo, are made from A^/TT-W, A* /T/^OJ, from
Af'yoj, Ai|co, from y^>a^ w, yjpi//(w, from orfi^cD^ GifiZo), &c. And
in the ending d* and aiv of the dative plural, we find from
, from
23.
t. Before /u, in the middle of a word, the labials are uniformly
changed into p ; thus in the perfect tense passive, from A^/TTCD, ).i-
Af^/u^ucA. So too from Tplfiw, T^i^ifia^ from j/pa^w, j/^a^UjU^.
2. The palatics and linguals are often changed before /w, K
and # into /, arid <5, #, r, ^, into (7 ; thus nfa'xw TiAf'y^a, -tevyw tt-
24.25.] CONSONANTS VOWELS. 27
24.
The linguals #, #, r, , can only stand before liquids. They
are dropped before <r, as '<5o> aw, Tifl&oj Tif/dcu, aw para
Before other linguals they are changed into a ; thus #tfo> >/'a-
#>/*', 7ltl&(l) TltlG-TtOV.
25.
1. The y remains unaltered, in general, only before $, #, and
r. Before the labials it is changed into /u, and before the palatics
into y, pronounced as ng. Accordingly in composition GVV with and
(v in are thus changed ; ai^rraff^w, ipfiaivto^
owyytvrjg, iy^eiQt^o^ lyl-tca.
An apparent exception is made in the enclitics, which are not
considered as forming one word sufficiently to authorize the
change of the v\ thus we write
2. Before one of the liquids, the v passes over into the same
letter, as avMtyco, feUU/mv, i^u/uiVcw, GVQQUTITW.
But the preposition Iv commonly remains unchanged before p,
as ivQamo).
3. Before a and , the v in composition is sometimes retained,
sometimes changed into ff, and sometimes dropped. In inflections
the v is commonly dropped before ff. as hi the dative plural, #/-
(xov-fZ doufio-at) ftyif-fS pq-alv.
4. When after the v, a ^, ^, or r, has been omitted before a
(by 24.) the short vowel is made long, as navr-eg nct-ai, ruyuv-
Tf?, n/^afft, for which end f passes into ft, and o into Of, as
ant'vdo) fut. and-ow, txovt-tg dat. txov-ow.
REM. 1. The exceptions to these rules, as Titqavaai (2 pers.
perf. pass, of yulvw) are rare, and are learned by observation.
REM. 2. Before ff and , *V is always unchanged, as ivatlw.
2vv changes its v into a before a single (J, as ffVOTWr/a, but if an-
other consonant follow, and also before , the v is dropped, as ov-
, (Fwjwy*,
28 CHANGE OF LETTERS. ['26.
26. CHANGE OF VOWELS.
1. No certain laws regulate the change of the vowels, in the
formation and inflection of Greek words. It includes under it the
lengthening and shortening of sounds ; since it rarely happens that
when f or o for instance, from any cause are lengthened, that
they pass into r\ or to, .but generally into ft or oi>.
These changes also, like those of the consonants, can be best
observed, in the comparison of dialects.
REM. 1. The Ionics are prone to lengthen the t and o of the
other^ dialects, but c principally only, when a semi-vowel follows ;
as Itwog, *iWx, vntjQi for t'vog ^ strange, tvixa on account of, v-
ntQ over ; vovcjog, ovvopu, novhug, XOI^T?, for vooog disease, oi>o-
fia name, nokug much, xcip?; maiden ; or when the * is followed by
another vowel, as %yi>G-fiog for-fo? golden; which licenses are
particularly abundant in the poets. But this is not wholly arbi-
trary, as there are some words never subjected to this license,
such as TtoAeg, rovog, ^H>og, nf$i,&LC.
REM. 2. When and o are lengthened by the lonians, they
pass into ui and 01, as dfrof eagle, afi always ; Ionic, ctlfxog, ale I.
So' noa grass, Ionic TIG/?;.
REM. 3. In other cases, the reverse is practised by the Ionics,
Dorics, and poets ; and we find juf&uj/, y.ptooow, %fpog, for /u/bjy
greater, x<jft(j(ja)i> better, *00g (genitive from ytiQ hand) ; and for
the accusative in ovg the Dorics use og. See below in Declen-
sion II.
REM. 4. In other cases, the Dorics for o and ov make frequent
use of co, as xco^o? for xo'(jo? or y.ovyoq a young man, <)wAo for
dovhog a slave.
REM. 5. The r) in most cases had its origin in , which pre-
vailed in the ancient Greek language, and remained also afterwards
the characteristic sound of the Doric dialect, which commonly
uses a long a for 17, as afitQO. for t]/itt<ja day, quita for tfypr] re-
port, GTuvui. for <Jii { i>ai, to stand. (See I. 11.)
REM. 6. The Ionics, on the' other hand, preferred the y and
commonly ^used it instead of the long tx, as rifti^r), Gocfh], for u >
ir]TQog, i 'Oo')(ni'S,, for laroog physician and t9o^i" breast plate (geni-
tive xJfo^tt/o?), n^GGO), nQrjyttci, for TT^aWco, -nQay^u.
REM. 7. It is a peculiarity of the Attic dialect borrowed from
the Ionic, when long stands before o, to change the a into f and
the^ o into co ; as for Aao? people, i>aog temple, the Attics read ^coV,
vfwg.
REM. 8. The Ionic dialect frequently changes the short a into
& 27.] CONTRACTIO 29
na
t before liquids and before vowels, as TtoafVfZ for Ttaoupf$four ;
'tf for a pay if male ; vfl.o? for vakos glass ; fivt'a for JUI/CCM ww-
and in \he verbs in a to. In other cases a is used for t, as
for iptna) I turn; TUU.VW for Tt(.ivw I cut ; ptya&Qg for
Hiytftoq greatness.
REM. 9. In the compounds of ITO? se//*, and the words ftavfta
wonder, and r cout>p(t wound, the Ionics change av into cur, as fiit-
tainov, tcoviov, T>cijt, ( ua, Tpoti-f-iu.
REM. 10. Other changes are the following; Tiowroe the first,
Doric n^aros, f nupdahg the leopard, Doric HO0&JU?, 6Vo-
/wa name. .-Eolic ovvpu, i'ai/a hearth, Ionic tor//;.
27. PURE VOWELS; CONTRACTIO-
1. A vowel immediately preceded by another vowel, in the
same word, is called a pure vowel, being pronounced without the
aid of a consonant ; and particularly the terminations in a, Os, and
co, are called pure, when another vowel precedes, as in
2. The characteristic difference of the Ionic and Attic dialects
is, that the former, in most cases, seeks the concurrence of vow-
els, and the latter avoids them.
3. The common means by which the Attic dialect avoids them
are the following, viz.
I. Elision, by which one vowel is cast away and the other re-
tained.
II. Contraction, by which several vowels are drawn into one
long sound. This takes place principally in the formation and in_
flection of words, according to the following principles.
a) Two vowels form of themselves a diphthong ; thus tt and
01 are formed from fJ'and o'i', as rWger TO/gtt* uido't' aidtit.
The other proper diphthongs have generally a different origin ;
but the improper diphthongs may all be considered as formed by
contraction, viz. , r t , co, from ?', rj'i, co/', as yi'lpai' yt'jpa, 9pr t i'ooa
b) Two vowels pass into a kindred long vowel or diphthong ;
and generally as follows :
30 CONTRACTIONS. [ 27.
77 from (a rtt^ea ^W/?7, ** *nQ heart.
tt, from ff note* nokt,, $&$QOV yH&pov stream,
an( * aOV
a) from
f o and o?? ald'oct w/^co,
too TiAooe &iov$,
< 06 - ll
OV from < 06 - fllQ&Qt
{(0 - Ttl%(0g Ttl%OV$, JlOltOfitV TfOlOVfAtV.
c) The doubtful vowels a, , u, when they are short, absorb
the following vowel, and thereby become long, as af#Ao Ionic
with short a, Attic d&kog combat, Tifiae T//ua, dative " fq)h" lyl,
fy&veg and -a? with u short, contr. lyftv^ from the sing, fy&vg.
d) A long sound absorbs a short vowel, without farther change.*
This is particularly the case with the following, viz.
With t both before and after almost every long sound,
With and o principally by kindred sounds and by w, as rt-
r^eo, HoGtidciWv Tloatidwv Neptune, Aaa? Aas a *ione, /ttt-
a&ooyot tuafrovai, n\6ot nKoi.
4. When a diphthong compounded with *, the improper diph-
thongs not excepted, is to be contracted with a preceding vowel,
the two first vowels undergo a change, according to the preceding
rules, and the i either becomes subscript, as Tvm-icu, rvm-y, atl-
dcD ado) I sing, doi-dr) cody song, Ttfi-dfi and TiiA-ay Tifji-a, or the
i is dropped if the contracted sound is not of a nature to admit t,
subscript, as [tiG&-Ofw fki0&-ovv, 'Onoftg 'Onov?.
REM. 1. Such are the regular contractions; but several excep-
tions to these rules occur, as will be seeii in their places. The
Ionics particularly neglect the contraction, and resolve a long
sound into its original component parts, as 2 pers. sing. pass. TU'TT-
Tfat for rujiT?/, and even noi&cu, tnuwifat,, &c. for noity (which
is commonly still farther contracted into noiy), &c. Many of these
forms are common to both the Ionic and Doric dialects.
REM. 2. The tendency of the Ionic dialect to resolve the long
sounds is the source of the separation of the vowels in the diph-
thongs, which prevails among the epic poets in certain words, as
* This is not to be considered as an elision, but as a true contraction,
as is seen by the use of the circumflex to compensate for the short vowel
dropped ; as (plllO), (pdw.
28.] CONTRACTIONS. - BIATUS, CRASIS. 31
ndi's for na7g boy, otojuai for ofywea / think^&LC. of the protracting
of a vowel sound, asgrotw? for qug light, xoqrjvov for x^*jr*ov from
y.oaivw, &c. and of the /onic insertion of an ;, as t?V for ??' or, &/-
xo<J/ for fi'xoa* twenty, ddfkpiog for adthqpog brother.
REM. 3. The Ionics sometimes produce a concurrence of vow-
els, by thrusting out the consonants which separate them, as xi-
paO for TtQUTQ?.
REM. 4. There are nevertheless cases, where the Ionics con-
tract and the Attics do not ; as IQO? (with t, long) Ionic for ItQQQ
sacred. The Ionics and Dorics have also a contraction peculiar
to themselves of fo into *v, as ntevvtq for 7ite'ovt?,noitv[4tvosfor
7ioit6fii>og, for which the contracted form Tiotovfisvog is com-
monly used.
Accent of contracted syllables.
REM. 5. When of the two syllables to be contracted, neither
has the accent, the syllable formed by the contraction generally
remains also without it, as ntQinKoos ntQinkovg, tTiftaov ITIJUCDV.
REM. 6. If however one of the syllables to be contracted has
an accent, the contracted syllable is accented ; if the penult or
antepenult, it is accented according to the rules in 10 and 12 ;
if the last syllable, it is accented with the circumflex in almost
every case, as vo6$ vov?. TTOH'OJ
28. HIATUS AND CRASIS.
1. When one word ends with a vowel and the next begins
with one, whether aspirated or not, an effect called hiatus is ob-
served, which was still less agreeable, particularly to the Attics.
than the concurrence of vowels in the middle of a word.
2. This hiatus was accordingly avoided in poetry, particularly
in the Attic poetry. Even in prose, with the exception of the
Ionic writers, its frequent recurrence was disliked. The principal
means of avoiding it were, first synaloephe, or the union of the
two syllables in one; an3 secondly the addition of a consonant, as
the v, called v fgwAxmrnxor.
3. The synaloephe is of two kinds, viz.
a) Elision, where one vowel is wholly dropped.
b) Cram, where the vowels form a long one. This last, par-
ticularly in prose, has a very limited application.
REM. 1. Crasis, over which a comma or smooth breathing (')
is commonly placed as .a ?ign, is oftenest used in the article. and
32 APOSTROPHE. [ 29,
in the conjunction xeu. It is governed, for the most part, by the
rules given above for the regulation of contractions in the mid-
dle of the words, as TOVvccvTipv for TO ivavxiov, TOUVO{.IW for TO
Ovoftu. TUfta for x IfAcc, TUVTCC for TCX ctvTa. So by the Ionics
rcuyaA^a for TO dyaKfua. In the Attic dialect, however, the a
commonly absorbs every ^vowel in the. article, as TO dlvj&t's be-
comes raAq'fo'?, and TOV avdpos becomes rdvdoog.
REM. 2. A syllable contracted by crasis, is^of necessity long,
as TA>7#, raAAa* for TCC a'AAa, and XTT/, xdofTy, for xut TT/,
xca dptTy. The 4 subscript is used only when, besides the con-
traction, the i is still found in the last syllable, as xat fixcc, xara.
REM. 3. Some of the most common instances of crasis, which
at the same time most need explanation to the learner, are <f/a!-
luut, for lyta otfiat I think ; tytida for lym oida I know ; ftoiftaTiov
for TO ipaTiov the garment ; ovvtxa for ov ivfxa wherefore.
29. APOSTROPHE.
1. By elision in Greek, as in other languages, the short vowel
at the end of the word, when the next begins with a vowel, is cut
off. To denote this a comma ( ' ) is placed over the space thus
left vacant, as In tpov for tm IfiOV, and when the vowel of the
second word has the rough breathing, the smooth mute of the first
is aspirated ( 17. 2.) as dcp' ov for dno ov.
2. In prose it is only certain words of frequent recurrence,
which are commonly elided, particularly dUce, aya and doa, V,
dta, xara, ptra, naod, dno, vno, dpupi, dvTi, Inl, dt, TI, yt or
frequent combinations, as vr) Ala, vri AC by Jove ; navx av for
TUxvTct av, &c. In other cases it is rare, in most wholly unused,
particularly in Ionic prose. The poets, on the other hand, avail
themselves of this license in the case of almost all the short vow-
els. Only the short v, monosyllables in a, i, o, and the preposi-
tion neoi, are never elided.
REM. 1 . If the vowel cut off had an accent, this accent in par-
ticles isjost with the vowel, as dn from dno, dVS from a'AAa, ovtf
from ovdt. In every other sort of word, the accent passes to the
preceding syllable, and is always acute, as xx' tnv} from xx
'
* TixAAa, as this word is written in most editions, is wrong 1 .
30.] OF V tyfAXUGTlXOV, ETC. 33
The poets elide, though more rarely, the diphthong , but
this is done only in passive terminations, as flovhtoft* e<pij,
30.
OF v texvarixov AND OTHER FINAL CONSONANTS.
1. Certain words and terminations have a twofold form, with
and without a- consonant at the end, of which the first is commonly
used before a vowel, the other before a consonant.
2. This secondary form is especially made by what is called
the v lyffav arixov, which may be assumed or dropped by the
dative plural in <K, and in the verbs, by all third persons in s and
t, ; as, for instance, naatv iintv Ixtivog, otherwise UUQI and iHnf,
tTVipiv */', fo'yovaiv avro, Ti&rjow vno. In the common dialect,
this v must always be used before a vowel.
3. A similar v is applied to the terminations in cw, expressing
a place, which are formed from datives plural, as ' OKvpnlaist, and
to the words nigvat a year ago, and fi'xoai, twenty, though not al-
ways to this last.
REM. 1 . The Ionics omit this v even before a vowel ; on the
other hand, the poets use it before a consonant to effect a. position
for the preceding vowel. This is also sometimes done in Attic
prose, and at the end of a sentence it is rarely omitted.
4. Of a similar character with this v is the $ in oir'rw OUTDO?
thus ; and also, though chiefly by the Ionics, in
5. The particle ou not becomes oux before a vowel, and con-
sequently passes into ou^ before an aspirate. ($ 17. 3.)
REM. 2. The reverse holds with this x in oux from what was
observed of the v ; for as no Greek word by itself can terminate
in x ( 4. 4.) this x is dropped at every pause, even when the
next sentence begins with a vowel ; as Ov' aM* OTUV Xenoph*
Sympos. vi. 2.
34 I'ARTS OF SPEECH. NOUNS. R31, 32.
31. THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
1. Strictly speaking there are but three principal parts of
speech. For all that belongs to the name and designation of ob-
jects is included in the noun ; the word, by which any thing is ex-
pressed relative to objects, is the verb ; and the other parts of
speech, by which the objects thus named and distinguished are*
farther qualified and connected, are included under the head of
particles. *
2. It is usual, however, to make some chief subdivisions of the
three main parts of speech ; and there are usually counted eight
parts of speech in most languages ; thus (l) The noun, which re-
,mains divided into substantive and adjective, is further distinguished
from (2) The pronoun which includes the article, and (3) The
participle, which in the syntax is considered a part of the verb.
(4) The verb remains undivided, but the particles are divided
into (5) adverb, (6) preposition, (7) conjunction, (8) interjection,
of which the last is often reckoned by the Greek grammarians as
an adverb.
THE NOUN AND ITS DECLENSION.
32. GENDER.
1. The gender of the noun is either masculine, feminine, or
neuter, and appears in part by the termination, as will be remark-
ed in each declension. To indicate the gendej, use is made of
the article o for the masculine, ?J for the feminine, an'd TO for
the neuter.
2. The names of persons, as man, woman, god, goddess, &c.
follow always the natural gender, be the termination what it will ;
as ij -frvydTTjo daughter, ^ wo? daughter in law. From this is except-
ed the diminutive ov, which is always neuter, as TO yvvaiov, from
yvvr) wife, TO ptiouxiov from /uf?a a youth.
REM. 1. Hence every personal denomination, which is common
to the natural genders, is of common gender in grammar; thus we
33.] GENDER. - DECLENSION. 35
have o otv&QWTtos a man, and also 77 iiv&Qwnos a 'woman. So too
o and n -&f6g god and goddess; 6 and ?J TQoyog guardian and
nurse; o and >? gr<Uai a male or female watcher. Of several of
these words, however, there are separate feminine forms, as?? &tu
the goddess, which with the Attics supersede the use of the common
forms.
REM. 2. Several of the names of animals are m like manner
common, as 6 and y (JQV? the ox or cow ; o and 17 'tnnog the horse
or mare. In most of these, however, one gender is used for both
sexes, and this is called, by the Latin grammarians, when it is
masculine or feminine, genus epiccenum ; as o Ai>xo wolf, and t]
aytojm/i fox, whether masculine or feminine. But even in sub-
stantives, which are of the common gender, one or the other gen-
der usually predominates, to denote the species ; thus o trnio's is
used in general of the horse kind, and of any individual of the kind
whose sex is not specified. In aoxro? bear and xafiTjlog camel, in
general, and in tkaqoz stag and xvcov dog, often, the feminine
gender prevails. The feminine j\ 'innos has the additional and
peculiar signification of cavalry.
3. The names of trees, as rj q,?i f /6g the beech, i] ntTV$ the pine,
and the names of cities and countries, as rj KOQW&OS, i]
*1 Aaxtdatftojv, are, with a few exceptions, feminine.
33. DECLENSION.
1. The Greek nouns have the Jive first cases of the Latin,
without the ablative, of which the place is supplied partly by the
genitive and partly by the dative.
2. The Greek language in nouns and in verbs has a dual num-
ber, used of two persons. It is not however always used ; by
some writers not at all ; and most frequently by the Attics.
3. The dual has never more than two endings, one for the no-
minative, accusative, and vocative ; the other for the genitive and
dative.
4. The division into three declensions is most convenient, cor-
responding to the three first declensions of the Latin, and with
terminations as exhibited in the following table.
DECLENSION.
R3S.
Sing. I. Decl. II. Decl. III. Decl.
Npm.
2 ^L
og neut. ov
Gen.
qgag ov
ov
og ((og)
Dat.
q n
0)
I
Ace.
r\v av
ov
a or *', neut. like
Voc.
rja
s neut. ov
[the nom.
Dual.
N.A.V.
a
(0
f
G.D.
0,1V
otv
otv
Plur.
Nom.
at
01 neut a
fg neut. a
Gen.
(~n>
wv
wv
Dat.
atg
oig
GIV or ot
Ace.
ag
ovg neuta
ag neut. a
Voc.
at
ot, neut.a
fg neut. a
N. B. The Attic second declension, so called, is omitted in the
above table, for the sake of simplicity ; it will be given hereafter
in its place ; see 37.
5. When the terminations as here given are pure, and contrac-
tion ensues, the contracted declension takes place, as will be seen
below, in each of the three declensions.
Remarks on the Table.
1. The genitive plural^ in all three declensions, ends in ov.
2. The dative singular, in all three declensions, ends in f;
which,, however, in the two first is concealed under the form of
the iota subscript.
3. The dative plural, properly, in all three declensions, ends
in on> or at ; for aig and oig are only abbreviations of the more
ancient form aiaiv and oiati', or ctifji and OIGI.
4. The vocative is generally the same as the nominative ; and
even where it has a separate form, the nominative is often used
for the vocative, particularly by the Attic writers.
5. Ths neuters, as also in the Latin language, have three cas-
es alike, viz. the nominative, accusative, and vocative ; and in the
plural of neuters all these cases end in a.
6. The three declensions resemble the three first in Latin ;
but H is to be remarked that out of og in the nominative the Lat-
34.]
FIRST DECLENSION.
37
ins make its ; out of og in the genitive they make is ; out of ov
and oiy, um ; and that, in general, /u in Greek becomes n in Latin.
7. In regard to accent, it is a general rule, that the endings of
the genitive and dative, if long and accented, must have the cir-
cumflex ; the nominative, accusative, and vocative, the acute. It
is, however, to be observed, that the last syllable, in the nomina-
tive and vocative singular of the third declension, is not properly
considered as the termination, as will be seen in its place.
34. FIRST DECLENSION.
1. All words in ag and r t q are masculine, and all in a and t] are
feminine.
2. Words in a have their genitive in , and retain the a
through all the terminations of the singular, if it is preceded by
another vowel, ( pure 27.1), as ooyta, or by p, as 4?/ufjptt
The a is also retained by the contracted nouns, as f.ivu (see be-
low in Rem. I ) ; by AA, gen. -, the warcry ; and by some
proper names, as Arida, ' . tv($QO[4.ida, (^Ao/MfjAa, /YAa.
3. All other nouns in a have the genitive in 17$, and the da-
tive in T?, but in the accusative and vocative they resume the a.
In the dual and plural, all the four endings, the nominative, da-
tive, accusative, and vocative, retain the . The rest may be
learned from the following table, where the changes of the ac-
cent, according to the general rules, are observed.
Sing.
Nom.
*/', honor.
TlfAT]
ij, wisdom.
G Off la
/;, muse.
MOV GO.
Gen.
TifArjg
ooffiag
MovGrjg
Dat.
T^jUT]
GOCftK
MovGy
Ace.
TlfJlTiV
GOCLKXV
MOVGUV
Voc.
Tl>U1]
GO (f ICC
MOV GOt
Dual.
N. A. V.
Tl[4(X
ooqpia
MOV Got
G. D.
TlUCtlV
Goqtcuv
MovGuir
o, citizen.
1 7
noUxov
TioA/rjy
J, yow//j.
veuvlov
vtaviuv
vfuviu.
vtavivc
viu.viv.lv
FIRST DECLENSION.
K34.
N.
G.
D.
A.
V.
N.
G.
Plur.
N.
G.
D.
A.
Plur.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
VOC. I TlfJLttl
^justice.
oo(ptat>
OOfplWV
apcpiag
MovGat,
Movawv
Movoag
dixy
win
on,
77, trident.
TOlafVU
dixa,
TQiaivav
\ TQlUlVOt,
TQtava
dixug
TQICUVOJV
-JlQllTMV
vtavlat,
VtKVlWV
no^irat t vfaviuv
?;, knife.
o, Strides.
Of the vocative of masculines.
4. Of the nouns in ?/<?, those which end in z?^, several com-
pounded verbals which are formed merely by adding ?? to the
consonant of the verb, as yfc[4tT()?ig, pvoonattyg, natdoTQlfas,
&c and national names, as IltQOrjg, Jxi;ib?, have a in the voca-
tive. The others, which, however, are by far the smallest num-
ber, have 27, particularly the patronymics in $/??, as 'ATQfi&ije in
the table.
Remarks on the foregoing examples.
I. Contraction. The contracts of this declension contract the
nominative into one of the usual terminations, and then proceed
regularly; except that the contracts in preserve this vowel
d 34.] FIRST DECLENSION. 39
unchanged throughout, as being originally pure, and^ those in ?
always have the Doric genitive in long (Rem. IV. 3.) They
may all be known by the circumflexed termination, as^ovrax,
contr. A* OVTTI, genitive teovTr^, ^c. plural nom. Afoi/ra?, accus.
KtovTaz, lion-skin ; '/%*?, contr. 'E^firj^ gen. 'Ifypov, JWercu-
ry ; fiv, contr. /wva, gen. pi/a?^ mina ; /?op* aff, Attic pogoag,
gen. &>(>(>,* &c. So too 'A&tp*, ' Aftvpuq, Minerva ,and
II. Quantity. 1. The nominative a which has 77? in the geni-
tive, is always short.
2. The nominative a which has a? in the genitive, is in gen-
eral long, though in many words short.
3. The vocative in of masculines in 77? is short, of those in a?
long. The dual termination in is always long.
4. The termination a?, throughout the first declension, is long ;
and the accusative plural is in this distinguished from the third de-
clension. where it is short.
5. The accusative singular in u.v follows the quantity of the
nominative.
III. Accent. 1. It is characteristic of the first declension that
the genitive plural always has the accent on the last syllable,
wherever it may be in the other parts of the word, as Movaa,
ftfovoaiv, axav&a dxav&wv. Exceptions to this rule are the
following, viz.
a) Feminines of adjectives and barytone participles in 0, as
Stvos, &vr, gen. pi. %ivwv' ah tog, aitta gen. pi. ahiajv'
Ti'TiroWyo?, -7, gen. pi. TVTrcOptvwvj
b) The three substantives /o^'rrr?^ usurer, ol iiijalat- trade
&inds, atyvij a sort of fish.
2. With this exception, the accent of the substantives, as far
as the general rules admit, remains on the syllable, where it is
found in the nominative, as nom. pi. croupier*, voc. sing. TioXTra,
with the exception of the vocative d'ta^ora from dfanortjg master.
The feminines of the adjectives in oe, on the contrary, cast the ac-
cent, whenever the termination admits, upon the syllable where
their masculines have it, as <xto?, f. a/a, pi. atiQi, aa*.
3- It has already been remarked, that the endings of the geni-
tives and datives, in general, if accented at all, are circumflexed ;
as those of ripy in the table. See 33 Rem. 7.
The doubling of the p in this word is merely an accidental pecu-
liarity.
40
FIRST DECLENSION.
[34.
IV. Dialed. 1. The Dorics, in all the terminations, use a
long for ?, as r^a, , a, *>. The Ionics commonly use 77 for
long a, as aoqp/??, i?ff, 77, T/V /ua^atpa,. i?, 77, i>* . o vtrivirig, &c
This however is never done in the accusative plural.
2. The oldest form of the genitive singular of the masculines
is ao, and of the genitive plural of all endings aojv. Hence in
Epic poets, '^/rpa'dao, Ttftawv, &c.
3. The Dorics contracted these genitives into long or, as row
'^TOtidct, rav xifjiuv. This Doric genitive, in some few words,
particularly proper names, remained in common use, as V^w//?aj,
row .Avviftu, Hannibal-
4. The Ionics, on the other hand, converted the ao into f CD, in
which however the o> has no effect in bringing the accent for-
ward, as noMrtm. So too from dwv the Ionics made iW, as
5. On the ancient form of the dative plural, as Tifttxiai, Mbv-
, see above in 33 Rem. 3. The Ionic dialect has.
aaiow
jat and
Words for practice.
axav&a
market
frcdaaoa sea
long) Anchises
&v()u (v short) door
prater
KfXQOnidrig (i short) Cecropides
Minerva
%fyahii . head
JEneas
x A 71797? thief
thorn
x QQYI girl
combat
xQiT-qg judge
field
KTiGTys maker
business
httVQtt lane
weasel
Ivnri (v long) grief
earth
ua&ijTqQ disciple
tongue
H&IOGCI bee
opinion
jUf^tjUi/a care
viper
Midas (* short) Midas
girdle
poll QU share
day
viwi (i long) victory
35.]
SECOND DECLENSION.
41
VVftCftj
bride Gqwoa
sphere
OQW
anger Gtyvoct*
hammer
oevt&o&rjocigfi.c
t.fowler a^oA/J
leisure
nigGr^
Persian ocoi^^ia
salvation
ntevQct
side Tdf-ilag
steward
TlVXTTlS
pugilist -ze%viTr t 3
artist
nvty (v short)
gate vhtj (v long)
wood
$lfc
root Cfikiu
friendship
oxid
shadow "f. u 9<*-
joy
^Sxvfhjs
Scythian %kcuvu
outer garment
Grt'ytj
roof y o')p cc
country
GTOCt
porch tyv/ri
soul.
35. SECOND DECLENSION.
1. All words in ov are of the nenter gender, and most of those
In os are masculine.
2. There are, however, several feminines in 0, not only those
alluded to above in 32, the names of persons, animals, trees, and
cities ; but many others, such as J ddos road, *J /?//3Ao$ book, j vf r
00? island, 77 voaoz disease, with many names of stones and plants^
particularly also several, which are in reality adjectives with a
feminine substantive omitted, as T>] didtexTOG dialect ((fowy under-
stood) ; r t dwptrgog the diameter (yp,]W5 understood) ; r\ Stomos
atom (ovota understood) ; 1? avvdpo? desert (%ojga understood) ;
and others of this description.
Sing.
Nom.
Gen.
Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
EXAMPLES.
o, speech. *;, beech. 6, people. 6, man.
Ao/ou
Ad/w
yqy
drjftov
TO, fig.
GVXOV
ovxov
avxov
* The common mode of writing this word (J(fVQCt is incorrect, as the
termination is short. See Aristoph. Pac. 566. Cratin. ap. Hephaest. p. 6.
42
SECOND DECLENSION. CONTRACTS. [ 35, 36.
Dual
N. A. V. I Ady<w
G. D. r
Plural
Norn.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Ao'/o^
Ao'/ou?
av&gojnot,
auxcw
ovxcc
Gvxtav
6VKOl$
avxa
auxa
Remarks.
1. The Attics sometimes make the vocative like the nomina-
tive ; -&e6s God is always the same in the vocative as the nomina-
tive. [But an exception is found Matt. 27: 46.]
2. By the Epic writers the genitive in ov is changed into oto,
as Ao'yoto, (pyyolo. The Dorics make co in the genitive, and in
the accusative plural w, and rarely og.
Words for practice.
ayydog
a frog
vipyuQiov
Zpyov
*
IflUTlOV
i'ov
iitjhov
messenger
eagle
combat
prize
vine
silver
silver
work
east wind
west wind
continent
outer garment
violet
crab
apple
(JLOQIOV
noudiov
ov
CfOQTlOV
ygvaiov
part
south wind
wood
house
child
rose
iron
emerald
spasm
army
medicine
burden
copper
gold
gold.
36. CONTRACTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.
Several words in oo and oo*>, fog and tov, commonly undergo
contraction, according to the general rules given above, except
that a of the neuter absorbs in contraction the preceding * or o,
and becomes long, as ooTt'a oara, TT/.O'
37.]
ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION.
43
EXAMPLES.
Sing.
N.
G.
D.
A.
V.
voyage.
Plur-f Sing. TO, bone. Plur.
rrAdo)
TrAoJ
N. A.
G. D.
TiAdoi;?
TiAo?
r
jy
OGTtOV
OGTtOV
OGTOVV
OGTOH
OGTta
OGTtO) V
OGTCt
OGTWV
OGTa
OGTK
'
)vg
n
OGTtM
OOTtOV
OGT(0
OGTOVV
OGTta
OGTtOV
OGTOVl'
OGTta
TrAo'w
OGTOt
liKdiv lloGTtOlV OGTOlv
REMARK. There are not many substantives of this kind ; 6 VOOQ
understanding, and o ^o'o? stream, may be taken as examples.
37. SECOND DECLENSION OF THE ATTICS.
To the second declension is referred, under the name of the
Attic, the declension of several words of the masculine and femi-
nine gender in co, and of the neuter in aw. It has in all the cases
an to, instead of the usual vowels and diphthongs, and an iota sub-
script where ot or q> is found in the regular second declension.
The vocative is always like the nominative.
EXAMPLES.
S. 6, temple. TO hall. Dual
N. vtaig uvwytwv vtat
G.
D.
A.
V.
Plural.
VfOJ
VflOV
Vf
OJ
VfCOV
vecog
vatytwv
Remarks.
1 . The expression Attic second declension is by no means to be
understood, as if the Attics were accustomed to inflect all nouns
in o? in this way. It is, on the contrary, an ancient and peculiar
declension of a very limited number of words, of some of which
moreover there exist forms in the common second declension, as
o Aao? people, vuog temple, also Afofe, vtwg. So o Act/a;? hare,
44 THIRD DECLENSION. [ 38.
Ionic Kaywbg and hctyog. Other examples are 6 xahwg cable, and
6 naTQwg, priiQwg, paternal and maternal uncle. Of those words
of which two forms are actually current, that which falls under
this declension is commonly peculiar to the Attic dialect.
2. This declension has a peculiar accusative in oj, particularly
used in the proper names Jojg, AVeo, Ttwg, "^#w, and in t? *'wff
J/ie dawn (accus. T^V a>), which is the Attic form for ?;' w of the
Ionics.
3. The accent of the genitive veto is contrary to the rule laid
down 33 Rem. 7. With respect to the other anomalies in the
accent of this declension, see above under 12. 7.
THIRD DECLENSION.
38. GENDER.
1. In consequence of the diversity of endings in this declen-
sion, the determination of the gender by the termination admits of
no general rule, and resort must be had to observation of the indi-
vidual cases. A few rules however with respect to some termi-
nations are given below. t
2. In general, the g is found at the end chiefly of masculines and
feminines, and the short vowel, at the end of neuters. No neuters
end in | or t/;.
REMARK. The following is an enumeration of those endings,
whose gender is fixed. In giving the exceptions, no notice is tak-
en of personal appellations, such as t] [tyTqQ mother, if dapaQ
spouse, whose gender is apparent. Where however U (univer-
sally) is placed, there no personal appellation of another gender
exists.
Masculines.
1. All in *i>, as 6 S^svg mule, (XfiKfOptv? amphora. U.
2. All substantives which have VTOQ in the genitive ; as o ti-
vwv -ovrog tendon, 6 odovg -ovrog tooth, o ifiag -aviog thong. The
only exceptions to this are some names of cities.
3. Those which end in VIQ, as o oxmjp girdle ; except ?; ya-
axrjQ belly, y xypfate. By the poets also r\ ar^Q air, mist, which is
usually masculine ; and the neuter contracts, of which hereafter.
38, 39.] GENDER. INFLECTION. 45
Feminines.
1. All in co, as T^CO echo. U.
2. Those in ag, gen. adog, as ?J Aa^Tid? torc/i ; with the ex-
ception of some adjectives of the common gender.
3. Those in ig, as ?j -nohg city, ^ %<*Qig grace. Excepting d oytg
serpent, 6 t%i>g adder, 6 xoaig bug, 6 pdoig a certain measure, o */<?
a wood -worm, 6 tig lion, 6 dtKyig dolphin, o, ^ oovig bird, ?J, d
Tiygig tiger, 17, o dig bank, shore.
4. Nouns of quality in Trjg (the Latin fas) ; as r\ fitngoTijs
parvitas. U.
Neuters.
1. All in ,T7, *, v, as TO ffw ( tia fcoc^y, x<xgy head, pt'h honey,
ciorv city. U.
2. All which terminate with short syllables in e and o, as
TO' Tf?/o -wall, 10 ITJTOQ breast, and the neuter adjectives in tg, ev,
ov. U.
3. Those in ap, as TO ^Trap the liver, TO ve'xTctp, with contracts
in fuo -TJO, as TO p ?;p spring, TO xf'ap X7;p i/ie Aearf, TO GxeaQ
GTTjQ tallow. Excepting only o ipao the starling.
4. Those in cup, which are not personal appellations; as TO y-
doio water, TO rf'x^cop mark. Excepting 6 //wp lymph, and o' a^oip
a blister. ' \
5. Those in a? -ocrog and -aoc, as TO Tfp -TO? miracle, TO
dinag -uog cup ; excepting o c A^ -ao$ a stone, and o' or TO KPA2
xpTo'? head.
There are no other neuters of this declension, excepting TO
TIVO Jire, TO (fcug light, TO ovg ear, TO OTui'g dough.
Nouns in ug, therefore, are generally masculine when they
make the genitive in avTog, feminine when they make it in adog,
and neuter when they make it in ccTog and aog.
39. INFLECTION OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
In the declension of every noun, a distinction must be made
between the root, and the changeable termination of the case.
In the first and second declensions, the nominative has such a
termination of case ; in the third declension, however, such ter-
mination is attached only to the oblique cases thus :
Dec. II. Ao'y -os, Ao'/ -ov, loy -w
III. #/;p, th/p -dg, t^p -/.
46 THIRD DECLENSION. [<> 39, 40.
Still in the third declension, the nominative is rarely so unchang-
ed, as in #/j(j. In most cases its last syllable is modified either by
addition, as gen. ftv-og, from the root /MI;, where the nominative
is (4vg, or by dropping a letter, as gen. aoJjuaros, from the root
deodar, nom. aw^ua, or by substitution, as gen. flxovo^ from the
root ;/xoi>, nom.
REMARK. In order to decline correctly a noun in the third
declension, it is absolutely necessary to know beforehand the
nominative and one of the remaining cases. If, however, one
only is known, the rules are much more simple for finding the
nominative from the genitive, than for finding the genitive from
the nominative ; because in general the radical form is found
uncorrupted in "the genitive, but not in the nominative. It is
also accordingly necessary in the lexicon to take note as well of
the genitive, as of the nominative. But as in reading, some
oblique case is more likely to occur than the nominative, and it
is accordingly requisite, in order to ascertain the meaning of the
word, to discover the nominative from said oblique case, the rules
which follow may be applied for this purpose.
40.
1. The most common changes, which the root of the word
suffers in the nominative, are the following, viz.
a) The assumption of e, as o nvg, pv-os mouse ;* o akg, ccA-o,
salt.
b) That instead of and o of the root, y and 00 are found in
the nominative, in masculines and feminines, as rf fixoav^ /xo*/-o,
image; aky&rjG) aKri&i-OG, true.
2. With respect to the more exact application of these princi-
ples, two principal cases must again be distinguished, viz. (1) That
of a consonant before the inflectional termination ; (2) That of a
vowel before the inflectional termination.
* The learner is to understand in these and following 1 examples, that
from the radical form /ui>, which is detected in the genitive [4VO, the
nominative (AV$ is derived.
41.] INFLECTION. 47
41.
1. When a consonant precedes the inflectional termination, and
the nominative takes the , it is understood in the first place, that
this g with y, x, 7, and with /ff, TT, <p, passes into and t/;, as xopa
xopax-oe, ovv'E, ovv%-og, wty om-os, /aAt>t/> ydhvfi-og.
2. These nominatives in and t// never change the f and o of
the root, as qrAa/; (phffiog, (pAo qpAoydg, ai&ioty axh'o7iO, except-
ing only ij aAtHTT??!, aAcoTrfxo?, the fox.
3. If however the consonant immediately preceding the inflec-
tional termination is a $, r, or #, it is dropped before the g assum-
ed by the nominative, as ka[.inug hapnudog, AwQig AtaQidog, x^-
4. In like manner v and VT are dropped before this assumed
g ; but in this case the short vowel, always with VT and commonly
with v, is lengthened in the manner given above ( 25. 4.) as //-
y ylyavTog, %ct()ifig ycipifvTog, odovg 6dovxog,dt:\yig (long *)
falcplvog, Q>QQ%vg &OQy.vvog, [i&ag pfhavog, xrslg xrsvog*
5. When g is not assumed in the nominative, v and Q are the
only consonants, which can remain at the end of the nominative,
as &TIQ &ijQ-6g, alow aiwv-og. It would be necessary to drop all
the others ; though this, however, actually occurs only with r,t
as otifta oajfictiog, Atvoywv AfvoqaivT-og.
In either case, f and o of the masculine and feminine are al-
ways changed into r\ and o>, as hprjv AtjUfV-o?, (h;rp pyrop-og,
6. Some neuters, which make axog in the genitive, take Q in-
stead of g in the nominative, as r t nuQ
* fig is the only additional like example. See below in 70.
t Because all the other letters take the g ( or 1//) in the nominative ;
H and G do not at all occur before the inflectional termination of this de-
clension, and of A the only example is A?,
48 THIRD DECLENSION. [$ 39.
7. According to the premises, the usual cases, in which a con-
sonant precedes the inflectional termination, are as follows, viz.
The genitive in j * % \ from a no,, in { {, gf j I
" " " do$, TO?, #o? from a nom. in s
but especially
( ao>
aro? from a nom. in < ag (rt'yag -aro?)
( ao (jjjrao -UTO?)
mu ^
The genitive m ^o^ from a nom. ml >^ ?
but especially
and ovo? from a nom. in W and
ttxtuv
J ?, 6*ff, Of?, Wff
The genitive in not from a nom. in \ &* &* *?'*
j oof? oovTOSi yvg cpvvtog)
\ wv (ytQwv, OVTO?)
" " " )o? from a nom. in
but especially
and o^o? from a nom. in qp and
(ai&ijQ m&iQog, QIJTW
and from two neuters in o(), viz.
cio sword and yro breast.
8. The following cases require particular attention, viz, o, ^
Aff Ao? ifr, ea ; TO /u*A* [t&iTOS honey ; TO Hapy xaQviTog head ;
?J i/u| vv xrog night ; 6 ava avaxTog king ; y dctpoiQ dapaQTOS
spouse ; 6 novg noSogfoot ; with a few others which will be given
below.
Remarks.
I. The quantity of the penult of the genitive in a, *, u, is only
fixed, like that of the nominative of other nouns, by authority. In
general it is short ; those cases therefore only will be noted where
it is long.
41,42.] INFLECTION. 49
1. All substantives which make the genitive in avog, ivog, and
wog, have the penult long ; as Ilav JJavog, naiav naiuvog, gig
Qivdg, dtKcftg dthqnvog, [toovv (.idavvog.
2. In like manner the penults of several in ig -idog are long ;
and as these are all oxy tones in the nominative, the long syllable
in the genitive is circumflexed, by which mark they are known ;
as oqoayig otfoaytdog, xvr]^lg nvrmldog.
3. Of others not included under the preceding heads, the fol-
lowing are to be noted as having the penult of the genitive long :
o, r\ OQvig, &og bird d <2>oiW, xog Phenician, palm-tree,
?J ayhg, &og garlic d 0/</>, nog rush [red-colour
d TITTI'S, yog locust d i'i//, nog (an insect)
r\ [taOTi^, yog scourge o #wp, xog breast plate
d ntQdi, xog partridge o fep, xog hawk
?} /fc/u/?*g, xog top d oi', xog helm
7; onddi, xog paltn branch d xooda'g, xog a dance
d ovo(pui xog filth xr]@v', xog herald
xog deceiver d xi]v, xog (a marine bird)
, xog Phceacian o ^o^dv^ xog silkworm
xog stupid d xoxxv^yog cuckoo
;, yog grape d yvip, nog vulture
Carian d tyao starling.
II. All monosyllable nominatives, with the exception of the
pronoun T/S, are long ; therefore nvo, nvadg.
III. When the termination fig -fvTog is preceded by 7; or o, a
contraction commonly ensues ; thus Tiprjfig Tipr}(vTog contracted
into lifting TiftijvTog, [4fkirdfig [.ifkiTOfVTog contracted into [.uhiiovg
-OVVT02. Other examples are the names of cities in ovg ovvTog,
as 'Onovg, &c.
42. VOWEL BEFORE THE ENDING.
1. Those nouns of this declension which have a vowel before
the inflectional ending, (or og pure in the genitive 27/1), take
almost universally a g in the nominative ; a few neuters only in i>
and t 1 , and a few feminine* in co, are excepted.
2. Moreover as neuters only ( 38 Rem.) have nominative
endings short in t and o, hence in masculines and feminines the
of the other cases becomes rj or u, and the o becomes w or ov,
in tho nominative.
50
THIRD DECLENSION. EXAMPLES.
[43.
Thus in particular are derived the following, viz.
The gen. in aog from the neuters in a, (othag
" " " tog and vog from the nom. in *?, , and
i the nom. in ov g (flovg /?<
u u " oo? from < the feminines in co and o
( (^w -o'off, aidwg -oog).
( the nom. in 7?? and
u u " f og (fw?) from \ (ahr]&"tjg neut. ahrjftt'g G".
f the nom. in *f, (tnntvg inntwg).
In this place is especially to be noted ypctvg ygciog an old wo-
man. For vavg see 56. 4.
4. Besides these, the genitives fog and *co? are formed by a
change of vowel, e.g.
a) From the numerous neuters in o?, as Tet%og, Ttfyfog.
b) From most nominatives in ig and *, and some in vg and w.
as noKig nofacDg. aorv
REMARK. The vowels a, *, v, before the termination of the
genitive (with the single exception of ygaog) are short. The
monosyllable nominatives are here also long, as pvg f,ivog.
43.
The following examples will serve, in essential points, for all
the varieties in this declension.
Sing.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Dual.
N.A.V.
G. D.
Plural
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
o, animal, o', age.
aicov
uitovog
&%$*
aiwvi,
cclfova
aicovoiv
quowty
alwoi, (i/)
atwvtg
o^diviniiy. o c , lion. o, giant.
ylyag
Kiovrog
daipova
\IOVTU
fatftovtav
daipovag
v)
yiyuviv
ylyav
yiyuvTOii 1
ytyavTtg
ylyuat (v)
yiyccirrez
43.]
INFLECTION.
51
Sing. o, raven, o, J, cfa7c?. 6,jackall. o, woodworm, ro, i/'ng.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
N.A.V.
G.D.
Plur.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
xopaxf
xopaxag
xtudog
7i a id I
Tltt
Tittidoi
noudig
naldcov
TICCIGI (v)
Tiuldeg
X?
^ 0301V
xa
HIV
xh
Xtf
Y.IQIV
7i gay p
Remarks.
1 . These examples will sufficiently illustrate the declension ; for
as soon as the nominative and genitive are ascertained by means
of the foregoing rules and of the lexicon, the learner's reflection
will easily suggest, that all nouns which end in and ty are de-
clined like xop, all which have the genitive in &>, ftog, and
TO?, like naig naidog, Tioipyv noi[At'vo$ like dal^mv daipovog,
odovg odovTog and &tig fttvvog like A/wi/ Ktovxog, and finug ijna-
zog like nQccypa -axog. It is only necessary to make some par-
ticular observations with regard to the accusative and vocative sin-
gular, and the dative plural, which will be presently done.
2. Quantity. The *, a, and e, in the terminations of the cases,
are always short. Compare Remark II. 4, on Dec. I. For the
quantity of the penult of the genitive, see the preceding sections.
3. Accent- The following are the principal rules relative to
the accent.
a) In dissyllable and longer words, the accent remains on the
same syllable as in the nominative, so long as its nature admits ;
see above in xo'pa| and alcav.
b) Monosyllables throw the accent, in the genitive and dative
of each number, upon the termination of the case. On the termi-
nation coy it becomes a circumflex. See above &?JQ and x/.
52 THIRD DEC. ACCUS. SING. -VOCATIVE. [ 44, 45.
c) On the contrary, the nominative, accusative, 'and vocative
never have the accent on the termination of the case*
Exc. From the second of these rules are principally excepted
the participles, as &sig #Woff a wv 6Woe, &c. the plural _of the
adjectives nag nat>, (navrog, navTi,) pi. G. nuvTorv, D. nuatv,
and the genitive plural of some few others, as '#wg and nctig above.
44. OF THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR.
1. The principal termination of the accusative in this declen-
sion is a, but in some words in tg, vg, avg, and oi>, there is also an
accusative in v, formed, as in the other declensions, by changing
the g of the nominative into i>, and retaining the same quantity.
This is the only form of the accusative for those nouns which have
a vowel before the termination of the case ; as fiovg G. oog @ovv
dQvg dgvog (w*, and also i%&vy, noJUv, ypavv, &c.
2. Those on the other hand which have a consonant in the
genitive, where the last syllable of the nominative is accented,
make the accusative in a, as tints -tdog tkrtlda' -novg iiotiog
Tiodu. But if the last syllable be unaccented, they commonly take
an v in the accusative, though sometimes an , as tpig -tdog .IQW
and t-Qlda' xoQvg -v&og XOQVV and XOQW&U' evtknig -tdog ivtl-
ntv and tvtkjuda' nolvnovg -odog noivnovv and nolvnoda.
<> 45. OF THE VOCATIVE.
1. It is very common in this declension, for a noun to have a
vocative of its own, but yet generally, especially in the Attic
writers, to make the vocative like the nominative. The follow-
ing are accordingly the rules, by which nouns in this declension
may form their vocative ; but it must be left to observation in
particular cases, whether they do actually so form them, or make
the vocative like the nominative.
2. The terminations evg, ig, and vg, with the words 7i7g,
* Care must be taken not to confound the termination of the worrf, as
r->ip, \v.ih the termination of the case, as
46.] DATIVE PLURAL. 53
and fiovg, drop the $ in the vocative, and those in tvg assume the
circumflex ; as fiaattevg, voc. to fiuoifav, and so Ildoi, Awgl,
Tq&v, ydv, &c. and :r?, ypav, fiov.
3. The same holds of those in ag and tig, which drop v before
their g. They commonly, however, resume this v in the voca-
tive, as TAa?, raAa*/o?, co TU).UV Aiug -uvtog, to Alu
ttg -fviog, co
4. Nouns, which in the termination of the nominative have
?? or co, only shorten this in the vocative ; but this in general only
when the other cases also have and o see above cVa/i<coj> and
So too |U?jr;p -t'gog, 0} ti^tey p?;rcop -opo, w
-fog, w 2w%Qaitg.
5. Feminines in co and wg form the vocative in o7, as
j Hoi.
REM. 1. The three following throw the accent back, viz. na-
rfp, V^p, 6at(), from 7rar?/(>, V?;'p, d'urjo brother-in-law, G. /po?.
REM. 2. The words, which retain the long vowel in the other
cases, remain also unaltered in the vocative, as w IRfntn G.
-ojvog. (}) Zivoq-tov G.-oJvrog, o) ir\TviQ G.-qpog, co A~$aTT]g G.-rjTog.
There are three only of this kind, which shorten the vowel in the
vocative, '^lO^Uco*- -wvog, co " ^oM.ov Tlootidwv -wvog, co 77o-
ceidov, Neptune ; and trcoi^p -r,yog, co acorfp. Here also it is to
be observed, that the accent is thrown back.
} 46. OF THE DATIVE PLURAL.
j
1. When the termination oiv and <u of the dative plural is
preceded by a consonant, the general rules again operate, as in
the g of the nominative ( 41) ; see above in xop, uaig, aiwv.
as also in ' ' Aquty "^(papog ".^pai/w r\nuQ
2. When in these instances the vowel of the nominative is al-
tered in the oblique cases, it remains altered in the dative plura) ;
as duipuv -ovog daifiooiv' Tiovg nodog -JIOGIV' uKwnri't. -fxog
a/.aJ7it(i>. But when VT is omitted, the lengthening of the vow-
el mentioned above ( 25. 4.) takes place ; see above A*W, yiyag,
and so too odovg -ovrog ddoiiot' TVTitlg -t'viog ivntloiv. If.
54 THIRD DEC. SYNCOPE OF SOME NOUNS IN rjQ. [47.
however, v alone has been omitted, the short vowel remains, as
- XTfOlV.
REM. 1. Also the adjectives (not participles) in ft? -tvTog have
only an 6, as (pwvyfig -evrog
3. When the termination ow, a*, is immediately preceded by a
vowel of course when there is an og pure in the genitive this
vowel also remains unaltered, as in the other oblique cases ; as
e*A;xb; -tog aty&tot,' Tt7%og -fog Ti%fGi>' d$vg dgvog dpvaiv.
Only when the nominative singular of such words has a diphthong,
the dative plural also assumes it, as paotfavg -twg
ygavg ypaoe- yQuvai' ovq fioog fiovaiv.
REM. 2. In the ancient and Epic dialect, instead of a* and ffw,
in all words, d and *(m/, or taai and eaoiv, are used; which ter-
mination, as it begins with a vowel, is appended precisely like
the terminations of the other cases, as dvdxT-eai,, xopx-ff, fyftv-
eoaw.
47. SYNCOPE OF 9OME NOUNS IN ^Q.
\. Some nouns in ?;p, G. fgog, drop the * in the genitive and
dative singular, and also in the dative plural, where they take an
a after the p, as naxriQ father,
Gen. (noiTtQog) nuTpog, Dat.
A. Tiarfpa, V. nuxfQ.
PL nctTiQfg, G. nuTtQwv, D. nccTQciat, A.
2. The same is the case, with some anomaly of the accent, in
the following; ^I']T^Q ((lyTtpog) p^TQog^ mother; rf
OTtpog) yaarpog, belly, stomach ; fruyttrty (&vya*tQOG)
daughter; A^Y\IV\Q (^/M^Tf'poff) ArifJiv}TQoq, Ceres ; which last
makes in the accusative Ar\^xQo.. For apij^, see the anomalous
, nouns, 56. 4.
REMARK. The poets sometimes neglect this syncope, and say for
instance TTOCT^O?, and sometimes they adopt it where in general
it is not found, as TIUTQWV,
48, 49. J CONTRACTED DECLENSION.
55
48. CONTRACTED DECLENSION.
1. Of the nouns that have og pure in the genitive, there are
very few which are not, in the common language, more or less
contracted ; although it is by no means always done, where by
the general rules it might be.
2. In some respects, moreover, the mode of contraction varies
from that prescribed by the general rules, and one species of this
variety is expressed in the following canon, viz.
The contracted accusative plural of the third declension is formed
like the contracted nominative plural.
REMARK. Thus, for instance, dhrj&tfg and @6f g are regularly
contracted, cr4^#e7ffj ftovg, and, contrary to the general rules, the
contraction of the accusative dAi7#a, /?o, is exactly the same.
49.
Words in ^g and tg, G. tog, which are almost exclusively
adjectives, neuters in og and tog, and the feminines in w and cog,
G. oo?, are contracted in all cases, where two vowels meet.
Sing.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Dual.
N.A.V.
G. D.
Plur.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
/, galley.
EXAMPLES.
TO, wall.
/, echo.
Tti%l Zftftfl
rtyoe
tow Tti^olv I 2d decl
m
2d decl.
TtltH
56 THIRD DECLENSION. [ 50.
Remarks.
1. The uncontracted forms of the feminine in o> and w^are not
used even by the Ionics. These words moreover are commonly
used only in the singular. The dual and plural when used are
formed according to the second declension.
2. The neuter adjectives in fg are declined like the neuters in
og ; accordingly in the plural we have TO. oAfl#ia, A^?J.
3. The dual in r\ formed from ef departs from the general rule
in 27. 3.
4. One masculine in we, G. coo?, viz. rjOMg the hero, admits a
contraction, of which however no use is made in prose, except in
50.
1. All other words admit the contraction only in the nomina-
tive, accusative, vocative plural, and partly also in the dative sin-
gular, particularly those in t>, G. vog, as 6 i%&vg Jish.
Sing. N. fy&vs, G. l%&vog, D. i%&vi\ A. IfOvv.
Plur. N. i%&vt$ contr. i%&vg, G. fyftvcav, D. fy&vat, (v),
A. fyftvag contr. i%&v?.
2. In the same manner are formed those in g, if, according to
the Ionic and Doric mode, they have 1,0$ in the genitive ; as in
Herodotus, nohg G. nohiog, pi. nobtg and nohag, contr. nohg,
and these have also in the dative singular nofai contr. 716 fa.
3. Another example is (3ovg orr, cow.
Sing. N../?ovff, G. /?oo'ff, D. fio'i, A. /?ouv, V. ^ou.
P/wr. N. /?off contr. Bovg, G. ^GOJ*/, D. povai (v), A. /?o'c
contr. ftdvg.
Also ypavs an old woman.
Sing. N. ypctvg, G. y(wdff, D. y^at; A. yguvv, V. ypau.
P/ur. N. /(>;? contr. yQavg, G. /^awj/, D. yQctvoi (i/),
A. (y^?) contr. ypavg.
In this last word is to be remarked the uncommon contraction of
ypaig into yoavg.
REM. 1. It is worthy of note that, by this contraction, the plural
number is again made similar to the nominative singular; and ev-
en where the quantity is different, the accent sometimes remains
the same ; as nom. sing. 6 POTQVQ the cluster of grapes, ace. pi. TOVC
<> 51-]
CONTRACTED DECLENSION.
57
REM. 2. The word o't'z sheep follows the example of
above, and accordingly makes Gen. oV0 9 \ and Norn, and Ace. pi.
Of, with the i long. Commonly, however, even the nominative
singular is contracted, as >/ o?, and then the word is thus declined :
Sing. PI.
Nom. oi$ o^,, oi$
Gen. o/d?
Dat oil
Ace. oiv
Hence we ran say ?/, a/, and rV,
S 51.
1. Most nouns in (j and /., and some few in vs and r, retain in
ommon language the vowel of the nominative only in the accu-
sative and vocative singular ; in all other cases they change it in-
to f. In these words, also, the dative li' is changed into *, and
the plural tts and fag into tg^ and the neuter fa into r n but no
farther contraction takes place.
2. The substantives in *? and i/$ have besides what is called
the Attic genitive, by which, instead of o? in the genitive singular
they make w 9 *, and in the dual, instead of oiv they make <M?, but
accent all three genitives as if the last syllable were short.
3. The neuters in v and i have the common genitive, as affrv,
S.
N.
G.
D.
\.
V.
TTOP.tl'
no),(
EXAMPLES.
?;, ci^y.* J, e//. ro, ciVy.
Di/a/. N. A.
G. D.
(jrt'
a Git o^
UGTft
CCGTV
V.GTV
itolct
Plur.
ndicts
UGT1]
UGTff
ClGTtOlV
In or^neral rro/r? signifies c^y politically, and affii; geographically.
58
THIRD DECLENSION.
52, 53
REM. Adjectives in v?< i', have the common genitive, and al-
so do not contract the neuters plural, as r]du$ neut. i}(Jv, gen. ijd't-
o?, Plur. iydt7g neut. rjdtcc.
52.
I. Nouns in fu<? have also the Attic genitive, but only the sin-
gular in cog, and without any peculiarity of accent. In these too
the contraction extends only to the dative singular and nominative
and accusative plural, in which last case, however, the tag is more
common.
Sing, o, king.
Norn. '
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc. paoitev
EXAMPLE.
Dual
Plural
and
REM. The length of the a in the accusative singular and plu-
ral is an Attic peculiarity. The earlier Attic writers contract the
nominative plural into fjft, as /?aa4i?. The lonians make uni-
formly fiaadijog, paadtjf', -?Ja, ->?, &c.
53.
1. There are some peculiarities in the contraction of the third
declension adopted by the Attic writers, when another vowel pre-
cedes and follows f. In that case the termination tu is contracted,
not into 77, but into a, as vytys healthy, Ace. sing, and Neut. pi.
vyii'ct contr. vyia' XQtog debt, PI. X9* f(X XQ* a -
REM. 1. Even some in ivg drop the f in this manner before
a, ag, and dig, as yoivg (a certain measure), G. %owg (for ^ofoj?),
Ace. pi. x<*g-
2. In proper names in xJU'i?? contr. xAiy?, a double contraction
arises, which, however, is confined in general to the dative.
N. JItQM\irig contr.
G. TTfQixXf'fog contr.
D. HiQixMt'i "
A. !T()4xAa "
V. Utoixhifq contr.
$ 54, 55.] CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 59
54.
J. Of the neuters in a$ these two, viz. x*'pa horn and Ttoag
miracle, make UTO$ in the genitive, but drop the x in the Ionic di-
alect, as xtQctTog, xtguog' Ttpaiog, tiguog. And the three follow-
ing, viz. ytjQctg old age, yf'gag honour, and *Qia$ flesh, always have
ao$ only.
2. Hence arises the following contraction.
EXAMPLE.
Sing. Dual Plural
Y.t'oaa
N. A. V.
G. xt'gao? x|pa>
D.
xiQuoiv
3. The other neuters in a?, 0, as <fc:nag' CK/?, fff'Aa? glitter,
have only the forms in a and , as ra ^Vra, TCW a^'Aa.
REM. The lonians often change the into f, in the inflection.
55.
The comparatives in cut/, neut. ov, gen. ovog, drop the v in the
accusative singular and the nominative, accusative, and vocative plu-
ral, and contract the two vowels. It is here, however, to be re-
marked, that without this contraction the v is never dropped, even
in the Ionic dialect.
EXAMPLE.
Sing. Plur.
Nom. f*ti(nv greater fAtifrvf? contr.
Gen. utlovo$
Dat. pd&vt,
Ace. [Atl&vGt contr. jU/a> /u/aiw$ contr.
Voc. {4fiov ftflov(<s contr.
Neuter pi. TU fttifrva contr. f4fta).
The dual remains unaltered.
REM. Of the same character, though more violent, is the con-
traction familiar to the Attics of the accusative of the two names
-ojvog, and Iloatidwv -OJVQ? Neptune, viz.
Ace. '^TioAAojfa, -^Tio'AAw Iloattdwva,
60
THIRD DECLENSION. EXAMPLES.
Examples for practice in all the rules of the third declension.
Such letters preceding the termination of the case, as cannot
be ascertained by the foregoing rules, are given in parentheses.
I. Examples of such as have consonants before the termina-
tion of the case.
d dyxwv
elbow
77 'Mdg (d)
Greece
c ' V ' f \
?l &1JOQJV (0)
nightingale
d "EKlriv
a Greek
d dyp (*)
air
7j D.nlg (o)
hope
o ui-Q-riQ (e)
sky
T? i'gtg (d)
strife
77 ail (y)
goat
d &6Qa7io)v(ov
T) servant
?] dxTig (iv)
ray
d frig (iv)
heap
d dvdoidg (vr)
statue
d itQttS, (dx)
hawk
d aw (o)
axle
d iftdg (VT)
thong
7; afaag (x)
furrow
7; XCtTtjklljJ ((jfi]
) stair
77 PTJ^ (%)
cough
y xrjkig (id)
spot
o yt'owv (OVT)
old man
o xkojv
branch
d yovifj (n)
griffin
c / /"- v\
7; xvrjftig (id)
splint
d yvip (vn)
vulture
7; xdovg (&)
helmet
?; daig (r)
meal
d XT fig (fv)
comb
7; dag (d)
torch
}j X U A L ^ \ / )
cup
d dekcpig (iv)
dolphin
TO xvfia
wave
d dtid'Awi* (OVT)
serpent
i] kail.aip ~(n)
storm
O ^IciXCDV
Lacedemonian
< > >. / \
7; Gapi; (x)
flesh
o hccovy (y)
throat
7? afiorjv
siren
O hl[.lV]l> (i)
port
TO GTOfACt
mouth
n hvy (^)
lynx
i] Jii; (y)
the Styx
o ^mffrt^ (l^)
scourge
j] Zqiyl (y)
Sphinx
(4-r]v
month
r i] lYovi'g (&)
(name of a city)
f.W(JVV (u)
(wooden tower)
o (pfitiy
louse
TO VtXTCCO
nectar
1} atiy (/?)
vein
d ovv$ (x)
nail, talon
1} alo$ (y)
Jiame
o ooTviE, (y)
quail
CfOJQ
thief
TO ov&ap (T)
udder
TO (fojg (T)
light
d ncuuv (d)
paean
d %dkvi}j (ft)
steel
$ 56.] IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 61
d nt'vijS (i) poor man r t %t\idwv (o) swallow
6 Tiiva't- (x) tablet o f fj\v goose
o 7ioi(.o}v (f) shepherd t] %&wv earth
?/ miyvt, (y) wing r, yiwv (o) snow
r t Ttzi/l (/) yb/rf >/ '/kv.ftvg (()) military robe
o pig (ir) nose o i/'o () starling
(lv) Salamis r, MI<< visage.
II. Examples of such as have a voiu$ before the termination of
the case, and are more or less contracted.
TO
uv&os
flower
o oosug
mule
>
Borons
grape
TO b'oog
mountain
TO
ytvos
race
ri oyig
sight, vision
r t ;
/ivvs
jaw bone
l] TlttVoj
persuasion
TO
oxc'iiag
cover
Tl&tXVS
ax (see 51.
2.)
9<
favg (<})
oak
TO TltTlcQt,
pepper
I
nntvg
horseman
r t TiiTvg
pine
TO
'/.OUtlt
gum
t] TiohjOts
poetry
>} -
4t]TOJ
Latona
i] 7t(jaig
action
/
tctvTig
prophet
GTU%vg
ear
fHL\} (l')
mouse
1} (fvaig
nature.
56. IRREGULAR DECLENSION.
1. Irregularity in the declension of nouns, as in the conjugation
of verbs, has its origin for the most part in the existence of a
twofold form of the same word. It is frequently the case that the
Greek language, particularly in the ancient and poetical dialect,
has words of several terminations and forms of inflection^ while
the signification remains the same ; as AT^T^Q and Ar^i^TOu.
Ceres ; dv.y.Qvov and d'axrjv tear. This latter form is older.
2. Occasionally, moreover, one form remained in use in one
case and one in another; and thus a word became a true anoma-
lon ; see below Zf vg, yvvr h vdw^ &c. But often both forms con-
<32 IRREGULAR DECLENSION. [ 50.
tinued in use in the same case, as vlog son, G. vtou and vi(6, and
such an instance is called by the grammarians an abundans.
3. When both forms suppose one nominative, from which they
variously descend, the word is called a Heteroclite, as when Oldi-
uovg makes in the G. Oldinodog and Oidinov. When however
one of the forms supposes a different obsolete nominative, it is
called a Metaplasm, as OvetQOv dream, Gen. ortigQv and ov*/pro,
from the obsolete ovftQag.
4. The following words, of which some are Heteroclites and
some Metaplasms, are worthy of particular note for the irregulari-
ty of their declensions.
1. ' Avr\Q man belongs to the class of words like naryy ( 47),
hut it admits the syncope in all increasing cases, with an insertion
of 6 '( 19 Rem. 1), as avfyog, avdgi, uvdga, w avep. PI. avdptg,
avdyon', uvfiyaGiv, Swdgag. The poets, not Attic, make use of the
original form of the genitive pvtpog, &c.
2. Kvwv dog) xvvog, xvvi, xvvcc, cJ xvov. PL xv*t$ xvvwv, xv-
a/, xvvccg.
3. IIvv) 77, a place in Athens, in the old writers nvxvog, nvxvi,
nvxva, afterwards also nvvxog, &c.
4. JC;/^, ?J, hand, %siQog, in the. G. D. dual %tQ'o?v, and the D.
pi. %tQGi* By the poets also ^fpo?, %tQi.
5. &Qi'i hair has TQt,%6q, &c. D. pi. &QI%I, according to 18. 3.
6. Ovg, TO, ear, G. ahrd?, &c. G. pi. arco/, D. pi. cJa/i/.
7. Tctoa, TO, mi7A:, G. yAaxro?, D. ycfAaxr*.
8. " TdwQ, TO, 'water, and ffxcJo, TO, ,/ftA, have G. vdaros, axa-
ro'?, &c. D. pi. vdaatr, &e.
9. JToVu, TO', fcnee, and 0*0(>v, TO, 5joear, have G. yovctTog, doQa-
Tog, &c. D. pi. yovaoi, &c. There is also an ancient genitive
and dative, fopo'?, dopi, from o^o'^u. Ion. yovvaios, dovQarog, &c.
Epic yovvog, dovgog, PI. TO yovvu, dovgu, &c.
10. &i fits, y, justice, ^Themis, G. in the ancient and epic form
St'fMGTog, &LC. afterwards also QtfMTog and Siuidag. Ionic
11. MuQxvg witness, [lUQTVQog, &c. A. puQTVQa. and
D. pi.
56.] IRREGULAR DECLENSIOX. 63
12. JVav?, i], ship, Ionic vqvg, is thus declined by the Attics,
G. vfiag (for i/ao'e 26 Rem. 7.) D. vr}'i\ A. /ai^, N". pi. v^fg, G.
vtwv, D. I'uvaiv, A. i/aus. (See /?oue 50. 3.) The lonians have
sometimes vi]6g &c. sometimes vfog &,c. and in the A. v i]v. and vim.
13. A'ktis, ij, &ey, G. xA$o's, has in the accusative xA*7da, but
more commonly xA*u>, and in the plural xAf?&?, xA^/^aj?, contr.
14. Z6t>? Jupiter, G. ^otf, D. ^fo/, A. ^//, V. ZFV, by the
poets also Zrjvog, Zqvt, Zqva, from the obsolete nominatives Al
and Zrjv.
15- Pvvri woman, yffcaxo?, yvvai'/.i, yvvulxa, ta yvvui. PI.
pwaixeg, ywaatwvi ywta|/, from the obsolete
1. To the Heteroclites are also to be added those in */,
which are declined according to the first and third declensions ;
especially proper names like #ea?7i which makes commonly G.
0ccAou, ^or by the Ionics with a change of the accent, 0aAfco,)
D. 9ulr t , Ace. SuKfiv, but also Qcdyrog &c. This holds of oth-
ers in the accusative alone. All compound proper names, which
have (os in the genitive, make the accusative in 7; and j?i/, a<
^wxpar^?, G. (*o?) oi', Ace. Zcux^arij and SuxQjmjV' ^ n like
manner v ^r^ Mars, G. *^gto$ which is never contracted, D.
"^/p*r, v ^4gei, Ace. v ^; and "AQi}v. On the other hand many
words in ^ff, which belong to the first declension, are formed by
the Ionics in the accusative singular and plural like the third, a*
TOV dfOTiOTfct, PI. Tovg df(J7iOTfug, from faonoiijG -ov, and JfU-
Tictdfa from &ftlTui$ijs -ov*
2. Another sort of Heteroclites are those in *, which in their
inflection ^sometimes do, and sometimes do not, assume a conso-
nant ; as ijjiTfvig anger, G. pyviOG and ^vtdo?' o, ij oovig bird.
generally ogvl&og &c. but also PI. OQVIIS,
* All names formed like patronymics, as Mi\Tiadi]?,
ice. and most others not compounded like 2ojxpttTi] &c. viz.
igi]G, JTvyij?. &c. are declined in the Greek throughout according to
the first declension, with the exception of the lonicism mentioned in the
text. The Latins, on the contrary, form them a^coroinsr to the third de-
< tension, as Mil'iadis. Xerri.*. &r.
64 IRREGULAR DECLENSION'. 50.
3. The nominative endings in to? and wv also exhibit a vari-
ety .of changes, viz.
a) Norn. co and o?, as tj a'Acof threshing floor, G. co, N. pi. a'Ao*.
b) " cog, G. cu and coo?, as Mivtag.
c) " w?, G. euro?, which also sometimes drop the r. The
word o ftfgtox? sts>ea, 'tfipwTi, 'idywru, has also another form with
the Attics, viz. TW irJ'pw, TOV i'ttyco, which may be regarded as a
contraction like xipart, xf'pa, but which also corresponds with the
forms of the second declension Attic. The word d yf'Ao>ff -WTO?
laughter has in the accusative /Acora and y&wv. So also o /{Hoc
ypcoTog skin makes the dative /pw, but only in the proverbial
phrase J-v #pco closely* The lonians make /pw* /pooV, &c,
d) Nom. co and coy. In these words, the double form occurs
even in the nominative, as o rvcpaig -co, and Tvqo'> -wi/o?, whirl-
wind-
4. The word was is regularly declined according to the se-
cond declension, but -receives also the following forms of the third
declension, particularly in the Attic writers, viz. G. viiog, D.
viti. Ace. vita. Dual vitf, vhoiv. PI. vlff^ vlf-wv, vlt'otv^ viia$
and vitTi.
5. Qfdlvdgov tree and vtyivov lily, there are datives plural <feV-
dQtai, y.()ivGi, and also other cases, which suppose a nominative
singular in og of the third declension.
6. It is also an instance of Metaplasm, when sometimes from
masculines in 03 of the second declension plurals in a are formed,
as r &ctym, f/ex, OTad/ia, a7ra, from o fcopos fetter, vyo'g yoke.
OTCt&fio? balance, alrogfood.
7. Some words of more recent or foreign origin have a very
simple declension, as^ &drg, G % CM/?, D. CPUjJ, A. fl>dijv. V/;-
G. 'jaov D. 'lynov A. '
8. An anomaly of a very curious kind exists in the epic dialect,
in the very common final syllable cf.iv and cpi, which is used in-
stead of the dative or genitive singular or plural, being appended
to words in the following manner, viz. OTparog army, (JTpaxocft,'
)>t] head, y,f(fcxX^cfi' ft la violence. fih]yiv' OTqfto? -fo? breast.
57, 58.] DEFECTIVES AND INDECLINABLE^. 65
^ 57. DEFECTIVES AND INDECLINABLES.
1. Defective nouns are chiefly such as, in their nature, cannot
well occur in more than one number, particularly the following
plurals ; TO. tyxara entrails, ol tTyaiai trade winds, and the names
of festivals, as TU diovvaia the feast of Bacchus.
2. Certain words are defective, which only occur in particular
connexions ; such are the following, viz.
The neuters ovag vision, and VTIUQ real appearance, only used
as nominative and accusative.
To oqtkos and TO f^og, advantage, only used as nominative, as
ii av rifA.iv 0(f.f\og firj- of what advantage wouldst thou be to us ?
Jfcdr,, instead of fiuaydkiy, shoulder, in the phrase vnd /uAi?
under the arm.
3. Lastly there are nouns defective in particular cases ; such
in prose are the following, viz.
G. TOV UQVOZ of the lamb, D. UQVI, A. aQva, PI. aQvt$, D.
UQVUGI,, all which are cases of an obsolete nominative APPHN,
Gen. APPE^SiOZ, and by syncope agvog. The want of a nom-
inative is supplied by 6 dfivog.
Uptafivs an old man has in this signification only Ace. nQtofivv,
V. nQtofiv. In the signification of ambassador it has only ol TIQI-
o^fi? &c. D nptapiai- The cases here wanting are borrowed
from nQf(J^VTr t g an old man, and -xQSGptvxrig an ambassador.
4. Indeclinables are for the most part only some foreign names,
as TO naG%a Easter, and among them the names of the letters of
the alphabet, as crAgr</, fiv, &c. Of pure Greek words, most of the
cardinal numbers are also indeclinable. ( 70.)
58. ADJECTIVES.
1. There are in Greek, as in Latin, adjectives both of two and
of three endings ; in the former, the masculine and feminine gen-
der have a common form.
2. The feminine of adjectives of three endings always follows
the first declension of nouns.
9
66 ADJECTIVES. [ 59.
3. The neuter has in th,e nominative, and of course in all the
Jike cases (see 33. Rem. 5), always one form ; which, however, in
the remaining cases is uniformly declined like the masculine.
REMARK. It is therefore only necessary, in order to decline the
adjective correctly, to know all the parts of the nominative, and
the genitive of the masculine.
59. ADJECTIVES IN 0$.
1. Most numerous are the adjectives in og, which correspond
to the Latin in us, and have, like those, either three endings, viz.
masc. og, fern, y or , neut. ov, or two endings, viz. com. og.
neut. of.
NOTE. For the few with the neuter in o, see the pronoun 74.
2. The greater part are of three endings, and these, when a
vowel or Q precedes, have in the fern, a, G. ag, otherwise always
?;. E.g. yttog, Cf-i^r], qlkov, dear, friend-, kvQMog,^, oV
?;, oi', dreadful. But also, q)tt.iog,(pi,kie(, <f>i\t,ov, friendly ;
gog, tpa, tQOv,free; nvQQog, <x, 6v, red like fire; and other examples
are doKJTfQog left, dt,i6 right, dqAOG plain, IQV&QOG red,
Giog wonderful, &f7os divine, xovqos light, hews smooth,
white, (.IOVOG alone, aog)0$ wise, uxA?;po hard.
REM. 1. But those in oo have ;, as oydoo? the eighth,
$00?, swift, dor]. But if Q precede, these also have , as a
frequent, d&Qoa. The feminine in a is long. With respect to the
accent see above 34 Rem. III.
3. Of two endings are such as these, viz. o and t]
rtot Greek, iiav%o? calm, Ti&otaGO? tame, and in the Attics many
others also, which are commonly of three endings.
4. In an especial manner belong to the adjectives of two end-
ings all compounds, which, without any particular derivational
ending, terminate in o? ; aso', r\ qdotfxvosfond of children,
rovog barytone, nohvqayoz 'voracious, tvqxavog harmonious,
irrational, u^yog for atgyog idle, dnO'/Mjoo? disinherited,
whitish, although the simple is kevxog, r,, QV.
0.] ADJECTIVES. - CONTRACTS. 67
Also adjectives formed in this manner from compound verbs,
as dui<f>Q$o?, vnrjxooq, from diuqtQw, VTiaxovoj, &c.
5. All adjectives derived from other words, by the manifest
addition of the derivational endings xo, log, vog, po, TO?, *oe, as
uaviwog from puvng, dfdog and dttvog from AEIQ, (ftavfQog
from qalvaj, nXtxTog from TiA^xw, %piiotog from /oi'ffoV, are, at
least in prose, of three endings.
On the other hand, among the adjectives in f<oc, tog, tiog. uiog.
are several of common gender.
REM. 2. When an adjective has one of these terminations, and
is also compounded, a conflict of the different analogies ensues.
with respect to which the following is to be observed.
a) The compounds in xog have not their immediate origin in a
composition, but are only derived from compound words ; they
have there fore always three endings, as tTitdtixrixog, rj+ov, from
indtfixrvfii, tvdtuiiiovixo?, r t , 6v, from tvdaipwv.
b) Other verbals, when they are first compounded as adjec-
tives, follow the fourth rule above; as nvtvaiog, t], 6v, from nWw,
&GnvtvGTO<s, oi>, inspired ; noudevTOQ, r\, oi/, from nutdivot, ctn&i-
dfvroG, ov, untaught When, however, they are derived from
compound verbs, the usage varies between the two formations.
60. CONTRACTS IN OV.
\ . Some adjectives in ooc are contracted, viz.
a) Those of common gender, which are formed by composi-
tion from contracts of the second declension, like vovg^ nhovg, as
fv fOO, f woo unfavourably disposed, contr. evvovc, euvovv, G. tvvov,
&c. The neuter plural in o remains unaltered in this form, as
r avoa from avovg senseless.
b) The numerical ideas VAo'o?, dmkoog, ;, Of, &,c. simple,
twofold, &c. which have the peculiarity, that they uniformly con-
tract or} and 6 a into i] and a. E. g.
Sing. diTihoog, din\6r h dmhoov. Plur. SmKoot, dinhocu,
contr. diTtlovs, dink?}, dmKovv. cpntr. dt,n\ol,
* With these numerical adjectives must not be confounded the com-
pounds of Tilov? navigation, as 6, // 7iAof? unnavigable, tvnlOV$, <fec.
neut. ovv, "neut. pi. 0.
68 ADJECTIVES. [$ 61, 62.
2. Some adjectives also in fog, expressing a substance or mate-
rial, are contracted, with a transposition of the accent j e. g.
contr. 0vaou, #pi>c% ;fpv<roi;i>, G. ov, ijff, oiJ, &c.
When another vowel or @ precedes, the feminine is contracted
not into *J, but into a, as epieog woollen, contr. Ipfovg, Ipea, egtovv
dpyvpeoe silver, contr. tigyvpovg, dyyvpa, upyvQOVv.
The neuter plural has always , as T %QV<sea contr. #pf #<*,
like oarta o<rr. See above 36.
61. ADJECTIVES IN <?.
Adjectives in to?, resembling the second Attic declension, are
in general of common gender, as o and r t i'Afw?, TO i'fawv, gracious.
So too K>/pcug worthy, and tvffots fruitful.
REM. 1. Some of these form the neuter also in eo, as dyyQtos
not growing old, neut. uyJigtav and uyrjpa). For the abundants,
which make in the gen. to and toro?, see below 63 Rem. 2.
REM 2. Of three endings there is only one simple, viz. TiAe'to?
full, nhia, 7iA*W, neut. pi. nKta. For awe see below in 64. 3.
62.
The remaining forms of adjectives of three endings are the
following, viz.
1. v?, fia, v. yhvxvc;, ykvxt7a, yKvxv, sweet,
(G. eog) G. masc. and neut.
Examples, fiaQvg heavy, y?pa#uff slow, @Qa%vg short, tvpvs broad,
dvg sweet, o|f? sharp, toxf? swift.
2. ft?, tooct, tv. xctQitts, %ccQi{GG(x, ^Mp/f ]/, charming,
(G. evros) G. %aQlevTO$.
Examples, alfiaTOfi? bloody, vh'jfig woody, fvpcoeig rusty.
3. aff, ai/a, /. /ttf'Aa?, i*tkawa, ju&uv, black,
(G. avoff) G. p&avog.
The only other is rcxAa? wretched-
63.] ADJECTIVES. 69
4. The following separate examples, viz.
Ttgyv, riQfivu, iioev, G. fvog, tender.
txwv, fxoJffa, txo?, G. ovTog, willing.
Corap. ccVxwi/ commonly axcov, axouaa, xov, unwilling.
-nag, naoa, TICO/, G. nuvTog, all, </ie whole.
Comp. GV{47iag, a
REM. 1. The neuter -Tiav is long only as a monosyllable ; in
composition it is, agreeably to analogy, short ; as ci^ag, ccjiaau,
ajiav, all together. With respect to the accent on the genitive
and dative plural, TIUVTOJV, naai, see above 43 Rem. 3.
REM. 2. A part of the participles are declined like Ixwv and
TT. For these, all of which have three endings, see below
88. 8.
REM. 3. From the adjectives in fig arise several^ contracts,
fiat*, r,fv, being contracted into r ( g, rjooa, rjv, and 6fig
>fv, into ovg, OVGGCC, ovv, viz.
rifiqaaa, TL^V^ G. Tiiujvrog, from rifiyfig honoured, &c.
>vg, fAfKnovoGu, pdirrovv, G. [itt.iTOivTog, from fifbrottg
full of honey, &c. (See 43 Rem. III.)
63. ADJECTIVES OF ONE OR TWO ENDINGS.
1. The remaining forms of adjectives in two endings, all ac-
cording to the third declension, are the following.
a) ??, neut. fg aKrfirjg, dhy&t'g, true,
(G. tog, contr. ovg) G. aty&ovg.
Examples, fiJTiOfjirig decorous, axoipyg exact, ayfvvr t g degener-
ate, av&ddyg proud, yfiodqg earthy, ftriQHudrig bestial.
b) (ov, neut. ov. f^frjficav, tAfijuov compassionate,
(G. ovog) G. Ikfrn
Examples, diivpwv with long f, blameless, a7iady t u(av unoccu-
pied, euyvfaptav well disposed.
c) ig, neut. i. i'doig, 'idgi, skilful, G. i'doiog.
(G. 10$)
There are very few examples of this last kind.
d) The following simple word, viz. cipQrjv or tigarjv, neut,
aggtv, uoafv, G. uygtvog, uyafvog, male.
70 ADJECTIVES. [ 60.
2. Besides these, there are adjectives formed from a substan-
tive merely by composition, and retaining as closely as possible the
termination and declension of the substantive, as may best be
seen in the examples. These are all of common gender, and have
a neuter, when analogy admits of one ; e. g.
tv%aoig, tv^gif G. wog, from jj #p, nog.
adaxQvg, (xdcwQv, G. vog, from TO daugv, vpg.
Sometimes, however, there is in the. termination a change of
7? into w, and s into o, as from naryo, tpog, comes UTIKTMQ, op, G.
&Gi fatherless ; from tyQriv, (ppwog, understanding, comes aajcpQWv,
ov, G. oi'O?, intelligent.
REM. 1. Compounds ofnovg,nodog,foot, regularly follow their
substantive, as dlnovg, dlnodog, twofooted ; but in the neuter they
have dinovv (as tvvovg, ivvovv, from the contracted second declen-
sion), which they decline according to the general rule, like the
masculine. ( 58. 3.)
REM. 2. Compounds of yt'lwg, (orog, laughter, commonly for-
sake the declension of this substantive, and follow the Attic second
declension ( 61) ; as also those formed from xepug, xtQ(xTog,horn,
with a change of the into co. Both, however, have also the
genitive ooiog, as q> do y fling, dixfpwg, neut. wi>, G. o> and wro?.
(See 56 Rem. 3- c.)
3. When analogy does not admit of the formation of a neuter,
it remains an adjective of one ending, which, however, is only
masculine and feminine, and not also neuter, as it is in Latin ; thus
o and YI auaig, dog, childless, from na7g naidog, also o and t] /w-
OS, long handed, from #*/p, &c.
REM. 3. There are some common adjectives of one ending in
17 ff, TfTOQ, (aoyrjg,^f.uvdr^g)- in co^, onog, (dyvwg)', and in ^ and
i//, (^Afc, xo?' [A0jvv', %og' aiyihifj, nog, &,c.)
REM. 4. There are several common adjectives in a,g, G. v.dog,
as qvyag fugitive, loyug chosen, &c. and a few in ig and vg, G.
idog, vdog, as avuhxig, tnrjlve. Commonly, however, those in ag
and is, G. dog, are only feminine, and become, by the omission of
the substantive, substantives themselves, as ij*ftaii>d$ (sc. yvvy) the
Bacchante, y nuTQig (sc. yy) native country.
^ REM. 5. Several adjectives also are only masculines ; so par-
ticularly ytgwv, oviog, old ; nptafivg old ( 57. 3) ; ntvy?, m'v-
t;ro?, poor ; and fcXotTi$ voluntary, ywvv.dug noble &,c. according
to the first declension.
63.]
ADJECTIVES.
71
EXAMPLES OF THE DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.
Sin?.
N.
G. Goqov
D. Goqu~>
A. Goqo'v
V. G0<pt
Go<pog wse.
(JOOJ>
GOCfOV
GO (fit]
Goqov
Dual
N.A.V. aogtfti
G. D. GOffolv
aogta
Gocpaiv
Plur.
N.
G. GO q o)i>
D. GOffo^z Goyu7g
A. G0(fov$
V.
aoq.cc
N.
G.
D.
A.
v.
Goqcx,
N.
G.
D. juaxpco
A. paxpov
pog ficcxpu [HKXpov
iiuxoy
N.A.V. 4axpa> [ictxoct
G. D.
Plur. -
N. |Uxpot juaxpa/
G. fiaxpojv
D. fiaxpo7g fiaxpa7g
A. paxpovg puxpag /uaxpa
V. fiaxpol iiuxpai /uaxpa
iV.fOJ? gracious.
Dual.
N. A. V. i';.f w
G. D.
P/wr
N.
G.
D.
A.
V.
Sing.
N.
G. ykvxt'o?
D. yAL'X6/
A. yAvxvi/
V. yAvxv
Dual.
N.A.V.
G. D.
t 1 xv
yAvx/s
ylvxflq
yAt'X6?a*/ yAvxv
%aplfig charming.
N. %ct$tti?
G. %<tQltvTO$ -
ft D. %apii>Ti, -
j A.
| V.
-ofGoa -oitv
-Qieaaccv -ofv
Dual
-y.ftu -x N.A.V. %aolfvi -I'GOCC
-xi'oiv G. D. yaoitvxQiv -ZGGUIV -tvxoir
Plur.
N. yi.vxitg fig -y.flcti -xtu
G. yAt'x^cui/ -xfio^i/ -xto
D. yliuxtGt -xflaig -xtG
A. ykvxtag fig -xftag -xt'a
V. ylvxt'fg f?c -xt7nt -v.iv.
Plur.
N.
-xfoji' G.
D. %v.Qifi,Gi, -pit'oGcttg -(.
A. yctpifVTfg -pitGGag -
V. '/CtplfVTfg -plfGGttt -QltVTV.
72
ADJECTIVES.
R63.
Sing.
N.^
G. ^tif
De/Uf
A. p&ava
V.
/MiAaj/
fjiflaivy
[ttkctivav (ttKav
Dual
N.A.V. ft&ave /M;A/j/ /w^'Aai/^
G. D. uthdvow -laivaw -\dvoiv
Plur.
N.pt
G. fA.t\nv(av
D.
A.
V.
fAtkcClVUl, (A&UVK
s^-
willing.
N.
G.
D. t'j
A. txovra
V.
txovaa t%ov
txovatjg txdvzog
tXOVGT) 6X0 VT I
tXOUGMV fXOV
N.A.V.
G. D. IxovTdiv -ovGaiv -OVTUIV
Plur. /
N. (XOVTfg tXOVGat, IxOVTCC
G. tXOVTQJV ixOVGWV tXOVTWV
D. tXOVGl tXOVGUig tXOVGl
A. fxoiTft^ 6xoi'a$ Ixovra
V. txovitg IXOVGCU txovia
N. Tiag
G. TTMVZOe
D. Tcavtl
A. TiavTct
V. 71
Tia? a//.
Ti(Ja
TiaG^g
TEttdt?
naGav
71CCV
navTog
navTi
nuv
Dual
N.A.V. nvtvie TIUGCC navrf
G. D. navroiv nuGKiv TIQIVTOIV
Plur. f
N. navxtg
D. 7ia^
A. nctVTctg
V. ntxvTtg
N"-
G. ..,
D,
A. aj~ v ^ - .
V. Ct(.lV[40V
nciGttt,
naGO)V
TiaGcug
mxvta
TIQLGVU,
naGt,
navTa
TlCiVTCi
N.
G.
D.
A.
V. dkrj&tg
Dual
N.A.V.
G. D.
Plur.
N.
G.
D.;
A.
V. dkij&t'fg
ovg
el
dhri&tg
oiv
MV
Dual
ufAVfiov N. A. V.
G. D.
ct/KiSyi wv blameless.
Plural
rvrv ^t.- N. apvfioitg
dflVfJiovotv G. afivfiovwv
D. a^iv(AOGii
V. ttftvftovtg
64.] ADJECTIVES. 75
td'ots skilful.
Sing.
Dual.
Plur.
N. WQI?
'idot,
N. A. V. idoif
N. idytfS
Id Q tot.
G. i'dotog
G. D. idc)iot,v
G. i do 10)1
i/
D. tdou
.
D. 'idfjiot
A. i'doiv -
id 01
A. idpia*,
: /'${)
V. Woi
V. tdfjug
i'^
64. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES.
1. The two adjectives ficyaS great, andnokvg much, many, make
from this simple form, in the nominative and accusative singular
only, masc. {tt'yag, f^tyav -nohvg, nol.vv' and neut. /ut/a, no\v.
All the rest, with the whole feminine gender, is derived from the
obsolete forms MJEF4AO2, iy, ov. and TioAAo'?, r, oV. E. g.
N. fttyas t ufyukr]
G. fiffalov pttyalijg
D. ( *yAo)
A. fiiyctv nf/dkyv ut'ya
no).v? ^
notia
The dual and plural are regularly formed as from adjectives
in 0, viz: Mf/cUcu, , or p^aAoi, at, a' TioAAo/, a/, a, &c.
REMARK. The forms TioAAo^, TioAAoV, are Ionian ; and the regu-
lar forms of :roAt; are found in the /?ic dialect, as nofa'u^
2. TTpwo? mi'W, mcefc, is in this form used only in the masculine
and neuter singular. The feminine and the neuter plural are bor-
rowed from a form TIQUVS (Ion. v^rjvg) used in the dialects ; ac-
cordingly we find fern- 7roa??a, neut. pi. TiQatct. We also find in
the nom. pi. masc. both TIOKCI and Tipc:;??, G. only nQatow.
3. aws safe, contr. from 2AO2, has from this form only awg
of the common gender, Ace. and neut. aoj y, Ace. pi. ao~)$. Rarely
the fern. sing, and neut. pi. oa. All the rest is from acoo?, a, ov.
4. Defectives are chiefly these, viz. ygovdoe, ^, ov,' vanished,
gone, which is used only in the nominative of all the genders and
numbers; norvta venerable, sovereign, used only in the feminine.
10
74 ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. [ 65, 66.
$ 65. DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
72 1. The Greeks have the three degrees of comparison, Posi-
tive, Comparative, and Superlative, and a separate form for each.
This form is common to the three genders, which are distinguish-
ed only by their appropriate termination.
2. The most common form of comparison is -regog, a, ov for
the comparative, and -raxog, r), ov for the superlative.
3. Adjectives in og drop their g before this termination, if a
long syllable precede, and they retain their o unchanged ; e. g.
fit'ftaiog Jinn,
lG%VQOg Strong,
TiiOTog faithful, niOTOTfpog,
Also after mutes before liquids ( 7. 10.) in prose, as cyodgog ve-
hement, G(f.od@OTaTog.
4. If a short syllable precede, the o is changed into CD ; e. g.
G0(f'6g wise, ooyojTeoog, Tctrog
xaioiog timely, xaigiojTfoog, rarog
secure
REM. 1. Some adjectives in og, particularly in the Attic writ-
ers, instead of o or co, take ai or g or ig, as f^'oof in the midst,
strong, tQQwiitvtOTeQog' hahog loquacious*
REM. 2. Some in utpg wholly omit the o, as ycpuwe old, yt-
ifQog. So too nulaiog, G%o\cuog, nfQaiog.
REM. 3. q&og dear, friend, commonly does the same, as yi7-
og, or inserts ai, as qtdaiTfpog, rurog.
REM. 4. The contracts in tog, ovg, contract the (w into CD, as
og, noyqvpojTaTog, those in oog, ovg, on the other
hand, take an tg, in the uncontracted form, according to Rem. 1, as
dnkoog, 7iAof'arTog, and hence contracted ankovg,
^ 66. ADJECTIVES IN lff, ff, 1?ff, fl>g.
1. Of other adjectives, those in vg merely drop the g, as
broad, evQvriQog^ xuvog.
I 67.] PEGREES OF COMPARISON. 75
2. The same holds of those in ag, G. ai>og, which however 7.;
here resume the v which had been dropped before the g, as f.it-
lag black, G. (.i&avog ftfhxvttQOG.
3. Those in yg and tig shorten this termination into fg ; e. g.
dfy&tjg true, G. tog,
nt'vrjg poor, G. 7?ro?,
%a@itig charming, G- tvrog,
An exception is iptvSr^g false, G. 0?,
4. The other adjectives take most frequently toxtgog, more
rarely iortgog, and undergo the same change before it, as before
the termination of the case; as aqocov irrational, G. aqrpof-o?.
compar. uq$ov-t6TtQog' ajpKaf rapacious, G. cioTiuy-og, compar.
67. COMPARISON BY IWV, IGTO$.
1. A much less frequent form of comparison is the following,
viz. com. -ton/, neut. -lov, for the comparative, and -iarog, 7;, ov for
the superlative.
NOTE. For the mode of declension, see above in 55 i4tlcov.
2. This form of comparison is adopted as follows, viz.
a) By some adjectives in vg, as ydug sweet, ?J&W, ^diaxog.
b) By some in Qog, with the omission of the Q, as ala^og base,
3. In some comparatives of this form the preceding consonant
is, with the i, changed into a a or TT ; thus Ta%vg swift, sup. TU-
%t,GTog, has this for its most common form of comparison, and also
takes a & in the beginning; as ftdaocov, neut. ftaooov, Att. #r-
twv , &UTTOV. Hence it appears that the T in id%vg had its origin
in &, according to 18.
REM. This form of comparison always has the accent on the
antepenult, if the quantity of the last syllable admits it ; as ydvc.
neut. idio
75 ADJECTIVES. 1RREG. COMPARISON. [ 68.
74 REM. 2. Of the adjectives in vg only tjdvg and iu%vg adopt
this form commonly ; most of them adopt the regular form I/T^QO?
and VTCCTO?, and a few only take the other form, particularly in
the poets.
REM. 3. Of those in QO$ the following belong here, viz. ai-
oyoos base, IjffrQOS hostile, olxTpog sad, xvd@6s glorious. But in
these the other form is also in use, and of OIKTQOS the compara-
tive in low is not used.
REM. 4. Here too is to be reckoned [taxpog long, on account
of its forms of comparison paGvuv for fiaxiwv, superl. [AVJKIGTO?,
in which latter there is also a change of the vowel, so as to con-
form to TO pijxog length. More common, however, are the forms
68. IRREGULAR COMPARISON.
Several adjectives have quite an anomalous comparison, bv
which they derive the comparative and superlative degrees from
obsolete forms of the positive. Where there is more than one
form of comparison for one positive, each of the comparative
forms usually has one of the more definite significations of the pos-
itive, or is used by preference in particular connexions ; of which.
however, the single instances must be left to observation.
KX AMPLER.
Comp. Sup.
ay afro g good, ctficlvwv neut. -vov better api(JTO<s best
I.
75 In the elder poets the regular comparative corresponding to
p*(7ro? is still found, viz. apfiow,* and of xfjariGzog even tbe
positive y.ouiu\ Instead Q XQfloawv the lonians make
or
/.ori'tav commonly RwW, /.cj'i'oiog commonly
* Traces of the original positive degree may be -found in .^07??, the
name of the g:ort of war, and in the abstract aQtT?] rirf-ue.
69.] DEFECTIVE COMPARISON.
2. xaxo's bad, xaxtW
or
The form ijaawv has only the signification of worse, weaker,
more useless, and is always opposed to %Qtin:u>v. The superlative
ijxiaro? is little used ; though the neut. pi. rixuttct occurs fre-
quently as an adverb.
3. (ti'yas great, [Afifrjv (ion. /u&ui/)
4. /uxoo small, < Ikctaaajv, TTWV
5. ok/yog few, \ ptiMv
The ancient positive was EAAXYZ- The regolar forms
fiixgoifpoz -Turog are also us^d.
6^ 7TOAi' ?n?/c^, TT/.^ttoi/ or 7iA*W more, 7iA*/aro? tno5i.
The Attics in certain phrases use 7ite7v for the neut. 7i).(7oi>.
as :T/./J/ >; uuoiui. The lonians and Dorians contract thus, ftX&v
'
7. xaAo? beautiful, y.uM.iwv
8. ftqdioq easy, yqoov (JUOTO?.
The lonians, who make ^tj'f'dtos in the positive, compare thus,
'wi', p//rjr(/s, from an obsolete positive (>'/, '
9. tx^yfii'og painful, dt.ylwv
The regular form u/.'/fivoTfoo? -rro? is, however, more com-
mon in the masculine and feminine.
10. nintav ripe,
11. TllCOV fat, TTlOTfQO?
^ 69. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON.
1. There are also defective comparisons, which have no pos-
itive ; and in this view we may regard some of the anomalous
comparisons given above, as IJTTCOV, xpflxTCov, Awdro?, &c.
2. To the class of defective comparisons may be referred the 76
adjectives derived from particles, and those which indicate sequence.
78 NUMERALS. [ 70.
Most of them have other additional anomalies, to be learned hy
particular observation, viz.
g -rurog, from nh^oiov near ; as also in Latin, pro-
pe, propior, proximus.
g the former, prior, nQcurog the first, from npo before.
-rcsTog and vnttTog, higher, highest, from vntQ above.
O%aTog the last, from *| out of.
vaitpog -TKTog, the latter, the last.
REM. 1. In the poets, particularly the epic, many forms of
comparison of this kind are found, as qjtyTtyog, <ptptciTO$, also q&-
QiGiog, braver, better, which may be connected with the positive
ayatiog. In the same way may be considered as defective some
in iwv, iGTog, when there is a corresponding abstract substantive
in o?, as Qtyiwv more dreadful, xtpfiioiog most crafty, vtyiOTOQ
highest, from the substantives TO QtyoQ horror, xtydog cunning,
vijjog height.
- REM. 2. It is a case somewhat different, when from a substan-
tive used adjectively, degrees of comparison are formed, as hou-
@og friend, ha^OTaroQ the most intimate; xfa'nTrjg (gen. ou) thief,
most thievish.
70. NUMERALS. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS.
1. The cardinal fig one is thus declined:
M. F. N.
N. fTg, [4 la, iv
G. tvog, [Mug, fvog, &c.
Here is to be observed the irregularity of the accent in /M/, f^ag,
{Ala, (4 lav-
From tig are formed, by composition with the negative parti-
ties ovdt and nydt, the negative adjectives, viz.
M. F. N.
ovdfig, ovdffAia, ovSev ) none
(.iridfLg, ftydtfjila, (widtv S
77 In the declension of these derivatives the accent of the primi-
tive is retained, as ovdwog, ovdf/uioig, &c.
70.] NUMERALS. 79
2. The cardinal dvo two has of course the dual form, viz. N.
A. dvo, G. D. dvofv.
The Attics also said dvtiv, but only in the genitive. They
also use dvo indeclinabjy in the genitive and dative. The dual
both will be given below in 78.
3. The cardinal i^e7g three is thus declined :
M. & F. N.
N. TQ& TQtCt
G. TQltOV
D. TQlOl (v)
A. Tpt7$. TQ'HX
4. TtOGUQts or TtTTaQtg four.
M. & F. N.
N. TtaaapfS or xtTTUQtg
G. Tfoaagcov
D. Ttoaugai, or ziTTapai (v)
A. TiaoaQug rtoaapa
5. The remaining single numbers as far as ten, and the round
numbers up to a hundred, are not declined. They are as follows, viz.
Jive
six
seven
OXTOI eight
Ivvt'a nine
ten
(v) twenty
thirty
forty
fifty
sixty
seventy
eighty
ninety
hundred
80 NUMERALS. [ 70.
78 6. The following is the usual form of those cardinals which are
compounded of the units and tens, viz. evfoxu eleven, dcodfxa, twelve,
thirteen, TtGGagfZxaidexK, nfVTtxaidtxa,
Less common are dtxarQfig, dwantvrt, &c.
In these compositions T@t7g and reoGa^fg are also inflected, as
'Mdifitxct, TfGGapGtxatdfxa, dexaxQtwv, &c.
7. The remaining compound numbers are usually written sepa-
rately, and when the smaller number precedes, they are connected
by xat, but not commonly when it follows; as ncWe xal eixoGtv,
*
8. The round numbers after a hundred are regularly inflected,viz.
dtaxoGtot,
TQtaXOGtOt,
tmaxoGtot,
OKTUXOGtOt*
at* a
' two hundred
at, a
three hundred
at, a
four hundred
at, a
Jive hundred
at, a
six hundred
at, a
seven hundred
at, a
eight hundred
at a
nine hundred
at, a
a thousand
at, a
two thousand
at, a
three thousand
at, a
four thousand
at, a
ten thousand
at, a
twenty thousand.
REMARK. When other words are compounded with these num-
bers, jMO^o- [[AOvog) indicates unity, 8t- two, xyt- three, Tfrga-
four; as fiovowywg, d/xtQwg&Lc. The other numbers are usual-
ly formed in o and a, as
* The a in ntvraxOGtOt and the. subsequent numerals is short.
t tvvuxOGiOt omits the of Ivvia.
J MvQiot used indefinitely, like the English word myriad, is distin
guished by its accent.
NUMERALS. 81
71. ORDINAL AND OTHER DERIVATIVE NUMBERS.
1. The two first ordinal numbers are two defective forms of 79
comparison, viz.
the first, primus, TiQQTfQog the first of two, prior.
; the second.
The others are the following, viz.
third
fourth
fifth
i'x-tog sixth
t@dof.iog seventh
oydoog eighth
tvvaiog ninth
tenth
eleventh
twelfth
thirteenth
fourteenth &c.
twentieth
thirtieth
fortieth &c.
hundredth
two hundredth &c.
thousandth
ten thousandth.
Here also in composition, the small number usually precedes
with xa/, or follows without it, as TQIUXOGTO? TT^OJTO?, or nytoTog
xal TQtaxoGTog. To these ordinal numbers the interrogative form
TioGTog refers, which cannot be rendered by any one word in En-
glish ; in Latin quotus ?
2. The numeral adverbs, which answer to the question Jtow
many times ? are the following, viz. 7ia| once, dig, rgig,
* From nt[47Tf in the ancient and the JSolic dialect for nevxf. See J 16
Rem. 1. c.
11
82 PRONOUNS. [ 72-
, &c. The interrogative
is nooaxig, how many times?
SO The following are the adjectives, which answer to the ques-
tion how-many -fold ? viz. a'/iAoo? contr. thilove simple, dmhovg, TQI*
n\ov$, TfTaankovg, ntvxan\ov?, &,c. (60); or also diT[hdat,og,&c.
4. The words which express the several numbers taken as sub-
stantives, are all formed in as, G. udog. Thus ?J /uo*/ unity,
roidg, TfTQ<x, nsvidg (also jiff^TiTccQ and
oydodg, tvvfdtg, dtxctg, Sac. e/x (20),
PRONOUN&
<, 72. PRONOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND POSSESSIVE.
1. The substantive or personal pronouns, of the first and sec-
ond person, are lyw /, ^f4(7g -we, ov thou, Vfu7g ye, with long v.
2. The third person (of which the accusative is *') has no
nominative singular, like the Latin se, whicji, in the Attic writers,
it also resembles in the reflexive signification of self. In the plu-
ral number it has a particular form for the neuter, which howev-
er rarely occurs.
REM. 1. This pronoun is but little used by the Attic writers,
for in the direct^ sense of him, her, it, they substitute for it the ob-
lique cases of avTog, and in the reflexive sense lavrov.
DECLENSION.
Sing. I
thou he
Nom.
f/oi
1
av
Gen.
Dat.
tgjtOV)
fflOli
<- _,
t uov
[AOt
00 V
ool
ou
0?
ACC. l[Af,
|U
\
Dual. we two ye two they two
N. A.
VdDl',
VO)
(J(fO)l\ O<f>W
aqxot
G. D.
vwi'v,
vcuv
Otytii'lV, GCfiMV
OCpCOl'V
72.] PRONOUNS. 88
Plur. we ye they
Nona.
Gen.
rmtov
Dat. I rif,uv I vp7i
e *** e <^
v
7s N. aqi'a.
O(f(uv
ocpiat,
ACC. | *?, I UjUK?
REM. 2. The oblique cases of the first and second persons
in the singular, and of the third person in all numbers, with the
exception of the circumflexed forms (tyoin and ffqra?, are subject
to inclination ( 14). In the first person, the monosyllable forms
are always enclitic ; the dissyllable forms, orthotone. These en-
clitics, moreover, become orthotone, (1) as is the case with other
enclitics, when a particular emphasis rests on them j (2) especial-
ly when they are governed by a preposition, as negi dot;, iv ao/,
REM. 3. For the purpose of emphasis the particle yt is append-
ed to these pronouns, in which case the accent is thrown back in
REM. 4. Dialects. The following are the forms which the
pronouns assume in the different dialects.
a) The Dorics for ov make TU, for the enclitic ao/ they make
xo/, also for the enclitic a* they make TV.
b) The genitive in ov of these pronouns has its origin in eo.
and accordingly we find in the epic poets tf.teo, a*o, to, or tiitlo,
cffio, fTo. Hence the lonians and Dorians have tftfv, ptv, otv,
tv ( 27 Rem. 5).
c) The poets make use of a genitive of a peculiar character,
formed by appending the syllable &fv, viz. tfit'&fv, at&fv, i'&tv.
See also 116.
d) The lonians resol-ve the contraction of the plural, and say
e) The Dorics, on the other hand, abbreviate the plural in
the first and second person, as a/it'?, i>/U<?i and in the accusative
they adopt the termination f, which is otherwise peculiar to the
dual, as C /M*, vfit, for ypcig and tytttff. Hence, the pronunciation
and accent being changed, the following epic forms arise :
Nom. a'ju^s, vpfttf,
Dat. jMjUj/, v[4[iiv, or
Ace.
f) There is also a similar abbreviation of the plural in the
third person, viz.
Dat (ffjplv or <ygr/,
Ace. aqt*
This abbreviated form of the accusative the Attic poets use as an
84 PRONOUNS. [ 73, 74.
82 accusative in the singular also. It is accordingly found for
rji>, o, and avrovg. ?, cr.
g) Finally, there is also a merely enclitic accusative of the
third person, viz. Ionic /ulv, Doric and Attic viv, also used for all
genders, him, her, and it, and for the plural them. The Attic Wi>,
however, is used only in poetry. -
4. The possessive pronouns derived from the foregoing perso-
nal pronouns are regular adjectives of three endings. Their com-
mon form is inflected from the genitive singular ; e. g,
Gen. tftov fyog, tjtij, fytOv, mine
Gen. GOV oog, ay, ooi>, thine
Gen. ov og, ??, 6V, his, Acr, tte.
Also from the nominative plural ; e. g.
, oi', your
6(ftTQog, a, oi', i/ifir.
REM. 5., For ao'e the Dorics and Tonic* make wo'ff, (jj), ov,
and for off they make *o'ff, (^)j o'/-. ^ But for the plural there is
an older and shorter form, dpog or a/40ff, and v^io'ff, *}, oV.
HEM. 6. ^The ^ossessives vajLTepog, (Kfxo'iTepoe, formed from
the duals vw't\ agj(o'i\ are found only in the ancient poets.
To the substantive pronoun also belongs J, //', zo dtivu, any one*
a certain one. It is thus declined, viz. Nom. and Ace. ditva, G. &?-
i/off, I). ^f7f, PI. o< dfwts.
REMARK. We sometimes, though very rarely, find dtiva wholly
indeclinable, as TOV dilva, TOV rov dfivot sc. ivoV.
74.
1. The four following adjective pronouns are regularly declin-
ed. except that they have o in the neuter.
, txtivij, cvo, i/tw,
, crAAi/, A/.o, another.
off, |/', o, see jn 75.
74.] PRONOUNS. 85
REM. 1. t*(7vog comes from wet there. The Ionic form of 83
it is xfivog, T], o.
2. The pronoun amog has a threefold signification; (l) self;
(2) in the oblique cases, him, her, it ; (3) with the article, the
same. Farther details on this subject will be found in the syntax
( 127.) It may here only be added, that in this last meaning, it
is often contracted with the article (according to 28 Rem. 1),
as TUVTOV, TUVTM, TttVTrj, for Tov avTOv, &c. where it is also to
be remarked, that in this case the neuter ends in ov as well as in
o, as TUVTO and TUVTOV, for TO UVTO. Care ,must be taken not to
confound lavTy and ravTci with Tuvrrj and TUVTCC from OUTOS.
3. From afro? is formed the common reflected pronoun,* viz.
by compounding avTog with the accusative of the substantive pro-
nouns (tut, oi-', i'), and then declining it through the oblique cases.
G. ipaVrov, fpavTrfa D. Ifiavrcp, y, A. //wat'ioV, TJV, mine, me.
G. (Jtayrov or OCXVTOV, &c. thine, thee.
G. lavxov or V.VTOV, &c. his, her.
The last has also an accusative neuter iuvro, avxo, and is declin-
ed throughout the plural, as lavT'Jjv, tavrovg, &c. The two first
persons form the plural without composition, as r^aJi/ ai'rcoi/,
f/uw*' at'rcuy, &,c.
REM. 2. In all these compositions of aviog the Ionics have
cou instead of av (^26. 9), and do not elide the f. They accord-
ingly say, tptuvrov, GZUVTOV, tojvTOv, &c.
4. From AAo? is formed the reciprocal pronoun, viz.
G. aJUijAon'. D. otJUijAo*^, aig. A. uVi^lovs, ag, a.
Dual. aAA^Aw, cuU^AOiy, at*', eacA other.
* So called, when the action refers back to the subject. For instance,
in the phrase ' he clothes me,' me is the common personal pronoun ; in
the phrase, 4 I clothe me, 1 it is the reflected pronoun. When an action is
represented as mutual, the pronoun is called reciprocal. This last name,
however, is usually considered to include both cases, and in many gram-
mars the pronouns called reflected in the text, are classed as reciprocal.
$6 THE ARTICLE. [ 75.
75. THE ARTICLE. , ,
84 I. The Greek grammarians give the name of Article, TO. UQ-
#pa, to the two simplest signs, which, partaking of an adjective
character, serve to point out a substantive, and which, in two
clauses of a complete sentence, refer to each other. In the mod-
ern languages one of these is called the definite article (the), and
the other the relative pronoun (who, which)*
2. Of these two articles, the one is the prepositive article, viz.
o, 17, to, the. This coincides in its inflection with the adjective pro-
nouns above given, with the following exceptions, viz.
a) That the masculine and feminine of the nominative singular
and plural are unaccented ( 10. 4) and have the rough breath-
ing, instead of which all the other parts have a T.
* An example of such a complete sentence, where both the articles
appear, is this : " this is the man, who will save us," OVTOQ tGTW
avrjo OS GWGtt, ?j^a. Hence, as these two words correspond to each
other exactly like joints, and thus unite two sentences as members of one
body, the Greeks have called them iv. cco&Qcx, articulos, articles, or, lit-
erally translated, joints. Now that the first of these two articles, 6, r), TO,
the, so frequently stands alone with its simple sentence, and thus, strictly
speaking, ceases to be an article, is accounted for by the consideration,
that in a multitude of such cases the second part of the sentence is retain-
ed in the mind, being some such phrase as u of which we are treating,"
or u which you know, 1 ' or " which is here in question, 1 ' c. and in this
way it gradually became the usage of language to attach the prepositive
article, the, to any object, which is to be mentioned as sufficiently defin-
ed by the nature of the sentence and the attendant circumstances. The
grammars of the modern languages preserved the name of article for the
prepositive article only, without reflecting on the origin and cause of this
name ; but the postpositive article was called (and correctly when con-
sidered by itself) the relative pronoun. And as in modern languages an-
other pronoun (in English a or an), which is nothing but a weaker Ti , Ti,
quidam, in like manner shows the substantive to be undefined, just as tht
points it out definitely, the latter was called the definite, the former the
75.]
THE ARTICLE.
87
b) Not only the neuter, but in the nominative singular the 85
masculine ateo, ends in o.
The other is the postpositive article, o, r h o, who, which. This
is declined precisely like the adjective pronouns in 74. 1.
DECLENSION.
Prepos. Art.
Postpos. Art.
Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N.
Norn, o
Gen. TOV
Dat. TCW
Ace. TOV
?; TO
Trjg TOV
Tt]V TO
ov
t
ov
Dual
N. A. TO!
G. D. To7v
t t
TU T(O
TOUV TOlV
If
ol v
Plur.
Norn, ol
Gen. TOIV
Dat. Tolg
Ace. TOU
ai M to.
T(OV T(OV
Tcug TO^g
i r
Tag TO,
o't
oTs
ov g
ov
r
a co
alv oiv
ai u_
(OV (OV
tug oTg
cig a
8. The postpositive article or relative pronoun is often
strengthened, partly by the enclitic 71*0, as ognto, yiifo, onfo,
&c. and partly by composition with Tig, as b'grig, &c. for which
last see below in 77.
REM. 1. The peculiarities of the dialects are the same, as in
the first and second declensions, as TO!O for TOV, a for T?', Tag for
lg* &c.
indefinite article, although the two words have nothing in them that con-
nects, or can be called a joint. It is therefore but reasonable for the
Greek grammarians to follow the ancient Greek names, as they contain
in themselves their own justification. At least, the articles need not be
considered, in any language, as forming a distinct part of speech. They
are essentially adjective pronouns, and therefore should be classed among
them.
88
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
[76.
86
REM. 2. In the ancient language the two articles were in form
the same, and were only distinguished by their place and accent ;
as is still the case with ^', oi', at. The epic poets have also o for
6V, and all the forms of the prepositive article which begin with
r, are used by the Ionics and Dorics for the corresponding forms
of the postpositive article, as TO for o, nqv for ^'i>, &c. Besides
this, the Dorics use TO/, ra/, both for o*, , and for oi', at'.
REM. 3. In strictness, however, both forms are nothing else
but the ancient simple demonstrative pronoun this ; and, as will
appear in the syntax, are both often used for this pronoun in the
writings of the ancients. .
76. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
1. The Greeks have a double form for the general demonstra-
tive pronoun this, that. The one is formed simply by appending
the enclitic particle dt to the prepositive article, viz. odfe, *?&,
rotfe, G. TOvdt, Tr^de, &c. PI. o'tds, atde^ rmfe, Tovsde, &c.
2. The other, OVTOS, is derived from the same article, and
conforms itself to it, throughout a very anomalous inflection. For
where the prepositive article has the aspirate or the r, this pro-
noun has the same ; and where the article has o or w, this pro-
noun has ov in the first syllable ; and where the article has v\ or
a, the pronoun has av in the first syllable ; as o- ovTog, ol- OVTOI,
TODV- TOVTODV, ?J- OUTI?, TCi- TCXVTa, &C.
N.
TttVTU
TOVTO)V
TOUTOlQ
TCCUTK
Sing.
Plur.
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
avTos
ur?;
TOVTO
ioVTOl
UVTUt,
G.
TOVTOV
TavTqg
TOVTOV
TOVTWV
TOVTOJV
D.
TOVTO)
Tuv-ry
TOVTCO
TOVTOIS
TCCVTUl^
A.
TOVTOV
TKVTTjV
TOVTO
TOVTOV?
TttVltt?
M.
F.
N.
Dual.
N. A.
TOVTO) TCCVTCt
TOVTO)
G. D.
TQVTQIV TVVT&W
TOVTO 1 1'
77.] INTERROG. AND INDEFINITE PRONOUN. 89
77. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PKONOUN.
The interrogative pronoun for who ? which ? what ? is Tig, neut.
TI, G. Tivog. It has the accent always on the t, as Tivfg, D. pi.
Tiai, and is thereby distinguished, as it also is in the nominative
singular, by the invariable acute accent ( 11), from the indefinite
pronoun Tig, neut TI, G. Tivog, a certain one, any one ; which,
moreover, as enclitic, is commonly used without accent. The
declension of Tig, both as interrogative and indefinite, is regular, 87
according to the third declension, and the t, is short throughout.
REM. 1. In the few cases, where the monosyllable Tig TI, in
consequence of other enclitics following it, receives the acute, the
context or the accent of the preceding word will distinguish it
from the interrogative ; as uvr t o tig HOTS.
2. For the genitive and dative of both pronouns, the following
forms are often used, viz. TOV and ro7 (for all three genders), or-
thotone for Tivog TIVI, and enclitic for Tivog TIVI.*
For the neuter plural of the indefinite pronoun we find UTTCI,
Ion. uaact, not enclitic, instead of TIVU, as dtLvu UTTU for dfiva
Tll'U.
3. The compound relative ogtig, which is a strengthening of
og, has a twofold inflection, viz.
Nom. ogTig, yug, O,TI (see 15. 2.)
Gen. oviivog, rjguvog,
Dat witvi, nTivi, &.c.
Also the following form, analogous to the secondary form of
Tig mentioned in no. 2, viz. O'TOV, OTO), for ovTivog, MTIVI, but
not for the feminine, and also UTTU, Ion. UGOU, for a\
REM. 2. The secondary form TOV, TOJ, must be carefully distin-
guished from the genitive and dative case of the article, from which
it is shown to be distinct by the threefold gender* and the usage of
the dialects. The TOV of the article is by the epic poets resolved
into TO/O, but the TOV for Tivog and Tivog is resolved into Tto by
the Ionics, and Ttv by the Dorics.
* As TOJ TfXf-iai^rj TOVTO ; whereby nrorest thouthit? yuv<XMO$TOV
of a certain woman ; %QT]O&ai Tin to vse any thing.
12
90 CORRELATIVES. [> 78.
4. By composition with ov and JUT) are formed from the in-
definite Tig the negative pronouns ovits ovri, ^Tig Hn*^ none,
which are declined like riff.
78. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
1. Correlatives are words, referring to each other, of which the
one contains a question, the other the various most simple an-
swers to it. The general correlatives are already contained in the
foregoing pronouns, viz.
Interrogative Tig who ? * .
Demonstrative o, odf, OVTO?, this.
Indefinite TI$, any one, some one.
Relative oc, compound ogrt?, who.
Negative OVTIG, fojrt, or ovdttg, juij&ig, none ( 70. 1.)
Each of these has its feminine and neuter.
. 2. When, however, the ideas contained in those words are
directly referred or confined to two objects or divisions of the sub-
ject, they are expressed by the following, viz.
'Interrogative nOTfoog, a, ov, which of two.
Demonstrative o, 6 (Jiff, OVTOQ, this.
Indefinite o tripos (>J titga, &c.) one of two.
Relative onorffjo? which of two.
Negative ovdtTfQOg, prjdtTfQQg, neither of two.
REMARK, o tifpo? often forms with those portions of the article,
which end in a vowel, a crasis, in which however a long a is
'
always found.* E. g. ar*00, oW(>a, arfpot, for o tripos^ y
ol txfQOt* JfrttTfQOV) -0-aTtooVi fratf(Hp 9 ^arf^a, for TO tT
ITtOOU, TO) tTtOCpi id tTlQtt.
This o trtoos corresponds precisely to the Latin alter ; and,
when one has been already named, it is to be rendered the other.
3. To the question Tig and nOTtpog, may be answered every one.
This answer has in Greek the form of a comparative or superla-
tive, viz. txaTfQog, or, ov, each of two ; txuGTog, , ov, each of many.
* This long a probably has its origin in an elder Doric form of KTfOOg
for tTiQOS, of which the short a becomes long by a crasis with the article,
a& mentioned in the text.
79.] CORRELATIVES. 91
4. Other particles responsive to rig are the following, viz. u),-
log another ( 74. 1), nag, ndvTfg, each, all; corresponding to
which, when the question is noifyog, are the following, viz. o t-Tt-
Qog the other ; apyoTtoog, a, ov, ufACforegot, ai,a,both. For this 89
last we find, in certain connexions, simply the dual N. A. apqco,
G. D. dti(foh>. with the accent thrown forward, and for all three
genders.
79. OTHER CORRELATIVES.
1. Besides these general correlatives, there are others more
precise, referring to the properties or relations of the object, such
as how made, where found, &c. These are formed in Greek by a
very distinct analogy, but as they are partly in the adjective, and
partly in the adverbial form, the latter must remain to be con-
sidered below-
2. Every such series of correlatives has its radical form and
termination of inflection common ; but is peculiar in its initial let-
ters. The interrogative begins with a n, as noaog quantus, how
much ? how large ? how many ? The same form, with a change
however of accent, is sometimes used indefinitely) as noaog ali-
quantus, of a. certain size or number. When, instead of a n, it be-
gins with a T, it is in the demonstrative, as TOGO? tantus, so great, so
much, so many. If, instead of this consonant, the word begin with
the aspirate, it is relative, as ooog quantus> as large as, as much as.
The negative of these forms is not found in the common dialect.
3. In addition to the simple relative, there is also the compound,
which is used by preference in certain connexions. It corresponds
to ogng, OTOV, among the general correlatives, and is formed by
prefixing the syllable 6, without variation, to the interrogative
form, as 716 aog, relative ooog and onooog.
4. The simple demonstrative roaog is used as a perfect demon-
strative pronoun, for the most part only in the poets. Resort is
commonly had to a strengthened form ; and as the article 6 (the
primitive demonstrative, subsequently used merely as an article,)
is strengthened either by the enclitic ds (ode), or by being chang-
92
CORRELATIVES.
[79.
ed into ovrog, so the corresponding process is observed here, -og
being in the latter case changed into -OVTOQ, e. g. roGog, rooogde
or TooovTog. The first of these is inflected in the middle of the
compound, thus TOGogde, Toa>J<fc, roaoWf, G. rooovdf, &LC-
90 The form with -outog governs itself, with respect to ov
and u, according to the simple form ourog. In the neuter, how-
ever, it has both ov and o. Accordingly we have the following
forms, viz.
N. roGovTog, TOGOVTIJ, TOOOVTOV and TOGOVTO
G. TOGOVTOV, xoGavTyg, &c.
PI. TOGOVTOt, TOGUVTUt, TOGCXVTU, &C.
5. The following are accordingly the three most entire series
of correlatives.
Interrog.
noGog ;
how great-? how
many ? quant us ?
nolog ;
of what kind?
qualis ?
nifilxog ;
how old? how
large ?
NOTE. For the Ionic forms -/.OGOQ, xoToc,-, oxoao?, &c. see ^
16. 3. c.
REM. 1. There are still other imperfect correlatives, which
in addition to the interrogative form have only the compound rel-
ative, as particularly nodanog, onodaiiog, where born? and the
derivatives from rroGog and TIOGTOQ (for which we have no. cor-
responding English word*) ; noGunhaGiog how many fold ? OTTO-
<Jro, onoGcuildGtog, &c. The same is the case with UOT^QO^
and dnoitpoz mentioned above.
REM. 2. As the root of these words acquires *its correlative
force by virtue of the initial letters TT, r &c. some of them attain
other shades of signification, by composition with the general cor-
relatives, irfoog, (*AA0, nag &c. Thus to the question TTO?O may
Indef. Demonst. Relative.
710(70?
TOGOg
OGog
t i
TOGOgdf
OTtooog
TOGOVTOg
Tio tog
rolog
olog
%
xoiogde
onolo^
#*
TOlOVTOg
Tijlixogd*
ijkixog
onrjUw
* The-how-manyeth ? would represent nOGTOg in English. In German,
der witvidstt . :>
$ 80, 81.] AFFIXES. VERBS. 93
be answered ttfpoiog, a'AAo?o, of another kind, ncxvro'tog of every
kind.
In like manner, to nodu-xog' corresponds aModanog of anoth-
er country, nuvTodanog of every country, ^fifdanog of our country,
from I/jut??.
80. AFFIXES.
1. All the compounded and strengthened relatives, such as og- 91
TI?,OTOV, 07t, onooog, &c. receive upon all their forms the affix
ovv, which retains the accent on itself, and in this connexion cor-
responds precisely with the Latin cunque, and expresses the com-
pleteness of the relation, as ogng who, ogugovv quicunque, whoever,
whosoever, i]Ti,$ovi>, OTIOVV, OTMOVV, ovTivaovv or OVTIVOVV,
OSTlffJOKV, OnOGOgOVV, OTHlllXOVOVV, &.C-
REM. 1. To strengthen still more this signification, use is
made of the form d^Tioif, as o$Ttg&jpovi IGTIV whosoever it may be,
oaoi>dt^OTf, &LC. which is, however, often written in two sepa-
rate words.
2. In like manner among the Attics, and in the familiar style,
the demonstratives, for the sake of greater strength, append to all
their forms what is called the demonstrative i, which in like manner
retains the accent, is always long, and absorbs all short vowels at
the end of the word to which it is affixed, as OVTO$ OVTO$I this here,
hicce, avrij'i' from avTtj, TOVTI from TOVTO, TOVTOV?, &c TO.VII from
, odl from odf, txsivogi that there, txfivwvt, &c. TOOOVTOVI,
l, &C-
REM. 2. When the enclitic yt ( 150. 2 j is attached to the de-
monstrative, this /follows it, as TOVTO yf, rovroyt.
81. THE VERB.
1. The parts of a Greek verb, such as the modes and tenses,
may be presumed to be known, from the analogy of other langua-
ges. The Greek, however, is richer than either the English or
Latin, particularly by the distinction of the Middle Voice, of the
Optative as a different mode from the Subjunctive, of the Jlorist
as a separate tense, of the Dual as a separate number, and by a
94 THE VERB. [ 81.
great diversity of modes and participles, in reference to the .tenses.
Meantime it should here be remarked, that by no means all that
can be formed by conjugation and declension is actually found to
have been used in every verb, although for convenience, all the
parts are exemplified in one verb, in the grammar.
92 2. In the second place it should be premised, that in the Greek,
more than any other language, a certain form endowed by the
general analogy with a certain signification, may yet, in single
cases, have another and even an opposite signification ; as a
passive form may have an active meaning. The grammar of
course must treat of the forms as they are in themselves, and
then attach to them their most usual signification. It is impos-
sible, however, that the significations should be fully known, till
they are systematically unfolded in the syntax.
3. All that is necessary to the understanding of the formation
of the verb is here for the most part supposed to be known from
other languages, such as the general idea of the various voices,
modes, and principal tenses. With respect to the optative mode
and middle voice, sufficient preliminary information will present-
ly be given. The tenses alone of the Greek verb require a more
detailed previous description.
4. The most obvious distinction of the tenses is into present,
past, and future. The past time, however, in common language
admits of more subdivisions than the others. Among the tenses
which fall under this head, (and which bear in Latin the common
name of prceteritct,) is this difference to be observed, that in one
of them the mind of the speaker remains in the present time, and
makes mention of a thing past or happened. This is the perfect
tense. In the other preterite tenses, the mind transports itself
to the past time, and narrates what then happened.* This narra-
tive tense has in the Greek the subdivisions of imperfect, pluper-
fect, and aorist, whose signification will be unfolded in the syntax.
5. Hereupon is founded the division of the tenses into the
* In a lively narration this is therefore often done by the present itself.
<^ 82.] VERBS. SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 95
LEADING TENSES, viz. present, perfect, and future, and HISTORICAL TEN-
SES, viz. imperfect, pluperfect, and aorist.
6. All the tenses are distinguished from each other in a two-
fold manner; (l) all of them by their respective terminations, and
(2) the past tenses by a prefix, called the augment. The historical
tenses are farther distinguished from all the others, and among
them from the perfect, by an augment appropriated to themselves,
and by a peculiar manner of declension. Of each of these, in order,
an account will be given.
82. THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT.
1. The augment is of two kinds, according as the verb begins 93
with a vowel or a consonant. If the verb begin with a consonant,
the augment makes a syllable of itself, and is therefore called the
Syllabic Augment.
2. The augment of the perfect tense is formed by prefixing the
first letter of the verb with an *, as rvmoj, perf. it-rvqa, and
therefore the augment of the perfect is also called a reduplicative
augment, or simply a reduplication. If the first letter is an aspirate,
it follows from what was said in 18, that instead of the aspirate,
the corresponding smooth is used, as yUitollovt, Tif-qlfyxa' &u(*>
I sacrifice, Tt-&vxa. The third future, which is derived from the
perfect ($ 99), retains this augment.
3. The historical tenses, on the other hand, simply prefix an
. a- TVTIKO, imperf. t-Tvmov, aor. i-rvya, and the pluperfect,
which according to its form and signification is derived from the
perfect, prefixes this to the reduplication of the perfect, as TV-
TiTWj perf. Ti-Tvqa, plup. i-^trwpew.
4. If the verb begin with p, this letter is doubled after the *,
as QUUTW I sew, imperf. tppanTOv ( 21. 2 ); and in this case the
perfect and pluperfect take no other augment than this, instead
of the usual reduplication, as perf. ippa^a, plup. i(jpctq.fiv.
5. When a verb begins with a double consonant, instead of
the reduplication, t alone is used, which remains without change
96 VERBS. - TEMPORAL AUGMENT. [<> 83.
in the pluperfect ; as i/AAca / play, perf. *"i//aAxa, plup. t
&Tt(t) I seek, >'w I abrade, perf. pass. i&pnfpui, t^tnfjiat. The
same takes place in most cases where two consonants begin a
word ; as perf. tepftoQaL from (p&tlgto, perf. pass. t(snuof.iut, from
Gnt'iQto I sow, t%Ti(J}Ji&.i, from xr/co / create, trnvypui, from HTVOGM
I fold.
Remarks.
1. From this last rule the following are excepted, and, of
course, are subject to the general rule, viz.
94 a ) Two consonants, of which the first is a mute and the second
a liquid; as ypdya) I-write,yt'ypac[(x. So too y.i'/.^tf.iai, xt'nvtvxa,
&c. But yv and often y\ assume only a simple f , as yvo>pia), ly-
vo)()iO[.iai' %aT-yk(i)TTi(Jnt'voG, di-t-ykunictt and diu- ytykvrtTai.
b) The perfects ^.^vii^ui and yttXTrjf.KM, from [AVUCO I remember,
and XTcxOjitca I acquire.
c) Some anomalous perfects, as Titmapai, and TrtW^xa, in
which, however, the nx is formed by syncope from TTST. See in
the list of anomalous verbs nfxavvv^t,, ntTOpai, ninTw.
2. A few verbs beginning with liquids, instead of the redupli-
cation, take the syllable si or ft, as AHBQ H^apa, See in the
anomalous verbs ka/uffavw, htyco, (ufipoftat,, and PJEfi under nnav.
3. In the three verbs fiovhofiai I will, dvVKfJitti I can, |Ui'AAco /
shall, the Attics often add the 'temporal to the syllabic augment,
as ijovvufiifv for edvvotfitiy. For the syllabic augment before a
vowel, directions will presently be given.
4. The augment of the historical tenses is often omitted by
the Ionics and all the poets, except the Attics ; as /?/,6 for I'ftahf,
, ^ (iri for J'/?77, ytvovTO for lytvQVTO &c. In the pluperfect this omis-
sion prevails even in prose ; as ifrvcpfinav, XITVUTQ, for tTfrv-
(ptiGav, IrtrvnTO' dfdlfi for efo&ttt,, &c.
5. In the epic writers the second aorist active and middle of-
ten takes the reduplication, which in this case is retained through
all the modes ( 85) ; as nim&ov f neni&tiv, for
from
83. TEMPORAL AUGMENT.
1. When the verb begins with a vowel, aspirated or not, the
. augment, with that vowel, is converted into one long vowel ; and
this kmd of augment, which is called the Temporal, remains un-
change^ through all the preterite tenses. In general in this aug-
ment, a and * are changed into ?;, and o into w ; as dvvw I fulfil.
83.] VERBS. - TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 97
impf. r t v v ov, perf. r/yvxa, plup. ijvvxtiv, iKni^w I hope, impf. r t k-
, perf. ?jA:iYxa, plup. yknixtiv, OfAite'a) I associate with, impf.
, perf. e0jU/Ai?xa, plup. ojfAtkrjXfiv.
2. The following verbs, viz. *;fw, a*w, i'Axco and iAxuw, I^TTW 9.5
and tgnvc0, tftw (see anomalous verbs) and *#/w, tUaGM, 6<rrw,
(wo>, TO> and tno^ai, tQyd&pai,, change the not into 17, but in-
to *, as impf. fi%ov, perf. fiyyaGfiat, &c.
REM. I. See also c7).ov, * < A*?i', among the anomalous verbs un-
der aipf'cu, and the verbs belonging to the radical form *E&, 108.
3. The vowels i and u can only be augmented when they are
short, and that by lengthening them, as 7**rUtt, aor. 'ixtTfVGct,
and even when the vowel is already long by position, this aug-
ment ought to be indicated in pronunciation ; as iVjfi/aj "layvov,
VflVtO) VftVOVV.
4. Of the other vowels already long in themselves, <x, accord-
ing to no. 1, usually becomes jy, while the others,??, co, l, v, admit
no augment whatever, as ^TTaoftui, impf. ^TTOJ^P, perf. qfrriffiaf,
plup. ifrn}/*!;^ excepting in the case of the accent, as specified
below.
5. A diphthong is susceptible of augment, when its first vowel
can be altered in the above mentioned manner ; in which case, if
the second vowel be t,*the iota subscript is used. Accordingly
uw I increase makes qv'ov' tvyopui I pray,
demand, adw I sing, frfov, ydov' olxtfu I dwell, dj
Many verbs, however, neglect this augment, as is stated in the
next remark, and with ov it never takes place ; as ovroft>, OUTU-
ov.
REM. 2. In general many verbs, in which the augment would de-
stroy the euphony or lead to confusion, remain unchanged. Among
these are many beginning with an a, av, or oi, followed by a vow-
el, as ai'o), avatvw, o/x/a>, only that the short , as in Yw, is
lengthened, imp?: aibv (a long), avuivtio, oiccxi&v, &c. Some
others also beginning with ot, have no augment, as o/Ww, olxov-
Qt'w, oiaiptoj. In like manner also all which begin with ti, as
fixo),fixov, e?(x, with the single exception of {Ixafa^I conjecture,
which in the Attic writers receives an augment, as eixctaa, fi'xa-
afiat, Att. jjttaaa, rxaafiai,. Those that begin with a. are not uni-
form in th'is respect, as nfgopff*, yvxtpip and ev%6fttiv. Those
13
8 VERBS. - TEMPORAL AUGMENT. [ 83.
compounded with fv will be mentioned below, 86 Rem. 5. The
96 Ionics and the poets not Attic often omit this augment, as^ they do
also the syllabic, in verbs of all sorts; as aj4ti$zo for i]u6ififTO^
f'cav for tita'v from /aw, a[.mai for vyAfjiai.
REM. 3. Inasmuch as the increase, effected by this augment,
consists only in lengthening a short vowel, it has the name of Tem-
poral Augment, avti](j(Q yjtovi'/.r]^ from f /jjoi>o$ time, which word
denotes also the quantity of syllables.
REM. 4. This augment has its origin in the contraction of the
syllabic augment f with the vowel of the verb ; as uyw t-uyov
yyov> In this, however, the contraction of te into ^, and eo into
co, departs from the common practice (see 27) ; while that of to.
into *?, and tf into ti, t-t%ov f^oi>, conforms to the general law of
contractions.
REM. 5. Hence is to be explained the accent of some com-
pounds. For while the tone, as far as possible, inclines to the
antepenult, we find in avynTov from avumw a circumflex on the
penult, which had its origin in this contraction. In this manner,
the augment is occasionally visible only in the accent ; as from
untigyu is formed the imperative anfigyt^ but the third person of
the imperfect tense is antTpyf.
REM. 6. The syllabic augment, moreover, has actually main-
tained itself in many cases before a vowel. Among these cases
are reckoned, in the common dialect, the following three verbs,
which by the general rule should not have the temporal augment,
viz.
indtw I push^ (ovtOfMxi I buy, orpiO),
Impf. tm&Qvvt Cfiitrau/w}*, touyovv.
REM. 7. In like manner, in the perfect tense, the temporal aug-
ment has its origin in the syllabic f, for, since the common redu-
plication consists in repeating the first consonant with an *, when
the verb began with a vowel it admitted only of prefixing the *,
which was then with the initial vowel of the verb transformed in-
to the temporal augment. Even the f of this kind is retained un-
altered in the verbs just quoted, as perf. tfuv^fiat from aiyeojuai, and
besides this in three other perfects, viz. &>**, oA;ra, o.py, from
i'xo), ATTOJ, tpyto. The o in these perfects is formed by a muta-
^ 7 tion of the vowel of the root which will be treated of below
and the f is a reduplication, so that we have tpyca f-opycr, like
REM. 8. As we saw above ( 82 Rem. 3 ) that the syllabic
augment was increased by the temporal, so in the verb o'paco / see
the temporal augment is commonly increased by the syllabic, re-
taining the aspirate, as impf. 6o)pori/, perf. H\QU-/.&..<
REM. 9. When a verb begins with fo, the second vowel takes
the augment. This occurs in the verb i QQTU& I celebrate afesti-
84, 85.] VERBS. - ATTIC REDUPLICATION, ETC. 99
val, twyTu&v, and in the pluperfects belonging to the perfects men-
tioned in Rem. 7, viz. ajJx^y, tatlmtv, tatjfftiv.
84. ATTIC REDUPLICATION.
Though a reduplication like that of the syllabic augment does
not exist in verbs that take the temporal augment, yet several of
them have, in the perfect tense, a peculiar, and, as it is called, the
Attic reduplication ; which, however, is so far from being found in
Attic writers alone, that most of the verbs which assume it, reject
altogether the above described simpler form. It consists in this,
that in the perfect tense, before the ordinary temporal augment,
the two first letters of the verb, without changing the vowel, are
repeated, e. g. ^
ayslgw I assemble, (f/^pxa
I spit, (// ( *xa)
I dig, (uyvya)
oco / smell, (oJ<5a)
REM. 1. This form inclines to a short vowel in the third sylla-
and therefore shortens the long vowel, as in afaiqta, perf.
),i(f.u, A?;A/ ( ajuat' axot-oj, perf xjxoa.
REM. 2. The pluperfect sometimes takes a new temporal aug-
ment, most frequently in x?;xo, 7;x?;xom-. This however is not
generally the case ( 82 Rem. 4.)
REM. 3. As the second aorist in the poets, with the temporal
augment, sometimes assumes the reduplication of the perfect ( 82
Rem. 5 ), the same also happens with this Attic reduplication, in
such a way that the temporal augment precedes it ; as APQ, perf.
uoriQa, aor. r t oagov. In common language the verb /co (see an-
omalous verb*) has such an aorist, viz. yyayov. This reduplica-
tion also remains in the other modes, which drop only the tempor-
al augment, as pp//, er'ya/fly, u
85.
THE AUGMENT IX REFERENTS TO THE MODES AND PARTICIPLES.
All the augments prevail as well in the passive and middle, as 98
in the active voice. As far as the modes and participles, however,
100 VERBS. - AUGMENT IN COMPOSITION. [ 86.
are concerned, the aorist and perfect only come into consideration.
since the imperfect and pluperfect tenses are confined to the in-
dicative mode. Here the following rule prevails, viz.
The augment of the perfect is retained through all the modes and
participles ; that of the aorist, only in the indicative.
Thus with the syllabic augment, e. g. from TVUTCO.
Perf. Ttxvcpa Inf. Titvy/tvat Part-
Aor. fTVtya Inf. TVtyai, Part.
So also with the temporal augment, e. g. from uxQi
Perf. rixyifiowa Inf. yxpificoxivat Part.
Aor. 77xp//?ey(7a Inf. coc^/?co<7a Part.
REMARK. This rule may be more precisely stated, viz. Every
thing that is a reduplication, or stands in the place of reduplication,
(consequently the irregular reduplication of the aor. Af'Aa#oi>,
part. A*Aa#cuj/, and the like, 82 Rem. 5.) remains through all
the modes ; while the simple augment is confined to the indicative.
For this reason the irregular aorist tfyayov drops in the infinitive
mode the temporal augment, but retains the reduplication, as
( 84 Rem. 3.)
86. OF THE AUGMENT IN COMPOSITION.
The following is the chief rule for the use of the augment in
the compound verbs, viz.
In the verb compounded with a preposition, in the augmented ten-
ses the augment follows the preposition.
E. g. Tipoeg^a), nQO$-*($fQQV' dnodvw, un-edvoa, dno-$t$vx&'
ovhfa'yct)) Gvv-tkfyov' cwaAAaTrco, an-riKXaTTQv.
In most other forms of composition the augment is prefixed,
as jU^AoTio^'cw, IpfhoTioiovv, |U^uAo7ro/??xa'
Rem. 1. In some cases, where the simple verb is nearly or
quite ^obsolete, the augment precedes the preposition ; asf'xcrtfw-
dov, 6 5 xai < hbi', rj(piovv from ng>lfjfnt. The best writers however
sometimes use the other form, as
87.] VERBS. INFLECTION. 101
REM. 2. Properly speaking, all such verbs have the augment
prefixed, as are not so much themselves compounded with anoth-
er word, as derived from a compound word of another part of
speech^ as fatvonufttm, idtivona&ovv, from ffcyq7ia#ifc' oixodo-
Htw, cpxodoftovv, from olxoddpog* With these, however, are
classed in respect to the place of the augment, the other compound
verbs not compounded with a preposition, although they retain
the single verb without change, as (.itKonoitw, dqoovto), &c.
REM. 3. Hence it results, that even some verbs compounded
with ^repositions prefix the augment ; as ivuvTioi'fiui, ^VUVTIOI^-
fjiriv ovTt/foJlcu, ffi/Tft/fto'Aoi'p, the former of which has its origin in
Ivarilos, and the latter is formed altogether by composition, with-
out a previous existence as a simple verb. It is most usual, how-
ever, that even in such verbs the augment should foHow the pre-
position. Hence we find uniformly ttxli)oicta*, tvfxoj/ulaov,
nQOfqrjifvGa, Gwrj^ovv, IniTtiqdfvxa, lift^flgovv, and various
others, although of all these verbs (IvgAffaMKyw, /xa>iuaa>, UQO-
(frjTfva), avvfoyeco, ImTydeva), ey/fioto),) no simples exist, but they
are all derived respectively from f'xxA^d/, efxwfuov a JiQoqnjrifa
(Jvvfgyos, tnittjdfQ, and from Iv and %tio.
REM. 4. The following verbs usually take the augment in both
places at once, viz, dt>o$j&6<t> I set uj), i/voi^OW ivo%\tw I trou-
ble, ^Vto^A^da- aWyojuat / endure, ^vftyofjiriv' nccpoivtw I rare.
Tifnapqwiixa. Still more anomalous is this in the verbs diaxovt'tv
to minister to and diuviuv to decide, dfdirjxovrjxoc, xuTfdiTjTrjoa, in-
asmuch as these are derived from diowovog, diaiTa, where the a
does not begin a new word.
REM. 5. The words compounded with f v and dvg assume in the
middle only the temporal augment; as tvfpyfTfw, fvypytTuvv
dvgaQtOTtlv, dvgt]oi(jTovv. When, however, an immutable vowel
or a consonant follows those particles, they either receive the aug-
ment at the beginning, as tdvGOJTiovv from dvgoo7if7v, d*dvGrv%Y)*a,
rjvtyQaivfTO, or those beginning with ev more commonly take no
augment, as ivcoftoviAtiv from
87.
INFLECTION BY TERMINATION. NL 7 MBERS AND PERSONS.
1. All terminations of the Greek verb are divided, in virtue
of their ending and their inflection by numbers and persons, into
two leading classes, plainly distinguished from each other. In sig-
nification the one class is for the most part active, and the other
passive. In consequence of this, notwithstanding the departure
102
VERBS. INFLECTION.
in single tenses from the prevailing signification, the one class is
called the active voice, and the other the passive.
2. In each of these classes, the leading tenses, viz. the present,
perfect, and future, follow an analogy in some degree peculiar to
themselves, and in which they are distinguished from the histori-
cal tenses.
3. All this is apparent from the following table, which contains
the usual terminations of the different tenses, and their inflection
by the three numbers and persons. It is applicable in the present
form only to the indicative mode- Its application to the subjunc-
tive and optative will be explained below.
ACTIVE FORM.
PASSIVE FORM.
Leading lenses.
1
2
3 1
2
3
g
/ucu
(da*)
xat,
wanting
TOV
TOV
flt&OV
O&QV
G&Ol
ptv
Tf
GII>, at,
[Af&CC
G&f
VTU.I
Historical tenses.
P
(M]V
(GO)
TO
wanting
TOV
TTf\V
pt&ov
G&OV
G&*1
[.IfV
Tf
V (ffttl^)
pf&a
a&t
VTO
Sing.
Dual
Plur.
Sing.
Dual
Plur.
Thus Avowal, A&u/uat, At;0o/ua, ivdyaofiat) are respectively the
first person of the leading tenses of the passive form of Auw / loose.
All that intervenes between the termination pat, and the root Au,
or if nothing intervenes, is the peculiarity of the particular tense ;
and this will be treated of below.
Remarks.
1. The terminations in the foregoing table, begin with that
consonant from which the remainder of the word onward, in the
same tense, is in the main the same. A portion of the conju-
gational form attaches this consonant immediately to the root of
the tense (see below the perfect passive and the conjugation in f-u);
but by far the greater portion of the conjugational form interposes
another vowel, called the connecting vowel between, which is far
from, being uniform, as kv-o-fitv, Au-f-rf, kv-fi-?. The more
precise detail therefore of the mode, in which the termination ie
attached to the root, must appear from the paradigm below. The
87.] VERBS. - INFLECTION. 103
foregoing table exhibits only in one point of view, that in which
the various forms of tenses coincide.
2. The first and third persons singular Act. are not indicated
in the table, because in most cases they do not terminate in a con-
sonant, but have as it \vere, the connective xowel alone,* which,
however, differs widely in the different tenses. Compare e.g. 1.
?.t'-cu, 3. lu-ti, with to-o-pftr, or 1. At'<7-, 3, i'kva-t , with iAt'd-a-
ju^f. In the greater portion of the historical tenses, the first per-
son has a permanent v (*XiM>-y, &*At;*-t-y,) and the third person.
when its vowel is 6, takes the v tyilxvaTixov, (tkv-iv or tlv-.)
In the infrequent conjugational form in /w, both persons have a
termination in the present, altogether peculiar, viz. ^u*, 0f, ( 106).
3. The third person plural, active voice, iu the leading tenses,
is given according to the common usage of language. It is proper,
however, to remark here, that in the Doric dialect it terminate?
in vii, and that the vowel before the 6i in the common form is
always long, because an v has dropped out ; as rwrrwtf*, Dor.
TVJITOVTI' TtIl'(j<Ji(Jl, Dor. TtTfq Ul'Gl, ( 103. IV. 1.)
4. The terminations oat and 00, in the second person of the
passive, are only to be regarded as the foundation ; for in most ca-
ses they undergo some change. The manner in which they are
combined with what precedes them, will be explained in its place
below; see 103 Rem. II.
5. With regard to the peculiarities, in which the historical
tenses differ from the leading tense?, the following points must be
attended to in reference to the preceding table.
a) A character, which runs through the whole active and pas-
sive form, is that the third person dual, which in the leading ten-
ses is the same as the second, (as pres. runr^roi/, rvnrfTov, pass.
ttocuedw, TvhxeG&o*,) in the historical tenses uniformly ter-
minates in >;f, as imperf. 2. trunrepov, 3. tTVTiTiTijv, pass. 2. tivn-
b) Besides this, the third person plural active affords but one
other permanent distinction between the leading and the historical
tenses. In the former it always terminates in aiv or at> (ovaiv,
or afff,) while, in the historical tenses, it has a fixed y, (ov,
c) In the passive form, on the other hand, the two classes of
tenses throughout the whole singular number and all the third
* It may still be called the connective vowel, though in these cases it
has nothing to connect, because in substance it is identical with that vow-
*el, and is dropped in those forms which do not take the connective vowel.
Compare e. *. tTt&f] with trtfrlf-V and trfot^fltp, in -which f or TJ be-
longs to the root.
104 VEIIBS. INFLECTION. [ 88-
persons are distinguished. From the f-ica of the leading tenses is
uniformly derived {.i^v in the historical ; and from the T<U, both
singular and plural, in the former is always derived TO in the lat-
ter. Equally constant is the distinction between the terminations
oat and <io.
6. The du$l is wholy wanting in the first person of the active
voice, that is, it does not differ from the plural.
88. INFLECTION BY MODES AND PARTICIPLES.
J. The imperfect and pluperfect exist only in the indicative
mode. All the other tenses exist in the other modes and partici-
ples, though by no means found in actual use in every word. The
future only always wants both the imperative and subjunctive.
102 2. The Greek language has the optative, in addition to the oth-
er usual modes, which derives its name from the signification im-
plying a wish, but is used in various others. Its precise force is
taught in the syntax ; it need here only be remarked, that its im-
port is substantially that of the imperfect tense subjunctive mode
in Latin, which is not found in Greek.
3. This remark is intimately connected with the following
main rule, relative to the inflection of the optative and subjunc-
tive, viz.
In the subjunctive mode, all the tenses are inflected according to the
analogy of the LEADING tenses of the indicative ; in the optative mode,
according to that of the HISTORICAL tenses.*
Consequently, in the table given above ( 87. 3), the upper
row contains the terminations also of the subjunctive mode, and
the under row those of the optative.
4. The subjunctive uniformly connects with the terminations
of the leading tenses the vowels w and rj, instead of the peculiar
vowels of those terminations in the indicative. The subjunctive
therefore, both active and passive, of the common conjugation, as
in XVTITW, may be easily formed by the following rule, viz.
* Accordingly the third person dual of the optative, even of the leading
tenses, always ends in ??J/, and in the third person sing, and plur. of the
passive voice always in TO.
83.] VERBS. - INFLECTION. 105
Where Ike indicative mode has to, o, ou, the subjunctive has ft) ;
where the indicative has f, tt,, r h the subjunctive has '?;, y. E. g.
%
Ind. TV71T(Q, 0/U6J/, OUffJ, 0[4(Xl, &C.
Subj. rfTTTW, ODftfVi) ft)ff, WflCtl. &C.
k.
Ind. TvnrfTt, ;rou, &c.
Subj. xvjiTTjTe, ^rat, &c.
Ind.
Subj. TVHTys, r^ 77, &c.
The subjunctives of afl the different tenses and conjugations,
follow these endings of the present of the usual regular conjuga-
tion.
5. The optative has, as its peculiar characteristic, an t, which
it combines, with a vowel of the verb or the termination of the
tense, in a diphthong, that remains unchanged through all num-
bers and persons. The termination of the first person active is
either \u or >;i/, as TVTITOI,{.U, Tt,Qtir}v, and in the last case this ^
remains, together with the diphthong, through all the other ter-
minations, as oi[4i, 04?, ot, &c. f/^v, tiijGi *ii?, tlijaaV) &c. In the
passive voice this diphthong stands uniformly directly before the
terminations of the historical tenses, as Tvniol-fitjp^ rt&f7-To.
6. The imperative has a second and third person in all the
numbers. Its terminations in all the tenses are these, viz.
Active S. . . , TOD D. TOV, TOJV P. Tf, TOJGUV or VTMV.
Passive S. (ao), a&o) D. a&ov, o&wv P. a#*, G&caaav or o&ow.
7. The infinitive has the following terminations, viz.
Active tiv or VVLI or ui.
Passive o&at.
8. The participles are all adjectives of three endings; the
feminine is therefore, agreeably to the rule in 58. 2, formed af-
( ter the first declension of nouns. The masculine active has i/ro<?
in the genitive, which requires ? or v in the nominative, and in
the feminine <7. E. g.
14
106 VERBS. - INFLECTION. [ 89.
uv or o'fb, ovoa, ov
G. ovrog.
, aaa, a*/
G. ttVTOQ,
G. fviog.
{>, aa, vv
G. WTO?.
From this the participle of the perfect active is wholly differ-
ent, being uniformly as follows, viz. <?, v?a, o, G. oro.
The participles of the passive voice all end in pfvog, ??, ov.
REMARK. Among the modifications which the preceding in-
flections undergo, attention must be particularly paid to the con-
traction, not so much of the contract verbs properly so called, as of
some parts of the usual conjugation, where contraction takes place;
as will be shown below. See 95 Rem. 6. 103. III. G.
<$> 89. INFLECTION OF THE ACTIVE, PASSIVE, AND MIDDLE
VOICES.
1. The idea of passive includes in it the case, in which the
action that I suffer, is performed by myself. Such an action may
104 therefore be expressed by the forms of the passive voice. This
is what is called the reflective sense. The Greek language, how-
ever, goes farther, and uses the passive voice, in connexions in
which the verb has only a secondary connexion with the subject,
as I prepare myself a house. All these cases, which will be farther
explained in the syntax, make out the idea of middle ; and the
passive, when used to express them, is called the Middle Voice.
2. We have already seen above ( 87 ) the general differ-
ence of the active and passive forms. According to that differ-
ence, every active is converted into its natural passive ; which is
here, for greater convenience, exhibited only in the first person
of the indicative of the general tenses.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
Impf. ov
Pres. co
Perf. , XK fjiat
Fut. \ ? a J* u * ! Aor.
ffti ovuai ii / ov onm>
$ 89.] VERBS. INFLECTION. 107
3. N"ow in this natural passive form the present, the imperfect,
the perfect, and the pluperfect tenses express in all cases, where
the idea of middle can exist, that idea ; so that it is only from the
context, that it can be determined, in any given case in these
tenses, whether the signification is passive or middle. But in the
aorist and future, the above form of the passive is, for the most
part, used only as a middle, and for the passive idea a particular
form is used, which has this peculiarity, that the aorist, notwith-
standing its passive meaning, assumes nevertheless in its inflection
of person and number the active form ; while the future, formed
from this aorist by increment, passes again into the passive form,
viz.
Aor.Pass. **"
Fut. Pass.
{ rjaouat.
In distinction from these forms, the above mentioned forms of the
natural passive are called in the Greek grammar the Future and
Jlorist Middle. The four first named tenses, however, the pres-
ent, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, which may be used equal-
ly in both significations, and might hence well be called Passive- 105
Middle forms, are in the Greek grammar simply called passive,
and can only be called middle in connexions, where they have a
reflective sense, and this must be ascertained by the syntax.
REMARK. It may be observed here that the medial form of
the aorist is not only banished from all verbs, which do not admit
the idea of the middle voice ; but that in many, the passive aorist
in &r]v and vjv has adopted the medial signification, and "is there-
fore used only in a limited, though not an inconsiderable class of
words. Here, however, every verb is assumed in the grammar
to be entire ; and it must be left to further remark to ascertain in
what parts any particular verb is defective.
108
VERBS. INFLECTION.
[90.
90. INFLECTION BY TENSES.
1. As the tenses in general are comprehended in what has
been stated above, it is only further to be remarked, that some of
them appear in two forms, which bear in the grammar the names
of first and second, without any diversity of signification. The
double form of the perfect is found only in the active voice, that
of the future and aorist in the active, passive, and middle voices.
2. Besides this, the passive has still another third future, or
paulopost future, as it is called, which takes the reduplication of
the perfect, and of which the signification will be given in the
syntax.
3. All the tenses, belonging to the Greek verb, will now be
detailed according to the division given above of active, passive,
and middle.
NOTE. In the following table the augments and the termina-
tions of the first person singular are indicated. The larger dash
standsjbr the proper root of the verb ; the shorter, in the begin-
ning, for the first letter repeated in the augment. The aspirate
over the termination denotes that the preceding consonant is as-
pirated.
ACTIVE.
Pres.
0)
Impf.
4 0V
1. Perf.
-4 or xci
1. Plup.
l-f iiv or xetv
2. Perf.
-f a
2. Plup.
4-4 IIV
1. Fut.
(Jli)
1. Aor.
1 oa
2. Fut.
to
2. Aor.
4 QV
3. Fut.
wanting
PASSIVE.
4
-4
4 S -4
MIDDLE.
like
the
passive
-6
ov(Jiai
4 Ofirjv
wanting.
J 06 4. The connexion of these terminations of the tenses or tem-
poral /orms, as they might be called, with the root of the various
verbs, requires a particular explanation, which is called the doc-
trine of the formation of the tenses. This, however, must be pre-
ceded by the consideration of the characteristic of the theme.
91,9J." - VERBS. THEMK. 109
91. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THEME.
1. That letter, which immediately precedes the chief vowel
of a temporal termination, is called the characteristic of said tense,
viz. according to the foregoing table, <i is the characteristic of the
first future and first aorist active and middle.
2. More particularly, however, the letter which remains (af-
ter casting away every thing which belongs to the termination of
the conjugation) at the end of the root itself, is called the charao
teristic of the verb. It is necessary therefore only to cast away
the oj of the present tense, and the last letter or the two last let-
ters are the characteristic, as in fo'y-(o the y, in qovfvo) the fv.*
92. A TWOFOLD THEME.
1. That however, which remains, after dropping the w of the
present tense, is not always the pure root of the verb. For when
the other tenses are divested of their peculiar augments and ter-
minations, there remains with many verbs a root, more or less
diverse from that of the present.
2. Some of these differences consist merely in the changeable '
nature of the vowel, or its being shortened or lengthened, as rp*'-
JTOJ tToanov, ftljpxa) (fctfo^xa, AfiTrcu ti.iTiov, qalvo} qavw f'yrjva,
IjctMa) tpulov, which are to be considered merely as changes in-
cident to inflection.
3. In others the difference is more considerable, where the
puie and simple root of the verb, as recognised in the other
tenses, is in the present by additions or changes rendered more
full and larger ; as TVTITM trvTrr^ root 7T77, in the present
TTJTT; r<7<jw tTayr<v, root TAP, in the present TA2S;
* The etymological root of the verb, which in (fovtvo) is (fOV, is not
here meant ; but the grammatical root of the verb, of which tv is also a
part. So in (ptfao) and riuaoj. f and er. not ), and ti. are the character-
istic?.
110 VERBS. - THEME. [92
root AAB, AHB, in the present AAM-
BAN.
107 4. It appears, therefore, that the ancient and more simple form,
which has been preserved in some of the tenses, has passed over
into a more strengthened form in the present. But since the
grammar, for the sake of uniformity, always starts from the pres-
ent, m all verbs where more considerable discrepances of this
kind appear, an obsolete or ancient present, corresponding with the
form preserved in the other tenses, is assumed for the conven-
ience of grammatical use.
5. Every form of the present tense, whether obsolete or not,
from which you start in forming the single parts of any verb, is
called a theme. To prevent the unnecessary multiplication of
themes in this grammar, instead of an obsolete theme in co, its
root alone in capital letters is sometimes given, as 7T77, TAT,
fee.
6. In reality, this confounding of forms, like the similar one in
the declension of nouns ( 56), is an anomaly ; and accordingly
the catalogue of anomalous verbs (to be given below) consists prin-
cipally of verbs of this class. When, however, the difference of
the usual from the obsolete or assumed theme is common to a
considerable number of verbs, which also coincide in the charac-
teristic of the present tense in use, this also is reckoned among the
diversities of the usual conjugation.
7. Here are to be reckoned those verbs, in which the true
characteristic is only concealed in the perfect tense by insertion
or change of letters. These are of three sorts, viz.
a) In verbs whose characteristic is nr, the T is an addition for
the sake of strength, while the true characteristic is one of the
labials /?, TT, <jr.* E. g.
ytyvnrOD I hide, TVTTTOJ I strike, gamut I sew.
KPTB& TTII&
* See $ 20.
92.] VERBS. THEME. Ill
b) Of most of the verbs in GG or TT, the true characteristic is
one of the palatics /, x, #. E. g.
raoaaj I dispose, qoiGoaj I shudder, /?/;aaw I cough.
TAT& <t>PIK& BHX&
Some, however, have one of the linguals ; see Rem. 2 and 3 be-
low.
-c) Of most of those in (Dor. ad) the true characteristic is
<?, but several have y. E. g. ,
yoda) I say, ow I smell xpw I scream.
&PAA& OA& KPAFSl
8. All these verbs retain the fuller and less simple form in the
present and imperfect of the active an^ passive, while every thing
else is formed from the simple theme. For the sake, however,
of brevity and grammatical uniformity, these differences of the two
themes are usually treated as common inflections ; and as if e. g.
in TV^O), TVTtffc, &c. the T of the present TVTHOJ were dropped ;
or as if before the a in qrpa'aw (fut. of qrpajcu), not the simpler
characteristic d, but were omitted.
REM. I. To the verbs in , whose pure characteristic is #, be-
longs the greatest number of derivatives in /o> and aoj. To the
characteristic y belong all that indicate a sound or call, as xao>
I scream, Gifvu^o) I groan, TOI'^OJ I chirp, OlfHU&a I lament &-C. with
some others, particularly OTUOJ I drop, GTI^W I prick, oiijota} I
prop, oq>vat I palpitate. The three following, viz. v\am I drive
about, xAa^oi / sound, oufai(o I soimd a trumpet, on the contrary,
have yy as the true characteristic, (future n^uytw &c.)
REM. 2. On the other hand, some verbs in GG or IT have, as
the true characteristic, not the palatic, but the lingual, and follow
therefore the analogy of those in C, as juaaaco / form, THXGGO) I
stroke, miaow I husk grain, fut. TI/.UGO) &c.
REM. 3. Some verbs vibrate between the two characteristics d
and y. See in the list of anomalous verbs aoTia^cu, 7ra/w, fiaGid-
d), VttGOb).
REM. 4. It has been stated in general terms above, that in the
characteristic TIT, the true characteristic is always one of the labial
mutes ; and in era or TT, one of the palatics, or according to Rem.
2,- one of the linguals. Which particular letter, however, it may
be in any single case, is for the most part indifferent ; since, as we
shall see below, most verbs are in use only in those tenses (the
first future, first aorist^ and perfect,) which are obliged, in obedi-
ence to the general rules ( 1 8 &c.) to change this pure charac-
112 VERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. [$ 98.
teristic ; and indeed the three mutes also in the like way. For ex-
ample, from the future /ty'w it is clear, that the true characteristic
of P^OGM is a palatic, but not which. It is true we are able, in
these cases, to conjecture from kindred forms, which palatic is the
true characteristic ; but as the declension of the verb is not there-
^ by affected, it is not unsafe in all verbs, whose true characteristic
is not obvious from the conjugation, to regard n as the true char-
acteristic of those in m, and of those in oa or TT either y or d
(Rem. 2), which latter is the basis of the kindred termination .
It will remain therefore only to take note of the few verbs, which
really, in one of their tenses, retain unchanged a different letter
from the regular characteristic of that tense, viz.
3) In m, pkdnTa) I injure, xQvmco I conceal^ in both of
which the true characteristic is /?. yunrw I sew, frama) I bury,
ffx7irw I dig, Qimto I throw, &@vm(o I break, in all which the
true characteristic is (p.
b) In oa, TT, qpp/aaco / shudder, the true characteristic of
which is x.
93. FORMATION OF THE TENSES.
1. The attaching of the temporal endings, as they are given
above ( 90), cannot take place directly, nor without consideration
of the general rules of euphony ; which require, that the charac-
teristic of the verb, if it do not harmonize with the ending, should
undergo various changes and modifications. In addition to this,
various peculiarities, founded in usage, are to be considered.
2. The subject will be more intelligible, if we observe what
tenses are derived one from another, or coincide one with anoth-
er. The tenses in this respect are divided into three classes, in
which they are arranged in the order, in which, in most verbs,
they are found.
1. 1 Present and imperfect active and passive.
II. First future and aorist active and middle.
First perfect and pluperfect, with perfect and pluperfect pas-
sive, and paulopost future.
First aorist and first future passive.
III. Second future and second aorist active and middle, second
aorist and second future passive, second perfect and plu-
perfect.
I 94.] VERBS. TENSES. 113
Should any particular verb, made use of as a paradigm, want
any of the preceding tenses, such tense of that verb is neverthe-
less inserted in the grammar, as a guide to other verbs, in which
it is used.
Every change made in a verb in the tenses quoted first in ei- 110
ther of the preceding series, takes place in the other tenses of the
same series, unless some particular rule or exception prevent.
REMARK. The circumstances in which the tenses, in each of
the preceding series, for the most part, agree with each other,
are principally the following, viz.
a) The tenses in series I. make no alteration whatever in
the radical form of the present active, which is in real use ; and
where the present active belongs itself to a strengthened form of
the root (in conformity with what was stated above), it is found in
all the tenses of this series, as TVTITW, trlmrov &c. while the tenses
of the second series, for the most part, and of the third series
altogether, are derived from the simple form.
b) The series II. comprises all those tenses, in which the
characteristic of the verb is generally changed by inflection, par-
ticularly by the addition of a consonant in the termination, as TU-
1/JO) &C.
c) The series III. on the other hand, retains unchanged
the characteristic of the verb, as hvnr}v, and alters only occasion-
ally the radical vowel. In this series of tenses alone, therefore,
when the first series contains a strengthened form the true
characteristic of the verb is to be recognised, since in the second
series, should the said characteristic be a palatic, though this fact
may be known, yet it cannot be ascertained by mere inspection,
which of the palatics is the characteristic.
94. THE TENSES.
I. In order to learn the formation of the tenses, it is necessary
to assume only one part or form of the verb, from which to derive
them all ; and the present indicative active is made use of for this.
All the other varieties of person and mode as soon as this one
person is known are derived uniformly in all verbs, according to
the manner to be unfolded in the paradigms below, with the qual-
ifications expressed in 87, 88.
1 5
114 VEfe-BS. FUTURE ACTIVE. [ 95.
REMARK. The perfect alone is of a form so peculiar, that sever-
al of its personal and modal inflections must be learned at the
same time, as being in some degree independent of each other
(97,98.)
2. Several tenses are formed in a manner so simple and regu-
lar throughout, that they may be satisfactorily learned from the ex-
amples, which follow below. For more convenient inspection,
however, they are here detailed in the usual conjugation in w.
The tenses then are derived as follows, viz.
a) From the present in o>, the imperfect in o v, TI'TTTW tTvnrov.
b) From every tense in to, a passive in o^uca. From the pres-
ent active, the present passive, IVTTTW ivmofAai, and from the fu-
ll } ture, the future middle, rvipw xm^o^ai. Under this moreover is
included the second future or the circumflexed future in o~, middle
ovpcu ( 101. 2.)
c) From every tense in or, a passive in opyv. From the im-
perfect, the imperfect passive, tTVTtrop, ITVTTTO^V^ and from the
second aorist active, the second aorist middle, 6Tvmn> tivno^r t v.
d) From the first aorist, the aorist middle, merely by append-
ing the syllable yu} v i t^vipa tTvtyapiiv.
e) From the perfect in every case the pluperfect ; in the ac-
tive voice, by changing the a into j>, tlrvtytt tTtTvqtu>, in the
passive voice, by changing put into ^?/j>, Tttvpjuai mri^u/w^v.
f) From each of the two forms of the aorist passive, the cor-
responding future passive is formed by changing yv into
and livjiqv TVtftfrrtQQftai, rvnijoopai.
The other tenses have their particular rules.
95. "FUTURE ACTIVE.
1. The principal form of the Greek future is the termination
ocw. It is found in by far the greatest number of verbs, and is
thence called the first future, as navo), fut. navow.
2. When the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, the
changes incident to or take place, viz.
95.] VERBS. - FUTURE ACTIVE. 115
xco, Ttv%w, fut. Ai'i'w,
), Jlfi&O), TTf'jO^W, - (JTUUJCO, 7ll(JO},7l()Ga}.
3. In verbs in Tir, in aa or rr, and in , the real characteristic
according to 92 is adopted. In consequence rrr is changed in-
to 1/;, ffff or TT into , and into a, e. g.
( TYII&) fut.
raaaco
In the rarer cases, as is also taught in the same place,
changed into , and GO or rr into a, e. g.
4. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel, the syllable
before the ending <TW is by rule long, whatever be itfe quantity in
the present, e. g.
daxQvw (i;) fut. dctxpvao) ({;)
T/CO (l) - Tlfffil (t)
In consequence of which rule f and o are changed into >; and
<M, as qptAuu, (^//Aoto. gnA?J(7a), ^Aojaca.
For exceptions- to this, see Rem. 3 below.
5. The characteristic a is changed into ?; in the future, except
when one of the vowels f , /, or the consonant p precedes, in which
case the future has long ,* e. g.
w, fut. Tiuyaoj, Kj
taw (a)
avw ()
For exceptions see below Rem. 4.
* Cdmpare the similar rules in the first declension $ 34. 5, and in the
feminine of adiertives 59. ?.
116 VERBS. - FUTURE ACTIVE. [<> 95.
6. On the other hand, the penult syllables of the futures in
aero), law, vow, are always short when they come from verbs in eo
or in (jo, TT, as in qp^aow, dixdoo}, vo^inta, xAuffto, from
<?txao), vo[*i(o, xAt;co, and in TrAcmco, 7ir/<7co, from nAaaaco,
Remarks.
1. When the ff of the future is preceded by a labial, the change
takes place mentioned 25. 4, as GTitvdM, fut. OTTfluw.
2. In the Doric dialect, in the first future and aorist, most of
the verbs in , ffff, ", which commonly have a, take an , as
xo/u/j-o), &xioj, from xo/Wto), &xaw.
3- Several verbs, that have a short vowel as a characteristic,
have the same unchanged in the future, as y^Aco / laugh, antiw
/ draw, fut. affor a<Wa> I praise, xaA*o) / ca//, Vo) / &oi/, fut. *<rw
apdoj I plough, fut. daw aWw / fulfil, lyvm I extract, fut lyffw.
Some verbs vibrate between both forms, partly in the future itself,
as7iot>ao / desire, fut. HTOJ and 7}<7co, partly in the tenses which are
derived therefrom (compare 92. 2.) as AU'GJ 1 loose, fut Auaw,
perf. pass, \tlviiui. See in the anomalous verbs aivtw, aipta),
dio), TTO^'CO, dvo), ftvw, Ivw.
4. The verb axpoaojua* / Aear has oMQoaaofjiai, contrary to the
analogy of fioao) fut. rjao). On the other hand, ^w, ^^aOjUat, f.
^>J(jco, &c. is contrary to the analogy of dpa' co, acrw.
113 5. The following six, viz. /iw / pour out, pf'w I flow, via) 1
swim, -nfa'a) I sail, nvf'co I blow, t^'w 7 rim, have tv in the future,
as yfvcw, ptvaofitti, &c. see anomalous verbs. The two follow-
ing, XCK/W / burn and xAa/oj / weep, whose original form, preserv-
ed in the Attic dialect, is xAo>, xco, with a long a, take av in the
future, as xuvaaj, xhavaw, see anomalous verbs.
ATTIC FUTURE.
6. When the termination CM is preceded by a short vowel, the
<y is occasionally omitted, in the Ionic dialect, and, in the Attic di-
alect, the two syllables are contracted into one, and marked witk
a circumflex, as from rtKtw I finish,
Fut. TthiGOJ TtktGtig, &C.
Ion. rsA/eo r*A? rfitft, Tfh'ofAfv xfliext
Att. re Ao7 Tf?.f7? Tftel Tthovfifv
From (3i@aw I lead,
Fut. /?J/?fJCO (3t,(j(X(Jl? &LC.
Ion. (/?/?'co /?*/?*{ &c. obsolete.)
Att. /3*/?o> fiipqg (lifta pipwptv fitfa
The same prevails in the modes and participles, and in the mid-
dle voice. See the present tense of the contract verbs below.
\) 96.] VERBS. - FIRST AND SECOND AORIST. 117
, _ ! _ , __ __ _
7. If the short vowel be *, the two vowels do not admit of
contraction. In this case, after the omission of the a, the w is
circumflexed, and inflected, in every respect, like a contract verb
in o as from
Fut. xo/u/0a> xo[*lo(,g &c.
Att. xoftiQ) xOfM*?? tu tovfittv MM* iQVGi. Mid. xof4iov(.tai>&ic.
In the Attic writers, this is the most usual form of the future in
verbs of this class.
SECOND FUTURE.
8. When, in order to form the future, the termination i'co, and
the o>, fig &c. ovfica &,c. formed from it, are attached to the char-
acteristic of the verb, it is called the second future ; which form of
the future is the most common with verbs, whose characteristic is
A, JM, i/, Q, with respect to which more precise rules are given be-
low in 101. A formation of the same kind, in some other verbs, is
to be regarded as wholly anomalous ; see in the anomalous verbs
in(x^0f4(xt and i'&uat,.
9. The Dorics attach the terminations w &c. ovpev, ovftut (or,
more exactly in the Doric dialect, tvptv, tu(*ai>) to theory (|, t/;)
of the common first future, as ri'i/'<u, rin^ovfiev or TvyjevptV) and
this form is also used in the Attic and common diaiect, as the
future middle of some verbs ; as from nviyw I suffocate, Fut. Mid.
10. An entirely anomalous form of the future, viz. in
may be seen under nivw and l(j&iw, in the list of anomalous
verb?!.
, 96. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST.
1. The Aorist terminating in a. is called the First Aorist. This,
however, has a twofold formation, adding either oa or simply a, to
the characteristic of the verb. In the same cases where the fu-
ture, according to the rule, ends in aw that is, universally, ex-
cept in verbs in A, ju, i/, p the first aorist ends in aa, wherein the
same changes take place, as in aw, viz.
aor. I.
Tli'fW, 7lVfV(JO)< - tTIVtVGCC.
118 VERBS. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST. [ 96.
Verbs, on the other hand, in A, ^, v, p, whose future ends not in
<ico, but in co, have this aorist not in aa, but in a alone ; the par-
ticular rules for which will be given in treating 'verbs of this class
below iri 101.
REM. .1. A few verbs of the anomalous class, though they are
not verbs in A, ^ v, Q, form their first aorist in a instea'd of <r, as,
/aw, jjgco. For the first aorist in xa.of some verbs in [.u, as tdm-
xa, see those verbs below.
2. The aorist in ov is called the Second Aorist. The termina-
tion is immediately attached to the characteristic of the verb;
where, however, three things are to be observed, viz.
a) The second aorist is uniformly derived from the pure and
simple characteristic, when the same exists, according to
92, in a strengthened form in the present
b) The penult of the present is commonly shortened in tho
second aorist.
c) The f in the radical syllable of the verb is usually changed
into , in the second aorist.
3. It is only by these changes that the second aorist is distin-
guished, in form, from the imperfect ; and all verbs which cannot
undergo these changes (e. g. tpvoi), /pagrw, &c.) or where there
would be no difference but the quantity of the vowel (as in xAZvw),
have no second aorist*
4. It is also altogether wanting in derivative verbs, formed
from other words with a regular termination, like w, iw, a/ you,
vvw, turn, o'w, aw, and *w.
REM. 2. Of other verbs, moreover, the greater part have the
first aorist. and much the smaller portion the second, although it
is assumed in the grammar, even in verbs which do not possess it,
in order to teach the formation of other tenses, particularly the
second aorist passive.!
* They may have nevertheless a second aorist passive, as tyodcpfjv.
see $ 100.
t The learner is therefore to be apprised, that in the following 1 exam-
ples the forms trtttzov, ?K$v(3ov, tgycKpov, yMayov, tXCtOV, &c. are
either not found at all in Greek writers, or very rarely; and that J'rui/'tt,
96.] VERBS. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST. 119
5. In conformity with these principles, the changes and abbre-
viations (indicated generally above in no. 2,) of the characteristic
and vowel of the present into the characteristic and vowel of the
second aorist, are accomplished in the respective cases, as fol-
lows, viz.
Pres. A A Sec. Aor. A /?t*AAw tfjahov
/ 71 TV71TOJ tTVHOV
TIT < 8 XQVnTO) tXOV&OV
i I >/
\ (f QU71TW tQQKtyOV
(iff, IT y aAAaaoca ^AAayov
tqoudov
' y xo:,"o> txyctyov
at a x/oj ty.a.ov
?/ a Atf^fo
or a in the verbs A, /w, v,
v ytvyoi
REM. 3. To avoid the danger of mistaking an imperfect, or in
other modes a present, for the second aorist, or the reverse, it is
to be observed in addition to the rule in no. 3, that, as was taught
94. 2, the real imperfect tense of a verb always conforms exact-
ly to the actual present tense, and consequently, in the indicative
mode, that only is the true aorist, which differs in form from the
imperfect in actual use, and, in the other modes, from the present
in actual use. Accordingly tytjuqov from /paqroo, can only be im-
perfect, and '/cuqr,g only subjunctive present.
REM. 4. In some verbs, the second aorist has the syllable be-
fore the termination long, content with the other points of differ-
ence noted in no. 2, as ZVQOV, t/ftUtaroy, &c. see the anomalous
verbs fvp/axco, jftUtor&ff. In a few cases, where the vowel would
otherwise be long by position, a transposition restores the common
relation between the present and second aorist, as d'tyxo), J&ittxov.
See the anomalous verbs degxtu, nt'y&fn.
REM. 5. The second aorists in ^y, WP, vv, and the syncopated
aorists, are treated below under the head of verbs in /tu, 110
Rem. 5, 6.
/;AAa|a, &:c. are used instead of them. The former, however, are given
to show the formation of the second aorist passive of these verbs, which
actually occurs in the Greek writers.
120 VERBS. - FIRST AND SECOND PERFECT. [ 97.
97. FIRST AND SECOND PERFECT.
H6 1. The first perfect has two terminations, both ending in ,
?, &c.
a) If the characteristic of the verb be /?, TI, qp, or y, x, #, this
letter is (or remains) aspirated, and a is attached to it. E. g.
ypdqpw, perf.
If the characteristic of the present is changed ( 92), it can still
be recognised in the future ; and as the same letters, which effect
in the future a change into | or i/>, produce in the perfect a ^ or
qp, so to form the perfect from the future it is only necessary to
change those double letters into these aspirates. E. g.
TOtoao) (rao)), perf. r*r/a
TVUTO) (ri^/w), - TtTVCpCC.
b) In all other cases the first perfect ends in x. This termi-
nation in the verbs which make the future in dtu, is attached to
the root in the same manner, and with the same changes, as the
aw, e. g.
TIO> rZ(7fc> erf. TtTMOt
<77rxa
nvtto (nvtvow) ntnvtvxa.
So also the following, with the omission of the linguals, viz.
perf. ntnewa
The verbs in A, JM, v, p will be considered below in 101.
2. Several verbs have a second perfect in a. It is this form,
which, in the elder grammarians, in consequence of its being, in
a few rare instances, found to have an intransitive or reflected
* With l long as in the present.
VERBS. - FIRST AND SECOND PERFECT. 121
meaning, was called the Perfect Middle. In reality, however, it
is found, both in virtue of its prevalent signification and of the
analogy of its formation, to be a second form of the perfect active.
This form attaches the same terminations, as the first perfect, to
the characteristic of the present, without any change, as A?i#<w
A*'Aj?#a, fffJTia) aF?;7i, (ffvyo) ntytvya.
3. There are three things here to be noted, viz.
a) When *he characteristic of the present is not simple ( 92)
the simple characteristic appears in the second perfect, precisely
as in the second aorist, e. g.
ri G a to (nAHFQ) ntT
oa>
b) In general this form prefers a long vowel in the penult,
even when the second aorist has a short one. Hence the second
perfect of yevyaj (second aorist tyvyov) is ntqevya. The short
a, accordingly, whether it exists simply in the present, or has been
introduced into the other tenses by shortening the y or at of the
present, is commonly changed in the second perfect into t;, e. g.
(fut. #~>lw)
(aor. 2 tt.udov)
data) (aor. 2 idaov^)
But sometimes this is merely made long, as xpw
c) This perfect, moreover, is inclined to the vowel o, and it
therefore not only remains unaltered, as in XO'TIZW (A 077/2) x*xo-
jra, but it is also adopted as a change of t, as &ipxey, &'&>pxa,
TEKQ, TITOXO. (see anomalous verbs T/XT<W). This circumstance
operates in a twofold manner on the ft of the present, according
as f or t is the basis of this diphthong, which is to be determined
from those tenses that shorten the vowel, a e second future and
second aorist. If the radical letter be f, w uch is the case only
* The mode of writing didj]U as also ntqprjvu, OtOi'Ticc &c. is incor-
rect.
16
122 VERBS. PERFECJ PASSIVE. [ 98.
in verbs in A, /u, v, p, then ft is changed in o ; if it be *, then it is
changed into ot, e. g.
(fut. <77ipo>)
(aor. 2 A7iOi>)
4. The same remark may be made of the second perfect, which
was made above ( 96. 4) of the second aorist, viz. that it exists
118 only in primitive verbs, and that the greater number of these, as
also all derivatives, have only the first perfect.
REM. 1. Some first perfects also change t into o. Such are
ntftTiw I send, niTtOf.iq.ct' xAf'nrw / steal, xfxAoqrer ryZTio) I turn, and
TQtfy to I nourish, Ttrpoqct. See also Afyw, ovvn'ko%a, among the
anomalous verbs. In like manner ft, is changed into ot, in didotxtt
from the anomalous AE/Q.
HEM. 2. It has already been remarked ( 84 Rem. 1), that af-
ter the Attic reduplication the vowel of the perfect is shortened,
as dxovw axfjxoa, akfi'qo) aAi?Afqra, EAET(")i lh'ih;\)a.
REM. 3. For several shortened forms of the perfect, as
for fii'(ji]%(/., />f/? ( Mf for /;te/?>/xa J i'&c. see 110 Rem. 4.
^ 93. PERFECT PASSIVE.
1. In the Perfect Passive the terminations pat, ucu, rat, &,c.
and in the Pluperfect, pi]v, GO, TO, &c- are attached to the charac-
teristic of the verb, not, as in the other passive forms, by means
of the vowel of connexion ( 87 Rem. 1, o^at, fiat, &c.) but im-
mediately, inasmuch as the characteristic precedes the &> or x<x of
the regular first perfect active, from which the perfect passive is
formed.
REM. 1. When therefore a verb has no first perfect in use, it is
supplied in the grammar, as in falno) (A&Utffifc) the first perfect
tihtiqa is supplied, to form therefrom the perfect passive Af'Aft/t-
jLlCtl.
2. There are accordingly two general rules for the formation
of this tense, viz.
T. If the first perfect have qc, #, these letters undergo a change
98.] VERBS. - PERFECT PASSIVE.
before , a, r, according to the general rules in 20, 22, 23.
Hence from ttrvtfa and 7Tt'-ihf%a are formed
TtTV-flfAtil, rfVv-^/OMj TtTV-Tliai,,
for -q[iai, -grocu, -qrai.
for -
fn order to avoid the concurrence of fftree consonants (19. 2 ) in
the farther inflection of this tense and the pluperfect, the a is omit-
ted from the terminations a#*, a&cu, a#w, &c. e. g.
2d pers. pi. t&ftXp&t for -(fade or -*/'#*,
Inf. 7i7tte'&ai, for -<7#ca or -#*.
The third person plural in i/rca and JTO cannot be formed, con-
sistently with the analogy of the Greek language ; and its place is
therefore supplied by an union of the participle with a tense of
tlvui to be ; see the paradigm of XVTIIW below.
REM. 2. In the Ionic dialect, however, instead of VTCU, and VTO
there is found UTUI and aro, see 103 Rem. III. 5.
II. The second general rule for the formation of the perfect
passive is. that when the first perfect active is formed in xa, this
termination is merely changed into ca, and this as follows, viz.
a) If the characteristic of the verb be a vowel, this change is
directly effected, e. g.
nfnolijxa itTt6ii)fH>u, oat, rat, &c.
(fi'w, vtvooj,) vt'vtiy.u vtvtVjiai, octi, xui, &c.
b) But when before the x of the first perfect active, as also
before the ow of the future, a lingual has dropped out, its place is
supplied by an <7 before the terminations of the perfect passive, e. g.
ni'iftiGfUU, 3 pers. Tii^fiarat &c.
r;<TTi &c.
IU.I &c.
Before another <i, however, this a is again omitted, as 2. pers.
sing. Titntt-aat, 2. pi. ntTitiG&f, 3. pi. as above. rf
c) The rules for the perf. pass, of verbs in A, /u, v, p, are given
separately in vj 101 below.
124 VERBS. PERFECT PASSIVE. PS 98.
REM. 3. The o of the perfect active, which is derived from an
s in the present, does not pass into the perfect passive, as jdfVrrco
(xfxAor/a) K&Ai/Ujuat. But the following three verbs, viz. TQIIKO I
turn, TQtq-co I nourish, arpfyto / turn (trans.) have in the perfect
passive a peculiar change of the f into a, as TtTpot[A[A(u,rtT(jayat,
&c. Ti&Qttftnai, from rg/eqtcu (that is &PL'<l>Q,see 18. 2), arrpajK-
uat,
REM. 4. Some verbs change the diphthong fv, which exists
originally in their present, or is assumed by them in the future,
into v in the perfect passive, as Tfvyco, (rtTtvya) Ttrvyfjictt. So
also qfvyw, and nvtto [nvtvoco ntnvtvxa) ntnvv/uai. In %tio (/<>
<7to) this change is already made in the perfect active xfjft/xa,
Kt%vpcu Of the variable quantity of some verbs in *iw, vw, see
above 95 Rem. 3.
REM. 5. The CF before the termination of the perfect passive is
assumed by several verbs, which have no lingual, but a vowel for
their characteristic, viz. pure verbs, as axotxw ^'xoi><7|uca, xftevw
Mtxifavapat) and particularly several of those which retain a short
vowel unchanged, as re Aao (T^GOJ) TtTt'hfGftai,.
REM. 6. When yy is brought to stand before p, one y is omitted,
as tfa'yjroD, perf. tkylfyya, pass. AfjAty/uaf o<piyya),(O<f>iyttat.. The
other terminations follow the rule, as Ihyfoygai,, yxTou, &c. eo-
, &c.
REM. 7. In like manner where the perfect passive would have
/i*|U, and another /M is added from the root of the verb, one {*, it
naturally omitted, as xafinTw, ft&cqu/Kft*, xtKantyat, &c.
REM. 8. The subjunctive and optative can only be formed,
when the termination is preceded by a vowel allied with the ter-
mination of the subjunctive, or which combines with the t of the
optative, e. g.
xroo/ucu, xtKTijpai, Subj.
Opt xfXTyfAqv, HiXTyo, xf'xr^ro, &c.
Tit QUO), 7lnQCl[4CCl, Opt. TffneQdlfl^V, &C.
Also when the vowel is i or w, optative tenses may be formed (as
v is a kindred vowel) by the suppression of the i. The vowel
must, however, be long, as Kvw, l&vpou, (see 95 Rem. 3.) Opt
3. pers. ta'AJro. The use, however, of all these forms is very
limited, and usually superseded by composition with the tenses of
tlvttt. See the paradigm.
99, 100.] VERBS. pFUTURE AND AORIST3 PASS. 125
99. THIRD FUTURE.
The Third Future or Paulopostfuture of the passive, in respect
to signification ( 139) and form, is derived from the perfect pas-
sive, of which it retains the augment, substituting aoficu for the
termination of the perfect passive. It is therefore only necessary
to take the ending of the 2d pers. perf. pass, in out, (ty<xt, |ca) and
change the at into opai, e. g.
REM. 1. In those cases, in which the vowel of the first future
is shortened in the perfect passive, the third future makes it long
again as Ke\v(JOf.ia.i. See 95 Rem. 3.
REM. 2. The verbs which have the temporal augment, and
the verbs A, /u, i>, Q, have no paulopostfuture.
100. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST PASSIVE.
1. All verbs form the aorist of the passive either in Qyv orrjv,
and many in both ways at once. The former is called first aorist,
the latter second aorist ; see above 89. 3.
2. The first aorist passive attaches fti]v to the characteristic
of the verb, e. g.
It is here understood (see 20), that the characteristic of the
verb, when it is a smooth or middle mute, is changed into one of
the aspirates, e. g.
TV71TW ( TTII&) tTV(f&f}V
VERB?. FIRST AND SECOND AOR. PASS. [ 100.
3. Tn respect to the remaining changes of the root, which take
place in the series of the first future ( 93. 2), the first aorist pas-
sive governs itself principally according to the perfect passive, in-
asmuch as it assumes <7 in the same* cases, e. g.
The radical vowel is also in most cases changed in the same
way, as in the perfect passive, e. g.
- ltlf41]&T]V
4. The second aorist passive attaches r\v to the pure charac-
teristic of the verb, and in so doing, follows all the rules given
above for the second aorist active. It is necessary therefore to
form the second aorist active, whether it is used or not, and then
change the ov into w, e. g.
TU7TTO),
REM. 1. A few verbs, whose characteristic is a vowel, assume
in the first aorist passive, without having it in the perfect passive,
as nuvQD, Tttnuvf-tat,, tnuvo&rjv' [Avuoftcu, (/itfJivfif/tui^ IftvrjG'O'ijv.
For the opposite exception oojw, aiGWGpui, low-driv, see anom-
alous verbs.
REM. 2. Those which, without being verbs in A, p, v, p, change
their t into a in the perfect passive ( 98 Rem. 3), retain their t
in the first aorist, as
REM. 3. As it is not possible in the passive voice, for a confu-
sion of the imperfect and second aorist to take place as in the ac-
tive, so those verbs have a second aorist passive, which, according
to 96. 3, cannot have it in the active. In this case it may be
formed from the imperfect active, as in other cases it i formed
from the second aorist active. The rule, however, prevails that
the long vowel is made short in the second aorist, e. g.
yydyw, impf. ty^aqov, tyQetyyv
Tpifioj. impf. iTQlpov, ixQipriv (short t).
REM. 4. For the same reason also some verbs, whose radical
vowel is f, form a second aorist passive, without changing e into
a, as qcAfyeo, fytiytjv.
101.] VERBS IN A, <U, V, p. 127
101. VERBS IX A, fl f V y {>.
1. The verbs, whose characteristic is one of the four letters A,
jw, Vj p, depart so extensively from the analogy of the other verbs,
that it is necessary here to exhibit their peculiarities in one con-
nected view.
2. All verbs of this class, strictly speaking, want the first future
in aw, and have instead of it the second future ( 95 Rem. 8.)
The termination of this future, in the Ionic, is t'w, *'$, Mid. t'oiiai,
&c. and this in the common dialect is contracted as follows, vix.
), fut. vfpi'o), com.
, fut. f.ttt-io), com.
Of this future the further inflection (wo7, f7g, *7, ov[*6v. Hie.
OVGI, &c. Mid. oi^ciat, jj, iirai, &c. see in the paradigm,) is to be
compared with the present of the contract verbs in *w ( 1 05.)
3. The syllable before the termination, when it is long in the
present, is without exception shortened in this future, e. g.
l/'ttAP.OJ, (JrMACO, fut. l/'uAcu, (JTfkd)
xo/i>eo, a t uvi'0), fut. xoivo)* uuvvw.
To this end, the diphthong at is changed into short a, and ft, into
^, as (/.too, fut. aooy xrf/rw, fut. y.iivw.
4. The first aorist of these verbs is formed also, without a, in
a alone. They retain therewith the characteristic as it is in the
future, but lengthen again the syllable before the termination, in-
dependently however of the present, as they either simply lengthen
the vowel of the future, e. g.
i/AAco (T//.OJ) i-Til.u.
i'xolva
or they- change the t of the future into , and into y, e. g.
). r; tVco, (uev &j, OT^AW, Ttvta) fyftva. tartila, frttvu
Several verbs, however, which have at, in the present, take a long 123
in the first aorist, as rrfoaii'f) (nfQavu), *W(wi/, Inf.
128 VERBS IN A, jU, I/, Q. [ 101.
REM. 1. The verbs UIQW and a'AAo^ca beginning with a, have
in the first aorist, which, only in the indicative, in consequence
of the augment, is changed into 77, as ijya, ayai, '
5. The second aorist retains the vowel exactly as it is in the
future. E. g.
/?AAeu (/?A&7) J'/JaAoi/, pass, ipdhrjv
qalvco (qpai/cu) a. 2 pass. i<fa.vi]v
xA/i'w (xAr*/co) a. 2 pass. iKllvijv (short *).
But the 6 of the future in dissyllable verbs is changed into a (comp.
96.2.) E.g.
XTllVW (XWJ/W) - tXTUVOV
6T&\w (dreAw) a. 2 pass. fdraA^v.
Polysyllables retain the ;, as ogjt /Aw, w^f Aov.
6. The second perfect, when it is used, is formed entirely ac-
cording to the rules given above ( 97. 2, 3.) E. g.
tfaAAoj TtV^Aa, tyalvu ni(p7]vct
APEM& didQO[ia.
The a of the present, since (as appears from the future) it has its
origin, in verbs of this class, not in the radical *, but in f, passes
into o alone, and not into o*, as anftQO) (dTTfpoj), i'onOQu.
7. The first perfect, the perfect passive, and first aorist passive,
follow the general rules in attaching the terminations x, /uiu, &c.
/, to the characteristic, retaining the changes of the future. E. g.
(gpaj/cJ) ntcpccyxcc, lya
(dpca) T^^xa,
Inf. a
The perfect passive also drops the a of the terminations
cite, &c. (5 98. 2.) E. g.
dqpaAAcw, saqMttya^ 2 pers. pi.
, inf.
* The mode of writing with the i> subscript, as ^p, a^a^, t(f>yvtt^ &c.
md with the acute in the infinitives, as ntQCtvai, &c. is incorrect.
101.] VERBS IN A, /U, I/, p. 129
8. Here, however, the two following departures from the anal-
ogy of the other verbs are to be observed, viz.
a) When the future has an *, the dissyllables in these tenses
change it into a. E. g.
<7r*AAa> ((jreAw) ^araAxa^ffzaAiuaj, eorcUdi^ aor. 2 pass, ioru^v
7i*7ia(*xa, ntnaQpui, aor. 2 pass. Inaprjv.
b) The following verbs in iVco, e/i/co, woo, viz. xp/f w, xAn/w,
TiAi'i/w, drop the > in these tenses, and assume the
short vowel of the future, but in such a way, that those in tlvot
change that short vowel, which is , into a. E. g.
XQIVOJ (xp/ra)) xf'xprxa, x&pfjifa*, ixgiftrj*
(re i>d)) r/raxa
(jrAJi/w) mViAixa
REM. 2. The polysyllables, according to the rule, retain f un-
changed in the penult, as a'/y^'AAcu, ^/yfAxa, qyf&4hjv. This is
done also in the perfect passive of dissyllables which begin with
, as /0<w, &p|U<u.
REM. 3. The verbs which retain v, occasion difficulty in the
perfect passive. They preserve, however, the v unchanged in
the following cases, viz.
a) In the second person singular, where it even remains before
ff, as (fa/Vco, R&pavffo*.
b) In the terminations which begin with dt^, in which howev-
er the a is dropped in consequence of the v, as inf. mydv&cu.
See no. 7 above.
c) In the 3d sing, as niyuvrat he has appeared.
In the same manner, however, the 3d pi. is formed, (as xe-
xgavTctt, from xpa/vto,) where v is omitted, according to the next
remark. But this form is extremely rare on account of this very
confusion, and the compound form with tiai is preferred.
REM. 4. Before the terminations beginning with ,u, the follow-
ing is the usage with respect to the v.
a) The v passes into ^u, as ^a^v^fACti from aia'/vvai.
b) The v is dropped, retaining the long vowel, as
froiw TQCC%VVCO.
c) Most commonly instead of v we find a, as (faivw
REM. 5. The elder and the JSolic dialects formed the future
and the first aorist, even of these verbs, with a, as xeigw
ra'peo Tipffco, which form is the most usual in some verbs, as
I knead, (pvoaw.
17
130 VERBALS IN iog AND Tiog. ["<$ 102.
125 102. VERBALS IN TOg AND WOff.
1. With the formation of the tenses must be connected that of
the verbal adjectives in TO? and Tiog, which, in signification and
Use, nearly resemble participles. See the Remark below.
2. Both terminations always have the accent, and are attached
immediately to the characteristic of the verb, which undergoes
the changes required by the general rule. The vowel is in va-
rious cases changed. These changes coincide in every respect
with those of the aorist passive, except that of course when the
aorist has qr-#, jj#, these forms have TIT, xr. We can therefore
compare with these verbals the 3d sing. perf. passive, which has
also T, though in respect to the leading syllable it departs, in many
verbs, both from the first aorist and the verbals.
3. Accordingly we have the following forms of verbals, viz.
hiyo)
yyanrog
atgi'd)
i, Inava&yv)
e(jrc<A#?7*>) OTatotog
Tfrvo) (rtTv.Ttu, i'i&&'qv\ TUTiog
%i(o (xtyvTat, l%v&i]v) %vTog
nvita
REMARK. The verbal in xog corresponds in form with the Latin
participle in tow, and has in fact the same signification, e. g. itfatt-
Tog woven, OTQITHO? twisted. But most commonly it conveys the
idea of possibility, like the Latin termination i/w, as (Jryimog ver-
satilis, flexible, oyaTogvisibiliS) visible, dxovOTog audible. The ver-
bal in woff, meantime, has the idea of necessity, and corresponds
with the Latin participle in dus, as cfttyTtog amandus, a person to
be loved. See 134. Rem. 4.
103.] BARYTON VERBS. 131
103. THE BARYTON VERB.
1. The foregoing rules, as well as the other details of the va-
rious modes and tenses, will now be all illustrated in an example
with the common baryton verb TVTITOJ, to which will be subjoin-
ed some other peculiar examples of baryton verbs as they are
used, and lastly one of the class in A, /w, v, o, viz. ayytMm.
2. Baryton verbs, as was explained above in 10. 2, are in
their natural form, in which the termination of the present tense is
always unaccented ; in distinction from those, whose two last syl-
lables are contracted and marked with a circumflex, and hence
called verba contracta by the Latin grammarians, and perispomena
by the Greek. The latter will be treated separately below.
REM. 1. The learner will bear in mind that TVTITU) is here
used only as a paradigm or example, in which every thing is ex-
hibited in one view, which belongs to the various verbs of this
kind, although neither TVJITOJ nor any other single verb is found
in all the modes and tenses here given.* See 104.
2. It was formerly usual to give the second future active and
middle with the paradigm of TVIITM. Inasmuch, however, as this
form is wanting in all the verbs of the class to which TUTIICD belongs
viz. those whose characteristic is not A, /u, j/, p, of course in the
greatest number of verbs, it was here omitted in the preceding
edition, but introduced in full in oyy&Aw, in the paradigm of
verbs in A, /w, i>, p. It is now subjoined also in TVUTW.
REM. 3. In order to havfe the whole conjugation in one view,
a table is subjoined, which gives the first person of the declinable
modes, the second person of the imperative, the infinitive, and the
masculine gender of the participle, in all the tenses of the active,
passive, and middle voices. This is immediately followed by the
same verb, inflected at full length.
* The parts of TVTITW in actual use may be seen in the list of anomalous
verbs, where it is placed, in consequence of another form of the future not
here introduced, viz.
132
FARADIGM OF
103.
127
s <* <*
lit
tf R N
j>
^3 $ o. %
g ii' 5 ^
g ^-3- R R
* o. * 9 <=>
o ^X ^ $
"2 ^ ^ ^ s-"*c H"
R g d- 6J R R g
o>
2 ***
Mj **^ "^ S) ^
a X s a a a
s ii i ii
t* N S h k t* *
^ 1
1
I | |lll
.; d> ^ ^ <te
2 K> s>
to -^.^
h> N M ^
^ <S<S'-g*&_i"
^R v g ^|| 6"g
mil
-G
S> o
a
^
fc
o R* 4s
"* * S
5 w *
R ^
^
g ^ R
-1 ' 1 1 1
O> y$
* -t
^T t- t-
** *
.
JPTATIVE.
tVUTOlftt
ffTU<f>Ol[4t
1- >* * ^
| 11,5-3-
1 11 1J
A la .1
! 1 MM 1
V
cu
-5 ^ ^ S Sk
.V
^
$fr
4)
'"2
a-
>
^
o
3
_
5. k-g
<
3 g,
11 i
3 S k
1 1 J
J 1 1 1
s, r *
e .t j
^ ** *
rt
-*j
U
^ . 1 s
CU 5k .4 2.
^ A
2 ^
5js"s^" Os *5- 5^
s ^ s-
g g 2 |
Itlll'l I
rM--3-
|1P
t-vj( * ik 'wt^'uS
|||
Jllllll
ff H~" ^t 5n QJ 4) 4)
Illllllll
2 - 2 *-
n 2 s .2
"3 o "a o
,_
^ &< G< ~ ~ <3^ &*
~ ~ cs>^ co
~ ~ G* G*
3AUOV
3AISSVJ
31GQM
* For the regular subjunctive and optative, which occur in only & few verbs, see above in
98 Rem. 8. For that which is here given, gee 108. IV.
103.] PARADIGM OF TV71TOJ. 133
128
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present, I strike.
o ' '
o. TfJITft), TUTlTflg^
D. rVTTTfTOf,
P. zvnTOfttV) ri/TTTfrf,
rvnrti,
TVTlTfTOV^
Tvnrovot, (v).
Imperfect, / -was striking.
S. i'lvittov, mnrrfS) irvms
D.
P. tTVHTOfifV, iTVTlTfTf, tTUUTOV.
First Perfect, / have struck.
S. lYrugrcf, TiVuqra^, Ttrvcff (i/),
D. WrV^OTO*, TtTVtyUTOV
P.
First Pluperfect, / /w
S. IviTlHftlV, iTfTlKfflS, ll(TV(ffl,
D. ttfTvyfiTO
P. tTillHpflfifV, tT6TV(fflT, fTfTVifftOav Of
Second Perfect, / farce
S. TiTVTia, TlTVJiaS, TtTVUf
D.
P. TtTvnantv, TtivnotTi,
Second Pluperfect, / had struck.
S. mTV7I*', iTfTVTTtlS, tTfTVTlfl,
D. tTfTVTlflTOV) tTfTVTttUllV,
P. eTfTvntiittv, trtrvjitiTti tTtTvnfiaav or
First Future,
S. zui^ca,
D.
P. T\)\pOl>ltV. TVlfJtTf. TVWOVGtV.
134
PARADIGM OF
[$ 103.
129
First Aorist, / ^rwcfc.
S. n/ya,
V/ff,
imyt (i/),
D.
ITUIJJCCTOV*
iTVWCCTTlVm
P. tVi^apc
V, tTVWttTt)
V
Second Future, / 5Aa// *iriA:e.
S. TV7KW,
TfTTf^,
rim?,
D.
XVUtlTOV
TVnflTQV,
P. rvnovfu*
v, T vntlxf,
TVnOVGl, (v).
Second Aorist, / struck.
S. iTfTTOJ/,
>/
" r \
D.
tivntrov.,
IrvTrtryv,
P. iTvnoufi
', tnmtTf.
fivnov.
S.
D.
P.
S.
D.
P.
S. TVljJG),
D.
P.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present.
TVTlT^JTf
Perfect.
First Aorist.
TV71TT],
Cfaxji* (i/)
103.]
PARADIGM OF TVUTO).
135
Second Aorist.
S. Tl/TICO,
Tvnrj?, Tvny,
D.
TUTl^TOr, ZVTirjTOV)
P. TVHWUfV.
TVTIVTC, nmtutti (v).
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Q '
TUVTT(M, TVTITOI,
D.
1V71TOITOV, TV71TOIT1]V)
P. Tvmotfifv,
rvmoiTf, Tvmoitv-
Perfect.
S. T*rV9>Of/U,
TfTlKfOt?^ TfTlXfOl,
D.
TfTiqOlTOV, TtTVyOtTllV,
p '
TCTVfOlTC. TfTVgjQtfV.
First Future.
S. TVlpOtUt-
f ;
D.
TVlfJOlTOV., TVIJJOIT11V)
P. TI/V/O^W,
TVyOITt, TUIPOM.
First Aorist.
'
TUWtttG^ TVWdt^
D.
TUlL'CllTOV^ TV\l)CtlT?]V.
P. tiyaiw
Tvyairc, rvyaiev*
Second Future.
S. TV7lo7f4l,
Tvfto7$, rvnoi,
D.
TUTIO?TOI/, Tvnohrjv,
P. ^7^,
Twro7 "' TWI0 " 1 "
130
* See Remark III. 3.
136
PARADIGM OF TV7ITW.
K
Second Aorist.
SI
. TVnOl(M>,
rvnoig,
TVTIO^
D.
TVnOlTOV,
Tvnolrrjv,
p '
i
TVTtQtrTf*
Tvnotfv.
131
s.
D.
P.
S.
D;
P.
S.
D.
P.
Present
First Perfect
Second Perfect
First Future
First Aorist
Second Future
Second Aorist
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present, Strike.
TVUTf, TVUTtTQ),
Perfect.
TfTVqifTOV)
Fiist Aorist.
Second Aorist.
Tvnf,
TVntTQV,
TvneTf,
INFINITIVE MODE.
TVHTftV
TITVntVQU*
TV\l)t,V
Tvipat'
Tvntiv
rvnstv
orvvmovTuv,
TVTllTOOV
to strike.
to have struck.
to have struck.
to be about to strike.
to have struck.
to be about to strike.
to have struck.
103.J PARADIGM OF TVUTW. 137
PARTICIPLES.
Present, striking.
TvnTOvaa, TvnroV)
G. TvnTOVTog,
Perfect, having struck.
N.
G.
First Future, about to strike.
N. TVlptoV, TVtyOVOa^ TVtyOV,
G.
N.
G.
First Aorist, having struck.
Second Future, a&owtf <o strike.
N. Tfxrtoi/, rvnovGct^
G. Tvnovvrog, rvnovaitf,
Second Aorist, having struck.
N. TV71MV, TVnOVGCt)
G. TvnovTog, rvnovaqg, rvnovrog*
18
138
PARADIGM OF TV711U).
PASSIVE
132 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present S. rvjiTO^ut
I am struck ivnir t or (, * Tvmt]
D.
TUTlTfG-Oov
TV71TOVTCM
OPTATIVE.
TV71TOITO
TVnTolGfitjV
TVJlTOl'pt'&a
TVnTO(,G$t
riJUTOiVTO
Imperfect S. li
I was struck livmov
tTVTlTtTO
D. trvmopfftov P. tTvmont&a
IrvTiTioftrjv ITVTITOVTO
Terfect S.
I have been struck itivtyat
D.
P.
co I TfTVf*pt'vog
See below the verb -ti
Pluperfect S. *;
/ had been struck frt;
D.
1 Future rfqD^wffOjwat
I shall be struck Tvqy&rjOy or /,
&c. as in the
Present
Subj. wanting
as in the
Present
1 Aorist S. ervyfhjv
I was struck ITV^TJS
ItVff&f)
D. '
TiXf&rjQ
TVCf&Yl
TV(f ftfliyg
TVCp'U'tt'tl
tTlXfi&TjTtJV
P. lTU(f.<'0'1][4.fV
Tvq. Q yjTOv
TV(f)&fiflfV
Ir^e
rv^nre
TVCf'&tlTt
tTV<t#r]Gav
r^flam* Vj
rlffl^T"
2 Future
I shall be struck
Aorist
I was struck
3 Future
Seo h(;lo\v liem. H.
through ail the
through all the
I shall have been struck, through all the
I Tlie shorter form is more cominonjy
103.]
PARADIGM OF TVHTUJ.
139
IMPERATIVE.
be struck
TV7TTOV
or
VOICE.
INFINITIVE.
to be struck
PARTICIPLE. 133
vmofifvog, *?, ov
being struck
o have been struck
TtTVCf&OV
or
to have been
struck
77, ov
having be&i struck
Imperat.
wanting
to be about to
be struck
7, ov about to be
struck
Tugrt^rt be struck
TVCIL'O't TO)
TV(IV"y]TOV
xvcpftrjz
TV(f>-&r t TWGUV
to have been
struck
Tvyi&tle struck
Gen.
Modes like
Modes like
the 1 Future
the 1 Aorist
Modes like
the 1 Future
used in the 1st and 2d persons, and always in the 3d.
140
PARADIGM OF TVUTW.
103.
134
MIDDLE
The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect
OPTATIVE.
INDICATIVE.
1 Future rui/w/ua*
like the Pres-
ent pass.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
wanting
like the pres-
ent pass.
1 Aorist S. i
irvtyaxo
llVtyUG&OV
P. i
Itvweurro
tvfnjo&ov
TVtyCltTO
TVll>ui/Llf&01>
TVljJUtG'&OV
TVlpCtlVTO
2 Future S. TvnovfAai
xvny or fl
D.
Tvneio&ov
P.
tvnQvvrai
wanting
TVTIOIO
ivjioho
TVUOlG'&OV
TV7loi[At&(X
Tvnolo&e
TVnOlVTQ
Aorist
like the Im-
perfect pass.
| TVUOlf4^V
These two modes like the Pres-
ent pass.
The verbal adjectives ( 102) are
$103.]
PARADIGM OF TfTTTW.
141
VOICE.
tenses are the same as in the Passive Voice.
IMPERATIVE.
wanting
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
*7? Ov
TV aa&cu
r
TVljJCCl,
n, ov
Tvyjao&ov
TVtyaG&f
wanting
TVTlOVfAtVOS)
T), OV
TVTIOV
TvntO'&ov
TVTltO'd'WV
**%*.
TVHOflfVOG,
r), ov
TvntG&wcav or TvntG&wv
TVTtTOg, TVTTTfOS.
135
142
PARADIGM OF TlCtldfVQ).
103.
EXAMPLES OF OTHER BARYTON VERBS AS THEY OCCUR IN USE.
I. naidfvo) I educate, Middle / cause to educate.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Ind. Subj. Opt. Imper.
Pres.
natdfvftg
&c.
Subj.
nou/divto
nt>tid(VT) naidfvoig
nuidfvy &LC. nuidivoi &c. &
Fartic.
ncudtuovaa
naioevew
Imperf.
tnaidtvov, ?, f (v) &c.
Perf. Ind.
ntnuidevxa,
a?, f (f ) &c.
Subj. ntnaidfvxa) Opt.
Imp- not in use Inf.
Part, ntnaidfvyiwc;, via, O
Pluperf.
, ft, &c.
Future
naidtvow
Opt. naidfvaoifAi, Inf. ncitdfiafftv
Part, naidtvoow
Aorist.
tnaidtvbcc,
f v &C.
Subj. Opt. Imper.
fro) natdfvoaiiM naidtvaov
&,c. naidfvouig
Tiatdfvoai, &LC. &c.
Part.
noudivGai
naidevaav
103.]
PARADIGM OF TietldfVO).
143
Pres. Ind.
JlCtldfVOMCU,
or
&c.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Subj. Opt. Imper.
nuidtvoljLtrjv natdtvov
naidfvoio nttt&tvio&to
\i &c. nccidfuoiio &c. &c.
Inf. Part.
** * f\ ft '
ov
Imperf.
(>,/; i>, tnaidfvov, InatdfVfTO Sac.
Perf. /nrf.
S.
D. nnuidtv(.it&ov P. n
Subj. and O/f. wanting. /m/?. T
&c.
Pluperf,
S. t7TfHU(,dtVf.lt]lf D. tJlt7TUldU[.l({)OV P. :
iritJiaidtVTO
Future. Ind.
Opt.
Part.
Inf. ntttdtv&rjGfG&ai,
Aor. Ind.
ubj. Opt. Imp.
evQw TiMW&v&fiTjv neuJkv&tf
Inf. Tia.idevi^r t vui, Part. ncudfvfteiS
3 Future. Ind.
Opt.
Part. TieT
Inf. nfnaidtvGto&at>
MIDDLE VOICE.
Future. Ind. , Opt. natdfvooi^trjv Inf. HcudfvGtG&cu,
natdfVGOiiat Part- Tfcufovtidpevog
Aor. Ind. ' Subj.
naidtvow/Liat,
(>0), OUTO &C.
Opt.
Imp.
ncttfevocu
&c.
, airo &c.
Inf. TiaidevGaG&ai, Part. naidfVGaiutvog [&tc
Verbal Adjectives ntudivrog^
144 PARADIGM OF OilQ), ETC. 103.
II. Gtiw I shake, Middle / move myself vehemently.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. c>f/w Subj Gflu. Opt- ottoi/ut, Gioi$, Gfioi &c.
Imp. Gfif, otiiia) &LC. Injin. GfUw.
Part. Of/Co*/, GflovGa, Gtlov.
Imperf. eattov* Perf. ataewa. Pluperf. lafOflxtw. Fut.
Aor. tGfioa. Subj. GSIGGD. Opt. actocufii, Gei
Imper. GMGOV, ctra) &c. Inf.
Part. GfiGas, GfiGaGcc, Gftoav.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. Gilo fiat Imperf. lofto^v.
Perf. GtGtlGlAM D. GfGflGflf&OV P. GGftG[it&K
GlGflGUl, GtG6lG&OV GtGflG&
GiGttG&ov 3 pers. wanting.
Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. GtGtiao, GfGsiG&w &c
Inf. GiGelG&ai, Part. GfGfiGfttvos
D. loeOtfajU&OV P. i
tGtGtlG'&OV
iGfGfiG&rjv 3 pers. wanting.
Fut. GftG\)7]GO[Acu> Aor. tGfia&ijv 3 Fut.
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fut. GfiGOiiat, Aor. fGftGcifirjv
Verbal Adjectives GSIGTOS,
III. heinw I leave, Middle (poetical) / remain.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. fainto Subj. falnm Opt. ^flno^^lflno^ telnoi, &c.
Imp. fains Inf. falnuv Part, fainwv
Imperf. tteinov
Perf. (2) A*' loina Pluperf. itelointw
Fut. hfi\\)oi
Aor. (2) tfanov Subj. A/TTW Opt. Mnoipt Imp. hint
Inf. Kmflv Part, hnwv, OVGCC, 6v.
103.] PARADIGM OF yQ(X(fCO. 145
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. fainopai, Imperf.
Perf. fa'faifApai Sub}, and Opt. wanting.
fafaiyai, Imp. fa'faityo, fafaiq&w &c.
fafa&mat &,c. Inf. fafaiy&cu Part,
Pluperf. tfafatpfAijV) ipo, mo &c.
Fut. kfi(f&rjaof.ia(, Aor. thficpfhjv
3 Fut. fa fa lip opai.
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fut. faiipo[4ai>
Aor. (2) D.mofirjv Subj. Mnwpai Opt.
Imp. fanov &c. Plur.
/n/*. hnt'a&ai, Part
Verbal Adjectives Aft^ro?, faimt'og.
IV. ygdcfw I write^ Middle / write for myself, I accuse.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. yovqxo Imperf.
Perf. ytyQacpa, Pluperf. i
Fut. yoai}jQ> Aor.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. yodyiopai, Imperf.
Perf. ytyoapftai, yt'yoatyai, yiyaanrai, &c-
Pluperf. tyfypapftrjv, i//o, mo &c.
1 Fut. yQOKf^r^o^ui seldom used
1 Aer. lyoatydqv seldom used
2 Fut. yQcKprjOopat, 2 Aor.
3 Fut.
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fut. yodipoftai' Aor.
Verbal Adjectives yoamog,
19
146 PARADIGM OF UM. 103.
V. a'p^w / lead, rule, Middle / begin.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. a
@%(a Imperf. ?IQ%QV
Perf. (:
7p/a) and Pluperf. are very rarely used
Fut. a
pw
Aor. ^
p'a Subj. ayw Opt. ttplttlftt, (*Q%tAi$, aQ^at, &c
Imp. ay^ov, ay^ciTO) &c.
Inf. aQ%ai Part. aQ^ctS.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres.
ccQ%o[A(x(> Imperf. ^Q^o^v
Perf.
ri{>yiA.at, D. rjQyfJie&ov P. fyyfAf&a
3d pers. wanting
. and O/?tf, wanting. 7m/>. ^p^o, i](j%&oj &c.
/n/! ri{)%&a.i, Part. ypyfttvoG
Pluperf. %Qyf4fiv D. iJQt-piQ& P.
3d pers. wanting
Fut dp#i}oo/
Aor. JJQX&IJV Subj. aQ%&w Opt. Q%&citjv Imp.
Inf. UQ^ftrivai Part. a
3 Future wanting (see 99 Rem. 2.)
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fut. apo/uct
Aor. v}Q'a(A.viv Subj. ttQfafmtt Opt. ag^ai^v Imp. a
Inf. aQ&a&frat Part, aytupevog
Verbal Adjectives (in an active and middle meaning)
103.] PARADIGM OF GXfVttfa. 147
VI. Gxtvdo) 1 prepare.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. 0xeuao> Imperf. laxevafrv
Perf. fGxfvaxa
Subj. foxtvuxio Opt. eaxfvdxotiu Imp. not used
Inf. laxtvuKivui Part, tGXfvaxwg
Pluperf. taxfvdxfiv
Flit. axfvdoM
Aor. Icxtvaaa Subj. Gxfvdooj Opt. oxevaGaifii, aaig, oat, &c.
Imp. GXfvaoov
Inf. oxfvdaut Part,
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. Gxfvct&ftat Imperf.
Perf. ta%fvuoi4at, D. tGXfvaGfit&ov
Zoxtuaoat tGxtvaG&ov
fGxfvuGxat, tGxfvaG&ov 3d pers. wanting
Subj. and Opt. wanting Imp. AwiWo, tGxtruG&w &G.
Inf. tGXfvaG&at, Part, l
Pluperf. tGxtvuGfjir]v, ado, KOTO &c.
Fut.
Aor.
3 Fut. (iGxevdoo/uat,) not in use.
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fat. GXfvctGOfAat,
Aor. taxfvaGdfirif Subj. GxtvuGwiictt, Opt. axtvaactifiijv
Imp. <7Xf/'U(7CU, GX{V(tG(XG&Q) &C.
JTI/*. flrxfj;ao(i^t Part. GxtvctGUf4tvQg.
Verbal Adjectives ax*u<7roV, oxevctaiiog.
148 PARADIGM OTg KO^O). [ 103.
VII. xofilw I bring) Middle / receive.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. xo[ilco Imperf. txo/tttd?
Perf. Ktxofiwu Pluperf. Ixixoplxtw
Fut. XO/M/(JO>
Attic Fut. xOtuw D. --- P.
XOfAtUTOV XOfJllOVGt, v
Opt. MOfMolfM) 0? &C. Inf. XOfitilV
Part, noftiwv, ovoa, ovv Gen. ouvroe
Aor. IxofMGa Subj. xo^u/aw Opt. xoju/acajiu, d^?, GUI &c.
. xo/uffoi/ /n/ 1 . xoftiaat Part,
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. xoftl&ftat Imperf. t
Perf. xtxopiGfiAai, (compare l
Subj. and Opt. wanting Imp. xt%6[MGO, IG&W &c,
//j/! xfxO|ti/(7^a^ Part.
Pluperf. I
Fut.
Aor.
3 Fut. xfxo/aoca not used.
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fut. XO/W/ffOjMtt*
AttiC Fut. %0[4lOV[l(Xt> D. XO[4lOV[4f&OV P.
xotuti *
XOftltttCtl
Opt. XOfMOlfAIIV) KO[M070 &C.
/?!/*. xofJutiGftcu, Part.
Aor. lxofiiaai*Tjv Subj. ^O^IIGM^UV Opt.
. HQjtiaou Inf. xoploaa&ai Part.
Verbal Adjectives xOjU*(JroV,
* See Rem. II. 3, below.
103.] PARADIGM OF (puA<T<70J. 149
VIII. q vldaoo} I guard, Middle / guard myself.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. qvldaow Imperf. fqvluoaov
Perf. nfqv).u%a Pluperf.
Fut. <i;Adw Aor.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. (pvldGcroficu Imperf. f
(f vKuTfOfjiai, t
Perf. ntvkaAtti, D. nt<v).ajit&Qv P.
nfqikay&ov 3d pers. wanting
Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. ntqvha'Zo, 7ifqvha%$o) &c.
Inf. nequXa'tdcu, Part.
Pluperf. tnf(fv)>ctyi.ir]v D. intq.vXayiAi&ov P. li
3d pers. wanting
Fut.
Aor.
3d Fut.
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fut. gtvla^Oftdt Aor. l
Verbal Adjectives ^uAaxroV, q:vlctxTios.
150
PARADIGM OF OQVGGtU.
103.
Pres. OQVGGW
OyV
Perf. ow
Pluperf. OQWQV
Fut.
Aor.
IX. OQVGGOJ I dig.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Imperf. WQVGGOV
0)(JVTTOV
Subj. opa/pv;faj Opt. 6
Imp. not used Inf. 6
Part, o
Subj. OQVO) Opt. OQv^atfjii Imp
Inf. o(jv^ut Part.
Pres. OQVGCi
PASSIVE VOICE.
Imperf. w
Perf. OQwyvypat,
Subj. and Opt. wanting Imp. OOWQV^O, tpttpvgt* &c
Inf. OQ((Jv%&ui, Part. 0{
Pluperf. OQwQvyuriv
1 Fut. Qpv%&itaoftcu 2 Fut.
1 Aor. topvX'Oyv 2 Aor.
Inf. 0(jv%&r]vcci, &,c. Inf. oyvyrjvai &c.
3 Fut. wanting (see 99 Rem. 2.)
MIDDLE VOICE.
Fut.
Aor.
Subj. OQvw[Jiai Opt. opv'gaiftqv Imp.
Inf. 6yv,uG&ai Part. o
Verbal Adjectives O
103.J
PARADIGM OF
151
Present Ind. \
EXAMPLE 0F VERBS IN A, /M, V, Q.
dyyt'Mw I announce.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Subj. ayyAAw, Opt. dyytMoipi, Imp. ay/fAAf,
Inf. ayytkkfiv, Part- ayyi'Muv.
Imperfect
Perfect Ind. 1
Subj. vyythxti), Opt. tjyy&xotfUj Imp. not used,
Pluperfect
2 Future
D.
P.
Indicative.
ayytfa7g uyythtl
dyyt).HTQv dyyf^.f7rov
.dyytkovf.iti> dyyf^Tf dyytkovoi (v).
136
Optative.
S. dyytko7f.it dyyfko7g
D.
P.
or
Part, ayyehwv,
o/?;, &c.*
^ ayythovv, Gen. a
1 A or.
Subj. dyyfikw, Opt. dyyfttctifui, Imp. dyytikov.
Inf. dyyf7kat) Part, d
2 Aor. Ind.
ijyyelov.
Subj. dyytto), Opt. dyytkoipi, Imp.
Inf. ayyf).t7v. Part- a
* See below, Rem. III. 2.
152 PARADIGM OF ft'/pttAAdO. [ 103.
137 Pres. Aid.
PASSIVE VOICE.
, O/tf. <xyyf\)ioi[it]v, Imp. dyyi'Mov,
Inf. dyy&Kea&ai, Parf. d
Imperfect
Perfect Indicative.
yyythpaii yyyehaat, tjyytfocu,
D. yyy&fte&ov, liyythftov, iiyyfh&ov,
P. yyythfit&a, yyyeh&f, (yyythpevot, elalv.)
(Subj. and O/><. yyyflfJitvos co and eiijv.)
Imp. r/yyihao, r\yyt\$w, &c. /n/". yyytl&at, Part. y
Pluperfect
D. ijyytkf.if&ov, rjyyth&ov,
P. wd
I Future
t, Sue.
1 Aor. /nd.
;. ayyfkftw. Opt. ayyfk&flqv, Imp
Inf. ayyfk&fjvai, Part.
2 Future
&c.
2 Aor. Aid.
Subj. ayyfkw, Opt. ayytfahjv, Imp.
Inf- ayyf^rjva^ Part, a
3 Future wanting. (See 99 Rem. 2.)
103.] PARADIGM OF dyytto). 153
MIDDLE VOICE.
Future Indicative.
dyyfly or ?>
D. <xyyf).ovp(&ov, dyyf^a&ov,
P. dyytlovfjit'&a,
OPTATIVE.
S.
D. dyyflotpt&ov, u
P. dyyeXot^if&a^ dyytho'io&f,
Inf. dyyete'ia&cu,, Part, dyytlovpfvog, r\, ov.
1 Aor. Ind.
Sub}. dyyei\M^.ui, Opt. dyyfilalftrjv, dyyeihaio, &e.
Imp.
Inf. ctyytttuo&ai,, Part, dyyedd
2 Aor. Ind. 1 Subj. dyy^ot^a^ Opt. dyyfholfirjv, Imp. dyyflov,
Inf. dyytlto&aii Part,
Verbal Adjectives a
20
154 REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS. [ 103.
REMARKS.
I. Accent.
139 1. As the foundation of the doctrine of accent in the verbs, it
is to be understood, that it is placed as far back as possible, and,
in consequence, always on the first syllable of dissyllables, as TVTI-
In trisyllables and polysyllables, whenever the nature of the
last syllable admits, it is placed on the antepenult, as rvmo^itv^
rviiTOi'Gi, Ttti'CfaGi* Ti'Trro^ai, tivmf, 6'r<;i//, 6<pi>Act|a. So also in
imperatives,, as qctUarr^, <p#Aa|o*', <piMa, where the present is
qvkuTTCo, inf. gpuAc^rwtv, in consequence of the long final syllable.
Hence verbs of two syllables, when compounded, throw the
accent, if the last sellable admits it, on the preposition, as (ft&f,
2. Apparent exceptions to this rule are cases, where a contrac-
tion takes place, viz.
a) Cases where, according to 83 Rem. 4, 5, the temporal
augment had its origin in a contraction, as in such compound verbs
as avrjuTOv from ai CCTTTW.
b) The case of the circutnflexed future of every kind, accord-
ing to 95 Rem. 6 seq. Also the aorist of the subjunctive pas-
sive (see below Rem. III. 6) ivq&M, TVTIW.
3. Real exceptions to the general rule are the following, viz.
a) The second aorist (for the sake of distinction from the pres-
ent) has the accent on the termination in the following cases, viz.
(1) In the infinitive and participle active, and infinitive middle,
always, as Timtlv, ivnwv, Timf&&l&.
(2) In the 2d sing, of the imperative of some verbs, as ytvov
tint, &c.
b) The infinitive and the participle of the perfect passive, are
distinguished from all the rest of the passive form, in having the
accent regularly on the penult, as ttTVip&cti, ntnoirj<s&&.i,,
c) Infinitives in va.i have the accent on the penult, as
vcti, ?\)tyfti*]voi.i^ Tvnrfi'txt.
d) The infinitive ofihejirst aorist active in , and the 3d per-
son of the optative active in ot and at, retain the accent on the
penult, even when they are polysyllables, e. g.
Inf. <fvlacx.i, naidtvaai.
3d pers. Opt. qc
* By this, and because, according- to $ 12 Rem. 5, the 3d sing, opta-
tive never has the penult circumflexed, the three singular forms of the first
$ 103.] REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS. 155
5. All participles in o)g and ft? have the acute on the la?t syl- 140
lable, as r^n^oi, 1 , ivyfttfe, Ti'Tit-j^. So also, in the verbs in /ut,
the participles in fig. c. ot>?, and u.
6. Where the masculine of a participle has the accent, the
other genders retain it, without any other consideration than that
of the nature of the syllables, as ptuUftrgf*, qrt'AarroL'da,
' '
II. Second person singular passive.
I . The original termination of the second person of the passive
form GUI and oo (see the table above in 87) has been retained, in
the common conjugation, only in the perfect and pluperfect, and
in the verbs in [it. It was found originally also in the present and
imperfect, as TVnrttfai. tTvnreoo, in the imperative TiwTtao, in
the first aorist middle tTVipaOo, in the subjunctive rvmyvat, &c.
2. The Ionics dropped the a from this ancient form, and, ac-
cordingly, form it in ;ca, >?</, fo, o. The common dialect again
contracted these forms into ?;, oi', and w, as follows, viz.
Ion. Com. Ion- Com.
Present Ind. nmrtiu, TI'TTT?/, Imperat. twrrfo, T*;nTOi>,
Subj. ivTiTijui,, TvnTtj, Imperf. tivTiTfo, iivmov^
1st Aorist Middle, Ion. ttvyao. Com- ITVI^OJ.
In like manner in the optative, from 0^00 was formed Of o, which, as
it does not admit of contraction, was retained as the common form.
3. The Attics had the peculiarity, that instead of contracting
the tai into rj, they contracted it into ti, (see the paradigm.) This
form is only used in the future active, and in the verbs ^ot-Ao^^,
oi'o/uca, and the fut. o\i>o t uui (see anom. opaoj,) 2d pers. /?oiU,
oif*, oi^jsijso that /vouAr; and oir t are necessarily in the subjunctive.
III. Particular lonisms and Atticisms.
1. The Ionic dialect forms, from the imperfect and the two
aorists, a peculiar form in (Txof, passive and middle dxOjM^v, which
however, is formed in the indicative alone, and has commonly no
augment, e. g.
TVTiTfGuopriV, from rvmov, -6ftv]v
rvipttmtoftrp from cru^te, - (
rujifdxo^M?^, k from ixvnov,
This form is only used of a repeated action.
aorist are distinguished, viz. Inf. act. naidtvofxi, 3J Opt. act. naidfvocu,
Imperat. mid. naidtVOtU. Since, however, the numher of syllables or
the character of the penult rarely admits this accentuation, in general two
of these forms, and in such verbs as TV71TW all three, are liable to be con-
founded with each other.
156 REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS. [ 10o<
9. Instead of the optative in oi^u, there was also a form in
o/?;*/, oi'fjs, o/??, plural olvjiAtv, 0/17 rt, olijaav, that bears the name
of the Attic. It is found chiefly, however, only in the contract
verbs (see below,) and hence also in the 2d fut. as (pttvofyv from
q&a/ PCO, fut. qiavaj. See in dyyf'M.0).
3. Instead of the Opt 1st aorist active in atpi, there was a
provincial form in fia (rvysiu, <?, f, &c.) of which the following
terminations were much more common than the regular form, viz.
Sing. 2 tvijjfut^ 3. xvipfie (t>), for -*ff, -at,
Plur. 3. TVtytiitV) for awv.
141 4. The form in VTODV and Pass, ai^coj/of the 3d pers. pi. of the
imperative is called the Attic, because it is the most common in
the Attic writers. In the active voice, it is always identical with
the genitive plural of the participle of the same tense, with the ex-
ception of the perfect
5. In the third pers. pi. pass- in the indicative and optative, but
never in the subjunctive, the Ionic dialect converts the v into cr,
as follows.
Opt. TiniTolctTO for TVTITQIVTQ
Perf. nfnavaTcti for ntntcwtai
KfStJUaTdt for KfxAtfTat.
This never takes place in the termination oviai, though occa-
sionally in Of TO, with the change however of o into f, as ifiov-
tewo for tpovhovTO. Particularly is the 3d pers. plur. perfect
and pluperfect passive formed by the help of this lonism, when
the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, (see 98. 2.) e. g.
TfTlXffXTUt, for -(
tTfTCl^CCTO for -
fdrcUarcu for -
from TVTITOJ, TUTTCO, ortHoD &c.
6. The circumflexed forms are by the Ionics resolved with a
change of accent, and this not only in the 2d fut. ( 95 Rem. 6, and
101. 2,) but also in the infinitive 2d aorist active in *7i/, as <pvyi-
(iv for (f-vyfiv from (jpfvyw, tqvyov, and in the subjunctive of both
aorists passive in w, (comp. the subj. of verbs in pi) e. g.
Subj. 1 aor. pass, tvcp&tu for
Subj. 2 aor. pass, rvnto for
This is, by the Epic writers, lengthened into ti or >;.
IV. Additional peculiarities of dialect.
1. The 3d pers. plur. of the leading tenses instead of aiv or <Jt
has commonly in the Doric dialect VTI, as was remarked in 87
Rem. 3, and hence the long vowel before the n in the common
form is explained, viz.
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 157
TVTITOVTI, zfTvqavn, for TVTITOVOI,
Subj. TviTTajvit, for TIJTTTOJ^,
2 Fut. pfvt'ovTi contr. pevevvu for (pert'ovai) fifvovai.
2. The Doric dialect forms the 3d plural of the aorist passive
m fv instead of r t auv, as tivq>&tVi tivrttv^ for -?iouv. See below
in the conjugation of verbs in f.u.
3. The 1st pers. plur. active in ptv is converted in the Doric
dialect into /$ (rvTiiOfutg, etvipapts) ; and in the 1st plur. and
dual ]aass. in ( fthx, ffftfop, the Dorics and the poets interpose a, as
4. The infinitives in eiv and vat,, in the ancient language and
in the dialects, had a form in pev and jiifvui, viz.
TVTlTtUfV, TV7nt(.lVV.l, for TVTlTflV 14*2
TTvqt'ii{i\-t\ui>ai for TeTvqtvut,
vvnrjfttv, Ttm^ftfva^ for Tvnrjiiccl.
b. The Dorics more particularly formed the infinitive partly
in fv or tji> instead of c^f, and so also the 2d pers. of the present
in 6,' instead of i$.
Q. The ancient language, in the 2d pers. of the active form,
has instead of g the termination o&u, which in the poets is still
frequently found appended to the subjunctive and optative, as
*&ttya$a for A^/.^v, xlutoio-0-ct for y./.uloig. In the common dia-
lect this is retained only in certain anomalous verbs (see below
?//, <p/7</, and oi(fc).
7. The epic poets, in the 3d person of the subjunctive, have
or jyfjt instead of ij, as TimTyaiv, *Xy&+) for
104. LIST OF BARYTON VERHS.
1. In the foregoing rules and tables, the manner of forming the
several modes and tenses in different sorts of verbs has been giv-
en, as far as it results from the examination of several regular
verbs. But in the numerous cases, in which a verb has several
formations of the same tense, it is not possible from the foregoing
rules and examples, to fix with certainty, what form is actually
most in use. And as in Latin, particularly in the third conjugation,
it requires to be remarked in each single case, what the perfect
and supine are, so in Greek, it is necessary to observe what is the
usage in each single verb ; that is, to observe each of the tenses,
which has been made the subject of separate remark above.
158 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. X [$ 104.
2? Principally, however, it is important to know whether, in
any particular verb, the second aorist active, the second perfect
and the second aorist passive, are in use. For since the other
form, viz. the first perfect, and first aorist passive is taking the
whole catalogue of verbs by far the most usual,"it is to be assum-
ed in each verb, if the use of the other form is not particularly
known. It must also be known, with respect to every one of the
enumerated tenses ; since it by no means follows, that a verb,
which has the second aorist active, has also the second aorist pas-
sive, &c.
3. Here, however, prevails the following fixed rule, that all
trisyllable and polysyllable derivative verbs, which have for the
most part the following endings, viz. w, /cu, aiVw, vvco,
o'eu, w, 0), and are such as the following, viz.
143 tOjjTuo} from ioQrr\, pOftt'Coi from
from (J^aa, fv&vvw from
from itwig, dovkda) from
from Ti[tr h (pihtco from
form without exception, only the 1 Aorist active, 1 Perfect (in
xa,) 1 Aorist passive.
REMARK. Some of these verbal terminations, however, are to
be regarded in several verbs not as derivative terminations, but as
merely lengthened forms. This is the case when the verbs are
not derived from a noun or adjective, but are only a more simple
form of the present lengthened ( 92). These latter are able, from
their simple form to derive some tenses, as the 2d^ Aorist, and are
accordingly pluced in the anomalous verbs, as ofca#<xtou from
OA'i2fa&, 2 Aorist ottr#oi' < cfa/uiu from AEMSl, tdapov. The
termination uixn is always merely a lengthened form of this kind,
and the verbs which have it, belong accordingly to the anomalous
verbs.
4. For all other verbs and for all forms which are not fixed to
particular cases in the preceding remarks, individual observation
in reading the classics must be recommended. To aid this obser-
vation, however, lists of the baryton and contract verbs will be
given, containing the verbs of most frequent recurrence, particu-
larly the primitives, with au enumeration as exact as possible of
the forms in use.
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 159
Explanations of the lists.
1. As the lists are intended to serve as collections of examples
of the preceding rules, besides the primitives the most common
derivatives are also contained in them.
2. It is to be assumed of each verb, when nothing else is stated,
that it has its aorists and perfect after r JTTTOJ, and that its whole
inflection may be known from the preceding rules. The same
holds of every tense not expressly given, so that when, for in-
stance, under any verb, nothing but the second aorist stands, this
holds only of the second aorist active (and middle,) while the aorist
passive and perfect active follow the paradigm.
3. Where the second aorist passive is given, it is necessary
also always to form the first aorist passive, as very commonly it ex-
ists, as a less frequent form, together with the second aorist, and
the verbs f which actually want it altogether, cannot be given with
any certainty.
4. The perfect active in many verbs is not in use ; but this also
can seldom be asserted with entire confidence ; and it is therefore
necessary in each verb to form it according to analogy, and derive
the perfect passive from it.
5. The formation of the passive can without scruple be also
applied to intransitive verbs, as there are cases, in which the third
person of the passive is also used in intransitive verbs.
6. But to form also the middle of those verbs ? in which that i**
voice is not used, would be an exercise in barbarisms of no utility.
In order, therefore, to do this with confidence, it must be marked
in each single case, where, it is found. It needs only to be noticed
that in many verbs, where it is found, it is only in compounded
forms, which are to be learned from the lexicon. For mere exer-
cise, however, the simples may be made use of. Where nothing
but MID. is given, there the aorist and future middle are formed
from those tenses in the active.
7. All verbs are regarded as regular, whose tenses are con-
structed by the preceding rules ; without regarding the significa-
tion or their anomalies. For this reason not only the deponents
of the passive and middle voice ( 113. 3) are here inserted, but
also verbs, whose single tenses do not correspond in signification. -
with their forma ; as, in the more important cases, is especially
remarked.
8. When future middle is immediately subjoined to the active,
it signifies, that sucb a verb has its future of the middle formation
(according to 113. 4,) though with the signification of the active
voice.
9. The expression l PASS, has a 7 refers only to the first aorist
and perfect, and is found only under verbs, in which the a in these
tenses is not a matter of course ; see above 98 and 100.
100 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. [ 104.
List ofbaryton verbs.
adorn, MID. am proud.
announce, MID. 2d Aorist active and middle, little
used.
assemble, Attic redup. MID.
strangle, transitive in the Act, MID. intransitive.
ado) contracted from dfidco sing, Fut. Mid.
collect.
play.
abuse.
xro^ou, Mid. conceal by a riddle.
lift, 101 Rem. 1, MID.
act. and depon. rush, hasten. Attic V.TTO).
ttia%vvto put to shame, 101 Rem. 4. PASS, am ashamed.
ai'to hear. Only the present and imperfect. For augment see
83 Rem. 2.
ctxouo) hear, fut. mid. 2d perfect ax*}xoa, plup. yxrjxofw. (See
84 Rem. 2.) PASS, has or, perfect without reduplication ^fxouc-
halloo, fut. |w, 92 Rem. 1.
anoint, perf. 84. MID.
, TTW, change, PASS, second aorist.
145 aMojuat Mid. spring, see 101 Rem 1.
blunt.
change, MID.
milk.
cifivvo) defend. Perfect wholly wanting. MID.
dvcdvofiat' (not a compound) MID. deny, has no other form
except first aorist, which takes rj, 101. 4.
avvw fulfil, 95 Rem. 3. PASS, has'ff. MID.
unolavw enjoy. Has the augment in the middle, though the
simple is not used. See 86 Rem. 1.
kindle.
fasten., MID. cleave to, touch.
ecpdw irrigate. PASS, has only present and imperfect.
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 16 1
and op/uorrw fit, MID.
rob, commonly donuaco &c. iJQnoijIhiv. The dialects
not Attic make aQnaiw &c. r^ndyr^, see 92. Rem 3.
drazw ou*, like aVu'w, MID.
rtt/e, MID. begin-
, MID. embrace, greet.
gasp.
lighten-
( go, future Mid.
dip, characteristic q>. PASS, second aorist.
bear, fut. aco. In the Passive it takes the other char-
acteristic, ypcu, y$nv. See 92 Rem. 3.
, cough.
Mid. compel PASS, see 113 Rem. 3.
injure, characteristic /?, PASS. 2 aorist.
see, second aorist, PASS, see 100 Rem. 4.
jlow out.
counsel, MID.
sound, has no aorist nor perfect.
moisten, PASS, am damp, second aorist.
am full, has neither aorist nor perfect.
cause to taste, Mid. taste.
cut, augment of the perf. see 82 Rem. 1 .
w recognise.
write, second aorist, PASS. 100 Rem. 3. MID.
weep.
loan at interest, MID. borrow at interest.
Stywjlay, PASS, second aerist.
rule.
moisten.
Mid. receive. PASS, see below 4 Anomaly of significa-
tion,' 113 Rem. 3.
judge, Mid.
(not a compound) pursue.
21
162 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. [ 104.
dovhow enslave.
dpKO) do, act, not to be confounded with the forms of the anom-
alous di$QCtUXfD-
dQtnw pluck, MID.
accustom, augment fi.
conjecture. Augm. see 83 Rem. 2.
yield, augm. see 83 Rem. 2 and 5, not to be confounded
with the anomalous E1KQ.
f'igyoo shut out, augm. 83 Rem. 2 and 5.
lkiy%w refute, Att. reduplication, perf. pass. 98 Rem. 6.
IMaaw, TTCD, wind, augm. ft. MID. *
I'Axw draw, augm. ti. MID.
ihnioj hope.
i'Ajro) cause to hope, thnopcci hope, has besides the present and
imperfect only the perfect and pluperfect, viz. i'ohnu, twhniv,
83 Rem. 7 and 9, with the signification of present and imperfect,
hope, hoped.
celebrate a festival, augm. 83 Rem. 9.
(not a compound) promote, PASS, hasten.
vot apply myself, augm. 86 Rem. 3.
Mid. labour, augm. ft PASS. 113 Rem. 3.
prop, Attic reduplication MID.
tpiaow, TIW, rote;, fut. oco.
interpret'
spit out, second aorist. MID.
l@la) contend, rival, Attic reduplication.
147 e'jOTico creep, augm. ti.
commonly t^tTO^at, examine,
make straight, direct.
Mid. pray, augm. 83 Rem. 2,
please, Mid. enjoy, rejoice,
come, arrive.
sprout, second perf.
warm.
bury, characteristic q, 2 aorist, PASS, see 18. 3.
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 163
admire, fut. mid.
ascinate.
reap.
#777/0) whet.
crush, second aorist, PASS. 100 Rem. 3.
break, shatter, PASS, has o.
&QVUTW rub, characteristic cp, 2d aor. pass, see 18. 3.
&vot, see anomalous verbs.
place, put.
straighten.
supplicate.
) scourge, fut. aw.
act. and pass, depon. desire.
iTC7ifV(o ride.
iG%vo) am able.
xa#/pcu (not compounded) purify, 1 aorist has rj. MID.
xalvco kill, 2d aorist. The perfect is wholly wanting. PASS.
has neither perfect nor aorist.
hide, MID.
bend, PASS. perf. 98 Rem. 7.
shave, PASS. 2d Aorist. MID.
order, PASS, has a.
land, fut. x*'Aaa>, see 101 Rem. 5.
care for, only present and imperfect. The active
injure, only in the poets.
Txct), proclaim.
incur danger.
xAd^o) sound, characteristic yy, 92 Rem. 1. Perf. x^xAayya.
xA^/w shut, PASS, both with and without ff.
xA*Wo> 5 <eaZ, fut mid. -Perf. see 97 Rem. 1. PASS. 2d
aorist
xA/i/w bend, 101. 8. b. PASS. 1st and 2d aorist -MID. rarely
used.
xAi;to rinse.
xWo> twitch, burn.
164 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 104.
a(w punish, fut. mid.
mutilate, PASS, with and without a.
tn'n^. MID. obtain, receive.
be dust, (xovlaco, xfxovlfiai,.)
KOHTCO cut, epic 2d perf. PASS. 2d aor. MID.
x(juu scream, characteristic y, perf. xtxyoi'ya, 2d aor. 3d
fut. instead of fut. act.
vw judge, 101. 8. b. MID.
knock, PASS, has a MID.
hide, characteristic . PASS. 1st and 2d aor. MID.
Mid acquire, perf. xiXTij/uai possess.
kill, see 101. 8, 1st and 2d aor. 2d perf.
%TIGO found.
roll, PASS, has a.
prevent-
say, MID^ See this verb, for some of its compounds, in
the list of anomalous verbs.
pour out, shed.
leave, 2 aor. 2 perf. MID.
shell, PASS. 2d aorist. see 100 Rem. 4.
cease.
Mid. reckon, conclude.
destroy, 1st aorist has r\. MID.
, see anomalous verbs.
depon. rave, 2d aor. pass, 2d fut. rnid. or 2d fut.
pass. The active is found only in the compound tttftaivaj mad-
den. The perfect active (Ufju^j/a has the intransitive signification.
, TTW, soften.
wither, 1st aorist has long , PASS, wither in its in-
transitive sense.
Mid. blame.
, see anomalous verbs.
ifa divide, MID.
interpret.
104.] LIST OF BARVTON VERBS. 165
fiuivoj pollute, 1st aorist has ??.
ftokvva) contaminate.
vaoaco, TTW, Jill, fut. w. It has in the PASS, the other form
See 92 Rem. 3.
anomalous verbs.
vt VCD wink, nod.
Mid. swim,
snow.
vo[Aia) think, believe,
odvpoput Mid. lament.
bewail.
deplore, fut. oifiw'Zopcu, aor. w[.iw'a.
disembark, trans.
D$iiira) sharpen, stimulate,
reproach,
name,
arm, MID.
opt'yw reach, Att. redup. MID.
limit.
TTW, dig, Att. redup. MID.
educate, MID.
7ictiw play, fut. nai^o^cn and nut,'^oi)(.iat, see 95 Rem. 9. But
the aor. is tTicuaa, perf. pass, ntnaiaftat, &c. see 92 Rem. 3.
icD, see anomalous verbs.
wrestle, PASS, has ff,
s/ia^e, PASS. 2d aorist.
jraoraw 6e5trety, fut. dw. MID.
strike, MID.
put to rest, PASS. 1st aor. see 100 Rem. 1 MID. rest,
nfi&a) persuade, PASS, believe, which signification is shared al-
so by the 2d perf. Tit'noi&a.
perforate, PASS. 2d aorist.
send, perf. 97 Rem. 1, perf. pass. 98 Rem. 7. MID.
am />oor, used only in the present and imperfect.
finish, 1st aorist, see 101. 4.
166 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 104.
compress, oppress.
believe-
7iAcu cause to wander, characteristic yy, see 92 Rem. 1.
PASS, wander.
nkaoow, TTM, t forrn, fut. GOJ, MID.
braid, PASS. 2d aor MID.
wash, see 101 Rem. 8.
7i viyw svjfocate, trans. Fut. mid. Dor. 95 Rem. 9. PASS.
suffocate, intrans. 2d aorist, see 100 Hem. 3.
bring, lead, PASS, journey.
ioj procure, MID. acquire.
), TTK>, do. It has throughout. Istperf. / have done,
2d perf. ntnyuyu I have been, MID.
adorn, become, only in active.
saw, PASS, has a.
stumble, PASS, has o.
crouch.
miaow stamp, fut. ffco.
nivooajfold, MID.
spit, PASS, has a.
rot.
) sew.
sink.
, see anomalous verbs.
wag the tail, flatter, only in active, 1st aor. has ^.
Out oca sweep, 1st aor. has ??. 2d perf.
sound a trumpet, characteristic yy, see 92 Rem. 1.
'depon. reverence.
Of l(o shake, PASS, has ^, MID.
aijftalvw denote, mark, 1st aorist has ij, MID.
151 ar)nco cause to decay, PASS, rot, has 2d aorist. This meaning
extends also to 2d perf.
injure.
aj limp.
dig, characteristic % PASS. 2d aorist.
104. J LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 167
ox f no) cover.
Mid. survey.
o) prepare, MID.
act. and mid. support myself.
scoff 1 .
GUHQW sow, d perf. PASS. 2d Aorist.
pour out, shed, see 95 Rem. 1. MID.
hasten.
onovddo) 'pursue with zeal, fut. mid.
arCw drop, fut. |co, see 92 Rem. 1.
' cover.
tpaj tread, PASS. 2d aorist.
GTfl%a) step, 1st and 2d aorist.
or^'AAw send, PASS. 1st and 2d aorist, MID.
sigh, only in the pres, and imperf.
dco groan, fut. |w, see 92 Rem. 1.
love, am satisfied,
crown, MID.
]Oia) prop, fut. ^w, see 92 Rem. 1.
MID. conjecture.
act. and mid. ia&e the jield.
turn, trans, see 98 Rem. 3, and 100 Rem. 2. PASS.
1st and 2d aorist, MID.
Gvplaj pipe.
GVOOJ draw, PASS. 2d aorist. MIDr
deceive, PASS. 2d aorist.
slay, PASS. 2d aorist.
aq-lyyto bind, PASS, perf see 98 Rem. 6.
Gqi'w palpitate, fut. <w, 92 Rem. 1.
G'/io) split.
am at leisure.
, TTO), disturb, MID.
), arrange, PASS. 1st and 2d Aorist. MID.
wet.
stretch, 101. 8.
168 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. [ 104.
limit, 1st Aor. has rj. MID. prove, testify.
build, 1st Aor. has r\.
, an obsolete word little used but in composition, as tnir
commit. See 101. 8. MID.
TV%W prepare, see 98 Rem. 4, compare the anomalous ivy-
soften, melt, PASS, melt intrans. 2d Aor. The 2d perf.
has the same meaning.
T/Meo tear out, see 101. 4.
TIGO, see anomalous verbs.
shatter, MID.
tremble, has no aor. nor perf.
turn, see 97 Rem. 1, 98 Rem. 3, and 100 Rem. 2.
The 2d aorist is the most common tense in ACT. PASS, and MID.
T(jt(pw nourish, fut. fipeifja), &c. 18. 2. Perf. TtTpoqa. PASS.
perf. Tf'&QaiAfAai, Te&Qcttyftut,, 2d aor. iTydyrjv, 1st aor. (which is
rare) t&$tq>&r)v. Fut mid. for pass. MID.
rub, 2d aor. PASS. 100 Rem. 3.
chirp, fut. <w, perf. TfTQlya.
to treat with indignity, abuse.
weave, 1st aorist has rj.
vca rain, PASS, has o.
cpaivw show, PASS, together with. the fut. mid. and 2d aorist
pass, appear.
, TTOO, physic.
Mid. spare.
, flee, fut. cpfv^o/uai, and ^61/lotJ/iat, see 95 Rem. 9
2d aor. 2d perf. see ^97.2. Perf. pass, see 98 Rem. 4.
opuxt Blid. sound, perf. 98 Rem. 6.
destroy, 2d perf. PASS. 2d Aorist.
burn, trans. PASS. 2d Aor. 100 Rem. 4.
speak, indicate, MID.
153 qrpaaffcu, TTW, surround, PASS. 2d Aor. MID.
q GI (jaw, TIM, shudder, characteristic x, 2d perf.
care for*
':>.] CONTRACT VERBS. 169
vyw roast, PASS. 2d aorist, see 100 Re m. 3.
daaa), TTOJ, guard, MID.
knead, fut. qvQGw, see 101 Rem. 5.
plant.
Mid. am kind, grant.
v(jD dance.
r,w need, desire, only in pres. and imperf. Compare the
anomalous paoj.
/co anoint, PASS, has o. MID.
oj strike the harp, sing.
va) touch, PASS, has a.
t'yw blame,
vdw deceive, PASS. lie.
ia) count, number, MID. decree by vote,
v'^oj, see anomalous verbs.
wdivw travail.
105. CONTRACT VERBS.
1. Verbs in aw, tea, o'w, in most of their forms, follow altogeth-
er the preceding rules and examples ; and reference is uniformly
had to these verbs, in the chapter on the formation of the tenses.
But in the present and imperfect, of the active and passive voices,
when the vowels a, t, o, immediately precede the vowel of the
termination, (and in the Ionic dialect partly remain there unchang-
ed,) a contraction takes place in the Attic and common dialect.
2. This contraction is subject to the general laws of contrac-
tion, given above in 27, with the exception of a few terminations
in the verbs in ow. While according to the general rule, ott,
should be contracted into ov, and oy into w, the t of the second and
third persons prevails in the verbs in o'w, and the terminations otis
and or are contracted into 01?, and oei> and oy into 01, as follows,
viz.
22
170 CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105.
154 3
So also 2d pers. /nd. and Subj. Pass, pta&oii contr.
Inasmuch, moreover, as oot is also contracted into ot, in these
persons in the active voice, the three modes, indicative, subjunc-
tive, and optative, are alike. The infinitive in oeti/ is regularly
contracted, viz. /ot*9$fW, prirffovv.
3. Also the verbs in co have the whole indicative and sub-
junctive alike in the active and passive, in the contraction made
according to the general rule, whereby both at and ? are con-
tracted into j aft and ay into , and o, aou, aa>, into w.
105.]
CONTRACT VERBS.
171
T
* ^
O o
O O *w nj *
c* ,**, 5L >- to
1
vS I
*3 o 3 ooooo
^S^icj; iji C> ^5 C> 05
to to to 1 to to to to to
1
0"P ^T
' *l'Il
2L5L5. 5L5.3L2L5.
s.
jT 5.^> 5.
v
g'd
o to
h*. 5k
-S =>
^X
^>
^ ' | o ^ My |
35- * t fe-'vL,!* 9
1
1 sT
M. v *b n. O g O
o *
*0*3*o -0^0-0 '0*0
"<
? <g
tototo \ to to to to to
to
2 2
3L5. =L .3.3.3.3.
i
SL 5.
fm
2
^ ^ fc
I I
,f*
C/k k ^ ^- < ^O
^
-a *3
2 ' 5S"^ ^s* ^^s^2^S^^s *2
% ^
5L 2L
w 5-5-5-15-5-5-5-5-
5-
s s s
O . i ****** Ph^t-t-
o - i
> g J
N
O "^
"1 ^-
I -S
w ^ T
> tH S^X
P ^ * * 5 g
o 322 1! I'll
2
1 .1
-i .i
111- \ 5-1- 1-5- 5-
O O
5- 5-
S
t* **
2
3
H.lsj
^
^ t
*3 iy 2 >w ^ o'*u o
'5
'-"I -1
ooo \ ooooo
^ftftR ftftftftft
g
- o o o
s *~**
^ s5
Id %&
A =- * 2
*** * '
o, ? s *
Ik
sT
f^ ^ Si ht g. Si <>
*>C *>Vl , "^ '^ *-W "*/ ~*W
d \ i S ^ <*
-*
*w
'S
-1 1
3
000 |0 0000
o
2
.ftftft RRftKft
ft
. R K
.cn P Cb
<u
1 *
Q
*9
% o
"r*
e
"** ^^
1
I
155
172 CONTRACT VERBS. [105.
II
s ...
111 1 11111 111 1 11111 d ."!s-
2L 5. 5L 5.5.5.5-5t 5L5.5. =L =L 2L 2L CL -^-^^
** o o o
_ _ L^ *^_^ Cj) Si hi ^ t<l H>
_C/> ^l^- 1 *-^^ ^ ii <i ^4 ~^, >i -i O
3 T- sr, srsrosro ooo ooooo
S|^ a
2 sr 3 o o o
_____ _ ~o
to to to I e
5.4.3. 5. H.5L
^ _
o O * *
SJ-C/i^ ^ J 1 * "?- *" JJJ <^ ^-
3 ?r. Sr, s-s~^dSrS ooo oooo^o _R~ ^^"
1. 1- 3- 1 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 1 3-3- 1*?- 3- I- ^
o o ooo
9PPlooo5 oo|ooo
ts t e tt g.;fe
^ . -ff. -
3 ST. sr. S-S-3S-3 ooo ooooo
' I S' 2' "' ' ''
l
Q
I '2 S 2'S'2 2
ooolooooo ooolooooo o
4 g g 1i ti 3? K ft R ft K^^feK ft
I J
105.]
CONTRACT VERBS.
173
a
^
<fc <8
o o o o
to to to to to :|_
H 1 =1 =1 5. 2L
it
-l-f-S
.SL^S.
If Iff
to to to
~5L 5. 3.
to to to
5L =L 5.
-
*w"^ O j O
"O O~O"O O
, < 3? ^ <fc C>
| to to to to to
"111
I'll
.-5-I-5-
157
3
ll
S S
2-
I* I*
-3- 2- 3- 3-
3- 3- 3- 2-*
t* fc* t* t*
-111 I I5-S-3--S-
$ i
I I
I
6 3
H ft*
"
M-i^- I 1 1- 1- Ll
_fc> N _N _M ta fc> _h (s.
y
i~*
8
-c- a 8
Ill
-s *!
t! R
111 1
1
1 *
.M 2
^ Cf
^O^^ kCtOKtO
,"!"! I l"|
f^ f^ fl^y r*^ ^%^ *vy ft wy "wy
2k 5k
6 5?
*
o o
O O O
R R R R
g"* J
S* s o
174
CONTRACT VERBS.
[ 105.
158
p f oooop._opo
3.3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3.
|v**
** <} &> ^ O ^ **>
9 x *u d> db *^ 3$
* S. S. 3.5 to 3.to
5 ST. m O * m - O ^
-S"|
to to
.
a- s-'3 s- 3
3-0 o'o-o
5- c- 3J3- te ^
O KV ^ Q u H<
t* Si s> S> N *< S*
t
3 s-, sr"3 :cvx-~3 sr 3
-8-3'5i 3^8 8 3-B^S
^-2-3-^^2-s-i-^
* =. 9
g|2gg2g
""-"$- v X"5 'X'2
00000000
oooo'ooooo
' Q
* ft
105.]
CONTRACT VERBS.
175
o ft
<
OOOOoOOOO
Sso^c-i^c^ck^^
totetooototooo
3 JJb
^to to o is
o o o o o
to to to
5L 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5.5.5.5.
21 5.
opoppopop
totote'totototobto
I ft ft 8
ft ^ O S-Q^ K) o
-1-2 iJshlSJi-l 1
OSOOOOOOO
o-^p-o o-p o o-o-p
totoo^tobtotototo
5L5L3.5L5L5.55.a
ft- |
3,g 3 HT 3 J|
o -1 ? -1 1 -! J
p o-o p'o o to
to to to to to to 5 -
5L 5L 5. 5. 5. 5. O
o ^ ft 8
<35 S-5
o o n.-e> <, x ^-o ^ o
o-c-p p-o o o~o~o
2v2>^^2-2-4-^-*2 ;
o ft ft 8
3-2-3-3-5-2-S-3-2-
xSS'^SiKhiSiSi
ft ft
ooooocooo
8-8-3 8-8 S 8^1-8
=1.5.5.5.5.5.5.5.5.
S>J-HtM^^22
3|I^||
^^to^to^to^to^to-8
^l|| l ||f
_ ft |
3 o 3
ft 3
a o>
to &
3 ~*>
ft ft S
S-<fc
3->
&.
ft ft
^5 S-
to to to to -
*
g-g-3-2-5-S-S
"^-o *u o
8*8 8-8 8 8-8-1
o ft
^ O
2 2
o o
-3-S
o
O O O O O O O
0000000
O O O O O O t*
K ft ft R K R
ll
.toto5.toft ^^^^d^^S
-ilTI-S-2 ^*5^.5*S g
o
n,
^<
0000
176
CONTRACT VERBS.
105 -
All other tenses admit no contraction. But inasmuch as the
declension of the perfect and pluperfect passive of these verbs is
not sufficiently clear from the paradigms just given, they are here
inflected at length. The other tenses are inflected like TUHTM.
Perfect.
Indicative. S. nfnoir]fjiai
D.
mnofao&ov,
P. nenoirjfit&ot
Infinitive. nfnoi^G&ca
Participle. TifnoiTjpevOV
Subjunctive.
Optative. S.
D.
P.
, &c.
nfnoirjO
TifnohiTO
ntnoiya&t
Imperative. S. ncrtoiyGO
D. TifnoiyGftov
P.
lAplO&0)l*&OV
(AfftlG'&OlO&OV
[i(4iG&G)0&
&C. 0>, (IDICU, &C.
(AffAlG&WO
TfTtfirjVtO
TfTlflTjGO
oav
See
-Rem. JJ.
105.]
CONTRACT VERBS.
177
S. ' In fnoir t LU]V
eafnolijtfo
D. t
, Pluperfect.
P. tntnoit'j/ut&a
161
fTtTtfttJO&OV
1 Fut.
1 Aor. inoiri&riv
3 Fut.
1 Fut.
1 Aor.
MIDDLE VOICE.
Verbal Adjectives.
Tlf-lIJTO?
Remarks.
1. The uncontracted or original form of these verbs is, in res-
pect to verbs in 6w, peculiar to the Ionic dialect. In the other
verbs, it is wholly disused, with the exception of a few poetical
forms in acu.
2. In the Attic and common dialect, the foregoing contractions
are never omitted ; with the exception however, in general, of the
shorter words in fco (as r^f'w), from which, though we say rp*7,
5, 7ivt7v, &c. we use, on the other hand, the full forms rpi'cw,
pt'opfv, nviovGi, nviy, &LC-
3. A few contract verbs in oj, instead of the vowel of contrac-
tion a, have a Doric r t see Rem. 9 below. They are principally
the following, viz.
o&ui to make for one'j self, TijuctG&ctt to honor as in the active,
to cause to let to one's self, i. e. to hire,
23
178 CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105.
Ji> to live, %ofi<J'9(xt, to wse,
Ttttv^v to hunger uityijv to thirst^
from aw, #pw, (see both among the anomalous verbs below,)
nfivdw, distyaw. Accordingly we have Jff, >?, *'*?, %yn*<xi, &c.
Further remarks on the dialects.
1(52 4. As the Ionics form the 3d pers. of the common conjugation
in eon, and *o, the verbs in tot are subject to a multiplication of
vowels ; such as Ttoit'tat, inaivi'tai, &c. which, however, with res-
pect to M-J, is remedied bj' an elision of the , as Inoteo.
5. The Ionic dialect often converts a, in verbs in ao>, into ,
as oyt'ct) ootoftfv for opaco opao/t&f, %otfT(/.i for %toaT<xi>, &c.
6. In the 3d pers. plur. where the Ionics, according to 103.
III. 5, change the o into , and in particular use *azo for ovro,
they make use of the same termination, with the elision of one
also for t'ovto of the imperfect, as t[jr]%av-taTO,(for-aovTO,-60V
commonly ifM.i]%av(ovfO. In the perfect, they not only change
rai into yaTcU) but commonly shorten also the y into 6, as
tctTui for T^III-YIVIOLI.
7. The epic writers have the peculiar license, on account of
the metre, to protract again the vowel of contraction by inserting
before it the kindred long or short vowel, as (QQUIIV) oQCfv,OQcta.v'
(p^aw) D(M, DOOM. Particip. fern, (yftdovaa) ^o7(ia, ^J/^wwda, &,c.
8. The Doric dialect, instead of contracting *o into ou, com-
monly contracts it into f, and that this is also done by the Ionics
has already been remarked ; see 27 Rem. 5. These dialects
moreover not only say nonvntv, nouvufti, noievvif?, tnolivv, from
verbs in t'w, but also in the verbs in ow, e. g. Idixetitvv, rdyptw-
Ttg, from dix&iooi^ Tcfajooo).
9. The Dorics, who uniformly use elsewhere for 77, desert
in this case this analogy, and make use of ??, without^* ^subscript,
instead of all contractions of aft and fti, as o^fy* for
Tf for TQ\A.UT V.Qd.J]V for
List of contract verbs.
The same explanations apply to this, as to the preceding List
of baryton verbs.
love.
tt* am ignorant of, fut. mid.
wrong.
atytopcw depon. am ashamed of, fut. f'ffo/uat, perf. and aorist
have <y.
make bloody.
105.] LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. 179
algtw, see anomalous verbs.
a/Weo demand, MID.
Mid. criminate.
Mid. heal. fut. iaouui. perf. takes a.
axoAo ftft'a) follow.
mSQtffott know accurately, MID.
uxgoaouui Mid. Aear.
ctAtto/ua* depon. wander* 163
alyiu) suffer pain.
A*o> grind, retains in its inflection, Attic redup. PASS.
has <j.
aAoatw tftmft, fut. &c. 95. 5.
d t uuaj wow, MID.
aiufiofaTiaj contest, differ in opinion, augment at the begin-
ning.
civiuo) (not a compound) Pass, with fut. mid. am grieved.
aziooj estimate.
anuvTua) meet, fut. mid. Augment in the middle.
CHiardctj (not compounded) deceive.
ujitifa'o) (not compounded) threaten.
Mid. beg.
iw count, MID. x
apx^'w suffice, retains in its inflection. Pass, with the same
meaning has a.
aQvioput, Mid. deny.
apoco plough, retains o in the inflection, Attic redup. Pass.
without a.
apraoj hang, fasten, MID.
ceoxi'co exercise.
/5tdcu, see anomalous verbs.
pouot cry out, see 95 Rem. 5. Fut. mid.
povxoticjfeed, trans.
a) thunder.
i, fut. mid. Has in inflection. PASS, has o.
180 LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105.
ytvvaw beget, MID.
danavaw Act. and depon. expend,
df&ooftat Mid. salute with the right hand,
deco, see anomalous verbs.
injure, MID.
manifest.
(not a compound) am a judge, PASS, abide, live; for
augment see 86 Rem. 4.
dicwoviw (not a compound) minister to, for augment see 86
Rem. 4.^ MID. same signification.
164 dityaw thirst, see Rem. 3 above.
dovhow enslave, MID.
do, (different from &$pdx<w, see anomalous verbs.)
am unfortunate.
law permit, augm. ft.
(not compounded) pledge, MID. guarantee.
deliver over, augm. 86 Rem. 3.
cAf 0) pity.
Ipt'co spit, has f in the inflection, Att. redup. PASS, has o.
depon. am opposed to, augm. at the beginning,
depon. consider, augm. 86 Rem. 3.
tvo%fa'a) annoy, augm. 86 Rem. 4.
desire, augm. 86 Rem. 3.
undertake, augm. 86 Rem. 3.
love, 1 aor. Pass has a with active signification.
Act. and Mid. investigate,
make -waste.
blush.
tpwtaw ask.
entertain, treat, augm. f^.
benefit, augm. 86 Rem. 5.
am pious, augm. 86 Rem. 5.
tva)%i<o feast trans. PASS, feast intrans. augment 86 Rem. 5.
aw, see anomalous verbs.
ft'oi boil intrans. retains f in its inflection.
105.] LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. 181
r]h6w emulate, am zealous for.
tTt(o seek.
paint.
am young.
Mid. think, believe.
tame.
drive.
PASS, am inferior, am overcome:
echo, sound.
eu, &aQOtt, confide am bold.
Mid. behold, contemplate.
hunt. 165
crush, a in the inflection. PASS, has a.
ftvptcuu burn incense, perfume.
am wrathful.
Mid. heal.
idpoto staeat.
iftdo) draw up, MID.
w inquire,
injure, weaken.
Mid. boast.
t'a} prick, sting.
xAaa> break, a in the inflection. PASS, has or, (not to be con-
founded with xAaoj, xAcc/oi, see anomalous verbs.)
choose by lot, MID. cast lots.
scrape, contracts at into ?/. See above Rem. 3.
to sleep, tranquillize, PASS. (Epic mid.) sleep.
Act. and Mid. ma&e common, share.
partake.
xoAAaw glue.
KoKvupuw swim.
j>w sweep, (diflferent from xogtvvvftt, see anomalous verbs.)
adorn.
s'oj Act. and Mid. am angry, resent, retains t in its inflection
x()cm'cu have power, take hold of.
182 LIST OP CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105.
strike, clap.
Mid. acquire, Perf. possess.
f'tD sound, roar.
acD pilot, direct-
speak.
implore.
reproach, Act. Pass, and Mid.
Ivntw grieve.
Mid. abuse.
remit, rest.
testify.
smile.
166 ftfTQio) measure, MID.
Mid. contrive, devise.
Mid. imitate.
hate.
spin, (for vtw swim, see anomalous verbs.)
conquer.
votco think.
vov&iTtw exhort, warn.
&'a) abrade, smooth, polish, retains the f in the inflection, and in
PASS, has a.
o*Wo) dwell.
olwofafitfa build, MID.
oxvtco hesitate, am not willing.
Ofiolofttu agree with, confess.
onTaa) roast.
OQ$faa set upright, MID For augna. of compound uvog&o w
see 86 Rera. 4.
Act. and Pass, hasten, strive.
lie at anchor.
Mid. spring, dance.
vQtw, augm. 83 Rem. 6.
drive trans. PASS, drive intransit.
rage, augm, 86 Rem. 4,
tread.
105.] LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. 183
suffer hunger, see above Rem. 4.
ntipdw try, examine. neiQao^ai, with fut. mid. and aor. pass.
attempt, undertake.
Tifpda) pass over, fut. ntpdao) (long a) &c.
Tit oato 6rwg o-ucr, fut. ji*pa(j<w (short a), Att. fut. ntpw, a?, .
&c. PASS, has or.
mislead, PASS,
am covetous.
novtw Act. and Mid. Ja6or.
give -wings to.
sell.
cause to root, PASS, take root.
mark, MID.
keep silence, fut. mid.
Mid. eat, feast-
keep silence, fut. mid.
leap.
scour, contracts ae into 13. See above Rem. 3.
draw, a in the inflection. PASS, has a. MID.
crown, MID.
(71'Aacu plunder.
ayQiydw swell, am puffed up.
-if tiw finith, fulfil, retains t in the inflection, PASS, has d. MID.
tr t otw observe.
Ti(.iotoj honor, MID.
ia) help, revenge, MID.
dare.
t'w tremble, see above Rem. 2. retains t in the inflection.
bore, perforate.
am effeminate, debauch.
make proud, PASS, am prm.id.
<f:&ovt(n envy-
./ear
visit.
184 VERBS IN fit. [ 106,
blow*
yield, relax) a in its inflection, PASS, has a.
Act. but more commonly Mid. subject-
go, yiel^ fut. mid.
rub) contracts ae into 77, see above Rem. 3. MID.
Mid. 6wy, augm. 83 Rem. 6.
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION.
106. VERBS IN fit.
1. The first class of irregular verbs are those in ft*, a class
which contains but few verbs and parts of verbs, which differ also
still further from each other in several points.
168 REM. 1. The verbs, which are given in the grammar as exam-
ples of this formation, are almost the only ones in which it pre-
vails in all those parts, to which it can be applied. Whatever else
is governed by this analogy will be given in the list of anomalous
verbs. For the most part, it is only single tenses of certain verbs.
2. All verbs in pi have a root, which, according to the usual
formation, should terminate in w pure. It is therefore usual in
the grammar to deduce the more frequent from the obsolete form,
and to say that Tlfhjpi is derived from SEQ.
3. The conjugation in [ni> is peculiar only in the Present) Im-
perfect and Second Aorist ; and the essentials of it consist in the
terminations of inflection. Thus (lev, rf, */, |Wa, instead of being
attached to the root by a connective vowel (ofifV) 6rf, 0V) o/uca),
are joined immediately to the radical vowel of the verb, e. g.
ri&f-[4V) lOTCC-pai,) dido-re) tdtixvv-Tf) e&ij-v.
See Rem. 8.
4. In addition to this, there are some peculiar terminations, viz.
pi in the 1st pers. sing. pres. Indie.
GI or aw in the 3d pers. sing. pres. Indie.
&i in the 2d pers. sing. Imperat.
Besides, the infinitive of those tenses always ends in vui) and the
nom. masculine of the participle not in v, but in , with the omis-
sion of V) whereby the radical vowel is lengthened in the usual
106.] VERBS IN /UJ. 185
manner, as ?, **<?, ov, u, which ending has always the acute ac-
cent.
5. The subjunctive and the optative combine the radical vowel
of the verb with their termination into one long vowel, which
should regularly be always accented. In the subjunctive, when
the radical vowel is a or *, this contracted vowel is w and 17, as
But when the radical vowel is" o, the contracted vowel is uni-
formly w, as
w, w, w, o7|M/, euW, coff^f.
The optative has a diphthong with i , to which is subjoined the
termination in ijv t as Ti&-ir)v, ioT-air)v, did-olriv.
The verbs in tyu most commonly form these two modes ac-
cording to the analogy of verbs in i)w.
6. Several short radical forms connect with the abovenamed
ch'anges a reduplication, wherein they repeat the first consonant
with an ;, as
AO& didwui, 9E& rli^fii.
If the root begin with dr, TIT, or an aspirated vowel, i alone is
prefixed with the aspirate, as
2T.4SI iGTtjfAi, IITAQ 'tntaf-ia^ *EQ 'i^i.
And it is only in this way, that the second aorist can be formed in
verbs of this kind ; as it is only by the absence of this reduplica-
tion, that it is distinguished from the imperfect, and, in the other
modes, from the present (see 96 Rem. 3.) as
ridrjUt, Impf. hi&i]v, Aor. tfrqv.
7. The radical vowel, in its connexion with the terminations
of this conjugation, in the singular of the indicative always be-
comes long ; viz. a and f become n (1st pres. 77^), o becomes at
(1st pres. w^u), and v is lengthened, as v^i. In the other termi-
nations it almost always appears in its original shortness, as T/#IJ-
pt Ti&fpfv, l&tffatr, Ti&tvctt, Ti&fTt,, r'&/*a*,bat with some ex-
ceptions, which will be seen as they occur in the paradigms, and
in the fcst of anomalous verbs below.
8. All the other tenses are formed in the usual manner from
24
186 VERBS IN U. 10G.
the root and without reduplication, as Tt&ijfAt (0E&), fut. fttjao).
The verbs, however, of this class, have, as anomalous verbs, even
in these tenses, other peculiarities, which are not incident to their
character as verbs in /w*, and are therefore to be separately con-
sidered.
REM. 2. The two verbs 'iwrjfAi and didwpi shorten their vow-
el, even in those tenses of the passive voice, which are regular.
E. g. Act GT^OU perf. Tffz^xa, Pass. perf. toitt/uaf, aor.
00X700 tfc'doixa, dtdofACti,
The verbs xl^r^n and 'ir^m ( 108) do the same only in the 1
aor. e. g. titVrjv (for *W#^, from 0E&,)
i&tig part. 1 aor. pass, (from *E&.)
In the perfect active and passive, these two change the radical
vowel into , e. g.
T#6X, Tl&tllACtl' tTxK, fTflCtl-
REM. 3. The three verbs Ti&ijfu, fy^iu, dldwfjit, have a form
of the 1 aor. in xa wholly peculiar to themselves, as 6^xa, ^x,
70 Vxa, which must be carefully distinguished from the perfect.
REM. 4. In the imperative of the 2 aor. some verbs, instead
of &i, have simply , e. g.
fttg for #A<H, t'g for &h, dog for dV>#*.
REM. 5. As the termination of the 2 pers. pass, in the common
conjugation (?;, ov) had its origin in foai. foo (see 103 Rem. II. 1,
2.) and as the connective vowel is dropped in the verbs in ji/fc, the
termination of this person in these verbs is simply aai, 00, as in
the perfect and pluperfect of the common conjugation. Accord-
ingly we have rl&f-aa^ m'-te-oro, J'or-at, &c. But here also
a contraction with the radical vowel takes place, as zifty, irl&ov.
IOTK, t'ffTto, for 'iataaai, iavaoo, &c.
REM. 6. The form in VIAI belongs only to a few very anoma-
lous verbs, which derive their tenses, with the exception of the
perfect and imperfect, from a simpler form, as dflxvvfii from
AEIK&, <J/?fWi.yu from 2B.EQ &c- and are therefore introduc-
ed here as defectives (see 112.6.) In order to know with ease,
when v is long or short, it is necessary only to compare the verb
lawifAi. Thus deitovvft* has its v long, as <'<ir??/iu its ?/, and d'tix-
vvftfv has v short, as I'arufifv its a. Aor, 2 i6v(*tv has long v,
as eoryfifv has its penult long, &c. see 9vto in the anomalous verbs.
REM. 7. All verbs in fit increase their anomaly in this, that.
even in the present and imperfect, in various persons and modes,
they very often abandon the analogy of verbs in /tu, and are de-
clined regularly like verbs in <w, w, o'w, that is, as contract
verbs ; and those in v[.w like verbs in vo) ; retaining, however.
the reduplication, that is, following an imasrinarv root, as 77-
&c.
107.]
VERBS IN /*. PARADIGM.
187
107. 1. PARADIGM OF THE CONJUGATION IN [41.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Present.
I place I cause to stand I give 1 show
(from 9E&) (from 2TA&) (from AO&) (from
Indicative.
S.
D.
TlfttlOV
Tl&fTQV
P. Tt&tpev
Tl&tTf
")
(v)
or
'lGTrjfA.1,
IGTUTOV
iacccai
(v)
dido act, (*>)
or
fadovGi (i/)*
dfixvfif.it
dtlxvviov
or
(v)
f)*
| IGTU
Infinitive.
ll&lVKt,
Participle.
M. r*$/*(fWo) l iGTag (avrog] didovg(6vTog)
F. r^6?(J iGTUGi
N. r^V arf
IGTOJ
dtwvvv
Subjunctive.
S.
D. fjlQV, TjTOV
p.
O^farbe.
S.
]roi>, %TOv
wrov, WTOV
from
D.
TifieiriTOv
P.
Tl&fltjlf
diduiri
(didoi^Gav)
from
171
The third per?ou plural in U.GI is the Attic ; the cifcumflexed form
, didooGi., duxvuGi^ is rather Ionic.
Ib8
VERBS IN fU. PARADIGM.
107.
172
Of this optative there is in the dual and plural an abridged form,
which in the 3d pers. plur. is exclusively used, as follows, viz.
D. Ti&iiTOv IGTUITQV
P.
Tl&iltV
Imperative.
Tt&tTt,*
rw, &c.
3 PL Tl&tTWGCCV
or
IGTCUTI
iGiattv
com.
, ro> &c.
didolfv
dido&t,
orw
iGTttTCQGaV
or iGTavTwv I or
Imperfect.
dflvtwd"^ com.
or
D.
P.
araroi/
IGTO.T(
ididwg
ididoTOv
ididoGuv
ideixvvv]
IdflXVVTOV
Ifolttvvo&v
Perf.
Plup.
Fut.
1 Aor.
a
fc'dovxa
efodatxtw
fotffto
from
AE1K&
from
AE1K&
* With regard to Ti&fTi, see 18. 4. The second person in &t is lit-
tle used in prose. Instead thereof, in the abbreviated form, iGTy and
dfitiPV are used ; and in the verbs declined like contracts, Ti&fi and dldov.
t The sing-ular of this tense, with the exception of 'iGT^/a,^ is usually
declined like the contracts, and like the form in OO), as
iTiftow, 6ig, it,, ididovv, ovg, ov. t6tl*vvov, tg, t (v).
$ With respect to the perfect and pluperfect of iGTtjfM the following
things are to be remarked, viz.
1. The augment ; inasmuch as the , which stands instead of the re-
duplication, is aspirated, contrary to the analogy of other verbs (see 82.
5), and the pluperfect often increases this augment by the temporal aug-
ment (,.
2. The abbreviated forms in use, instead of those of the regular conju-
gation, which see below.
3. The change in signification, which will also be mentioned below.
From this irregular aorist in x (see $ 106 Rem. 3) no modes or par-
ticiples are formed.
107.]
VERBS IN |U. PARADIGM.
189
Indicative.
S. "
like the
Imperf.
P.
Infin.
Part.
Subj.\
Opt.%
Imperat.
Second Aorist.*
(GTrjTOV
&c.
or
like the
Imperf.
GTUIT]V
&c.
GTIJTOV, GT^TOJV
GTT]T, IWGCtV OF
GTCtVTWV
wanting
do u vat*
dovq
dOTOV,
do-it, TWGUV or
* The 2 aor. tGTrjv departs from the analogy of the imperfect and of
the verbs in fit, in general, by its long vowel in the dual and plural ($
106. 7.) The 3d pers. pi. tGTrjGav is the same with the 3d pi. 1st aor.
and must therefore, as their significations differ, be ascertained by the
connexion.
t The singular (indie, act.) oft'&t]v^ tdtav^ is very rarely used.
\ This tense, in these modes, is declined precisely like the present,
and the optative undergoes the same abbreviations in dual and plural.
$ The imperative (ttrfd'b is in composition sometimes abbreviated, as
190
VERBS IN
PARADIGM.
107.
Indicative.
S. TltfffAttt
il&fGui, or
Ti&ri
Tl&tTOil,
D. Tl&f'flf&OV
-lift ft 0V
P.
Inf.
Part.
Subjunctive.
S.
ti&taftt
D.
P.
Optative.
174
D. Tt&liflf&QV
P.
"tt&tfo&IJV
PASSIVE VOICE.
Present.
'iGtaftai,
iGraGui or
I GTUVTtXt
'iGTO.G'&a.b
lOTMfAf&OV
IGTOIO
IOTCUG-&QV
IGTOIVTO
dido Gut
dido Tat
dld6f4&OV
dldoG&ov
didoo&t
didofifvos
didw
didwoftov
didwG&ov
dufotut&u
didotfAyv
dtdo7o
tildoiTO
didolcftov
didolvTQ
dtlxvvaut
d'fiXVVG'&UV
dtixvvvTttt
from
dfixvvw
from
* The subjunctive and optative are hete formed according- to the strict
rules. In the common language and in single verbs, some irregularities,
especially in the accent, take place. These irregularities consist in plac-
ing the accent nearer the beginning of the verb, as
and in the termination OiAtfv for ii,t]v as Ti&oiTO for
107.]
VERBS IN (Al. PARADIGM.
191
Imperative.
ii&fGO or
Tl&OV
&c.
or
idrtu
6'id'oGO or
ditiov
&c.
Imperfect.
d fix woo
S. t
Tt&fOO OF
D. i
P.
hi&fO&i
tTtftfWO \ 'iGTUVTO
'iGTUOQ OF
lOTO)
IGTCCTO
iGTCtfAf&OV
lOTUO&OV
ididoGO or
itiidov
td'ldoTO
tdldovTO
tdtixvvoo
IdflXVVTO
idtMtvv n$&
iixvvo&ov
IdttKVVVTO
Perf. it ft filial
&C.
Plup. I
&c.
dt'tio fiat,
&C.
from
AEIKQ
From the other modes of the perfect it is easy ta form the Infini-
tive TtftflG&ui, dfdoG&at,, Participle l$&ftfiivo. Imperative i'n-
raao, &c. The Subjunctive and Optative are not in use.
I Fut
1 A or.
from
AEiKR
The 2d and 3d fut. and 2d aor. are wanting.
MIDDLE VOICE.
I Fut.
1 Aor.
from
AE1K&
175
* In T6x9-?j(TOjUat, (ftfrqV) the Tf is not to be mistaken for the redu-
plicative augment. It is the radical syllable #f, which however is chang-
ed to Tf, in consequence of <& in the termination ($ 18.) Otherwise it
would be t&t&rjv, &&r']GO[A(xi.
t The aorists l&rptdfftfV, Ifiatxapiiv belong exclusively to the dia-
lects. The common prose uses in the middle voice, only the 2d aorist of
these verb c -
192
VERBS IN fM. PARADIGM.
I07 -
Second Aorist.
Indicative.
Infin.
Part.
Subj.
Opt.
Imper. (x^'uo) &ov
t&ov &c. | (tdoao) edov &c.
decline according to the imperfect passive.
doG&ut,
wanting^
OTOUJO ara>
(dooo) dov
decline according to the present passive.
&
'0-evos
Verbal Adjectives.
GTCtTOG
from
II. Remarks on
I The verb tOTijfu is divided between the transitive significa-
tion to place and the neuter to stand ( 113. 5.) In the active voice
the following tenses have the transitive signification, viz. Present
i'ar^jUt, Imperf. toiyv, Fut. OTrjaa), Aor. 1st toitjGoi.
The following have the intransitive signification of stand, viz.
Perfect e'or^xa, Pluperfect nJx*, 2d Aor. tarrjv.
The passive has throughout the signification to be placed, and
the middle signifies variously to place one's self, to place, t,o erect.
2. In addition to this, the perfect active has the signification of
the present, and the pluperfect of the imperfect (see 1 13 Rem. 2.)
i'(JT?)Xcc I stand
tOTiixfiv I was standing
tGtijxwS standing &c.
3. In this case there commonly prevails, in the dual and plural
176 and in the other modes, an abbreviated form of the perfect and
pluperfect, resembling the formation of the present of verbs in ^
which is found also in other verbs and will be explained below
in 110.
* The 2d Aor. middle of I'OT^fit is not found in the Greek writers, and
is only inserted here as a guide in other verbs, e. g. for Imctfiqv from tTC*
(see among the anomalous verbs nfTOf4Cti).
107.]
VERBS IN fAt m
193
Perf.
Plur.
Du.
tGTCCUfV, tGTUTf, IGTUGl,
i'GTUTOV
Piuperf.
Plur.
Du.
tGTUJJlfV, tGIUTf, IGiaGdV
IGTUTOV, tGlUTfjV
Subjunc.
Imperat.
In/in.
Panic.
4(7rw, r^, t] &LC. Opt. tGTuh]i>
i'OT(X&t,, tGlttld) &C.
(Imawg) toiwg, tGTWGa, tGTwg. G. to
rojroi,-
(/on.
It is hence apparent, that this perfect and pluperfect, in the
greater part of their declension, have both the formation and the
signification of the present and imperfect.
4. In consequence of this present signification (and because the
future UtiJffOJ means Ishallplace, and GIT,G(J^UI I shall place myself 1)
there has been formed from i'ar^xa / stand, a separate anomalous
future Arz ijico or tarijiiopat / shall stand, with which may be com-
pared the similar future of #y?;(jxoj among the anomalous verbs.
III. Remarks on the dialects in the verbs in pi.
1. Several of the dialectical peculiarities of the regular conju-
gation of verbs are found also in the verbs in pi. Such are the
imperfects and second aorists in <rxo*>, which always before this
termination, have the short radical vowel, as imperfect rn^axot',
didoGxov, 2d aor. OTUGXOV, fioGxov. In like manner the infinitives
Ti&tfttv for u&tvai, dofttvai, for dovvat, &c.
2. The Dorics use ri for a*, in sing. Tt&riTi for TI&TJGI, &c. and
in the plural, replacing also the v which had dropped out according
to 103 Rem. IV. 1. as Ti&ivii, iGrdvu, didovxt,, for f7oi, UGI, OVGI.
3. The third pers. pi. in Gav of the imperfect and of the 2 aor.
act. is diminished a syllable by the Doric and epic writers, and
ends merely in v with a preceding short or shortened root, as ert-
<&fv for hi&fGav, I'GIUV for tGT^Guv, tdov, edvv, for idoGav, ed'vauv.
The subjunctive undergoes in the Ionic dialect a resolution or
lengthening, as
'o, &t'o), -trg -iy &c. for TI&W, &w, -y$, -/;, &c.
>, GTt 0} &C- for IGTW &C-
ye &c. for daj, dro$ &c.
To which may also be added the mode of lengthening used by
the epic poets, as &{m, GT^YI &c. (see KK5 Rem. III. 6.)
194 IRREGULAR VERBS. "llJfU. [ 108.
177 108. 'ESI, 'Eft, AND '
Among the other irregular verbs in pi are some small ones,
whose radical form is partly '/i'J2, and partly ' EQ and V.J2, and
which are therefore easily confounded, especially in composition,
where the breathing is partly lost. Thus ii<jO6u>(u may come
from flvai and from ffvut, and although in ctqcwai and dntlva^
the effect of the rough and smooth breathing respectively is visi-
ble, yet even this distinction disappears in the Ionic writers, who
do not aspirate the consonant.
The radical form ' '' KQ has three chief meanings, viz. 1. / send,
2. / p/ace, 3. / clothe ; * EQ has the signification / am ; and *1& is
I go.
I. *' ' fri[ki send, throw, from '.,
This verb may be compared with Tlftrjm, from the analogy of
which it departs but little. The i, according to 106 Rem. 6,
takes the place of a reduplication. When the short radical vowel
t begins the word, it is susceptible of the augment in passing into
ti. See 83. 2.
REMARK. The comparison of this verb with r*Vh?/w* is here
necessary. Every tense and mode, therefore, which any where
occurs, is given in the following paradigm.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Indicative.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
iaoiv or
Imperfect.
108.] IRREGULAR VERBS. - frjftt. 19$
First Aorist. Perfect. Pluperfect.
| fx. |
First Future.
-opev, -er
Second Aorist.
*'/ui/, i'rf, f'rrav, or with
augm. fTfAti/, flee, tlaav.
Subjunctive.
178
Present.
irjiov, \
Second Aorist.
Present.
, ieirjiTjV, \ iilrjfifv IflrjTf, i
Second Aorist.
Imperative.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur
(com. 'iti, h'roj \ lerov^ tircw, \ for*,
from V^'J2.
Second Aorist
tl<JV
Infinitive.
Present. Second Aorist.
Uvcu. fivui.
* Not used in the singular, the first aorist taking its place.
t For which common use employs tlf-itv. ffrf, (Tcv.
IRREGULAR VERBS. "/IflM*. [ 108.
Present. Second Aorist.
l$, Itlott) itv. *
PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES.
Indicative.
Present (Passive and Middle).
at, \ [Jie&ov, a&ov, a&ov,
Perfect (Passive and Middle).
\
179 First Aorist (Passive.)
, or with the augment fl'
First Aorist (Middle.)
Sing. Dual. Plur.
tw, aro, \ a
Second Aorist (Middle.)
or commonly with the augment
Subjunctive (Second Aorist) aj
Imperative ov
Infinitive
Participle tuevog
Verbal Adjectives.
REMARK. This verb occurs but rarely in its simple form. It is,
therefore, to be remarked chiefly for the use of the preceding
forms in compounded verbs, ^as 2d aor. agpe/fo*, 'qr, v&ftpfv for
avthjfifv. Mid. TTpOfWot^ dtytfi6vo<s,&LG. The compound tttpi
often takes the augment in the beginning, as Tftpl
108.] IRREGULAR VERBS. ' ' HlHU.1. 197
II. '& place,* Ifpat, sit.
1. From this "ER, in a transitive sense, the following forms
only are in use, viz.
First Aorist *faa, Middle flaafAfjv,
where the diphthong is properly an augment, but passes never-
theless into other portions of the verb, as
Participle fi'aa?,
Future Middle f'iaopai.
2. Another form of the perfect passive from this root has ac-
quired the force of an intransitive present, viz. rjftat I sit.
Indicative.
Present.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
rjftai,, IOQU, r\To.i or
riGTa.1.
Imperfect.
?;ro or ^aro, | rjpi&ov, ya&ov, rja&rjv, \ y
)
Imperative.
Present.
Infinitive. Participle.
Present. Present.
yo&ui. | yfitv-og, i], ov.
Of more common use i? the compound xcei^t^a/, &ct&ijfnjv, 3d
Sing, lita&qio or xa^>/(7ro, Inf. xa&rjo&ai, Subj. xa&wpcu, Opt.
xa&oiftiiv, xa&otro.
III. ' Evvv^Jit I clothe, I put on.
This verb is declined like dtixvvpi,, and forms the defective por-
tions from the theme 'ER^ see 112. 6.
Except in composition its use is confined to the poets. Hence
we find
198
IKREGULAR VERBS. jElfAl am.
[ 108.
Fut. tow, i(j(j(o. 1st Aor. tGGa,(Jnf. iWj,) Mid. l
Pert Pass. fTpcti, fTaui, that, &c. also ebftat.
Plup. 2d pers. &00, 3d pers. taro.
In prose, the compound afHfntvvvf.il is used, viz.
Fut. dftyitao), Att. w^gtcy. 1st Aor. tjftyieoa.
Perf. Pass. (a/u^fi/Eiae) com. ijpyitafAuii y(*q,iia<xi,y(A<f-itaTM, &c.
181
IV. Z'/ju/ / am, from jE*J2.
1.
Indicative.
Present.
S. /ji/,
% or *J, laitv or tar/,
D.
caroV, *orov,
P. tantv,
laTt flaw, ** ffl '*
Stthfunctive*
Present.
S. w,
D.
P. fay,
?7, ^?,
rfTOv, ^rov,
T "* / \
QjHatvtH.
Present.
S. V,
?, *!?
D.
fi-rjTOV) flr t Tijv^
P. >,
iirjTt; eiyoav or f/v.
/m/7cra^t3e.
S.
Present,
foi'h* Icrrco,
D,
P.
fOTOv, Jarwi/,
Jffrf, tGtcooav or eorwv.
* Not to be confounded with /fftf* Anow, see ol$, H 109.
108.] IRREGULAR VERBS. - Elpt go. 199
Imperfect.
S. fa ^com.^ox^(176. 6.) ?\v,
D. TJTOV,
P. 7j^i/, *jr
The Future is borrowed from the Middle.
S. i'ao/uca, toy or lff, tatTui com.
D. taof.if&ov 9 totoftov, tata&ov,
P. laoptda, toea&f, i'aoviat.
Infinitive present tivcti, fut. tata&ai. Participle present wv (Gen.
6Wo,) ot-aa, 6'*', fut. taopfvof.
Verbal Adjective tort'ov.
2. Besides the future tense there is also borrowed from the
middle voice the imperfect ???*> and the imperative *"ao, both
of the signification of the active voice, but rarely found in the old-
er writers. Of this imperfect the 1st pers. sing, is most in use,
and commonly with the particle V were/, should I be, see 140.8.
3. The present tense *//w/, with the exception of the second
person /, is enclitic. It is actually subject to inclination, where
it is the mere copula of a proposition ; but wherever it signifies
real existence, it retains the accent. The third person singular
in particular, has it in that case on the first syllable, as &eoz ta-
rt V *"<m pot oiUog. "Emt,v, moreover, is always accented on
the first syllable at the beginning of a sentence, after the unac-
cented particles o, oi'x, *i, and after TOVTO and ftiUcr, when these
words are subject to apostrophe, as ova *?*, TOVT' tGitv. When,
however, the inclination is only obstructed (see 14. 5), the ac-
cent is placed on the last syllable, as in the other parts of the
present tense, as Aoyo? ir/, xaxoV tf ioiiv, iopiv ya^, &c.
V. El[At,, /go, from V^2.
Ind. Pres. S. ftpi fig com. fl {7oi (v)
D. ITOV I'TOV
P. t'ptv iTt iaat (v)
Subjunc. 'ioj. Opt. toifji, or lolriv
Imperat. *#, hco &c. 3. pi. iTwaotv or IOVTMV
Infin. tivui
Part. imv (with the accent always on the last sylla-
ble, as other verbs in the Part. 2d Aor.)
200 IRREGULAR VERBS. -
Irnperf. S. yew com. -yi'a or >]
tig
D.
OF TjTOV
or
P. yftfAfv or r/j
ytattv
The middle, with the signification of to hurry, is also only us-
ed in the present and imperfect, viz. 'iffiut, itftrjv, and is declined
like it put,, from i'^tu.
Verbal Adjectives hov, htov, and /
REM. 1. In the common dialect no other parts of this verb
occur, and it is therefore a true defective, ft is to be noted, how-
ever, thnt according to usage, the preceding active forms belong
to the anomalous verb f'jyofAui, ^Atfoy, (see the list of anomalous
verbs,) of which Ihpy supply the place of several obsolete tenses.
REM. 2. With respect to the present indicative tiftt,, the fol-
lowing rule must be carefully noted, viz.
The Present fif.ii has the force of the Future I WILL GO.
It accordingly takes the place of the rarer form IhfVGOficu (see
the anomalous epftopcu).
The other modes oftipi may be used either as present or fu-
ture.
REM. 3. The epic language has also fut- tiao/uut, 1st aor.
the same as the corresponding tenses from fidw (see otda
109), with which, therefore, they must not be confounded.
109. OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS IN (41.
I. ,<Dijiii I say, from
Ind. Pres. S. <pqpi yyg
D. (f,aiov
P. qaftiv yaTt qaai(v)
Subj. yw Opt- yuiriv Imperat.
Infin. (pavctt, Part- q
109.] IRREGULAR VERBS. - KflflCtl. Oldtt. 201
Impf. S. tqnj* t<p*iG com. tq/qaftat i'q-tj
D. ttfaxov Iqidtijv
P. tqctptv I'qaTf t'qaaav
Fut. qpijaat. Aor. 1st tq you.
The middle qdo&ai, tqdprjv, is also used ; and, in a Passive ac-
ceptation, some perfect tenses, as nfqdo&o) beitsa{d,nfq>cca^t'vog.
Verbal adjectives q>aTO$, qciTt'os.
REM. 1. The present indicative, with the exception of q>fa, is
subject to inclination, see 14.3.
REM. 2. This verb, like the foregoing", is a defective, which in
use combines with the anomalous verb finely, and forms a whole
with the tenses of the latter.
REM. 3. The single tenses of this verb are arranged and nam-
ed above, according to their formation. In practice, however, it
is to be observed, that the imperfect fqi^v is usually a genuine
aorist, and synonymous with tlnov. To this i'q.ijv is conformed
the infinitive qui'ui, which is always a preterite.*
REM. 4. By aphaBresis the following forms occur in the_com- 184
mon language, viz. ripi I say, inquam^ and jn the imperfect r\v, tj.
for ((jpijv^ iifiji or gr*Jt/, qrj, in the phrases r\v tf fyoj said I. r\ o
0$ said he.
II. Kt^cu I lie, from KE&.
Pres. X6?|ua^, xftaai, nttTui, &c. 3. pi. xtlvTui
Inf. xf?dt^at. Part, xtiufvo?. Imperat. xf?ao &LC.
Subj. X*(D[icil, xt'y &c. Opt. xfoiprjv
Imperf. eKfi^v, ixftoo, ixtuo &c.
Fut. xtiaopui
Compound xarcexf^a^, xaraxfioo &c. Inf.
III. Oldu I know, from EIASl.
1. The ancient verb iidw properly signifies I see ; a few of its
tenses only signify / know. As these latter have several other
anomalies, they are here considered separately. The significa-
tion may be seen in the list of anomalous verbs below, under the
head
* That is to say, where a direct proposition, as tq/rj
Pericles said, is converted into an indirect, as q>dv(xi TOv HfQlxMa, then
(favat, corresponds with *'<?? Whenever a present infinitive is requisite,
resort is had to Itytiv or qxxaxfiv.
26
202 IRREGULAR VERBS. - Oldct. [110.
2. Strictly speaking, oldot is the second perfect from tidw (as
iWxa, Ion. olxa, from ttxca) ; but acquires with the signification
know, the force of the present tense, as the pluperfect does that of
the imperfect ( 113. 2.) In the regular declension of oidu the
second person oidag, and the whole plural otdafifv, o'ldctTf, o'iduai,
are but little used. In the place of oJdug is used oifft^a, abbrevi-
ated from the ancient form o'iduo&a (see 103 Rem. IV. 6); for
the other part see the Rem. below.
Perf. (Present) S. oida I know, ola&a oidt (v)
D. IOTOV IGTOV
P. i'apfv 'tore 'toucti (v)
Inf. fidtvai Part. ft&frS
Sub. fldw Opt. fidtlfjv
Imperat. i'ffi^^,* IGTM &c.
Pl^perf. (tmperf.) S. ydfiv I knew
P. yfetftfv or y
or t}6ctv
Future HOO^OU (more rarely tedriiHai) I shall know.
Verbal adjective IGTIOV.
The aorist and the real perfect are supplied from
REMARK. Instead ofioptv the Ionics say t<fy/f>, from which it is
apparent that all the forms idpfv or 'jopev ( 23. 2) tarf &c. are
formed by syncope from o?#ajue?, o'idart &c. (see 110 Rem. 3.)
In the Doric dialect there is a peculiar present UJ?](AI, (loafti) which
has the same origin, but is rare and very defective.!
110. OF ANOMALY. - SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS.
1. One species of anomaly in verbs arises from Syncope. In
some verbs this takes place in the radical portion, from which the
* Not to be confounded with iG&t from flf4i.
t It is to be observed that the lexicons commonly exhibit all these
tenses under the head of the present (Wo), ft&'co, and iai][M.
110.] V.ERBS. ANOMALY. 203
vowel Is dropped, as nsTaaw, perf. pass. nfmctfiut. See the anom-
alous verb ntTavvvfti.
Rem. 1. In some verbs the 2d Aorist is formed in this manner
alone, as ntfopai, (Imperf. intiOfAyv), Aor. tniOfHjv. See below
iytigu.
2. The most common syncope is that of the connective vowel.
To this class belong all the verbs in pi, as we have seen above.
Some particular cases require separate remark here.
REM. 2. A few verbs have such a syncope only in some parts
of the present and imperfect. Most complete is M^UI, (fo
Also the first person present and imperfect of
o'iofAui, (p6prp>. See also kovw below.
REM. 3. In the perfect and pluperfect, shorter forms are some-
times produced by syncope ; and when such perfects have the sig-
nification of the present (113. 2) they have also an impera-
tive in t*h, as from x^ao>
Perf. x^'xpa/a, 1st plur.
Pluperf. lxtx(j(iy6tfAv, sync.
Imperat. xtXQu%&i.
Here too may be mentioned the example already referred to,
of the shorter forms derived from oMa, which had their origin in
the abbreviation of the diphthong, as 'idpev, lOfufv, and their deri-
vatives for?, ia&i, vjaptv for fidtiftfv &c. The poetical dialect
furnishes also several examples. This sortof abbreviation is very
natural when the characteristic of the verb is a vowel, as fo'dict
(which is another form or a second perfect from dtddind*) makes
the following, viz.
Perf. Plur. ^tfttper, tit9tri (for titdlaptv, re)
Pluperf. ididifitV) IdtSizt (for idtditipfV) Tf)
Imperat' didifti.
REM. 4. Hence is to be explained the transition of some very 186
common perfects into the formation of those in /wt, as follows. In
some perfects in yxa of verbs in 'oj, there is assumed a simpler
form, or a second perfect, in , several examples of which are
actually preserved in the epic dialect,! and this is then in most ter-
minations syncopated in the manner shown above. Thus rAaco,
TErA^xa (r*VAaa,) Plur. rtrlactpfv, sync. Tftlaptv (with short a.)
Infin. TfT\utvui, sync, mlaviu (with short a). As this coincides
* See the anomalous, verb AE1Q.
t As @tp(xaai, pfpaw?, for 0eprjxa0i, fttflviKWG, from the anoma-
lous verb
204 VERBS. - ANOMALY. [ 110.
exactly with i'(?ra i af*>, iGravcu, the greater part of the other forms
of the verbs in pi are found, as well as these perfects, in the verbs
in question. E. g.
Perf. Plur. Tttl&ficv, rtrAart; rAa<7 (*>)
D. Tt'rActroi/
Pluperf. Plur. miAa/m', mVAaTf, ixixhuGav
D. iT&OnQV* tTfT%CtT1]V.
Infin. TirXuiai (short a)
. Imperat. TfrAaih, z^rAarw &c.
Opt' Texfatiijv.
The Sutj. of this verb in this form is wanting ; see instead of
it above (on eor^xa in Rem. II. under i'aTijpi) the subjunctive
M, jjff, J &C.
The participle alone is not formed upon the analogy of verbs
, but ends in cu, contracted from woji,*, so that the masculine
and neuter are the same, viz. awg and aoe, G. aorog, contr. w,
euros, and this contracted form has a feminine peculiar to itself in
OJG ...., as from /5t'/??;x (see anomalous verbs /?atVo>) Particip. pffi?]-
xws, via,
ptpus, fa
G.
Of the perfects governed by these laws, which are chiefly
these four, viz. r&Af?**, Tf'^t-^xa, /tfi'^xa, i'mrixu,* the.singular
alone in the perfect and pluperfect is used in the regular form
(rr/b;xa, <x^ , , /TT A^x; ^^ #*?, ^*), while all the other parts have
these abridged forms, which are more used than the regular forms.
REM. 5. Many verbs form by syncope an aorist in v, or a 2d
aorist, which distinguishes itself from the imperfect, principally
by the absence of the connective vowel, and in respect to the ra-
dical vowel and its quantity, follows exactly the first perfect or
perfect passive, as
co (perf. ntqvxw) Imperf. tqvov, 2d Aor. tq.-vv (long t ( ).
(l(3ioov) Ifiiovv, 2d Aor. tftltav.
The greater part, however, of the aorists of this class occur
only in very anomalous verbs, whose imperfects admit no compari-
son therewith. In the other modes and participles they coincide
with the formation in jtu, except that the vowel and its quantity
are quite variable, and in consequence every such aorist requires
to be learned separately, from the list of anomalous verbs. See
particularly the verbs /y/j/co, ftd^aaxco, dvo),
* See the anomalous TAAR, ftv^GM), (jaivw, and tOTijfti above 4 .
VERBS. - ANOMALY. 205
REM. 6. In the epic language there are also syncopated aorists 187
in the passive voice in ftrjv, ao, TO, as Auto, i'Auro (with short v),
even when the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, as dt%opai,
ldtyfjr]i>, tfoxro &c.
3. The metathesis of a vowel with a liquid ( 19. 2) alters the
root of a verb, in the midst of its inflection. This, however, rare-
ly occurs. See the anomalous verbs &'pxw, TU'^CO, and also
111. ANOMALIES FROM DOUBLE THEMES.
1 . By far the greater part of the anomaly in verbs, as in the
declension of nouns, consists in twofold for^u and variety of themes,
which has been already treated above in 92. Besides the cases
there quoted, and which may be reckoned among the most com-
mon changes of conjugation, there is a great number, where the
new form departs much farther from the regular form, commonly
without the slightest change of signification.
2. Often, moreover, the two forms are jointly in use, and many.
as kiinta and JUfinavw I leave, xrfiVcu and xnWiyu / slay, are
found both ways in the best prose writers. Often, however, the
one. form will belong rather than another to a certain dialect, (as
ct'/ivtoj for ayo.) / lead, qvyyuvoj for qfvyo) I fly are more in use
with the Ionics ;) or has remained in use solely with the poets,
among which are to be reckoned most of the epic forms.
3. Commonly the new form, created by lengthening the sim-
pler, does not extend beyond the present or imperfect, see 92. 8.
If the simple form in these tenses is driven wholly out of use by
the latter form, the verb is hereby constituted anomalous ; inas-
much as the other tenses are then derived from a verb not in use,
as /?/Voj, ipuivov, fut. j3i}GO[itti, perf. /?*'/?7;xa, &c. from BsJQ.
REM. 1. Often several such different forms are in use together,
so that a verb, in the course of its declension, will have a mixture
from three or even more sources. Thus from the root TIH(~J&
or IIA(-)Q exists only the aorist tTiafiov. Another form, strength-
ened by i/, viz. TIEXQQ, from which comes the perfect ntnovfta.
&c. expelled the simpler form from use, but has, in its turn, yield-
ed in the present and imperfect to rruo^a, which, in the lexicons,
206 VERBS. ANOMALY. [ 112.
is placed at the head of the whole verb. From HETAQ is form-
ed nfraoo) &c. but in the perfect pass, the syncopated form TJtma-
/u, and in the present and imperfect, nothing but the increased
form TittuvvvfAi is used, &c.
188 R EM - 2- Finally there are some verbs, which form single tenses
from roots wholly diverse, whose present is more or less obsolete,
as in Latin^m), tuli^ latum. Such, particularly, in Greek are awtw,
e/nfp, IjpjfO^uat, icvica, OQUW, r*/o>, ytgta, which are to be con-
sulted in the list of anomalous verbs.
OTHER ANOMALIES.
1. Many new forms of verbs are of such a kind, that few or no
examples precisely similar of such a change in the root are extant
in the language ; as the example given above of dyivta) from ciyw,
and 7i<xo%w from HEN&Q, and among those quoted below as
anomalous, la&io) from *(5co, Ihauva) from Adco, &c. Most, how-
ever, stand in some visible analogy with others, and must there-
fore be comprehended in one survey, to be more easily remem-
bered.
NOTE. When, in the following examples, two forms are con-
nected by and, this word shows that both are in use ; where, how-
ever, the word/rom stands, the latter form is either wholly obso-
lete, and only to be recognised in the tenses formed from it, or
belongs only to the ancient poets.
2. One of the easiest changes is w into w or KM (contr. to) ;
as QITITOJ and $mrt(i)' xrvniw from KTTIIQ (thence exTvnov),
dapdco from AEMQ (thence edupov)*
As often, therefore, as the regular inflection of a verb was attend-
ed with any difficulty, or even productive of indistinctness or want
of euphony, it was inflected as if the present ended in * lai, e. g.
'i/><y, fut. tipqoti' au$a> 4 av^rjow
TUTTTOJ, TVIJJW and Tvnrrjoto' jU/AA
3. The verbs in CD pure sometimes take the termination
as y^^aw and y^paoxw, ytyv(OGxa) from
and aTt
^ H2.J VERBS. - ANOMALY. 207
4. Before the termination, v is sometimes interposed, as daxvw
from AAKR, whence tdaxov. See also below Tf'fJivta and xdfiva).
By this process, from /co and i.'w, come ivw and vv w, as 7i/Vw
from IH&, TIM and r/i/w, fivco and #iW, and from aw come
aftw and aiVw, as q&avw from <&S^4&, fiaivw from BAQ.<
5. Trisyllables and polysyllables in j/w and aiVw have, for the 189
most part, as a radical form a theme in w, which at the same time
forms some tenses as from *w, viz.
tf/ladrai/w from BAA2T&, 2d Aor. tjttaOTOv, Fut. plaOTrjaw,
oliO'&uvw and ohotiaivco, 2d Aor. wliotiov, Fut. oho&ijat#.
Those in a*>a> are accustomed to insert a nasal in the radical syl-
lable of the word, but also to shorten the radical vowel, if it he
long, in the following manner, viz.
ta/7T(w and A^Tra^oj, cptvyw and gryyai/w, Aj#w and hav&avco.
See also below &iyydvco, Aa/u/?ay<w, Aa/^at/ ca, nuv&avw, nvv&avo-
REMARK on nos. 4 and 5. The termination avw has the penult
short ; hot and iVoi, on the other hand, have it long, both with very
few exceptions.
6. A very common change is also o> into vvpi* as
from AElKtt, whence df/^a), &c. See below
When a vowel precedes this termination, the v is usually
doubled, and o is changed into o>, e. g.
and x0/uawi;/uf, see below xfQdi>vv(.u,
and ^tvvvfit^ see below
and wvvvi see below
7. Several also, like the verbs in fu, have a reduplication in
the present, as yiyvwntca from 7TVOJ2, whence yvinaoftai. So also
HiftvrjGxa), 7T*TTC/<7xw, &c. In like manner ^cfVoi and /u/^j/w, TII'TT-
TO> from IIETSli ylyvofiai from FENR.
* See above 5 106 Rem. .
208 VERBS. - ANOMALY.
8. Sometimes from one of the tenses a new theme is formed,
and the derivations from this occur partly as anomalies in the com-
mon dialect, and partly, and this more commonly, are used as po-
etical peculiarities ; such as the Fut. idr^a;, (see above the 4th
remark to for^u,) and Tt&vri'Zw (see ftvyaxw,) from tor^^a and
ri'#j/?7xa, derived as from present tenses. Imperative Gioe as from
Fut. OIGCO (see gp*pw.)
190 Particularly does the 2d Aor. occasion in some verbs a new for-
mation as from iw, as well the 2d Aor. active on account of its in-
finitive in HV, as the 2d Aor. passive when it has an active signifi-
cation, by the ending ijv. Examples of the former are several
anomalous verbs belonging to no. 5 above, as
Of the latter i
113. ANOMALY IN SIGNIFICATION.
1. This whole subject belongs properly to the Syntax, where
we must treat of the signification of the several forms of the con-
jugations, which cannot be separated from the rules respecting the
connection of words. Those cases only can here be enumerat-
ed, in which the variation in signification is in certain verbs so
common, that this anomaly is to be observed as belonging to the
formation itself, as in Latin odi ; hortor ; audeo, ausus sum. Cases
of this kind are in Greek far more numerous and more various.
2. The perfect sometimes has the force of the present The
transition from the former tense to the latter, may be rendered
conceivable, by reflecting, that in the perfect tense the mind rests
often not so much on the past action, as on the present state or
condition that resulted from it. Thus Tt'&vyxa signifies properly
/ have died ; but regarding the consequent state as permanent, it
signifies / am dead, and is accordingly a present tense. In some
other verbs, the original perfect was still farther lost, as xrao^ucM
/ acquire, in the perfect xtxx^pat / have acquired. The conse-
quence of acquisition is possession, and thus X/XT^MCM came to sig-
nify simply I possess, without any thought of a past acquisition.
$113.] IRREGT7LAR CONJUGATION. 209
In every such case, it is to be understood that the pluperfect is an
imperfect.
REM. 1. Sometimes the perfect is to be understood, like the
middle voice, reflectively. In this case, it becomes a present intran-
sitive, as in the verb larr^i I place, taT^xa I have placed ; reflec-
tively / have placed myself, i. e. / stand.
REM. 2. It easily happens, moreover, where the ideas are riear
akin, that the present tense itself assumes the signi6cation of the
perfect made present in this manner, or the reverse ; whereby the
present and perfect often come to have the same meaning, es-
pecially in the poets, as [*t\?i it goes to the heart, t ut'injt.f it went to
the heart, that is, / take an interest ; hence both mean I feel interest-
ed, I care for. Aiyxfu I perceive, dtdo<jy,a I have perceived, that is,
I see. It is particularly common that the perfect becomes present
in verbs, which signify to sound, to call, as xtxyciyu I scream, r/fc)
and iiTtjlyu I hiss.
3. To the anomaly of signification belongs a departure from
the signification of the voice. The most prominent cuse of this is
that of the deponent verbs, or those which, with a passive or mid-
dle form, have an active signification. This irregularity is very
common in Greek, as is~ apparent from the lists of verbs already
given.
REM. 3. Several deponents of the middle voice are neverthe-
less used in the perfect passive in apassive sense, and form in ad-
dition to this tense only a 1st Aor. passive ; see above, in the list
of baryton verbs, {J
Future Middle.
4. Very common is the case of verbs in the active voice, which
make little or no use of the future active, and employ instead the
future middle, which then has the transitive or intransitive signi-
fication connected with the active voice ; and of such a verb the
remainder of the middle voice, with its appropriate signification, is
usually not employed. This occurs in several of the most familiar
verbs, as BKOI/OJ / hear, tixoyaoftat (never axou'doj) I shall hear.
Examples also of this are furnished above in the lists of baryton
and contract verbs. See also the 8th remark before the first of
these lists.
REM. 4. Very often the future middle is used for the ftiture
passive. 136. 3.
27
ANOMALOUS VERBS. 114.
5. Under the head of anomaly in signification, must also be reck-
oned the distinction of causative and immediate signification. This
is commonly expressed by different verbs, of which the one is de-
rived in part from the other. In all languages, however, and par-
ticularly in Greek, there are verbs, which express in one form an
action both directly and as occasioned or caused. Thus yaivfiv
signifies immediately to appear, and causatively to make appear,
that is, to show- Ka&tfav, in like manner, signifies to sit and to
set. In the older dialect this appears to have been very common,
and thence it may be accounted for, that several verbs have one.
of these significations in one part, and one in another, and are
hence accounted anomalous, as we have seen above in fimg/ut.
114. LIST OP ANOMALOUS VERBS.
NOTE 1. All wholly obsolete themes, which are assumed merely
for the explanation of those in actual use, are here, as throughout
this grammar, printed in capital letters- Every theme, on the oth-
er hand, in actual use, is given in the common character. It is to
be observed of those obsolete themes, moreover, which are not in
every instance set down, but are occasionally left to the attentive
student to supply, that they are merely formed by grammarians
192 from analogy, and are not regarded as having any existence his-
torically in the language.
2. To facilitate the use of the list, these obsolete themes,
where it is requisite, are inserted alphabetically in the table. Sup-
posing then, that the learner is able to discover the regular themt
of the verbs, which occur in reading, according to the general
rules, this theme is found in its alphabetical place, with reference
to the form in common use. Thus inQafh]* is derived from
JIPAQ, and this in the list refers to niTiQa(j'/.w.
Yet the merely apparent themes, which are formed by syncope
or metathesis, are given only by their first letters ; thus fttfttyxv.
by BA which refers to /?AAco.
3. Of every verb, not the anomalous forms only are given,
but all the forms in use, except such as are of themselves appar-
ent. Here the same remark is to be made, as on occasion of the
first catalogue of the regular verbs, note 2.
4. Whatever signification, active, passive, middle, or intransi-
tive, prevails in the present tense, the same extends also to every
other tense, where pass, or mid. or some other indication is not
specially given. Thus when in /?ot/Ao/ucrt the future fiovfa](joua(<
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS.
is borrowed from the middle, and the aor. ov-d-rjv from the pas-
sive, we are to understand, that only these two forms occur in the
signification which /W'AOjuat has in the present, and consequently
that no aorist r^ov)iT]odiir]v and no future /Soi/A^tbjdo/waMS in use.
Last of anomalous verbs.
A.
ayajnut admire, Pres. and Imperf. like i'oTaficu, fat. dydaopcu,
aor. liydo&qv.
ayvvpi break, forms from AT& f. w &c. (see 112. 6.) and
has commonly the syllabic augment, 83 Rem- 6. Aor. ta , aor.
pass, tdyyv (short a). The 2d perf. taya has the passive signifi-
cation, am broken.
ayoQtvo} see tinilv.
ayw lead, has a reduplication in the 2d aor. tfyayov, dyaye7v &c.
(see 84 Rem. 3.) Perf. rj^a and with an anomalous reduplication,
dyqoya. Perf. pass. >]/,*. MID.
alvtw praise, f. alvtaoj &c. Perf. pass. "jfptyMti, but 1st aor.
pass, yvt&rjv (see 95 Rem. 3.)
lake, alpaca) /Jpi'^^v (see 95 Rem. 3.) Aor. act.
7v &c. from 'EA&. MID. The Ionics have in the per-
fect a peculiar reduplication doaiorjxa, uQulgr^ai, with the smooth
breathing.
aia&uvO[4(xi perceive, f. a/<j#?j(70jMca &c. Aor. yo&oprjv (see 193
112. 5.)
afo'go) arerf, f. a'Afl^cu (see 112. 2.) Aor. Mid.
(from AAEK&.}
^-nnrf, f. a/t^'acu (Ao7) perf. pass. b}
am captured, forms its tenses from *AAOQ, as fol-
lows, fut. aAwffowat and (with active form but passive meaning)
syncop. Aor. ( 110 Rem. 5,) i'Awv, better dAwy (pi. It
&c.) Jn/". d\Mvai, Subj. AJ, co?, &c. O/?f. aA
Perf. (in like manner with passive meaning,)
see in its order.
* The active of this verb never occurs, but instead of it always ctiof
212 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114.
am frail, err, apa0ri?00pcfe. Perf. -??xa. Aor. ij-
(See 112. 5.)
miscarry, fut dpffhwaM &c. from ft^/JAow.
and (Xfj7Ti<j~/vovf.>(u, see below in /w.
vfMi AMi&IEQ, see above in tvvv^t, 108. JII.
see the list of regular verbs.
consume, expend, forms its tenses from apaApo). With
the Attics it has no augment, as uvuKwau. In other dialects it is
alternately awjjUotfa and ijvdhcoaa, and the same in the perfect.
or avotyvvfii^ see oiyw.
* please, Fut. dytaw &c. Perf. Pass. J'pf fT^at.-MID.
Fut. a'^ffo), 2d Aor. tfpagov. Perf. ayaya, with
present signification.
ai>'i"<w nd ai>Sfw increase, Fut. ai?$ifTo> (see 112.2.) PASS.
with Fut. Mid. means increase intransitively.
am indignant, d
B.
, Fut. prisoned, Perf. /?*/fyxa, 2d Aor. }?ijv like twerp,
accordingly also t^r^fv, pijvaf j^?Ji^* ^TW' fiairjv, ^cu. Some of
the compounds have also a passive, as nuQufialvw I transgress, Perf.
Pass. -naQu^^u^ai, Aor. Pass. TKx^f^dd^v. Verbal Adjective
(faros __ All these forms come from RAQ, and conform entirely
104 to i(7T^fAi } except in the Present The abbreviated forms of the
Perfect, as pfffaai, /?*/ffwff, (see 110 Rem. 4,) are in this verb
exclusively poetical.
This verb has with the Ionics also the causative signification t
bring.^ This signification is exclusive in the Fut Act. ft^aca and
the 1st Aor. 'i'pfjaa. See also 113. 5.
jtfaAAco throw, Fut /?Aw, sometimes also /SaAA?jffco ( 112. 2,)
Aor. tpcdov, Perf./^Aryica, 1st Aor. Pass, tp^&yv. See 110.
1 MID.
* Shortened in composition,
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERES. 213
BA&, see <W
pifiywaxo) eat, from BPOQ, Fut. /?pojaoo, (^ocooofiat,) fee- Aor.
. See 110 Rem. 5.
/?*oo> /ire, Fut. piwGQpui, 1st Aor. tfiiojua and 2d Aor. tptuv,
of which, for the most part, the other modes only are in use, a*
i, Part. piov?, Opt. /?wV- See 110 Rem. 5. MID.
sprout, plaOTyaw, ttttaGTOv. See 112 Rem. 5.
, Fut. tfoax^aw, &c. See 112. 2.
(iovkopai, will, ftovlijooftcu, Perf. ftf^ovlijfuu^ Aor. ii3ov\ri$r)v,
rjSovlii&rji'. With respect to the augment, see 82 Rem. 3.
#jP0 see
7.
marry, Fut. "/antao), Alt. '/apco. Aor. ty^cc, y/7/ua,
from rAMQ. Perf. yfy&w/.a, &c PASS, with Fut. Mid.
cw husband, marry.
PENR. To this root, which corresponds with the Latin g-igno
genui, belong two significations ; the causative fcegef, and the im-
mediate or intransitive am born, become. The voices are anoma-
lously mingled. Of the Active nothing but the Perfect yt'yova is
in use ; all the rest of either signification belongs to the medio-
passive voice. The whole, as found in actual use, may be reduc^
ed to a twofold present as follows, viz.
1) yelvopat has only the signification of birth, (poetically
in the present tense,) am born. The Aor. l*/{ivct[ir]v is used
transitively, beget, bear.
2) yi'yvoftai- (ancient and Attic; more recently ylvopui,) Fut.
ytvyfjoftai, Aor. tytvopiiv, Perf. yey&iifuu, or (in the active
voice) -/('-/ova. All these parts of the verb signify intransitively
bom, or simply become, fieri. To these unites itself the signifi-
cation of simply to be, since tycvofMt* and yi'yova are also used
as preterites to eivcu,
ytyvcoaxo) (ancient and Attic ; more recently ytvaoxw,) know.
from rNOQ, Fut. yvwaoftcu, Aor. tyvwv, Plur. eyvoapfv, &c. Inf.
214 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [114.
yvwvui. Imp. j/j/wt'h, yvajio), &c. Opt^yvoiyv. Part. yvovg. See
110 Rem. 5. Perf. tyvwxa, Pass. t
A.
ddxvco bite, from AMKQ, Fut. d^o/jo*, Perf. dtdrftu, &c. Aor.
i'duxov. See 1 1 2. 4.
, see tinder <fc]ua>.
sleep, Fut. dap&yoopat, Perf. dMp&yxct, Aor. *"&<0-
See 112. 5.
, see &w.
show, Fut. &<<, &c. See 107. 112. 6 MID.
AElQ Epic &'to. From this ancient present is derived the
1st Perf. dtdowa (see' 1st and 2d Perf. 97 Rem. 1.) and the 2d
Perf. dtdia (short i), both of which have the force of the Pres. /
/ear. From dtdia are derived the syncopated forms dtdiptv, didt,-
it, idtdiauV) and an Imper. didi&i. See 1 10 Rem. 3. Fut. dtiao-
IACCI, Aor. tfawct.
&/R9I build, Aor. efafta, Perf. ^'^^xa. Compafe 1 10. 1. and
112. 2. MID. The same theme furnishes tenses also to da-
paw tame, Aor. i'dafiov^ Perf. dttifujptt, Aor. Pass. Iddfirjv and
), commonly dtQ*Of*ctt or Stdopxa, see, regard, Aor. ^-
xov, see 96 Rem. 4, also tdydxyv and tdt?Q%&ijv, all active.
^i'co 6inc?, drjG(, idijaa dtdtxa, dt'dff.iai, idt&viv. See 95
Rem. 3. The 3d Fut. dtdriaopat (see 99 Rem. 1,) takes the
place of the 1st Fut df-frqaoftat which is not Attic. MID.
dewfail, want, Fut. dfrjaw, &c. is commonly impersonal, astfc?,
i^ere i Tajan^wg, ilfaut, Subj. Sty, Opt. dtot,, Inf. deHv, Part, dtov,
Fut. df^tt^ &LC. The Pass. diofjia.i I need, is never impersonal,
AHKQ, see ddxvw.
196 Maaxco ^eacA, loses a in its formation; <fc<?do>, dtdlda%(x, &c.
MID.
d*^ptix(o escape, run ats;ay, is found only in composition (ano-
didgdaxw diadtdQtxaxw) from APAQ, Fut. fyaaoficti,
xoe 2d Aor. J'^av, a? a auii; &c. 3d Plur.
114.J LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 215
Svby. $0co, #, &c. Opt. dQahjv. Imper. dgSi&i. Inf. dQctvat.
Part. dpdg. See 110 Rem. 5. This must not be confounded
with the regular
do, see above in the list of Contracts.
see 107. MID.
duxtca seem, think, from AOKQ, Fut. d6'w &c. The Perfect
is borrowed from the passive dtdoyftui have appeared. The regu-
lar formation doxy oo), &c. is less usual.
AOQ, see d
APAQ, see
can, Pres. and Imperfect like iGrocfiai, 2d. pers. Pres.
better than dvvy, which is only Subjunctive. With regard
to the Augment, see 82 Rem. 3. Fut. dvvr t (jo^ai, Aor. ridvvri-
'ftyv, (also Idvvaa&rjv), Perf. dtdvvrmui. Verbal Adjective dfivwoq.
6vo). This verb originally connects the immediate significa-
tion enter, with the causative inclose, see 113. 5. In the
common usage it has only the latter (to inclose, to sink, &c.) and
retains this meaning in Fut. and 1st Aor. 1/001, tdvau, Pass. Idv-
See 95 Rem. 3. The MID. dvouui, inclose myself, dvao-
ItfuGctfAfjv passes into the intransitive meaning enter, submerge.
&c. which, however, again reverts to a transitive meaning, as en-
ter a garment, that is, dress. These significations of the immediate
kind are retained in the active voice in the Perf. did'vxa, and the
2d Aor. i'd'vv, duvai, dvg, dv&i, durt. See 1 10 Rem. 5. To this
is to be added a new active form dvvw, which is almost equivalent
in signification with the middle
E.
awake transit, regular in the Act. Perf. tyrjyfpxa. The
MID. has the immediate or intransitive signification awake, and has
in the Aor. iiyQOfiijv, see 110 Rem. 1. The 2d Perfect with
an anomalous reduplication
fywyopu 197
belongs, like other 2d perfects, to the immediate signification, but
216 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114.
passes over into a new present signification, / have awaked, that is,
/ am awake, I -wake.* Pluperf. with force of Impf. lypyyoyfiv.
I'dw, see to&lco.
see t&ftai.
u&i&nui, sit. Fut. xuftfdoviiai. See 95 Rem. 8.
and #Aw will, Fut. i&tJiijaw, falyata, &c. See 112. 2.
am -wont ; instead of this present, use is made of the an-
omalous perfect fi'co&a.
tiffw see, an ancient verb, of which, in this acceptation, only
tidov, idelv, idt'a&cti, &c. are in use as the Aorist of the verb o'0ao>,
and are to be seen under that verb. In the Epic language, how-
ever, some other parts of 6idu are found as tenses of the same
verb. See on this subject and on the tenses which have the sig-
nification know ( oldtt, yfeiv, fiooptu,) above 109 and 113. 2.
6ixo). Of this verb there is used as a Present the Perf. f'oixa
am like, seem. Part, toixws, Ait. f/xoi?, Nmt. 61*65', (Ion. or/a,
otxwg, olxog,) Pluperf. twxttv. See 83 Rem. 7 and 9. The
verb 6ixw yield, see among the regular verbs.
t, see ME1POMAL
and fJpi, see 108.
soy, 2d Aor. Indie* finov, Imper. tint. This is more com-
mon than the 1st Aor. tina, see 96 Rem. 1. Imperat. tlnov with
anomalous accent, finara) &c. Inf. final.
With this Aorist, use has closely connected the Fut. IQW (Ion.
6QtQ)) from ti'yw and from PEQ the perfect 6iQij*a, see 82
Rem. 2. Perf. pass. cigr][MXt, Aor. pass. iQfqfrqv and iQQt&tjv
3d Fut. instead of the common Fut. pass. tipyoopKi.
For the present of this verb, tyrjpi is used, see 109, sometimes
. also ayopfvfiv (properly to speak in public), particularly in com-
position, as anayo()va) forbid, interdict, (tnftTiov forbade. In some
compounds Af/co furnishes the present, as tivti^tyta, avrelnov.
198 9 , . ,
, see finfiv and
see
* In most lexicons this perfect is found under /ygijyopio) or yQr)yOQt(a,
-vhir:h are forms of a degenerate period of the Greek language.
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 217
tlavvw drive, Fut. lActao) (short ) &c. Perf. A?/Ax Pass.
perf. e'AijAa/ucu, Aor. ijluftiiv, Verbal adj. Aaro? (less correct ijAee-
, Aaaro?.) The theme Aaw is rare in the present ; but Aw,
$$, A &c. ///. Ac7//, is the prosaic Attic future, 95 Rem. 6.
EAE'I&Q, EA9Q, see t^ofiui.
see ulgiw.
;.\ /:/A^ &c. see
see 108.
tnlmctfiai understand, laiperf. qmaTctpnv (thus far like i'
Fut. tTiiGir'ioopcd, Aor rpuazy&ip'
am employed, pursue. This ancient verb, of which for the
most part compounds only are in use, has the augment
and an Aorist iuio/-. T.t*r, ajroiv, (foarwOf, inivneiv,
which are rather poetical.) ,
tTiQft&foUoto, <in6u-,jt>, ttyonai. This very common middle
verb has an Aorisl w!:ich corresponds with that of the active Jio>,
except that in the indicative it is aspirated, tanOfiijv^ O7r*W*,
onov, which forms occur chiefly in composition.
EPTQ and t^&u, see ptfa.
itO) see ejpo/uca and compare tint7v.
ask, occurs in tlie common language only as an Aorist,
, >/p*ro, whence also the other modes are found. The in-
finitive nevertheless is written both ep*(f&9U and fpf'oftat,, Fut.
fp^ooftat. The detective parts are supplied from /ocurcfoi.
The lonians however make use of the present, but write it
ttQOfUUj 6/ooto/j/, iiQqoofiat. The Epic dialect has an active form
go ocway, Ipyrjooj, yofaact, see 112. 2.
, from EAJETG&, Fut. l^fvaoftai, Aor. rjlvQov com-
monly r]Ai^ot', ik&elv, Imperat. t/Mt, (see 103 Rem. I. 3.) &c.
Perf. iKri/.v&u. Besides this and especially in composition, sev-
eral tenses of6/tu are more in use than those which belong to this
root. See 108.
eat. from !#ai, Fut. &Opai, 95. Rem. 10. Perf. ldr t doxcf.
218 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114.
Perf. pass. Aftpfcoy**^ Aor. pass, ydta&yjv. Aor. act. fqccyov (from
) Verbal adj.
qV) see
, xaG&udt* sleep, f. fvdrjoo), HCt&tvdr}<w. Augmen
j and Ixa&tvdov.
tvpioxcajind, from JfTPQ, Aor. tvpov, Imper. fvyt, Fut.
&c. See 112. 2. Aor. pass, tvptfii}*, Verbal adj. fupfros. Aug-
ment 83 Rem. 2. MID.
i;fw foroc, f. *cu, with the aspir. (see 18 Rem. 3.) Aor. (as
if from ^XJ2) eo%0v, o%tw, Subj. ff#w, ff/>7? & c - (compound 7iaj)a-
ff^w, 7TpfT^j?). O/><. G%oiriv. Imperat. oytg. MID. to)(6/urjv, Im-
perat. 6%ov (nuQcto%ov). Hence a new future a/rjoco^ Perf. tayyxoi
&c. Aor. pass. io%&t}. Verbal adj. txTog and a%fiog.
From the aorist, o%tlv is derived a new form of the present,
i'fj/w, which in particular significations, such as hold, seize, &c. is
preferred, in which also the Fut. (jyqnw more properly belongs to
this present. From J'/co there are the following anomalous com-
pounds to be remarked, viz.
ctW^w which, only in the middle ayfjftffftat, with the signifi-
cation to bear, endure, has the double augment in the imperfect
and Aor. Tj^tt^Qfajv^ t]vta%6fiTjv, see 86 Rem. 4.
a[47tt'%a) enclose, Imperf. a(Antl%ov, Fut. afi<f>t$C9, Aor. ^fini-
(J%ov, a(.int,G%slv. MID. u.(Jin%Qpat, or a^nio^vov^at, wear,
ise, F. v
commonly from the passive, v7ioo%t&iiTi,. Perf. VTU
o) cook, f. tipr'jna) &c. Verbal adj. tcp&og or
and ^'^2, see 108.
Z.
/ire, has according to 105 Rern. 3. w, VJe, ^, &c. Imperf.
&c. Inf. yv. Jmperat. & and
* The TT stands here, on account of following 1 %, instead of cp : proper-
instead of api(pli0%OV, ccfifpiO %i:1v &:c.
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 219
oin, connect, f. tv(o &c. See 1 12. 6. 2d Aor. pass.
(ovvv[*t gird, f. woft> & c . p er f. p ass . tgwopai, see 112. 6.
-MID.
Wai, see 108. 200
?Jju/, }y, see above in (prjpi 109.
9.
, perfect as present rt&ijTia, I am astonished, where the
second aspirate is changed, while in the Aorist eicKfrov, the first
is changed ; see aspirates, 18. This verb is to be distinguished
from &(*7iTO}, ltdqi]v, in the list of baryton verbs.
see &fc'Aa).
tw run, f. -frfuaopcu or dtwovfitu, see 95 Rem. 5 and 9.
The other tenses are supplied as in rp^co.
ftiyyavo) touch, formed from &iy(a, Fut. ^i|o> and &iQpai, Aor.
t&iyov.
die, from 0slNQ, Aor. t&uvov, Fut. ftctvovnat,, Perf.
, as from SN-4Q, see 110. 3. Hence in common lan-
guage the following abbreviated forms, according to 110 Rem. 4.
tt&vapfv, ciTf, Tt&vaaw, txiftvuGuv, Tt&vdvai, Tf&vabjv, Tt&-
va&i. Part- if&vrjKwg, commonly masc. and neut. Tf&vto'js (de-
rived from Tt&vaojg, Tt&vaog,) G. f COTOG, fern. Tf&vfuaa. From
Tt&vyxcc, however, is derived an Attic form of the future
or
VU sacrifice, &voa) &c. 1st Aor. pass, trv&rjv (short i) see
18 Rem. 2. and 95 Rem. 3.
i'(o, y.a&lo) set, set myself; MID. set myself, sit, fut. l^ijcro),
, or xa^cui (for xu&iaa) according to 95 Rem. 7.) Aor.
txa&ioa &c.
un^Qfuu come, more commonly &f*xirit6fut*, f. 72-o^af, Aor. xo-
JM;V, Perf. f/juca (dg/^^ /# 9*j^*.) The radical form i'xw
is Epic.
220 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 1 14.
Mid. expiate, atone, propitiate, Fut. 'duGOfAai (short a).
i, see ntTOfuu.
see Ofoctj 109.
, see 107, with Rem. II. iniorafAott see in E.
i f a%(0, see i'^eo.
'til, see */>, 108.
201 JT.
, xa<07cu, see i'^o^ai,
burn transit. Alt xacc (with long and without contrac-
tion,) f. xavau &LC. (see 95 Rem. 5.) PASS. 1st Aor. txav&rjv,
and 2fl AQF war^ (short a), Verbal adj. xwiroV, xai'ffiH)?, xavartog.
The Epic poets have also a 1st Aor. without a,
ca//, f. xaAf'oeo, Att. xAt7 and xaAo<;jM
txltj&rj*, &c. Ferf. pass. XX^JM> m called, my name is.
Opt. vty.lritw* y.t>dt;o &c. ^5ee 98 Rem. 8. MID.
tire, from K^iM^l, see 1 12. 4. Aor. exa^ov, Fut. x-
perf. x^x^>yx, as from KMAQ, see 110. 3.
see 109.
mix, fromxfpfxw, see 112-6. f. xfpaow, Aor. -
(with short ). A syncope with 9 long a takes place in the
Aorist Mid. Ixcaaafiiiv, Perf. XJ'XJ/UXK, Paw. x. c 'x^a|M^, txQa&r]V.
We also find xext^crt^ttft*, lxf()(/.o{)qv. MID.
xi%pr)fti, see /^w.
xA/co 'e/), Att. xAco (with long a and without contraction), f.
'/Acrt;ao/uo!/ or ^avGovfucci, Aor. txAauffa, see 95 Rem. 5. The
Fut. xAf ^Jdco or xAajoco is rarer. Verbal adjec. xlavrog, xAauro?,
. MID. is .-rare.
satiate, f. xop^Vw &c. see 112. 6. Perf. pass. x*xo'-
(Ion. x6xo'p?7|Mca). This is not to be confounded with the
regular xopew, -/joco sweep.
MQUW commonly x/x^cf/cc cry, see 113 Rem. 2.
&c. see 110 Rem. 3. Fut.
KPA see xf(><xm//f{i.
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 221
xpffAarvvfi* hang, Pass. yiQf^uvvvfiKi am hung, and as MID. hang
myself ; xpt'fiafAtti, (like YoiafAai) hang intransit. to which belong
Subj. XQJfHOfiai, Opt. XQtftaifiTjv and xQifjiolfJii]v. Fut. Act.
0(D (short a), Att. xpt/iro, yg, , &c. The Aor. pass.
is common to the Mid. and intransit. signification ; but the Fut.
pass. y,of[jiaG&r i Goua.(, belongs solely to xptjunnrvptu. In conse-
quence of which the intransitive has a peculiar future, xQenrjaofictt
/ rcill hang.
xvvt'ca kiss, f. xiri/?J0o/ua*, or (from KTQ) xvaoi, tuvaa (short
w.) The compound *QOXwlta kneel, adore, is regular.
A. 202
).ay%dvo) obtain (by lot or fortune,) from AHXQ, f. Ifeofuu,
Aor. that'/ov, Perf. 6t).7j%a^ 82 Rem. 2, or A*Aoy/a (as if from
lapfiavtu take, from AHBQ, f. lijyofiat, Aor. &a/?ov, Perf.
see ^ 82 Rem. 2. MID. The Ionics form A Aa^/xa, see
1 12. 8. and (from AA'MBSS) ^d^ipofiat, t).dnq&r]v, Itfatfiftat*
lav&dvco, rarer A?;t?w, am Aic?, ATiaw, thuftov, K&n&ci. MID.
,, rarer lii&0[iat>, forget, IrjGOfiai, tKa&onrjv, ^tKrjGfjiai.
say, has in this simple form no perfect active whatever ;
in the pass, it has A&fcypa*, &t%&rjv. In its compounds, in the sig-
nification of gather, it has f/'Ao^a (<Jf w/Ao^a), fifaynat (see 82
Rem. 2,) Aor. pass, tke'yrjv, see 100 Rem. 4, and a MID. Also
&HgJityOfiai converse, has dulteffict^ but in the Aorist
AHBQ, see Aa/4/?ceyo.
ATJ^OJ, see
AHXQ, see
Aouw a'a*A. In this verb the Attic dialect almost without ex-
ception omits the connective vowel before the termination, as 3d
pers. Impf. *"Aoi., 1st pi. e'Aot/tfi', Pass. AojT/iat &,c. KOVG&OU, see ?
110 Rem. 2 MID.
Afoi ioo*e, Ai)ffo> &c. Perf. pass. A*'Au/ueu, 1st Aor. pass, t
95 Rem. 3. MID.
222 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114.
M.
ficcv&dva) /earn, from MHSQ, Aor. tfia&ov, f. pcrd-iyaofJiaiy
Perf. pfpadyxa, see 112. 5.
[td%0[4.ai> contend, fut. (*a%t(JO[tai, commonly fjLa^ovfjiai. See
95 Rem. 8. Aor. If4a^(od^v, Perf. /uffia^f 0/utu and fjufin^r^ui.
Verbal Adjectives /ua/freoj/ and [Aa%r}Ttov.
ftfiyopai obtain, Aor. I'^fAOQOv, Perf. t^^iOQa. From the cem-
sa/ive sense of ME1PQ, allot, (whence (itQOQ part,) comes the
Perfect Pass, ti'/uaprat it is fated, an impersonal form, where also
the ft is instead of the reduplication, see 82 Rem. 2.
203 |M*AAa> sfta//, am a&owf, intend, Fut. /u^AA^'aco &c. For the aug-
ment, see 82 Rem. 3.
/ut Aw concern, go to heart, is in the Active voice used princi-
pally in the 3d pers. pttei,, JJL&OVGI,, Fut. pthriaei,, &c. (Epic Perf.
/wf/M^Af, see 113 Rem. 2.) PASS. /u*Ao|Wa I take care of, more
commonly tiufi&opcu, [Khyaofiat,, tfKlyihjv.
[livco remain, has in the Perf. /wf/uV^xa, see 112.2. Verbal
Adjective [ttftttov.
and fi/fj/co, mingle. Fut. /u/w &c. See 112. 6.
remind, from MNAQ, Fut. fiv^aco &c. and Pass.
xofMJit, I recollect,! recall, I mention, l^vr]Q^r\v, [4vrjO&yao[iai.
The perfect hence formed, /M 4*1/77^ CM, has the signification of the
present, / remember, that is, / am siZ/ mindful of. To this perfect
belongs the 3d Fut. [ASfAvrjGOfiat, I shall continue to be mindful of.
The simple form (jMi/ao^at) jUi>W|Uca is in the foregoing signi-
fication in use only among the Ionics ; in the signification woo, it
is also in use in the common dialect.
divide, allot, Fut. vff40> and vtfirjoa), Aor. tvtifict, Perf.
t, &c. Aor. Pass, tvtuiri&riv and lt>[it&t]v. MID.
i/ao 5tB?im, fut. vfvoofiat and vfvaovpai ( 95 Rem. 5.)
&c (i/f o) spin, is regular.)
Wco wcuA, takes its tenses from vlma), viya &c. MID.
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 223
O.
oai smell, intrans. Fut. Q&OOJ, &c. Perf. o&odahasthe power
of the present.
oi'yoj or oiyvvfM, commonly dvo/yoj, dvo/yvvfii, open, has the
Augment in the anomalous manner mentioned 83 Rem. 8. Impf.
uirtqtyoV) Aor. aWoilia, Inf. d?o?, &c. and 1st Perf. avitpxct.
The 2d Perf. dvf'cpyct has a neutral signification, / am open.
o'tffa, see 109.
oi'ojwca think, Impf. (Jo/npr. 1st pers. pres. also oJfiai, Impf. wfirjv.
Fut. oitjGonat, Aor. wt}&r}v, olr^r t vai.
oiyofjiut, go, am gone, ol%yoo t uui, Perf. at^r^ut, or in the active
form (with oj) oi'/wxa.
O7/2, see oio^txt and ytgw.
okuj&avco or -uivo) glide, oha&rjoa), tofoo&oi'. See 112 ^
Rem. 5.
O//.IYU annihilate, from OAQ, Fut. oAoi, Aor. (ultaa, Perf. oAoi-
A*x. MID. oMvfuai pass away, Fut. oAoujua^, Aor. colofATjv, to
which belongs 2d Perf. oAwAa.
Sftvvfu swear, Fut. O<UOW/MCU, ;?, f?Ta^, &c. 0[iHa&at, (from
see 112. 6). Aor. w/woaa, Perf. optoftoxo, Perf. Pass.
t, but in the 3d pers. also optapOTai (as if from OMOQ.) MID.
to wipe off, Fut. o^opw, &c. See 112. 6. MID.
profit, radical form ONAR ; hence present and imper-
fect like 'fart] pi. Fut. oV/;'(7cu, Aor. w'f^aa, &c. MID. oy/
/>ro/Sf 6y, 2d Aor. fuvypifv (> t (jo, r t xo, &c.) or tovafiijV) Opt. o
Inf. ovao&cti,.
OUTQ, see opaw.
opaf *ee, Impf. Ionic a>pojj>, commonly ioJpwi/, see 83 Rem.
8. Perf. iojoaxtt Aor. ddov, idtiv,!dwv, /W, &c. MID. tidofjiriv,
uk'c&uii idov, (and as an interjection *#oi5 *ee /) See above ^ i'dw.
Fut. oi^ofjiut will see, from OTITQ. PASS. Perf. tojoapai or
(though less frequently) wnpai, oJi/', (onrui, &;c. fc^tfa*. Aor.
<<p(h}v, dty&yvai. Verbal Adjectives OQcuxog, OTIZO?.
* A particular reduplication instead of ovrjfu.
224 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114,
oQvi>(.tt excite, from 0PJ2, Fut. opffw, 1st Aor. (apace. See
101 Kern. 5. MID. OQvvfAat arise, Aor. ojQopqv, to which belongs
2d Perf. oywpa.
owpQUtvojuxt smell transit. Fut ooypyGOftcu, Aor. OJG^QO^V.
See 112. 5.
oyfiko) owe e. g. money, must, Fut. o'tpe tAijaa), &c. The 2d
Aor- fZtyfkov occurs only as the expression of a wish. See 151,
oq\M and (more common in the present) oyhaxdvo), am guilty,
condemned, Fut. oyhrjOM, &c.
n.
naiw beat, Fut. commonly nutyaw, but the other tenses are
, ntnciwa., Inaio^^v. MID. (Compare 7ra/co in the regu-
lar verbs.)
nuG%o} suffer, from 77/7^/2, Aor. v 7ia#oi/, from TIEN&Q,
Perf. ntnov&ix, Fut. ntlaofAai, according to the rule 25. 4.
Verbal Adjective ncc&yrog.
t) HEN&Q, see 7i<y/w.
see noytiv.
7167ITW, See TltGOtoJ.
Tity&G) destroy, Aor. tnQa&ov. See 96 Rem. 4.
TTWffCO, TTfWo), COO^ Fut. TTf^-'W, &C. from TT^TITfO.
, see TIITITO).
expend, Fut. TKTaaa), &c. See 112. 6. Perf. Pass.
(see 1 10. 1.) but Aor. Pass, is again tnfr<f^jv.
. From this root is formed by syncope an Aor. *V
, TTTfa&ui, &c. See 110 Rem. 1. Fut. nfTyaopat, common-
ly jTTr)<JOf.i<M, which may be derived from the lengthened form
ntTaoput. To this also belongs a formation in ^uf, partly in the
present Tifrotficu and 'inTUfAui, partly in a second form of the Aor.
inrctp.yv, mdoftat, &c. In addition to this there is a third Aor.
tnrrjv, nrrivat,, mag, &c. and a Perf. nlnT^a, formed from the
active, which is entirely obsolete in the present.
I1ET&, see TI/TTTW.
i, see nvv&dvo/ucti.
) 1 14.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 225
nyyvvp* make fast, f. 7njco, &c. See 1 12. 6. Aor. Pass, ina-
yt]v, 2d Perf. ntnrjyu intransit / standfast.
nlfudriiufill, nipTddvai,, follows 'iGTrj^t in present and imperf.
Fut. TrA^ffco, &c. Perf. Pass. TTfTTtyopou, Aor. Pass. tnhjoQrjv, from
HAAQ ornKri&w which last form, however, has in the present
tense only the intransitive meaning am full When, in composi-
tion, fi comes before the first n, the fi in the reduplication is
dropped, as f fining fit, but returns as soon as the augment is in-
terposed, as Ivtnlftntyv.
nlftn^rjfit, burn transit. niftnQccvai, follows um? ( in the Pres.
and Imperf. the rest from IIPAR oT7io^&o),asln^G^v The,
same holds of e/nTrln^^t,, lvmi[jiiiQj]v, as of n/innh^ii.
nlvm drink, from 777J2, Fut. niopai,, see 95 Rem. 10. Aor.
tntov, niflv &c. Imper. commonly n7&i. All the rest from HO&,
Perf. 7i^'n:(Mx, Perf. pass. nfnof4cxi, Aor. pass. tHo&ijv, Verbal adj^
TIOTOS, noTfov. The forms TT/OTW, {'maa, have the causative sense,
give to drink, 113. 5, and have as present Tiiniaxo).
ninydaxw sell, Fut. and Aor. wanting. The remainder from
TIPAR, TitnQcixa, tngdfhjv, &c.
ninia> fall, forms from TIET& (see 112. 7,) in the Dorian
manner, the fut. ntoovficu, Aor. I'ntaov. Perf. ntmcoxa.
TLAAQ, nKr&w, see jilfntbtfu.*
TiAftu sail, f. ntevoofiai, nfavaovftat inlfvo*, &c. eee 95.
Rem. 5. Pass, nenfavoftai, inteva&ijv.
nb'](JGu), n^rjTTO), strike 2d Perf. This verb retains the y in
the 2d Aor. pass, tnlriyijv, except the compounds which signify
affright, lxldyr}V, xctTcnkdyrjv.
nv(0) blow, f. nvfvaw or nvevaovpou &c. Aor. pass tnvfvo&yv.
desire, f. Tto&eato and no&yoa), Perf. nfno^tta, Perf.
, 1st Aor. pass, cno&fa&qv, see 95 Rem. 3.
, i'nopov.Igave, a defective poetical Aorist To the same
theme (with the idea assign) belongs, by means of a metathesis
( 110. 3.) the perfect pass. ntngwTou it is destined, Part.
29
J20 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [< 114.
iuG^KV buy. A defective verb, whose forms (InfJidftijV;, UQI-
&c.) are used as the Aorist of wvtia&at,.
HPO see noQtiv.
TITA TITO see nfTuvvv^i, ntrofiat, ninTW.
hear, from nev&oiACu (poet.) Fut. nevGopcti, Aor.
, Perf. nenvapai,, Verbal adj. nfvoiog,
P.
and tpda) do, Fut..0w or (from ^P/^) tQ%a> &c. Perf.
otso, f. QfVGO(.iai, Aor. fpfifvaa. More in use, however, in
the same active signification is the 2d Aor. Pass. Ippvyv, with the
Fut QvriGOnai', and a new perfect IQ^VIJKU^ formed from this Aorist.
112.8.
$rjywfH tear transit- f. (>?iw, 112. 6. Aor. pass. tp$<>tyij*
2d Perf. tQQwyu with the intransitive meaning, / am torn.
Qlmw and $inr4w throw ; both forms are used in the present
and imperfect ; the other parts are formed only from (HJITW, as
(Hi/xw &c. Aor. pass, fffiqnjv.
Qwvvvni strengthen, QWOW &c. 112. 6, Perf. pass. E
Imp. ZQQWGO farewdl, Aor. pass. ipfaH
extinguish, f. aptaa) &c. toptapca, iopiofhjv\ see
112. 6. The Perf. ca/ff^xa (with ?;) and the 2d Aorist lafiyv, plur.
i'apyptv. Inf. aprjvcci, (see 1 10 Rem. 5.) have the intransitive sig-
207 nification to go out, for which meaning however, the passive ofltv-
vvfiat is more usual.
(Midavwiit, scatter, f. axidaow &c. Perf. pass. fVx^attyia*, see
112. 6.
cca) wipe, Gftys &c. see 105 Rem. 3. Fut. G^OOJ &c. Aor.
(from Ofir/yo).)
ontlv, antG'0-cu,, see iw.
see IGT^^I.
fw deprive, declined regularly ; but in the passive much
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 227
use is made of the simpler form <mpo/Mca, Part. 2d Aor. GTtgtig,
Fut. OTfprjaofiai.
OTOQfvvviH, GTOQVVLII, and OTQuvvvpt,, spread, extend, form both
GTOQtaw, laroptaa, and (jTpwaco, larptuaa. Perf. pass. tOTQOjpai,
1st Aor. pass. fOTOQt'a&ijv Verbal adj. drpwro?.
o%{tv, ta%ov &LC. see J;fco.
oa)a) save, has in Aor. pass. iatoJhp without a, from the elder
form Gdoat laacifh)*. MID.
T.
and Tacfyvat, see &A3>Q, and damco 104.
,_ T.///2, the apparent root of rW, rcraxa &c. See 101. 8.
see T/xrw.
cw<, forms from TEMQ, see 112. 4, f. Tfjuw, Aor. r;-
. Perf. zttfiiflta, Aor. pass. tTfiij&ijv. Less used is Aor. *Va-
. The lonians have also in the present sfefc***
^w. Two kindred verbs must be carefully distinguished, viz.
1) Tfv%w prepare, regular, as xfv'^o}, ixtv^a, TtT{v%a, it-
2) Tvy%dva) happen, f. u|ofiea, Aor. I'TV%OV, Perf. Tf-
%r)xa.
The idea of rvy^dva) has its origin in the passive of Ttv%<a.
bear, from TEKQ, f. rt^co commonly Ttopai, Aor. i'if-
xov, Perf. raVoxa. MID. poetical.
see T/W.
uw bore, from TP4&, tQr t G(o &c. Another form, more
used by the Attics, is ttTQaivw, *Vrp?i>a. The perfect is always
from the radical TPAQ, Tf'rp^xa, TiTQrmai-
TITQWGXW (epic TQtooj) twounc?, Fut. rpwaw &c. 208
T/CO honour, is used only by the poets, and is regularly declin-
ed. Perf. pass. TtTiftai. In the signification of expiate, it derives
its tenses from r/ixw expiate, f. Tiaco, perf. pass. TtTtaftat, 1st Aor.
pass. tTiad-^v. The MID. Tivopcu (tiaofJiai,, faoaprp} has the
sismification of avenge, punish.
228 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. (j> 114.
TAAQ suffer, a verb not used in the present, but from which
the following tenses are derived, Fut. T^GOfiui, Aor. tTh]v,T^i>at,
T\ah]v, rA/Jih see llORem. 5, Perf. iVrA^jca, whence the synco-
pated forms Tfr^a^v &c. see 110 Rem. 4.
TM see T^IVOD.
TQtqja) nourish, f. &$t\}tt 18. Perf. xtTQQCpa, see 97 Rem. 1.
Perf. pass. Tt&Qannai,Tf&()a(p&cti,, Aor. pass. irgayriv, more rare-
ly Idpiqi&yv, Verbal adj. ftptmo?.
run, forms its tenses rarely from itself, as ^Qt^o^ut,
( 18) ; but commonly from APEMQ, Aor. tdQapov, Fut.
Perf. dedQupyxu, see 112. 8.
- TP T4>&, see ^VHTOD.
eat, f. rpwo|wca, Aor. tTpayov (from TPATQ1]
see Tfv%w.
TV-five*) strike, basin the Attic dialect commonly fut.
Verb. adj. rvm^itog. Aor. pass. eTvnrjv.* MID.
tv<pw incense, smoke, burn, f. &viljw &c. 18. Aor. pass.
, see
see qr^jM/ 109. and gpafVco 101 Rem. 4.
bear, has (from OJ&) f. oi'fftw and a particular Imperat,
oiae, for which see 112. 8. Besides this it has (from EFK& or
ENEKQ) 1st Aor. r t vfy^a, 2d Aor. jjvtyno*, Perf. tnfao%a, (com
pare 97 Rem. 1.) Perf. pass. irqv*fftu*i Aor - P ass - Ypilftn* Fut.
pass. tvX&uaopcu, or oia&yooitat. Verbal adj. olorog, OIOTZOG.
MID. The Ionics have Aor. tfvfwa, Ivtwat, Pass. yvtiy&r}v.
come before, anticipate, forms from 0(9^^2 either y&uaw.
or y&rjGOnai, ty&iiv, ((pflw, (f&rjvai, cpftas, see 110
Rem. 5.) Perf. ty&axcc.
qjvw beget, qivaw, tcpvGa. But the Perf. ntcpvxa, and the 2d
209 Aor. f'qivv, yvvat, Part, yvz, see 110 Rem. 5, have a passive or
intransitive signification, to be begotten, to become, to be, of which
meaning are the present and future (jpvoftat, yvao/ncu.
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 229
X.
%utQO) rejoice, f. /cupijffto. Aor. (from the passive) i%ctQr t r,
whence again a perfect with the signification of the present, x^ap?;-
xa, commonly xeyayij/nai, see 112. 8.
*eo pour out, f. /fi/ao),- 1st Aor. ^a, see 91 Rem. 1. /n/.
#*, //n/7. ^W, xtdiw &c. Perf. x*/uxa, Perf: pass. v.iyy\.a.i, Aor.
pass. l%v&r]v, 98 Rem. 4. MID.
2Po>. Of this verb there are five different forms, with as
many distinct meanings.
1) %yd(o I give an oracular response, declined regularly ; #po>,
#(>ftV, xgrjoo) &c. Aor. pass. i%Qr t <5&r}v.
2) x//(j?;7U lend, like for^/u*, (but without 2d Aor.) Zi?ffa>,
tyatioa, &c. Mid. xl%Qupw, borrow, xprjaopai, lfgvpnp.ip*
3) g(xro/*' use, takes in its contraction (according to 105
Rem- 3) ? instead of a, as /^, 2d sing, ^pijrea, %pTja&at, &c.
The rest is regular, Aor. i%Qr t aaiA.r t v, Perf. *fyQr t pm.* Verbal
adj. xgrjaios.
4) ^?i oportet, it is necessary, impersonal, is inflected partly
like verbs in /iu, as Inf. XQyvcti, Opt. XQti'n, Subj. %@jj, Part, (ro)
t'ovv}, Imperf. tygriv (irregular accent,) or iQr\i> (never
5) dndxpr] it suffices, pi. ertOJpwdw, 7n/! (rr
. Impf. &n*ZQr) Fut. ftTio^^aft &c.
r, f. /oojaw &c. see 1 12. 6, Perf. pass. xt
%tvvvpi heap, dam ; also the regular form /o'w. /rj/".
/aiaoj. &c. Perf. pass. xtY
t&i<* push, has the syllabic augment (o>'#ot;i') according to
83 Rem. 6, and forms Fut. w^ao), and (from /2^J2) ojoey,
J'cuxa t&atat &c.
* This perfect is chiefly used in the sense of I need.
~ Has its origin in /paov. according to f 26 Rem. 7.
230 PARTICLES. [ 115,
210 11. PARTICLES.
1. The particles are called by the ancient grammarians In-
Jlexibles, because they admit of no declension, nor conjugation. Ev-
ery thing, therefore, which regards their formation or derivation,
belongs properly to the subject of the formation of words. Some
points, however, which are closely connected with the other parts
of speech, or by which several particles are placed in a certain
relation to each other, and some small changes effected by posi-
tion or euphony, shall here be detailed.
2. The most common adverbial form is the termination co,
which may be regarded altogether as a part of the adjective, since
it is necessary only to change the termination og, nominative or
genitive, into ojg as follows, viz.
G0(f)0)$.
UQlSig, fVTOg, %<XQI,tVT(it)?.
tog, fv&t'wg.
-rig, tog, contr. ovg, ahrj&tcog contr. ubi&ajg.
3. Certain cases and forms of nouns often supply the place of
particles, either by virtue of their signification, as will appear in
the syntax, or by ellipsis. When such a form occurs very fre-
quently, it is regarded quite as an adverb. So with the dative, viz.
properly with care, hence very much.
with diligence, labour, hence hardly, scarcely.
Also a number of feminine adjectives (originally agreeing with
odai from y odog way, mode, method,) e. g.
nf^Tj on foot, xoivy commonly, Idia privately, dr^oGio:
publicly &c.
So also in the accusative, viz.
properly in the beginning, in the foundation, hence
totally.
gratis, for nothing, (from nQol' gift.)
(sc. odov) far.
115.] PARTICLES. 231
REM. 1. Some also are cases with preceding prepositions, e. g.
7iapa%()ritua immediately (properly during the thing.)
xa&a and ycaitunfo (for x#' a, x#' 7if p,) cw, as rf, /i&e.
TlpOVOyOl' (for 7TOO 6pyOt',) fo ^6 enrf.
Some such compound words have small peculiarities of orthogra-
phy and accentuation, as
ixnodow out of the way, aside, (for *x TTO^W*'.)
ifi-noStov in the way, inconvenient, (grammatically irregular
for tv noo iv.)
4. The neuter of the adjective is also an adverbial accusative,
when it stands instead of the adverb, as well in the singular as the
plural. This use, as far as the positive is concerned, is for the
most part peculiar to the poets; and is used in prose, in only a
few instances, as Tayv swiftly, fiixpov or /tuxpa a little.
5. In the comparative degree, it is very much the usage, that
the neuter singular of the comparative and the neuter plural of tht
superlative serve also as degrees of comparison for the adverb, as
GoqwxfQOv Tioitlz thou actest more wisely, a'iff%iOTa difTthtGfv he
lived most shamefully. The appending of w? to the form of com-
parison of the adjective, as xaAA^o'rw^, is far less common.
6. Instead of w, the more ancient dialect formed the adverb
in ca, hence oi>roj and OVTW, 30. 4. Here are to be reckoned
ttCfvo) suddenly, onion behind, and several formed from prepositions,
as icu without, tow and fi'oca within, uvoy above, xarco below, TTOO'-
GOJ forwards, no'opw far. These form their degrees of compari-
son in the same manner, as avowtQta, avtoraTW, and in like man-
ner degrees are formed of some other particles, as dno from, a-
very far from; tvdov within, IvdoraTO) inmost; txctg far,
r uy/ov near, ay/orarW paxQcxv far, ,axporf(jco.
7. In all the particles, which take the degrees of comparison
without being derived from adjectives in use, the analogy of the
adjectives is observed in forming the degrees of comparison, as
tyyvz near, iyyuxigw or tyyvTegov &c. or tyylov, tyyi<na, where-
in just the same peculiarities and irregularities are observed as
there prevail, see Rem. 2 below. Particularly compare with
" /on/, *(jro?," ( 67. 3) and ' irregular comparison' 68, the fol-
lowing, viz
CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. [116.
cty%t, near, UGGOV,
cn very, / uaUo*',
And the adverbial neuter corresponding to tjGacw, ( 68. 2.)
rjGGOv, TJTTOV, less, yxiGTa least.
REM. 2. The following deserve notice, viz.
on the other side, over, ntpaiTtiiw or nf^aiTKrcc.,
near, TihyGiaiztpov and -tOTtpov,
v (Rem. 1) npovpyiairfpov.
3. A few forms of verbs become particles, by common
use, particularly interjections. Thus wqilov, see the anomalous
oqitikco and 151- idov see, (see the anomalous opw'w.)
So too tlev (from eiy) be it so ! well !
aye, cpiyt, come on, which is used without alteration as
an address to several.
i&t, (to one), ITS (to more), come on.
REM. 4. The adverb devpo hither is also used as an impera-
tive, come hither, and in this acceptation it has a plural, when ad-
dressed to several, dtvte ! which is explained as a contraction of
dfvp 'tit.
116. CORRELATIVE PARTICLES.
(Compare 79.)
1. Some relations of place are indicated by particles append-
ed to words, and that as follows ; when the question is
whence ? by &fv, as a'AAo#i> from some other place,
whither ? " G6, " AAoff to some other place,
where ? " -0-*, " aAAo^ somewhere else.
The vowel before these terminations is a matter of some vari-
ety, which, however, is best learned by observation, e. g. '-//#??-
vfj&tv, OVQ&vo&ev, ayQO&t in the country, nQTiQw&t on which of
the two sides, tWpo>#* on the other side.
2. When the question is whither, the enclitic dt is also appen-
ded, and that to the accusative without any change, as ovptxvovfa
to the heavens, Aa& (from a'Ae) into the sea, tQtftfafo (from TO
to Erebus.
REM. 1. O'txadf home, from olxog, and (pv^adf to flight^ from
rj, are departures from the analogy ; but in *J#h}*a&', 0iJ/?^,
the d of the particle <fc together with the G of the accusative plur.
CORRELATIVE PARTICLES.
233
have passed over into ( 3. 2.) Several words, however, as-
sume the , although not in the plural, as &VQCC& without, from
&VQCI door ; 'Okv[.i7iiaf from 'Olvpula.
REM. 2. When the question is where, the termination oiv or
at, is attached to the names of several cities ; r]at> when a conso-
nant, and aat when a vowel precedes, as
s4&nvqG^ nhctTataotv
from '^tfhjvcu, TTAarcaa/,
Some other words take the termination o*, as
213
from Vax^/uo?, Ilv&a), ra J
which termination has always the circumflex, except in oi'xo*
home.
3. To the three relations of the place quoted, refer the three
following interrogations, viz.
uoftev ; whence ?
not ; whither ?
TIOV ; where ?
of which the first only coincides with the terminations quoted
above under no. 1 .f On the other hand, these and some other
interrogations, of which the most common are norf and nrjvlxct
when ? Ticos how ? nr\ in what direction ? in what way ? stand with
their immediate correlatives (indefinite, demonstrative, relative)
in the same analogy, which we saw above ( 79) in the case of the
correlative adjectives.
Interrogative. Indefinite. Demonstrative.
all enclitic.
TOTf
nov
not-,
nov
not
no&tv
TQ&fV
Relative.
simple, compound.
OTl OHOTf
OV OjlOV
of 6not>
o&fv dno&fv
nrjvixct ; ... Tf^ixa j rjvixa onrjvixa
The signification of the foregoing correlative adverbs is obvious
from that of the corresponding adjectives in 79.
* Olvuniuai, with short a, is the dative plural from if 'Olvpnidg.
t The poets, however, have also nOOf and uofti.
The Iota subscript in this series is omitted in those forms where no
real nominative exists as a root.
30
See Rem. 4 and 5.
234 CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. [ 116-
REM. 3. As the relative pronoun 6's, besides the compound
QSriS, is also strengthened by nep QofifCJL &c.) the same is_also
found in several of the foregoing relative adverbs, as wgntQ, yntQ,
For the Ionic forms xou, 6xco, &c. see 16 Rem. 1. c.
4. The demonstratives in this table are the original simple
demonstratives, like o, ij, TO among the demonstrative adjectives.
None of them but TOTS then, is in common use ; the others only
in certain phrases or in the poets. It is also to be remarked that,
instead of TW?, we sometimes find co used as a less common de-
monstrative, and that with the acute accent, to distinguish it from
the relative particle tog.
5. With the foregoing must be reckoned two other demonstra-
tives, which in signification belong to the questions nov ; no&tv ;
but in form depart entirely from the preceding analogy ; viz.
i'v&a. here, there ; i'v&tv thence.
They are both, at the same time, relatives (like ov and o&fv) 9
and common in prose.
6. The demonstratives T?Wxa, tv&a, tv&tv, Ty, and to, are
capable of the twofold strengthening, mentioned above, 79. 4.
from which the demonstrative particles, most used in prose, have
their origin, e. g.
iv&a iv&udt IvdavTa Ion. IvTctv&a Att
iv&tv ev&tvdf, iv&evTtv Ion. Ivzev&tv Att
or oi>Tco.*
2. The most of these demonstratives with others, not included
in these analogies, take, besides this, a demonstrative t,, see 80.
2. E. g.
ovrattf, ivrtv&ivi, tv&adl, wdi
vvvl from vvv now, devpl from devpo hither.
And the relatives, (like the adjectives above 80.) for the sake of
strengthening the idea of universality, assume
ovv and
* It is very obvious, that, as ry and w? are derived from the proper
demonstrative o\ ij, TO, the strengthened form is derived from the
strengthened demonstrative 6'tJf, OVTO?.
117.] MUTATION OP PARTICLES. 235
as onovovv wheresoever, onwgovv (and with the interposed TI, on-
cogTiovv), onovdrinoTf: &c.
REM. 4. As the corresponding adjective forms ( 79) create
correlatives of still wider use, in appending their characteristic
terminations to other general ideas, as aUolog, navro7og, &c. (see
79 Rem. 2.) so also it is with the adverbs ; as aAAorf another
time, aMy (in answer to the question nr t ) in another way ; nuv-
fug, naviri (in answer to nwg, Tirj) in every way, wholly ; aviov,
(XVTO&I (in answer to TIOV, TIO&I} in the same place, there, &c. Very
commonly are the adverbs of this kind, derived from a'AAoff, nolvg,
nag, and ixuaiog, lengthened by the insertion of ay, as
dKKayov elsewhere, navTa%ov, TioAAa^ou, in every place, in
many places,
txaOTa%6&tvfrom every side, a'AAa^, &c.
REM. 5. Negatives ofjnost of these relative particles are also 215
found ; from nore and najg, as from r/ff, by simple composition are
formed ovnoTf, firinors never, ovnco$, fi^ncog by no means.
Most commonly however, the negatives are formed from the
ancient adjective ovdapog, fir]daf4,6<s, none, as
by no means, ovdapfi, ovdupov, ovdctfio&fv,&LC.
117. MUTATION OF SOME OTHER PARTICLES.
I. In the form.
According to fixed principles, o\>, oJx, ov% are interchanged
for the sake of euphony, see 30. 5. In like manner *| out of, is
allowed to stand only before a vowel, or at the end of a clause, as
l IpOV, l QV, X&HUV J'|.
Before consonants it is changed into Ix, as
e TOVTOV Ix dahdaGg Ix rs.
REM. 1. That some particles, for the sake of euphony, have a
moveable v or at the end, has been already remarked in 30,
as also the changes of avv and Iv in composition, 25.
REM. 2. For ov not, and vul yes, we find, for the sake of great-
er emphasis, ov%i, vai^i, (12 Rem. 4.)
REM. 3. Varieties of form, without any change of signification,
are the following, viz.
lav, YIV, av, if-
orjufpov, Att T^fAfQOv to day. ##& and i%&i<; yesterday.
ovv, anciently ^vv } with. fig, Ion. Ig, in.
236 FORMATION OF WORDS. [118.
*t/, Ion. Ivi, in ; see also below no. 2.
*t, Ion. and Poet, ctiti and V, always.
or cWxev, Ion. ettoxa, tivfxtv, on account of.
Ion. InftTfv afterwards.
II. Change in accent.
Several dissyllable prepositions, with the accent on the last
syllable, as jrapa, and, rap/ , &c. undergo an anastrophe, as it if
called, that is, they draw the accent back, in two cases, viz.
1. When they stand after the noun they govern, as
TOVTOV ntQi for niQi TOVTOV
ftttov ano for ano &fwv*
216 2. When they are used instead of the forms of the verb ilvui
compounded with them, (in which case, instead of eV, the Ionic
Ivi is used even in the common dialect,) as
lyta nctQu for ndpfifti
im, JW, vjfOy for eneest &c.*
118. OF THE FORMATION OF WORDS.
1 . The doctrine of the formation of words, as a subject of
grammar, does not extend to all words. This, on account of the
obscurity attending the origin of language, is reserved for the
particular investigation of etymology. It belongs to us here,
to treat only of the formation of those words, which are derived
from other words, according to a plain analogy, embracing whole
classes of words.
2. In this place we have to treat only of Verbs, Substantives,
Adjectives, and Adverbs ; since whatever might belong here res-
pecting the other parts of speech, has already been discussed in
former sections.
* To speak more exactly, in all these cases the preposition stands
independently, the accent being changed and the verb tiv&i being under-
stood.
119.J FORMATION OF WORDS. 237
119. DERIVATION BY TERMINATIONS.
I. Verbs.
1. Those verbs only are here to be considered, which are de-
rived from nouns (substantive and adjective). This derivation com-
monly takes place by the terminations w, *cw, ow, *wco, w,
lo), (HlVO), VVO).
2. These terminations take the place of the termination of the
nominative, if the radical word follows the first or second declen-
sion, and in the third also if the nominative ends in a single vowel,
or in g with a vowel preceding it; asi^Mi riftaa), -ntfQov nTtgoco,
&avna &avuaw, dtyfrqe ctlrj&evo). In other words of the third
declension they take the place of the genitive og, as'xo'Aag xoA-
XiVCD, TIVQ nVQQO).
REM. 1 . The words of the third declension ending ia a, ctg,
tg, which take a consonant in the genitive, can be directly chang-
ed only into kindred terminations of verbs (a and ag into aw, /?a>,
and t$ into /cu), as &av(ta. &av[Atxo} and /Ntf/iflwW, &7rfg Aw/hi.
Every other termination is attached to the consonant of the geni-
tive, as cpvyag (pvyadfvw, xgrjpct xptiftcrrtfa.
3. With regard to the signification of these terminations, we
can here consider only the most common usage of the language,
and enumerate the chief signification of the majority of the verbs
of each termination.
a) t'w and evw. These verbs are formed from almost every
termination, and chiefly express the condition or action of that
which the radical word denotes, as xoipavog ruler, xoipavtco rule ;
MOivwvog partaker, xowojvt'co partake ; dovkog slave, dovKtvw am a
slave, serve ; xoAa$ ( /?a#mr 1 xohaxfvo) flatter ; alrj&yg true, d^-
&tvw am true (speak truly); /ffacrdit;?, paarttvo) &c. most frequent-
ly as intransitives ; yet sometimes as transitives, as cp 'dog friend,
(fifa'd) love.
In general these two terminations are the common derivations,
and are therefore used still farther for a variety of significations,
which are also in part included in the terminations which fol-
low ; thus in particular, for the exercise of that which the radical
word denotes, as noltptiv, a<7v,noiiuifvtiv,%OQfVfiv, (fVvtvtiv,
, or for that to which it most naturally refers, as cxtUo?
238 FORMATION OF WORDS. [ 119.
flute, avhflv to play on the flute ; ayopa assembly, ayoQtvtw to ad-
dress an assembly ; innivtiv to ride on horseback, &c. In particu-
lar, the termination *w, the simplest of all, is used in most of those
derivations, which arise from composition ; as {i>TV%eo}, im%iQtw,
oixodofttoj, Ipyohafitu), (uviioixaxfo) &,c. But in all cases these
terminations are most commonly intransitive.
b) aw. These verbs are most naturally formed from words
of the first declension in a and rj, but also from others ; and imply
chiefly the possession of a thing or quality in an eminent degree,
and the performance of an action ; as xo/ut; hair, #oA?? gall, KO-
fiKV to have long hair, %okqv to have much gall {to be angry) ; A/Tips
fat, \inav to have fat (to be fat) ; @oy outcry, yoog lamenting, floav,
youv' ToAjMtt boldness, roAjK^y to be bold. Hence, transitively, the
exercise of a thing towards others ; as Tifjir) honour, Tiptxv Tiva to
honour any one.
c) ooj. These verbs, formed for the most part from words of
the second declension, express (1) The making or forming to that
which the radical word signifies, as dovhou make a slave of, en-
slave ; ^Ao? known, (J^Aoco make known. (2) The manufacturing
or working wify the thing denoted by the radical word ; as %QV-
ooco gild, /w^Ardco paint with ochre (|U/Aroe), nvQOw put into fire,
TQQVQW make with the TOQVOQ. (3) The providing with the thing,
as (JTtyavoa) crown, mtyoco give wings (megov), OTavgow crucify
&c.
d) aw and /<w. Verbs with the first termination come most
naturally from words in a, ?/, ag, &c. and for the sake of euphony
from nouns with other endings. Verbs with both terminations,
however, embrace so many relations, that they cannot be reduced
to definite classes. Yet it deserves notice that, if they are formed
from proper names of nations and men, they denote the adoption
of the manners, the party, or the language of the same ; as ^di-
&tv to incline to the side of the Medes, eMfvtftW to speak Greek,
doQia&iv to speak the Doric, <pt,hnnitw to be of the party of Phil-
ip.
e) uivw and vvco. The latter termination comes always from
adjectives, and expresses the imparting of the quality of the ad-
jective ; as tfdvvetv to sweeten, Ofuvvvtip to make venerable. And
here it is to be observed, that those adjectives, of which the de-
grees of comparison (tew, IOTOS) appear to presuppose an ancient
positive in vs, form the verbs in v vw after that positive, as aia-
%po? (afo%iow from A1ZX. T2) <xi(j%vvw. So also paxpos, xaAo?,
iU7?xi;i>ftj, xaAAujxo &c. The same signification often belongs to
verbs in aivw, as tevxalvuv to make white, xoriaivfw to hollow
out &c. yet several of these have a neutral signification, as xAf-
nctivfie, dvs%Qulv(i,v to grow angry &c. They also sometimes
come from substantives, especially in pa, with different modifica-
119.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 239
tioos of meaning ; e. g. or^a sign, oypaiva* signify ; dtlpa. /ear,
I dread.
4. There is a particular method of forming verbs from nouns
by merely changing their termination into o), but the preceding
syllable, according to the nature of the consonant, is strengthened
in one of the ways described above in 92.
E. g. Thus from noixtlo? 7iotx/JU<, ayye Ao? dyyftUoi, x#a-
QOS xatffc/po), fiaJUexo'g ^aAaaaw, (fuo^cty.ov yapfAaoGO}, nvpfTOQ
nvpeGGO), %cd7idg %cdt'm(}, &c. The signification is always that,
which is most readily suggested by the radical word.
5. To these must be added the following more limited classes
of derived forms of verbs.
a) Desideratives, denoting a desire, and most commonly formed
by changing the future in GW (of the verb cognate to the thing
desired) into a present in otloj, as ytlaGflo) I should like to laugh,
no^ff^tjGflo} desire war &c.
Another form of desideratives is that in aw or idw, properly
from substantives, as ftavccTav long for death, GTpciTyyiav wish to
be a general ; also from verbs, by first forming substantives from
them, as tovtiG&ai, (wV^nis) wvrjTiuv to wish to buy ; xkx/w (xAa-
oig) xlavGiav to be disposed to weep.
b) Frequentatives in co, as fjiffet (from gimtiv) to throw
from one place to another, Mid. to throw one's self this way and
that, to be restless ; (ttfvu&iv (from Gxivitv) to sigh much and deep-
ly ; so txtTfw to demand, mmfctt* to beg ; IQTHIV to creep, *Q7ivtiv
to creep slowly.
c) Inchoatives in axw, in part intransitive, as yfwiWxco to get.
a beard, ypctGxoD to grow to manhood, (the same as yevftct^oo, ij-
pctat) ; in part transitive, as fif&vGxw to intoxicate (from pt&vw
am intoxicated.)
II. Substantives.
6. Substantives are derived from verbs, adjectives, and other
substantives.
A. Substantives derived immediately from verbs.
With respect to these, we have to premise in general the fol-
lowing remarks, viz.
1) Those terminations which begin with a, follow the ana-
logy of the future : those which begin with p and T. the analogy
240 FORMATION OF WORDS. [$ 119-
of the perfect passive ; those which begin with a vowel, the ana-
logy of the second perfect ; even if the respective tense of the
verb in question, is not in use.
2) The terminations which begin with a vowel (as 77, og,
tvs), are also formed from contract verbs in eta and aw in such a
manner, that f and a are omitted (as qi&ovt'a), (p&ovog) ; yet the
smaller verbs are excepted, which cannot lose their vowel, as it
belongs to the root, but only change it, as Qtw, pay.
REM. 2. With reference to no. 1 next above, two particular re-
marks are to be made, viz.
a) The a which is to be inserted before p and T, is retained in
words formed from verbs which have a lingual for their charac-
teristic. Those formed from pure verbs (verba pura), on the con-
trary, sometimes assume it and sometimes not, uninfluenced by
the inflection of the verb.
b) In regard to the vowel, when a is not inserted, the analogy
of the future is to be followed, and e. g. &UTy$, fttapa, #u/uor,
have the vowel long, like ftfaaoftat, #uaw, with few exceptions.
7. To express the action or effect of the verb, there are chiefly
the following terminations, viz. [tog, [tr] or /ua, oig, oicc, 77, , og
masc. os neut.
a) fiog, (A^I or firj, fia. These terminations may, it is true, be
compared with the perfect passive ; but those in (*o<s commonly take
the a, when a vowel precedes in the radical word ; but the other
two do not always, even when the perfect passive does ; and those
which do not adopt the o, preserve the long vowel of the future,
even where it is shortened in the perfect, (yet in such a manner
that some of them var between ?? and *,) e. g. TI&TJ^ (Ttfaiftcu)
&tO[jio$, &t'/ua or -O^rjfta' dtca (dtdfftcti) dfOfio?, diftu, diudri-
jwcr yiyvwoxw (tyvoMJpui) yvwitrf Auco (l&vfitu) At/m. As
to their signification ; those in pos properly denote the abstract,
as TiftAAw nuKfAOQ shaking to and fro, odvQOfiat, odv^fiog lament-
ing, A/>w (AuSw) kvy[A.6? hiccupping^ Oflca GfiGftog quaking. The
termination /ua, on the contrary, expresses rather the effect of the
verb as a concrete, and even the object, so that it for the most
part accords with the neuter perfect passive participle ; as npci-
yfia, (TO nfTtoayfAtvov) the deed, p!prji*a the imitation i. e. the like-
ness, Gnfiooj (TO icnaQnivov} GTIIQUU the seed, &c. The termi-
nation jW?? varies between the two ; as ftviiprj memory, eniarrjfir}
knowledge, Tipi] honour, OTiyfAq a point, yoaftfMI the line, which
in their signification have only a shadow of difference from <m'-
a puncture, yQu^a a letter.
119.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 241
b) Gig, ala. These denote the abstract of the verb, and very sel-
dom deviate from this signification, as (tiftijais the imitating, noci&g
the action, axJi^?, &c doxiftaola the examining, &vo let the sacri-
fice.
Of the following the signification cannot be so accurately given ;
yet the idea of the abstract, is the prevailing one.
c) 77 and a, for the most part oxytone, as fvyi? prayer, from ev-
%0{*at' aquyi] slaughter, from oq:a(jj, fut. creator 6 id u%y doctrine,
from didaoxo), fut. -a|o>* %uQajoy. from yaiQw. So also, with a
change into the sound o Rafter the manner of the second perfect),
Tout] from lefAixa, y&opct from q&fiya), &c. Some also admit of
a reduplication, which is similar to the Attic reduplication of the
perfect, and always has an o> in the second syllable, as dywyi]
leading from uyo), idto&rifood from t'd'w.
Examples of pa roxy tones, are fihupT] hurt, from /?A7ira), /SAa-
@a)' i>i'/.t ( victory, from ?xaa>.
fiu. To the class of paroxy tones, also belong those nouns in
na which are formed from verbs in tva) by merely changing ev
into ft, as rraidfi^. from naukvw. These nouns have always a
long u, and therefore have the acute on the u.
REM. 4. Let the following rules be observed as to the accent of
all nouns in fiu, viz.
e Properispomena, are the feminines of adjectives in vg, as
ytit?, ^]dflu.
Proparoxytona. 1) The abstract nouns from adjectives in
rig, as ahrj&fia, see no. 10. a. 2) The feminines of mas-
culines in tv$, as tt'ytia priestess, see uo. 12. c. 4.
Paroxytona, are the above mentioned abstract nouns from
verbs in fioj.
d) og masc. as TVTTO? blow, impression, from rvmo). But by far
the most have in the chief syllable an o, either by nature or in ex-
change for f, as xporo? clapping, from x^orHo' q&ovoQ envy, from
<jp#OfHW Aoyoe speech, from A^'yco' poo? (goug) from (>HU.
To these may be added the substantives in rog, which are com-
monly oxytone, as a'/u^rd? mo-wing, reaping, xtoxvTog -wailing.
e) og neut. as Toxrjdog care, from xrjdw J.u%oglot, from Aay^a-
i/co" Tiyuyog, the same as nyayficc, &c. These verbals never have
an o in the chief syllable ; hence TO pt'oog part, from ME1PQ.
8. The subject of the verb, as male, is designated by the fol-
lowing terminations, viz.
31
242 FORMATION OF WORDS. 119.
a) T^g, rrjQ, TWQ. Of these the termination i^g following the
tirst declension is the most common, and the words are partly oxy-
tone, partly paroxytone, as atH^rt/'g combatant from ft&Afteo, /tta-
scholar from [Au&eiv, fticiTyg spectator from fttdopai, dwa-
from <JVxattf, xptrJ? from xp/j/cu, &c. On the other hand,
pvrjTiig pilot from xvjftQvctco, Ttkd<JTqg (from 7iArro>, ntnKu-
, tivvctQTrjg, ipttfaiW &c.
The terminations r??/) and r<w(> are less frequent forms, as aw-
saviour, QVITWQ orator (from dao'co and *
b) fiJff, as yyatyfvg -writer, ty&OpevQ destroyer.
c) o?, for the most part only in composition, as
er, naTQOXTOvog a patricide, &c.
d) ^ff and a?, Gen. oi>. Only in some cases of composition, as
liVQOnw\r]$ vender of ointments, TQiriQUQ^r^ (and -o^) captain of a
galley, QQvi&o&riQag fowler, &c.
9. The names of instruments and other objects belonging to an
action, are formed from or after the preceding names of the sub-
ject, viz.
a) rrjQiov, TQOV, TQU (from the terminations of the subject x^g
or TVIQ), as KOVCTJQLOV bathing tub, KOVTQOV water for bathing, bath,
cMQoaTV]Qiov a place to hear in, auditory, ^VGTQO, curry-comb, OQ%ri-
Qa, place for dancing.
b) tlov (from the termination (vg), as MOVQI'IOV barber's shop from
xovyevg barber and this from xfipfiv to shear, TQoqiiov the recom-
pense for being educated from TQOtpfvg, &c.
B. Substantives derived from adjectives.
10. This is also a principal class of substantives, which serve
chiefly to express the abstract of the abjective. To this class be-
long the following terminations, viz.
a) /, always with long a (ion. ??), as aoyog wise, aoyla wis-
dom ; in like manner, xax/a, ddhtu, &LC- /?Aax/a stupidity from
,/?Ag &c.
From this termination arose the nouns in
fia and oia
by contraction ; the is here short, and the accent is on } the an-
tepenult ; the former come from adjectives in rig, tog, as akq&tta
truth from ahyftr)g, the latter from adjectives in ovg, as vivota want
of sense from avovg.
b) Tfjg fern. G. rqiog, as iGOT^g equality from i'oog, 7ia%vTi]g
thickness from na%vg. They are generally paroxytones.
c) -ovvi], as OMCUOGVVII, most frequently from adjectives in
FORMATION OF WORDS. J-J.i
ODV, G. oi/o?, as owyQOOvvi] discretion from awqppwt/, oi/o?. Those
which have the fourth syllable from the end short, take an w in
the antepenult, as dya&a)avvr] (compare the same rule in the com-
parison by if<jO, rceroe).
d) og neut. chiefly from adjectives in vg, as @&&o<; depth from
.?, Ta%og swiftness from Ta%vg.
C. Substantives derived from other substantives.
11. Among these, some terminations are first to be mentioned
which are formed after the analogy of the verbals, viz.
a) Masculines in xr t g (of which all those in myff have long t)
often signify a man in some relation with the subject which the
radical word denotes, as 7roA/r?7<? citizen from nokig city, 6n\itr^
an armed man from bnhov weapon, ImiQTijg horseman from innog,
g.v\txrig one of the same tribe from (fvKrj.
b) In like manner those in fvg, as ifQtvg priest from IIQOV tem-
ple (or rd itQu sacrifices), yQtntvs, uhevg, fisherman, from yolnog
net, A sea; ypuppaTfvg, &c.
c) Those in flov particularly denote a place devoted to an ob-
ject, as Movatlov &c. see no. 9 above.
12. The rest may be reduced to the following divisions, viz.
a) Those which designate a place where certain objects exist
in numbers ; such are those in coi/, G. wvo?, masc. and -amor, as
dftnthojv vineyard, Qodwia rose bed, avdgiov hall for men.
b) Amplificatives in (v, tovog (masc.) as ydaTQtov he who has a
large belly, &c.
c) Feminine appellations, viz.
(1) TfiQot, TQia and TQI?, G. TQidos, properly from masculines
in Trig and TWQ, yet also from masculines in TTJ?, as aotTf^tt a fe-
male deliverer, OQfflGTQiot, a dancing girl, av&7]T()i a female player
on the flute (masc. 6o.%riGTr)$, av^rrj?.)
(2) *ff, G. ido<s, is the most common termination, which takes the
place of that of the masculine in tjg and as of the first declension ; as
dfonorrj? master, dtOnotig mistress ; itttTijg suppliant, ixiri'
&r]Z, %v&ig' [tvpOTwJiijg vender of ointments, mvQOTiojkig.
(3) cuva, chiefly from the masc. in ow, as &t(*imo*
frtQanuiva. maidservant; Mwv (ovrog), fa'awa lioness;
(ovog), TtXTaiva a female artisan ; also from some nouns in og, as
&tog, fttaiva, goddess.
(4) fia, from some masculines in tvg^ as Itgttot priestess from h-
Qivg, &c.
(5) aoa, from several terminations in the third declension, as
paattioaa from fiaattevg, avaaoa from ava, KiKiGGu from Kl-
Ki%, Sgyaan (Att. ^Qaira) from SyfiS or
244 FORMATION OF WORDS. [ 119,
d) Diminutives, as follows, viz.
(l) I>QV or iov (TO), which is the chief termination, as nuidiov
a small boy, OCD^KXTWV a little body, pdxiov from TO ydxog rag, &c.
To strengthen this diminutive form, this termination is often
lengthened by a syllable, especially in -id'tov and -doiov, as nivuxi-
dtov from nivat tablet, naidaytov from nuig.
REM. 4. Several words in IQV have entirely lost their diminu-
tive signification, as ftqoiov beast from d &rjo, fiiptiov book from
(2) laxog, laxrj, as GT(f>aviGxog, nccidioxij.
(3) / Gen. tdog and ?<5o?, always feminine, as
(from -#*pa7iaM/a), Gxoivtg, idog, from 0/0/1/0? ro/?e &c.
4) t'Aoff (rather Doric) as ' EywTvKog from'^ipcwp.
uttvG used only of the young of animals, as dfTidtv$ from
f) Gentilia, i. e. names designating one's country. These are
partly mere adjectives of three terminations, in 10$, a'tos, vog, xos
(see below), and partly substantives.
A. Masculine, viz.
,0) *#, icttije, twryg, as ' 4fidr]Qlrrj$,
(2) tvg, as^iolfvs, <J>a)%fv$ Phocian,
', iWavTtvfvg from jfyfavTtvtia, IRctrcttevS from
vg, better (bawuivg, Phocaean, from C^wxa, Evfiotvg
from Evpoia.
B. Feminine. These either do but change (see c. 2, above)
the yg of the masculine termination into ig, as 2nu.QTici.Ttg, v-
fiaQiTig &LC. or they annex the terminations is and dg in the
manner that the euphony of the radical word may require, as
^4lo\ig, Awplg, Mtyayt'g, <&wx/, (bcoxafg, Ar^Kidg (from Arjkog).
All these names, according as yvv^ or yr\ is understood, are used
of a woman and of the country.
g) Patronymics.
A. Masculine. Here the terminations are the following, viz.
(1) idr}g, ddyg, iddrjg, Gen. Of, the most common forms, of which
that in ifyg is derived from the greatest number of terminations,
while that in ud'rjs is used only in nouns of the first declension in
ag and yg, as Kpovog Kgovidrig, Kt'xpoip KtKQonidrig, '^ftfvag
' ^4\fvadtif, 'fnnoTrjg *JnnoTu6rig. The termination ictdrjg comes
chiefly from names in tog, as MfvoiTiog MfvoiTiudyg, but is also
attached to many other nouns which have a long syllable before
the patronymic ^termination, as (t>f^Tiddrjg from <t>iprjg, ??ro,
Te^ufiwvKxdrjg, y ^4avTiddrig &,c.
(2) MOV Gen. wvog (seldom ovog], commonly with a long i, is a
more rare form in use with the former, as KQQVIWV from Kgovog,
' w
119. FORMATION OF WORDS. 245
REM. 5. Patronymics from nouns in tug and xA?? have origi-
nally ttdrig, and hence in the common language by contraction
fidr t g, as TTrjlftdiiS, Tvdfld'^g, from Ilr^tvg, Tvdtvg' 'ifpaxltldijg
from 'HoayJ.rjg. The same is true with regard to the termina-
tion iW, as flttelvov. So also o with i is contracted in Tlw&oi-
<J>;, ArfTOtdvig, from Ilav&oog (IJav&ovg), Ar t TM, oog, Lalona.
B. Feminine. These in general correspond with the mascu-
line terminations, and for the forms in Idrjg, ddrjg, we have the
feminine in ig and ug, as Tavia\ig, 'ArtavTig, PjeGrictg. For the
masculines in tldrfc we have the feminines in rff'G, as NijQijfs. For
those in leap, we have others in icovrj and *V^, as 'Attotonavr}, A-
III. Adjectives.
13. Of adjectives which clearly have the mark of analogical
derivation, by far the most terminate in og, and here it is the
preceding letter or letters which are to be taken into account.
a) wg is one of the most general terminations, of which it can
only be said, that it comes immediately only from nouns, and that
it signifies something belonging to the subject, having respect to
it, or proceeding from it, &c. as ovgctviog, noTafiiog, qoviog, to-
niyiog &c. By means of it a new adjective is also sometimes
formed from an adjective in og, as llfv&fgo$ free, Itev&tQiog lib-
eralis, becoming the free ; xu&apog pure, Ka&aQiOG cleanly, &c.
From this /o?, by attaching the t, to a preceding vowel, are formed
the new terminations
aiog, nog, oiog, wog,
as ayopa7og from dyoQa, 'Aftrivuiog from 'A&rjvcci, fiiQiiog from
#t0 Gen. to? summer ; uidoHog, r t OMg, from uldfu$ Gen. oog, rjcog
Gen. o'o?. Yet usage has sometimes made one of these termina-
tions more particular in its signification and more expressive ; as
-lUTOwg relating to fathers, ancestors, country, in general ; TiaTQwog
relating to the father.
In particular, the termination fiog is in use as a mode of deri-
vation from such words as denote definite classes or individuals of
living beings, as dv&pcoTitiog human, yvvaixfiog &c next, of all
classes of animals ; and in particular it is the most common form
of the derivation from proper names of persons, where the termi-
nation admits of its use, as 'Op^ofiog, * Enixovg&Qg, Ilv&ayo-
pttog, Evgmidftog &c.
b) t og signifies for the most part only the subject, from which
any thing is made, and is contracted into ovg, see 60. 2.
c) Kog is to be understood in a manner quite as general as cog,
and extends also to verbs ( as yoctqixog belonging to painting,
ao%i-/.Qq governing &,.) The most common form is wog, and if
246 FORMATION OF WORDS. [ 119.
at> precedes, we usually find the form a/xog, as rpo^a/xd? from
TQo%ulog. From words in vg is formed -vxog, as &i]faut6$ from
firjhvg womanly. So also -axog from the terminations which are
preceded by an i, as 'Okvpnia, "lliog, 'OhvfATuanog, 'i
Gnovdtlog, aTiovdfiaxog- Yet the termination taxog (like
is often used without having an i preceding, as
d) vog is a more ancient passive termination (like Tog, xtog) ;
hence dewog dreadful, atftvog (from df/So/ua,) venerable, orvyvog
hated &LC.
tvog as proparoxytone almost always denotes a material, as
IvJUvog of wood, M&ivog &c. A single case is av&Qwmvog, as ex-
tensive in its meaning as oiv&Q(oniio$ As an ox^tone it forms
adjectives from words expressing ideas of time, as yptQivog from
-q^ipa, %{rt(Jiv6g of yesterday, from %fttQ.
Tifdtvdg and the words in -fivog show a fullness, or something
prevailing throughout, as ntdivog entirely plain, ogtiwOG mountain-
ous, fvdnvog entirely serene, &c.
Ivog, avog, t]v()$, are merely names of nations &c. as TUQUV-
Tlvog, ' AGIU.VQS, J^uMiavog, Kv&xr}v6e;> &c.
e) Ao? is a more ancient active termination ; hence dtdos he
who fears. The lengthened terminations rjKog and wAo, which sig-
nify an inclination or habit, are the most common, as anaTr^og
deceptive, fi^rwAo^ he who easily errs, habitually sins, &c.
f) ipog is found only in verbals, chiefly denoting fitness for
use both actively and passively, and is attached to the radical
word according to very different analogies, as #p?jo^uo? (from
%paO[4ai)fa to be used, Tgotyipog nutritious, tfavaGipog mortal, TTO-
Tt[A.og jit to be drank.
g) Qog, tgog, tiQog, chiefly express the idea of full of, as o/x-
TQogfull of grief , ^ovfQog full of envy, voof(jog sickly.
h) aAf'o? signifies nearly the same, as 0<xg>(kcA&g bold, from
&aQ@og confidence, foipcdtog fearfid, ipwQcdiog scabby.
i) rog and Ttog, see 102.
14. The other adjective terminations are the following, viz.
a) tig Gen. fviog, as yuglfigfull of grace, v^ fig full of woods,
rrvgotig full of fire, fvgweig of doubtful signification, from
We have already seen that those in ftg and fig admit of a
contraction, 41 Rem. 3. 62 Rem. 2.
b) 77$, tg, Gen. ovg, are for the most part contractions (see
130) ; yet there Comes from them the particular termination wdyg,
wdfg, Gen. ovg, properly with a change in the accent from
-Qtidr\<i (from tidogform, manner), as Gtyr}xwd*iQ wasp-like, yvvcti-
womanlike ; commonly denoting full of, especially by way
119.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 247
of reproach, as yttftpwfyg, ctiftaTOjfyG, tivojdijg, full of sand, blood,
slime.
c) ,MCUJ> Gen. ovog, verbals after the analogy of the substan-
tives in /ucc, and in part formed from these ; for the most part sig-
nifying the active quality suggested by the verb, ^vor^mv from
voriv intelligent, TTohvjiydyfHov from TiohvQ and ngay t uu or TIQCIT-
Ttiv, one who makes for himself much business &c. iTulqOftwfor-
getful.
Finally, a multitude of adjectives are formed merely by con-
traction, of which we shall treat in the following section.
IV. Adverbs.
1 5. Besides the simple method of forming adverbs by changing
the termination of the declension of the adjective into o> (see
115), there are the following particular terminations of adverbs,
viz.
a) / or tl. These denote a circumstance connected with the
action which the proposition expresses. The verbals in particu-
lar terminate in TI or ret, which are attached exactly after the
manner of the termination TO'?, as ovopaarl by name, dyilaati
without laughing ; dvidgwri without sweating, without toil ; ccxrjov-
XTfl without announcing. From this, and from what was said
above (in no. 3. d) of verbs in /o>, comes the signification of adverbs
in OTI, viz. after the manner, custom, language of a nation, a class,
an individual, as m-rjviarl after the Greek manner, in the Greek lan-
guage, yvvaixiOTi after the manner of women ; so avdpanodiOTi, fio-
\'<ni &c.
Those formed from nouns have merely / or */ added to the
termination of the declension; as tttovrl willingly, itavtyful as a
whole nation, that is, with united force ; d^a^ft without contest, av-
TO'/fiQi with one's own hand'
b) dr t v belongs to verbals of nearly the same signification as the
preceding, the termination being attached partly after the manner
of the termination TO? (yet with the necessary change of the char-
acteristic of the verb, and never with a), as *vM,yfHhjw collectively,
that is, on the whole, in general ; tujvftmjp secretly, @ctdr,v by steps,
, dvi'dyv loosely, without fear, (from avirjut,, uvtiog) ; partly in the
form ddyv attached to the radical word with a change of the vow-
el into o, as GnOQafojv scattered, ntjOTQOTiddTjv (qtvyfw) directed
forwards, without turning round, &c.
c) dov, r t dov, are chiefly derived from nouns, and relate for
the most part to external form and character, afor^eJUf&p in herds,
Sorovtiov like grapes, ^ihv&rjdov (from -nKlv&o?) laid like tiles, xv-
248 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [ 120.
vijdov like a dog. If they are verbals, they agree with those in
dr^v, as avatyuvdov before men, openly.
d) , a rare form, which is chiefly made by means of a pala-
tic already in the radical word, and has a general adverbial signi-
fication, as ai/a|it/| mixed together, promiscuously, 7iapAA alter-
nately.
120. DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION.
1. The first part of every composition is either a noun, or a
verb, or a particle, either changeable or inseparable.
2. If the first word is a noun, its termination is commonly in o,
which, however, when the second word begins with a vowel, usu-
ally suffers elision. E. g.
uidoTpipvjg, acwjMarogDuAH, i%fruontoJii) (from
vg, vog), dwoypoupog (from $/xi?).
from vopog and &Q%w, naiduywyog from nuig and
xa/m from xaxo's and ifyg.
Yet in most cases where v or i is in the termination of the noun,
no o is adopted ; e. g. tv&vdMog, nohvydyog, nohnoQ&og, from
The same is true after ov and av ; e. g. fiovyoyfiog, vavpa%ta,
from /?oJg, vavg.
Frequently also after v, as (jitKay%oMa, nthupntnhog, from /we-
Aaff, avos m napydyog, from nag, navrog.
REM. 1 . The o sometimes keeps its place before vowels, as (Ay-
vofidyg, /ui>06//x?i, dya&ofyyog. Yet in words compounded with
tgyov or EPFtt, the o is commonly contracted with the f, as drj-
ftiovyyog from ttypiof and &PFSL
REM. 2. An co proceeds either from the Attic, or from the con-
tracted forms of declension, as vttncofwf (from o vtcng), oytawo-
ftog (from OQtvg, G. dytwg), xyfwqdyog (from *Q*ag G. aog, cog).
From yr\ the earth we have in all contractions yfco-, as yfcoyQa-
yog^ instead of FAQ- from the ancient form TAA, see 26 Re-
mark 7.
REM. 3. Some in pa, G. arpg, often change their a into o, or
lose it by elision, as aifiooTayyg, OTOfAahyla, from w\w., OTO[*a.
REM. 4. In some contractions, especially such as are poetical,
the form of the dative singular or the dative plural in chosen for
composition, as nvginvovg,
$ 120.] COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 249
(from 0()0$, tog), vuvGinoQog, fyyrtalfjuuyog. The very common
form in , (from o s *, G. 0*'), is a contraction of the last form, as
from TO r*'Ao axo.
3- If the first word is a verb, its termination is most common-
ly formed in e with the characteristic of the verb unchanged, or
in a*, e. g.
ap/j'xaxo from aoytiv, ftctxi&vpog from daxvcu, i'duxov.
At'0/Troj/o? from Auw, T^tipl^caS from rp7i(w, lyeQGi^oQog
from iftiQfa.
Here too the vowel is struck out before another vowel, as q>t-
ig &c.
REM. 5. The cases are more rare, in which i is used without
ff, as in many from uoyttv, as apgrf&po?, or in which the verb
assumes an o, as in the case of those from \tint iv, as \einor a E,iov.
4. The indeclinable words remain unchanged in composition,
with the exception of the changes which follow from the general
rules, and such as in the case of prepositions are effected by eli-
sion ( 29. 2) ; as ///wAo$ from ay/t, and aX? ncdouytvrig from
naKai' ttvafialvto, a^'o/o-ua*, from aW* lt f p%0ficci>, txfituvw, from
$* ffifiatvo) from ev' nyo&yo), nfyiuyo), ( 29. 2.)
REM. 6. The preposition HQO sometimes submits to a contrac-
tion, as Tioot'/o), rr^orrrroi', for TTOO^/OJ, nQOomog. Especially is
this the case with the augment, as TTjjovdcoxa for Tiooidwy.a.
REM. 7. In the preposition ntyi, elision does not take place.
So also, sometimes, in opiqp/, as a^/Ao?, ojjuqpfettg, from Aff,
REM. 8. In dividing the syllables, the rule is, that if the pre-
position end^ in a consonant, this consonant in the division belongs
to the first syllable ; therefore fis- *jt*^o/u*, TIQO$- ayw, JV- vdgog,
-(/Opa. But if the consonant in the preposition begins the
second syllable, it does the snme even when the vowel suffers eli-
sion in the composition, as TICK- ociyo), a-
5. Of the inseparable particles the most important are
which denotes difficulty, hardship, and the like, (as dvg
difficult to tread on, tivgdalftotda contrary fate ^ and the so called
a privativum,
which is directly negative like the English in- and tm-, and the
32
250 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [ 121.
Latin in-, as a^aro? impassable, ana.i$ childless. Before a vowel
this a commonly takes v, as avail to? innocent from alt in.
REM. 9. Yet several words beginning with a vowel, assume
only an a, as d^TTrjiog, aotvo? &c. Hence it is subjected to con-
traction, as in ttxow unwillingly for aixwv, a^yog idle, at leisure,
with a change in the accent from
6. In all compositions, if the second word begins with Q, be-
fore which there is a short vowel, this p according to 21. 2, is
usually doubled, as iaoQptnrjs from ioog and penw, 7ti(>t(>$t(o, a-
TtO$$rjTO$, a(jp?jTog from a and p??ro.
7. We have already seen ( 25) in what cases the v, especial-
ly of the prepositions tv and ovv, remains in the composition un-
changed, or passes into another consonant, or is dropped altogeth-
er.
121.
1. The form of the last part of a compounded word decides.
whether the whole word is a verb, a noun, or a particle.
2. The most frequent compounded form of verbs, is that in
which the verb remains unchanged, and preserves its own inflec-
tion with the augment and termination. Strictly speaking this
takes place only with the common prepositions, a'^qw, ava, avxl,
a.no, dia, itg, lv, l, In I, xara> ftfra, napa, THQI, TIQO, Tipog, ovv,
vntQ, vno. Every similar union of the unchanged verb with real
adverbs and other parts of speech, is considered merely as juxta-
position of words, and they are therefore commonly written sep-
arately, as fv nQQliTtw, xaxwg TIQIIIV.
3. With other words besides these prepositions, and with all
the particles which are always inseparable, verbs can be com-
pounded only by submitting to a change in their own form ; that
is, there arise peculiar compounded verbal forms with termina-
tions of derivation, as * w, aw &c. and here a noun, compounded
in a manner to be shown below (no. 4) usually lies at the foun-
dation; as from Ijpyov and A/M/?*/to comes Ipyohafiog, and from
this epfOJMfttiv, from ev and tpdat (EPrSl) comes tvfpytrqf ben-
121.] COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 251
efactor and hence ivfoyfTfw to do good ; from dvg and aps'
comes dv?v.Qt<5TO? dissatisfied, dvgaQtorelv to be displeased &e. and
when instead of <f-tld{G&ai to spare, the negative idea not to spare,
to neglect, with a privative is required, aqptidfw is formed from
the adjective a<ffidr t g.
REM. 1. If in such compounded words the verb appears un-
changed, the cause lies in an accidental coincidence between the
derived termination and that of the radical verb, as noitto make,
fitkonoiog, pflonoit'o} make songs. In like manner jUf^pncoAiw
comes not from [WQOV and nwfo'aj, but from nvQOTrwkijg, aqpQOVtw
not from a- and y-poi'ita, but from aygwv Gen. ovog &c.
REM. 2. In the same way verbs are sometimes compounded
with prepositions, as dvTt,ote1v from aVr//?oAo?, compounded of
uvti and
4. Substantives are seldom so compounded as themselves to
remain the leading idea unchanged ; thus j-eVog the guest, ngo^f-
vog the public or the nation's guest ; odog the way, coming, avvodog
the coming together. Adjectives, on the contrary, by this kind of
composition may be simply modified in signification, as vnrtO trust-
worthy, aniGTog not trustworthy ; qttog dear, vn*Q<f>llos exceedingly
dear.
REM. 3. When an abstract substantive, as TIUTJ honour for ex-
ample, is to be made negative in its signification (dishonour), an ad-
jective, as artJRO?, is commonly first formed, and from this a new
substantive mr*fUa (see no. 7.)
5. In most compounded nouns, of which the last word is an
unchanged noun or came from a noun, this indicates only the near
or remote object of the proposition, which is contained in the
whole, as dftaidaipwv .(from AElQ and falptt* the divinity) one
who fears the gods, qmoig he who has no child, childless, naxp6%{iQ
he who has a long hand, anOixog he who is removed from his own
home, an exile &c So also, with the assumption of a particular
termination of declension, TQt%tdeinvog (from rp^cu and fomvov)
he who runs after feasts, fv&vdwos he who exercises direct right
(dixrj), aTiftos he who is deprived of honour, dishonoured, xaxorj&ijg
he who has a bad character (^#oe), cpdo^Qfj^uTog he who loves mo-
ney (xwptt, /p^ara,) &c.
252 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [ 121'
6. Yet most frequently, when a compounded noun is formed
by the aid of a verb, the verb takes the last place, and receives
the termination of a noun ; and then the preceding 1 word contains
either the definite idea or the object of the action of the verb ;
as lyyohafiog he who undertakes a work, innOTQoqog he who nour-
ishes horses. The simple termination og is in compositions of this
sort the most common ; besides this we have for substantives the
terminations rig and ag of the first declension (see the examples
119. 8. d) ; and for adjectives, ijs of the third, as evfttefrrjg he
who learns well ; also the other terminations of nouns, mentioned
in 119. 8, as vopo&tTrjg from vopog and T/#I?/U, &c.
7. From all such first compositions, other words are again form-
ed by derivation, as aTiftta, dtioi&xiftovla, vopoflfaia, i'0|wo#*z-
xog &c. and in like manner the compounded verbs mentioned in
no. 3, as innoT^ogje'co from innoiQQcpog, {vnafitco from fvna&w,
&c.
8. Among the changes which sometimes take place in the se-
cond word in the composition, it is particularly to be observed,
that the words which begin with short a, or with e and o, very fre-
quently assume an rj or w ; yet this does not apply to verbs com-
pounded with prepositions in the manner described in no. 2, but
does apply to the nouns derived from the same, and also to verbs
compounded in the second manner (no. 3) ; as vnyxoof obedient
from vncwovW xaTJiyogog accuser, xctTtiyoptw to accuse (from
xr and uyoQa, dyope ucu); svrivtfjLog from avt[iog, dugfyarog from
ihavvco, uvw[4.0Tog from opvvpt>, &c. Those from ovopa, more-
over, change the second o into t>, as avtavvftog, evtovvfios &c.
9. In relation to the accent, the general rule is, that the ac-
cent of the simple word (according to the established analogy
23. 2. a.) is thrown by composition as far back as the nature of
the accent will permit. So e- g. from Ttxvov, &fog, we have
yrioTfKvog, qdo&cog- from odog, vvvodog* fro*n nalg naidos
comes anaig anaidog' from r^(% ccTipog* from txutQog, nag&-
. vog, come qp*AV^off, tvnaQ&fvog' from ncudtVTog come unaidev-
&c.
121.] COMPOSITION OP WORDS. 253
REM. 4. Words which are not themselves compounded, but are
derived from compounded words, follow in their accent the gen-
eral analogy of their terminations ; thus the abstract verbals in r\
and a, as aiMoyjJ, 7T^o?gop, from <n/AA*Va, npogqt'go). So too
from a&xo, adtxttv^ comes adlxijr**Q9' from nccQotvvto TrayoZv-
Gpos' from nQQgdo*qv, npogdoxrjTog. But when compositions are
again made from these, the accent is thrown back, as dnQQodo-
XIJTO?.
REM 5. Compounded words of which the first half is formed
from a noun, the second from a transitive verb, with the simple
termination o? (not ro, vog, and the like) usually have, when
their signification is active, the accent on the verb ; but when pas-
sive^ on the syllable preceding the verb. E. g.
throwing stones,
thrown at with stones.
PART II.
SYNTAX.
122.
1. The syntax teaches the use of the parts of speech, whose
formation has been shown in the preceding part of the grammar,
in the following order, viz. noun, verb, particle, as stated above 31.
2. We shall accordingly treat of, 1st. The noun in itself, and
connected with other kindred forms ; 2d. The noun in connex-
ion ; 3d. The verb ; 4th. Particles ; 5th. Phrases and construc-
tions of a more complicated character.
123. THE NOUN.
1. Every thing joined to the substantive of the nature of an
adjective whether adjective, participle, pronoun, or article
must agree with it in gender, number, and case.
REMARK. In the Attic dialect, however, the feminine dual com-
monly is joined with masculine adjectives, as a^co TOVTW TO) pf-
yaho) notes, for ctfMjpct) ravca TCI psyctka notes.
2. The adjective is often found without any substantive, with
which it may agree, the substantive having been omitted, or being
easy to be supplied by the mind. In this case the adjective is said
to be used substantively. E. g. o ooyog the wise man, *?' avvdoog
sc. yfj the desert, y QQ&r} sc. odog the straight road, ol noMoi the mul-
titude, TU Ificc my property. So also the pronouns ovTog, lusivog,
rig, &c.
124. THE PREPOSITIVE ARTICLE.
1 . When the substantive is represented as a definite object, it
regularly takes the prepositive article o, r t , TO, the.
125.] ARTICLE. 255
2. The indefinite article of modern languages is not expressed -
in Greek. When, however, an indefinite object is to be distinctly
pointed out as an individual, the pronoun Tig, TI, is made use of.
E. g. yvvrj Tig oovtv tl%tv a certain woman had a hen.
3. Proper names receive the article, as 6 ^(oxgaTrjg, at 217
*A&rivtu. It is however very often omitted, and always, when a
more precise distinction with an article follows, as JSwxodr??? o
REM. 1. The Greeks use the article in many cases where the
modern languages do not, and also often omit it, although the ob-
ject is definite With possessive pronouns, however, the use is in-
variable ; thus oog dovhog, (like fovAoe aov) can mean only a
slave of thee ; o odg dovkog (like o dovhog aov) means thy slave.
REM. 2. In the older dialect, o, ij, TO was rather a demonstra-
tive pronoun (see below 126), and the substantives for the most
part stood without the article, where we use the, as they do al-
ways in Latin. The more recent common dialect also frequently
omits it.
125.
1. The article is very often divided from its substantive, not
only by the adjective, (as o' fityag fta9tteu the great king, oi
vnuQ%ovTtg vonot, the existing laws,) but also by other qualifications
of the substantive, as IfifftvqTO Trjg Iv pavta dictTQifirig he remem-
bered the time passed in insanity. Often a participle, like ytvontvij
&LC. may in these phrases be supplied by the mind ; e. g.
77 noog TttAaras juap7 ;
77 nQlv a(j'ai, uvTOv dyery the virtue exhibited
by him before he reigned.
2. When the qualification thus interposed begins again with an
article, two and even three articles may stand in this way togeth-
er, if no cacophony ensue ; e. g.
TO Tyg dofTrig xaMog the beauty of virtue.
6 TO. Trjg notewg noay^dTa UQUTTMV.
TOVTO Tijg ^4&f]vag ctyah/ua loyaoa^fvov.
evo%og I'OTOJ rq> Trjg TWV tfav&fpow q,&ooug VOJ.IM.
3. These qualifications of the substantive mav for greater
256 SYNTAX. [ 125.
emphasis or clearness come after, in which case the article is
usually repeated, and with participles must be repeated ; e. g.
TOV nalda TOV oov thy son.
6 %iM&Q%Q$ o Tag dyyfUagflgxo(Aia)v the commander
who is to bring the despatches.
ovvfifii dv&pconots Tolg ayu&olg I associate -with good men.
REIM. 1. The repetition of the article is necessary with the
participle ; for otherwise the phrase becomes what is called the
participial construction, which occurs very frequently in Greek, and
will be explained below in 145.
REM. 2. When the adjective without an article stands before
218 the article of the substantive, the object is thereby distinguished
not from others, but from itself under other qualifications, asijtfcro
Inl nKowtloig rolg noMiais signifies, not ' he rejoiced in the rich
citizens,' but, he rejoiced in the citizens being ricA, or inasmuch, as
they 'were rich. So fn xpb* Tolg vpeaw on the mountains where
they are highest i. e. quite up the mountains; okiyv tr\v VVMTU the
whole night.
4. When the substantive is understood from the connexion, it
is often omitted, and the article stands alone with the qualification,
as o quo? ndi^Q xal o TOV yikov my father and the father of my
friend.
REM. 3. Here too are to be noticed certain standing omissions,
as in the case of the adjective 123. 2. E. g.
^te|tt?^pO o (inKlnTtov (sc. vlog son) or simply
JEfupfjOviaMv the son of Sophroniscus, i. e. Socrates.
elg vr]v QJdiJiTiot' (sc ywpai/,) into the land of Philip.
to, rrjg nokfwg (sc. Ti^ay^ara,) as above & 123. 2 TU Ifid.
^See 128. 2.
01 Iv ctam. the people in the city.
TO: iAu.ru Uavoavlav the affairs of Pausanias.
TO, fig TOV TlOAf^OV.
ol GUV TM puaihti.
b. As every qualification, though indeclinable in itself, maybe
declined by aid of the article, adverbs without farther change are
converted into adjectives by its being joined to them, as from
v between comes o (Jtion-v Tonog the intervening place ; from
near, al nfkug xojfAai the neighbouring villages.
01 TOlf (XV&fjOJTJOl.
ol 7?cU(/. aoqot audio tg.
V] Ufa) nokig the upper city.
tig tOv VLVWTO.IW Tonov^ see ^115. 6-
J toU<f>t>f]$ f-ietuoiciGis the sudden removal
126.] ARTICLE. 257
Or so, that the adverb with a repetition of the article follows,
as oiut i'yfi'jtfiji'f lx ir^ dpffaiug TUVT^S Tr t g uyuv when ye awaken
from this excessive negligence.
REM. 4. If in this case the substantive, which suggests itself
from the context or the idea itself, be omitted, the adverb acquires
the character -of a substantive, as from avpw* tomorrow, by the
omission of yftfoa day, is -t] avytov the morrow ; r\ ^ivdiOTi the
Lydian mode, (uyfiovta being omitted) ; ol TOTf the men of that age ;
t rovnt'oai (for TO 0*71/00) behind, backward, where [4tf>o$ part,
may be regarded as omitted ; although in the case of a neuter
article, it is neither necessary nor possible always to supply a par-
ticular substantive.
REM. 5. By another peculiarity, the article TO, with whatever 219
it is attached to, becomes adverbial, some word being omitted, as
TO T tktv i alov finally, TUVVV (that is, rd vvv) for the present, TCI
dno Tovdt from henceforth. Compare 131. 8.
6. From all these cases, in which various parts of speech and
even phrases acquire the character of substantives, by virtue of
the remaining article of an omitted idea, are to be distinguished
two cases, in which such -words and phrases become substantives,
by virtue of an article peculiar to themselves, viz.
1) The infinitives, as TO nyaTTew the doing, TO xaxcuff Itycw
the speaking ill, jjdofuxt TGJ itfQKiufelv I take pleasure in walk-
ing. How extensive this use of the infinitive is in the Greek
language will appear from 141.
2) Every word and phrase, which is itself considered as a
subject, as TO foycj the word Af'yW XQtjTai TW Fvw&i, aavTOv he
uses the maxim, know thyself.
126. OF 0, ij, TO, AND 6V, %> 0\ AS DEMONSTRATIVE.
1. Not only the prepositive article o', if, TO, but the postposi-
tive b'g, ii, o, were in the elder dialect used as demonstrative pro-
nouns for ovTog or txs7voe, which usage remained particularly in
the language of epic poetry.
2. The same usage also remained in the common language in
certain cases, particularly in the division and distinction of objects.
In this case, o' piv commonly stands first, and afterwards once or
33
258 SYNTAX. [ 127
- . - , - 1 - . -- : - --^_
oftener 6 dt, this that ; or (when speaking of indefinite objects) the
one the other another, &c. through all genders and numbers, e. g.
10 v fitf fr/'/uo, rov dt ov, he honours this one, that one not.
TO ptv yap avoi}Tov, TO dt pavixov, the one action is foolish,
the other insane.
rcov (iTOUTtajTwi 1 (or also oi arpcmcorca) oi fAtv txvfifvov,
ol dt inwov, oi dt eyvpvtiovTO, of the soldiers some played
at dice, some drank, some exercised themselves.
TMV ojwv TO. [4ti> t%ti, nodus, ia d' ioilv anoda.
ttotloaov xwAouiff nt'vtoftcur] xaxcog n\ovTtlv TO /utV yao &c-
ov, TO <f Initlfiijaiv (f-iyet.
Isocrates says of the Athenians, who, on account of the ex-
cessive population, were sent to settle colonies, that in
22Q this way, i'otoaav a^OTtQovg, xcu rovg
4JiV(titzet<S' TO!<S ^tv yay l^a.vr t v TV\V otxoi
, xol$dt nhtiw Trj<s
REM. 1. The postpositive article (o$ {itv, off ^* /wfV, dt,
&c.) is thus used, but less frequently, as noteig 'imyvidag, ug (Atv
avcuQwv, tig ag dt TOvg qvyddug xuTaywv, destroying some of the
cities of Greece and reinstating the exiles in others. DEMOSTHENES.
3. In narration o, tj, TO, is often used only once with dt', in ref-
erence to an object already named, as o dt tint, but he said; T^V
dt &.no%MQriGai, (accusative with infinitive) but that she went away.
REM. 2. When persons are spoken of as the subject, such a
clause may be connected by xa/, in which case in the nominative
the postpositive article o, r t , oi', ai, but in the accusative (with Jhe
infinitive^ TOV of the prepositive, is used ; as xcu off* a'xotW? Tavra,
tv avTOv IK Trjg Tcitwg he hearing this, thrust himfrom the rank;
oi',dta^v&tvTtg r ,tgt(3(xivov tg Tag vrjug (HERODOTUS). xatToV
dovvcu and that he commanded to give it him.
127. PRONOUNS AND THE ADJECTIVE TTttff.
1. The three chief meanings of the pronoun avTog (see 74-
2.) are to be distinguished as follows.
I. It signifies self.
a) When it belongs to another noun so as to be in a sort of
apposition with it, that is, after the noun, or before its article,
as juaAAop TOVTO (pofiovficci ?} TOV fiavcxTOv CIVTOV I fear this
more than death itself; avTOv TOV fiaoihia mnvtu tpovhtTO he
wished to slay the king himself.
127.] PRONOUNS. 259
6) When it stands for myself., himself, &c. the personal pro-
noun being omitted, as the context shows. In this way espe-
cially it is used in the nominative, as avTog tyf) he himself has
said it ; TTaofyfvoftqv avTog I myself went ; and in the oblique
cases only when they begin a clause, as UVTOV y&Q tldov for
I saw him myself.
II. It is used instead of the simple pronoun of the third per-
son only in the oblique cases ; and in this signification can stand
only after other words in the clause, as tdwxtv avToig TO nvg he
gave them fire ; Qvy tcooaxag avrov hast thou not seenhim? TO df~
@a Aivfty itont*i exffvos fit UVTO xoc'&iiA.coGfv, he gave the skin to
JEetes, and he nailed it. See also no. 6.
III. When the article immediately precedes it, it means the,
same, as 6 avrog dvr]Q the same man, Ixfteuos TO UVTO (or rauro)
noielv he commanded him to do the same thing. Compare 133. 2.
2. In the reflective pronouns tpavTOv, OUVTOV &c. (see 74.
3.) the pronoun UVTOQ loses its peculiar power. AVIQV ae means
thee thyself, but otavrov merely thee, as a reflected pronoun, as
t&ie OCCVTOV accustom thyself. It is also used, like the Latin se,
to refer back to the first subject of two connected clauses, as vofti-
u Tovg noKliaq V7irjofTf7i> tavTW he thinks that his fellow citizens
serve him. In this case the simple aviov, as also the simple t,
(ov, &c. 0<f~i$, oqa^,) may equally be used.
3. The indefinite pronoun Tig is used in the same sense as the
French on and the German man, as av&gwnov avuidiaTtQOv ovx
civ Tig evgoi, even where it is applied to a whole assembly or col-
lection, as r^dri Tig tnidfixvvTO) totvTOv, that is, each one must now
put himself forward.
REMARK. The neuter TI often passes into a particle of limita-
tion, in some degree, hence ovTt, prjii, not at all
4. "^AAo?, without the article, is equivalent to the Latin alius,
another ; tTtpog, without the article, has the same signification,
but with a stronger expression of diversity ; 6 iTtQoq, on the other
hand, is used only when two are spoken of, and is the Latin alter,
the other ; compare 78. In the plural, allot, means others, oi al-
260 SYNTAX. [ 128.
Ao* the others, ceteri, the rest. Ol tie^oi implies a more distinct ref-
erence to a division into two parts, as it were, the other party. The
singular o AAo expresses a whole with the exception of a certain
part in contrast with it, as r\ uMtj #wp the rest of the land.
5. The most of the pronouns, and the adjectives nag and dnag
stand commonly before the article or after the substantive, as
TOVTOJV TMV avd(j(uv of these men, 6 avr^o ourog this man, dtxyvi'Ti-
ve xavTTjv he sneered this punishment, ndvrtg ol " EMyvtg all the
Greeks, T(O drjftM dnavxt, to the "whole people Hag in the singular
without the article commonly stands for i'xaarog, as nag dvriQ each
man.
6. The possessives of the third person (og, aytTtpog) are but
little used. Instead of them use is made of the genitives of the
pronoun aviog, as TCI %yi]uaTa avTOi>,avTrjg, aviwv, his, her, their
property. Also of the two other persons, the genitive is often used
instead of the possessive, but in the singular number only the en-
clitic genitive, as o vlog pov my son. As soon, however, as any
emphasis is required, the possessive alone can be used. But to
this is sometimes added a genitive, by a sort of apposition, as diag-
nd^ovai ra Ipa, rov xaxodatftovog, they plunder the property of me
the miserable. But most commonly, the possessive is altogether
omitted in ideas that always stand in necessary connexion, as fa-
ther, son, friend, master, hand, foot, &c. and its place is supplied by
the article alone.
128. OF THE NEUTER ADJECTIVE.
1. The neuter of all words of the adjective kind stands without
a substantive, or as such, for every object conceived or represent-
ed as indefinite ; and particularly, as in Latin, extensive use is
made of the neuter plural, e- g.
ilnt TavTa he said this (these things).
ta %a\a the beautiful (that is, all beautiful things.)
ovdt xd dvayxatu dvvavxat, nopjfeo&ui, they cannot earn even
the necessaries of life.
Hence e. g. ra tfiu also signifies not only my things, but in
general, what concrens me.
129.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 261
2. The neuter singular on the other hand, expresses more dis-
tinctly the abstract idea of the objects, e. g.
TO xa\6v the beautiful, in the abstract.
TO dtlov the divinity, and also every divine nature indistinct-
ly conceived.
TO Ttjg yvvatxo? doukov xcu &f oanf VTIXOV the servile and sub-
ject nature of woman.
REM. 1. The neuter of the article standing alone with the gen-
itive ( 125 Rem. 3.) is still more indefinite, and signifies only a
reference, as TO dt TOJV %QT][AUT<OV [ict).i<iTu no&MTe dxovoai, noaa
xal Tio&fv tOTcxi,in respect to money, you are particularly desirous of
knotting how much and whence it is ; TO. TOJV &fajv qtQtw di7 it is
necessary to bear what comes from the gods.
REM. 2. Of the neuter adjective as an adverb, see above in
115. 4, 5.
THE NOUN IN CONNEXION.
129. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
1. The nominative of the neuter plural is generally joined with
a verb singular, e. g.
TCI eua TO?yti> animals run.
TttVTa IGTIV ayu&a this is good.
'udAhpfx/w yu&TO TO. noaypaTa the affairs of the Athenians
increased.
tGTi TUVTV this w, i. e. this is true.
TOJV OVTOJV T(X [AfV fGTIV Ity* ^IIV^ TCC d' OVX t(f yfiiv, (t(f
i\iuv in our power}.
2. When the adjective, being a predicate, is separated from
the substantive, it is often neuter, though the substantive be mas-
culine or feminine, and singular, though the substantive be plural ;
the ^bject, in this case, being considered as a thing in general, and
the word thing being easily supplied.
^ virtue is praiseworthy.
ydv, fir dviaoov -naldeg ytyvovTut, ayvotl.
3. As the dual is not a necessary number ( 33. 2), every sen-
tence which speaks of two, may not only be wholly in the plural.
but in the same clause a plural verb may be joined to a dual noun
and vice versa, and different predicates or references to the sub-
ject may, as euphony dictates, be either dual or plural
262 SYNTAX, [ 130.
4. The subject, as in Latin, is commonly omitted where it is
known of course from the verb or the connexion, and no * stress is
laid on it ; and where, in the modern languages, its place is sup-
plied by the personal pronouns.
REM. 1. The subject thus omitted may however be in apposi-
tion with something else expressed, as o dt Mulug trig" ^T^UVTOQ
diaxovov 1*0.1 auto!?, that is, and I, the son of Maia the daughter
of Atlas, "wait on them.
REM. 2. The subject is also omitted, where the verb expresses
an action usually performed by said subject, as Galnlfci or atjpai-
vfi the trumpeter gives a signal. This usage also prevails where we
supply it, and mean an operation of nature or of circumstances, e. g.
vti> it rains.
nQoaypaivti it announces itself (as in the air.)
tdylwGt df and so it showed itself.
REM. 3. What are commonly called impersonate, that is, verbs
that belong to no subject or person, are different from the forego-
ing. In them the subject is not, as in the foregoing, left in obscu-
rity, but the action, to which they refer, whether expressed by an
infinitive or another dependent clause, is the true subject of such
verbs, whose peculiarity therefore consists in this alone, that their
subject is not a noun (as an infinitive with the article is also regar-
ded), e. g. i'>i [tot, ctTiitvui i. e. ro antfvui tttOTi pot, the going
away is lawful to me. Of this kind are &?, %(jr t , an6%<jr], doxei
(see all these in the list of anomalous verbs), nytnft it becomes,
lvtii%tTui it is possible, Sic.
5. When the nominative stands without the verb, some part of
is commonly to be supplied, e. g.
' E\\riv tyw I am a Greek.
ra TOJV qittwv xotvd.
Mvldri ov Q&diov dmOTfiv oocjpog yaQ XKI &(lo$ o
yiO 71&G%IV OTIOVV CTOlfiOG (SC. ttjK?), tttV jMlJ
130. THE OBJECT. - OBLIQUE CASES.
1. The object of an action, or that on which any action is
exerted or to which it refers, must be either in the genitive, da-
tive, or accusative case ; and these three are called oblique ca-
ses.
130.] OBLIQUE CASES. 2G3
2. The immediate object of B. transitive verb, that on which the
action is exerted, is usually in the accusative case, as Aa^avcu TI}V
uamSu I take the shield; the remote object which is found togeth-
er with the accusative and also after an intransitive verb, is join-
ed with a preposition, as Aa/</? ixa TIJV affnida a no T ov naa-
a A o v I take the shield from the nail ; i'oTrjxa tv r co iday it
I stand on the ground.
3. Of such relations as form a remote object, those which most
frequently recur are usually expressed by a case only ; and in
Greek, all three of the oblique cases are used in this manner.
4. Yet languages which have a genitive and dative, differ from
one another in this respect, and a preposition is often used in the
one, where the other uses only a case.
REM. 1. When in Greek a relation is expressed by a case mere-
ly, without a preposition, it must by no means be inferred, that a
preposition was ever used in such cases and afterwards omitted
for the sake of brevity.
5. In the ancient languages, both the near and the remote ob-
ject, when mention of them has already been made, and the rela-
tion of the verb to them is sufficiently clear, are very frequently
omitted (just as in other instances the subject of the verb, or the
possessive 127. 6); and in this manner the 'excessive use of
pronouns is avoided.
v 1} 6' OLV TQtV (fvXtoJV 7lkt7OTOl MGtV UvdoiXOJTCtTOl) I
oiv ol notiTat (here tuvtyv is understood before tnaivovaiv.)
tTtay/friaiiti'Ov TOV '^//^otAaot' T^V (nparttav Agesilaus offer-
ing to take the command of the army didouoiv ol x
(sc- aur) bouTito r ( n]Q^v.^
QV ?]v 'idy TU? %lQu$ ovx dqt'ZfTai (sc. aV avrov).
Yet the pronouns may be expressed, whenever emphasis or ha?-
mony can thus be gained.
Rem. 2. Another case of the omission of the object, is that of
the reflective pronoun Mrvro*, Ipuviov &c. which occurs or may
be assumed, wherever a verb otherwise transitive in its significa-
tion, becomes intransitive in certain connections ; as, for example,
several compounds of uyfiv to lead, in which the intransitive idea
to ffo prevails, yet with an allusion to a train or multitude, as ts-
rye odov, noog&yovTOS rov TVOUVVOV, he -went out of the
264 SYNTAX. [ 131.
way, as the tyrant drew near (as it were, moved himself forwards).
Such cases are explained in the lexicon ; yet it is to be observed,
that the omission oftavvov is not always to be presumed, since it
is frequently more correct to suppose that the verb had originally
the immediate as well as the causative signification (according to
113. 5), as in OQHUV to hasten and to impal.
131. ACCUSATIVE.
1. The most obvious use of the accusative, as designating the
near or immediate object ( 130. 2) needs no further explanation,
and we therefore limit ourselves to the cases, in which the usage
of the Greek differs from that of other languages.
REM. 1. The cases in which the noun appears as the near ob-
ject of the verb in the Greek language and not in others, must be
learnt from use and the lexicon ; an example is TOV$ &fov$ aifioofv,
where we say, he swore by the gods. Other verbs which in Greek
take an accusative as the near object and in English are govern-
ed by a preposition, are Kuv&avtiv (rivet) to lie concealed from,
ttnofiidQCtOtttw (r^t/a) to escape from.
2. Intransitive verbs are sometimes used transitively, and are
joined with an accusative case, as at nyyai ptovoi yaha xca /u*'A&
the fountains flow milk and honey.
3. Intransitive verbs govern an accusative of the noun, which
expresses the abstract of the verb, e. g.
xivdvvivGu TOVTOV xov xivdvvov I 'will incur this danger.
y fiiov ijdiGTOv he lives a most pleasant life.
TOV nokepov n
rjv ydixovv 6.
99 ;>
vxvv vnvov
naaav
4. The Greeks also use the accusative in many phrases, for
that which, according to the nature of the thought and the words,
is the remote object. Thus the near object of notflv is the action,
of Xtytiv the words ; the remote object of each is the person to
whom something is done or said ; nevertheless, the Greeks always
say xxcu noiflv rwa to do a person evil, xaxo> fo'yftv rwd to
speak ill of any one, to slander him. There are some verbs which
permit either of the two relations to be used as the near object ;
131.] ACCUSATIVE. 265
as in English to fold, e. g. he folds himself (in the cloak), and he
folds the cloak (round himself.)
5. From these two cases the peculiarity of the Greek usage is
to be explained, that all such verbs have both these relations in
the accusative case. In other words : Many verbs, especially such
as signify to do, to speak, to clothe, to deprive, to beg, to ask, $<:.
govern two accusatives, of which the one usually denotes the person,
the other the thing ; e. g.
it 7iot,ii<Jio avion ; what shall I do to him.
TroAAd uya&u vqv nohv i~ioir t Gtv he has done the state much
service.
diduGxouai rot'? ncudu? GwqQOOuvriv they teach the youths
probity.
yov'jituTU r t Tr t Gav.
tivd lov yiTMva.
Tiuu. xupfiuTtvus to put coarse shoes upon a person.
ov rr t v Wi"/r t v d(f ft If TO from whom he hath taken life.
tTf^ov nuidu txdvaag %ircai>a, xov tuvrov exi'ivov
tjv vavv
TOVIO
ov at
6. The noun signifying the part, circumstance, or object, of
which any thing is affirmed, is put in the accusative, e. g.
Aof? lott TO oojfia, he is comely in person.
odus <wxf swift of foot.
no velv TO, ax^'X// to suffer in the legs.
ci\<Z tui yi>(i&<ji'2 I am afflicted in the jaws.
jro TO, TOV noki-fiov admirable in warlike affairs.
i]v ti]v TiuTQida he was a Syrian as to his country.
Tovvopa. Socrates by name.
REM. 2. This is the Greek construction so familiar to the Latin
poets, as 05 humerosque deo similis. Sometimes a preposition, as
xcaa, is actually expressed to govern one of the accusatives; and
as a preposition must commonly be supplied in English, the learn-
er is often taught to say, that one of these accusatives is governed
by a preposition understood. It is so common a construction, how-
ever, that it ought to be taught as a principle of the language.
Compare 130 Rem. 1. 134 Rem. 3.
7. The accusative of the pronoun is found in this way with
verbs, which would not admit a similar accusative of the noun,
e.g.
34
266 SYNTAX. [ 132.
i avTwfor what shall I use it ?
olda O,TI ooi xpwpcct, I know not for what I shall employ
thee.
tvdui[JiovHv to be happy in all things.
226 REM. 3. To the two preceding rules are to be referred ^instan-
ces of the double accusative, like the following, evixyof TOV? /?(>-
fidpovs T?]V $v MaQuQtovi f4(x)[tjv he conquered the barbarians in
the battle at Marathon. TCI {ityiora wqrfA^dfr* TTJV noktv. rcoA-
Ac /ue t]d!xr]Gfv he has injured me in many respects.
For the accusative joined to the passive and middle, see below
134, 135.
8. The noun expressing duration of time or measure of dis-
tance, is put in the accusative, e. g.
nokuv XQOVQV napt'ftttvfv he remained a long time.
xu&r t vTO iv Maxfdovla Tprig oKovq ^vag they remained in
Macedonia three whole months.
TO, TioAAa xu&frufei he sleeps the greater part of the time.
dtxa OTadiovg it is ten stadia distant.
REM. 4. Certain adjectives and pronominals of the neuter gen-
der, standing in the midst of a clause and rendered in other lan-
guages adverbially or with a preposition, are put in the accusative
case, e.g.
TOvvavTiov (for TO ivavxiov.} OVTOQ de, nav TOVVUVTIOV, 77-
fiovkfTO jri*V, o vx ydvvuTO di\ but /ie, 071 the contrary, wish-
ed but could not.
TO fafdfifvov. AA* ?J, TO foyopivov, XUTOTUV eopnjg ^'xo-
fAtv ; but do we, according to the proverb, come after the
feast?
TO TOV noiyTOv &c. AA yap, TO TOV noir]TOv,tpyov ovdtv
ovudog, but, as the poet saith, no labour is a reproach.
132. GENITIVE.
1. The most familiar use of the genitive with another substan-
tive belongs to the Greek as to other languages. Those uses of
the genitive are accordingly given here, which are more peculiar
to the Greek, especially those in which it is united with verbs, ad-
jectives, and adverbs.
2. The genitive includes in its leading signification, the idea
of the prepositions of and from.
$ 132.] GENITIVE. 26T
3. The genitive is used in the following cases, viz.
a) With most verbs signifying to liberate, to restrain, to cease, ,
to differ; e. g.
anaMaTTfw tivu. voaov to free one from a disease.
fipytiv Tiva Tr t q ^aAa'aa^ff to keep one from the sea.
navtw TIVO. TIOIXJDV to cause one to cease from his troubles.
tiiyfiv TJjg &r)Qa<s to cease from the chase.
af.iciQTfiv odov to fail of the way.
dt,ucfjtQtt,v TOJV a'AAooi' to differ from others.
apyatv aya&o* ovdfv diutyt'pfi na.TQO$ ayu&ov a good ruler
diners in nothing from a good father. (With respect to
ovdtv see 131. 7.)
b) The genitive is used in all expressions implying choice, ex-
ception, and part, viz.
(l) With adjectives and pronouns by which the object is dis- 227
tinguished from others, e. g.
fiovos av&QOJ7i(t)v alone of all men.
ovdtig Ek\Y\vwv not one of the Greeks.
oi (fQOvipOl TOJV av&gwnow the prudent part of mankind.
TUV dvdpatv ro7g xaAo?? xa/u^-o?^ alptiaJTfpov laTt &uvf7v
TJ dov\fvtiv. See also the above mentioned example (
130. 5) Iv r t d' av TWV (pvlwv in which of the (different)
tribes, i. e. in which tribe.
Particularly with a,ll superlatives, e. g.
17 fifyiGirj TWV vdawv avaidfia shamelessness is the greatest, of
maladies.
navzoav T^UICOTUTOV IGIIV dvriQ <$i\og avvfrog Tf
(2) In statements of time and place, given as parts of a larger
duration or extension, e. g.
TQI r^? rjntQas thrice daily.
onoTf TOV tTOvs at what time in the year?
HUT t%f7vo xaioov at that point of time.
noi yy? ag.ix6(ii^v to what part of the earth have I come ? (like
ubi terrarum ?)
7iavia%ov Trjs d/opa? every where in the market.
]G 9Jfa*iB9 advanced in years.
(3) Wherever any thing is limited to a part, as ptTcari pot TWV
nQaypttTOw I have a part in the business ; and hence wherever the
idea of somewhat or a part can be supplied, e. g.
268 SYNTAX.
cot, xwv xyyftatwv I have given thee of my wealth-
(4) The noun expressive of the thing eaten, drunken,, enjoyed,
profited of, in the most general sense, e. g.
la&i'fiv %QMi>, Tiii-fiv uduiog, (to&itm r a * Q iu would sig-
nify to devour the flesh, viz. all of it ; and nl-veiv vd(DQ
may mean, to be a wuter-drinker.^
anoKuvfw TIVOQ to enjoy a thing.
dvivao&cti Tivog to profit of any thing.
c) The material of which any thing is made, is in the genitive,
even if the idea of to make is expressed ; e. g.
ati<pavtfs vaKivftwv a wreath of hyacinths.
tt>o$ M&QV nav nfTioiijTat' it is all made of one stone.
228 d) Quality or circumstance is put in the genitive, e. g.
divdQQv TToAAto*' tiwv a tree of many years.
-v\v yd(j dsKoftarog (Afydhovfor he was of greatest esteem.
4. The following classes of words also take the genitive, viz.
a) Adjectives derived from verbs take the object of the verb
in the genitive ; e. g.
from liiiGTaG&al TI to understand a thing, comes
TWOS understanding in a thing.
from $twu(siv rt, to investigates thing, comes
xivoqfilfor the investigation of a thing.
ol TiyaxTMoi itov dwalcav (from ra dtxaia).
b) Words expressive of abundance or -want, value or worthless-
ness, e. g.
ftoQvfiov full of confusion.
tart, TO yv qyovTidojv life is full of cares.
%@i)/LictTajv to be in "want of money. Hence, also,
when dflo&at, means beg, it governs the genitive of the
person, as dfrffttti rtvog to beg any one that
a'j-toe Ti[.irjg worthy of honour.
c) Verbs of the following significations, viz.
remember and forget, as pt'iiviifioct TOU %QQVOV, rig a'AxiJs im-
care for, admire, and despise, as Kfj&O&W rivo$ to care for some
one,
spare,
desire, naidivows In^vf47v. x To this class belongs the verb
132.] GENITIVE. 269
Ttvog to love, with the primitive idea of desire ; but
viva denotes the idea of an inclination.
rule, excel, aYtfpcunoji/ a^e*?, ydovW xQaTtlv, ntQitivw, TOV
accuse, condemn,
All this, however, is not without various exceptions and limi-
tations, since several of these verbs may have the accusative even
in the same relation.
d) Most verbs expressive of the senses (except of sight), e. g.
ouv pvywv to smell of ointment.
vtxyov |u*J ciuTfa&ut, not to touch a corpse.
rovg fovlovq tyfvot T^S ttev&tQiu,
dxovo) Tiaidlov xAa/OfTO I hear a weeping child*
e) Especially is the genitive governed by the comparative de-
gree, e. g. - Q
(.ifi(av tpov greater than I.
IOTI TOV didctoxulov he is wiser than his master.
yiu.W.iov iuov adfig thou singest more sweetly than L
ovdtv y.Tru tan
RFM. 2. The more full construction of the comparative is that
with ?f, the Latin quam (see 150), which, however, is only used
where the genitive cannot stand.
5. In the following and other more remote references like
them, the genitive case is used, although it is common to say that
it is governed by a preposition, or other part of speech, under-
stood.
a) The more particular qualification of a general expression,
made in English by the phrase in respect of, e. g.
fyyvrara UVTW tipi yt'vovg I am very near him, in respect of
kin.
aQQtvcav -nuldfov childless in respect to male offspring.
j>/uoi>.
Under this head should be reckoned the genitives for which
tvexa on account of, is usually supplied, as et<fcu/uw/oj af TOV
I esteem thee happy on account of thy disposition.
b) The price of a thing, where nvxi may be supplied, e. g.
dyoQa&iv TI to buy a thing for a drachm.
* dxovtiv most commonly governs the accusative of the sound, and the
genitive of that which produces it ; but neither without exception.
270 SYNTAX. [ 133.
c) The time when, if indefinite and protracted, e. g.
vvxxog, r}(jiiQa.g noif7v TI, to do any thing by night, by day.
noKKwv rjntQwv ov fiffAfktTijxct I have not exercised myself for
many days.
Ixe7af OVK ayixvtiTai ITWV pvQiow he comes not thither in
ten thousand years.
REM. 3. Verbs signifying to take hold of, govern the genitive of
that part by which the whole is taken hold of, e. g.
httptiv com. hapiG&at, rwci nodog, %tt,yog, to take any one by
the foot, the hand.
xrig %ti>poe ay* lead him by the (his) hand.
TOP \vxov TWV OJTOJV xpctTo> I hold the wolf by the ears.
This, therefore, must not be confounded with kafitiv nva, %(>Qi to
seize one -with the hand.
REM. 4. Sometimes the omission of the idea on which the gen-
itive depends, is very obvious, as in the following phrases.
230 TOVTO ovx tGTiv avdpog aoqov this is not the part of a noise
man.
ov navtog fivcM not to be the part of every one.
TOJV ddlxwv loiiv it is one of the unjust acts, i. e. it is unjust.
133. DATIVE.
The dative case, the idea of which is properly the reverse of
the genitive, is regularly used in all expressions where the idea of
approach lies at the foundation, and in consequence, in most of
those where we supply the prepositions to and for. E. g. dovvat,
to give to any one, l%&yos rwt> hostile to any one, nil&tlffttu
vopoig to be obedient to the laws, &c.
2. The dative case is also used in expressions like the follow-
ing, viz.
a) Of uniting or meeting, e. g.
tivi to associate with any one.
i fivt, tofght with any one.
b) Of equality, e. g.
like any one.
Hence o e amog the same, governs the dative, e. g.
OVTOS laws 6 amog exflvo this one is the same as that.
And this even when the reference is direct, as
TO. avTa naa%(*) ooi< I suffer the same the same things as thou,
134.] DATIVE. . . . PASSIVE VOICE. 271
xara TOV avrov
c) Of benefit or injury, e. g.
Mtvekdw Tovdf 7i\ovv lGTfl\a^ev we undertook this voyage
for the ad-vantage of Menelaus.
3. The dative is also used to express 1) the instrument, 2)
the manner, 3) the cause, and 4) thejixed time, e. g.
1) %$rjG&ui Tivt, to make use of a thing.
adoy to strike with a stick.
D.r] ntnoir^ivov made with a knife.
QWGXtTUt, fit'fal 1$ TOV W(.lOV.
2) TUVTU tytvfTO Tfodf zco T go TIM this happened thus.
naorjk&ti' he came running.
onovdrj nai>TU (TtyuiTfTO.
tnparrov I did it from fear.
vootp xivi to labour with a disease.
ii'l to suffer pain at any thing.
v 7T07rA^i/ he died of apoplexy.
ov yao /o*x/ Trparrco TOVTO.
4) Trappy rr t TQtiy iqniQu he arrived the third day. 231
ti] vGTtQaiq. Tqv ^ov^v Ixcdovv the following day they called
the council.
OF THE VERB.
134. THE PASSIVE VOICE.
1. As in treating of the noun in connexion, the influence of the
verb in its first and simple form, that is, in the actii* voice, was
sufficiently explained ; it remains here only to investigate the use
of the passive and middle.
2. The passive, from its nature, has as its subject in the nomi-
native, that which followed the active voice as the near object in
the accusative. The subject or nominative of the active voice
now becomes that/rom -which I suffer ; and hence if it is express-
ed, the passive voice is followed by the genitive (with the pre-
position vno ) of what was the subject of the active voice, e. g.
Act. o './dfrtJUUvg XTfivft TOV " EV.TQQV.. Pass, o "xTO}y XT(I-
VfTCtl V7TO TOV A^I>\\tW^.
RFM. 1. Often instead of 1)710. the preposition n$og is used
272 SYNTAX. [$ 134.
with the genitive, as npog dnavrcov &fpctn?vG&tu to be served by
all. HO.QU is also sometimes used in the same sense.
REM. 2. The dative also not unfrequently stands after the
passive voice, without any preposition ; e. g.
ov ydy tig negiovGiuv inyuTTtTO avTQJg rot. T^Q nofawg the
affairs of the city were not conducted by them for their own
advantage. ^DEMOSTHENES.
r^Civ TiavTa noiehai, all has been done by us in vain.
Most commonly this takes place with the Perf. Pass, as
oot it has been well spoken by thee.
3. When the active (according to 131. 5) governs two accu-
satives, the one of the person and the other of the thing, the pas-
sive often governs the accusative of the thing; e. g.
oi nwd'fg didaoxovTai, oo)g}^oGvvrjv the children are taught
discretion.
dqpaiyf&fig Ttjv a.Qyv\v deprived of the sovereignty.
4. In such instances, the accusative of the person in the active
voice becomes the subject of the passive, and the accusative of the
thing remains as the object of the passive. Further, the remote
object of the active, expressed in the dative, often becomes the nomina-
tive of the passive, and the accusative of the active remains as the ob-
ject of the passive ; as from iniTQintw TM SOWQUTSI rr^v diui,Tioiv
to entrust to Socrates the decision, we have in the passive,
o (DxyctTi]g IniTQt'nfTttt, ir\v diaiTuv Socrates is entrusted
with the decision.
ix %fi@tov ttQnufrfiat, she is torn from my hands.
VTIO noktojg TYJV t]yff40vlav n
ttpony&tvg vn afTov Ixtlpfio TO rjnap (where xtlptiv
means to tear out.)
REM. 3. The accusative with the passive in no. 4, may often
be referred to xr understood, in the manner mentioned in
131.6, as nhyTTOftai iriv xfqalyv In other instances,, the verb,
even in the passive voice (as in the active, according to 131. 3,)
governs an accusative containing as a noun the idea of the verb,
so that something more definite, as an adjective, may be added to
it, as TvuTtTui, nhyycig noMdg, i. e. he receives many blows.
REM. 4. As the verbal adjectives in TOQ and TI 'og are of the na-
ture of the passive voice ( 102), they commonly have the sub-
ject of the active voice in the dative case, according to Rem. 2
above ; e. g.
>).] MIDDLE VOICE. 273
TOVTO ov Qifiov IOTI [tot, this is not to be spoken by me.
rj noki? (a(ff^,TjTfa GUI fan, the city ought to be served by thee.
Yet very commonly the dative, when it is general in its na-
ture, is omitted ; e. g.
Ivxiog o loiovxog vopog %al ovx tart'os xvpws tivut.
The neuter of the verbal in rtog, both with and without IOTIV,
corresponds to the Latin gerund in dum, (faciendum est,) e. g.
TUVTU nuvTu Tiot^iiov pot, all this must I do.
rolg t.oyotg nQoqtXTtov TQV vovv ioitv.
135. MIDDLE VOICE.
1. In explaining the use of the Middle Voice, it is necessary
to distinguish between Middle inform and Middle in signification ;
for the usage of the Greek language is by no means regular, in
discriminating between the significations of the Passive and Mid-
dle Voices, even in those tenses, which have a separate form for
each voice ; so that under the name Middle, we cannot always con-
sider both form and signification at the same time. In the syntax, a
true middle has always a middle signification with a passive form.
REM. 1. This statement includes of course also the passive
aorist of all those verbs, where it has a middle signification. See
below.
2. That the leading signification of the Middle Voice is the
reflective, and that this arises naturally from the signification of the
passive, has been shown above in 89. 1. The proper reflective
signification, moreover, is that in which the subject of the verb is
also its nearest object, and stands in the accusative with the active
voice, as Aot'co icvot, I wash any one, fovficti Pass. / am "washed,
Mid. / "wash myself, that is, / bathe. So also an<xy%tiv, andy^ai
TIVU to strangle any one, to hang, Mid. anuy%to&ai, a7iay$aa&ai, to
hang one's self. So ttnt'^fiv, dnoa%fw, to restrain, Mid. oragtiKtaf)
(X7ioG%ta{tai, to restrain one's self, i. e. refrain. This true reflec-
tive meaning of the Middle Voice prevails, however, in but very
few verbs ; principally in those which express some familiar cor-
poreal actions like dress^ sheer, crown, &c. All other verbs, when
35
bYNTAX. 135.
the reflective sense is to be expressed, require the pronoun
ffttiVTOV, tCXVTO* &C.
3. The reflective sense of a verb may often more convenient-
ly be stated as a new simple intransitive signification, so that the
middle voice of many verbs becomes an intransitive ; as avtMtiv
to send, GTtM.ta&at, to send one's self i. e. to journey ; nuv^v to put
to rest, Tiavfaftcu, to put one's self to rest 'i. e. to cease ; nlafclp to
drive about (any one), 7iAtt'&(7i9a to wander ; tvw%tiv to regale
any one, 6 violation, to revel
4. But, on the other hand, the middle often becomes a true
transitive verb. This is particularly the case where the active
voice has two objects ; as ivdtftiv TIVU %iTtova to clothe one in a
robe, Mid. IvduGao&at, %ITWVO. to put on a robe (on one's self.)
Hence the following rule, viz.
The middle voice often governs the accusative precisely as
the active voice governs it; e. g.
ntQuiovv TWO, to carry one over (a river.) Mid. nfQmovG&a.i
233 t carry one's self over, i. e. to pass, which middle verb, thus
signifying actively to pass, governs its accusative, as nftjuiov-
G&CCI iov T'ly^iv to pass the Tigris.
qofitiv Ttt'U to affright any one, (fo(3{7o&ui (to affright one's
self), that is, to fear. Accordingly ty+feiG&eu rovg &tovg to
fear the gods.
TtK\tiv to pluck, TiMstpO-ai to pluck one's self, i. e. to pull out
one's own hair ; and, since this is an action of mourning, TI\-
kio&ai Ttvcc signifies to mourn for any one by tearing the hair.
5. When the active governs two objects, the middle often re-
tains one in the accusative ; e. g.
hvGaoftai- TTjV wvt]v to unfasten one's girdle.
hpvvae&u: TI]V xfqcdt'iv to wash one's head.
u.y.ivu.Y,riv TiaAca naptaxfvuGfttvtj ocfotTTfi tavrrjv.
Among middle verbs of this class also, there are many from
which a new simple and transitive .sense arises, as ne$tta&a* rt
to procure something for one's self, i. e. to acquire.
6. Sometimes, when the active governs two accusatives, the
middle retains both, with the addition of the reflective sense ; e. g.
alrta Gf TOVTO I ask thee this (without its being defined
whether for my own sake or another's.)
l ae TOVTO I ask thee this for myself
135.] MIDDLE VOICE. 275
7. In general any remote reference of the action to the sub-
ject may be expressed by the middle voice ; e. g.
Ijro^fTfva} I lead through pipes upon or into, tno^trevo^ai 1
draw into myself.
xkaiflv id nd&r] Tivog to weep for any one's sufferings, ixKav-
odfirjv TO, nd-fty I weep for my own sufferings.
ftul riva. to make some person one's ally.
qrt'?.CKxa to place guards for one's own sake.
TI to raise any thing, toQta&toi it, the same, but only
when it is raised for one's own use.
tvpiaxca I find, ivQioxOfiiui I find for my ownuse, i. e. / obtain,
cor.
TTOvijptctv he who has shown his own malice.
8. The middle voice governs the accusative actively, signify-
ing causation ; thus vuigofnui, I shave myself, but also / let myself
be shaved ; (the passive xap^a* has only a passive meaning).
This too implies a more remote relation ; e. g.
TQunfuv I cause a table to be set before me.
I let, fAia&ovpai Tt, I cause let it to me i. e.J hire it.
tov vlov to cause to teach one's son.*
TWO. to condemn any one, xaTfdixctodprjv UVTOV
I have caused him to be condemned i. e. / have gained a law-
suit against him.
REM. 2. The middle voice is often entirely active in its use
and signification, without any trace of the reflective meaning ; e. g.
unocpaivtiv and aTtoqaivfG&ai to show, to make evident.
7iot.Qi%iiv and naQ*%fG&cu to furnish, afford.
Of two or more meanings belonging to a verb, one, though
equally active, is often appropriated only to the middle voice ;
in which case great care ought to be taken to avoid confusion ; e. g.
aiQflv to take, aiQtiG&ai to choose.
REM. 2. The middle voice often expresses a reciprocal or
mutual action, as fiovfavtiv to counsel, contrive, povfavsa&ui, to
take counsel with one another ; oialvtiv to reconcile (others),
to be reconciled with each other.
* This is perhaps rather a rhetorical than a grammatical use. We
say in English he cultivates a large farm, meaning he causes to cultivate ;
or applying the verb not to the instrumental but to the remote perform-
ance of the action.
276 SYNTAX. [ 136.
136. THE MEDIAL USE OF THE AOR1ST PASSIVE.
234
1. It was observed above ( 89) tbat the forms, which com-
pose the middle voice, are generally the present and imperfect,
the perfect and pluperfect of the passive, and an aorist and fu-
ture peculiar to the middle.
2. The aorist middle accordingly has neither in form nor
meaning any connexion with the passive. Nevertheless in many
verbs the aorist passive has also a middle signification ; e. g.
Mid. to lay one's self down. Aor. pass, xcaf-
I lay myself down.
i Mid. to depart (take one's self away.) Aor.
pass. dnyMdyyv I departed.
The same holds in nepcuovv, (fofitiv, Tieititiv, xo^<i>, dptytw.
&c. e. g.
ryv noliOQXittv dmiMuyy having given up the siege he
departed.
lie^ down to sleep.
rov fp/hnnov he was afraid of Philip.
Ti%vr}v I exercised myself in the art.
REM. 1. In such verbs the aorist middle is generally obso-
lete or rare. Sometimes it has one of the significations of the
verb appropriated to itself. Thus the aorist pass. OTcdyvai is at-
tached with the medial signification to OTt'MfO&ai to journey ;
whereas aTfttciQ&ai, the proper aorist middle, belongs only to
GTtKfao&uti to clothe one's self or send for.
REM. 2. These verbs, even where the signification is a pas-
sive one, cannot be explained (by 134. 4) as of the passive voice
followed by an accusative ; for they have the subject of the ac-
tive in the accusative ; in one of the above examples were XCIT-
in the passive, it would be xaTfnhayv) vno TOV
3. With the future middle the contrary usage holds ; for while
it is rare that the future passive has the medial signification, the
future middle is used passively in many verbs, as in w^wi*^ o[Aa-
, yvftvd&iv, (pvhdiTdv, dnaM.<xTTtiv,
f &c. part of which have also a passive future,
138.] TENSES. J77
137. THE SECOND PERFECT AS INTRANSITIVE.
The Second Perfect, or Perfect Middle as it is commonly cal-
led, vibrates in its acceptation between all three voices ; a cir-
cumstance to be ascribed to the intransitive signification, which is
peculiar to it. If the verb be an intransitive verb, the Second
Perfect bears the same relation to it as any other perfect, (as may
be seen in the catalogue of regular verbs, in the verbs i^aAAw,
xpa'scu, (foloooj.) If the verb possess both significations, the Se-
cond Perfect prefers the intransitive, as in Tipaaow. In many
verbs, however, the original intransitive signification has passed
over into the passive and middle voice (see 113. 5,) and to this
signification the Second Perfect therefore attaches itself where
the verbs in question have the Second Perfect. See the follow-
ing words in the catalogue, viz.
ayvvfit (break transit.) ayvvpcit (break intransit.) 2 Perf.
tuyu am broken.
avoiyca, aWco^w, ctvoiyo t uat I open, avt'wya I stand open*
, tyrjyfpxu, tyoTjyoQa I wake intransit.
cause to hope, AnGjuae, a>A;ra hope.
, oAaMfxw, oA&pCM I perish, Perf. 6'AtoAa.
tjvi'fAcm, I originate intransit. Perf. opcupa.
Titr/.a, Titiftouut, ntnoi&a trust, and as a near
transitive, believe.
nityvvpf, nrifrvp&i stand fixed, Perf. ntTifjya.
Qiiyvvfii, Qr,yi'V[*ai (tear intransit.) Perf. tppojya am torn.
Gt'jTio) rot transit. Gynonut, rot intransit. Perf. otG^iia.
T?/'XOJ melt transit rrjxofiat melt intransit. Perf. r^'r^xa.
REM. 1. In the same way are to be explained the perfects of
some deponents, as ylyvoitai yt'yova, fietfoofiat /w^wr/va.
REM. 2. In a few verbs, the 1st Perfect is similarly situated ;
see in tOTr^i and yvoj.
$ 138. THE TENSES.
1. As the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect,
and the future, agree in the main with the corresponding tenses
of other languages, it is necessary only to speak briefly of the
Aorist and the 3d Future of the Passive voice.
278 SYNTAX. [ 138.
2. The 1st and 2d Aorist are of course different forms of the
same tenses, and differ not in signification. Few verbs have them
both, and the 1st Aorist is found much oftener than the second. In
order to understand the Aorist, it is necessary to have an accurate
idea of the other preterite tenses. The perfect tense, then, is
properly speaking not an historical tense. It does not relate the
past as it happened, but brings the past into connexion with the
present (as / know it, FOR / have seen it) ; although this connexion
is not always expressed, but it is of itself implied in the mind; /
have seen it, i. e. I am one who saw it now, at this time, it has
already happened.* The pluperfect removes this connected past
and present time into the past time, connecting a more remote
with a less remote past time, / had seen it- The imperfect relates
the circumstances accompanying or attending the past action, /
236 was seeing it. The aorist differs from all these, in expressing sim-
ply a past action without any connexion in idea, with present or
any other past time, / saw it. The past or imperfect tense in En-
glish, therefore, is an aorist. In Latin the perfect, and in other
languages the imperfect, is used to express the Greek aorist. E. g.
Uvppos 6 (laaifave; odfvwv lvtjv%t Y.VVI (fpovpovvTi vfxyov
Ktxl Ixtlfvae fjitft' iavxov xopt&w, Pyrrhus the king, jour-
neying, MET WITH a dog watching a dead body, and COMMANDED him
to be brought along with him. By substituting has met, had met, or
was meeting, for met f the difference between the Aorist and the
other past tenses will be felt. So oMyai$ de vattQOv tfnipaif
&?a0*f t]v, xai nap?]* o xv*w' Idwv dt TOVS (fovtve, I f&'ft <% ft l
y.al y, a &v A a xxti, UVTOVG, a few days after THEY WERE HOLD*
* The pure perfect, especially in the Greek, always implies that the ac-
tion is terminated or has ceased. He who says in Greek, 4 1 have known
it,' says that now he knows it no longer. He who says, oixo
W/.a, considers the house as yet standing ; if he says,
he leaves it undecided, yet uses the same form if he actually knows that
*i stands no longer.
138.] TENSES. 279
ING a review, and the dog WAS ATTENDING. And HE SAW* the mur-
derers, and RAN FORTH and REMAINED BARKING at them-
3. The aorist may be used for the perfect, and even for the
pluperfect, where the circumstance of time is otherwise sufficient-
ly clear from the connexion. It occurs most frequently for the
perfect ; e. g. Xenoph. Memor. I. 6. 14, Socrates says, TOVG #77-
GUVOOUZ T.MV nul.ui, (joqrcGV, ov<? ixtivoi, xccztkinov, Iv fiifikl-
oig yodipai'Tf? dV^O/acu, where the sense obviously requires
the perfect, which they have left us in books.
REM. 1 . Examples of the aorist instead of the pluperfect.
XENOPH. " her husband was in Bactria as ambassador, f'nfft-
\pf df avrov o '^GOVQIO? TifQi toju/ua/ft,*? that is, had
sent him.
THUCYD. oi * Adrivuioi tv&vG Inftdrj avf%(oor]oav Ivf
4. As the imperfect tense is used to express the limitation of
circumstances under which the thing related happened, a greater
or less duration or continuance, of course, is suggested by it.
Hence the imperfect, as in xa&v XaxTti of the example in no. 2, is
used to express a continued action, whilst the Aorist expresses a
momentary action. In consequence of this difference of significa-
tion, the imperfect and aorist are sometimes used alternately in a
narration, the imperfect being introduced so often as the action is
of a more continued nature, as rove uiv ovv nthvwtag Itii'gctvTO
ol fictppaoot (received, a momentary action) xat tyiajgovTO (and
fought with them, a continued action) Inel tf tyyv$ r t (j(xv ol onKiiat
(when the heavy armed were near, a regular imperfect, according
to the rule at the end of no. 2) IxQunovro (they turned, a momen-
tary action), y.ul ol nt\TUGT(x.l (v&ve t'inovTO (and the pehastae im-
mediately pursued them, a continued action.)-
In this way the imperfect came to be used wherever an habitu-
al or often repeated action was to be expressed in past time, as Ml-
ACOJ/ o A~!porcu//{ar>; qo&K f*.vag VQetuv t'txoGi Milo the Crotonian
was accustomed to eat twenty minas ofjlcvh.
* tdwv is here rendered by a verb, because the English lan-uag-e hr-
no Aorist participle.' 'Remained barking. 1 DCCHHSP duration of action is
ressed by the Imperfect.
280 sinsrfAX. [ 138.
237 Rem. 2. This difference of the aorist from the imperfect often
suggests a difference in the clauses, which is easily overlooked.
Thus the imperfect in o xvcov egtdpafic xcti xa#&Adxm auTOvg
implies a continued barking; if it were xuftvluKTriGt, it would be
as momentary as
5. It appears from the foregoing, that the aorist inclines to the
expression of momentary action, or such as it is intended so to re-
present, in contrast with some more continued action, in the pro-
gress of the narrative. This distinction between continued and mo-
mentary action exists also both in the present and future. / exhort
and / am exhorting ; I -will exhort, and / will be exhorting, differ in the
same way as / exhorted and / was exhorting- In the indicative mode
there are no separate forms for this distinction, but in the other
modes they are discriminated. There are in fact two views to be
taken of the other modes, in respect to time. (1) Each has the
definite time of its own indicative (2) They are also aoristical
as well in the present tense as the aorist, containing (like the En-
glish infinitive) no exact expression of time, and corresponding
in time as far as U is necessary, with the indicative on which they
depend in the construction. In this case, therefore, we have a dou-
ble form, without any distinction of time. Thus TVUTZW and iv-
tyat, are equally to strike, qil^rjs and (fri^ays equally the subjunc-
tive thou lovest ; with the difference that the present tense of these
modes is usually employed for a continued, and the aorist for a
momentary action. Thus when Demosthenes says,
TQirjQfig nft>Ti]%ovTcx napaGxfvaGaG&ai qv t [4i, dtiv,
flT aVTOVQ OVTVD TCt$ yVO)[4CXS t% f IV,
he would say that they should immediately fit out the ships, and
therefore uses the aorist infinitive ; but the state of opinion which
he recommends by '/vwpag tyiw, is to be permanent, and there-
fore he uses the present infinitive. He continues
iv i] dice TOV (fsofioy r^v^iav *%y ?] notpidcov zavTa acpv-
Axro h ?]$)&?] that either through fear he will remain quiet
(a continued action), or overlooking these measures, be taken
(momentary) unprepared.
So, too, in the imperative,
138.] TENSES. 281
UTIUVTU ay.ovarjif, xpivarf, xcu
uv { Tf,Le. judge (momentary), while the state of
mind expressed in the last clause is necessarily gradual in its
formation, and therefore n^o\u(.t^avfTt.
REM. 3. It is to be observed, however, that this distinction is
often very slight, conveying only a trifling modification of idea,
and that therefore there is often no choice between the present
and the aorist, and we may say indifferently k'ytw and Ae'jra*, A*-
yt and A;OJ/. For want of a distinction corresponding to it in our
own language, it is often altogether impossible to retain it in the
English.
6. The participle of the aorist always expresses past time, to 238
be rendered either by the phrase after that, or by the participle
of the perfect tense having ; though in consequence of the latter,
it is often equivalent to the present ; e. g. a'rro/SaAcoV who has lost,
i. e. 710 longer possesses ; (.ict&wv who has learned, i. e. who knows ;
&aixov having died, dead ; ol maovTfg the fallen, the slain, &c.
Demosthenes says, the true author of^an oration full of Just
reproaches is d na<jf(7/qx(<)$ TCC toyu, ov% o lo%([A[At'voG, ovd o
(ifoi/uvrjo~ui<s ra dlxcuu htytw, i. e. one who has furnished actions,
not he who has carefully prepared himself and endeavoured to speak
what is right.
REM. 4. Some verbs in their very signification destroy the na-
tural import of the tenses, as //xo> / come is alvyays to be consid-
ered as a praeter tense, / have arrived ; aou tjXfig rj noi\ai hast
thou just arrived, or long since ? So OifOfuu I depart often signifies
I hove gone, whereby the imperfect <)>*TO attains the character of
the pluperfect. Thus also limtiv riid, besides the signification
of beget or bear, has also that of to be father or mother to any one;
and of consequence, this, m the present tense, may have the mean-
ing of the perfect, as noKlov Of tiviiTolq atiov ilxtft, ncttyo.
REM 5. The perfect has also a subjunctive and optative, and
the future an optative, which are really used, when the kind of
uncertainty, peculiar to these modes ( 140), falls in with these
tenses, as titif d i-td? vfntxirxot that my son may have conquer-
ed As in most of such cases the modes of the present and aorist
are sufficient, those tenses are used only where distinctness re-
quires it ; and even then it is more common to use the periphras-
tical form, as Tifydyxcog tu and eiijv. The imperative of the per-
fect occurs in the second person only in those verbs of which the
perfect has a present signification, as *f*(M*X&t, [tt'fivrjoo. But
the third person often serves as an emphatic expression, e. g.
36
282 SYNTAX. [ 139, 140.
vvv di TOUTO itTO^[A^G&o} einfiv be it ventured, \, e. / will
venture.
-nensiyao'&o) be it attempted, i. e. do but attempt.
139. THIRD FUTURE.
1. The third or paulo-post future is properly, both in form
and iignification, compounded from the perfect and future. It
places what is passed or concluded, in the future, e. g.
r\ Tfototfloi Tfhtwg %txo(J[,tr}OTai, fctv 6 TOIOVTOG avir]v ITII-
Gxonfj qpv&ai, the city -will have been perfectly organized, if
such a watchman oversee it ; i. e. disponita erit not dispo-
nelur.
fti/tTijv tftoi xfxhctvoiTcti I shall have wept in vain. Compare
134 Rem. 2.
Now as the perfect often signifies a continued state, (as e. g.
fyytyjpotpptu signifies not merely / have been inscribed, but / stand
on the list,) this signification remains in the third future, e. g.
Ovdtig Kara anovduq (AtTtyyyuqrjGfTat,, ' <4\X oi$TitQ r^v TO
TifjwTOV, eyyeyQatyttat, no one's inscription shall be altered
from favour, but as each was from the jirst, so he shall stand
inscribed. ARISTOPH.
2. Consequently this is the natural future of those perfects, which
have acquired a separate meaning of the nature of the present ;
as Xt'kfinTui has been left, i. e. remains ; teteiiptxai, shall have been
left, i. e. shall remain; faiq&yafTat will be left or deserted. So x-
! possess, jU^ti/^ ( aa^ / remember, %fXTr]OO[4(M,
REM. 1. Besides this, *he Attics employ the 3d future of seve-
ral verbs in the passive, as a simple future passive. See the ano-
malous dt'to bind ; so too mnuvaopai,, %f%6 \\>o^ui, &c.
239 REM. 2. In some verbs the third future has a peculiar import,
either (l) It shall, I will, as -itQatytput, he shall (not he will) be
buried ; or (2) a hastening of the action, as q-pat xat nfn^aE,e-
TVU, speak, and it shall be accomplished immediately -- It is on this
acceptation that the name of paulo-post future rests.
140. MODES.
1. The Greek language appears to have the advantage of the
Latin and of the modern languages, in the optative mode. Oa
$ 140.] MODES. 283
comparing, however, the use of this mode with the rule given
88. 3, it will appear that the optative mode is nearly equivalent
to the subjunctive mode imperfect and pluperfect tenses, which
accordingly are wanting in Greek. For instance, in the expres-
sion of a wish, we say, " had I hut that ;" this is equivalent to if
I had, the subjunctive imperfect of our language, although the
time in reality is present. Hence the following rule is establish-
ed.
2. The relatives and particles (except the compounds of i>,
which in connexion with the present and future require the sub-
junctive), take the optative, in connexion with the historical ten-
ses, e. g.
ovx t%M or OVA, oidu, OTTOI rpctTCUjuai non habeo quo me ver-
tam, / know not whither I may turn myself.
ov* fl/ov, ovx rfaiv, bnot Tyu7ioi[4r t i> quo me verterem non
habe'bam, I knew not whither I should turn myself.
Tia(j6i(.n, 'ivu idta, I am present that I may see.
' ' I was present that I might see.
3. In consequence of this, the particles and pronouns which
t \ke the indicative mode in sermone directo, require the optative
in sermone obliquo, e. g.
?;pfrp, ft OVTWS *io*i ne asked, if it were thus.
tkit [401, OTl fj 66'6s CfiQQI, (1$ TfJV TloklV, 1]V7ltp
Use of el and av.
4. For the further use of the modes, it is necessary to under-
stand particularly the force of the particles el and , which alone
and in composition are variously employed.
5. The conjunction el signifies if and whether. In either ac- 240
ceptation it is joined by correct writers with the indicative or op-
tative, never with the subjunctive mode.
6. The particle av* can seldom be rendered by a correspond-
ing English word. It adds an expression of uncertainty or possi-
bility, which not only strengthens or modifies the natural meaning
* In the epic poets xf, xfv.
284 SYNTAX. [ 140.
of the subjunctive and optative, but communicates itself (though
with the exception, for the most part, of the present and perfect)
to the indicative and to other verbal forms. It always stands af-
ter one or more words of the clause, and is thereby distinguished
from the av which is abbreviated from lav.
7. The particle uv is attached to all relatives, and to certain
particles, with some of which it coalesces into one word, as par-
ticularly o<se orai/, Inftdrj Intidav. With tl it forms lav,
and is abbreviated into the wholly synonymous forms v\v and
av, which is distinguishable from the a.v treated of in the forego-
ing paragraph, inasmuch as like lav it regularly begins a clause.
All words of this class attain by the addition of av an expression
of possibility, and consequently take the subjunctive mode. When
the clause which contains them comes in connexion with past time
or the sermo obliquus, it either remains unaltered in the manner
of words quoted ; or the simple particles (/, or*, lntidr h o<s, og-
fig, 600?, &c.) with the optative mode take its place, e. g.
naQi'aoftui, lav TI dt-y.
i'qy nuytivai, ft Tt, dtoi or dtriaoi.
8. The Greek language is particularly rich in the expression
of hypothetical or conditional propositions. The most important
principles, in this respect, are the following, viz.
In every conditional proposition, the condition is either possi-
ble or impossible. The possible cases either do or do not con-
tain an expression of certainty ; and in the case of uncertainty, I
either do or do not hold out a prospect of a decision : hence the
following cases.
1) Possibility, without the idea of uncertainty, is expressed by
tl with the indicative, e. g.
241 tl t&oQVTr)6 %ai i]GTQa\ptv if it has thundered, it has also
lightened.
(i TI tyttGi do?, if thou hast any thing, give it.
2) Uncertainty with prospect of decision is expressed by lav
with the subjunctive, e. g.
lav TI t%u)[4v, dwaoptv, should we have any thing, we
give it.
140.] MODES. 285
lav z/ TIVU TWV VTIUQ'/OVTWV vopwv prj xAw i%ii>v iiyf}-
tai,- yyaqt'oftoj, should any one esteem any of the existing
laws inexpedient, let him enter a complaint.
Here there is understood in the protasis of the sentence, u and
that will appear," &,c.
3) Uncertainty, without any such qualification, is expressed by
tl with the optative mood, and in the apodosis the optative with
> e. g.
ft ztg TO.VTU TiyaTTOi, ptya p av wptlqatit, should any one
do this, he would render me a great service.
ft TI$ TO.VTU Y.U.& UVTU ItfTciofifv, ivyoi V, should any one
investigate this for itself, he would find
Here there is nothing supplied by the understanding, but " it
is problematical whether this be done."
4) Impossibility or disbelief, or an assertion in general that a
thing is not so, is invariably expressed, in the Attic writers, by the
imperfect tense, either for present or indefinite time, with av at-
tached to it in the apodosis, e. g.
*/ ri fi%tv } ISidov iiv, had he any thing, he would give it.
Here there is a necessary reservation of " but he has not."
9. When in this last case both clauses are in past time, the ao-
rist is necessarily used instead of the imperfect, at least in the apo-
dosis, e. g.
tt TI to'/fv, eduxfv uv, had he had any thing, he would have
given it.
In like manner, the clauses may be of different times, e. g. '*
ft Infla&rjv, ovx civ ypyojOTOvv, had I obeyed, I were nol(now)
sick.
REM. 1 . All these cases are frequently modified by their con-
nexion with the preterite, according to the foregoing principles,
as observation, in the single cases, will show, e. g.
xat, ft Tt, t%oi, tx&tvGf dovwu, and if he had any thing, he
commanded him to give it.
Here txtfavne belongs not to the apodosis, but to the previous 242
context ; the optative is used, in consequence of being preceded
by a preterite, see above no. 8. 2, and dovvat constitutes the apo-
dosis.
10. When the phrases and particles compounded with civ have
the aorist subjunctive, they constitute a conditional preterite, and
286 SYNTAX. [ 140,
(if the context regard the future) a future preterite, the Latin
futurum exactum, e. g.
yQYl df OTUV jU*V Ti&IJO&e TOVg VQHOV9, OnOlOl TWtg flat, 0X0-
TitHv' l?itMv dt ft 7] G& t, yvhaTTfiv xui %y?JG&ai, when
you shall have passed them.
intiddv anavra axovcijTf, KQivart, when you shall have
heard all, then judge.
avirj ri na^ao^ev^Jita^flvat, dvvrjGtTai,, twg av nfQiytvoj-
[At&a TOJV ty&ptav till we shall have conquered the enemy.
The future lies at the bottom of these constructions, and the
aorist only has its own preterite.
11. The optative with av is, according to no. 8. 3 above, only
the apodosis of a supposition, with the suppression of which sup-
position the optative often remains. In consequence, the optative
is often used in any simple proposition, intended to be represent-
ed merely as a wish, and where in English might, could &c. is
made use of, e. g.
TO G(!*aTOtidtg IGTIV, oi> xiq av U^CUTO, the corporeal is that
which [if he will ] a man may touch.
yivoiTO 6 uv nuv iv TM ^wax^w %QOVCp in the lapse of time
all things may happen.
ydtajg av QfaGaiftijv TUVTCI gladly would I see this.
a'AA' ouv, fjtnoi Tig av but, some one perhaps may say
iGcag av ovv Tivfg IntTt^afiuv To7g flQr^^votg perhaps now
some may blame what has been said.
And hence comes it, that this phraseology, by the moderation
of language conspicuous in the Attic writers, became used in the
place of the most confident assertions and predictions, e. g.
ov yy av tyt yr) yiyevijfitvtt rr\ vvvt
dvvrjfttirjfAfv for what has already happened, we could not
with the present forces prevent.
ovx av (ffvyoig thou canst not escape.
243 This mode of expression is often used for the simple future. So
too for the imperative ; e. g. fa'yotg av for fo'yt.
RFM. 2. Every conditional or uncertain proposition may be
converted in Greek into an infinitive or a participle, retaining av,
wherein this language possesses an advantage, which others want,
of imparting the expression of the Optative and Subjunctive to the
Infinitive and Participle ; e. g.
oiovTat, ava[iu%tGaG&ai av ovf4[4d%ovg ngoghafiovTig, they
140.J MODES. 287
think, they might recover themselves by acquiring allies ; (for
ai>una%t'acuvT' a.v, ft lufioifv.)
TaAAa GIOJTTOJ, TioAA aV t'%wv flntlv, though I have much that I
could say.
ot oaditag olnoxTivvvi>Tf$ xai dvaftiaHJxontvoi y ccv, fl oToh
J}GUV, -who would readily kill and bring to life again, if they
were able ; (for avtfiuHOMOri' aV) PLATO.
The sense of the Infinitive and Participle of the future is often
also thus expressed j e. g.
oJx tariv tvoi (ivdyu V dvvr^'&tjval HOTS anccvTa xavra Tioa-
*, it is not. possible, that one man should be able ever to do
all those things. Avvi)&riv&i nort without ai> must have
referred to the past See also the example below 145.
4. a.
After o'ifG&ai, i\nliiv, &,c. this is the common way to express
the future.
REM. 3- The position of civ is wholly decided by euphony.
This is to be remarked, in order that, by observing the connex-
ion, it may always be brought to the verb to which it belongs;
e - ' ,
fdoxfi oiv r^uv qdf-'ws TIUVTO, dianQucu.
Here ai> is to be separated from the verb near which it stands,
and to be joined to dtumQatai, he appeared to us, as if he would
perform every thing willingly (or dianQU^fltv r.) Thus TOVTOV
rov i/;r/gr/0|UaTO? Kuou&fvros civ, tt ftij d'i ;,? rjdlxyvTO ol /?-
aikfl?,^ i. e. ft TO yrftiofAu txvQ&rfhj (without V), ol 0aodt7g ij-
dixrjVT oiv (would have been offended), tl IAJ] di r^ug (i. e. had
we not been.)
vvv dt juo^ dox*7, xav datfifiav fl xaTccyiyvojOxoi IIQ ret TTOO$-
yxovTu. 7iotf.lv, here the ai> contained in xV belongs to the
Inf. noiflv, i.e. doxf ? (.101, xi, firig aatfltun xctTayiyvMaxot,
ret -noozyxovTu Tioiflv &i>, it seems to me also that, if any one
should accuse him of impiety, he would do right.
REM. 4. The particle a.v often gives to the Indicative the sig-
nification of habitual performance of the action ; e. g.
Demosthenes says, no one of the former orators has had so
great influence in so many respects at the same time, AA o
(Litv yoctqwv ovx uv f7iotoj3fi>fv, o d't TtQf-Gfifvow ovx aV
typaqf, but he who proposed laws was not commonly an ambas-
sador, and he, who went on embassies did not commonly pro-
pose laws.
REM. 5. It is a peculiar use of the Optative, when it stands in
the protasis instead of a preterite indicative, to signify the repeti-
tion of^an action : e. .
ovg ptv 'idot, fvraxiojg xcu otojuy iovxag, Tioogtlavvow av-
' ftfv rjMiJTa, xai fnfl -JIV&OITO, inrjvfi. ''whom
288 SYNTAX. K 141.
j that is, ' so often as he saw any,"* with which the inel
o connects itself.
a do(ifv UVTM he did what [in each case] seemed
right to him.
OGCX InfQiOTWio, rayv untxplvaro, what he was asked, he an-
swered immediately.
In such constructions, care must be had not to attribute to the Op-
tative any expression of uncertainty.
REM. 6- The Subjunctive is not used alone except for exhorta-
tions in the 1st person, as luptv let us go (where in the 2d and 3d
244 person the Optative would be used), and in dubious questions, part-
ly with and partly without fiuvktt or &tkfi preceding; e. g.
716$ tv flvvkft, a <j tea [A at, ; whence wilt thou that I begin?
{Soviet ovv GxoTiojjufi' ; dost thou wish then that we examine?
TI noun) ; what shall I do ?
nij ftu f not rijujiw^ai, ; whither shall I go? whither shall I
turn myself?
ii-noj uvv GUI TO aiTiov ; shall I tell thee the cause ?
vvv axoffftu uv&ii ; shall I hear again.
141. INFINITIVE.
1. The infinitive mode is used in Greek in the same cases as
in the Latin and modern languages, and in various others, particu-
larly after verbs of saying, believing, promising, permitting, beg-
ging, &c.
2. The infinitive is often used to express what is expressed in
Latin by ad and the gerund, or by the participle in dus, viz. end
or destination ; e. g.
Idcaxev O.VIQ dovkco qopiiout he gave it to a slave to carry.
6 av&ya)no<; ntqvxf qdtlv man was formed to love.
Tia<ji%ro IpetVTO* tywTuv I present myself to be questioned.
'innov nuyfiftf TM avdtji u.
idefv Of.
3. The infinitive is governed by an adjective (or substantive)
expressing^/fonm or qualification, e. g.
noulv xijit to do any thing.
ov Oiivdg *GU Xtytiv, aAA* advvecTOG aiyav,he is not powerful
in speaking, but he is incapable of keeping silence.
dfival yvvcuxfq svyioxfiv Tt%vag women are skilful in invent-
ing devices.
141.] INFINITIVE. 289
It is also thus employed in a passive sense, where, neverthe-
less, the form of the active voice is commonly used, (in Latin the
supine in u,) e. g.
Qdiog votjaai easy to observe (to be observed).
dxoveiv pleasant to hear (suave auditu).
The form of the infinitive passive, however, is not wholly un-
used ; e. g. Gijlvqiccvijg oq&rjv at, feminine in aspect, as in Horace
niveus videri.
4. Whenever an infinitive thus qualifying the preceding phrase 245
or clause, does not admit of a sufficiently obvious connexion, par-
ticularly in consequence of other words being interposed, it is
commonly introduced by o^re, (more rarely oj,) which also, in
an entire construction, will be found to refer to a preceding de-
monstrative, e. g.
riv df nfTifudeVfiivoQ ovitag, O)TS navv Qqdiwz t/fiv p-
XOVVTU, he was so brought up, as very easily to have what
sufficed him.
(fikoTifiOTctTog r t v, w$Tf TiuvTtt vTiOf-iilvcti TOV incuvfiG&ui,
tvtxa, he was very ambitious, so as to bear every thing for
the sake of being praised.
i'0)Tool tiGiv iq ajQTf tidtvui oi'cov TiaTtQwv GTtQi]viai, they
are too young to know of what fathers they are deprived*
wg /ujx^oV fAtycdo.) flxaoui,, (parenthetically,) to compare
small things with great*
5. The infinitive is used as a neuter substantive ( 125. 6. 1)
not only singly, but in connexion with phrases provided with an ar-
ticle, which are thus subject to all the constructions of nouns, e. g.
TO (fAaca rdya&d TOV xiqaaofitti %cdfno'nf()0t> to preserve
property is harder than to acquire it.
TO f.ifv ovv fjilooxov xaAf/V TLVO.^ uvev TOV TO, 7ifnoctyf.it vet
dft'/.vvvai, KoidoQia. IOTIV^O call one perjured, without show-
ing his deeds, is calumny.
10 kt'yfw cos tf*?, uiyiGiov IOTI atjfif7ov TOV (faovt'iv fv.
TO TlioVTtlv IGTIV iv TO) %Qr)G&Ul /UttAAov ij Iv TU XfXTrjO&CCl.
REM. 1. In this way, a preposition may be used, where other-
wise only a conjunction would be admitted, e.^g.^
'ddrivii t QQiWf TOV? avKovg dux TO r/Ji/ oipw avivje noi-
trv apooqov Minerva cast away the pipes, because they
disfigured her countenance.
37
290 SYNTAX. [ 142, 143.
Other subordinate clauses also may be interposed between the ar-
ticle and its infinitive, e. g.
TO df, ooa y ydf'cug 77 tyv%ri dt%tTut,, ravTct fxai/w? IxnovfTv
&0*4ua(t, he recommended properly to digest as much as na-
ture receives with pleasure.
REM. 2. The infinitive of some short parenthetical phrases ad-
mits of explanation from the foregoing constructions ; as from no.
2, the phrase an^w? fintlv in short- Thus too *)wo* doxflv means
as I think, which infinitive, though without TO, takes the place of
the accusative ; see 131. 6 and Rem. 4.
142. INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT.
246 1. When the infinitive has a subject, it is regularly put in the
accusative case. Thus in the infinitive introduced by TO, e. g.
TO afjKtQTUveiv dv&Qcuriovg ov dctvpaorov that men should
err is not surprising,
ovdfv lnQatfd"fj, did TO txiivov [A?J naptlvai, nothing was done,
because he was not there.
2. The infinitive is thus construed with the accusative, when,
after verbs on which another clause directly depends, especially
verbs of saying and believing, the subject of the dependent clause
passes into the accusative, and its verb into the infinitive, e. g.
ol pv-frokoyot pant, rov OvQavov 8wa(tttVQ<M TIQMTQV
TOV navTog, mythologists say, that Uranus first ruled the um-
x verse.
3. The subject of the infinitive is often omitted, if it is in any
degree already expressed in the preceding verb, as dtopai oov
naQa.^.ivtiv I pray thee to stay, ovvtmiiv opoloyo) I confess that I
assented, t<pr\ Onovtid&iv he said that he was in haste. In a case
like the latter, the Latin language, though addicted to this con-
struction, would prefer the repetition of the subject, dixit svfesti-
nare.
143. INFINITIVE WITH CASES.
1. If an adjective or substantive &c. be attached to the above
mentioned subject of the infinitive, as a farther qualification of
143.] INFINITIVE WITH CASES. 291
the idea, in the way of a predicate or attribute, such adjective or
substantive is of course put in the accusative, if the subject-accu-
sative of the infinitive be expressed, e. g. wprjv Of nuQtlvcti, /u 6-
vov aTiavTfg vofii&fitv, xr^v yfjv aywgav twai.
2. If the subject of the infinitive be not thus expressed, an AT-
TRACTION. as it is called, takes place, whereby the aforesaid words
of qualification are placed, not in tte accusative, but in the same
case as the object to which they refer in the preceding clause.
Of this attraction there are two cases, viz.
1) If the subject omitted with the infinitive is likewise nomi-
native to the preceding finite verb on which the infinitive depends,
the qualification must also he in the nominative, as o '^Qavdyos
tqccGxtv flvat, Aio$ I'tog, Lat. dicebat SE ESSE Jovis FILIUM ; which
is also done, though the subject of the first verb is not express-
ed, e. g.
tvoptifOV ovd* aviol Gw&rjGfG&cu they thought that they them- 247
selves would not be saved-
tquGxtg tivat, dfGTiOTTjQ.
iTitiGu UVTOV* (ivut #;o.
2) If the omitted subject of the infinitive is the immediate or
more remote object of the preceding verb, those qualifications are
attached to the infinitive in that oblique case in which their sub-
ject is governed by the foregoing verb as its object ; e. g.
In the genitive,
idiovTO UVTOV, tivat, nQO&vfivv, they begged him to be zealous.
Or in the dative,
ttfoii, pot, ytveo&cu tvdaifnovi, which may also be express-
ed in Latin, licet illis esse beatis.
an tin fv avTo7$ vavrutQ tlvui he forbade them to be navi-
gators.
z not.fGt, TOVTO /uaAAoi' KvGiTttel, $ dovlcti? o<p&rjvcu yi-
Or, finally, in the accusative, in which case it coincides with the
principal rule, as xft.tvco GC eivai, nQQ&Vfiov.
REM. 1. The same attraction holds, where the clause which
contains the infinitive, has the article TO before jt, e. g.
o TO ov^tQOv w(H dw TO (ftt.avTOi iivo.t> they live mere-
ly for profit, because they are selfish.
292 SYNTAX. [ 144.
TM ypcxqfig anotyuytiv Demosthe-
ud in having escaped when accused.
ov yap lxTit'i*HOi>Tat> Int ro7 dpyhot. aAA' inl TW of.ioioi To7g
teinofAivoig livui they (colonists) are not sent out as being
like slaves, but as being like those which remain behind.
ty>' T\yCiv ion TO fnitMtot v.u.1 q.-avJiotg flvctt it depends up-
on us to be reasonable or corrupt.
If, however, the subject of the infinitive is included in the pre-
ceding clause as accusative, the infinitive has as usual the accu-
sative with it, as Im'dti'gt rag no far flag npO%oi>Gag IM dwuiOTi-
pug tlvai, he showed that states had the advantage by being more just.
REM. 2. Also in the construction with wgit (see 141. 4) the
nominative is joined with the infinitive, if the first clause require
it, as ovdflg T^kwovTog fOTW nay viuv, ugTt Tovg vo^ovf Tiaptx-
fiag pi] dovvai dix?]v let no one be so great among you, that, break-
ing the laws he can go unpunished.
REM. 3. The infinitive is sometimes used quite absolutely, in-
stead of wish, request, order ; and this, in the third person, either
with the subject in the accusative, as yvftvdv anflpfiv, yvpvov dt
248 POWTHV (where the subject is to be assumed to be the indefinite
third person, r/<?, though Virgil has rendered it in the second, nu-
dus ara, sere nudus\ or impersonally, as w Zfv, i*ytviQ&ai pot
*^4&t]vai'ovg TioctGftai, may it be conceded to me. Still more fre-
quently the infinitive is used instead of the imperative of the sec-
ond person, and in this case the subject and all that belongs to it,
if expressed at all, are^ expressed in the nominative, e. g.
'^M ov/ ail]}' A%i\i]\\ftiow Inl vr\aq '^f%ui(jji>, Eini~iv.
HOMER.
av d* aoa ti TW [trjXM novtav a%&y, /w>; 'tpl aiTicia&ui IQV-
TWV, blame me not therefor.
144. CONSTRUCTION WITH THE RELATIVE.
1. The construction with the relatives og, oaog, oTog, &c. (of
which the construction with the participle is only an abridged
form,) is not used to express connexion alone, but also expresses
the ground, cause, or other circumstance usually denoted by a
conjunction, e. g.
&av(4U(JTOv noitUg, og r\^v ovdtv didwg, thou doest strangely,
in that thou givest us nothing.
al slfjyiitti tptyoux^t^OP, t^v (.IVJTI-OCI, ol'ojv Ttxvcov Mvpyof,
i. e. on TOIOVTOJV Ten. exup. the Jlrgive dames blessed the
mother that she had such children.
144.] CONSTRUCTION WITH THE RELATIVE. 293
So, particularly with the subjunctive, to express design or ad-
vantage ; e. g.
slg xaAof iJjMy avrog odf TT^X^'^TO, w f.ifTado)pfv iijg
oxt'ytwg opportunely has he sat down by us with whom we
can share the inquiry.
2. The nature of the relative construction properly requires,
that the first verb have a noun, and the second a relative refer-
ring to it, and each in the case demanded by the clause in which
it stands ; e. g.
oviog taTtv d uvrjo ov tidtg.
TfUlV 71UVTWV, 6<7 TlttQrjV.
ovx /w, (pTivt, niGTtuacu av dvvai^v.
But the substantive of the first verb is often omitted, and attach-
ed to the relative in the second clause, and in the same case, e. g.
oviog itSTiv, ov fldeg avdoa.
oi'x low, rivTivu ovx r)Qev aQ%nv, there is no office which he
hath not held.
Often, when emphasis requires it, the clause so constructed
precedes, as oV tldts at/^a, ovrog IGTIV.
3. When the noun (either in the genitive or dative) to which
the relative refers, is without a demonstrative, like oi-iog or fxfl-
vog, the relative, otherwise in the accusative, is put in the same
case with the noun by ATTRACTION ; e. g.
ptTadidwg UVTM TOV a/iot', ovTifp avrog t%fig thouimpartest
to him of the food, which thou thyself hast.
Here ovnfy, on account of the genitive aiiov, to which it re-
fers, is in the genitive instead of being in the accusative ovnfQ,
which the verb i'%tig requires. In like manner the following.
(v jiyogytafTctt, TO/? qr/Ao?, oTg t%ii. he treats well the friends
whom he has.
rco qyffiiovt niajevaofuv, uav Kvpog dq7, for 6V civ A'^o? dw.
HjjcayGug fteyodiDv for^iaTwv, ow 6 ttl.wv tTitryantio
avioj.
REM. 1. This construction became so prevalent as sometimes
to remain, though the first^ noun had a demonstrative expressed :
as ol dr t t.iiQVQyol zm'ron', ojv
4. The noun, by which" the relative is thus attracted, is often
transported into the clause with the relative, where, together
294 SYNTAX. [ 144.
with the relative, it stands in the case governed by the verb on
which it depends ; e. g.
UWM, ovTitp txvros i'%tis ahov.
wv 'yw uyu&uv.
oTg tinov nQOOTCtTaig, evdwljjiovtg r\Gav (from y[Q^-
TipoaraTr, to have a magistrate) having those magis-
trates, which I have named^ they were prosperous-
Sometimes there is at the same time an inversion, which sounds
very strange, as oTg t%ti gp&otff, t v nQogq>tQTa.t,, the friends whom he
hath, he treats well.
5. The noun is sometimes wholly omitted, giving to the rela-
tive the appearance of belonging directly to the preceding clause,
e. g.
f.iff*vr][4ti>o<s wv *7rpf, for /w^u/^/uiVo? xwv nQctypaTCtiv, MV
nd this fora tnya'&v.
a'AAo OTyaTfVfAa npos (o npoG'dfv ti%t (for
UQOO-&6V *^f.)
250 And with the inversion, oTs i'/w ^pw^a^, for a J;f(w, TOVTOIS
fltU.
REM. 2. In one case the nominative of the relative undergoes
this attraction. When in an entire clause the nominative of the
relative oTo? would stand with the verb tivcci (as navu ydfcag ya-
Qi^ovTCit uvdQi TOIOVIW, oTo g ov ft, they would gladly please such
a man as thou art,) not only the demonstrative but the verb f Ivan,
is omitted, and the relative is then so attracted by the leading
clause, that together with all the nominatives connected with it,
it assumes the case of the noun, to which it refers, and is even in-
serted before it, as navv yfa'wg xaQi'&VTCti O'IM ool avtigl.
REM. 3. When the relative, by means of a verb like to be, to
name^ to believe, &c. is joined with a noun, in the same case, it
conforms itself, in gender and number, to this noun, and not to
that, which is its proper antecedent ; e. g.
nciQfGTiv aviM qo{jog, r\v aidai xaAo/u*i/, he has a fear, which
we call modesty.
TOV ovyuvov, OVQ dtj nohovg xahovffiv.
Or with omission of the first noun, e. g.
tlalv iv r t [uv, ug ilnidag ovopct&ftsi', there are (emotions) in
ns, which we call hopes.
5 145.] CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. 295
145. CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE.
1. The Greek language, having participles for most of the
tenses, makes a far more extensive use of them, than other lan-
guages. By combining their use with that of the relative and in-
finitive, many clauses can be interwoven with each other, without
confusion ; e. g.
Here is the object of idovxag, this the subject of
and this dependent on yyfiro : he related only those things, of which
he believed, that they had died, who saw them.
2. Not only those verbs, which are connected with other verbs
by relatives, but almost every verb introduced in English with as,
because, after that, so that, although, (whose subject has been already
named with the preceding verb) is, with the omission of those par-
ticles, converted into a participle of the same case as its subject-
verb ; as tTifOxtnTOfAijv TOV iicuQov VOGOVVTCC, which may signify,
according to the context, either, / visited my comrade, who was
sick, or when or because he was sick.
roj f,ifya).co ftuGitel ov TIUTQIOV tanv avdpog axpoa<7# ^
noogxvvriGui'ios, it is not the hereditary custom of the great
king, to hear a person who does not (or, if he do not) fall
down before him.
to do7|U (5wr)QfjLO(nai aoi, uixydv ptpo? Kupovii ZXCCGTOV, thy
body has been composed by taking a small part from every
thing.
REM. 1. The participles, which express the ideas of after that
or in that, in translating both from Greek and Latin, may often with
advantage be made to precede the verb, with which they are con-
nected, with the conjunction and between ; e. g.
ovTtntiit ra$ yvoJfAug *i*S **, lav n &'/?, ntevaif'ov f!$ rag
V(XV$ CtUTOtS tfA^OLGiV.
Here, as usual, Jthe personal pronoun r^jCiv is omitted with nfav-
GTtov for avTOtg here means selves agreeing with (ttpaai, and that
with qpiv understood,) and the whole is to be rendered we must
make up our minds, that we ourselves, if necessary, WILL EMBARK on
board the vessels AND sail.
3. The participle of the future is used to express the force of
in order to in English ; e. g.
296 SYNTAX. [ 145.
o -Kvoog tncpipe TOP fwppvav
Cyrus, having learned this, sent Gobryas in order to see
TQV adwuZvTO, Tiuyd roug dixuoiug (iyftv dtl dlxqv doj
in order that he be punished.
zovg GV(ii[ta%ovg del Gcofciv, xai rovgiovio noirjGovTccg GTOCC-
tiojTag IxfttfjintlP, and to send forth troops in order to effect
this.
4. Certain verbs (which will appear in the examples) govern
a participle, in cases where we should use a verb with that. As
in other participial constructions, such a participle (regarded as a
verb) has either the same subject as the preceding verb, and in
that case is in the nominative, or it has a different subject, and
stands with the same in an oblique case, as an object more or less
direct of the preceding verb.
a) Examples of the nominative, where, as usual, the proper
subject word may be omitted.
atff%in>0[Jiai TUUTU noiwv or noirjoctg I am ashamed, that I do,
or have done this. Whereas aloyvvofjiui noiflv would mean ,
/ am ashamed to do this.
(At[Ai>qGO av&fjcoTiog wv remember that thou art a man.
ov Gvvitaav (naTyv novovvxtg they understood not that they
laboured in vain.
dia(3f{jfa][.ii:'i>OG ov pavfiavfig ; discernest thou not that thou
hast been deceived ?
252 *v ft 7 ft V ctvio? ivdaifAcav r t dfi yfyov(*t<S nohrtta, in which
city he was conscious of having become happy, olda yfyova)$
meaning / know that I have become.
oxonov(A6vo cvQtGttov ovda[A,ojg av ahkojg TOVTO dianQa^a/m-
vog on reflection I found that I could not do this otherwise.
ISOCR. ( 140 Rem. 2.)
Hence too with a passive verb, e. g.
ypag dnarwv he is convicted of having deceived
o (frlKimiog TYIV Okvvftov TroAjopxcui/, it was an-
nounced, that Philip besieged Olynthus.
b) Examples of the accusative.
ol Itioocti dia^vri^ovfvovGi TQV KVQOV tyovTa cpvoiv the
Persians relate that Cyrus had , from which passively o
Kvfjog dia^ivri^iovfveTui %ojv.
oidct Gviolcov TCO TO, fikiiGiv. tinovTi I know that it will re-
dound to his advantage, who shall give the best counsel, (im-
personal construction
145.] CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. 297
c) Examples of the genitive and dative.
TJG^O^V aviwv olof4t'i/tav iHvut, GoqwiaTwv I perceived, that
they thought themselves very wise. o(fOJTai(av is foraoqro)-
TUTOVZ by the attraction mentioned 143. 2. 2.
HydtTiOTt (ttttfidiyat pot aiytjaavti, (p&tytafuvu dt jroMaxf?,
it has never repented me, that I kept silence, but often that I
spoke, (from ptTapifai pot, it repents me-) SIMONTDES.
ovdtv diaqtofi lot itfo'movTi, ji/Xya rj 6[.tixo6t> v(f-f)iO[Afv(p?
it differs not to the thief (in his punishment), whether he have
stolen little or much.
REM. 2. Jn such verbs as have the reflective pronoun, as avv-
oida. t'ttai'rqj I am conscious, this participle may be in a twofold
case ; e. g.
ovvoida luuvTO) Goqog wv. PLATO.
Gttviot avvrfietS adwovvTi. DEMOSTHENES.
tuviov ovdtis opoloyfi xaxovyyo? wv. GNOM. We might also
say y.v.xovfj'yQv oaro.
REM. 3. Also the verbs, which signify the cessation of an ac-
tion, have a participle, where we employ the infinitive ; e. g.
tnavoaif UVTOV OTQUTTjyouvTct ye have made him cease to be
general.
ov ^lou "//j.ioojv, I will not cease to rejoice-
REM. 4. The participles of the verbs, from which a nominative 253
depends, as fivai, xaJU?0#*, change this nominative commonly
into the case in which they standj e. g.
vpiv 6f ovatv 'A&nvaiotS ov noinfi to you, being Athenians,
it is not becoming.
InoQfvovio did TWV Jffhvoqayojv xtdovfuvtov &ptf*(ov,
where, in resolving the phrase, Oouxt? is the subject of
REM. 5. Sometimes that which in signification would be the
chief verb, is made a participle, and depends on another verb,
which itself takes the place of an advert); e.g.
TVfYavtiv (happen) ; of? de iJAtfoi', e*v%tv dniwv, as I cqme,
he happened to be going.
larfravtn (to be concealed) ; TO.VTV. noiyoag tKa&tv vntxqw-
ywv having done this, he escaped unperceived ; or in respect
to the subject itself, TOV qovtu Ka.vfia.vti fiooxo/jv he feeds un-
consciously his murderer ; tladt nfcwv he fell unobserved.
ty&avtiv (to anticipate) ; ttpfhj* dqfkcav I took it away just
before.
v (remain) ; diartfai naowv he continues to be present.
(rejoice) ; %aioovo(,v fnaivovvTf? they gladly praise.
38
298 SYNTAX. [ 146.
146. CASE ABSOLUTE.
1. In the foregoing rules, the participle has depended on some
of the nouns belonging to the leading verb of the sentence, and
has been, of consequence, in the same case as those nouns. If a
new noun be introduced as a subject, it is put with the participle
in a case independent of the verb, and called absolute.
2. The most common instance is that, where a noun and par-
ticiple are put absolute in the genitive. The original force of the
genitive absolute was an expression of time, according to 132.
5. 3. Now, as VVXTOS means by night time, so also
lf.iov xufitvdoi'TOQ TVVTCC tyt'vtTO means at the time that I slept>
this happened.
nuvTwv ovv GiwnwvTWv tine roiudt 'while all men were silent,
he spake as follows.
[Afta TUVTU HUftafwvTQS yd?! TOV TlfkonovvrjOiaxov noKt^ov
t7ii(j TOV dt][j.ov, At(jxu(jaioi ccnooif^.at pofptewtv,
REM. I. If this duration of time is ascertained by a historical
person, the preposition tni is often used with these genitives.
Thus Inl KVQOV fiaGiXtvoviog, Cyro regnante, in the reign of Cy-
rus.
3. This construction is adopted not only to express time, but
every idea expressed in English by if, since, because, in that, &c.
e. g.
t
dt TOJV Tlohtf-llfOV TT t 7IoA.fl, klftOQ IJTTTtTO TtUV
while the enemies besieged the city, famine assailed
the Romans.
ftyjTXGrq? TOV fiuGifa'tag r&7 viol avrou ivttv% inasmuch as
the king was dead, he applied to his son.
ov didoi'TO?, ovdiv 'iayvei ga#oVo, if a god grant a gift, en-
vy prevaileth not.
TOVTWV OVTWg l"/OVT(t)V, fttfalOV f'(JTV.l TlfOlfAfVflV, SIHCC things
are thus circumstanced, it will be better to wait.
REM. 2. If the noun be obvious from the context, the partici-
ple may stand by itself, in the genitive, as nuoovra TOV yytpova
jpSwvro, (jmovTOZ 6t ijattyatvoi', where there is an omission of av-
TOV with anovTOg when he was absent. The same holds of imper-
sonals, as vfi it rains, vOfrTQg as it rained.
REM. 3. In certain cases, nominatives and accusatives absolute
are used. With such impersonals as e$<Fi** it is permitted, UQI-
147.] ADVERBS.
Tiei it is becoming (see 1 29 Rem. 3), the absolute case is always
the nominative or accusative of the neuter participle, e. g.
did TI fifW^, t'gov unlives, why dost thou remain, when it is
lawful to depart ?
REM. 4. Datives absolute are also used, particularly in state-
ments of time, e. g.
nfouovTi roj tvictVTfo -naktv (faivovat qoovo&v Inl ii]V JEZjUv
as the YEAR elapsed, they make another demonstration against
fife,
To this rule may be reduced such datives joined to the verbs
ttvut or yiyvea&at, as these, viz.
ft 001 ijd'of.itvat liftt if it be agreeable to thee.
f'i aot, ftovKofAtvw IOTI if it be according to thy wish,
REM. 5. When an expression indicates a reason in the mind of
a third person, why he does a thing, this is commonly done with
the conjunction co? or eo'en^, and accusatives or genitives abso-
lute; ^e. or.
*<uoma, 0)$ navies fidorag or TTUVTMV tidoTWv, he held his
peace, because all knew &,c-
o TIGCTIO^S fioyovai Tovg vfg TTO TOJV
TI]V TOVTOW Ofuhiav dwkvGt* OVGUV aofr/;^, fathers re-
strain their children from bad men, as intercourse with them
is the destruction of virtue.
x TOVTMV ov
they neglect their brothers, as if no friends could be
formed from them.
THE PARTICLES.
147. ADVERBS.
1. Adverbs derived from adjectives, especially comparatives
and superlatives, govern the same case as their adjectives ; as
a'S/eo? r t f.iwv no^ffA^ao^ttv we will wage war worthily of ourselves ; ncr
TKXVTCDV most of all ; ol m'vrjTf? TWV fvduipovojv ^uaAAot/
la<iv Tf xui Ka&tvfoiv better than the rich. See 132.
4. e.
2. Adverbs approaching the nature of prepositions, govern the
case of the preposition which they resemble, as opov and apa to-
gether govern a dative, (like aiiv with,) and are sometimes used as
adverbs, sometimes as prepositions! Thus all prepositions may
properly be called adverbs.
300 SYNTAX. [ J48.
Adverbs of time and place in like manner govern the genitive ;
as lyyvs near (f-yyv? vivog}, #twp/? apart, 'without, diya twofold, se-
parate, without, tv&v obviam, towards.
3. Other adverbs are related to verbs and whole sentences, and
in this way connect two sentences ; especially the relative adverbs,
as na@tGO(ACxi onoxt ufhtuoeig I shall be present, WHEN you command
it. This is the origin of conjunctions, and strictly speaking, ev-
ery particle connecting in this manner, should be called a con-
junction, especially if it has an influence on the verb (like that of
the preposition on the noun), and according to circumstances gov-
erns a mode depending upon it. Thus a%Qt, or pt%Qt> and &> gov-
ern the subjunctive or optative mode, when uncertainty is express-
ed, as ntpifttvw i'ojg or [AtX^^ "'" *'^J7 tM he come ; but when
certainty is expressed, the indicative, as noiyaov TOVTO i'w$ tTt>
e'>t do this so long as it is still lawful.
REMARK. TIKriv signifies except, and may be connected with
phrases, as nlrjvti except if. It also governs the genitive, asTrA^V
TIKVV oA/yojf with the exception of very few
4. It has already been observed, 125. 5, that particles joined
with the article become nouns.
148. PREPOSITIONS.
1. The following are the most common prepositions, express-
ing the most general notions of place, viz.
avTi, ano, 1$ (*x), UQO governing the genitive
iv, ovv (ui') the dative
uvotf tig, o)g the accusative
diet, xr, vntQ the genitive and accusative
cifityi, tni, /uTa, nuQ<x, ntQt, n(jo$, vno the genitive, dative,
and accusative.
2. Those prepositions which govern different cases, answer,
for the most part, to the question -whither with the accusative, and
to the question where with the dative. The genitive admits of
various significations, though more or less connected with the idea
out of f from.
148.] PREPOS1TI 301
REM. 1. Of the foregoing prepositions, the easiest and simplest,
in respect to meaning, are these, viz.
nd, from, i| out of
fig to or into, in answer to the question whither ?
iv in, in answer to the question where ?
Tioo before, oil- with.
For most of the significations which these prepositions bear, 256
(with the exception of some peculiarities which the course of
study will teach,) admit of being reduced to the leading idea here
assigned to them respectively ; as when t implies the reason and
is rendered on account of, e. g.
fx TOVTOV on account of that, (therefore).
Or when it signifies mere sequence of time, e. g.
vvv yt).ta t uv ex iwv nQO&&tv daxQVanr.
So when fig, like the Latin in, has the force of against, or merely
indicates reference or relation, e. g.
iroi* eig noltfiov eniGnjfifav tort*.
Or finally, when rroo has the force of the Latin pro or the English
in behalf of, e. g.
diuy.tfdvi'fi'fiv TTOO TOU fiaoikfojg.
In all these cases the connexion of the modified meaning of
the preposition with its original signification is obvious.
REM. 2. On the other hand, the following are more arbitrary
and difficult to remember.
' Avd signified at first on, (comp. dvoj and its compounds.) But
its most common signification in prose is in, upon, through, under-
stood ^of some large space or time ; e. g.
a.va Tianav Tr t v yr t v in the it-hole earth'
y qqui, f/.fttv uvd T^V TTO/.II> the report prevailed through the
whole city.
ol ana TO Titdtov those throughout the plain,
ava nuGav n]v tjfilpw throughout the whole day.
Avil, as a single preposition, has lost its original signification
of against (see Rem. 8 below), and most frequently signifies in-
stead, fir, in the ideas of change, exchange, purchase, value, &c.
Aia TOV, through, spoken of space and the means ; did TOV, on
account of,' e. g.
dice ^iuy.fdutftoviorg i'yvyov they were banished on account of
the Lacedemonians,
dta oe ftK&ov I came on thy account-
Aia with the accusative also expresses through, when it signifies
cause ; e. g^
did TOig &fov$ ev TrodxTW through the gods I am prosperous.
Mfrd TOV, after (post) ftfid TOV, with pttu rw, only in the
poets^ among (inter}.
Apy'i and Tifol TOV signify about ; which lies at the bottom of
all merely approximating specifications, e.g.
302 SYNTAX. [ 148.
pi TO, oor) tft'wtto he was about^ the mountains.
For the idea ctpipi or nfyi TI or TIVU t%iw or tlvat,, to belong to or
to be occupied about something, see below 151.
Ilept ro>, with the idea of care for something, is attached to
verbs of fear, anxiety, confidence, or contention, '^wqu and nfot
TOV signify of (de), concerning, (as to speak of.) So too tyofttlG&ai,,
ytlovfixfie ntpi TWOS. '-^uqn', however, is far less common than
nfyi in this sense.
Tnty i6i>, over, farther, beyond, (supra, ultra,) vnto TOV, over,
above. This last receives the modified meaning of instead, in be-
half of, particularly in a sense of defence, care, e. g.
nodrTtiv, tintiv vnto TOV xoivov, to act, to speak in behalf of
the public.
uno&avtiv vjiio TOV (jpilov to die for his friend.
257 REM. 3. That the genitive inclines to the idea of from, depar-
ture, &,c. is plain from naud, npoe and vno. These prepositions
with the dative and accusative retain their peculiar significations,
but with the genitive, they are all three most commonly to be
translated by from. The following instances of their use deserve
particular remark, viz.
nayu TOV, to ; but in answer to the question where, near or
next to.
Besides this it has the signification of the Latin praeter, besides, be-
yond ; e. g.^
t%tiv oyov TKXQU TOV UQTQV besides the bread to have meat.
$nov*i Tiaoa, Tovg ofJUoi/f he laboured more than others.
Tccvra tan naga Tovg TWV ftfuv Gcwpiwg this is against the
divine laws.
Tiaoa dotzav against expectation, (praeter opinionem.)
II(x(ja TM means simply with ; nuQa TOV means from, after
verbs signifying come, bring, receive, learn, &LC. and sometimes af-
ter the passive.
Ilpog, to, with, has the accusative rather in answer to the ques-
tion whither, and the dative in answer to where; -noog TOV more-
over, means against in every signification ; nyog TOU on the part of,
after verbs signifying hear, receive praise or censure, and often after
the passive. It is also used in obtestation, as TT^O'S TWV &ewv by
the gods.^
' Trio tov under, both to a place and in it ; vno TM under, in a
place ; vno TOU from, after passives, and actives involving a passive
sense, as natrfttv. So also
ftavtlv vno Ttvog to die by means of.
Hufttlv vn ai>ayxii to be taught by necessity.
Even actions may in this way assume a passive form, as enotvjof
TOVTO vno dt'ovg from fear.
HEM. 4 The greatest attention is due to the prepositions tni
and xara, with respect to which, though observation of the single
148.] PREPOSITIONS. 303
cases of their use must be resorted to, the following principles
prevail, viz.
' L-xi has for its leading idea on ; and in answer to the question
where most commonly governs the genitive, though sometimes
the dative, (as *V i'n:iov Q%K9&at and Aupo icf ITITCO) 7100 fuf-
TO) ; in answer to the question whither, the accusative, (as * m Ao-
<fOi> Tii'U xctTccqfvyfi he flies to a certain hill) But at the same
time it is applied in a more general sense for at or in, and, in an-
swer to the question whither, for towards or to, whenever the con-
nexion of the sentence sufficiently indicates the more exact idea
of these expressions; and with the accusative it particularly de-
notes a certain direction to or towards. But besides this, it gov-
erns the genitive after the question whither, meaning towards, to,
> V *
Tit 2,ccpota)v.
(they sailed} em rr; Xlov.
nl TOV often fixes a time by a cotemporaneous person or thing.
in our days.
tTii TUV qprf(MM>
'ETII T(O, in denoting place, signifies hard by, e. g.
ITII Tr t TU(f(jo> on the verge of the ditch.
Tivpyov* frtl rw rrora ( co coxodoiiei.
It also expresses in addition to, like irpo'c, e. g.
ITTI TictGi I'OVTOi* KJLtjfitQ hrit/uvt [ioi.
Very often it expresses design and condition, e. g.
7iaoctGXvafG&ui ijii TIVI, to prepare one's self for any thing.
ITI ITUXVW -novov vntdvfTO.
Inl TOVTOIS fiyrjvrjv tTiotrfiavTO on these conditions they made
peace. Compare below 151, lq' to.
Finally em rw expresses power, in such phrases as
tq r t fnlv ion, it is in our power. See 143 Rem. 1.
The accusative also often expresses the design, the end, but
with a distinction like the following, viz.
eh&f7i> lm TOVTM to come to effect this.
&&e7v Ini TOVTO to come after this (i. e. to take this).
Kara. The leading signification of this preposition, (as appears
from the comparison of xarw and the compounds.) \sfrom ; with
the genitive down from ; e. g.
xr i(<)i> TTfTOOiv oirrTfiv Ttvuto cast one down from the rocks.
X7 TOV Tft'/OVQ.
More frequently xr TOV occurs in the sense of to, against, chief-
ly with verbs signifying speak, think, &c. e. g.
eijiflv TO <*/. /;#*' xr TII>O$ to speak the truth against any one.
Kuto. TOV, spoken of a place, expresses the being in a place, in the
most general sense, without more particular specification, e. g.
304 SYNTAX. [ 143.
yqv xui xara ftakuTTctv by land and sea.
ol xr T^v '^foiav vno fiaaikti oircg those in Asia subject to
the king.
Kara TOV expresses therefore every modification of time, place.
and relation, resulting from the ideas themselves, e.g.
oixovat Kara xco^uag they dwell in villages (vicatim)
laxijvovv xr iutig they encamped in divisions.
TCCVTU (Atv iytvixo xaia ii]v vooov this happened during the
disease.
OVTOJV
v the Lacedemonians being at this variance with
the Athenians.
at xarw ro GW(.ia Tjdoval corporeal pleasures.
xaia -nuvia, TtTyvyajvTai they are in every thing exhausted.
Very often is XT used to express the Latin secundum, accord-
ing to, e. .
ttaia TOUTOV TOV \oyov aptivov torw OVTOJS according to this
discourse it is better thus.
XCCTCC flflictTtovct according to Plato.
xccru T?]V xaftfTOv according to the plumb-line.
Tioirjoco Kara TO, TOV /2a<jU*ft* yQapnuxa I will act according
to the rescript of the king.
dtOfAui O.VTOV xaia navia. TQOUQV I have need of him in every
way.
REM. 5. The preposition ojg must not be confounded with the
adverb or conjunction co?. It signifies <o, in reply to whither ? and
always refers to persons ; e. g.
eigqk&fv co? ?^u6 he came in to me.
259 oi.vriy$i]Guv eJ ffaaifa'a they travelled to the king.
This preposition never enters into composition with a verb.
REM. 6. The case after the preposition is sometimes omitted,
when it would require to be repeated from what precedes ; the
preposition thus used stands adverbially. In prose the Greek lan-
guage permits this only with JT^O'S, as- xal itpo?, HQOG dt, moreo-
ver, and further, besides.
REM. 7. That prepositions in the anastrophe, that is, with
change of accent, sometimes follow their case, and sometimes
stand for the compounds with tivui, has already been observed
above in 117. 2.
REM. 8. Prepositions in composition have in general their orig-
inal signification. The compounds of fi/, however, have mostly
the signification against, as avxiiOLTTtiv to array against, ctvTifoyti>v
contradict ; those of W to ascend, and those of xara to descend, as
Of significations more or less remote from the primitive mean-
ing of the word, the following deserve remark, viz.
149.] NEGATIVES. 305
u t u(fi,- with the idea of two sides, as a 1 a<jc//?oAo equivocal, <x[4(pi-
orofto? opening on both sides.
ava- means often back, as avu-xhtlv to sail back.
diu- acquires the idea of the Latin dis, apart, as diaanav to
sunder, 8iatvyvvvtu disjungere, to separate.
xuia- most frequently has the idea of completion, as xarcc-
nQUTTtiv perficere, to accomplish, to fulfil ; GTQttftw to turn,
xaTa<JTOt'(f{t,v to turn around ; ntpTiodvui to burn, xctTctni[.i-
HQU.VUI 1o consume. Hence it has come to express the idea
of destruction, as xaTaxvpfUfiv xr\v ovoiuv to waste a for-
tune at dice. In both cases it corresponds to the Latin per
in composition.
(ttTa- is used to express the idea of change and transposition,
(the Latin trans), as lAtTuptfiu&u' to bring to another place,
fteTCtvQfi* to change opinion, to repent.
naaa- from its signification of praeter in some compounds im-
plies failure, and falsity, as nuoccfiaivtw TOV$ vopovs to
break the laws, nccoooav to overlook, 7iuodG7iov6o a violator
of truce, (onovdni.)
149. NEGATIVES.
1. The Greek language has two simple negatives, ov and py,
from which all the more qualified negatives are formed by com-
position. Every proposition, however, containing one or more of
these qualified negatives is, in general, affected in the same way
as if the simple negatives only, of which it is compounded, occur-
red in it. Every thing therefore, about to b<? affirmed of ov, holds
equally of ovde, oudti'g, ovdupwQ, &c. and the same with respect
to fArj, prjdflg, &c.
2. But between ov and pr] and their respective compounds,
there is a total difference of use, which requires for its compre-
hension an exact observation of the classical writers ; but of which
the foundation is as follows.
a) Ov is the direct independent negation, which utters, without
reference to any thing else, the judgment or decision of denial^;
as oux Ifi-tlto I will not, ov q.d(o I love not, oix ayuftov IGTIV, ov-
dti<3 naorjv &c. A direct negation of this kind can never be ex-
pressed by,M?j or its compounds. Such a denial may, however, be 260
expressed as uncertain, as orx nv povlolftTjv I would not wish; ar
39
306 SYNTAX. [ 149.
it may be interrogatively expressed, as dux. TL yap ov
'why is he not present ?
b) Mr], on the other hand, is uniformly a dependent negative.
It is therefore used in all propositions where the negation is repre-
sented not as a fact, but as something dependent on the concep-
tion of a subject. It is accordingly the necessary particle in neg-
ative conditions and premises, as ov ky^'opai, fl (41? GV xtkeitis.
And thus pij is always used with #, *i/, r { v, oiuv, ffjft^Kv, tug,
i/, &c. since all these represent a fact, not as such, but as a sup-
position or assumption. On the other hand *;i*/, f;u*<foy, (since,
after that), take ov, because they always refer to actual facts, as
urj [4,e XTf7v, Infl ov/ 0{*oyd(JTpi,og r 'xTOo6<S fif*t, kill me not, as
I am not the brother of Hector. HOMER. Dependent also is every
proposition implying design ; and hence /?; is used after i'vu, (o$,
onwg, wgif, whenever these particles have that import.
c) Mt], without any such particle, and standing by itself, ex-
presses design, wish, prayer, prohibition, in cases, where the Latins
use ne and not non.
d) In the multitude of cases, in which |U?J is used after relatives,
with infinitives, and participles, it is commonly easy to point out
the dependent or conditional character of the negation.
3. When [ty expresses a wish* it has always the optative, as
(i?l ytvoiTO, prj idoie TOVTO. In negative prayers and commands, it
takes the present tense or the aorist, according as the action is
conceived of as permanent or momentary, (which however is often
arbitrary, according to 138. 5.) with this rule, viz. That with
the present it takes only the imperative mode, with the aorist only
the subjunctive, as pr) pe /?AA, or pr} fif /?aA^.
4. The expression of a fear, which is positive in English, is
made negatively in Greek as in Latin, didoixu |U?j TI na&yt vereor
ne quid accidat illi, I fear lest somewhat befal him-
It is obvious from 140. 2, 3, that this subjunctive in connec-
tion with the past time and in dependent clauses passes into the
optative.
REM. 1. Sometimes the verb, which expresses the fear or the
warning, remains in the idea, and py in this case makes of itself a
proposition, e. g.
Hi} TOVTO aAAcu %YI I fear lest this be otherwise.
5. Mr t is often only an emphatic particle of interrogation (whose
negative quality is extinguished), somewhat stronger than [iwv,
as [ty doxii ooi TOVTO elvcu, fvrj&sg ; does this seern to thee foolish ?
i 150.] VARIOUS PARTICLES. 307
On the other hand, ov is the negative question, when the asker
wishes to be understood as affirming the proposition ; as ov xal
xcdov IGTI TO uyadov is not the good also fair ? This question ex-
pects yes in reply ; while the question by pri commonly expects
no.
6. When to a proposition already negatived, other conditions
of a general nature are to be attached, such as ever, any body, any
where, it is usual to do this by compounds of the same negative
term, e. g.
ovx tnoitjOf TOVTO ovdufAOu ovdtlg no man has any where done
Jhis.
rcUAw raryuj oviwv ovdtvl ovdafty oudu t uw<s ovdtfuiav xoi-
votviav /. PLATO.
Thus also to the negation of the whole is attached, in the sam
sentence, the negation of the parts, e. g.
ov dvvurat OVT fv ktytiv OVT fv noitiv TOV$ qikovg.
So that two negatives do not (as in Latin) cancel each other.
On the contrary they strengthen each other.
REM. 2. To this last principle there are some exceptions de-
serving of note, as the phrase ovdus O$TI<S ov (nemo now); e. g.
ovfelz b'giig ov noiriati nemo non faciet, there is no one who
will not do this- t
ovdevi QTW ovx dpi'axti, nemini non placet.
150. OF SOME OTHER PARTICLES.
1. The use of the particles in Greek is so various and in part
so difficult, that the most important will here be given.
ol$, as a relative adverb, has the following significations, viz.
1) as, so as, as if; hence 2) of time, as co dt r t ).dov, ov
nuQr t v as I came, he -was not present. 3) It strengthens the
superlative, particularly in adverbs, as co$ TCK%IGTU as quick as
possible, and of some adverbs, the positive, as wg aA^^cu^ cer-
tainly. 4) about, as tag Tifvr^xovTa about ffty.
As a conjunction, it signifies 1) that, as Tiuvrfg OjUoAo/ou-
tit>>, o)$ y dofTii xoaTUSTOv Ion,. 2) in order that, with the
subjunctive, optative, or future indicative. 3) so that, with
the infinitive, (commonly wgtf,) see 141. 4. 4) inasmuch
as, (see 146 Rem. 5.) 5) quippe,for, as xadrtOTOv IOTOU 262
308 SYNTAX. [ 150,
Gvy%ci)atjG<xi, oug GV doxtlg ovx ayrjGtiv [At, it will be best for
me to yield, for it appears that thou wilt not give me up*
For the preposition cog see 148 Rem. 5.
w'ff with the accent (see 116. 4) for ovtcag, is very common
with the poets, particularly the Ionics. In prose it is chiefly
used only in the phrases xi wg and even thus, and its oppo-
site oud (og nor thus.
OTiotg, as an adverb, means a* ; as a conjunction, in order that.
i'va, as an adverb, where; as a conjunction ( 140- 2) also in
order that, as i'va TI wherefore ? as it were 4 in order that
what ? [should happen]."*
wgif so that, commonly with the infinitive ( 141. 4 and 133
Rem. 2.) With the other modes it means the same, but may
be rendered therefore, itaque.
OTi that, used before words quoted without change, as artfxpl-
vaio, oxi (jctoitetuv QVY. av btai(*ijv, he answered / will not
.
i also signifies because, elliptically for dta TOUTO OTI, or the
abbreviation of this phrase, dlori. It strengthens all superla-
tives, like (ag, as on (.it'yiGTog as great as possible, on pakt-
GTtt, &C.
(this is an epic form) therefore. Ovvexa, l) where-
fore. 2) as a conjunction, because, (for TOU tvtxu, ov
it if; in the indirect question, whether, (see 140. 5.)
After -dav(.iaoj and some other verbs of the affections, it
should properly signify if, and be used of doubtful things; but
Attic caution, unwilling to assert too positively, uses this con-
junction, not for probable things only, but even for those
which are entirely certain, and so it stands for bxt,, e. g.
Jco%QCLTijg t&avfutfev, elftij q.ou>tjov ccvioig IGTIV, OTI> ov
dvvarov IGTI, TOVIO {he wondered that ).
ft xal with the indicative, although. On the other hand, xal fl
and xi/ ft, unless, even if.
s'ijig, tin, properly if any one, if any thing. This word, how-
ever, is used as wholly synonymous with the pronoun ogng,
for great emphasis, as tty&tiyov thi %yrjainov r t v iv rw nfdlco.
i yctQ is an optative exclamation, for which we otherwise find
ti&t, that I
Inei after, then. 2) quoniam, since, Fr. puisque. Before ques-
tions and imperatives, it has the force of for, as Infi nojg OLV
diaxQtvoiutv O.VTO for how then could we distinguish it ? ' Ind
ftt'ctoai auTog for see yourself ^c.
onov where. 2) as a conjunction, siquidem, since.
av (poetically xf, x^V) see 140. 7 seq.
tav,r t v, uv brav, tnfidav, see ibid.
lav, particularly after verbs that signify to investigate, to see,
150.] VARIOUS PARTICLES. 309
has the force of the Latin an ; as axonti idv ixavdv } see if
it be adequate.
r\ or, which signification it always retains in questions, e. g.
OlrtcoG lotiv' r] ovx otti ; is it so ? or thinkest thou not ?
TI TOUT ( Quuug ; 77 ou dijhov, on why dost thou ask this?
or is it not plain, that ?
In comparisons it signifies than, quam, e. g.
ooi TOVIO ^waA^// dytaxti, ?J Ipoi, this pleases thee better thanme.
Wholly ditferent is
] whose original signification is certainly, but which is common-
ly only a sign of interrogation num. ?
x/ and it have the same significations in reference to each
other, as et and que. When Tt precedes xoi, the former sig-
nifies no< on/y, the latter but also ; e. g.
uvrog rt ivpawog fytvtTO, xal ro? TIOIOI njf T
xui and &' in one clause (but separated from each other in prose)
signify and also ; e. g.
VVV 7lf<Jl tyV%WV TWV VUtTtQWV tGTtV 6 dy(OV XCtl TlfOl "/UVCCl-
/.wv df x rtxvtov the contest is now for your own lives and al-
so for your wives and children.
dt but, has by no means always a disjunctive signification. In
most cases it is merely a particle of transition to something
else, where in English either simply and, or nothing whatever
is used. For the Greeks use it, where no other particle could
be used, to avoid the entire want of connexion between two
sentences,
fif'v and dt are two particles referring to each other, of which
the same may be observed as of dt alone. They form a con-
nexion like that of indeed but, but are continually employed
in Greek, where no such opposition of ideas is intended, as
would be expressed in English by indeed in the protasis and
but in the apodosis of a sentence. Nay, it is not unusual in
the Greek, for a section or even a book to end itself thus, xt
cavTa [itv ovrojg fyt'vtro. In^which case, the following sec-
tion or book would begin ry d* vmfpaiq on the next day.
The mode of division by o pv o d'*', or 6g /u*V off de, 264
which has its origin in this opposition of particles, has been
treated above, 126. Similar modes of division are formed
by aid of the adverbs united with the same particles ; and not
only are the demonstrative and relative forms, but even the
indefinite, thus used ; nort fiiv nore dt, now now, orat this
time at that. So also TOT* or or* (for ro'w and ore) and rfj
jU*V Tt] de, or nr) (Jitv nri dt\ tv&u (Atv t'v&a dt &c. With
respect to all such constructions, it may be observed, that
o fttv, d d f ov, sometimes stands alone without a verb, with
310 SYNTAX. [ 150.
reference to a preceding proposition, in which case the piv
contains a kind of affirmation in itself;^ e. g.
navtag cfjihyitov, AA ov idv /wff , xov d ov, all are to be lov-
ed, and not this one, indeed, but that one not'
Tta<jf]Gi;i> ou% o fAtv o d ov' AA navTfg, they were present,
not this one to be sure, and that one not, but all.
OVT6 and ^if,
ovdt and |M?;<)V. Both these forms express negation in connexion,
and correspond to the Latin neque. They signify 1) and not.
2) ovif or ^rf repeated neither nor.
The forms ovdt (Jir]dt signify also 1) nor, 2) not even,
which last signification they uniformly have, in the middle of
a clause.
AA is d'i strengthened. It is often used emphatically where
no single corresponding word in English can be given.
yay for, always follows other words, like the Latin enim. It
has an extensive elliptical use requiring a reference in idea
to small phrases, such as " I believe," or " no wonder," un-
derstood.
ovf therefore, follows other words. Of ouv appended (as ogrtg-
ovi>, &,c.) see 80. 1. and 116. 7. Here are to be remark-
ed the following, viz.
1) (tv*tv properly an interrogative of inference, as ovxovv
ivrj-Q-fG tovtO ; is not this then foolish? Often, however, the
interrogative force and with it the negation vanishes, and
OVXOV* is to be translated simply therefore, and begins a clause.
2G5 ^ ovxow is the strengthened negation. In the significa-
tion therefore not (without a question,) it is better to write
ovy, ovv.
av again. 2) nn the other side, vice versa. 3) farther, then too-
TIQIV before, is a comparative in signification, and therefore,
when it refers to another proposition, takes the particle 77,
commonly with an infinitive, as nfjlv r\ tKfttiv t(At before I
came. The /f however is often omitted, and TIQIV becomes
itself a conjunction, Tiylv &Ptlv Ipt. But TrptV uv JA^w re-
fers to the future.
wv tir] just now, and with preteritesjw^ before.
no) and nnmoTf glance at past time, and commonly stand with
negatives; OVUM, ptjTiw not yet ; ovdfTtwnOTf, pydf nwnox f,
never yet; from which negatives, however, they may be
disjoined by other intervening words. The idea thus far,
hilJierto, prevails in all these phrases. Thence ovdtnoTf
means never in general, and in reference also to the future ;
ovdfnwnOTf never, only in reference to the past.
i'-ci alone signifies yet, farther ; and with the negatives ou'xm,
no more, no longer.
^ 150.J VARIOUS PARTICLES. 311
(Ao, and vr\ are particles of obtestation, always governing the ac-
cusative of the object sworn by, as vy Ala. by Jupiter. i\r t is
always an affirmative oath; n<x, on the contrary, is attached
both to affirmative and negative obtestations, as val fiu Ala,
and ov juce Ala. When, however, it stands alone, it is nega-
tive, (AO. Ala, no, by no means.
2. These and other particles have an extensive use, which
must be learned by individual observation. The older gramma-
rians speak of expletive particles ; but an expletive use of particles
is the most that should be assumed. There are, in all languages,
particles conveying shades of meaning so delicate as to prevent a
translation, but not imperceptible to the skilful reader. The
Greek language is preeminent for particles of this kind ; and
though their force must be left to be learned by careful study, the
following observations may be of use.
yi (enclitic) properly signifies at least, in which sense yovv is
more common. Besides this, it is almost always used when-
ever a single object or a part is named with reference to the
whole or a greater number. For this reason it is often ap-
pended to lyco (tyatyt,) whereby the individual thinks of
himself in distinction from the mass, as it were, / for my
part. It may often be translated by certainly.
ago, never stands at the beginning of the clause. It means, 1)
and most frequently therefore ; 2) where it appears exple-
tive, it has a shade of meaning like in the nature of things, of
course, ex ordine, rite. Hence it serves to mark the transition
to an expected proposition. 3) After fi, lav, it signifies some-
thing like perhaps.
The interrogative apa, always placed at the beginning of
the clause, signifies num ?
TO/ (enclitic) is properly an ancient form of the dative for TOJ
and means in consequence of, which signification, though it has
vanished in the single word, remains in composition, as TOI-
yup, TOiydoioi, TOiyapovv. Toivvv is used when in a con-
clusion or inference an idea like and now I say further, but
now, is introduced. The TO/, which stands alone, retains the
power of strengthening or rendering emphatic.
ACitioi and certainly. 2) and doubtless, and yet, indeed. 3) al-
though.
certainly ; hence 2)61^, however, a stronger expression
^
r) properly now, for which ??<5V; is commonly used j whence it
is used in various ways to strengthen the power of a phrase.
312 SYNTAX. [ 151.
as aye drj come on then, ii dr t -what then ? After relatives, as
ogrt$ drj, bnov drj,* it adds generality to the ever ; whosoever,
wheresoever.
pi]v a confirmative particle truly. 2) But certainly, however, and
ye [irjv certainly but. It is therefore also a strengthened d'f.
Kou i*,r\v immo, yea, and in contradiction atqui, and yet.
After interrogates, which follow a negative of the inter-
locutor, fir]v is used to signify then, as nort fjir\v ; when then?
rig (MJj/ ; who then ? (that is, who else ?) it ^v]v ; why not ?
r\ ^r\v is the common form of swearing or asseveration, some-
times with the indicative, e. g.
r] pv]i! tyM fntt&ov TOUTO I protest that I suffered this.
267 Sometimes with the infinitive, depending on other verbs; e. g.
0(AW[M, i] /uqv dvuGeiv 1 promise solemnly to give.
V7ifde"aTO tf ^v (.irj anoQelv amoug Tyoqprjy he promised
solemnly that they should not want food.
ov ur\v but not /^ 2) a negative asseveration corresponding to the
affirmative ?} fitjv.
vv, vvv (short and enclitical, except in the Ionic dialect used
only in the poets,) properly synonymous with vvv, more
commonly, however, equivalent to of>v now, therefore.
ntQ (enclitic) altogether ; hence aigney properly means altogether
as ; xalney although indeed, in which sense ntQ alone often
stands.
norf (enclitic) ever ; in questions it has an expression of admi-
ration, as -rig Trore tarty oviog who may this be ?
nov (enclitic) any where ; 2) perhaps.
151. VARIOUS PHRASES.
X
U' rf nisi, except, but.
on fjij] after a negation except, but.
irTi ye nedum.
OTI, and ^ ori, ovy o*ov, ov% ooov and ovy onctig. All
these phrases have, in the main, the same signification. Orig-
inally a verb was omitted with the negation, as ov ktyco I say
not that, &c. or pr) unoJictffayS think not that, &c.
a) If another proposition follow with AA, all the phrases
just given signify not only.
b) If tt'AA* ovdt (but not even), they all mean not only not.
c) If the other proposition precedes, and oJ/ OTI, &c. fol-
low, it means not to mention, nedum.
* Usually written separate; but, when nOTf is added, more commonly
as one word. See f 80 Rem. 1. and } 116. 7.
151.] VARIOUS PHRASES. 313
oaov ov or oaovov, tantum non, nearly, almost, as ivv
xul OGOVOV Tiaodtra noltftov the approaching and only not ex-
isting war.
'roft in duunaGTOv oaov, resembles the Latin mirum quantum,
i. e. 50 much that it is to be wondered at, i. e. very much. In like
manner, it precedes or follows superlatives of quantity, as
TikfiGia ooa or OGCX, TiAfiaTu, quamplurima, as many as pos-
sible L
' MV stands (according^to the rule in 144. 5) for UVTI 'txfl- 268
vow a, as Aer/J* IOVTO, dv& wv tdontug poi, take this in return
for what you gave me. It is also used for uvii TOLTOV brtfor
that, as '/^(Jiv ooi oida, dv& wv rj}.&{$ I thank thee for that
thou earnest- In like manner,
f oj properly stands for tni TOVIC) 6, commonly, however,
for *TII TOI'TOI o*V, and since tm with the dative carries an
intimation of connexion ( 148 Rem. 4.)fg' w signifies under the
condition that ; as Af |co oot, tq u) Giyr/otiG 1 will tell thee, on
condition thou keep it secret.
>' fjTrf is. in like manner, used for fm TOVTOI aferf. It has, how-
ever, commonly an infinitive with it ; e. g.
ypt&ijtoccv tq wre 01 yy-ja^ai vofiov$ they were chosen on
the condition that they should make laws.
( not *V Tf > ^r it stands for fj OTt) till, so long as.
0/0$, before an infinitive, so constructed thai, &c. e. g.
ol TtgQG&tV oftoVTti; TlUfJi ^U>0t^ (jTot TtUl'ftV flOlV, 01 dt
yoiuqiot oi 01, nct-jct TQVTWV fou(ievoi kfaivfii; so con-
structed as to cut as receiving from them to grind.
ov yao t t t> oluz ^o Trui^zo? Kfod^.iiftv he was not one cal-
culated to profit by any thing.
oJo$ r* (or ofefrf, olo$it) means, of persons, able ; of things,
possible, e. g.
oTogri tGTi -Jiui'j dnodfitai he is able to manifest every thing.
AA' oi'/ oTovrt TOLIO but this is not possible.
roAAce, ^for r a).).u, in other respects, i. e- for the rest, else, as ta-
TIV UTiuig, TU).\U fi'datuovfl he is childless, but, in other re-
spects. happy ; hence
TO, if a'AAa with y.ul in the following clause, as in other things
so, particularly, in this ; e. g.
TOC Tf aA/.w fcduiuot'fi. XCKI ncttduQ f'/ti ttOTqxo&Vf; UVTOJ as
in other things he is prosperous, so particularly in having
dutiful children. (Compare r.ai and ri in the preceding
section.)
Hence is formed the elliptical phrase T Tf AA x/, which
means strictly "among other things also ; but which is to be
translated, in an especial manner.
40
314 SYNTAX. 151
Tf y.Q.1 signifies also especially.
TiQv, TO Ityonevov, and other parenthetical phrases, see
209 in 131 Rem. 4.
xal TUVTCI and in addition to this, as TifitxuuTiyv TiagftfvQV tv
x<jpA/? tfygtipcif, YML TUVIU tvonkov hast thou had such a vir-
gin in thy head, and that armed ?
aviM, GVT^, &c. with the omission of <?*>*', signify together with;
e. g. ouiwhovTO ui vr)f$ avxolg uvtiQCtotv the ships were destroy-
ed, with their crews.
* "ipo rov, better rtooiov before, formerly, for nyo TOVTOV TOV
'/QOVQV.
rov hotnov (sc- xpovov) henceforth, TO \Qi7i6v, or i.oinov from
this time forward. (Compare 132. 5- c.)
TToAAotJ &?, impersonal, it wants much thereto ; for which is found
also noMov ^i'w, / am far from e. g. Myuv TOVT,O saying this.
Very often the infinitive absolute (see 141 Rem. 2) is used,
;roAAou few as it were so that it is far from, i. e. certainly not,
as TOVTO ya@ "roAAof dt7v ftnoi ti uv for no one certainly
w.ould say that.
So too, for the opposite idea, use is made of HWQOV or
okiyov dti, &w, dt^v, to express nonmultum abest quin, nearly ;
as pAiyou d'to) tiTiuv I could almost say. OMyov or P.MQQV is
often found alone in this sense.
t nollov IOTI [tot, or nfyi noMov notovfAui or yyovfiat, I
greatly prize, it is highly important to me that ; so also TISQL
iteyi TiAf/arot', and, for the opposite idea, ntpt pi-
&c.
d'i standing alone must always be translated or rather,
fitv (in reference to the following ft dt pii) it were best
if possible, as xaTttyiyvcvaxfTf avfOV ftultUKA |M*V ftavcaov,
tidi fit}, deiqvy'mv, condemn him, it were best to- death, if not,
to perpetual exile.
(in writers not Attic o'qpMOf) I should have ; hence it ac-
quires an optative sense, partly alone, as^^jror utcpthov Tioislv
O that I had never done it ! partly with OK? or with tiQi, ft yv.Q.
O that, utinam, e. g.
(OQ Mqtfegnuyewv.t O hadst thou been present.
tl yuo (oqfkov dui'ilv O that I had died.
heed not ; hence doubtless, certainly.
stands before relatives of all kinds; thus tGTiv OTf est cum
i. e. sometimes, I-GTIV eg est qui, some one. It even stands thus
before a plural ; e. g.
xtxl I'aiiv oi WTWV ZTITOWOXOVIO and some of them were
wounded.
i'ariv olg oujf ovTwg tdoztv there are some, to whom it seemed
not thus.
This phrase was then regarded altogether as one word, as
151.] VARIOUS PHRASES. 315
tl ydo 6 Toonos I'anv oTg dvsaotOTf'i for if the manner dis-
please some.
'i' d't iyrjxtv t'niiv a he permitted to steal certain things.
tidov tat iv OTiov which I have somewhere seen.
ov<siuag av&y(*nvvg *i&avpk*ti9 trtl ao<fiq : hast
thou admired some men for their wisdom ?
, QtifTiv, fWcm, TtciofGTi TipdiTfiv (with the dative of the
person or universally) all signify it is lawful More accu-
rately considered, however, f'vtaxiv refers to the physical
possibility, it is possible ; tifGtiv to the moral possibility, it
is lawful ; tort is both the one and the other, as is also
^ ftm?, with an expression, however, of ease.
tag tvt, in this phrase tvi according to 113. 2, stands for
xi if it is possible ; hence with superlatives 013 Kvi /ua
as much as possible.
to? ETIOS tlnftv so to say.
Iv TO/?, when these words precede a superlative, they signify
omnium, among a//, before a//, &c.
tv Tol? 7Tpo7rot nayrjactv oi A^^VOAQI the Athenians were pres-
ent before all others.
TOVTO tytu iv T0t<s fiuovTccra civ Ivtyxatpi I should feel this
more severely than all others.
Iv ro7g Trpcorr; nv.Qf/ivTO she arrived before all the others.
These phrases are to be supplied by a participle, as Iv ro7g
naooi'Giv' iv ro? /?pfw? qtyovaiv UVTO.
oi dpqi or oi nfol with an accusative, as oi a^qi " AVVTOV, com-
monly signifies not only those with or about Anytus, but Anytits
and his company ; oi afMft Su\i]v Thales and his school. The
Attic writers even use this phraseology in some cases, when
a single person only is spoken of; but always with some un-
certainty, whether it be one or more.
tZv among-, between. This particle is placed as an adverb
before a participle, as follows.
v TifQiTictTiav while he was walking.
fu dfi7ivoui>Tct ecp6v6u0iv avTOv 'he killed him while at 271
supper.
, with an adverb, means to be ; e- g.
xaAcu fyti, it is well.
oj e <? fi'/t as he was.
Sometimes with^a genitive of specification ; e. g.
tag fi%t fAOoqriS (in person).
(uQ xaxouptl'/ov, fijiovio they followed, with what swiftness
their nature admitted.
So too before prepositions ; e. g.
/qu T?/V xctfjiivov "/(D id TioAAa lam commonly at the stove.
oi dfi(fi yr)v t%ovT(g husbandmen.
APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION.
272 i. To the full understanding of what follows, it is necessary
to make a remark on the different sorts of verse and their con-
nexion with the dialects.
All the varieties of Greek verse proceed originally from these
three sorts, viz.
The Epic or narrative.
The Lyric adapted to singing.
The Dramatic.
p. Each of these different sorts of poetry appropriated to itselft
in its perfection, one of the Grecian tribes. The Epic attained
its highest cultivation among the lonians, the Lyric among the
Dorians and Eolians, the Dramatic among the Attics. Hence it
was, that each of these sorts of verse, in language, metre, and mu-
sical character, united the character and more or less of the dia-
lect of the tribe to which it belonged, with the peculiarities which
it possessed in its own nature. See 1' 9 seq.*
3. What ^particularly deserves notice in respect to the metre
and poetical quantity, is, that the epic dialect inclines more to
softness, and, in order to bring the narration more easily under the
restraints of verse, to freedom in the forms and pronunciation of
words. On the other hand, dramatic poetry, particularly the com-
edy, having its origin in the language of real life, confines itself
273 more closely to received forms, and of consequence to the lan-
guage and pronunciation of the Attic tribe, of which few sacrifices
* It is here to be remarked, that when we speak of dramatic and Attic
poetry, we allude principally to the lamhic and Trochaic portions of the
drama, in which the proper dramatic dialogue is contained^ The remain-
ing portions belong more or less the choral songs wholly to lyric poetry.
VERSIFICATION. 317
are made to the metre. The lyric poetry in this respect ap-
proaches nearer to the epic, from which, as the mother of all
Greek poetry, it derived a considerable part of its poetical lan-
guage and phraseology, uniting them, however, with the rougher
and harsher peculiarities of the Doric dialect, and thus exempting
the melody of the song from the monotony of narrative poetry.
Versification.
\
4. The alternation of long and short syllables is called Rhythm.
Inasmuch as this alternation is ascertained by certain laws regu-
lating it by measure, it is called Aletre. And a single portion, which
can be embraced at once by the ear, as a metrical whole, is call-
ed a Verse.
5. Verses are divided into smaller metrical portions called
Feet, of which the following are the most common.
Spondee ( )
Trochee ( u )
Iambus (u ) loyovg
Pyrrhic ( u ^ )
Dactyle ( wu)
Anapaest (u u )
Tribrachys ( o u w ) My fit.
REM. 1. In the examples here used, each word constitutes a
foot ; but verses are measured by feet, of which the beginning and
end may be in the middle of words.
6. In measuring feet and verses, the short syllable is assumed
as the unit, and the long syllable is regarded as double the short
Every such unit is called a time or mora ; so that the Tribrachys
is equally long with the Trochee and Iambus, and the Spondee
equally long with the Dactyle and Anapaest.
' 7. The length and shortness of the syllables is ascertained by
the rules given in the grammar under the head of Prosody ( 7),
to which may be added, for metrical use, the following princi-
ples.
a) Position takes place even between two syllables belonging
to words hi immediate succession ; and this without exception,
318 APPENDIX.
when the two consonants are also divided between the words, the
274 one belonging to the former and the other to the latter ; as in
Aoyoe xAo, yo? is long by position in consequence of the x, which
follows it. In respect, however, to that position, where a short
vowel closes a word, and the two consonants or a double conso-
nant begin the next word, the usage fluctuates.
b) Mules before liquids (see under Prosody 7. 9, 10,) pro-
duce position in the Ionic dialect. This position, therefore, gene-
rally lengthens the syllable in the epic language ; while, on the
other hand, a short vowel before the mute and liquid is always
short in dramatic poetry.
c) The long vowel and diphthong at the end of a word, when
the next begins with a vowel, lose their natural length, for the
most part, in the epic and lyric languages, and become short, ex-
cept when the stress falls upon them, as
ayiorog toaeTai
In Attic poetry this case could not occur, see below, no. 8.
REM. 2. In a few words, particularly in noif7v, the diphthong
in the middle of a word before a vowel is short See the exam-
ple below, no. 17.
d) In most species of poetry the last syllable of the verse is
common; that is, the long syllable may be used, -though the foot
require a short one, and the reverse.
8. With one or two exceptions, the Hiatus is wholly forbidden
in Attic poetry.* In the other dialects, it oftener occurs, particu-
larly before certain words.j The long vowel, at the end of a
word, does not constitute a hiatus in the epic language, but is
merely made short, according to no. 7. c.
9. In all kinds of poetry, it is common for two vowels to be
written at length, which in scanning are to be read in one sylla-
* See Hiatus and Craw, $ 28. 2.
t This is particularly the case with the pronoun I', also with idliv, *p-
yor, &.va, &c. from which has been inferred, that in the ancient lan-
guage they had a stronger breathing at the commencement, probably a
digamma, see $ 6 Rem. 2. and the appendix on the Digamma below.
VERSIFICATION.
319
ble, as a crasis, a contraction, or an elision ; as pr} ov, and the last
syllables of **//*, TroAtoj?, Ur^tfi'oid'fO), &c. This is called by
the Greek grammarians a uvlr}tjig or 2vvf^t(f(avrjtjtg.
10. In some sorts of verse, a syllable sometimes remains at the
end,, when the verses have been divided into feet. Such a sylla-
ble is called Catalectic. A verse whose laws require such a sylla-
ble instead of a full foot at the end, is called acatatectic verse. If
the syllable be regarded as superfluous, the verse is called hyper-
catalectic.
The kinds of Verse.
11. The most common kinds of verse are those which consist
of the frequent repetition of one and the same foot ; and amobg
these the dactylic, the iambic, the trochaic, and the anapcsstic
verse are the most familiar.
12. The best known among the dactylic verses is the hexam-
eter, of which epic or heroic poetry avails itself in unbroken suc-
cession to the exclusion of every other kind of verse. It consists
of five dactyles and a spondee.
275
Instead of either of the four first feet a spondee may be used,
and in consequence of the last syllable of every verse being com-
mon (agreeably to no. 7. d) a trochee may stand instead of the last
foot ; e. g.
1 Ahv&l pfVi 'sJQyvQOToZ ', og XQVGIIV a/uqpt/?c'/?i?xa;
2 KiKKuv Tf faOtr}*, Ttvtdoio it iqi avu
3 2utv&tv, tinoTt rot, %uQitvx Im vyov
4 V/*/ dr t nOTt TOI xara niova
5 TCHVQWV ?/<5' ctiywv, rodt JUG*
6 TtGfiav Aavuol epoc daxyva oo7oi
3
4
5
uo
VJO
uu
UVJ
uu
uu
uu
uu
uu
uu
uu
320
APPENDIX.
276
REM. 3. Sometimes, instead of the dactyle in the fifth place, a
spondee is admitted, and such a verse is called Spondaic ; e.'g.
'^xyoTttTtj uopvyy nokvdttyadog
uu I uu I uu I uu I j
or
Bri dt XT' OvUvpnoio xctyrjvwv dfeccaa
13. The dactylic pentameter consists of two halves united by a
final syllaMe, each of which halves contains two dactyles and a
catalectic syllable, e. g.
The two first dactyles alone may be supplied by spondees.
The middle syllable is always long ; the last, as the final sylla-
ble, may be long or short. This sort of verse is commonly found
in connexion with hexameter, the two sorts being used in alter-
nately succeeding lines. A poem in this sort of verse, is called
"jtiktyot, Elegi, for which, at a later period, the name Elegia was
used; and a maxim or inscription consisting of one such couplet
, or a few, was called 'Eteytiov ; e. g.
tv (xv&ywnoiGi, fAOvi] &fO f o&krj tvfGTiv,
<T Ovlvftnovtf txTiyoliTTOvife i'fiav.
TIlaTig, ftfydht] i^oV, f?X fTO ^ uvdQwv
vf}, XayiTtg i', 0} g/A^, ytjv thnov.
d' ot)xri TUOTOI lt>
'wv d* uvdpaiv yfvog tyftiiQ^ ovdt ftt
ovdt w^V
i--l-n
u u | I u u I
I I II
- u u I u u I II
I u u J u u j
__ ou l l__ll
u u [ j u u I
_ u u I . I __JI
u u
u u
u u
U \J
u u
u u
u u
u u
U u
VERSIFICATION. 321
14. The iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse is measured by
dipodes or pairs of feet, in consequence of which, those consist-
ing of four feet, are called dimeters, and those consisting of six feet
are called trimeters, &c. On the other hand, the Latin names of
quaternarius, senarius, &c. refer to the number of feet.
15. Every iambic dipode, instead of the first Iambus, may have 277
a Spondee ; accordingly we find,
\j , w or , \j
Hence it follows, that in every iambic verse in the odd place, (in
sede impari, 1, 3, 5, 7.) a Spondee may be found.
16. In every foot, moreover, a long syllable may be resolved
into two short ones. Hence the Tribrachys may be used in all
places instead of the Iambus, with the exception of the last Iambus
in the verse, in the place of which only the Pyrrhich, and that in
virtue of the final syllable being common, is admitted. In the odd
places, a Dactyle or an Anapaest may be used instead of the Spon-
dee.
REM. 1. In feet of four times, the Anapaest may also stand in
the even places.
17. Hence follows for the iambic trimeter the following scheme.
uuo
UUO, U V
I
- I
, uu I uu , uu
The irregular feet, however, particularly the trisyllables, must
not be so common, that the iambic character of the verse is ob-
-oured.
71&,VCU%QV
O xut ytoovi't Mat v('o t ) n^v
fyhwaov (Jiyqv Y,V.IQIU.V
, u | u , u
i
u
322 APPENDIX.
El TO nvvt%wg xal noMu xui
~ Llv TOV tyovtiv 7ia>^uo*>, al
nctw.
oo, o - --- . \j - oo - , o
-- , O - I 00 - , O - | O - 1 \J\J
Oo - , o - I -- , u - J o - . oo
278 U^OVTOQ dt fia.Ga.v6g IGTIV a
Of av tvnOQUv ya,Q aio%QCt
Tl TOVTOV dnoprjauvr av ovx out noitiv ;
U
u u
TtQOTtQQV
TOJV &fwv Ipol
Kod nQOTfQov Ofioaag UVTOS i
-/VfV/, \J\J\J , W
, ooo j , o j o ) o
' OO, OOO I . OOO I ~ ~ U '
18. Besides the senarius, the most common iambic verse, is the
tetrameter catalecticus ; e. g.
Ei |MO// yti'Oiro nag^lvos xaArJ r* x rtpsiva
: , o o , o u , o o , o
The rules and licences of this verse are in the main the same
as those of the senarius, and the catalectic syllable is common.
19. The trochaic dipode may have a spondee in the place of
the second trochee, e. g.
. o, o or o, ---
Hence it follows that in every trochaic verse, the Spondee may be
admitted in the even places (in sede pari 2, 4, 6, 8.) Besides this
the rule also prevails here, that every long syllable may be resolv-
ed into two short ones. The Tribrachys accordingly may stand
VERSIFICATION. 323
in all places, and the Dactyle and Anapaest (instead of the Spondee)
in the even places.
REM. 5. Of the four timed feet the Dactyle is also found in the
odd places.
20. The most common trochaic verse is the tetrameter catalec-
ticus ; e.g.
p, xai vov$ axovei' raAAa xwqra xat
ccxtawj xaT&ctvf'iv. ALVM xads. 279
ooo, - u I - o, o u - I - o, I 0,0
21. In anapaestic verse, by uniting the shorts into a long, the
Spondee may stand instead of the Anapaest, and by resolving the
long again into shorts, the Dactyle may be introduced. As an ex-
ample, may be quoted a specimen of the tetrameter catalecticus, so
common in the comedians, as follows.
"Or* tyaj TCI dtxcua Ktyuv r}v&ovv xal acocppoavv.*]
eyoty oi/uoti yvwvcti TOVT' fivai ncioiv Of40i'cog
"Ort rovg %Qi]OTOvg TWV av&Qwnwv fv nQUTTtiv taxi dlxatov,
Tovg df novrjpovG xcti zov$ a&t'ovs TOVTCDV Tai>cti>Tia drinov.
u u , u u | --- , ---- | --- , --- | v u ,
I I I
v w , - I I I I u u , v
oo, | ,00 I , I oo ,
, o
oo, o o oo, -- j ---- , oo oo ,
22. That part of a foot, which receives the ictus, the stress of
the rhythm (the beat of the time) is called arsis or elevation. To
denote it, the common acute accent is used ('). The rest of the
foot is called thesis or depression. The natural arm is the long
syllable of the foot, so that the Spondee ( ---- ) and the Tribra-
chys (o o o) leave it alike uncertain where the arsis falls. The
fundamental foot of a verse, however, (that is, the Iambus in iam-
bic, the Dactyle in dactylic verse,) determines the arm for all
324 APPENDIX.
the other feet, which may be used as substitutes for it. The
Spondee, accordingly, in iambic and anapaestic verse, is accented
thus ^, in trochaic and in dactylic, thus . Hence TOVTOV
(without any respect to its prosaic accent), when it stands instead
of an Iambus or Anapaest, must be read TQVTOV, when it stands
instead of a Trochee or Dactyle, TOVTOV. Inasmuch, too, as the
stress or ictm of a long sellable, in consequence of the two morae
or times which it contains, fails on the first of them, it is to he pla-
ced when the said long syllable is actually resolved into two short
ones, necessarily on the first.
280 Therefore, when the Tribrachys stands for the Iambus, it is
pronounced u w ^ , when it stands for the Trochee it is pronoun-
ced ^ ^ w . The Dactyle, instead of a Spondee, with the stress
on the last syllable ( ), is to be read w ^ ; but the Ana-
paest, which is substituted for the Spondee with the opposite stress
- , is accented w . It is therefore necessary to read A*-
yfTf, faytTut, when these words stand as trochaic or dactylic
feet, and A#ym, Kty&ai when they stand as iambic or anapaestic.
Yet in reading, care must be taken not to consume more time in
pronouncing the short syllable on account of the arsis, for this
would make long syllables and so destroy the metre.
The following are intended for examples in laying the metri-
cal stress ; in doing which, of course, no regard is to be had to the
natural or grammatical accent.
Hexameter-*
i ii it ii ii it
uu I uu j \j\j I uu I uu I
Example.
tQya vtwv, fiovlai df ptacav, fv%ai df ytgovrcov
ii ii it ii ii
uu j J I uu I I uu I
* All the following examples of the various kinds of verse are of.thje
leading or most regular scheme.
VERSIFICATION. 325
Pentameter.
it I i it i i *
uo J - uu j - II - wu [- uu
Example. ,
I II I I II I I I I I
-- I -- I _ II _ ou I _ uo I _
Senarius.
iii i j i i
v , u - J v - , u - I u - . v
Example.
yvalv novriQuv ptTapafaiv ov pctdiov
iii ii i i
W - , \J - | - W u, U - I - . \J <J
I II I II I I
O \J , V W O I - - , U - - I U O - ^ U -
Iambic tetrameter catalect. 281
__ __ j __ _!_ I _L * | _L
Examples.
avTO nigt, rov TiQOTfpo? tinfiv TIQGJTCI
Trochaic tetrameter catalect.
ii iii i i i
I u, u I u, u I u,
Example.
OVTUS vn dvdgwv fiaQ
aAAa fid Ai ov go.diw<s oviwg OLV aurof? dlftyvyt's
flJlfQ kTVfQV TWV H*\0)V TMV <&UoidfOVS
I I II I II I II
- u, w u - I \j, -- I - u, -- j "J u u, u
i i ii i it iii i
- u, V u o j - iy, -- | w u v, - v | - v, w
326 APPENDIX.
Jinapa&stic tetrameter catalect.
I ' ' 1 '
I \j v/ VI Vf I \J \J ^" VJ \J
Examples.
V.O.L ftavftaoTaig KU.I nohvvfivoig Iv o xfaivog diji
<-> v, <> u I <~> u, I , I u u ,
I III III II l_
, - - <-> u, - J uo , j u u ,
Ccesura.
23. Caesura is properly the division of a metrical or rhythmical
connexion, by the ending of a word. There is accordingly, 1) a
caesura of the foot, 2) a caesura of the rhythm, 3) a caesura of
the verse, which must be carefully distinguished, as the word Cae-
sura, without qualification, is applied to all three.
282 24. The caesura of the foot, in which a word terminates in
the middle of a foot, is the least important, and without great in-
fluence on the verse, as the division into fe-et is in a great degree
arbitrary.
25. The caesura of the rhythm is that, in which the arsis falls
on the last syllable of a word, whereby the arsis is separated
from the thesis. Such a final syllable receives by the ictus a pe-
culiar emphasis ; so that the poets often place a short syllable in
this situation, which becomes long thereby, and sustains alone the
arm. This lengthening by caesura, as it is called, is particularly
familiar in epic poetry, e. g.
noiov Gf enog (pvytv tpxos
* As this usage is principally observed in the epic poets, and, as ia
hexameters, the arsis is always on the beginning of the foot, the caesura
of the rhythm and the caesura of the foot coincide ; this has led to the er-
roneous doctine, that the caesura of the foot lengthened the syllable.
With this was formerly connected another error, that of defining a cae-
sura to be the division of a word by the measure ; which would prevent a
monosyllable from being in caesura, as it often is.
TERSIFICATION. 327
26. The caesura of the verse exists, when the termination of
a word falls on a place in the verse where one rhythm agreeable
to the ear closes and another begins. The estimation of this be-
longs to the minuter acquaintance with versification. In a more
limited sense, by the caesura of the verse is understood such a
caesura in certain places in the verse, one of which is necessary
to every good verse of the kind. Reference is had to this when
it is said of a verse, that it has no caesura. Whereupon may be
remarked :
a) That some kinds of verse have their caesura on a fixed
place. Of this kind among the foregoing verses are 1) the pen-
tameter which requires a word to end in the place marked above.
This caesura can never be omitted. (2) The iambic, anapaestic,
and trochaic tetrameter catalectic, which all have their natural cae-
sura at the end of the fourth foot This caesura may be neglect-
ed.
b) Other kinds of verse have more than one place for the cae-
sura, the choice of which is left to the poet. One, however, gen-
erally predominates over the rest. In hexameter this is common*
ly in the middle of the third foot, and either directly after its ar-
sis, as
Mr^viv attdt, &ta, \ ILyWddtm '^4%ttijog
Ovx CCQCC pouvov ir\v | tpldcov yt'vos, cUA* tut
or in the middle of the thesis of a Dactyle, e. g.
" \Avdga pot, (vvfnf, Movoa, j nokvrQonov, o
The first species is called the masculine or male caesura, the
second the female or trochaic caesura. It rarely happens that both
are absent from this third foot. Should they be wanting however,
they are usually supplied by a caesura in the second or one in the
fourth foot, which are generally masculine, and the verse is the
more harmonious, if both are used.
vtov Gvvotvoutvou XIVVVTO
3:28 APPENDIX,
THE DIGAMMA.*
In addition to the smooth and aspirated breathings, the ancient,
language had another, which remained longest among the JEoli-
ans. This is most commonly called, from the appearance of the
character /", used to denote it, Digamma, that is a douhle F. It
was a true consonant, and appears to have had the force of f or v.
It was attached to several words, which, in the more familiar dia-
lect, had the smooth or the rough breathing. The whole doc-
trine, however, of the Digamma, for want of literary monuments
remaining from the period when it was most in use, is exceeding-
ly obscure. With respect to the application of the Digamma to
the criticism of the text of Homer, a subject of so much note in
modern times, the whole rests on the following remarkable obser-
vation. A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, among
which the most common are the following, ou, oT, t, tidw, oi/,
ttiiflv, Vi, '/Uo?, oivog, onto?, tyyov, too?, tituaio?, with their
284 kindred words, have a hiatus so often before them, that if these
words be excepted, the hiatus, at present so common in Homer,
becomes very rare, and in most remaining cases has some parti-
cular justification. The same words, in comparison with others
beginning with a vowel, are very rarely preceded by an apostro-
phe, and the immediately preceding long vowels and diphthongs
are far less frequently made short, than before other vowels. The
observation of these facts authorizes the assumption of something
in the beginning of those words, to prevent the apostrophe and the
shortening of the long vowels and to remove the hiatus. Since
even short syllables ending in a consonant, as o?, o*>, are often
made long before such words although not in c^sura just as if
a position existed, the conjecture has been advanced in modern
times, that all those words in the age of Homer were possessed of
this initial breathing/* or v, of a force equivalent to a consonant,
but had lost it before fhe poems of Homer, at a later period, were
committed to writing. Inasmuch as in this interval, as well as af-
terwards, the poems of Homer were subject to no inconsiderable
changes arid accidents, affecting the condition of the text, it is easy
to account for those instances in which even these indications of
the Digamma have disappeared from the Homeric poems. To
which may be added, that the transition or gradual disappearance
of the digamma may already have begun in the time of Homer,
and several words have been pronounced sometimes with and
sometimes without it.
* The following account of the Digamma is translated from the author's
larger Greek Grammar, page 19, (eighth edition,) and may be regarded
as a supplement to what is stated above $ 6 Rem. 2.
GREEK GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
, accusative.
, transitive.
Aa, immutables, called
also ' Tygd.
pronoun.
, aorist.
, infinitive.
positive.
, deponent.
, positive.
do.
^ article.
number.
, masculine.
augment.
g, intransitive.
, mutes.
grave.
B&QVTOVOV, havmg a grave on
the last syllable.
gender.
Tj, genitive.
s, aspirate.
voice.
Aiyoovpv, doubtful.
AOTIY.YI, dative.
Av'ixog, dual.
, mode.
, elision.
i, active.
?, present
c Evixoq, singular.
' , adjective, epithet.
, adverb.
nominative.
42
, optative. 285
'g.{ Axuor^xoi/, attracted, (e.g. fi-
nal v before a vowel.)
, semi-rowels, i.e. the
liquids, and o.
pa, theme.
v, simple, positive.
v, feminine.
, vocative.
KUvtw, to decline.
aig, declension, conjugation.
, crasis.
oitofici, proper name.
, future.
oKiyov, paulo-post-
future.
i^ colon.
Mioog, middle.
Jfo;p}, participle.
"Oi/o/ua, noun.
^Ovopct(jTtxr], nominative.
*Ov<;, acute.
, oxyton.
J, nominative.
indicative.
neuter.
passve.
, perfect.
?, imperfect.
, having an acute
on the penultima.
, past.
, having a circum-
flex on the last.
77Ayoc, oblique.
330
GREEK GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
286
, plural.
a breathing.
, quantity.
preposition.
IlQQiiaQo,VTOvov, having an a-
cute on the antepenultima.
niQtGnw{itvoi>, having a cir-
cumflex on the penult.
v, substantive.
, imperative.
, accent.
Upogwnov, person.
case.
, verb.
, letters.
stop.
comparative.
Y conjugation.
J, syllable.
syllabic (augment).
consonants.
i) contraction.
) conjunction.
, contraction in verse.
j, a full stop.
Tovog, accent.
' ^yp, liquids.
, superlative.
, pluperfect.
comma.
subjunctive.
, vowels.
i hiatus.
> temporal (augment),
Xpovog, time, tense.
EXPLANATION OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
Abundans a case of the same noun used in two different forms.
Jlnacoluthon a construction in which the end does not grammatically
correspond with the beginning, used for brevity or emphasis.
Jlnastrophe moving the Accent back.
Aphaeresis the cutting off of one or more letters at the beginning
of a word, as fi'/?o> for Af //?w, ?? for (f^ or t(f-rj.
Apocope, cutting off one or more letters at the end, as nag for naga.
Apodosis the last part of a sentence. .
-Apposition the adding of a noun to the preceding noun, in the
same case, for the sake of explanation, as KVQOQ fiaaitevg'
tflOl.GW ntiTQl.
Asyndeton different parts of a sentence not joined together by a
connective particle.
Attraction see 142 and 144.
Causative verbs, 114. 1. note.
Characteristic the letter preceding the o at the end of a verb. In
TIT, XT, fiv, the former letter is the characteristic. 91.
Connective vowel (called also mode-vowel,) see 87 Rem. 1.
Correlatives, 78. 1. 116.
Crasis a contraction of two vowels into a long one, 28.
Diaeresis the division of a diphthong in two syllables as nvnvog.
15. 3. 27 Rem. 3.
Diastole and hypodiastole, see 15. 2 u stops and marks."
Elision the omission of the former of two successive vowels.
Ellipsis the omission of one or more words, as tv '^xt^tddov in
the house of Alcibiades, (Jw/ua being understood.
Epenthesis the insertion of a letter in the middle of a word, as
BTpfapOS for 7TO>U/UO.
Heteroclite a noun of irregular declension.
Hiatus the concurrence of an initial with a final rowel.
332 GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
Hyperbaton a construction where words are placed out of their na-
tural order, as fv a'AAors a'AAw for aAAorf Iv aAAw another time-
in another.
Metaplasm the name given to a noun, that forms its cases from an
obsolete nominative.
Metathesis transposition of letters, see 19 Rem. 2.
Paragoge adding a letter at the end, as Ivl for Iv.
Prosthesis addition of one or more letters at the beginning of a
word, as <7/iuxpo for /ut>c^off.
Protasis, the first part of a sentence.
Synaeresis the contraction of vowels.
Syncope omission of one or more letters in the middle of a word.
Synizesis or synecphonesis, contraction in verse.
Tmesis separation of the preposition of a compound verb from its
verb, as an wv fdovro Ionic for antdovTO ovv.
INDEX.
INTRODUCTION.
Sect.
1 Of the Greek language and its Dialects in general
PART I.
ACCIDENCE AND ETYMOLOGY.
2, 3 Characters and Pronunciation . . 5 1
4 Division of Letters,
5 Diphthongs. . . . Iota Subscript
6 Breathings .... 9
7 Prosody ..... 10
811 Accents ... . 1416
12 Place of the Accent . . 1?
13 Change of the Accent
14 Enclitics ...... * 9
15 Stops and Marks
16 Change of Letters. Consonants
17, 18 Aspirates ... 23
1925 Multiplication and consequent change of Consonants 2427
26 Change of Vowels ... 28
27 Pure vowels. Contractions
28 Hiatus and Crasis .... 31
29 Apostrophe .....
30 Of v ig&fAxuffrjxoV, and other final Consonants
31 The parts of speech
32 JVowrw; gender . . . .34
33 declension ..... 35
34 first declension
35 second declension . . . 41
36 contracts ... 42
37 Attic . . 43
38 third declension, gender . . 44
39 41 inflection ... 45
42 vowel before the ending . 49
43 i examples ... 50
44 -, i accusative singular . . 52
334 INDEX.
45 Nouns ; third declension, vocative ... 52
46 dative plural . . 53
47 ' syncope of nouns in i]Q . 54
4855 contracted (third) declension . . . 55 61
56 irregular declension. Heteroclites, Metaplasm 61
57 defectives and indeclinables ... 65
58 Adjectives ...... 65
59 in 0$ ..... 66
60 contracts in ovg .... 67
61 in we ..... 68
62 of various endings .... 68
63 of one or two endings ... 69
examples of declension ... 71
64 anomalous and defective . 73
65 degrees of comparison . .
66 comparison of those in i;, , 7?, ttQ . 74
67 by tow, iGTOg ... 75
68 irregular comparison ... 76
69 ~ defective comparison ... 77
70 numerals. Cardinal numbers . . 78
71 ordinals &c. . 81
72 74 Pronouns ; substantive and possessive . . 8285
75 the article .... 86
76 demonstrative ... 88
77 interrogative and indefinite . . 89
78 correlative &c. ... 90
79 other correlatives . . . 91
80 affixes ..... 93
81 Vtrbs ....... 93
82 syllabic augment .... 95
83 temporal augment .... 96
84 Attic reduplication . . . . 99
85 augment as to modes and participles . . 99
86 in composition . . . . 100
87 numbers and persons . . . . 1Q1
88 modes and participles .... 104
89 voices ...... 106
90 tenses ...... 108
Q! characteristic of the theme 109
INDEX.
335
92
Vtrbs ; twofold theme . .
109
93,
94 formation of the tenses
. 112, 113
95
future active. Attic and second future
114117
96
first and second aorist
117
97
first and second perfect
120
98
perfect passive ....
122
99
third future (passive)
125
100
first and second aorist passive
125
101
in A, #, l>, Q
127
102
verbals in rog and rtog
130
103
baryton .....
131
paradigm of TVTITO) . ,
132141
of various verbs
142150
ofdyyt'Mat
151153
remarks on the paradigms, dialects, &c.
154157
104
use of different parts of the same verb &c.
157
List of baryton verbs . . .
160
105
contracted verbs ....
169
paradigm of verbs contract
171-177
List of contract verbs
178
106
in (At*
184
107
paradigm of verbs in iu .
187192
remarks on i'GTiyftli
192
108
irregular verbs in [M, as tijpl> &c.
194200
109
(frjf<ii) xt7[ACU>, oida
200
110
anomaly. Syncope and Metathesis
202
111
anomaly from double themes
205
112
other anomalies ....
206
113
anomaly in signification
208
114
List of anomalous verbs
210229
115
Particles .....
230
116
correlative ....
232
117
mutation of
235
118
Formation of words ....
236
119
derivation by terminations. Verbs
237
Substantives
239
A Ji^*:,.
245
Adverbs
247
120,
121 derivation by composition
24-8253
336 INDEX.
PART II.
SYNTAX.
122
General view .....
. 254
123
The noun with adjuncts
254
124,
125 Prepositive article ....
254257
126
as demonstrative &c.
257
127
Pronouns and THXQ ....
258
128
Neuter adjective ....
260
129
Noun in connexion ; subject and predicate
261
130
oblique cases
262
131
accusative .
264
132
genitive
266
1 o
Anll-rrf*
270
1OO
134
V&rbs ; passive voice ....
271
135
middle voice . .
273
136
medial use of the aorist passive .
276
137
second perfect as intransitive
277
138
use of the tenses ....
27*7
139
third future (passive)
282
140
modes. Use of tl and av
282
141
infinitive ....
288
142
with a subject
290
143
with cases. Attraction
290
144
construction with the relative. Attraction
292
145
with the participle .
295
146
case absolute ....
298
147
Particles ; adverbs ....
299
148
prepositions ....
300
149
negatives ....
305
150
various particles
307
151
Various phrases .....
312
Appendix on Versification
316
on the Digamma
328
Greek grammatical terms
329
Explanation of grammatical terms
331
END.
. w THITIAL FINK OF 25 CENTS
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