GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, 
 
 FROM THE GERMAN OP 
 
 PHILIP BUTTMANJV. 
 
 SECOND EDITION OF THE TRANSLATION. 
 
 CUMMINGS, BILLIARD, AND COMPANY. 
 
 ANDOVER FROM THE CODMAN PRESS, 
 
 Flagg & Gould Printers. 
 
 1826. 
 
DISTRICT OP MASSACHUSETTS, to wit : 
 
 District Clerk's Offict. 
 
 Be it remembered, that on the first day of May, A. D. 1826, and in the fiftieth year ot 
 the Independence of the United States of America, Cummings, Hilliard & Company, of the 
 said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as 
 proprietors, in the words following, to wit : " Greek Grammar, for the use of schools, from 
 the German of Philip Buttmann. Second edition of the translation." In conformity to the 
 Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of Learn 
 ing, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of such 
 copies, during the times therein mentioned :" and also to an Act entitled, " An Act supple 
 mentary to an Act, entitled, An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies 
 of maps, charts and books, to the proprietors of such copies during the times therein men 
 tioned ; and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching 
 
 . 
 
EXTRACTS FROM THE PREFACE 
 
 to the first Edition of the Translation. 
 
 THE deficiency of the Greek Grammars in use in this coun- 
 try, has been generally felt and loudly complained of. Till a 
 comparatively late period, use was made almost exclusively of 
 the small Latin compend, usually called the Westminster Greek 
 Grammar. The Gloucester Greek Grammar was chiefly trans- 
 lated from this, and imperfectly supplied its numerous deficien- 
 cies. Of late years Valpy's Greek Grammar has been exten- 
 sively used, and with great advantage, being in many respects 
 worthy of high commendation. x That it is, however, but an in- 
 sufficient guide to the student who seeks a thorough acquaint- 
 ance with the language, will be generally admitted, and it is al- 
 so *not wholly free from the imperfections of the former scho- 
 lastic compends. 
 
 Under these circumstances, the translator has been led, not 
 less by his own reflection, than by the advice of judicious friends, 
 to prepare a translation of the most approved of the Greek 
 Grammars in use in Germany. It is well known that the Ger- 
 mans have paid a greater attention to philological pursuits than 
 any other people of the present day, and that among themselves 
 the study of the Greek has been carried much farther than that 
 of the Latin. In consequence of the zeal with which every de- 
 partment of Greek literature has been pursued in that country, 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 that of grammar has been enriched with many very valuable 
 elementary works. It will be sufficient to quote the names oi 
 HERMANN, BUTTMANN, MATTHIAE, and THIERSCH. Buttmann 
 and Matthiae have particularly distinguished themselves as the 
 authors of the Greek Grammars in most extensive use. Con- 
 sidered as an historical analysis of the language, the Grammar 
 of Professor Thiersch may be thought to deserve the preference. 
 It is, however, as its title indicates, a Grammar not so much of 
 the classical language as it appears in the mass of the writers, 
 as of that earlier form of it which is called the elder, the Ho- 
 meric, or epic dialect.* While it needs but a slight inspection 
 of this Grammar, to feel the necessity of studying Homer al- 
 most as a work of another language, this fact itself equally sug- 
 gests the conclusion, that, a Grammar, particularly founded on 
 this more ancient form of the language, is not well adapted to 
 be a guide to the classical writers at large. The larger Greek 
 Grammar of Matthiae was translated into English by the late 
 Mr Blomfield, and is thought to have made a great accession 
 to the stores of grammatical criticism accessible to the English 
 student. As a philosophical and practical grammarian, howev- 
 er, Professor Buttmann, of the University of Berlin, is allowed 
 by his countrymen to hold the first rank. Three Greek Gram- 
 mars, drawn up by him, are now before the public. They are 
 his Greek Grammar for Schools, the larger Greek Grammar, 
 and the Complete Greek Grammar. The latter work, as the 
 title suggests, is intended to contain a complete grammatical in- 
 dex of the Greek language, in which all the facts furnished by 
 the study of all the authors, should be referred to their systema- 
 tic place, so far as they establish principles or exceptions to 
 principles. The first volume of this work was published in 
 
 * Griechische Grammatik vorziiglich des Homerischen Dialects, 2d ed. 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 1819, and not till the larger Greek Grammar of the author had 
 attained its eighth edition. 
 
 This larger Grammar is a work of more than 600, for the 
 most part, finely printed pages, and is that by which its learned 
 author attained, in the public estimation, the place he is now al- 
 lowed to fill as a Greek philologian. That it is not adapted to 
 the use of schools, might be anticipated even from its size, and 
 is not less apparent from the minuteness of critical detail into 
 which it runs. The author was in consequence led to prepare 
 an abstract from it for the use of schools, which, under the name 
 of the School Grammar, has gone through many editions in 
 Germany, and is the work which is now presented to the Amer- 
 ican public in a translation. 
 
 Although the superiority of this work, not only for philoso- 
 phical investigation but learned criticism, can scarcely fail to be 
 apparent to all who are able to judge of it ; the translator is 
 not without fear that, at least at first, it may be found somewhat 
 in advance of the state of philological studies in this country. 
 Though professedly an abstract, for the use of schools, from a 
 larger work, itself but an outline, filled up in a third still more 
 complete, there is nevertheless reason to fear that some portions 
 of this grammar may be thought beyond the requirements of 
 some of the American schools. The great improvements, how- 
 ever, which have been made in elementary instruction in some 
 of these institutions, and the consequent elevation of the stand- 
 ard of excellence in this department, authorize the hope that 
 this farther contribution to the same end, will not be unaccep- 
 table to judicious teachers and diligent learners of the language. 
 The translation of the valuable tables of Mr Thiersch, by Pro- 
 fessor Patton of Middlebury College,* has already served to 
 
 of Nassau Hall. Princeton. X. .1. 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 awaken the public to the value of the German works in this de- 
 partment of learning, and it is hoped that the Grammar of Butt- 
 mann will raise them still higher in the estimation of scholars. 
 #***##**#**###* 
 
 In making use of this grammar for the purpose of elementary 
 instruction, much must be left to the discretion of the judicious 
 teacher. While it probably contains nothing, of which use may 
 not be made in reading the Greek authors usually studied in 
 our schools and colleges, it is not designed of course to be com- 
 mitted to memory or studied at first without discrimination. It 
 must be remembered that if the grammar be the first book put 
 into the learner's hands, it should also be the last to leave them, 
 and that it must therefore combine elementary principles with 
 critical detail. A Greek accidence, which should embrace only 
 that which it is absolutely necessary to commit to memory, in 
 commencing the study of the language, would probably be found 
 useful to beginners ; and such a one it was the intention of the 
 translator to compile from the grammar.* He has for the pres- 
 ent omitted it, from the consideration, that it is in the power of 
 the judicious teacher, to attain nearly the same object, by mark- 
 ing the portions of the grammar, which it is necessary to com- 
 mit to memory. 
 
 The translator trusts that he shall be thought to have ren- 
 dered a service not wholly insignificant to the study of classical 
 literature. The increased attention, which has lately been paid 
 to this department, leads him to hope his labour will not be unac- 
 ceptable. The translation of Mr Thiersch's tables by Profes- 
 sor Patton, will be found a valuable contribution to the means 
 of cultivating this study ; and the English Greek Lexicon, which 
 
 *A work of this kind has since been compiled and given to the public by one of the editors 
 of the present edition of this grammar. 
 
PREFACE. VII 
 
 is in preparation by Mr Pickering, will remove one of the obsta- 
 cles to the pursuit of the Greek in our schools. It is the design 
 of the translator to adapt for use in this country the text-book of 
 Mr Jacobs, a work of singular merit and of extensive use 
 abroad, and which, as it refers throughout to the Grammar of 
 Buttmann, will be particularly useful to those who are well 
 
 grounded therein.* 
 
 EDWARD EVERETT. 
 
 Cambridge, Aug. 1822. 
 
 This work has since been published, and is now extensively used in this country. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In preparing a new edition of the translation of Buttmann's 
 Greek Grammar, the sole object has been to follow the original 
 with exactness. Nothing has been added, and nothing omitted, 
 except an occasional remark relating to the German idiom and 
 not true of the English. The division into sections, though not 
 common in our school books, has yet been retained. The pa- 
 ges of the former edition are marked in the margin of the pres- 
 ent, so that references already made to the Grammar will not 
 lose their value. Our opinion of the general merits of the 
 Grammar and its adaptation to the purposes of instruction need 
 not here be expressed. In what manner we have acquitted 
 ourselves of the task of preparing the new edition the public 
 will judge. 
 
 GEORGE BANCROFT. 
 
 GEORGE H. BODE. 
 Northampton, May 1, 1826. 
 
OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL. 
 
 1. 1 HE Greek, like all other languages, had various dialects, 
 which however may be all reduced to two fundamental dialects, 
 the Ionic and Doric, belonging to the two great divisions of the 
 Grecian race, which bore these names respectively. 
 
 2. The Dorian tribe was most extensive, but its dialect wa s 
 rough, and upon the whole less cultivated. A branch of this dia- 
 lect was the ^Eolic, which early attained a considerable degree 
 of improvement, particularly in the JSolian colonies of Asia Minor 
 and in the neighbouring islands. 
 
 3. The Ionian tribe inhabited in earlier times for the most 
 part what was afterwards called Attica ; and sent out from this 
 quarter its colonies to the coasts of Asia Minor. Inasmuch as these 
 colonies attained a high degree of refinement, earlier than their 
 mother country, or any other Grecian tribe, the appellations of 
 lonians and Ionic were appropriated to them and their dialect, 
 while the original lonians in Attica were called Attics and Atheni- 
 ans. The Ionic dialect, from the multiplication of vowels, is the 
 softest. But the Attic soon surpassed the others in refinement, by 
 avoiding, in the ease peculiar to itself, the Doric harshness, and 
 the Ionic softness. Although the Attic race, geographically speak- 
 ing, was the original, the Ionic dialect of the colonies in Asia 
 Minor is considered as the mother of the Attic dialect, because it 
 attained a high degree of cultivation at a period, when it had least 
 departed from the common source of both, the old tongue of the 
 Ionian race. 
 
 4. As mother, however, of all the dialects, we must assume an 
 original ancient Greek language. But of this it is only by means 
 of philosophical deduction that we can ascertain or rather conjec- 
 ture the forms. Every dialect naturally retained mor^ or less 
 from this ancient language, and of consequence each preserved 
 
 1 
 
2 UF THE GREEK LANGUAGE [ 1. 
 
 in itself, from the same source, much that was gradually lost in 
 kindred dialects. Hence may be explained the fact, that the 
 grammarians speak of Doric, JSolic, and even Attic forms, in the 
 old Ionian bard Homer. In general, it has been the practice to 
 name that, which was customary or of frequent occurrence in a 
 dialect, after that dialect, although it should likewise occasionally 
 be found in some other. In this way we must explain the Dori- 
 cisms, so called, in the Attic writers,* and the Atticisms traced in 
 authors not in that clialect.t 
 
 5. To this same original language belong, for the most part, 
 the poetical forms or poetical licenses, as they are called ; for the 
 oldest poets formed themselves a language, out of the manifold 
 phraseology of their age. Many peculiarities of this phraseology 
 became obsolete : but the later poets, having their predecessors 
 for guides, were unwilling to lose this richness of language ; and 
 thus what was originally dialect, and ought to be classed as such, 
 got to be, in the end, poetic peculiarity, or as it is commonly 
 called, poetic license. 
 
 6. In every cultivated nation, some one of its prevailing dia- 
 lects generally becomes the foundation of the common language 
 of literature and of good society. This did not take place, at an 
 early period, among the Greeks. Cultivation advanced far among 
 them, while they were still divided into several states, separated 
 from each other by position as well as political relations. The 
 language of literature, therefore, as well poetry as prose, till near 
 the time of Alexander, depended upon the dialect to which the 
 writer had been educated, or which he preferred. Hence arose 
 Ionic, jEolic, Doric, and Attic writers of poetry and prose ; from 
 each of which classes more or less is still extant. 
 
 7. Meantime Athens attained a political elevation so impor- 
 tant, that it possessed for some time a sort of general government 
 
 ) over Greece, and became, at the same period, the 
 
 * The Doric future in aovftai, 
 
 t Such as the Attic declension in w ; gvv for Gvv &c. 
 
1.] AND ITS DIALECTS. 
 
 centre ofliterary improvement. Greeks from all the tribes went 
 to Athens for their education, and the Attic works became the 
 models in every department of literature. The consequence was, 
 that when Greece soon after, under the Macedonian monarchy, 
 assumed a political unity, the Attic dialect, having taken rank of 
 the others, became the language of the court and of literature, in 
 which the prose writers, of all the tribes and of whatever region, 
 henceforth almost exclusively wrote. The centre of this later 
 Greek literature formed itself in Alexandria in Egypt under the 
 Ptolemies. 
 
 8. With the universality of the Attic dialect, as was to be ex- 
 pected, began its degeneracy. Writers introduced peculiarities of 
 their provincial dialects ; or, in place of anomalies peculiar to the 
 Athenians or of phrases that seemed artificial, made use of the 
 more regular or natural forms; or instead of a simple phrase, 
 which had become more or less obsolete, introduced a more popu- 
 lar derivative form.* Against this however the grammarians, often 
 pedantically and unreasonably, struggled ; and, in their treatises, 
 placed by the side of these offensive or inelegant modernisms, 
 the true forms from the old Attic writers. And hence it became 
 usual to understand by Attic, only that which was found in the 
 ancient classics, and was in the strictest sense peculiar to them ; 
 and to give to the common language of literature, formed in the 
 manner indicated, the name of xotv^ l the vulgar,' or * AA?;i>x>J, 
 1 the Greek, i. e. the vulgar Greek.' Hence also the subsequent 
 writers were called ol xowoi or oi' JSMrjvfg, in distinction from the 
 genuine Attic writers. Their language, however, is not to be 
 viewed as a separate dialect ; for after all this xoivrj dtuXtXTog re- 
 mained essentially Attic, and of course every common Greek 
 grammar assumes the Attic dialect as its basis. 
 
 It follows from this, that not every thing which was called At- 
 tic is on that account peculiar to this dialect, even in the classic 
 age. Moreover there were several Attic forms, which were not 
 
 * For instance vr t %tr>&ut for vtlv, to swim, and ttOOTQinv for 
 lo plough. 
 
4 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. [ 1. 
 
 exclusively used even Jn Athens, but which were interchanged 
 with other universally adopted forms, as (fdohj with qt/Uo?, and 
 vv with avv ; as there were also several Ionic forms not wholly 
 unknown to the Attics, as the not contracted forms in the place of 
 contracted ones. 
 
 9. To the universality however of the Attic dialect an excep- 
 tion was made in poetry. In this department the Attics remained 
 the models only in one branch, the dramatic. As dramatic poetry 
 from its nature, even in tragedy, is necessarily the language of 
 actual life, the Attic stage admitted nothing but the Attic dialect, 
 which was retained in the sequel on all the other Grecian thea- 
 tres. In addition to this, the dramatic poets, particularly in the 
 dialogue, especially in that part written in trimeters, with the 
 exception of a freer use of the apostrophe and contraction, indul- 
 ged themselves in but few of the poetical licenses, as they are 
 called, and substitutions of other forms. 
 
 10. For the other sorts of poetry, particularly those which 
 were composed in hexameters, viz. the epic, didactic, and elegiac, 
 Homer, and the other elder Ionic bards, who continued to be read 
 in the schools, remained the models. Among them the old Ionic 
 and Homeric language was retained, with most of its peculiarities 
 and ancient forms, and became, as had been the case with the At- 
 tic dialect in prose, the reigning dialect or universal language in 
 this department of poetry in all ages. It is therefore best denom- 
 inated the Epic language, as its origin was exclusively in the epic 
 poetry. 
 
 11. The Doric dialect, however, even in later days, was not 
 excluded from poetry. On the contrary it sustained itself in 
 some of the subordinate branches of the art, particularly the pas- 
 toral and humorous. When, however, the language which pre- 
 vails in the lyrical portions of the drama that is, in the choruses 
 and passionate speeches is called Doric, it is to be remembered 
 that the Doricism consists in little else than the predominance of 
 the long a particularly in the place of, 7;, which was a feature of 
 the ancient language in general, and for its dignity continued in 
 use in sublime poetry, while in common life it remained a pecu- 
 liarity of the Dorians. 
 
PART I. 
 
 ACCIDENCE AND ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHARACTER AND PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 The Greeks borrowed their characters principally from the 
 Phenicians, as sufficiently appears from the oriental names of the 
 
 letters in the Greek alphabet. They are the following ; 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 'Atya 
 
 Alpha 
 
 B 
 
 /3 S 
 
 b 
 
 JlrJTa 
 
 Beta 
 
 r 
 
 7 ~ 
 
 o; 
 
 rdpna 
 
 Gamma 
 
 /i 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 z/e'/Utt 
 
 Delta 
 
 E 
 
 f 
 
 e 
 
 ' E tytAOV 
 
 Epsilon 
 
 Z 
 
 ^ 
 
 z 
 
 Zrjra 
 
 Zeta 
 
 H 
 
 V 
 
 t 
 
 HTCJI 
 
 Eta 
 
 e 
 
 ft 6 
 
 th 
 
 1]TOC 
 
 Theta 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ICOT& 
 
 Iota 
 
 K 
 A 
 
 * 
 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 Keen R a 
 Aa(JLJdct 
 
 Kappa 
 Lambda 
 
 M 
 
 fjL 
 
 m 
 
 Mv 
 
 Mu 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 n 
 
 Nu 
 
 Nu 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 X 
 
 v* 
 
 Xi 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 "O [jLixgor 
 
 O micron 
 
 n 
 
 ji ta> 
 
 P 
 
 Hi 
 
 Pi 
 
 p 
 
 9 
 
 r 
 
 'Pco 
 
 Rho 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Zfyfia 
 
 Sigma 
 
 T 
 
 T 7 
 
 t 
 
 Tav 
 
 Tau 
 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 " T 1 ' 
 
 Upsilon 
 
 
 
 (p 
 
 ph 
 
 &l 
 
 Phi 
 
 X 
 
 7. 
 
 ch 
 
 Xi 
 
 Chi 
 
 & 
 
 ifj 
 
 ps 
 
 IFi 
 
 Psi 
 
 SI 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 V2 pey* 
 
 Omega 
 
CHARACTER AND PRONUNCIATION. [ 2. 3. 
 
 1. The twofold mode of writing some letters is indifferently 
 , with the exception of a and g : (J is only used at the begin- 
 ning- and in the middle of a word, and only at the end.* The 
 latter is not to be confounded with g. 
 
 2. Of the abovementioned letters, a large number of abbrevia- 
 tions and characters have been formed, several of which are less 
 compendious than the common letters themselves, for which they 
 were designed as substitutes. Their use has accordingly been 
 much limited in modern times, and little difficulty will be found 
 in reading recent editions of Greek authors, if the following char- 
 acters are understood. 
 
 stands for ov g stands for GT 
 
 cS" for a# l for xai 
 
 for o? % for a% 
 
 Several of the characters, so called, are mere contractions of 
 the common letters, as M. for AA, &c. 
 
 3. The Greeks made use of the letters of their alphabet as 
 numerical signs. To fill out the numbers the stigma g was intro- 
 duced after *, the ^ after TT, and the V) after co.* All the nume- 
 rals moreover have the accent, as ' 1, @' 2, g' 6, i 10, ice 11, x 
 20, xg 26, (/ 100, a' 200, aA/?' 232, &c. The thousands begin 
 with , but with a mark underneath, y , ^, &c. fal/? 2232. 
 
 3. 
 
 1. It is impossible to ascertain the ancient pronunciation. Among 
 the modes in which Greek is pronounced in modern times, two 
 principally may be distinguished, the Erasmian and the Reuchlin- 
 ian. The pronunciation adopted in England and partly in Amer- 
 ica, resembles the Erasmian most nearly in the consonants, but 
 differs from both in the vowels.J 
 
 * Also by some modern writers at the end of a syllable, a distinction 
 however which leads to great difficulty, if extended beyond the most fa- 
 miliar compositions, as those with the enclitics and with 7I00, i/, 1$ 
 and perhaps dv. 
 
 t g is called sti or stigma, Cy koppa, and ^ sanpi. 
 
 J We make use in this grammar of the Erasmian, because it incontest- 
 ably approaches nearest the ancient. This appears from the manner in 
 which Greek names are written by the Latins (as in the names of the let- 
 ters above in the alphabet,) and Latin names by the Greeks. There are 
 
^ 4.] DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 7 
 
 2. F before another y and also before x, jr, , sounds like ng ; 
 e. g. tyyv?, eng-gus, like r?g in angler, or in the Latin word angustus ; 
 avyxQKJig, syngcrisis ; '^yylayg, Angchises ; ^(fly^ Sphiogx. 
 
 Z does not correspond to the English z, but has the sound of ds. 
 
 K in Greek words written in Latin, even before e and t, is rep- 
 resented by c ; as is also the Latin c represented in Greek by x ; 
 as Kipwv Cimon ; Cicero jfrixtprnv, the Romans having always 
 pronounced their c like k before a vowel. 
 
 4. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 1. The Letters are divided into Consonants and Vowels. 
 
 2. Among the consonants are first to be distinguished the three 
 compound letters, , , i/, each of which in reality consists of two 
 letters, represented however by a simple sound; of $?, of x?, 
 and ip of TIG. 
 
 3. The simple letters are divided, a) according to the organ* 
 with which they are pronounced, viz. 
 
 /?, 7i, <f, |U, are labials. 
 #, T, #, v, A, p, (7, linguals. 
 y, x, #, palatics. 
 
 b) The letters, according to their qualities, are either 
 SEMIVOWELS,* which are the following, A, /u, v, p, called also 
 liquids, and the simple sibilant a ; or 
 
 many internal arguments against the Rcuchlinian. According to this pro- 
 nunciation ri is pronounced liks i, at, like a long, and ft, Ot, V and f* 
 are all pronounced like , and v when it is second in a diphthong, with 
 the exception of Of, is pronounced like/, as civrog aflos, Ztvg sefs. This 
 pronunciation grounds itself on the modern Greek pronunciation, though 
 it can be proved that the latter has in the lapse of time departed from the 
 ancient. It is called, from the multiplication of the iota sounds, iotapis- 
 mus, or from the sound of r\ [I on the continent of Europe] itacism ; the 
 Erasmian, etacismus. 
 
 * So called by the ancients, as forming by their humming or sibilant 
 sound a transition to the articulate sound of the vowels. 
 
DIPHTHONGS. [ 5. 
 
 MUTES, which are 
 
 aspirates qp, #, a*>, 
 medials /?, y, <J, 
 soft TT, x, r. 
 
 From this it appears, that each organ possesses the three 
 mutes, and that the nine letters, arranged thus, 
 
 ft yl *,' 
 
 7T, X, T, 
 
 correspond to each other, both in the horizontal and perpendicu- 
 lar directions. 
 
 4. No genuine Greek form terminates in any consonant, except 
 a, v, p ; for those which end in | and ip are to be considered as 
 terminating in xff and ng. 'En and ovx form the only exception, 
 and these never occur at the end of a clause. 
 
 5. DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 1. The ancient pronunciation of the diphthongs is the least 
 known. The manner in which they were pronounced by the 
 Romans will appear from the following examples. 
 
 at, tywdpog Phaedrus Phadrus on the continent of 
 
 Europe. 
 et Nffhog Nilus Nelus 
 
 Avxtiov Lyceum Lycaum 
 
 ot, BOIWTIU Bceotia Baotia 
 
 vi Ei).ti&via Ilithyia 
 
 av P\uvy,og Glaucu? 
 
 fv ^ fivpog Eurus* 
 
 ov Movoa Musa. 
 
 It is to be observed, that the Latin usage is not uniform, partic- 
 ularly in the case of it. This appears from the different modes of 
 writing tyvytvtia Iphigenia, Mrjdua Medea, 'UpaxfaiTog Hera- 
 
 * It is a modern error to write the a,v and fv before a vowel in Latin 
 with a v. It would be more correct to write JLgaue, Euan, 
 Evav. 
 
6.] BREATHINGS. 
 
 clitus, J7bAuxAfro Polycletus, as also from the examples above 
 given ofNilus and Lyceum. A few Greek diphthongal forms in 
 ata, ota remain unchanged when written in Latin, except that 
 the i probably passed into the j according to Latin usage, as Mala, 
 ia, Tyo /a, Maja, Achaja, Troja. 
 
 2. From the above mentioned diphthongs are to be distin- 
 guished those which are called improper diphthongs, which are 
 formed by iota subscript placed under the following vowels, 
 
 , y, o). 
 
 The sound of these vowels is not affected by the iota subscript, 
 which serves only to indicate the derivation of the word. An- 
 ciently perhaps it was heard in the pronunciation. The ancients 
 moreover wrote the iota in the line, and in capital letters this is 
 still practised, as THI 2,O$>IAI, TTJ ao^m, TOJ "Adty or udy. 
 
 6. BREATHINGS. 
 
 1. Every word beginning with a vowel has over that vowJ 
 one or the other of the two following breathings, viz. 
 
 ( ' ) The spiritus lenis or soft breathing. 
 ( e ) The spiritus asper or aspirate. 
 
 The aspirate is our modern h ; the soft breathing stands where 
 in modern languages we simply begin with a vowel,* as 
 
 tyoj ego, 'AnQ\\ti)v Apollon, ajftog omos, IOTOQIO, historia, "OfAV}- 
 po? Romeros, vduQ hudor. 
 
 The two sorts of words, for all purposes of grammar and pros- 
 ody, are alike considered as beginning with a vowel. 
 
 2. In the case of a diphthong in the beginning of a word, the 
 breathing is placed over the second vowel of the diphthong, as 
 EvQinidrjg, ofo. This, however, is not the case with the improp- 
 er diphthongs, as " A&rft, q 
 
 * As the aspirate is represented in modern languages by h, so the soft 
 breathing is the oriental Jllif, and it has an actual force. Every vowel 
 uttered without a consonant, and of course every one which is pronounc- 
 ed separately from the preceding letters, must be pronounced with an au- 
 dible, though gentle impulse or breathing. The ancients were led to de- 
 note it the rather, as they wrote without a division of words. 
 S 
 
PROSODY. [ 7. 
 
 3. The aspirate is always attached to Q when it begins a word, 
 and two p in the middle of a word are thus written, pp. This had 
 its foundation in the mode of pronouncing, for it was retained by 
 the Latins, as pfjreop, IIvQQog, rhetor, Pyrrhus. 
 
 The ^Eolians in several words made use of the soft breathing 
 instead of the aspirate ; which was also sometimes done in the old 
 Ionic. We accordingly find in Homer v^iv for Jju/i/, q&iog for 
 ^fA*o, &c. The ^Eolians moreover had in many words a peculiar 
 aspiration of their own, denoted by a particular letter /, which 
 from its form was called digamma or double gamma, and was 
 pronounced like v or f. It is probable that this sound was origi- 
 nally found in the Greek language. 
 
 7. PROSODY. 
 
 1. Prosody, as now understood, includes only the subject of 
 quantity, that is, the length or shortness of the syllables*. 
 
 2. Every word and every form had for each syllable (with a 
 few exceptions) a fixed quantity, which followed the pronuncia- 
 tion of common life, and which must therefore be learned, in or- 
 der to pronounce correctly. 
 
 3. Quantity is denoted by two marks, (") for short, and (-) for 
 long, thus 
 
 short a, a long a, d uncertain or doubtful. 
 
 4. Every syllable which cannot be proved to be long is to be 
 considered short. 
 
 5. A syllable is long, first by nature, secondly by position. 
 
 6. I. A syllable is said to be long by nature, when its vowel is 
 long, as in Latin amdre and docere. In Greek, this is partly ascer- 
 tained in the character itself, as y and co are always long, and 
 o always short. The three others 
 
 * The elder Greek grammarians included under the 
 not only the quantity, but the accents, and breathings. The subject of 
 quantity is here treated not in reference to poetry, but to pronunciation 
 in general. 
 
7.] PROSODY. 11 
 
 are, in Greek, as in Latin all the vowels, both long and short, and 
 for this reason are called doubtful (ancipites.j* 
 
 7. Among the sounds naturally long are also to be reckoned 
 those, in which two vowels are united into one sound. 
 
 a) All diphthongs are accordingly long without exception, as 
 the penult of puatttiog and tnadw. 
 
 b) All contractions for the same reasons are long ; and therefore 
 the doubtful vowels when they serve as contractions. Thus in 
 axo)v for aYxojf, i in Igog for ityog, and i; in the ace. pi. POTQVQ 
 for poTpvag. This does not extend however to such contractions 
 as are to be regarded in the light of elisions ; thus the penult of 
 ttnafta for ano-ajrca is short. 
 
 8. All the other cases, in which a, , and v are long, are ascer- 
 tained by usage alone, and can accordingly be learned, for the most 
 part, only by observing the use of them in the poets. As far as the 
 radical syllables are concerned, this must be acquired by every 
 person by his own observation, with the exception of a few rules, 
 which will presently be given. The quantity of the syllables us- 
 ed in the formation and inflection of the words, and the cases in 
 which the radical syllable changes its quantity in the inflection 
 and formation of words, are taught in their proper places in the 
 Greek grammar. 
 
 It is moreover to be considered, that in general those cases 
 only are noticed where in the inflection or formation of words 
 a, *, and v are long, and syllables of which nothing is said, or 
 where the reverse does not result from the general rule, are con- 
 sidered as short ; as the penult of TTpay/uaToe, iTvipdftrjv ; and in 
 the formation of words, as |iU*?eff, ftxatowity 
 
 9. II. A syllable, even if its vowel be short, is long by posi- 
 tion ; that is, when it is followed by two or more consonants or a 
 
 * We are not to suppose from this, that there is in the nature of the 
 vowels cc, t, V, in every case something doubtful and wavering between 
 long and short. All the single vowels are in certain words positively long, 
 in certain others positively short. But only in the e and o sounds did 
 the Greek alphabet contain for each case a separate sign or letter. In the 
 other three we learn their quantity in each separate case, from the usage 
 #f the poets, as we learn it in Latin in the case of all the vowels. 
 
12 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 double consonant ; e. g. the penultimate of Ityfa&at, 
 
 10. A mute before a liquid, however, is in general not consid- 
 ered in position; accordingly the penult is short in zrxj>0, di- 
 <tya;^uo?, ytvt&hri, dv^noxfjiog, &c. Nevertheless, the poets use 
 these syllables as long, and hence it is often said that mutes before 
 the liquids make the syllable doubtful.* 
 
 11. A true exception to the rule of mutes and liquids is formed 
 by the medials /?, j>, $, when they precede A, ju, i>, in which case 
 they render vowels long by position. Thus in the following words 
 the penult is long, ntnteypai, TtTQufiifihog, evodpog ; but in the 
 following it is short, jfapadpa, Mtheayoog, 
 
 5. The following are the most important cases, where the 
 doubtful vowels are long in the penult, and which it is of great 
 moment to learn correctly. 
 
 tattle 
 
 sorrowful 
 
 turban 
 
 companion 
 
 proud 
 
 with words derived from ayoj and itywpi and ending in 
 captain, vavayog a shipwrecked person. 
 
 TlttQCC 
 
 onadog 
 
 Givu.ni 
 
 knave 
 pure 
 mustard 
 jaw 
 
 as 
 
 o ycdwog 
 
 GlKlVOV 
 KVfAlVOV 
 
 o xlvdvvos 
 
 o 
 tvftvvr] 
 
 stove 
 rein 
 parsley 
 cumin 
 cyclamen 
 ax 
 
 Jiask 
 danger 
 ditch 
 account 
 an old man 
 shell or pod 
 crowd 
 
 o 
 Titdihov 
 
 VXOVITOV 
 
 \ r 
 
 TO 
 
 TllTVQQV 
 
 ayxvoa 
 yt'qvau 
 ohvoa 
 
 fruit of the pine 
 
 sandal 
 
 swallow 
 
 labourer 
 
 exact 
 
 aconite, a poison 
 
 pickled Jish 
 
 papyrus, a reed 
 
 spoil 
 
 bran 
 
 anchor 
 
 bridge 
 
 a sort of grain. 
 
 Great care must be taken in these cases to ascertain whether the 
 
 be not long by nature, for then it must remain long ; 
 which comes from $Ao, which is contracted from 
 , long. , 
 
 and has its 
 
PROSODY. 13 
 
 So too ia%vQog strong (from io%va) I am able.) On the other 
 hand i%vQQ? and oyvgog firm (from i% c / /ioW) have a short u, like 
 other adjectives in upo. 
 
 It is safer to pronounce the following with the penult long. 
 though they sometimes are found short : 
 
 [tvQtxr] tamarisk xoQvvr] club 
 
 TitiiwvQu flood TOQVVV trowel. 
 
 The following proper names are long in the penult: 
 * ' 
 
 Qtavw^ 'luawv," Apaoig, 
 (Serapis.) t v 
 
 , 'Evinfvg, Zigicpog, 7$<mxog, JTa/xo?, Jfcfc'Atro?, Oai- 
 ' , Alyivu, ' ' 
 
 waoq, '[Afiypvoog, Kafipvoijg, 'AQiviug, Kw-Avrog, Br t - 
 "Afivdog, Bi&vvog, IIa%vvov, KtQXVQa (Corcyra.) 
 
 6. The first syllable of the following words is long : 
 
 i//jAo bare fjuxQog small 
 
 o %ikog fodder Tif^rj honour 
 
 Htf-iog hunger vixrj victory 
 
 77 Qivog skin xktvij couch 
 
 lixog simple divr} ^ vortex 
 
 6 ftvpog mind o %vhog chyle 
 
 6 pvpog pole of carriage 6 TVQog cheese 
 
 6 %v[i6g juice d nvpog wheat* 
 
 6 %QV6og gold yvhr] tribe 
 
 %wog common i'A>; wood or matter 
 
 bent tout] gri^f' 
 
 soul 
 
 Of the verbs which terminate in a simple co attached to the 
 radical syllable it is to be observed in general, that the a is short, 
 as in ayoj, ypagrtw. The t, and^ 1 are long, as in T^/^W, avgaj, yv- 
 ^0), excepting yXuyw I engrave, which has the v short. 
 
 The case of cu'to, * v w, and vvo) will be separately treated below. 
 Of the contracted verbs, the following, whose first syllable is 
 long, require particular notice : 
 
 xivtro I move dtqaw I dip 
 
 I shudder atAaw / plunder 
 
 I am silent (i'daco / blow.] 
 
 * On the contrary niJQOg, the genitive of TO Trup, fire. 
 
 t The learner should be taught to apply these quantities to ascertain 
 the pronunciation of derivatives like ctTl[40g, a\pv%0?, tTQifiov, diaTQi" 
 /?cu, f'A.^Qi'&rjg^ aovhov, &c. also of the proper names, as Hennotimus. 
 Demonicus, Euphyle, &r. 
 
14 ACCENTS. [ 8. 
 
 7. Some words are deserving of notice, which, being derived 
 from verbs, instead of the long vowel of the present, take the 
 short vowel of the second aorist Thus some substantives in /, as 
 TQifir}, diuTQlfir), a'ipi>/*7, 7[a(ja\pv%?}. But tyv%?j is long. 
 
 And some adjectives in rtf gen. tog. Thus 
 
 8. The rule, that one vowel is short before another, which 
 wants certainty in Latin, is still less certain in Greek ; although a 
 long vowel occurs seldomer before another vowel, than before a 
 consonant. The nouns in tog, wv, *, have the i always short, 
 with these exceptions, where it is commonly long, viz. xwAta nest, 
 xovia dust, dv/a sorrow. 
 
 The termination of the present tense in vw and lot must be 
 learned from observation. It is very often long. 
 
 The penult of the following words deserves notice, as being 
 long: 
 
 o* laog people ^ thaa the olive 
 
 xaoj for xaioj I burn xAaw for xAa/cu / weep 
 
 o vaog temple 'vvw Bellona. 
 
 Those also in daw and /wi/, which take o in the genitive, such 
 as the comparatives like (fteArfoy, and proper names, have their 
 penultimate long ; as Jtfitjracw, ^uf#ao>j/, ^[.Hpiwv, 'fjif^iwv^ 
 gen. oi>og. On the other hand the penult is short in ^fnouxA/fw, 
 0oo[Ai(jDv, gen. (ovog. Proper names in aog^ compounded from 
 Aoco?, are of course long, in the penult, as JfcfttUcrofT* '^//ugp^a^o? 
 is long, but Oivo[Auog is short. 
 
 9. The accents are of great use in deciding the quantity of 
 many words. 
 
 / 
 
 8. ACCENTS. 
 
 1. Besides the quantity of the syllables, the Greek language 
 recognized a tone (rovog) or what we call the accents ; of which, 
 however, it is difficult, according to our ideas, to make any use in 
 pronunciation. Inasmuch as the accent is found as often on a short 
 syllable as a long one, we cannot express it as we usually express 
 accent, without injuring the quantity, as in r 
 
 * In English we still pronounce Amphi'on, but use has established 
 Hype'rion ; see Walker's key, ( 29. 
 
 t The modern Greeks, however, even in reading the poets, pronounce 
 according to the accent?, and their own versification is wholly founded 
 upoo them. 
 
9, 10.] ACCENTS. 15 
 
 So long therefore as it is out of our power to indicate both the 
 quantity and the accent in our pronunciation, it is safer to follow 
 the quantity in reading the Greek. 
 
 2. Notwithstanding this, an acquaintance with the accents is 
 essential to a thorough knowledge of Greek ; nor are they without 
 advantage even for common use. They often indicate, by their 
 position, the quantity of a syllable ; many words and forms of dif- 
 ferent signification, but otherwise written alike, are distinguished 
 by the accents; and even in cases where they are not thus of im- 
 mediate use, they serve to fix the laws of their position, by which 
 we are to be guided in the cases where they are of use. The 
 following are the chief rules relative to the accents. 
 
 1. Every Greek word, generally speaking, has the accent on one 
 of its vowels, and this is properly the acute, 6t7u (nyoaotdia accent 
 being understood,) that is, the sharp accent, which is written thus '. 
 
 2. Of every syllable, which has not this accent, it was held by 
 the ancients, that it received the heavy or grave accent ; that is 
 that, in which the voice descended, pugf7a or gravis. The mark 
 of this is \ which, however, is not in common writing affixed to 
 the syllables to which it belongs. 
 
 3. A long vowel, moreover, may receive the circumflex, call- 
 ed in Greek nfQionw^itvri, that is -wound about, and written thus ~. 
 Such a syllable is to be considered as composed of two short vow- 
 els drawn together, of which one has the acute and the other the 
 grave accent ; thus oo, whence oj. When, however, two short 
 vowels marked thus oo pass into one, it is written o'). 
 
 10. 
 
 1. The accent, acute, grave, or circumflex, can only be plac- 
 ed on one of the three last syllables of the word ; the circumflex 
 only on one of the two last.* 
 
 * MTWI and the like will appear, under the head of enclitics, to be 
 >nly apparent exceptions to this rule. 
 
10 ACCENTS. 
 
 2. The character of the last syllable, in respect to the accent, 
 gives a name to the whole word. According as this syllable has, 1st 
 the acute. 2d the circumflex, or 3d the grave, the word is called 
 
 Oxytone, fcs fttoG, og, Ttrvyxag 
 
 Perispomenon, as . quAoj, vovg^ 
 
 Barytone, as tv7iia),7r()ay{*a, Trpay/wara. 
 
 Thus barytone verbs are distinguished from the contracts, 
 which are perispomena or circumflexed. 
 
 3. Again all barytones, which are dissyllables or polysyllables, 
 according as they have the acute, 1st upon the penult, 2d the an- 
 tepenult, or 3d the circumflex on the penult, are called 
 
 Paroxytona, as Torero), 
 
 Proparoxytona, as Tvmofifvos, 
 Properispomena, as 7rpa/| 
 
 4. Barytones of one syllable, or words wholly without accent, 
 are the following, all beginning with a vowel : 
 
 ov (oJx, ov%) not, wg as, tl if, Iv in, */ff, lg <o, l, (Ix) out. 
 And these nominatives of the prepositive article, 
 o, ?J, ol, m. 
 
 When it is said that these words are without accent, it is meant 
 that they take none, in their connexion with other words. But 
 when at the end of a sentence, or after a word dependent on them 
 in the construction, they are sometimes written with the acute : 
 
 ~ v n * ct ~ '/v. 
 
 Q ov ; frtog tu xctxcu)/ eg. 
 
 When an oxytone precedes in connexion other words, the 
 acute accent is considered as softened into the grave, and the ' is 
 changed into the \ which, except in this case, is never written. But 
 at the end of a sentence, or before a period, or colon, the mark of 
 the acute accent is retained, thus 
 
 OQY J } $* TioAAa dgav avayxafet xcrxa.* 
 
 The interrogative T/?, j/, is the only exception to this rule, as 
 will appear in its place. 
 
 * Care must therefore be had not to regard words ending in x as bary- 
 /ones: on the contrary, they are-all oxytones with the acute accent qui- 
 escent, on account of the connexion with other words. 
 
vS 12.] ACCENTS. 1? 
 
 12. PLACE OF THE ACCENT. 
 
 On what syllable each word receives the accent, is best to be 
 learned from observation and the lexicon. The following rules, 
 however, particularly in reference to the choice between the two 
 kinds of accent, may be applied with advantage. 
 
 1. The circumflex requires a vowel long in itself, and not 
 merely made long by position. Thus xv?o, #w, itl%og, ovxog, 
 oi*Tjyfia. Also Ti t uaT{, yplv, TT^, for in these words the doubt- 
 ful a, , r, are long. A short vowel can accordingly receive no 
 accent but the acute, as tTtgog, (ttvos, 'iva, TtjpO?, TtoAi/, nltygta. 
 
 This furnishes an instance of the use of the accents in deter- 
 mining the quantity of the doubtful vowels; for since a circumflex 
 cannot stand over a^vowel which is merely long by position, the 
 a in npaypcc and ^laV.ov is recognized as long in itself. 
 
 2. The acute accent may also stand on a long vowel, as 
 
 3. The cases in which the last syllable, being naturally long, 
 receives the circumflex, can only be learned from the lexicon and 
 some rules which are to follow in other parts of the grammar, es- 
 pecially the rules of contraction and declination. 
 
 4. If the penult, when long by nature, is accented, it must al- 
 ways be with the circumflex, whenever the last syllable is short, 
 or long by position only, as p?; ( , oivog, i//#o, /?wA (G. xo.) 
 
 This accent shows the learner that the a in pa and of 
 these words is short, and the v in tyi>%o<s long. 
 
 This rule, however, does not apply to the cases where an 
 enclitic forms a part of the word. We accordingly write f/Vf, ovTf , 
 
 W7Tfp,, IjTUS, rOU&, &C. 
 
 The only real exceptions are words formed of */and vat by 
 protracting them, as t'i&f would that, and vui%t> yes certainly.* 
 
 5. If the last syllable is long by nature, a circumflex cannot 
 stand on the penult ; for instance (5?jrojp, otvy, */w#w, #w'p (G. 
 
 * JYca Jfi, which is found in some works otherwise correct, is erroneous 
 3 
 
18 ACCENTS. [$ 12, 13. 
 
 6. On the antepenult no accent but the acute can stand. If 
 fhe last syllable is long, whether by nature or by position, the an- 
 tepenult can receive no accent whatever ; accordingly we write 
 
 7. The terminations at and <H, however, though long in them- 
 selves, are regarded as short in reference to the preceding rules. 
 Accordingly we find TV7iTO(,icti, ctvOgconoi ,c. TiyoqijTui (plural of 
 ngo(fji]Tiig) and 7rwAof, &c. 
 
 Exceptions to this principle are, (l) The third person of the 
 the optative in Oi and *, as tyfvvoi, noninv.i ; (2) The adverb 
 oixoi at home, although (HY.OI houses follows the rule ; (3) The words 
 compounded of enclitics, as o'ifjiot, woe is me. 
 
 The a) in the terminations of the Attic declension, though 
 long, also admits an accent on the antepenult, as noAftib?, and roj- 
 yfO)v- also the Ionic genitive in fto. 
 
 From the preceding rules, the use of the accents in ascertain- 
 ing the quantity of many words is apparent, e. g. 
 
 1. The circumflex shows the syllable on which it stands to be 
 long. 
 
 2. By rule 4, the acute in such words as KUQxlvo^ Pft&poV) 
 shows that the penult is short. 
 
 3. The accent of such words as 7i?p, U'GOVQK shows by 4 and 
 6 that the last syllable of these words is short. 
 
 4. The acute on the penult of /o'tga, Ai$v. &c. shows by 4, 5, 
 that the last syllable of these words is long. 
 
 Even in words and forms, from whose own accent no imme- 
 diate inference as to their quantity can be drawn, the comparison 
 with other words will furnish us often with a direction. Thus 
 we shall infer that aatro? has its penult long and fttoqdus short, 
 because a7cos has the circumflex and qikog the acute. So of adi- 
 xog from <5'/x;, dimti. But the circumflex on monosyllables will 
 afford no inference with respect to the lengthened forms, because 
 monosyllable nominatives of the third declension are always long ; 
 as nvy, /wi)?, TIVQO?, 
 
 13. CHANGE OF THE ACCENT BY INUNCTION. 
 
 When a word undergoes a change by declension, conjugation, 
 or in any other way, the accent is variously affected- 
 
 1. The accent is necessarily affected by such a change, when 
 the word is so altered by this chnnge, that the accent cannot re- 
 main as it was, without a violation of the above rules. E. g. 
 
\ 14.] ACCENTS. 19 
 
 The circumflex must pass into the acute, as oivog, oivov 
 ( 12. 5.) (jijuot, ytjuuiog ( 10. 1.) 
 
 Tii- 1 acute must pass into the circumflex, as qptvya), imperative 
 ytvyt (5 12, 4.) 
 
 Or the acute must pass from the antepenult to the penult, as 
 ut'&'jamo? dv&GConov, uoovgu aoovoaz ( 12. 5, 6.) 
 
 2. But even when the accent might have remained as it was, 
 without violating the rules, though not altered indeed in this case, 
 yet it is often made to change its place. E. g. 
 
 It is thrown back, either when any addition is made to the be- 
 ginning of the word, as TVTCTOJ TVTiT,odog Gl>vodo?,T[OtidVTO 
 cniaifcirtOG, or when the cause is removed, which in the radi- 
 cal form fixed it to the penult as Tiuidtvco, naldevf. 
 
 It is thrown forward, principally when the word receives one 
 of the terminations which are marked with an accent, either al- 
 ways, as TtTVffu TTV<pojg, or in certain cases, as &r t o, #>;po?. 
 
 <J 14. ENCLITICS. 
 
 1. There are a number of words, which, considered in them- 
 selves, have an accent like others, but which some always, some 
 commonly, and some often connect themselves so closely by 
 sense and pronunciation to the preceding word, as to throw their 
 accent upon it. This is called fy/.hat? or inclinatio toni, and 
 the words subject to this inclination are called enclitics.* 
 
 2. The following are enclitics. 
 
 a) The indefinite pronoun tfc, TI, in all the cases, with the 
 forms TOV and rcjT belonging to it. 
 
 b) The following oblique cases of the personal pronouns, pov 
 (.101, (Lie, aov, 6oi, of, oi', of, t, (.itv, viv, and some of those which 
 begin with oq. 
 
 c) The present indicative of itfii and qr^ii, with the exception 
 of the monosyllabic second person singular. 
 
 * In opposition to this name, every accented word, and of course an 
 enclitic itself, when not thus deprived of its accent, is called orthotone, 
 
 OO&OTOVOVllfVOV. 
 
20 ACCEM>. [,14- 
 
 d) The adverbs jiw'ff, XT?}, rco/, TIOU, JTO#I, no&t'v, noxt, which 
 are distinguished only by their enclitic accent, from the correspond- 
 ing interrogates TTW?, 710^, &c. 
 
 e) The particles 7ra>, r*, ro/, #?Ji>, j^', xe or xtV, vv or i/wi/,* 
 7r*p, {>, with the inseparable particle tie. 
 
 3. If the preceding word be a proparoxy tone, as ai/#0omog, or 
 a properispomenon, as acu/sa, the accent of the enclitic is thrown 
 upon tie last syllable of such preceding word, but always as an 
 acute, whatever be the accent of the enclitic in itself considered. 
 Thus uv&Qtanos tart, (7w/4a (tov. 
 
 If the preceding word has no accent, as , it takes that of the 
 enclitic, as ft rig. 
 
 4. If the preceding word has already an accent on the last 
 syllable, or an acute on the penult, this accent serves for the en- 
 clitic. Moreover in this case the acute accent on the last syllable, 
 instead of being written like the grave, as it would otherwise be 
 according to 11, is written as the acute, as ainjip vis' xui oot' 
 cfdaj of yvvawwv nvwv avdpa, T6' fa'ytig 11. 
 
 5. If, however, the enclitic be a dissyllable, the accent of the 
 preceding paroxytone will not thus suffice for it, and it retains its 
 own accent, as Ao'/o? noil, Ivavrlos oqr/aji/, which is also done when 
 the preceding word undergoes an apostrophe, as noMol d' flolv. 
 
 6. If one enclitic follows another, in general, the first, while 
 it throws its own accent on the preceding word, takes on itself the 
 accent of the second, and the second of the third, and so on ; so 
 that the last enclitic alone remains without accent, as et zls rwv, 
 
 7. The enclitics remain orthotone, only when some peculiar 
 emphasis lies on them ; and as this can never be the case with 
 many of these particles, they are never found but as enclitics. 
 
 As many of these enclitics are so closely united with the pre- 
 ceding word as to constitute but one, and to have, as such; an as- 
 certained sense, it is usual to write them as one, as wgro, ovzt, 
 ologxe or oiogrt, /ufWot, ogxiQ, WVTLV^V. Tl^e enclitic &, which 
 
 * Distinguished by its accent from vv v now. 
 
15, 16.] STOPS AND MARKS. 21 
 
 must be carefully distinguished from the conjunction fit but, occurs 
 thus in o&, toiogdf, tads, tiopovdt, &c. 
 
 15. STOPS AND MARKS. 
 
 1 . The period and comma are used in writing Greek as in Eng- 
 lish. The colon and semicolon are not distinguished from^each 
 other, but are both written by a point at the top of the line, as 
 ovx %\&ti>' /U . The note of interrogation is the semicolon 
 ( ; ) of the modern languages. 
 
 2. The comma is not to be confounded with the diastole or hy- 
 podiastole, which serves to indicate more distinctly certain words 
 compounded of enclitics, and to discriminate them from words not 
 otherwise different ; thus 6,rt neuter from ogrig, and TO,T and 
 that, to distinguish them from the particles OTI and TOTS. 
 
 Apostrophe, ('). 
 
 Diaeresis () placed over a vowel which does not form a 
 diphthong with the vowel that precedes it, as o'i'g a sheep, 
 mild, pronounced o-is and pra-us. 
 
 16. CHANGE OF LETTERS; CONSONANTS. 
 
 1. In the formation and inflection of words in Greek many 
 changes take place, principally for the sake of euphony, which 
 often make it hard to trace the root, but which still are common- 
 ly made on fixed principles. 
 
 2. Those consonants, which are of the same organ, or of the 
 same corresponding character in different organs, are prone to 
 pass into each other, when a change takes place in the inflection. 
 
 3. This is the foundation of the diversity of the dialects, as the 
 following sketch will show. 
 
 REM. 1. The dialects interchange frequently: 
 
 a) The aspirates with each other, as &Kuv, Att. qkav, to crush. 
 
 b) The medials, as /A^/oji/, Att. 8Kr)%wv, pennyroyal; for/*/, 
 the old Dor. is da, earth. 
 
22 CHANGE OF LETTERS. 16. 
 
 c) The smooth ; thus the interrogative and kindred form?, in- 
 stead of the common JT, as in Trot;, TIMS, nolo$, onolog, "ic, &c. have 
 with the lonians always x, as xo, xw, xo?o?, dxoiog, y.oj. So too 
 for niv T6 five, the ^Eolics say n^nne. 
 
 d) The liquids ; thus the Dorics for ^A^ot'Said t}v\)~ov^l came; 
 the Ionics for nvfupwv said nkviia)i> lungs. The Ionic fiiV /u'm 
 is with the Dorics and Attics vlv. 
 
 e) The letters of the same organ. Thus the Attics preferred 
 yvaqevg to xvaqevg a fuller ; and the lonians occasionally chang- 
 ed tfie aspirate^ into the _corresponding,.?woo/z, as dixofjiut, for fa'/o- 
 t uai I lake ; avTi>g for ctv&i>G again ; Att. anqapayog, Ion. ff7To- 
 
 , asparagus. 
 
 f ) The a with the other lin^uals, particularly 
 with r, as for au, Doric TU, thou ; 
 
 with v, as for the ending ptv, the Dorics have ^f?, as TVHTO- 
 
 [A.tV, Doric TV7lTO t Ut. 
 
 g) The double letters with the corresponding single ones, par- 
 ticularly d with C, as oj> another form of d6$$ a roe ; paddi*. Dor- 
 ic for f.ida dough, &c. Still more commonly for C, in the middle 
 of a word, the Dorics make use of ad ; as avyiadco for avytaj, I 
 whistle. 
 
 2. We must not, however, think that these or any similar chan- 
 ges prevail throughout a dialect without exception. The dialects 
 have only a tendency toward certain changes, which we must make 
 use of to explain the cases, that actually occur. Sometimes the 
 change takes place only in a single case, as for instance for GVV 
 the old form is vv, which change of i and | is found in the be- 
 ginning of no other word whatever. Two changes are so frequent 
 as to deserve specification, viz. 
 
 XT and GG 
 QQ and (>o 
 
 of which TT and QQ are favourite forms of the Attic dialect, and <JG 
 and pa of the Ionic. Thus 
 
 Att. f lon. 
 
 Tcc(j(jt,v to arrange 
 
 tongue 
 male 
 cheek. 
 
 The Ionic forms of these words are found, however, occasion- 
 ally in Attic writers. 
 
17,18.] ASPIRAT 23 
 
 17. THE ASPIRATES. 
 
 1. Each aspirate may be considered as having had its origin 
 in the kindred smooth mute, combined with the rough breathing ; 
 hence the mode of writing them in Latin pk, th, ch. 
 
 2. When therefore in the composition of words a smooth mute 
 comes in contact with the rough breathing, an aspirated letter is 
 formed ; thus the words r/, dt'/.u, ca/ro'?, after an elision of their 
 last syllables, form in combination with qptQa day, ly^iifpoz, 8s- 
 
 oj, av&yfifQog. 
 
 3. The same happens in two words not thus combined ; thus 
 oi-x becomes 01.7 in or/ oWw?, and with the addition of an apos- 
 trophe ,TO, V, becomes dq\ asa^' oi, and Vr/. UI-T\ becomes 
 av ft , as uvfr o)i'. 
 
 But the Fonians retain the smooth mute in both cases, as *V 
 for ftf&HJTair(xi from 
 
 1. It was a principle in the Greek language that two successive 
 syllables should not each begin with an aspirate. This rule was 
 not without exception ; where it operates, however, the first aspi- 
 rate is usually changed into the corresponding smooth mute. Thus 
 from q.uf7i> and /coc^/Vare formed, in the reduplication, TifyiJiijxa, 
 and xtyojoijxv., instead of q*q>ilijxa and ;^/ojp?;xa. 
 
 2. Some few words have, in their radical form, two successive 
 aspirates, of which the first agreeably to this rule, passed into the 
 corresponding smooth mute. But in those parts of the word, 
 where the second aspirate undergoes a change by other laws of 
 inflection, the first aspirate returns. E. g. 
 
 From the root QPE<& is the present tense rptqa) I nourish ; 
 future 0prtyra.-. Derivatives, r^ogr?;. t^rrr/^oi/, ftgtuna. 
 
 From the root QPEX, present 10*70) I run ; future middle 
 t>pt'o/4cu. Derivative tQOjpq. 
 
 3. In a few words of this kind, the first aspirate retains its place 
 in the leading forms, such as the nominative of a noun and the 
 present of a verb, and not in the derivatives. E. g. 
 
24 CHANGE OF LETTERS. [ 19. 
 
 From the root SPJX, nom. ?? #p/ hair, gen. Tpt%og, dat. pi. 
 &Qt,%iv. Derivative igi^oa). 
 
 From the root A<&, pres. -frdnTO) I bury, aorist pass, trdyijv. 
 Derivative roccpog. % 
 
 4. The second of two aspirates is seldom thus changed. It is 
 regularly done, however, in the imperatives in &i-, as dtrt, rvcp- 
 &r}Tt, for tit'tit, iiHp&y&i. 
 
 REM. 1. In some words the Ionics change one of the aspirates 
 and the Attics the other; thu's o %wwv, Ion. XM^OJI/, a garment, 
 tVTfv&tv, tvTavtia, Ion. ev&tVTfV f IV&UVTK. 
 
 REM. 2. The passive ending &rjv, with its derivatives, has the 
 effect of changing the preceding aspirate into a smooth mute 
 only in the verbs ftvtiv to sacrifice, and ftiivcu to place ; as ITV&IJV, 
 eT&hjv 3 Tf&fi?. In al\ t other verbs, no^ change is effected in this 
 way ; as IftvlhiP, eJ{>i?oji9^j/ from OQ&oa), ftoi.cp&fiz, i&Qicp'&rjv, l- 
 &&X&11V, Morover in most of the remaining cases of derivation 
 and composition the same license prevails, and we say navT<x%6- 
 
 REM. 3. This rule perhaps extended not only to the aspirated 
 letters, but to the rough breathing, which it turned into the smooth 
 breathing. Of this, however, there is but one trace remaining, 
 viz. from the root 'EX is formed present t%w I have, fut. co, de- 
 rivative tKJtfttog, where the aspirated breathing is changed into 
 the smooth breathing in the present, on account of the following 
 aspirate /, but reverts to the rough breathing in f|w and xr*xoV, 
 where | and x take the place of /. 
 
 ID. MULTIPLICATION OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 1 . The Greeks avoided every roughness arising from the se- 
 quence of consonants not easily pronounced together. 
 
 2. In pursuance of this, three consonants, or one with a double 
 consonant, can never (except in the case of composition like dvg- 
 <p&apTog, 6X7ira>fft?, *xt//u^o>,) stand together, unless the first or 
 last be a liquid, or a y before the palatics y,' x, #, as tUfup&tlG, 
 (7xA?}po, Tfy^ca. In other cases such a concurrence is avoided 
 or a letter dropped. 
 
 3. But a roughness may be produced even by the concurrence 
 of two consonants, which is avoided by the application of the fol- 
 lowing rules. 
 
20.] CONSONANTS. 25 
 
 REM. 1. In a few rare cases the pronunciation is relieved, by in- 
 troducing a third consonant. As when e. g. the liquid (A or v, by 
 omission of a vowel, comes to stand directly. before A or p, then the 
 middle mute corresponding to the first of them (/?, d) is interposed ; 
 thus from ijintoa day is formed ptdijpjpQlu south, from ^e^if^Tai, 
 arose the epic form |U///2>U?cu, and avijp man has in the genitive 
 
 REM. 2. A consonant is sometimes, but not often, by transposi- 
 tion, placed where it will be more easily pronounced, aS ijrpa&ov 
 from ni'p-&co, and xa^<)Va, epic form x@adi?] heart. 
 
 20. 
 
 1. When two mutes of a different organ meet, it is the rule that 
 before a smooth mute nothing can stand but another smooth, before 
 an aspirate nothing but another aspirate, before a middle nothing 
 but another middle mute ; as TITU, VVXTOG, (f&tva), a%&os, 
 
 2. When therefore, in the formation of words, two mutes of an 
 unlike character meet, the former commonly assumes the charac- 
 ter of the latter. Thus by adding the termination TO'?, dqv, 
 
 are formed from yaaqa) I write, ypanTog, yQapdrjv, and from 
 / twine, nlt%&tig. 
 
 3. But of two like mutes already combined, one alone cannot 
 be changed, but always both together, as from imu, OXTOJ are 
 formed zfjdoftog, oydoos, and when of two smooth mutes the se- 
 cond, by the addition of the rough breathing, becomes an aspirate, 
 the first becomes an aspirate also ; thus from tnTo. and yfJiiQa. is 
 formed iq-ftr^ifooc; of seven days ; and from VVXTCC, vu%& bhrjv the 
 "whole night* 
 
 4. The preposition ^x alone remains unaltered before all con- 
 sonants, as 
 
 * The Greeks probably made as much audible difference between y, 
 and */, as \ve hear between T and -O". We are unable in English to make 
 this distinction. On the other hand, most of the continental nations of 
 Furopc distinguish between x and y, but confound T and t9". 
 4 
 
26 CHANGE OF LETTERS. [ 21, 22, 23. 
 
 1. The doubling of the same consonant is not very common in 
 Greek. It takes place most frequently in the liquids, and next 
 to them, in T. 
 
 2. When p stands at the beginning of a word, if a simple vow- 
 el is made to precede it in composition or inflection, the @ is usu- 
 ally doubled ; thus tpptnov and appfnyg from Qtnw with and a, 
 nfQipQOo? from ntgl and Qtw. This, however, does not hold in 
 the case of diphthongs, as fupatfroy from v and Qtavvvpi. 
 
 3. The aspirates are never doubled, but instead thereof an as- 
 pirate must be preceded by the kindred mute ; thus 2anq.-<o, 
 
 REM. 1. Those poets who do not use the Attic dialect, double a 
 consonant very often for the sake of the metre, as oooov, OTTI, tv- 
 1/67T6, for Odor, &c. This however is not wholly arbitrary, but 
 takes place often in some words, and never in others, as i'xi, tTt- 
 
 REM. 2. The poets also make use of the opposite practice, in 
 employing the single consonant, where the common dialect has 
 the double, as Wjg^Ui/?, 'Odvows, for ' 
 
 When /?, TT, (jp ; and y, x, /, come before a, they pass with the 
 a into the kindred double consonant ip or . Thus, in the future 
 ending, which is regularly <reo, are made from A^/TT-W, A* /T/^OJ, from 
 Af'yoj, Ai|co, from y^>a^ w, yjpi//(w, from orfi^cD^ GifiZo), &c. And 
 in the ending d* and aiv of the dative plural, we find from 
 , from 
 
 23. 
 
 t. Before /u, in the middle of a word, the labials are uniformly 
 changed into p ; thus in the perfect tense passive, from A^/TTCD, ).i- 
 Af^/u^ucA. So too from Tplfiw, T^i^ifia^ from j/pa^w, j/^a^UjU^. 
 
 2. The palatics and linguals are often changed before /w, K 
 and # into /, arid <5, #, r, ^, into (7 ; thus nfa'xw TiAf'y^a, -tevyw tt- 
 
24.25.] CONSONANTS VOWELS. 27 
 
 24. 
 
 The linguals #, #, r, , can only stand before liquids. They 
 are dropped before <r, as '<5o> aw, Tifl&oj Tif/dcu, aw para 
 
 Before other linguals they are changed into a ; thus #tfo> >/'a- 
 
 #>/*', 7ltl&(l) TltlG-TtOV. 
 
 25. 
 
 1. The y remains unaltered, in general, only before $, #, and 
 r. Before the labials it is changed into /u, and before the palatics 
 into y, pronounced as ng. Accordingly in composition GVV with and 
 (v in are thus changed ; ai^rraff^w, ipfiaivto^ 
 owyytvrjg, iy^eiQt^o^ lyl-tca. 
 
 An apparent exception is made in the enclitics, which are not 
 considered as forming one word sufficiently to authorize the 
 change of the v\ thus we write 
 
 2. Before one of the liquids, the v passes over into the same 
 letter, as avMtyco, feUU/mv, i^u/uiVcw, GVQQUTITW. 
 
 But the preposition Iv commonly remains unchanged before p, 
 as ivQamo). 
 
 3. Before a and , the v in composition is sometimes retained, 
 sometimes changed into ff, and sometimes dropped. In inflections 
 the v is commonly dropped before ff. as hi the dative plural, #/- 
 (xov-fZ doufio-at) ftyif-fS pq-alv. 
 
 4. When after the v, a ^, ^, or r, has been omitted before a 
 (by 24.) the short vowel is made long, as navr-eg nct-ai, ruyuv- 
 Tf?, n/^afft, for which end f passes into ft, and o into Of, as 
 ant'vdo) fut. and-ow, txovt-tg dat. txov-ow. 
 
 REM. 1. The exceptions to these rules, as Titqavaai (2 pers. 
 perf. pass, of yulvw) are rare, and are learned by observation. 
 
 REM. 2. Before ff and , *V is always unchanged, as ivatlw. 
 2vv changes its v into a before a single (J, as ffVOTWr/a, but if an- 
 other consonant follow, and also before , the v is dropped, as ov- 
 , (Fwjwy*, 
 
28 CHANGE OF LETTERS. ['26. 
 
 26. CHANGE OF VOWELS. 
 
 1. No certain laws regulate the change of the vowels, in the 
 formation and inflection of Greek words. It includes under it the 
 lengthening and shortening of sounds ; since it rarely happens that 
 when f or o for instance, from any cause are lengthened, that 
 they pass into r\ or to, .but generally into ft or oi>. 
 
 These changes also, like those of the consonants, can be best 
 observed, in the comparison of dialects. 
 
 REM. 1. The Ionics are prone to lengthen the t and o of the 
 other^ dialects, but c principally only, when a semi-vowel follows ; 
 as Itwog, *iWx, vntjQi for t'vog ^ strange, tvixa on account of, v- 
 ntQ over ; vovcjog, ovvopu, novhug, XOI^T?, for vooog disease, oi>o- 
 fia name, nokug much, xcip?; maiden ; or when the * is followed by 
 another vowel, as %yi>G-fiog for-fo? golden; which licenses are 
 particularly abundant in the poets. But this is not wholly arbi- 
 trary, as there are some words never subjected to this license, 
 such as TtoAeg, rovog, ^H>og, nf$i,&LC. 
 
 REM. 2. When and o are lengthened by the lonians, they 
 pass into ui and 01, as dfrof eagle, afi always ; Ionic, ctlfxog, ale I. 
 So' noa grass, Ionic TIG/?;. 
 
 REM. 3. In other cases, the reverse is practised by the Ionics, 
 Dorics, and poets ; and we find juf&uj/, y.ptooow, %fpog, for /u/bjy 
 greater, x<jft(j(ja)i> better, *00g (genitive from ytiQ hand) ; and for 
 the accusative in ovg the Dorics use og. See below in Declen- 
 sion II. 
 
 REM. 4. In other cases, the Dorics for o and ov make frequent 
 use of co, as xco^o? for xo'(jo? or y.ovyoq a young man, <)wAo for 
 dovhog a slave. 
 
 REM. 5. The r) in most cases had its origin in , which pre- 
 vailed in the ancient Greek language, and remained also afterwards 
 the characteristic sound of the Doric dialect, which commonly 
 uses a long a for 17, as afitQO. for t]/itt<ja day, quita for tfypr] re- 
 port, GTuvui. for <Jii { i>ai, to stand. (See I. 11.) 
 
 REM. 6. The Ionics, on the' other hand, preferred the y and 
 commonly ^used it instead of the long tx, as rifti^r), Gocfh], for u > 
 ir]TQog, i 'Oo')(ni'S,, for laroog physician and t9o^i" breast plate (geni- 
 tive xJfo^tt/o?), n^GGO), nQrjyttci, for TT^aWco, -nQay^u. 
 
 REM. 7. It is a peculiarity of the Attic dialect borrowed from 
 the Ionic, when long stands before o, to change the a into f and 
 the^ o into co ; as for Aao? people, i>aog temple, the Attics read ^coV, 
 vfwg. 
 
 REM. 8. The Ionic dialect frequently changes the short a into 
 
& 27.] CONTRACTIO 29 
 
 na 
 
 t before liquids and before vowels, as TtoafVfZ for Ttaoupf$four ; 
 'tf for a pay if male ; vfl.o? for vakos glass ; fivt'a for JUI/CCM ww- 
 and in \he verbs in a to. In other cases a is used for t, as 
 for iptna) I turn; TUU.VW for Tt(.ivw I cut ; ptya&Qg for 
 Hiytftoq greatness. 
 
 REM. 9. In the compounds of ITO? se//*, and the words ftavfta 
 wonder, and r cout>p(t wound, the Ionics change av into cur, as fiit- 
 tainov, tcoviov, T>cijt, ( ua, Tpoti-f-iu. 
 
 REM. 10. Other changes are the following; Tiowroe the first, 
 Doric n^aros, f nupdahg the leopard, Doric HO0&JU?, 6Vo- 
 /wa name. .-Eolic ovvpu, i'ai/a hearth, Ionic tor//;. 
 
 27. PURE VOWELS; CONTRACTIO- 
 
 1. A vowel immediately preceded by another vowel, in the 
 same word, is called a pure vowel, being pronounced without the 
 aid of a consonant ; and particularly the terminations in a, Os, and 
 co, are called pure, when another vowel precedes, as in 
 
 2. The characteristic difference of the Ionic and Attic dialects 
 is, that the former, in most cases, seeks the concurrence of vow- 
 els, and the latter avoids them. 
 
 3. The common means by which the Attic dialect avoids them 
 are the following, viz. 
 
 I. Elision, by which one vowel is cast away and the other re- 
 tained. 
 
 II. Contraction, by which several vowels are drawn into one 
 long sound. This takes place principally in the formation and in_ 
 flection of words, according to the following principles. 
 
 a) Two vowels form of themselves a diphthong ; thus tt and 
 01 are formed from fJ'and o'i', as rWger TO/gtt* uido't' aidtit. 
 
 The other proper diphthongs have generally a different origin ; 
 but the improper diphthongs may all be considered as formed by 
 contraction, viz. , r t , co, from ?', rj'i, co/', as yi'lpai' yt'jpa, 9pr t i'ooa 
 
 b) Two vowels pass into a kindred long vowel or diphthong ; 
 and generally as follows : 
 
30 CONTRACTIONS. [ 27. 
 
 77 from (a rtt^ea ^W/?7, ** *nQ heart. 
 
 tt, from ff note* nokt,, $&$QOV yH&pov stream, 
 
 an( * aOV 
 
 a) from 
 
 f o and o?? ald'oct w/^co, 
 
 too TiAooe &iov$, 
 
 < 06 - ll 
 
 OV from < 06 - fllQ&Qt 
 
 {(0 - Ttl%(0g Ttl%OV$, JlOltOfitV TfOlOVfAtV. 
 
 c) The doubtful vowels a, , u, when they are short, absorb 
 the following vowel, and thereby become long, as af#Ao Ionic 
 with short a, Attic d&kog combat, Tifiae T//ua, dative " fq)h" lyl, 
 fy&veg and -a? with u short, contr. lyftv^ from the sing, fy&vg. 
 
 d) A long sound absorbs a short vowel, without farther change.* 
 This is particularly the case with the following, viz. 
 
 With t both before and after almost every long sound, 
 
 With and o principally by kindred sounds and by w, as rt- 
 r^eo, HoGtidciWv Tloatidwv Neptune, Aaa? Aas a *ione, /ttt- 
 a&ooyot tuafrovai, n\6ot nKoi. 
 
 4. When a diphthong compounded with *, the improper diph- 
 thongs not excepted, is to be contracted with a preceding vowel, 
 the two first vowels undergo a change, according to the preceding 
 rules, and the i either becomes subscript, as Tvm-icu, rvm-y, atl- 
 dcD ado) I sing, doi-dr) cody song, Ttfi-dfi and TiiA-ay Tifji-a, or the 
 i is dropped if the contracted sound is not of a nature to admit t, 
 subscript, as [tiG&-Ofw fki0&-ovv, 'Onoftg 'Onov?. 
 
 REM. 1. Such are the regular contractions; but several excep- 
 tions to these rules occur, as will be seeii in their places. The 
 Ionics particularly neglect the contraction, and resolve a long 
 sound into its original component parts, as 2 pers. sing. pass. TU'TT- 
 Tfat for rujiT?/, and even noi&cu, tnuwifat,, &c. for noity (which 
 is commonly still farther contracted into noiy), &c. Many of these 
 forms are common to both the Ionic and Doric dialects. 
 
 REM. 2. The tendency of the Ionic dialect to resolve the long 
 sounds is the source of the separation of the vowels in the diph- 
 thongs, which prevails among the epic poets in certain words, as 
 
 * This is not to be considered as an elision, but as a true contraction, 
 as is seen by the use of the circumflex to compensate for the short vowel 
 dropped ; as (plllO), (pdw. 
 
28.] CONTRACTIONS. - BIATUS, CRASIS. 31 
 
 ndi's for na7g boy, otojuai for ofywea / think^&LC. of the protracting 
 of a vowel sound, asgrotw? for qug light, xoqrjvov for x^*jr*ov from 
 y.oaivw, &c. and of the /onic insertion of an ;, as t?V for ??' or, &/- 
 xo<J/ for fi'xoa* twenty, ddfkpiog for adthqpog brother. 
 
 REM. 3. The Ionics sometimes produce a concurrence of vow- 
 els, by thrusting out the consonants which separate them, as xi- 
 
 paO for TtQUTQ?. 
 
 REM. 4. There are nevertheless cases, where the Ionics con- 
 tract and the Attics do not ; as IQO? (with t, long) Ionic for ItQQQ 
 sacred. The Ionics and Dorics have also a contraction peculiar 
 to themselves of fo into *v, as ntevvtq for 7ite'ovt?,noitv[4tvosfor 
 7ioit6fii>og, for which the contracted form Tiotovfisvog is com- 
 monly used. 
 
 Accent of contracted syllables. 
 
 REM. 5. When of the two syllables to be contracted, neither 
 has the accent, the syllable formed by the contraction generally 
 remains also without it, as ntQinKoos ntQinkovg, tTiftaov ITIJUCDV. 
 
 REM. 6. If however one of the syllables to be contracted has 
 an accent, the contracted syllable is accented ; if the penult or 
 antepenult, it is accented according to the rules in 10 and 12 ; 
 if the last syllable, it is accented with the circumflex in almost 
 every case, as vo6$ vov?. TTOH'OJ 
 
 28. HIATUS AND CRASIS. 
 
 1. When one word ends with a vowel and the next begins 
 with one, whether aspirated or not, an effect called hiatus is ob- 
 served, which was still less agreeable, particularly to the Attics. 
 than the concurrence of vowels in the middle of a word. 
 
 2. This hiatus was accordingly avoided in poetry, particularly 
 in the Attic poetry. Even in prose, with the exception of the 
 Ionic writers, its frequent recurrence was disliked. The principal 
 means of avoiding it were, first synaloephe, or the union of the 
 two syllables in one; an3 secondly the addition of a consonant, as 
 the v, called v fgwAxmrnxor. 
 
 3. The synaloephe is of two kinds, viz. 
 
 a) Elision, where one vowel is wholly dropped. 
 
 b) Cram, where the vowels form a long one. This last, par- 
 ticularly in prose, has a very limited application. 
 
 REM. 1. Crasis, over which a comma or smooth breathing (') 
 is commonly placed as .a ?ign, is oftenest used in the article. and 
 
32 APOSTROPHE. [ 29, 
 
 in the conjunction xeu. It is governed, for the most part, by the 
 rules given above for the regulation of contractions in the mid- 
 dle of the words, as TOVvccvTipv for TO ivavxiov, TOUVO{.IW for TO 
 Ovoftu. TUfta for x IfAcc, TUVTCC for TCX ctvTa. So by the Ionics 
 rcuyaA^a for TO dyaKfua. In the Attic dialect, however, the a 
 commonly absorbs every ^vowel in the. article, as TO dlvj&t's be- 
 comes raAq'fo'?, and TOV avdpos becomes rdvdoog. 
 
 REM. 2. A syllable contracted by crasis, is^of necessity long, 
 as TA>7#, raAAa* for TCC a'AAa, and XTT/, xdofTy, for xut TT/, 
 xca dptTy. The 4 subscript is used only when, besides the con- 
 traction, the i is still found in the last syllable, as xat fixcc, xara. 
 
 REM. 3. Some of the most common instances of crasis, which 
 at the same time most need explanation to the learner, are <f/a!- 
 luut, for lyta otfiat I think ; tytida for lym oida I know ; ftoiftaTiov 
 for TO ipaTiov the garment ; ovvtxa for ov ivfxa wherefore. 
 
 29. APOSTROPHE. 
 
 1. By elision in Greek, as in other languages, the short vowel 
 at the end of the word, when the next begins with a vowel, is cut 
 off. To denote this a comma ( ' ) is placed over the space thus 
 left vacant, as In tpov for tm IfiOV, and when the vowel of the 
 second word has the rough breathing, the smooth mute of the first 
 is aspirated ( 17. 2.) as dcp' ov for dno ov. 
 
 2. In prose it is only certain words of frequent recurrence, 
 which are commonly elided, particularly dUce, aya and doa, V, 
 dta, xara, ptra, naod, dno, vno, dpupi, dvTi, Inl, dt, TI, yt or 
 frequent combinations, as vr) Ala, vri AC by Jove ; navx av for 
 TUxvTct av, &c. In other cases it is rare, in most wholly unused, 
 particularly in Ionic prose. The poets, on the other hand, avail 
 themselves of this license in the case of almost all the short vow- 
 els. Only the short v, monosyllables in a, i, o, and the preposi- 
 tion neoi, are never elided. 
 
 REM. 1 . If the vowel cut off had an accent, this accent in par- 
 
 ticles isjost with the vowel, as dn from dno, dVS from a'AAa, ovtf 
 
 from ovdt. In every other sort of word, the accent passes to the 
 
 preceding syllable, and is always acute, as xx' tnv} from xx 
 
 ' 
 
 * TixAAa, as this word is written in most editions, is wrong 1 . 
 
30.] OF V tyfAXUGTlXOV, ETC. 33 
 
 The poets elide, though more rarely, the diphthong , but 
 this is done only in passive terminations, as flovhtoft* e<pij, 
 
 30. 
 OF v texvarixov AND OTHER FINAL CONSONANTS. 
 
 1. Certain words and terminations have a twofold form, with 
 and without a- consonant at the end, of which the first is commonly 
 used before a vowel, the other before a consonant. 
 
 2. This secondary form is especially made by what is called 
 the v lyffav arixov, which may be assumed or dropped by the 
 dative plural in <K, and in the verbs, by all third persons in s and 
 t, ; as, for instance, naatv iintv Ixtivog, otherwise UUQI and iHnf, 
 tTVipiv */', fo'yovaiv avro, Ti&rjow vno. In the common dialect, 
 this v must always be used before a vowel. 
 
 3. A similar v is applied to the terminations in cw, expressing 
 a place, which are formed from datives plural, as ' OKvpnlaist, and 
 to the words nigvat a year ago, and fi'xoai, twenty, though not al- 
 ways to this last. 
 
 REM. 1 . The Ionics omit this v even before a vowel ; on the 
 other hand, the poets use it before a consonant to effect a. position 
 for the preceding vowel. This is also sometimes done in Attic 
 prose, and at the end of a sentence it is rarely omitted. 
 
 4. Of a similar character with this v is the $ in oir'rw OUTDO? 
 thus ; and also, though chiefly by the Ionics, in 
 
 5. The particle ou not becomes oux before a vowel, and con- 
 sequently passes into ou^ before an aspirate. ($ 17. 3.) 
 
 REM. 2. The reverse holds with this x in oux from what was 
 observed of the v ; for as no Greek word by itself can terminate 
 in x ( 4. 4.) this x is dropped at every pause, even when the 
 next sentence begins with a vowel ; as Ov' aM* OTUV Xenoph* 
 Sympos. vi. 2. 
 
34 I'ARTS OF SPEECH. NOUNS. R31, 32. 
 
 31. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 1. Strictly speaking there are but three principal parts of 
 speech. For all that belongs to the name and designation of ob- 
 jects is included in the noun ; the word, by which any thing is ex- 
 pressed relative to objects, is the verb ; and the other parts of 
 speech, by which the objects thus named and distinguished are* 
 farther qualified and connected, are included under the head of 
 particles. * 
 
 2. It is usual, however, to make some chief subdivisions of the 
 three main parts of speech ; and there are usually counted eight 
 parts of speech in most languages ; thus (l) The noun, which re- 
 ,mains divided into substantive and adjective, is further distinguished 
 from (2) The pronoun which includes the article, and (3) The 
 participle, which in the syntax is considered a part of the verb. 
 (4) The verb remains undivided, but the particles are divided 
 into (5) adverb, (6) preposition, (7) conjunction, (8) interjection, 
 of which the last is often reckoned by the Greek grammarians as 
 an adverb. 
 
 THE NOUN AND ITS DECLENSION. 
 32. GENDER. 
 
 1. The gender of the noun is either masculine, feminine, or 
 neuter, and appears in part by the termination, as will be remark- 
 ed in each declension. To indicate the gendej, use is made of 
 the article o for the masculine, ?J for the feminine, an'd TO for 
 the neuter. 
 
 2. The names of persons, as man, woman, god, goddess, &c. 
 follow always the natural gender, be the termination what it will ; 
 as ij -frvydTTjo daughter, ^ wo? daughter in law. From this is except- 
 ed the diminutive ov, which is always neuter, as TO yvvaiov, from 
 yvvr) wife, TO ptiouxiov from /uf?a a youth. 
 
 REM. 1. Hence every personal denomination, which is common 
 to the natural genders, is of common gender in grammar; thus we 
 
33.] GENDER. - DECLENSION. 35 
 
 have o otv&QWTtos a man, and also 77 iiv&Qwnos a 'woman. So too 
 o and n -&f6g god and goddess; 6 and ?J TQoyog guardian and 
 nurse; o and >? gr<Uai a male or female watcher. Of several of 
 these words, however, there are separate feminine forms, as?? &tu 
 the goddess, which with the Attics supersede the use of the common 
 forms. 
 
 REM. 2. Several of the names of animals are m like manner 
 common, as 6 and y (JQV? the ox or cow ; o and 17 'tnnog the horse 
 or mare. In most of these, however, one gender is used for both 
 sexes, and this is called, by the Latin grammarians, when it is 
 masculine or feminine, genus epiccenum ; as o Ai>xo wolf, and t] 
 aytojm/i fox, whether masculine or feminine. But even in sub- 
 stantives, which are of the common gender, one or the other gen- 
 der usually predominates, to denote the species ; thus o trnio's is 
 used in general of the horse kind, and of any individual of the kind 
 whose sex is not specified. In aoxro? bear and xafiTjlog camel, in 
 general, and in tkaqoz stag and xvcov dog, often, the feminine 
 gender prevails. The feminine j\ 'innos has the additional and 
 peculiar signification of cavalry. 
 
 3. The names of trees, as rj q,?i f /6g the beech, i] ntTV$ the pine, 
 and the names of cities and countries, as rj KOQW&OS, i] 
 *1 Aaxtdatftojv, are, with a few exceptions, feminine. 
 
 33. DECLENSION. 
 
 1. The Greek nouns have the Jive first cases of the Latin, 
 without the ablative, of which the place is supplied partly by the 
 genitive and partly by the dative. 
 
 2. The Greek language in nouns and in verbs has a dual num- 
 ber, used of two persons. It is not however always used ; by 
 some writers not at all ; and most frequently by the Attics. 
 
 3. The dual has never more than two endings, one for the no- 
 minative, accusative, and vocative ; the other for the genitive and 
 dative. 
 
 4. The division into three declensions is most convenient, cor- 
 responding to the three first declensions of the Latin, and with 
 terminations as exhibited in the following table. 
 
DECLENSION. 
 
 R3S. 
 
 Sing. I. Decl. II. Decl. III. Decl. 
 
 Npm. 
 
 2 ^L 
 
 og neut. ov 
 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 qgag ov 
 
 ov 
 
 og ((og) 
 
 Dat. 
 
 q n 
 
 0) 
 
 I 
 
 Ace. 
 
 r\v av 
 
 ov 
 
 a or *', neut. like 
 
 Voc. 
 
 rja 
 
 s neut. ov 
 
 [the nom. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N.A.V. 
 
 a 
 
 (0 
 
 f 
 
 G.D. 
 
 0,1V 
 
 otv 
 
 otv 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 at 
 
 01 neut a 
 
 fg neut. a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 (~n> 
 
 wv 
 
 wv 
 
 Dat. 
 
 atg 
 
 oig 
 
 GIV or ot 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ag 
 
 ovg neuta 
 
 ag neut. a 
 
 Voc. 
 
 at 
 
 ot, neut.a 
 
 fg neut. a 
 
 N. B. The Attic second declension, so called, is omitted in the 
 above table, for the sake of simplicity ; it will be given hereafter 
 in its place ; see 37. 
 
 5. When the terminations as here given are pure, and contrac- 
 tion ensues, the contracted declension takes place, as will be seen 
 below, in each of the three declensions. 
 
 Remarks on the Table. 
 
 1. The genitive plural^ in all three declensions, ends in ov. 
 
 2. The dative singular, in all three declensions, ends in f; 
 which,, however, in the two first is concealed under the form of 
 the iota subscript. 
 
 3. The dative plural, properly, in all three declensions, ends 
 in on> or at ; for aig and oig are only abbreviations of the more 
 ancient form aiaiv and oiati', or ctifji and OIGI. 
 
 4. The vocative is generally the same as the nominative ; and 
 even where it has a separate form, the nominative is often used 
 for the vocative, particularly by the Attic writers. 
 
 5. Ths neuters, as also in the Latin language, have three cas- 
 es alike, viz. the nominative, accusative, and vocative ; and in the 
 plural of neuters all these cases end in a. 
 
 6. The three declensions resemble the three first in Latin ; 
 but H is to be remarked that out of og in the nominative the Lat- 
 
34.] 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 37 
 
 ins make its ; out of og in the genitive they make is ; out of ov 
 and oiy, um ; and that, in general, /u in Greek becomes n in Latin. 
 7. In regard to accent, it is a general rule, that the endings of 
 the genitive and dative, if long and accented, must have the cir- 
 cumflex ; the nominative, accusative, and vocative, the acute. It 
 is, however, to be observed, that the last syllable, in the nomina- 
 tive and vocative singular of the third declension, is not properly 
 considered as the termination, as will be seen in its place. 
 
 34. FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 1. All words in ag and r t q are masculine, and all in a and t] are 
 feminine. 
 
 2. Words in a have their genitive in , and retain the a 
 through all the terminations of the singular, if it is preceded by 
 another vowel, ( pure 27.1), as ooyta, or by p, as 4?/ufjptt 
 The a is also retained by the contracted nouns, as f.ivu (see be- 
 low in Rem. I ) ; by AA, gen. -, the warcry ; and by some 
 proper names, as Arida, ' . tv($QO[4.ida, (^Ao/MfjAa, /YAa. 
 
 3. All other nouns in a have the genitive in 17$, and the da- 
 tive in T?, but in the accusative and vocative they resume the a. 
 In the dual and plural, all the four endings, the nominative, da- 
 tive, accusative, and vocative, retain the . The rest may be 
 learned from the following table, where the changes of the ac- 
 cent, according to the general rules, are observed. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 */', honor. 
 
 TlfAT] 
 
 ij, wisdom. 
 G Off la 
 
 /;, muse. 
 
 MOV GO. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 TifArjg 
 
 ooffiag 
 
 MovGrjg 
 
 Dat. 
 
 T^jUT] 
 
 GOCftK 
 
 MovGy 
 
 Ace. 
 
 TlfJlTiV 
 
 GOCLKXV 
 
 MOVGUV 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Tl>U1] 
 
 GO (f ICC 
 
 MOV GOt 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 Tl[4(X 
 
 ooqpia 
 
 MOV Got 
 
 G. D. 
 
 TlUCtlV 
 
 Goqtcuv 
 
 MovGuir 
 
 o, citizen. 
 
 1 7 
 
 noUxov 
 TioA/rjy 
 
 J, yow//j. 
 veuvlov 
 
 vtaviuv 
 vfuviu. 
 
 vtavivc 
 viu.viv.lv 
 
FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 K34. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 V. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 VOC. I TlfJLttl 
 
 ^justice. 
 
 oo(ptat> 
 
 OOfplWV 
 
 apcpiag 
 
 MovGat, 
 Movawv 
 
 Movoag 
 
 dixy 
 
 win 
 
 on, 
 
 77, trident. 
 
 TOlafVU 
 
 dixa, 
 
 TQiaivav 
 
 \ TQlUlVOt, 
 
 TQtava 
 
 dixug 
 
 TQICUVOJV 
 
 -JlQllTMV 
 
 vtavlat, 
 
 VtKVlWV 
 
 no^irat t vfaviuv 
 
 ?;, knife. 
 
 o, Strides. 
 
 
 Of the vocative of masculines. 
 
 4. Of the nouns in ?/<?, those which end in z?^, several com- 
 pounded verbals which are formed merely by adding ?? to the 
 consonant of the verb, as yfc[4tT()?ig, pvoonattyg, natdoTQlfas, 
 &c and national names, as IltQOrjg, Jxi;ib?, have a in the voca- 
 tive. The others, which, however, are by far the smallest num- 
 ber, have 27, particularly the patronymics in $/??, as 'ATQfi&ije in 
 the table. 
 
 Remarks on the foregoing examples. 
 
 I. Contraction. The contracts of this declension contract the 
 nominative into one of the usual terminations, and then proceed 
 regularly; except that the contracts in preserve this vowel 
 
d 34.] FIRST DECLENSION. 39 
 
 unchanged throughout, as being originally pure, and^ those in ? 
 always have the Doric genitive in long (Rem. IV. 3.) They 
 may all be known by the circumflexed termination, as^ovrax, 
 contr. A* OVTTI, genitive teovTr^, ^c. plural nom. Afoi/ra?, accus. 
 KtovTaz, lion-skin ; '/%*?, contr. 'E^firj^ gen. 'Ifypov, JWercu- 
 ry ; fiv, contr. /wva, gen. pi/a?^ mina ; /?op* aff, Attic pogoag, 
 gen. &>(>(>,* &c. So too 'A&tp*, ' Aftvpuq, Minerva ,and 
 
 II. Quantity. 1. The nominative a which has 77? in the geni- 
 tive, is always short. 
 
 2. The nominative a which has a? in the genitive, is in gen- 
 eral long, though in many words short. 
 
 3. The vocative in of masculines in 77? is short, of those in a? 
 long. The dual termination in is always long. 
 
 4. The termination a?, throughout the first declension, is long ; 
 and the accusative plural is in this distinguished from the third de- 
 clension. where it is short. 
 
 5. The accusative singular in u.v follows the quantity of the 
 nominative. 
 
 III. Accent. 1. It is characteristic of the first declension that 
 the genitive plural always has the accent on the last syllable, 
 wherever it may be in the other parts of the word, as Movaa, 
 ftfovoaiv, axav&a dxav&wv. Exceptions to this rule are the 
 following, viz. 
 
 a) Feminines of adjectives and barytone participles in 0, as 
 Stvos, &vr, gen. pi. %ivwv' ah tog, aitta gen. pi. ahiajv' 
 Ti'TiroWyo?, -7, gen. pi. TVTrcOptvwvj 
 
 b) The three substantives /o^'rrr?^ usurer, ol iiijalat- trade 
 &inds, atyvij a sort of fish. 
 
 2. With this exception, the accent of the substantives, as far 
 as the general rules admit, remains on the syllable, where it is 
 found in the nominative, as nom. pi. croupier*, voc. sing. TioXTra, 
 with the exception of the vocative d'ta^ora from dfanortjg master. 
 The feminines of the adjectives in oe, on the contrary, cast the ac- 
 cent, whenever the termination admits, upon the syllable where 
 their masculines have it, as <xto?, f. a/a, pi. atiQi, aa*. 
 
 3- It has already been remarked, that the endings of the geni- 
 tives and datives, in general, if accented at all, are circumflexed ; 
 as those of ripy in the table. See 33 Rem. 7. 
 
 The doubling of the p in this word is merely an accidental pecu- 
 liarity. 
 
40 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 [34. 
 
 IV. Dialed. 1. The Dorics, in all the terminations, use a 
 long for ?, as r^a, , a, *>. The Ionics commonly use 77 for 
 long a, as aoqp/??, i?ff, 77, T/V /ua^atpa,. i?, 77, i>* . o vtrivirig, &c 
 This however is never done in the accusative plural. 
 
 2. The oldest form of the genitive singular of the masculines 
 is ao, and of the genitive plural of all endings aojv. Hence in 
 Epic poets, '^/rpa'dao, Ttftawv, &c. 
 
 3. The Dorics contracted these genitives into long or, as row 
 '^TOtidct, rav xifjiuv. This Doric genitive, in some few words, 
 particularly proper names, remained in common use, as V^w//?aj, 
 row .Avviftu, Hannibal- 
 
 4. The Ionics, on the other hand, converted the ao into f CD, in 
 which however the o> has no effect in bringing the accent for- 
 ward, as noMrtm. So too from dwv the Ionics made iW, as 
 
 5. On the ancient form of the dative plural, as Tifttxiai, Mbv- 
 , see above in 33 Rem. 3. The Ionic dialect has. 
 
 aaiow 
 jat and 
 
 Words for practice. 
 
 axav&a 
 
 market 
 
 frcdaaoa sea 
 
 long) Anchises 
 
 &v()u (v short) door 
 
 prater 
 
 KfXQOnidrig (i short) Cecropides 
 
 Minerva 
 
 %fyahii . head 
 
 JEneas 
 
 x A 71797? thief 
 
 thorn 
 
 x QQYI girl 
 
 combat 
 
 xQiT-qg judge 
 
 field 
 
 KTiGTys maker 
 
 business 
 
 httVQtt lane 
 
 weasel 
 
 Ivnri (v long) grief 
 
 earth 
 
 ua&ijTqQ disciple 
 
 tongue 
 
 H&IOGCI bee 
 
 opinion 
 
 jUf^tjUi/a care 
 
 viper 
 
 Midas (* short) Midas 
 
 girdle 
 
 poll QU share 
 
 day 
 
 viwi (i long) victory 
 
35.] 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 41 
 
 VVftCftj 
 
 bride Gqwoa 
 
 sphere 
 
 OQW 
 
 anger Gtyvoct* 
 
 hammer 
 
 oevt&o&rjocigfi.c 
 
 t.fowler a^oA/J 
 
 leisure 
 
 nigGr^ 
 
 Persian ocoi^^ia 
 
 salvation 
 
 ntevQct 
 
 side Tdf-ilag 
 
 steward 
 
 TlVXTTlS 
 
 pugilist -ze%viTr t 3 
 
 artist 
 
 nvty (v short) 
 
 gate vhtj (v long) 
 
 wood 
 
 $lfc 
 
 root Cfikiu 
 
 friendship 
 
 oxid 
 
 shadow "f. u 9<*- 
 
 joy 
 
 ^Sxvfhjs 
 
 Scythian %kcuvu 
 
 outer garment 
 
 Grt'ytj 
 
 roof y o')p cc 
 
 country 
 
 GTOCt 
 
 porch tyv/ri 
 
 soul. 
 
 35. SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 1. All words in ov are of the nenter gender, and most of those 
 In os are masculine. 
 
 2. There are, however, several feminines in 0, not only those 
 alluded to above in 32, the names of persons, animals, trees, and 
 cities ; but many others, such as J ddos road, *J /?//3Ao$ book, j vf r 
 00? island, 77 voaoz disease, with many names of stones and plants^ 
 particularly also several, which are in reality adjectives with a 
 feminine substantive omitted, as T>] didtexTOG dialect ((fowy under- 
 stood) ; r t dwptrgog the diameter (yp,]W5 understood) ; r\ Stomos 
 atom (ovota understood) ; 1? avvdpo? desert (%ojga understood) ; 
 and others of this description. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Bat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 o, speech. *;, beech. 6, people. 6, man. 
 
 Ao/ou 
 Ad/w 
 
 yqy 
 
 drjftov 
 
 TO, fig. 
 
 GVXOV 
 
 ovxov 
 
 avxov 
 
 * The common mode of writing this word (J(fVQCt is incorrect, as the 
 termination is short. See Aristoph. Pac. 566. Cratin. ap. Hephaest. p. 6. 
 
42 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. CONTRACTS. [ 35, 36. 
 
 Dual 
 N. A. V. I Ady<w 
 
 G. D. r 
 
 Plural 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Ao'/o^ 
 
 Ao'/ou? 
 
 av&gojnot, 
 
 auxcw 
 
 ovxcc 
 Gvxtav 
 
 6VKOl$ 
 
 avxa 
 auxa 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. The Attics sometimes make the vocative like the nomina- 
 tive ; -&e6s God is always the same in the vocative as the nomina- 
 tive. [But an exception is found Matt. 27: 46.] 
 
 2. By the Epic writers the genitive in ov is changed into oto, 
 as Ao'yoto, (pyyolo. The Dorics make co in the genitive, and in 
 the accusative plural w, and rarely og. 
 
 Words for practice. 
 
 ayydog 
 a frog 
 
 vipyuQiov 
 
 Zpyov 
 * 
 
 IflUTlOV 
 
 i'ov 
 
 iitjhov 
 
 messenger 
 
 eagle 
 
 combat 
 
 prize 
 
 vine 
 
 silver 
 
 silver 
 
 work 
 
 east wind 
 
 west wind 
 
 continent 
 
 outer garment 
 
 violet 
 
 crab 
 
 apple 
 
 (JLOQIOV 
 
 noudiov 
 
 ov 
 
 CfOQTlOV 
 
 ygvaiov 
 
 part 
 
 south wind 
 
 wood 
 
 house 
 
 child 
 
 rose 
 
 iron 
 
 emerald 
 
 spasm 
 
 army 
 
 medicine 
 
 burden 
 
 copper 
 
 gold 
 
 gold. 
 
 36. CONTRACTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 Several words in oo and oo*>, fog and tov, commonly undergo 
 contraction, according to the general rules given above, except 
 that a of the neuter absorbs in contraction the preceding * or o, 
 and becomes long, as ooTt'a oara, TT/.O' 
 
37.] 
 
 ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 43 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 V. 
 
 voyage. 
 
 Plur-f Sing. TO, bone. Plur. 
 
 rrAdo) 
 
 TrAoJ 
 
 N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 TiAdoi;? 
 
 TiAo? 
 
 r 
 jy 
 
 OGTtOV 
 OGTtOV 
 
 OGTOVV 
 OGTOH 
 
 OGTta 
 OGTtO) V 
 
 OGTCt 
 OGTWV 
 
 OGTa 
 OGTK 
 
 ' 
 
 )vg 
 n 
 
 OGTtM 
 OOTtOV 
 
 OGT(0 
 OGTOVV 
 
 OGTta 
 
 OGTtOV 
 
 OGTOVl' 
 
 OGTta 
 
 TrAo'w 
 
 OGTOt 
 liKdiv lloGTtOlV OGTOlv 
 
 REMARK. There are not many substantives of this kind ; 6 VOOQ 
 understanding, and o ^o'o? stream, may be taken as examples. 
 
 37. SECOND DECLENSION OF THE ATTICS. 
 
 To the second declension is referred, under the name of the 
 Attic, the declension of several words of the masculine and femi- 
 nine gender in co, and of the neuter in aw. It has in all the cases 
 an to, instead of the usual vowels and diphthongs, and an iota sub- 
 script where ot or q> is found in the regular second declension. 
 The vocative is always like the nominative. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 S. 6, temple. TO hall. Dual 
 
 N. vtaig uvwytwv vtat 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 A. 
 
 V. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 VfOJ 
 
 VflOV 
 
 Vf 
 
 OJ 
 VfCOV 
 
 vecog 
 
 vatytwv 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1 . The expression Attic second declension is by no means to be 
 understood, as if the Attics were accustomed to inflect all nouns 
 in o? in this way. It is, on the contrary, an ancient and peculiar 
 declension of a very limited number of words, of some of which 
 moreover there exist forms in the common second declension, as 
 o Aao? people, vuog temple, also Afofe, vtwg. So o Act/a;? hare, 
 
44 THIRD DECLENSION. [ 38. 
 
 Ionic Kaywbg and hctyog. Other examples are 6 xahwg cable, and 
 6 naTQwg, priiQwg, paternal and maternal uncle. Of those words 
 of which two forms are actually current, that which falls under 
 this declension is commonly peculiar to the Attic dialect. 
 
 2. This declension has a peculiar accusative in oj, particularly 
 used in the proper names Jojg, AVeo, Ttwg, "^#w, and in t? *'wff 
 J/ie dawn (accus. T^V a>), which is the Attic form for ?;' w of the 
 Ionics. 
 
 3. The accent of the genitive veto is contrary to the rule laid 
 down 33 Rem. 7. With respect to the other anomalies in the 
 accent of this declension, see above under 12. 7. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 38. GENDER. 
 
 1. In consequence of the diversity of endings in this declen- 
 sion, the determination of the gender by the termination admits of 
 no general rule, and resort must be had to observation of the indi- 
 vidual cases. A few rules however with respect to some termi- 
 nations are given below. t 
 
 2. In general, the g is found at the end chiefly of masculines and 
 feminines, and the short vowel, at the end of neuters. No neuters 
 end in | or t/;. 
 
 REMARK. The following is an enumeration of those endings, 
 whose gender is fixed. In giving the exceptions, no notice is tak- 
 en of personal appellations, such as t] [tyTqQ mother, if dapaQ 
 spouse, whose gender is apparent. Where however U (univer- 
 sally) is placed, there no personal appellation of another gender 
 exists. 
 
 Masculines. 
 
 1. All in *i>, as 6 S^svg mule, (XfiKfOptv? amphora. U. 
 
 2. All substantives which have VTOQ in the genitive ; as o ti- 
 vwv -ovrog tendon, 6 odovg -ovrog tooth, o ifiag -aviog thong. The 
 only exceptions to this are some names of cities. 
 
 3. Those which end in VIQ, as o oxmjp girdle ; except ?; ya- 
 axrjQ belly, y xypfate. By the poets also r\ ar^Q air, mist, which is 
 usually masculine ; and the neuter contracts, of which hereafter. 
 
38, 39.] GENDER. INFLECTION. 45 
 
 Feminines. 
 
 1. All in co, as T^CO echo. U. 
 
 2. Those in ag, gen. adog, as ?J Aa^Tid? torc/i ; with the ex- 
 ception of some adjectives of the common gender. 
 
 3. Those in ig, as ?j -nohg city, ^ %<*Qig grace. Excepting d oytg 
 serpent, 6 t%i>g adder, 6 xoaig bug, 6 pdoig a certain measure, o */<? 
 a wood -worm, 6 tig lion, 6 dtKyig dolphin, o, ^ oovig bird, ?J, d 
 Tiygig tiger, 17, o dig bank, shore. 
 
 4. Nouns of quality in Trjg (the Latin fas) ; as r\ fitngoTijs 
 parvitas. U. 
 
 Neuters. 
 
 1. All in ,T7, *, v, as TO ffw ( tia fcoc^y, x<xgy head, pt'h honey, 
 ciorv city. U. 
 
 2. All which terminate with short syllables in e and o, as 
 TO' Tf?/o -wall, 10 ITJTOQ breast, and the neuter adjectives in tg, ev, 
 ov. U. 
 
 3. Those in ap, as TO ^Trap the liver, TO ve'xTctp, with contracts 
 in fuo -TJO, as TO p ?;p spring, TO xf'ap X7;p i/ie Aearf, TO GxeaQ 
 GTTjQ tallow. Excepting only o ipao the starling. 
 
 4. Those in cup, which are not personal appellations; as TO y- 
 doio water, TO rf'x^cop mark. Excepting 6 //wp lymph, and o' a^oip 
 a blister. ' \ 
 
 5. Those in a? -ocrog and -aoc, as TO Tfp -TO? miracle, TO 
 dinag -uog cup ; excepting o c A^ -ao$ a stone, and o' or TO KPA2 
 xpTo'? head. 
 
 There are no other neuters of this declension, excepting TO 
 TIVO Jire, TO (fcug light, TO ovg ear, TO OTui'g dough. 
 
 Nouns in ug, therefore, are generally masculine when they 
 make the genitive in avTog, feminine when they make it in adog, 
 and neuter when they make it in ccTog and aog. 
 
 39. INFLECTION OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 In the declension of every noun, a distinction must be made 
 between the root, and the changeable termination of the case. 
 In the first and second declensions, the nominative has such a 
 termination of case ; in the third declension, however, such ter- 
 mination is attached only to the oblique cases thus : 
 
 Dec. II. Ao'y -os, Ao'/ -ov, loy -w 
 III. #/;p, th/p -dg, t^p -/. 
 
46 THIRD DECLENSION. [<> 39, 40. 
 
 Still in the third declension, the nominative is rarely so unchang- 
 ed, as in #/j(j. In most cases its last syllable is modified either by 
 addition, as gen. ftv-og, from the root /MI;, where the nominative 
 is (4vg, or by dropping a letter, as gen. aoJjuaros, from the root 
 deodar, nom. aw^ua, or by substitution, as gen. flxovo^ from the 
 root ;/xoi>, nom. 
 
 REMARK. In order to decline correctly a noun in the third 
 declension, it is absolutely necessary to know beforehand the 
 nominative and one of the remaining cases. If, however, one 
 only is known, the rules are much more simple for finding the 
 nominative from the genitive, than for finding the genitive from 
 the nominative ; because in general the radical form is found 
 uncorrupted in "the genitive, but not in the nominative. It is 
 also accordingly necessary in the lexicon to take note as well of 
 the genitive, as of the nominative. But as in reading, some 
 oblique case is more likely to occur than the nominative, and it 
 is accordingly requisite, in order to ascertain the meaning of the 
 word, to discover the nominative from said oblique case, the rules 
 which follow may be applied for this purpose. 
 
 40. 
 
 1. The most common changes, which the root of the word 
 suffers in the nominative, are the following, viz. 
 
 a) The assumption of e, as o nvg, pv-os mouse ;* o akg, ccA-o, 
 salt. 
 
 b) That instead of and o of the root, y and 00 are found in 
 the nominative, in masculines and feminines, as rf fixoav^ /xo*/-o, 
 image; aky&rjG) aKri&i-OG, true. 
 
 2. With respect to the more exact application of these princi- 
 ples, two principal cases must again be distinguished, viz. (1) That 
 of a consonant before the inflectional termination ; (2) That of a 
 vowel before the inflectional termination. 
 
 * The learner is to understand in these and following 1 examples, that 
 from the radical form /ui>, which is detected in the genitive [4VO, the 
 nominative (AV$ is derived. 
 
41.] INFLECTION. 47 
 
 41. 
 
 1. When a consonant precedes the inflectional termination, and 
 the nominative takes the , it is understood in the first place, that 
 this g with y, x, 7, and with /ff, TT, <p, passes into and t/;, as xopa 
 xopax-oe, ovv'E, ovv%-og, wty om-os, /aAt>t/> ydhvfi-og. 
 
 2. These nominatives in and t// never change the f and o of 
 the root, as qrAa/; (phffiog, (pAo qpAoydg, ai&ioty axh'o7iO, except- 
 ing only ij aAtHTT??!, aAcoTrfxo?, the fox. 
 
 3. If however the consonant immediately preceding the inflec- 
 tional termination is a $, r, or #, it is dropped before the g assum- 
 ed by the nominative, as ka[.inug hapnudog, AwQig AtaQidog, x^- 
 
 4. In like manner v and VT are dropped before this assumed 
 g ; but in this case the short vowel, always with VT and commonly 
 with v, is lengthened in the manner given above ( 25. 4.) as //- 
 y ylyavTog, %ct()ifig ycipifvTog, odovg 6dovxog,dt:\yig (long *) 
 falcplvog, Q>QQ%vg &OQy.vvog, [i&ag pfhavog, xrslg xrsvog* 
 
 5. When g is not assumed in the nominative, v and Q are the 
 only consonants, which can remain at the end of the nominative, 
 as &TIQ &ijQ-6g, alow aiwv-og. It would be necessary to drop all 
 the others ; though this, however, actually occurs only with r,t 
 as otifta oajfictiog, Atvoywv AfvoqaivT-og. 
 
 In either case, f and o of the masculine and feminine are al- 
 ways changed into r\ and o>, as hprjv AtjUfV-o?, (h;rp pyrop-og, 
 
 6. Some neuters, which make axog in the genitive, take Q in- 
 stead of g in the nominative, as r t nuQ 
 
 * fig is the only additional like example. See below in 70. 
 
 t Because all the other letters take the g ( or 1//) in the nominative ; 
 H and G do not at all occur before the inflectional termination of this de- 
 clension, and of A the only example is A?, 
 
48 THIRD DECLENSION. [$ 39. 
 
 7. According to the premises, the usual cases, in which a con- 
 sonant precedes the inflectional termination, are as follows, viz. 
 
 The genitive in j * % \ from a no,, in { {, gf j I 
 
 " " " do$, TO?, #o? from a nom. in s 
 
 but especially 
 
 ( ao> 
 
 aro? from a nom. in < ag (rt'yag -aro?) 
 ( ao (jjjrao -UTO?) 
 
 mu ^ 
 
 The genitive m ^o^ from a nom. ml >^ ? 
 
 but especially 
 
 and ovo? from a nom. in W and 
 ttxtuv 
 
 J ?, 6*ff, Of?, Wff 
 
 The genitive in not from a nom. in \ &* &* *?'* 
 
 j oof? oovTOSi yvg cpvvtog) 
 
 \ wv (ytQwv, OVTO?) 
 " " " )o? from a nom. in 
 
 but especially 
 
 and o^o? from a nom. in qp and 
 (ai&ijQ m&iQog, QIJTW 
 and from two neuters in o(), viz. 
 cio sword and yro breast. 
 
 8. The following cases require particular attention, viz, o, ^ 
 Aff Ao? ifr, ea ; TO /u*A* [t&iTOS honey ; TO Hapy xaQviTog head ; 
 ?J i/u| vv xrog night ; 6 ava avaxTog king ; y dctpoiQ dapaQTOS 
 spouse ; 6 novg noSogfoot ; with a few others which will be given 
 below. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 I. The quantity of the penult of the genitive in a, *, u, is only 
 fixed, like that of the nominative of other nouns, by authority. In 
 general it is short ; those cases therefore only will be noted where 
 it is long. 
 
41,42.] INFLECTION. 49 
 
 1. All substantives which make the genitive in avog, ivog, and 
 wog, have the penult long ; as Ilav JJavog, naiav naiuvog, gig 
 Qivdg, dtKcftg dthqnvog, [toovv (.idavvog. 
 
 2. In like manner the penults of several in ig -idog are long ; 
 and as these are all oxy tones in the nominative, the long syllable 
 in the genitive is circumflexed, by which mark they are known ; 
 as oqoayig otfoaytdog, xvr]^lg nvrmldog. 
 
 3. Of others not included under the preceding heads, the fol- 
 lowing are to be noted as having the penult of the genitive long : 
 
 o, r\ OQvig, &og bird d <2>oiW, xog Phenician, palm-tree, 
 
 ?J ayhg, &og garlic d 0/</>, nog rush [red-colour 
 
 d TITTI'S, yog locust d i'i//, nog (an insect) 
 
 r\ [taOTi^, yog scourge o #wp, xog breast plate 
 
 d ntQdi, xog partridge o fep, xog hawk 
 
 ?} /fc/u/?*g, xog top d oi', xog helm 
 
 7; onddi, xog paltn branch d xooda'g, xog a dance 
 
 d ovo(pui xog filth xr]@v', xog herald 
 
 xog deceiver d xi]v, xog (a marine bird) 
 
 , xog Phceacian o ^o^dv^ xog silkworm 
 
 xog stupid d xoxxv^yog cuckoo 
 
 ;, yog grape d yvip, nog vulture 
 
 Carian d tyao starling. 
 
 II. All monosyllable nominatives, with the exception of the 
 pronoun T/S, are long ; therefore nvo, nvadg. 
 
 III. When the termination fig -fvTog is preceded by 7; or o, a 
 contraction commonly ensues ; thus Tiprjfig Tipr}(vTog contracted 
 into lifting TiftijvTog, [4fkirdfig [.ifkiTOfVTog contracted into [.uhiiovg 
 -OVVT02. Other examples are the names of cities in ovg ovvTog, 
 as 'Onovg, &c. 
 
 42. VOWEL BEFORE THE ENDING. 
 
 1. Those nouns of this declension which have a vowel before 
 the inflectional ending, (or og pure in the genitive 27/1), take 
 almost universally a g in the nominative ; a few neuters only in i> 
 and t 1 , and a few feminine* in co, are excepted. 
 
 2. Moreover as neuters only ( 38 Rem.) have nominative 
 endings short in t and o, hence in masculines and feminines the 
 of the other cases becomes rj or u, and the o becomes w or ov, 
 in tho nominative. 
 
50 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. EXAMPLES. 
 
 [43. 
 
 Thus in particular are derived the following, viz. 
 The gen. in aog from the neuters in a, (othag 
 " " " tog and vog from the nom. in *?, , and 
 
 i the nom. in ov g (flovg /?< 
 u u " oo? from < the feminines in co and o 
 ( (^w -o'off, aidwg -oog). 
 
 ( the nom. in 7?? and 
 u u " f og (fw?) from \ (ahr]&"tjg neut. ahrjftt'g G". 
 
 f the nom. in *f, (tnntvg inntwg). 
 
 In this place is especially to be noted ypctvg ygciog an old wo- 
 man. For vavg see 56. 4. 
 
 4. Besides these, the genitives fog and *co? are formed by a 
 change of vowel, e.g. 
 
 a) From the numerous neuters in o?, as Tet%og, Ttfyfog. 
 
 b) From most nominatives in ig and *, and some in vg and w. 
 as noKig nofacDg. aorv 
 
 REMARK. The vowels a, *, v, before the termination of the 
 genitive (with the single exception of ygaog) are short. The 
 monosyllable nominatives are here also long, as pvg f,ivog. 
 
 43. 
 The following examples will serve, in essential points, for all 
 
 the varieties in this declension. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Dual. 
 N.A.V. 
 G. D. 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 o, animal, o', age. 
 aicov 
 uitovog 
 
 &%$* 
 
 aiwvi, 
 cclfova 
 
 aicovoiv 
 
 quowty 
 
 alwoi, (i/) 
 
 atwvtg 
 
 o^diviniiy. o c , lion. o, giant. 
 
 ylyag 
 Kiovrog 
 
 daipova 
 
 \IOVTU 
 
 fatftovtav 
 
 daipovag 
 
 v) 
 
 yiyuviv 
 ylyav 
 
 yiyuvTOii 1 
 
 ytyavTtg 
 ylyuat (v) 
 yiyccirrez 
 
43.] 
 
 INFLECTION. 
 
 51 
 
 Sing. o, raven, o, J, cfa7c?. 6,jackall. o, woodworm, ro, i/'ng. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 N.A.V. 
 G.D. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 xopaxf 
 
 xopaxag 
 
 xtudog 
 7i a id I 
 
 Tltt 
 
 Tittidoi 
 
 noudig 
 naldcov 
 TICCIGI (v) 
 
 Tiuldeg 
 
 X? 
 
 ^ 0301V 
 
 xa 
 
 HIV 
 
 xh 
 
 Xtf 
 
 Y.IQIV 
 
 7i gay p 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1 . These examples will sufficiently illustrate the declension ; for 
 as soon as the nominative and genitive are ascertained by means 
 of the foregoing rules and of the lexicon, the learner's reflection 
 will easily suggest, that all nouns which end in and ty are de- 
 clined like xop, all which have the genitive in &>, ftog, and 
 TO?, like naig naidog, Tioipyv noi[At'vo$ like dal^mv daipovog, 
 odovg odovTog and &tig fttvvog like A/wi/ Ktovxog, and finug ijna- 
 zog like nQccypa -axog. It is only necessary to make some par- 
 ticular observations with regard to the accusative and vocative sin- 
 gular, and the dative plural, which will be presently done. 
 
 2. Quantity. The *, a, and e, in the terminations of the cases, 
 are always short. Compare Remark II. 4, on Dec. I. For the 
 quantity of the penult of the genitive, see the preceding sections. 
 
 3. Accent- The following are the principal rules relative to 
 the accent. 
 
 a) In dissyllable and longer words, the accent remains on the 
 same syllable as in the nominative, so long as its nature admits ; 
 see above in xo'pa| and alcav. 
 
 b) Monosyllables throw the accent, in the genitive and dative 
 of each number, upon the termination of the case. On the termi- 
 nation coy it becomes a circumflex. See above &?JQ and x/. 
 
52 THIRD DEC. ACCUS. SING. -VOCATIVE. [ 44, 45. 
 
 c) On the contrary, the nominative, accusative, 'and vocative 
 never have the accent on the termination of the case* 
 
 Exc. From the second of these rules are principally excepted 
 the participles, as &sig #Woff a wv 6Woe, &c. the plural _of the 
 adjectives nag nat>, (navrog, navTi,) pi. G. nuvTorv, D. nuatv, 
 and the genitive plural of some few others, as '#wg and nctig above. 
 
 44. OF THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 
 
 1. The principal termination of the accusative in this declen- 
 sion is a, but in some words in tg, vg, avg, and oi>, there is also an 
 accusative in v, formed, as in the other declensions, by changing 
 the g of the nominative into i>, and retaining the same quantity. 
 This is the only form of the accusative for those nouns which have 
 a vowel before the termination of the case ; as fiovg G. oog @ovv 
 dQvg dgvog (w*, and also i%&vy, noJUv, ypavv, &c. 
 
 2. Those on the other hand which have a consonant in the 
 genitive, where the last syllable of the nominative is accented, 
 make the accusative in a, as tints -tdog tkrtlda' -novg iiotiog 
 Tiodu. But if the last syllable be unaccented, they commonly take 
 an v in the accusative, though sometimes an , as tpig -tdog .IQW 
 and t-Qlda' xoQvg -v&og XOQVV and XOQW&U' evtknig -tdog ivtl- 
 ntv and tvtkjuda' nolvnovg -odog noivnovv and nolvnoda. 
 
 <> 45. OF THE VOCATIVE. 
 
 1. It is very common in this declension, for a noun to have a 
 vocative of its own, but yet generally, especially in the Attic 
 writers, to make the vocative like the nominative. The follow- 
 ing are accordingly the rules, by which nouns in this declension 
 may form their vocative ; but it must be left to observation in 
 particular cases, whether they do actually so form them, or make 
 the vocative like the nominative. 
 
 2. The terminations evg, ig, and vg, with the words 7i7g, 
 
 * Care must be taken not to confound the termination of the worrf, as 
 r->ip, \v.ih the termination of the case, as 
 
46.] DATIVE PLURAL. 53 
 
 and fiovg, drop the $ in the vocative, and those in tvg assume the 
 circumflex ; as fiaattevg, voc. to fiuoifav, and so Ildoi, Awgl, 
 Tq&v, ydv, &c. and :r?, ypav, fiov. 
 
 3. The same holds of those in ag and tig, which drop v before 
 their g. They commonly, however, resume this v in the voca- 
 tive, as TAa?, raAa*/o?, co TU).UV Aiug -uvtog, to Alu 
 
 ttg -fviog, co 
 
 4. Nouns, which in the termination of the nominative have 
 ?? or co, only shorten this in the vocative ; but this in general only 
 when the other cases also have and o see above cVa/i<coj> and 
 
 So too |U?jr;p -t'gog, 0} ti^tey p?;rcop -opo, w 
 -fog, w 2w%Qaitg. 
 
 5. Feminines in co and wg form the vocative in o7, as 
 
 j Hoi. 
 
 REM. 1. The three following throw the accent back, viz. na- 
 rfp, V^p, 6at(), from 7rar?/(>, V?;'p, d'urjo brother-in-law, G. /po?. 
 
 REM. 2. The words, which retain the long vowel in the other 
 cases, remain also unaltered in the vocative, as w IRfntn G. 
 -ojvog. (}) Zivoq-tov G.-oJvrog, o) ir\TviQ G.-qpog, co A~$aTT]g G.-rjTog. 
 There are three only of this kind, which shorten the vowel in the 
 vocative, '^lO^Uco*- -wvog, co " ^oM.ov Tlootidwv -wvog, co 77o- 
 ceidov, Neptune ; and trcoi^p -r,yog, co acorfp. Here also it is to 
 be observed, that the accent is thrown back. 
 
 } 46. OF THE DATIVE PLURAL. 
 j 
 
 1. When the termination oiv and <u of the dative plural is 
 preceded by a consonant, the general rules again operate, as in 
 the g of the nominative ( 41) ; see above in xop, uaig, aiwv. 
 as also in ' ' Aquty "^(papog ".^pai/w r\nuQ 
 
 2. When in these instances the vowel of the nominative is al- 
 tered in the oblique cases, it remains altered in the dative plura) ; 
 as duipuv -ovog daifiooiv' Tiovg nodog -JIOGIV' uKwnri't. -fxog 
 a/.aJ7it(i>. But when VT is omitted, the lengthening of the vow- 
 el mentioned above ( 25. 4.) takes place ; see above A*W, yiyag, 
 and so too odovg -ovrog ddoiiot' TVTitlg -t'viog ivntloiv. If. 
 
54 THIRD DEC. SYNCOPE OF SOME NOUNS IN rjQ. [47. 
 
 however, v alone has been omitted, the short vowel remains, as 
 
 - XTfOlV. 
 
 REM. 1. Also the adjectives (not participles) in ft? -tvTog have 
 only an 6, as (pwvyfig -evrog 
 
 3. When the termination ow, a*, is immediately preceded by a 
 vowel of course when there is an og pure in the genitive this 
 vowel also remains unaltered, as in the other oblique cases ; as 
 e*A;xb; -tog aty&tot,' Tt7%og -fog Ti%fGi>' d$vg dgvog dpvaiv. 
 Only when the nominative singular of such words has a diphthong, 
 the dative plural also assumes it, as paotfavg -twg 
 ygavg ypaoe- yQuvai' ovq fioog fiovaiv. 
 
 REM. 2. In the ancient and Epic dialect, instead of a* and ffw, 
 in all words, d and *(m/, or taai and eaoiv, are used; which ter- 
 mination, as it begins with a vowel, is appended precisely like 
 the terminations of the other cases, as dvdxT-eai,, xopx-ff, fyftv- 
 eoaw. 
 
 47. SYNCOPE OF 9OME NOUNS IN ^Q. 
 
 \. Some nouns in ?;p, G. fgog, drop the * in the genitive and 
 dative singular, and also in the dative plural, where they take an 
 a after the p, as naxriQ father, 
 
 Gen. (noiTtQog) nuTpog, Dat. 
 
 A. Tiarfpa, V. nuxfQ. 
 PL nctTiQfg, G. nuTtQwv, D. nccTQciat, A. 
 
 2. The same is the case, with some anomaly of the accent, in 
 the following; ^I']T^Q ((lyTtpog) p^TQog^ mother; rf 
 OTtpog) yaarpog, belly, stomach ; fruyttrty (&vya*tQOG) 
 daughter; A^Y\IV\Q (^/M^Tf'poff) ArifJiv}TQoq, Ceres ; which last 
 makes in the accusative Ar\^xQo.. For apij^, see the anomalous 
 , nouns, 56. 4. 
 
 REMARK. The poets sometimes neglect this syncope, and say for 
 instance TTOCT^O?, and sometimes they adopt it where in general 
 it is not found, as TIUTQWV, 
 
48, 49. J CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 
 
 55 
 
 48. CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Of the nouns that have og pure in the genitive, there are 
 very few which are not, in the common language, more or less 
 contracted ; although it is by no means always done, where by 
 the general rules it might be. 
 
 2. In some respects, moreover, the mode of contraction varies 
 from that prescribed by the general rules, and one species of this 
 variety is expressed in the following canon, viz. 
 
 The contracted accusative plural of the third declension is formed 
 like the contracted nominative plural. 
 
 REMARK. Thus, for instance, dhrj&tfg and @6f g are regularly 
 contracted, cr4^#e7ffj ftovg, and, contrary to the general rules, the 
 contraction of the accusative dAi7#a, /?o, is exactly the same. 
 
 49. 
 
 Words in ^g and tg, G. tog, which are almost exclusively 
 adjectives, neuters in og and tog, and the feminines in w and cog, 
 G. oo?, are contracted in all cases, where two vowels meet. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Dual. 
 N.A.V. 
 G. D. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 /, galley. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 TO, wall. 
 
 /, echo. 
 
 Tti%l Zftftfl 
 
 rtyoe 
 
 tow Tti^olv I 2d decl 
 
 m 
 
 2d decl. 
 
 TtltH 
 
56 THIRD DECLENSION. [ 50. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. The uncontracted forms of the feminine in o> and w^are not 
 used even by the Ionics. These words moreover are commonly 
 used only in the singular. The dual and plural when used are 
 formed according to the second declension. 
 
 2. The neuter adjectives in fg are declined like the neuters in 
 og ; accordingly in the plural we have TO. oAfl#ia, A^?J. 
 
 3. The dual in r\ formed from ef departs from the general rule 
 in 27. 3. 
 
 4. One masculine in we, G. coo?, viz. rjOMg the hero, admits a 
 contraction, of which however no use is made in prose, except in 
 
 50. 
 
 1. All other words admit the contraction only in the nomina- 
 tive, accusative, vocative plural, and partly also in the dative sin- 
 gular, particularly those in t>, G. vog, as 6 i%&vg Jish. 
 
 Sing. N. fy&vs, G. l%&vog, D. i%&vi\ A. IfOvv. 
 Plur. N. i%&vt$ contr. i%&vg, G. fyftvcav, D. fy&vat, (v), 
 A. fyftvag contr. i%&v?. 
 
 2. In the same manner are formed those in g, if, according to 
 the Ionic and Doric mode, they have 1,0$ in the genitive ; as in 
 Herodotus, nohg G. nohiog, pi. nobtg and nohag, contr. nohg, 
 and these have also in the dative singular nofai contr. 716 fa. 
 
 3. Another example is (3ovg orr, cow. 
 
 Sing. N../?ovff, G. /?oo'ff, D. fio'i, A. /?ouv, V. ^ou. 
 
 P/wr. N. /?off contr. Bovg, G. ^GOJ*/, D. povai (v), A. /?o'c 
 
 contr. ftdvg. 
 Also ypavs an old woman. 
 
 Sing. N. ypctvg, G. y(wdff, D. y^at; A. yguvv, V. ypau. 
 P/ur. N. /(>;? contr. yQavg, G. /^awj/, D. yQctvoi (i/), 
 
 A. (y^?) contr. ypavg. 
 
 In this last word is to be remarked the uncommon contraction of 
 ypaig into yoavg. 
 
 REM. 1. It is worthy of note that, by this contraction, the plural 
 number is again made similar to the nominative singular; and ev- 
 en where the quantity is different, the accent sometimes remains 
 the same ; as nom. sing. 6 POTQVQ the cluster of grapes, ace. pi. TOVC 
 
<> 51-] 
 
 CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 
 
 57 
 
 REM. 2. The word o't'z sheep follows the example of 
 above, and accordingly makes Gen. oV0 9 \ and Norn, and Ace. pi. 
 Of, with the i long. Commonly, however, even the nominative 
 singular is contracted, as >/ o?, and then the word is thus declined : 
 
 Sing. PI. 
 
 Nom. oi$ o^,, oi$ 
 
 Gen. o/d? 
 
 Dat oil 
 
 Ace. oiv 
 
 Hence we ran say ?/, a/, and rV, 
 
 S 51. 
 
 1. Most nouns in (j and /., and some few in vs and r, retain in 
 ommon language the vowel of the nominative only in the accu- 
 
 sative and vocative singular ; in all other cases they change it in- 
 to f. In these words, also, the dative li' is changed into *, and 
 the plural tts and fag into tg^ and the neuter fa into r n but no 
 farther contraction takes place. 
 
 2. The substantives in *? and i/$ have besides what is called 
 the Attic genitive, by which, instead of o? in the genitive singular 
 they make w 9 *, and in the dual, instead of oiv they make <M?, but 
 accent all three genitives as if the last syllable were short. 
 
 3. The neuters in v and i have the common genitive, as affrv, 
 
 S. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 \. 
 V. 
 
 
 TTOP.tl' 
 
 no),( 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ?;, ci^y.* J, e//. ro, ciVy. 
 
 Di/a/. N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 (jrt' 
 a Git o^ 
 
 UGTft 
 CCGTV 
 V.GTV 
 
 itolct 
 
 Plur. 
 
 ndicts 
 
 UGT1] 
 
 UGTff 
 ClGTtOlV 
 
 In or^neral rro/r? signifies c^y politically, and affii; geographically. 
 
58 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 52, 53 
 
 REM. Adjectives in v?< i', have the common genitive, and al- 
 so do not contract the neuters plural, as r]du$ neut. i}(Jv, gen. ijd't- 
 o?, Plur. iydt7g neut. rjdtcc. 
 
 52. 
 
 I. Nouns in fu<? have also the Attic genitive, but only the sin- 
 gular in cog, and without any peculiarity of accent. In these too 
 the contraction extends only to the dative singular and nominative 
 and accusative plural, in which last case, however, the tag is more 
 common. 
 
 Sing, o, king. 
 
 Norn. ' 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. paoitev 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Dual 
 
 Plural 
 
 and 
 
 REM. The length of the a in the accusative singular and plu- 
 ral is an Attic peculiarity. The earlier Attic writers contract the 
 nominative plural into fjft, as /?aa4i?. The lonians make uni- 
 formly fiaadijog, paadtjf', -?Ja, ->?, &c. 
 
 53. 
 
 1. There are some peculiarities in the contraction of the third 
 declension adopted by the Attic writers, when another vowel pre- 
 cedes and follows f. In that case the termination tu is contracted, 
 not into 77, but into a, as vytys healthy, Ace. sing, and Neut. pi. 
 vyii'ct contr. vyia' XQtog debt, PI. X9* f(X XQ* a - 
 
 REM. 1. Even some in ivg drop the f in this manner before 
 a, ag, and dig, as yoivg (a certain measure), G. %owg (for ^ofoj?), 
 Ace. pi. x<*g- 
 
 2. In proper names in xJU'i?? contr. xAiy?, a double contraction 
 arises, which, however, is confined in general to the dative. 
 
 N. JItQM\irig contr. 
 
 G. TTfQixXf'fog contr. 
 
 D. HiQixMt'i " 
 
 A. !T()4xAa " 
 
 V. Utoixhifq contr. 
 
$ 54, 55.] CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 59 
 
 54. 
 
 J. Of the neuters in a$ these two, viz. x*'pa horn and Ttoag 
 miracle, make UTO$ in the genitive, but drop the x in the Ionic di- 
 alect, as xtQctTog, xtguog' Ttpaiog, tiguog. And the three follow- 
 ing, viz. ytjQctg old age, yf'gag honour, and *Qia$ flesh, always have 
 ao$ only. 
 
 2. Hence arises the following contraction. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Sing. Dual Plural 
 
 Y.t'oaa 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 G. xt'gao? x|pa> 
 D. 
 
 xiQuoiv 
 
 3. The other neuters in a?, 0, as <fc:nag' CK/?, fff'Aa? glitter, 
 have only the forms in a and , as ra ^Vra, TCW a^'Aa. 
 
 REM. The lonians often change the into f, in the inflection. 
 
 55. 
 
 The comparatives in cut/, neut. ov, gen. ovog, drop the v in the 
 accusative singular and the nominative, accusative, and vocative plu- 
 ral, and contract the two vowels. It is here, however, to be re- 
 marked, that without this contraction the v is never dropped, even 
 in the Ionic dialect. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Nom. f*ti(nv greater fAtifrvf? contr. 
 
 Gen. utlovo$ 
 
 Dat. pd&vt, 
 
 Ace. [Atl&vGt contr. jU/a> /u/aiw$ contr. 
 
 Voc. {4fiov ftflov(<s contr. 
 
 Neuter pi. TU fttifrva contr. f4fta). 
 The dual remains unaltered. 
 
 REM. Of the same character, though more violent, is the con- 
 traction familiar to the Attics of the accusative of the two names 
 
 -ojvog, and Iloatidwv -OJVQ? Neptune, viz. 
 Ace. '^TioAAojfa, -^Tio'AAw Iloattdwva, 
 
60 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. EXAMPLES. 
 
 Examples for practice in all the rules of the third declension. 
 
 Such letters preceding the termination of the case, as cannot 
 be ascertained by the foregoing rules, are given in parentheses. 
 
 I. Examples of such as have consonants before the termina- 
 tion of the case. 
 
 d dyxwv 
 
 elbow 
 
 77 'Mdg (d) 
 
 Greece 
 
 c ' V ' f \ 
 ?l &1JOQJV (0) 
 
 nightingale 
 
 d "EKlriv 
 
 a Greek 
 
 d dyp (*) 
 
 air 
 
 7j D.nlg (o) 
 
 hope 
 
 o ui-Q-riQ (e) 
 
 sky 
 
 T? i'gtg (d) 
 
 strife 
 
 77 ail (y) 
 
 goat 
 
 d &6Qa7io)v(ov 
 
 T) servant 
 
 ?] dxTig (iv) 
 
 ray 
 
 d frig (iv) 
 
 heap 
 
 d dvdoidg (vr) 
 
 statue 
 
 d itQttS, (dx) 
 
 hawk 
 
 d aw (o) 
 
 axle 
 
 d iftdg (VT) 
 
 thong 
 
 7; afaag (x) 
 
 furrow 
 
 7; XCtTtjklljJ ((jfi] 
 
 ) stair 
 
 77 PTJ^ (%) 
 
 cough 
 
 y xrjkig (id) 
 
 spot 
 
 o yt'owv (OVT) 
 
 old man 
 
 o xkojv 
 
 branch 
 
 d yovifj (n) 
 
 griffin 
 
 c / /"- v\ 
 
 7; xvrjftig (id) 
 
 splint 
 
 d yvip (vn) 
 
 vulture 
 
 7; xdovg (&) 
 
 helmet 
 
 ?; daig (r) 
 
 meal 
 
 d XT fig (fv) 
 
 comb 
 
 7; dag (d) 
 
 torch 
 
 }j X U A L ^ \ / ) 
 
 cup 
 
 d dekcpig (iv) 
 
 dolphin 
 
 TO xvfia 
 
 wave 
 
 d dtid'Awi* (OVT) 
 
 serpent 
 
 i] kail.aip ~(n) 
 
 storm 
 
 O ^IciXCDV 
 
 Lacedemonian 
 
 < > >. / \ 
 7; Gapi; (x) 
 
 flesh 
 
 o hccovy (y) 
 
 throat 
 
 7? afiorjv 
 
 siren 
 
 O hl[.lV]l> (i) 
 
 port 
 
 TO GTOfACt 
 
 mouth 
 
 n hvy (^) 
 
 lynx 
 
 i] Jii; (y) 
 
 the Styx 
 
 o ^mffrt^ (l^) 
 
 scourge 
 
 j] Zqiyl (y) 
 
 Sphinx 
 
 (4-r]v 
 
 month 
 
 r i] lYovi'g (&) 
 
 (name of a city) 
 
 f.W(JVV (u) 
 
 (wooden tower) 
 
 o (pfitiy 
 
 louse 
 
 TO VtXTCCO 
 
 nectar 
 
 1} atiy (/?) 
 
 vein 
 
 d ovv$ (x) 
 
 nail, talon 
 
 1} alo$ (y) 
 
 Jiame 
 
 o ooTviE, (y) 
 
 quail 
 
 CfOJQ 
 
 thief 
 
 TO ov&ap (T) 
 
 udder 
 
 TO (fojg (T) 
 
 light 
 
 d ncuuv (d) 
 
 paean 
 
 d %dkvi}j (ft) 
 
 steel 
 
$ 56.] IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 61 
 
 d nt'vijS (i) poor man r t %t\idwv (o) swallow 
 
 6 Tiiva't- (x) tablet o f fj\v goose 
 
 o 7ioi(.o}v (f) shepherd t] %&wv earth 
 
 ?/ miyvt, (y) wing r, yiwv (o) snow 
 
 r t Ttzi/l (/) yb/rf >/ '/kv.ftvg (()) military robe 
 
 o pig (ir) nose o i/'o () starling 
 
 (lv) Salamis r, MI<< visage. 
 
 II. Examples of such as have a voiu$ before the termination of 
 the case, and are more or less contracted. 
 
 TO 
 
 uv&os 
 
 flower 
 
 o oosug 
 
 mule 
 
 
 > 
 
 Borons 
 
 grape 
 
 TO b'oog 
 
 mountain 
 
 
 TO 
 
 ytvos 
 
 race 
 
 ri oyig 
 
 sight, vision 
 
 
 r t ; 
 
 /ivvs 
 
 jaw bone 
 
 l] TlttVoj 
 
 persuasion 
 
 
 TO 
 
 oxc'iiag 
 
 cover 
 
 Tl&tXVS 
 
 ax (see 51. 
 
 2.) 
 
 9< 
 
 favg (<}) 
 
 oak 
 
 TO TltTlcQt, 
 
 pepper 
 
 
 I 
 
 nntvg 
 
 horseman 
 
 r t TiiTvg 
 
 pine 
 
 
 TO 
 
 '/.OUtlt 
 
 gum 
 
 t] TiohjOts 
 
 poetry 
 
 
 >} - 
 
 4t]TOJ 
 
 Latona 
 
 i] 7t(jaig 
 
 action 
 
 
 / 
 
 tctvTig 
 
 prophet 
 
 GTU%vg 
 
 ear 
 
 
 fHL\} (l') 
 
 mouse 
 
 1} (fvaig 
 
 nature. 
 
 
 56. IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Irregularity in the declension of nouns, as in the conjugation 
 of verbs, has its origin for the most part in the existence of a 
 twofold form of the same word. It is frequently the case that the 
 Greek language, particularly in the ancient and poetical dialect, 
 has words of several terminations and forms of inflection^ while 
 the signification remains the same ; as AT^T^Q and Ar^i^TOu. 
 Ceres ; dv.y.Qvov and d'axrjv tear. This latter form is older. 
 
 2. Occasionally, moreover, one form remained in use in one 
 case and one in another; and thus a word became a true anoma- 
 lon ; see below Zf vg, yvvr h vdw^ &c. But often both forms con- 
 
<32 IRREGULAR DECLENSION. [ 50. 
 
 tinued in use in the same case, as vlog son, G. vtou and vi(6, and 
 such an instance is called by the grammarians an abundans. 
 
 3. When both forms suppose one nominative, from which they 
 variously descend, the word is called a Heteroclite, as when Oldi- 
 uovg makes in the G. Oldinodog and Oidinov. When however 
 one of the forms supposes a different obsolete nominative, it is 
 called a Metaplasm, as OvetQOv dream, Gen. ortigQv and ov*/pro, 
 from the obsolete ovftQag. 
 
 4. The following words, of which some are Heteroclites and 
 some Metaplasms, are worthy of particular note for the irregulari- 
 ty of their declensions. 
 
 1. ' Avr\Q man belongs to the class of words like naryy ( 47), 
 hut it admits the syncope in all increasing cases, with an insertion 
 of 6 '( 19 Rem. 1), as avfyog, avdgi, uvdga, w avep. PI. avdptg, 
 avdyon', uvfiyaGiv, Swdgag. The poets, not Attic, make use of the 
 original form of the genitive pvtpog, &c. 
 
 2. Kvwv dog) xvvog, xvvi, xvvcc, cJ xvov. PL xv*t$ xvvwv, xv- 
 a/, xvvccg. 
 
 3. IIvv) 77, a place in Athens, in the old writers nvxvog, nvxvi, 
 nvxva, afterwards also nvvxog, &c. 
 
 4. JC;/^, ?J, hand, %siQog, in the. G. D. dual %tQ'o?v, and the D. 
 pi. %tQGi* By the poets also ^fpo?, %tQi. 
 
 5. &Qi'i hair has TQt,%6q, &c. D. pi. &QI%I, according to 18. 3. 
 
 6. Ovg, TO, ear, G. ahrd?, &c. G. pi. arco/, D. pi. cJa/i/. 
 
 7. Tctoa, TO, mi7A:, G. yAaxro?, D. ycfAaxr*. 
 
 8. " TdwQ, TO, 'water, and ffxcJo, TO, ,/ftA, have G. vdaros, axa- 
 ro'?, &c. D. pi. vdaatr, &e. 
 
 9. JToVu, TO', fcnee, and 0*0(>v, TO, 5joear, have G. yovctTog, doQa- 
 Tog, &c. D. pi. yovaoi, &c. There is also an ancient genitive 
 and dative, fopo'?, dopi, from o^o'^u. Ion. yovvaios, dovQarog, &c. 
 Epic yovvog, dovgog, PI. TO yovvu, dovgu, &c. 
 
 10. &i fits, y, justice, ^Themis, G. in the ancient and epic form 
 St'fMGTog, &LC. afterwards also QtfMTog and Siuidag. Ionic 
 
 11. MuQxvg witness, [lUQTVQog, &c. A. puQTVQa. and 
 D. pi. 
 
56.] IRREGULAR DECLENSIOX. 63 
 
 12. JVav?, i], ship, Ionic vqvg, is thus declined by the Attics, 
 G. vfiag (for i/ao'e 26 Rem. 7.) D. vr}'i\ A. /ai^, N". pi. v^fg, G. 
 vtwv, D. I'uvaiv, A. i/aus. (See /?oue 50. 3.) The lonians have 
 sometimes vi]6g &c. sometimes vfog &,c. and in the A. v i]v. and vim. 
 
 13. A'ktis, ij, &ey, G. xA$o's, has in the accusative xA*7da, but 
 more commonly xA*u>, and in the plural xAf?&?, xA^/^aj?, contr. 
 
 14. Z6t>? Jupiter, G. ^otf, D. ^fo/, A. ^//, V. ZFV, by the 
 poets also Zrjvog, Zqvt, Zqva, from the obsolete nominatives Al 
 and Zrjv. 
 
 15- Pvvri woman, yffcaxo?, yvvai'/.i, yvvulxa, ta yvvui. PI. 
 pwaixeg, ywaatwvi ywta|/, from the obsolete 
 
 1. To the Heteroclites are also to be added those in */, 
 which are declined according to the first and third declensions ; 
 especially proper names like #ea?7i which makes commonly G. 
 0ccAou, ^or by the Ionics with a change of the accent, 0aAfco,) 
 D. 9ulr t , Ace. SuKfiv, but also Qcdyrog &c. This holds of oth- 
 ers in the accusative alone. All compound proper names, which 
 have (os in the genitive, make the accusative in 7; and j?i/, a< 
 ^wxpar^?, G. (*o?) oi', Ace. Zcux^arij and SuxQjmjV' ^ n like 
 manner v ^r^ Mars, G. *^gto$ which is never contracted, D. 
 "^/p*r, v ^4gei, Ace. v ^; and "AQi}v. On the other hand many 
 words in ^ff, which belong to the first declension, are formed by 
 the Ionics in the accusative singular and plural like the third, a* 
 TOV dfOTiOTfct, PI. Tovg df(J7iOTfug, from faonoiijG -ov, and JfU- 
 Tictdfa from &ftlTui$ijs -ov* 
 
 2. Another sort of Heteroclites are those in *, which in their 
 inflection ^sometimes do, and sometimes do not, assume a conso- 
 nant ; as ijjiTfvig anger, G. pyviOG and ^vtdo?' o, ij oovig bird. 
 generally ogvl&og &c. but also PI. OQVIIS, 
 
 * All names formed like patronymics, as Mi\Tiadi]?, 
 ice. and most others not compounded like 2ojxpttTi] &c. viz. 
 igi]G, JTvyij?. &c. are declined in the Greek throughout according to 
 the first declension, with the exception of the lonicism mentioned in the 
 text. The Latins, on the contrary, form them a^coroinsr to the third de- 
 < tension, as Mil'iadis. Xerri.*. &r. 
 
64 IRREGULAR DECLENSION'. 50. 
 
 3. The nominative endings in to? and wv also exhibit a vari- 
 ety .of changes, viz. 
 
 a) Norn. co and o?, as tj a'Acof threshing floor, G. co, N. pi. a'Ao*. 
 
 b) " cog, G. cu and coo?, as Mivtag. 
 
 c) " w?, G. euro?, which also sometimes drop the r. The 
 word o ftfgtox? sts>ea, 'tfipwTi, 'idywru, has also another form with 
 the Attics, viz. TW irJ'pw, TOV i'ttyco, which may be regarded as a 
 contraction like xipart, xf'pa, but which also corresponds with the 
 forms of the second declension Attic. The word d yf'Ao>ff -WTO? 
 laughter has in the accusative /Acora and y&wv. So also o /{Hoc 
 ypcoTog skin makes the dative /pw, but only in the proverbial 
 phrase J-v #pco closely* The lonians make /pw* /pooV, &c, 
 
 d) Nom. co and coy. In these words, the double form occurs 
 even in the nominative, as o rvcpaig -co, and Tvqo'> -wi/o?, whirl- 
 wind- 
 
 4. The word was is regularly declined according to the se- 
 cond declension, but -receives also the following forms of the third 
 declension, particularly in the Attic writers, viz. G. viiog, D. 
 viti. Ace. vita. Dual vitf, vhoiv. PI. vlff^ vlf-wv, vlt'otv^ viia$ 
 and vitTi. 
 
 5. Qfdlvdgov tree and vtyivov lily, there are datives plural <feV- 
 dQtai, y.()ivGi, and also other cases, which suppose a nominative 
 singular in og of the third declension. 
 
 6. It is also an instance of Metaplasm, when sometimes from 
 masculines in 03 of the second declension plurals in a are formed, 
 as r &ctym, f/ex, OTad/ia, a7ra, from o fcopos fetter, vyo'g yoke. 
 OTCt&fio? balance, alrogfood. 
 
 7. Some words of more recent or foreign origin have a very 
 simple declension, as^ &drg, G % CM/?, D. CPUjJ, A. fl>dijv. V/;- 
 
 G. 'jaov D. 'lynov A. ' 
 
 8. An anomaly of a very curious kind exists in the epic dialect, 
 in the very common final syllable cf.iv and cpi, which is used in- 
 stead of the dative or genitive singular or plural, being appended 
 to words in the following manner, viz. OTparog army, (JTpaxocft,' 
 )>t] head, y,f(fcxX^cfi' ft la violence. fih]yiv' OTqfto? -fo? breast. 
 
57, 58.] DEFECTIVES AND INDECLINABLE^. 65 
 
 ^ 57. DEFECTIVES AND INDECLINABLES. 
 
 1. Defective nouns are chiefly such as, in their nature, cannot 
 well occur in more than one number, particularly the following 
 plurals ; TO. tyxara entrails, ol tTyaiai trade winds, and the names 
 of festivals, as TU diovvaia the feast of Bacchus. 
 
 2. Certain words are defective, which only occur in particular 
 connexions ; such are the following, viz. 
 
 The neuters ovag vision, and VTIUQ real appearance, only used 
 as nominative and accusative. 
 
 To oqtkos and TO f^og, advantage, only used as nominative, as 
 ii av rifA.iv 0(f.f\og firj- of what advantage wouldst thou be to us ? 
 
 Jfcdr,, instead of fiuaydkiy, shoulder, in the phrase vnd /uAi? 
 under the arm. 
 
 3. Lastly there are nouns defective in particular cases ; such 
 in prose are the following, viz. 
 
 G. TOV UQVOZ of the lamb, D. UQVI, A. aQva, PI. aQvt$, D. 
 UQVUGI,, all which are cases of an obsolete nominative APPHN, 
 Gen. APPE^SiOZ, and by syncope agvog. The want of a nom- 
 inative is supplied by 6 dfivog. 
 
 Uptafivs an old man has in this signification only Ace. nQtofivv, 
 V. nQtofiv. In the signification of ambassador it has only ol TIQI- 
 o^fi? &c. D nptapiai- The cases here wanting are borrowed 
 from nQf(J^VTr t g an old man, and -xQSGptvxrig an ambassador. 
 
 4. Indeclinables are for the most part only some foreign names, 
 as TO naG%a Easter, and among them the names of the letters of 
 the alphabet, as crAgr</, fiv, &c. Of pure Greek words, most of the 
 cardinal numbers are also indeclinable. ( 70.) 
 
 58. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. There are in Greek, as in Latin, adjectives both of two and 
 of three endings ; in the former, the masculine and feminine gen- 
 der have a common form. 
 
 2. The feminine of adjectives of three endings always follows 
 
 the first declension of nouns. 
 
 9 
 
66 ADJECTIVES. [ 59. 
 
 3. The neuter has in th,e nominative, and of course in all the 
 Jike cases (see 33. Rem. 5), always one form ; which, however, in 
 the remaining cases is uniformly declined like the masculine. 
 
 REMARK. It is therefore only necessary, in order to decline the 
 adjective correctly, to know all the parts of the nominative, and 
 the genitive of the masculine. 
 
 59. ADJECTIVES IN 0$. 
 
 1. Most numerous are the adjectives in og, which correspond 
 to the Latin in us, and have, like those, either three endings, viz. 
 masc. og, fern, y or , neut. ov, or two endings, viz. com. og. 
 neut. of. 
 
 NOTE. For the few with the neuter in o, see the pronoun 74. 
 
 2. The greater part are of three endings, and these, when a 
 vowel or Q precedes, have in the fern, a, G. ag, otherwise always 
 ?;. E.g. yttog, Cf-i^r], qlkov, dear, friend-, kvQMog,^, oV 
 
 ?;, oi', dreadful. But also, q)tt.iog,(pi,kie(, <f>i\t,ov, friendly ; 
 
 gog, tpa, tQOv,free; nvQQog, <x, 6v, red like fire; and other examples 
 
 are doKJTfQog left, dt,i6 right, dqAOG plain, IQV&QOG red, 
 
 Giog wonderful, &f7os divine, xovqos light, hews smooth, 
 
 white, (.IOVOG alone, aog)0$ wise, uxA?;po hard. 
 
 REM. 1. But those in oo have ;, as oydoo? the eighth, 
 $00?, swift, dor]. But if Q precede, these also have , as a 
 frequent, d&Qoa. The feminine in a is long. With respect to the 
 accent see above 34 Rem. III. 
 
 3. Of two endings are such as these, viz. o and t] 
 
 rtot Greek, iiav%o? calm, Ti&otaGO? tame, and in the Attics many 
 others also, which are commonly of three endings. 
 
 4. In an especial manner belong to the adjectives of two end- 
 ings all compounds, which, without any particular derivational 
 ending, terminate in o? ; aso', r\ qdotfxvosfond of children, 
 rovog barytone, nohvqayoz 'voracious, tvqxavog harmonious, 
 irrational, u^yog for atgyog idle, dnO'/Mjoo? disinherited, 
 whitish, although the simple is kevxog, r,, QV. 
 
0.] ADJECTIVES. - CONTRACTS. 67 
 
 Also adjectives formed in this manner from compound verbs, 
 as dui<f>Q$o?, vnrjxooq, from diuqtQw, VTiaxovoj, &c. 
 
 5. All adjectives derived from other words, by the manifest 
 addition of the derivational endings xo, log, vog, po, TO?, *oe, as 
 uaviwog from puvng, dfdog and dttvog from AEIQ, (ftavfQog 
 from qalvaj, nXtxTog from TiA^xw, %piiotog from /oi'ffoV, are, at 
 least in prose, of three endings. 
 
 On the other hand, among the adjectives in f<oc, tog, tiog. uiog. 
 are several of common gender. 
 
 REM. 2. When an adjective has one of these terminations, and 
 is also compounded, a conflict of the different analogies ensues. 
 with respect to which the following is to be observed. 
 
 a) The compounds in xog have not their immediate origin in a 
 composition, but are only derived from compound words ; they 
 have there fore always three endings, as tTitdtixrixog, rj+ov, from 
 indtfixrvfii, tvdtuiiiovixo?, r t , 6v, from tvdaipwv. 
 
 b) Other verbals, when they are first compounded as adjec- 
 tives, follow the fourth rule above; as nvtvaiog, t], 6v, from nWw, 
 &GnvtvGTO<s, oi>, inspired ; noudevTOQ, r\, oi/, from nutdivot, ctn&i- 
 dfvroG, ov, untaught When, however, they are derived from 
 compound verbs, the usage varies between the two formations. 
 
 60. CONTRACTS IN OV. 
 
 \ . Some adjectives in ooc are contracted, viz. 
 
 a) Those of common gender, which are formed by composi- 
 tion from contracts of the second declension, like vovg^ nhovg, as 
 fv fOO, f woo unfavourably disposed, contr. evvovc, euvovv, G. tvvov, 
 &c. The neuter plural in o remains unaltered in this form, as 
 r avoa from avovg senseless. 
 
 b) The numerical ideas VAo'o?, dmkoog, ;, Of, &,c. simple, 
 twofold, &c. which have the peculiarity, that they uniformly con- 
 tract or} and 6 a into i] and a. E. g. 
 
 Sing. diTihoog, din\6r h dmhoov. Plur. SmKoot, dinhocu, 
 contr. diTtlovs, dink?}, dmKovv. cpntr. dt,n\ol, 
 
 * With these numerical adjectives must not be confounded the com- 
 pounds of Tilov? navigation, as 6, // 7iAof? unnavigable, tvnlOV$, <fec. 
 neut. ovv, "neut. pi. 0. 
 
68 ADJECTIVES. [$ 61, 62. 
 
 2. Some adjectives also in fog, expressing a substance or mate- 
 rial, are contracted, with a transposition of the accent j e. g. 
 
 contr. 0vaou, #pi>c% ;fpv<roi;i>, G. ov, ijff, oiJ, &c. 
 
 When another vowel or @ precedes, the feminine is contracted 
 not into *J, but into a, as epieog woollen, contr. Ipfovg, Ipea, egtovv 
 dpyvpeoe silver, contr. tigyvpovg, dyyvpa, upyvQOVv. 
 
 The neuter plural has always , as T %QV<sea contr. #pf #<*, 
 like oarta o<rr. See above 36. 
 
 61. ADJECTIVES IN <?. 
 
 Adjectives in to?, resembling the second Attic declension, are 
 in general of common gender, as o and r t i'Afw?, TO i'fawv, gracious. 
 So too K>/pcug worthy, and tvffots fruitful. 
 
 REM. 1. Some of these form the neuter also in eo, as dyyQtos 
 not growing old, neut. uyJigtav and uyrjpa). For the abundants, 
 which make in the gen. to and toro?, see below 63 Rem. 2. 
 
 REM 2. Of three endings there is only one simple, viz. TiAe'to? 
 full, nhia, 7iA*W, neut. pi. nKta. For awe see below in 64. 3. 
 
 62. 
 
 The remaining forms of adjectives of three endings are the 
 following, viz. 
 
 1. v?, fia, v. yhvxvc;, ykvxt7a, yKvxv, sweet, 
 (G. eog) G. masc. and neut. 
 
 Examples, fiaQvg heavy, y?pa#uff slow, @Qa%vg short, tvpvs broad, 
 dvg sweet, o|f? sharp, toxf? swift. 
 
 2. ft?, tooct, tv. xctQitts, %ccQi{GG(x, ^Mp/f ]/, charming, 
 (G. evros) G. %aQlevTO$. 
 
 Examples, alfiaTOfi? bloody, vh'jfig woody, fvpcoeig rusty. 
 
 3. aff, ai/a, /. /ttf'Aa?, i*tkawa, ju&uv, black, 
 (G. avoff) G. p&avog. 
 
 The only other is rcxAa? wretched- 
 
63.] ADJECTIVES. 69 
 
 4. The following separate examples, viz. 
 
 Ttgyv, riQfivu, iioev, G. fvog, tender. 
 
 txwv, fxoJffa, txo?, G. ovTog, willing. 
 Corap. ccVxwi/ commonly axcov, axouaa, xov, unwilling. 
 
 -nag, naoa, TICO/, G. nuvTog, all, </ie whole. 
 Comp. GV{47iag, a 
 
 REM. 1. The neuter -Tiav is long only as a monosyllable ; in 
 composition it is, agreeably to analogy, short ; as ci^ag, ccjiaau, 
 ajiav, all together. With respect to the accent on the genitive 
 and dative plural, TIUVTOJV, naai, see above 43 Rem. 3. 
 
 REM. 2. A part of the participles are declined like Ixwv and 
 TT. For these, all of which have three endings, see below 
 88. 8. 
 
 REM. 3. From the adjectives in fig arise several^ contracts, 
 fiat*, r,fv, being contracted into r ( g, rjooa, rjv, and 6fig 
 >fv, into ovg, OVGGCC, ovv, viz. 
 
 rifiqaaa, TL^V^ G. Tiiujvrog, from rifiyfig honoured, &c. 
 >vg, fAfKnovoGu, pdirrovv, G. [itt.iTOivTog, from fifbrottg 
 full of honey, &c. (See 43 Rem. III.) 
 
 63. ADJECTIVES OF ONE OR TWO ENDINGS. 
 
 1. The remaining forms of adjectives in two endings, all ac- 
 cording to the third declension, are the following. 
 
 a) ??, neut. fg aKrfirjg, dhy&t'g, true, 
 (G. tog, contr. ovg) G. aty&ovg. 
 
 Examples, fiJTiOfjirig decorous, axoipyg exact, ayfvvr t g degener- 
 ate, av&ddyg proud, yfiodqg earthy, ftriQHudrig bestial. 
 
 b) (ov, neut. ov. f^frjficav, tAfijuov compassionate, 
 (G. ovog) G. Ikfrn 
 
 Examples, diivpwv with long f, blameless, a7iady t u(av unoccu- 
 pied, euyvfaptav well disposed. 
 
 c) ig, neut. i. i'doig, 'idgi, skilful, G. i'doiog. 
 (G. 10$) 
 
 There are very few examples of this last kind. 
 
 d) The following simple word, viz. cipQrjv or tigarjv, neut, 
 aggtv, uoafv, G. uygtvog, uyafvog, male. 
 
70 ADJECTIVES. [ 60. 
 
 2. Besides these, there are adjectives formed from a substan- 
 tive merely by composition, and retaining as closely as possible the 
 termination and declension of the substantive, as may best be 
 seen in the examples. These are all of common gender, and have 
 a neuter, when analogy admits of one ; e. g. 
 
 tv%aoig, tv^gif G. wog, from jj #p, nog. 
 adaxQvg, (xdcwQv, G. vog, from TO daugv, vpg. 
 Sometimes, however, there is in the. termination a change of 
 7? into w, and s into o, as from naryo, tpog, comes UTIKTMQ, op, G. 
 &Gi fatherless ; from tyQriv, (ppwog, understanding, comes aajcpQWv, 
 ov, G. oi'O?, intelligent. 
 
 REM. 1. Compounds ofnovg,nodog,foot, regularly follow their 
 substantive, as dlnovg, dlnodog, twofooted ; but in the neuter they 
 have dinovv (as tvvovg, ivvovv, from the contracted second declen- 
 sion), which they decline according to the general rule, like the 
 masculine. ( 58. 3.) 
 
 REM. 2. Compounds of yt'lwg, (orog, laughter, commonly for- 
 sake the declension of this substantive, and follow the Attic second 
 declension ( 61) ; as also those formed from xepug, xtQ(xTog,horn, 
 with a change of the into co. Both, however, have also the 
 genitive ooiog, as q> do y fling, dixfpwg, neut. wi>, G. o> and wro?. 
 (See 56 Rem. 3- c.) 
 
 3. When analogy does not admit of the formation of a neuter, 
 it remains an adjective of one ending, which, however, is only 
 masculine and feminine, and not also neuter, as it is in Latin ; thus 
 o and YI auaig, dog, childless, from na7g naidog, also o and t] /w- 
 
 OS, long handed, from #*/p, &c. 
 
 REM. 3. There are some common adjectives of one ending in 
 17 ff, TfTOQ, (aoyrjg,^f.uvdr^g)- in co^, onog, (dyvwg)', and in ^ and 
 i//, (^Afc, xo?' [A0jvv', %og' aiyihifj, nog, &,c.) 
 
 REM. 4. There are several common adjectives in a,g, G. v.dog, 
 as qvyag fugitive, loyug chosen, &c. and a few in ig and vg, G. 
 idog, vdog, as avuhxig, tnrjlve. Commonly, however, those in ag 
 and is, G. dog, are only feminine, and become, by the omission of 
 the substantive, substantives themselves, as ij*ftaii>d$ (sc. yvvy) the 
 Bacchante, y nuTQig (sc. yy) native country. 
 
 ^ REM. 5. Several adjectives also are only masculines ; so par- 
 ticularly ytgwv, oviog, old ; nptafivg old ( 57. 3) ; ntvy?, m'v- 
 t;ro?, poor ; and fcXotTi$ voluntary, ywvv.dug noble &,c. according 
 to the first declension. 
 
63.] 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 71 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Sin?. 
 
 N. 
 
 G. Goqov 
 
 D. Goqu~> 
 
 A. Goqo'v 
 
 V. G0<pt 
 
 Go<pog wse. 
 
 (JOOJ> 
 GOCfOV 
 
 GO (fit] 
 
 Goqov 
 
 Dual 
 
 N.A.V. aogtfti 
 G. D. GOffolv 
 
 aogta 
 Gocpaiv 
 
 Plur. 
 N. 
 
 G. GO q o)i> 
 
 D. GOffo^z Goyu7g 
 A. G0(fov$ 
 
 V. 
 
 aoq.cc 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 v. 
 
 Goqcx, 
 
 N. 
 
 G. 
 
 D. juaxpco 
 
 A. paxpov 
 
 pog ficcxpu [HKXpov 
 
 iiuxoy 
 
 N.A.V. 4axpa> [ictxoct 
 
 G. D. 
 
 Plur. - 
 
 N. |Uxpot juaxpa/ 
 
 G. fiaxpojv 
 
 D. fiaxpo7g fiaxpa7g 
 
 A. paxpovg puxpag /uaxpa 
 
 V. fiaxpol iiuxpai /uaxpa 
 
 iV.fOJ? gracious. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. A. V. i';.f w 
 
 G. D. 
 
 P/wr 
 
 N. 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 A. 
 
 V. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 
 G. ykvxt'o? 
 
 D. yAL'X6/ 
 
 A. yAvxvi/ 
 
 V. yAvxv 
 
 Dual. 
 N.A.V. 
 G. D. 
 
 t 1 xv 
 
 yAvx/s 
 ylvxflq 
 
 yAt'X6?a*/ yAvxv 
 
 %aplfig charming. 
 
 N. %ct$tti? 
 G. %<tQltvTO$ - 
 ft D. %apii>Ti, - 
 
 j A. 
 | V. 
 
 -ofGoa -oitv 
 
 -Qieaaccv -ofv 
 
 Dual 
 -y.ftu -x N.A.V. %aolfvi -I'GOCC 
 
 -xi'oiv G. D. yaoitvxQiv -ZGGUIV -tvxoir 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. yi.vxitg fig -y.flcti -xtu 
 
 G. yAt'x^cui/ -xfio^i/ -xto 
 
 D. yliuxtGt -xflaig -xtG 
 
 A. ykvxtag fig -xftag -xt'a 
 
 V. ylvxt'fg f?c -xt7nt -v.iv. 
 
 Plur. 
 N. 
 -xfoji' G. 
 
 D. %v.Qifi,Gi, -pit'oGcttg -(. 
 A. yctpifVTfg -pitGGag - 
 
 V. '/CtplfVTfg -plfGGttt -QltVTV. 
 
72 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 R63. 
 
 Sing. 
 N.^ 
 G. ^tif 
 
 De/Uf 
 
 A. p&ava 
 V. 
 
 /MiAaj/ 
 
 fjiflaivy 
 
 [ttkctivav (ttKav 
 
 Dual 
 
 N.A.V. ft&ave /M;A/j/ /w^'Aai/^ 
 
 G. D. uthdvow -laivaw -\dvoiv 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N.pt 
 
 G. fA.t\nv(av 
 
 D. 
 
 A. 
 
 V. 
 
 fAtkcClVUl, (A&UVK 
 
 s^- 
 
 willing. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 D. t'j 
 
 A. txovra 
 
 V. 
 
 txovaa t%ov 
 
 txovatjg txdvzog 
 
 tXOVGT) 6X0 VT I 
 
 tXOUGMV fXOV 
 
 N.A.V. 
 G. D. IxovTdiv -ovGaiv -OVTUIV 
 
 Plur. / 
 
 N. (XOVTfg tXOVGat, IxOVTCC 
 
 G. tXOVTQJV ixOVGWV tXOVTWV 
 
 D. tXOVGl tXOVGUig tXOVGl 
 
 A. fxoiTft^ 6xoi'a$ Ixovra 
 
 V. txovitg IXOVGCU txovia 
 
 N. Tiag 
 
 G. TTMVZOe 
 
 D. Tcavtl 
 A. TiavTct 
 
 V. 71 
 
 Tia? a//. 
 
 Ti(Ja 
 TiaG^g 
 
 TEttdt? 
 
 naGav 
 
 71CCV 
 
 navTog 
 
 navTi 
 
 nuv 
 
 Dual 
 
 N.A.V. nvtvie TIUGCC navrf 
 
 G. D. navroiv nuGKiv TIQIVTOIV 
 
 Plur. f 
 N. navxtg 
 
 D. 7ia^ 
 A. nctVTctg 
 V. ntxvTtg 
 
 N"- 
 G. .., 
 D, 
 
 A. aj~ v ^ - . 
 
 V. Ct(.lV[40V 
 
 nciGttt, 
 naGO)V 
 TiaGcug 
 
 mxvta 
 
 TIQLGVU, 
 
 naGt, 
 navTa 
 
 TlCiVTCi 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 V. dkrj&tg 
 
 Dual 
 
 N.A.V. 
 
 G. D. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. 
 
 G. 
 
 D.; 
 
 A. 
 
 V. dkij&t'fg 
 
 ovg 
 el 
 
 dhri&tg 
 
 oiv 
 
 MV 
 
 Dual 
 
 ufAVfiov N. A. V. 
 G. D. 
 
 ct/KiSyi wv blameless. 
 
 Plural 
 
 rvrv ^t.- N. apvfioitg 
 dflVfJiovotv G. afivfiovwv 
 
 D. a^iv(AOGii 
 
 V. ttftvftovtg 
 
64.] ADJECTIVES. 75 
 
 
 
 td'ots skilful. 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 N. WQI? 
 
 'idot, 
 
 N. A. V. idoif 
 
 N. idytfS 
 
 Id Q tot. 
 
 G. i'dotog 
 
 
 G. D. idc)iot,v 
 
 G. i do 10)1 
 
 i/ 
 
 D. tdou 
 
 
 . 
 
 D. 'idfjiot 
 
 
 A. i'doiv - 
 
 id 01 
 
 
 A. idpia*, 
 
 : /'${) 
 
 V. Woi 
 
 
 
 V. tdfjug 
 
 i'^ 
 
 64. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. The two adjectives ficyaS great, andnokvg much, many, make 
 from this simple form, in the nominative and accusative singular 
 only, masc. {tt'yag, f^tyav -nohvg, nol.vv' and neut. /ut/a, no\v. 
 All the rest, with the whole feminine gender, is derived from the 
 obsolete forms MJEF4AO2, iy, ov. and TioAAo'?, r, oV. E. g. 
 
 N. fttyas t ufyukr] 
 G. fiffalov pttyalijg 
 
 D. ( *yAo) 
 
 A. fiiyctv nf/dkyv ut'ya 
 
 no).v? ^ 
 notia 
 
 The dual and plural are regularly formed as from adjectives 
 in 0, viz: Mf/cUcu, , or p^aAoi, at, a' TioAAo/, a/, a, &c. 
 
 REMARK. The forms TioAAo^, TioAAoV, are Ionian ; and the regu- 
 lar forms of :roAt; are found in the /?ic dialect, as nofa'u^ 
 
 2. TTpwo? mi'W, mcefc, is in this form used only in the masculine 
 and neuter singular. The feminine and the neuter plural are bor- 
 rowed from a form TIQUVS (Ion. v^rjvg) used in the dialects ; ac- 
 cordingly we find fern- 7roa??a, neut. pi. TiQatct. We also find in 
 the nom. pi. masc. both TIOKCI and Tipc:;??, G. only nQatow. 
 
 3. aws safe, contr. from 2AO2, has from this form only awg 
 of the common gender, Ace. and neut. aoj y, Ace. pi. ao~)$. Rarely 
 the fern. sing, and neut. pi. oa. All the rest is from acoo?, a, ov. 
 
 4. Defectives are chiefly these, viz. ygovdoe, ^, ov,' vanished, 
 gone, which is used only in the nominative of all the genders and 
 numbers; norvta venerable, sovereign, used only in the feminine. 
 
 10 
 
74 ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. [ 65, 66. 
 
 $ 65. DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 
 
 72 1. The Greeks have the three degrees of comparison, Posi- 
 tive, Comparative, and Superlative, and a separate form for each. 
 This form is common to the three genders, which are distinguish- 
 ed only by their appropriate termination. 
 
 2. The most common form of comparison is -regog, a, ov for 
 the comparative, and -raxog, r), ov for the superlative. 
 
 3. Adjectives in og drop their g before this termination, if a 
 long syllable precede, and they retain their o unchanged ; e. g. 
 
 fit'ftaiog Jinn, 
 
 lG%VQOg Strong, 
 
 TiiOTog faithful, niOTOTfpog, 
 Also after mutes before liquids ( 7. 10.) in prose, as cyodgog ve- 
 hement, G(f.od@OTaTog. 
 
 4. If a short syllable precede, the o is changed into CD ; e. g. 
 G0(f'6g wise, ooyojTeoog, Tctrog 
 xaioiog timely, xaigiojTfoog, rarog 
 
 secure 
 
 REM. 1. Some adjectives in og, particularly in the Attic writ- 
 ers, instead of o or co, take ai or g or ig, as f^'oof in the midst, 
 strong, tQQwiitvtOTeQog' hahog loquacious* 
 
 REM. 2. Some in utpg wholly omit the o, as ycpuwe old, yt- 
 
 ifQog. So too nulaiog, G%o\cuog, nfQaiog. 
 
 REM. 3. q&og dear, friend, commonly does the same, as yi7- 
 
 og, or inserts ai, as qtdaiTfpog, rurog. 
 
 REM. 4. The contracts in tog, ovg, contract the (w into CD, as 
 og, noyqvpojTaTog, those in oog, ovg, on the other 
 hand, take an tg, in the uncontracted form, according to Rem. 1, as 
 dnkoog, 7iAof'arTog, and hence contracted ankovg, 
 
 ^ 66. ADJECTIVES IN lff, ff, 1?ff, fl>g. 
 
 1. Of other adjectives, those in vg merely drop the g, as 
 broad, evQvriQog^ xuvog. 
 
I 67.] PEGREES OF COMPARISON. 75 
 
 2. The same holds of those in ag, G. ai>og, which however 7.; 
 here resume the v which had been dropped before the g, as f.it- 
 lag black, G. (.i&avog ftfhxvttQOG. 
 
 3. Those in yg and tig shorten this termination into fg ; e. g. 
 
 dfy&tjg true, G. tog, 
 nt'vrjg poor, G. 7?ro?, 
 %a@itig charming, G- tvrog, 
 An exception is iptvSr^g false, G. 0?, 
 
 4. The other adjectives take most frequently toxtgog, more 
 rarely iortgog, and undergo the same change before it, as before 
 the termination of the case; as aqocov irrational, G. aqrpof-o?. 
 compar. uq$ov-t6TtQog' ajpKaf rapacious, G. cioTiuy-og, compar. 
 
 67. COMPARISON BY IWV, IGTO$. 
 
 1. A much less frequent form of comparison is the following, 
 viz. com. -ton/, neut. -lov, for the comparative, and -iarog, 7;, ov for 
 the superlative. 
 
 NOTE. For the mode of declension, see above in 55 i4tlcov. 
 
 2. This form of comparison is adopted as follows, viz. 
 
 a) By some adjectives in vg, as ydug sweet, ?J&W, ^diaxog. 
 
 b) By some in Qog, with the omission of the Q, as ala^og base, 
 
 3. In some comparatives of this form the preceding consonant 
 is, with the i, changed into a a or TT ; thus Ta%vg swift, sup. TU- 
 %t,GTog, has this for its most common form of comparison, and also 
 takes a & in the beginning; as ftdaocov, neut. ftaooov, Att. #r- 
 twv , &UTTOV. Hence it appears that the T in id%vg had its origin 
 in &, according to 18. 
 
 REM. This form of comparison always has the accent on the 
 antepenult, if the quantity of the last syllable admits it ; as ydvc. 
 neut. idio 
 
75 ADJECTIVES. 1RREG. COMPARISON. [ 68. 
 
 74 REM. 2. Of the adjectives in vg only tjdvg and iu%vg adopt 
 this form commonly ; most of them adopt the regular form I/T^QO? 
 and VTCCTO?, and a few only take the other form, particularly in 
 the poets. 
 
 REM. 3. Of those in QO$ the following belong here, viz. ai- 
 oyoos base, IjffrQOS hostile, olxTpog sad, xvd@6s glorious. But in 
 these the other form is also in use, and of OIKTQOS the compara- 
 tive in low is not used. 
 
 REM. 4. Here too is to be reckoned [taxpog long, on account 
 of its forms of comparison paGvuv for fiaxiwv, superl. [AVJKIGTO?, 
 in which latter there is also a change of the vowel, so as to con- 
 form to TO pijxog length. More common, however, are the forms 
 
 68. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
 
 Several adjectives have quite an anomalous comparison, bv 
 which they derive the comparative and superlative degrees from 
 obsolete forms of the positive. Where there is more than one 
 form of comparison for one positive, each of the comparative 
 forms usually has one of the more definite significations of the pos- 
 itive, or is used by preference in particular connexions ; of which. 
 however, the single instances must be left to observation. 
 
 KX AMPLER. 
 
 Comp. Sup. 
 
 ay afro g good, ctficlvwv neut. -vov better api(JTO<s best 
 
 I. 
 
 75 In the elder poets the regular comparative corresponding to 
 p*(7ro? is still found, viz. apfiow,* and of xfjariGzog even tbe 
 positive y.ouiu\ Instead Q XQfloawv the lonians make 
 
 or 
 /.ori'tav commonly RwW, /.cj'i'oiog commonly 
 
 * Traces of the original positive degree may be -found in .^07??, the 
 name of the g:ort of war, and in the abstract aQtT?] rirf-ue. 
 
69.] DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 
 
 2. xaxo's bad, xaxtW 
 
 or 
 
 The form ijaawv has only the signification of worse, weaker, 
 more useless, and is always opposed to %Qtin:u>v. The superlative 
 ijxiaro? is little used ; though the neut. pi. rixuttct occurs fre- 
 quently as an adverb. 
 
 3. (ti'yas great, [Afifrjv (ion. /u&ui/) 
 
 4. /uxoo small, < Ikctaaajv, TTWV 
 
 5. ok/yog few, \ ptiMv 
 
 The ancient positive was EAAXYZ- The regolar forms 
 fiixgoifpoz -Turog are also us^d. 
 
 6^ 7TOAi' ?n?/c^, TT/.^ttoi/ or 7iA*W more, 7iA*/aro? tno5i. 
 The Attics in certain phrases use 7ite7v for the neut. 7i).(7oi>. 
 as :T/./J/ >; uuoiui. The lonians and Dorians contract thus, ftX&v 
 
 ' 
 
 7. xaAo? beautiful, y.uM.iwv 
 
 8. ftqdioq easy, yqoov (JUOTO?. 
 
 The lonians, who make ^tj'f'dtos in the positive, compare thus, 
 'wi', p//rjr(/s, from an obsolete positive (>'/, ' 
 
 9. tx^yfii'og painful, dt.ylwv 
 
 The regular form u/.'/fivoTfoo? -rro? is, however, more com- 
 mon in the masculine and feminine. 
 
 10. nintav ripe, 
 
 11. TllCOV fat, TTlOTfQO? 
 
 ^ 69. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 
 
 1. There are also defective comparisons, which have no pos- 
 itive ; and in this view we may regard some of the anomalous 
 comparisons given above, as IJTTCOV, xpflxTCov, Awdro?, &c. 
 
 2. To the class of defective comparisons may be referred the 76 
 adjectives derived from particles, and those which indicate sequence. 
 
78 NUMERALS. [ 70. 
 
 Most of them have other additional anomalies, to be learned hy 
 particular observation, viz. 
 
 g -rurog, from nh^oiov near ; as also in Latin, pro- 
 pe, propior, proximus. 
 
 g the former, prior, nQcurog the first, from npo before. 
 
 -rcsTog and vnttTog, higher, highest, from vntQ above. 
 O%aTog the last, from *| out of. 
 vaitpog -TKTog, the latter, the last. 
 
 REM. 1. In the poets, particularly the epic, many forms of 
 comparison of this kind are found, as qjtyTtyog, <ptptciTO$, also q&- 
 QiGiog, braver, better, which may be connected with the positive 
 ayatiog. In the same way may be considered as defective some 
 in iwv, iGTog, when there is a corresponding abstract substantive 
 in o?, as Qtyiwv more dreadful, xtpfiioiog most crafty, vtyiOTOQ 
 highest, from the substantives TO QtyoQ horror, xtydog cunning, 
 vijjog height. 
 
 - REM. 2. It is a case somewhat different, when from a substan- 
 tive used adjectively, degrees of comparison are formed, as hou- 
 @og friend, ha^OTaroQ the most intimate; xfa'nTrjg (gen. ou) thief, 
 most thievish. 
 
 70. NUMERALS. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 1. The cardinal fig one is thus declined: 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 N. fTg, [4 la, iv 
 
 G. tvog, [Mug, fvog, &c. 
 
 Here is to be observed the irregularity of the accent in /M/, f^ag, 
 {Ala, (4 lav- 
 
 From tig are formed, by composition with the negative parti- 
 ties ovdt and nydt, the negative adjectives, viz. 
 M. F. N. 
 
 ovdfig, ovdffAia, ovSev ) none 
 
 (.iridfLg, ftydtfjila, (widtv S 
 
 77 In the declension of these derivatives the accent of the primi- 
 tive is retained, as ovdwog, ovdf/uioig, &c. 
 
70.] NUMERALS. 79 
 
 2. The cardinal dvo two has of course the dual form, viz. N. 
 A. dvo, G. D. dvofv. 
 
 The Attics also said dvtiv, but only in the genitive. They 
 also use dvo indeclinabjy in the genitive and dative. The dual 
 both will be given below in 78. 
 
 3. The cardinal i^e7g three is thus declined : 
 
 M. & F. N. 
 
 N. TQ& TQtCt 
 
 G. TQltOV 
 
 D. TQlOl (v) 
 
 A. Tpt7$. TQ'HX 
 
 4. TtOGUQts or TtTTaQtg four. 
 
 M. & F. N. 
 
 N. TtaaapfS or xtTTUQtg 
 G. Tfoaagcov 
 
 D. Ttoaugai, or ziTTapai (v) 
 A. TiaoaQug rtoaapa 
 
 5. The remaining single numbers as far as ten, and the round 
 numbers up to a hundred, are not declined. They are as follows, viz. 
 
 Jive 
 
 six 
 
 seven 
 
 OXTOI eight 
 
 Ivvt'a nine 
 
 ten 
 (v) twenty 
 
 thirty 
 
 forty 
 
 fifty 
 
 sixty 
 
 seventy 
 
 eighty 
 
 ninety 
 
 hundred 
 
80 NUMERALS. [ 70. 
 
 78 6. The following is the usual form of those cardinals which are 
 compounded of the units and tens, viz. evfoxu eleven, dcodfxa, twelve, 
 thirteen, TtGGagfZxaidexK, nfVTtxaidtxa, 
 
 Less common are dtxarQfig, dwantvrt, &c. 
 
 In these compositions T@t7g and reoGa^fg are also inflected, as 
 'Mdifitxct, TfGGapGtxatdfxa, dexaxQtwv, &c. 
 
 7. The remaining compound numbers are usually written sepa- 
 rately, and when the smaller number precedes, they are connected 
 by xat, but not commonly when it follows; as ncWe xal eixoGtv, 
 
 * 
 8. The round numbers after a hundred are regularly inflected,viz. 
 
 dtaxoGtot, 
 
 TQtaXOGtOt, 
 
 tmaxoGtot, 
 
 OKTUXOGtOt* 
 
 at* a 
 
 ' two hundred 
 
 at, a 
 
 three hundred 
 
 at, a 
 
 four hundred 
 
 at, a 
 
 Jive hundred 
 
 at, a 
 
 six hundred 
 
 at, a 
 
 seven hundred 
 
 at, a 
 
 eight hundred 
 
 at a 
 
 nine hundred 
 
 at, a 
 
 a thousand 
 
 at, a 
 
 two thousand 
 
 at, a 
 
 three thousand 
 
 at, a 
 
 four thousand 
 
 at, a 
 
 ten thousand 
 
 at, a 
 
 twenty thousand. 
 
 REMARK. When other words are compounded with these num- 
 bers, jMO^o- [[AOvog) indicates unity, 8t- two, xyt- three, Tfrga- 
 four; as fiovowywg, d/xtQwg&Lc. The other numbers are usual- 
 ly formed in o and a, as 
 
 * The a in ntvraxOGtOt and the. subsequent numerals is short. 
 t tvvuxOGiOt omits the of Ivvia. 
 
 J MvQiot used indefinitely, like the English word myriad, is distin 
 guished by its accent. 
 
NUMERALS. 81 
 
 71. ORDINAL AND OTHER DERIVATIVE NUMBERS. 
 
 1. The two first ordinal numbers are two defective forms of 79 
 comparison, viz. 
 
 the first, primus, TiQQTfQog the first of two, prior. 
 ; the second. 
 
 The others are the following, viz. 
 
 third 
 fourth 
 fifth 
 
 i'x-tog sixth 
 
 t@dof.iog seventh 
 
 oydoog eighth 
 
 tvvaiog ninth 
 
 tenth 
 eleventh 
 twelfth 
 thirteenth 
 fourteenth &c. 
 twentieth 
 thirtieth 
 fortieth &c. 
 hundredth 
 two hundredth &c. 
 thousandth 
 ten thousandth. 
 
 Here also in composition, the small number usually precedes 
 with xa/, or follows without it, as TQIUXOGTO? TT^OJTO?, or nytoTog 
 xal TQtaxoGTog. To these ordinal numbers the interrogative form 
 TioGTog refers, which cannot be rendered by any one word in En- 
 glish ; in Latin quotus ? 
 
 2. The numeral adverbs, which answer to the question Jtow 
 many times ? are the following, viz. 7ia| once, dig, rgig, 
 
 * From nt[47Tf in the ancient and the JSolic dialect for nevxf. See J 16 
 Rem. 1. c. 
 
 11 
 
82 PRONOUNS. [ 72- 
 
 , &c. The interrogative 
 is nooaxig, how many times? 
 
 SO The following are the adjectives, which answer to the ques- 
 tion how-many -fold ? viz. a'/iAoo? contr. thilove simple, dmhovg, TQI* 
 n\ov$, TfTaankovg, ntvxan\ov?, &,c. (60); or also diT[hdat,og,&c. 
 4. The words which express the several numbers taken as sub- 
 stantives, are all formed in as, G. udog. Thus ?J /uo*/ unity, 
 roidg, TfTQ<x, nsvidg (also jiff^TiTccQ and 
 oydodg, tvvfdtg, dtxctg, Sac. e/x (20), 
 
 PRONOUN& 
 <, 72. PRONOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND POSSESSIVE. 
 
 1. The substantive or personal pronouns, of the first and sec- 
 ond person, are lyw /, ^f4(7g -we, ov thou, Vfu7g ye, with long v. 
 
 2. The third person (of which the accusative is *') has no 
 nominative singular, like the Latin se, whicji, in the Attic writers, 
 it also resembles in the reflexive signification of self. In the plu- 
 ral number it has a particular form for the neuter, which howev- 
 er rarely occurs. 
 
 REM. 1. This pronoun is but little used by the Attic writers, 
 for in the direct^ sense of him, her, it, they substitute for it the ob- 
 lique cases of avTog, and in the reflexive sense lavrov. 
 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 Sing. I 
 
 thou he 
 
 Nom. 
 
 f/oi 
 
 
 1 
 
 av 
 
 
 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 
 tgjtOV) 
 fflOli 
 
 <- _, 
 
 t uov 
 
 [AOt 
 
 00 V 
 
 ool 
 
 ou 
 
 0? 
 
 ACC. l[Af, 
 
 |U 
 
 \ 
 
 Dual. we two ye two they two 
 
 N. A. 
 
 VdDl', 
 
 VO) 
 
 (J(fO)l\ O<f>W 
 
 aqxot 
 
 G. D. 
 
 vwi'v, 
 
 vcuv 
 
 Otytii'lV, GCfiMV 
 
 OCpCOl'V 
 
72.] PRONOUNS. 88 
 
 Plur. we ye they 
 
 Nona. 
 Gen. 
 
 rmtov 
 
 Dat. I rif,uv I vp7i 
 
 e *** e <^ 
 
 v 
 
 7s N. aqi'a. 
 
 O(f(uv 
 ocpiat, 
 
 ACC. | *?, I UjUK? 
 
 REM. 2. The oblique cases of the first and second persons 
 in the singular, and of the third person in all numbers, with the 
 exception of the circumflexed forms (tyoin and ffqra?, are subject 
 to inclination ( 14). In the first person, the monosyllable forms 
 are always enclitic ; the dissyllable forms, orthotone. These en- 
 clitics, moreover, become orthotone, (1) as is the case with other 
 enclitics, when a particular emphasis rests on them j (2) especial- 
 ly when they are governed by a preposition, as negi dot;, iv ao/, 
 
 REM. 3. For the purpose of emphasis the particle yt is append- 
 ed to these pronouns, in which case the accent is thrown back in 
 
 REM. 4. Dialects. The following are the forms which the 
 pronouns assume in the different dialects. 
 
 a) The Dorics for ov make TU, for the enclitic ao/ they make 
 xo/, also for the enclitic a* they make TV. 
 
 b) The genitive in ov of these pronouns has its origin in eo. 
 and accordingly we find in the epic poets tf.teo, a*o, to, or tiitlo, 
 cffio, fTo. Hence the lonians and Dorians have tftfv, ptv, otv, 
 tv ( 27 Rem. 5). 
 
 c) The poets make use of a genitive of a peculiar character, 
 formed by appending the syllable &fv, viz. tfit'&fv, at&fv, i'&tv. 
 See also 116. 
 
 d) The lonians resol-ve the contraction of the plural, and say 
 
 e) The Dorics, on the other hand, abbreviate the plural in 
 the first and second person, as a/it'?, i>/U<?i and in the accusative 
 they adopt the termination f, which is otherwise peculiar to the 
 dual, as C /M*, vfit, for ypcig and tytttff. Hence, the pronunciation 
 and accent being changed, the following epic forms arise : 
 
 Nom. a'ju^s, vpfttf, 
 Dat. jMjUj/, v[4[iiv, or 
 Ace. 
 
 f) There is also a similar abbreviation of the plural in the 
 third person, viz. 
 
 Dat (ffjplv or <ygr/, 
 Ace. aqt* 
 This abbreviated form of the accusative the Attic poets use as an 
 
84 PRONOUNS. [ 73, 74. 
 
 82 accusative in the singular also. It is accordingly found for 
 rji>, o, and avrovg. ?, cr. 
 
 g) Finally, there is also a merely enclitic accusative of the 
 third person, viz. Ionic /ulv, Doric and Attic viv, also used for all 
 genders, him, her, and it, and for the plural them. The Attic Wi>, 
 however, is used only in poetry. - 
 
 4. The possessive pronouns derived from the foregoing perso- 
 nal pronouns are regular adjectives of three endings. Their com- 
 mon form is inflected from the genitive singular ; e. g, 
 Gen. tftov fyog, tjtij, fytOv, mine 
 Gen. GOV oog, ay, ooi>, thine 
 Gen. ov og, ??, 6V, his, Acr, tte. 
 Also from the nominative plural ; e. g. 
 
 , oi', your 
 6(ftTQog, a, oi', i/ifir. 
 
 REM. 5., For ao'e the Dorics and Tonic* make wo'ff, (jj), ov, 
 and for off they make *o'ff, (^)j o'/-. ^ But for the plural there is 
 an older and shorter form, dpog or a/40ff, and v^io'ff, *}, oV. 
 
 HEM. 6. ^The ^ossessives vajLTepog, (Kfxo'iTepoe, formed from 
 the duals vw't\ agj(o'i\ are found only in the ancient poets. 
 
 To the substantive pronoun also belongs J, //', zo dtivu, any one* 
 a certain one. It is thus declined, viz. Nom. and Ace. ditva, G. &?- 
 i/off, I). ^f7f, PI. o< dfwts. 
 
 REMARK. We sometimes, though very rarely, find dtiva wholly 
 indeclinable, as TOV dilva, TOV rov dfivot sc. ivoV. 
 
 74. 
 
 1. The four following adjective pronouns are regularly declin- 
 ed. except that they have o in the neuter. 
 
 , txtivij, cvo, i/tw, 
 , crAAi/, A/.o, another. 
 off, |/', o, see jn 75. 
 
74.] PRONOUNS. 85 
 
 REM. 1. t*(7vog comes from wet there. The Ionic form of 83 
 it is xfivog, T], o. 
 
 2. The pronoun amog has a threefold signification; (l) self; 
 (2) in the oblique cases, him, her, it ; (3) with the article, the 
 same. Farther details on this subject will be found in the syntax 
 ( 127.) It may here only be added, that in this last meaning, it 
 is often contracted with the article (according to 28 Rem. 1), 
 as TUVTOV, TUVTM, TttVTrj, for Tov avTOv, &c. where it is also to 
 be remarked, that in this case the neuter ends in ov as well as in 
 o, as TUVTO and TUVTOV, for TO UVTO. Care ,must be taken not to 
 confound lavTy and ravTci with Tuvrrj and TUVTCC from OUTOS. 
 
 3. From afro? is formed the common reflected pronoun,* viz. 
 by compounding avTog with the accusative of the substantive pro- 
 nouns (tut, oi-', i'), and then declining it through the oblique cases. 
 
 G. ipaVrov, fpavTrfa D. Ifiavrcp, y, A. //wat'ioV, TJV, mine, me. 
 G. (Jtayrov or OCXVTOV, &c. thine, thee. 
 G. lavxov or V.VTOV, &c. his, her. 
 
 The last has also an accusative neuter iuvro, avxo, and is declin- 
 ed throughout the plural, as lavT'Jjv, tavrovg, &c. The two first 
 persons form the plural without composition, as r^aJi/ ai'rcoi/, 
 f/uw*' at'rcuy, &,c. 
 
 REM. 2. In all these compositions of aviog the Ionics have 
 cou instead of av (^26. 9), and do not elide the f. They accord- 
 ingly say, tptuvrov, GZUVTOV, tojvTOv, &c. 
 
 4. From AAo? is formed the reciprocal pronoun, viz. 
 G. aJUijAon'. D. otJUijAo*^, aig. A. uVi^lovs, ag, a. 
 Dual. aAA^Aw, cuU^AOiy, at*', eacA other. 
 
 * So called, when the action refers back to the subject. For instance, 
 in the phrase ' he clothes me,' me is the common personal pronoun ; in 
 the phrase, 4 I clothe me, 1 it is the reflected pronoun. When an action is 
 represented as mutual, the pronoun is called reciprocal. This last name, 
 however, is usually considered to include both cases, and in many gram- 
 mars the pronouns called reflected in the text, are classed as reciprocal. 
 
$6 THE ARTICLE. [ 75. 
 
 75. THE ARTICLE. , , 
 
 84 I. The Greek grammarians give the name of Article, TO. UQ- 
 #pa, to the two simplest signs, which, partaking of an adjective 
 character, serve to point out a substantive, and which, in two 
 clauses of a complete sentence, refer to each other. In the mod- 
 ern languages one of these is called the definite article (the), and 
 the other the relative pronoun (who, which)* 
 
 2. Of these two articles, the one is the prepositive article, viz. 
 o, 17, to, the. This coincides in its inflection with the adjective pro- 
 nouns above given, with the following exceptions, viz. 
 
 a) That the masculine and feminine of the nominative singular 
 and plural are unaccented ( 10. 4) and have the rough breath- 
 ing, instead of which all the other parts have a T. 
 
 * An example of such a complete sentence, where both the articles 
 appear, is this : " this is the man, who will save us," OVTOQ tGTW 
 avrjo OS GWGtt, ?j^a. Hence, as these two words correspond to each 
 other exactly like joints, and thus unite two sentences as members of one 
 body, the Greeks have called them iv. cco&Qcx, articulos, articles, or, lit- 
 erally translated, joints. Now that the first of these two articles, 6, r), TO, 
 the, so frequently stands alone with its simple sentence, and thus, strictly 
 speaking, ceases to be an article, is accounted for by the consideration, 
 that in a multitude of such cases the second part of the sentence is retain- 
 ed in the mind, being some such phrase as u of which we are treating," 
 or u which you know, 1 ' or " which is here in question, 1 ' c. and in this 
 way it gradually became the usage of language to attach the prepositive 
 article, the, to any object, which is to be mentioned as sufficiently defin- 
 ed by the nature of the sentence and the attendant circumstances. The 
 grammars of the modern languages preserved the name of article for the 
 prepositive article only, without reflecting on the origin and cause of this 
 name ; but the postpositive article was called (and correctly when con- 
 sidered by itself) the relative pronoun. And as in modern languages an- 
 other pronoun (in English a or an), which is nothing but a weaker Ti , Ti, 
 quidam, in like manner shows the substantive to be undefined, just as tht 
 points it out definitely, the latter was called the definite, the former the 
 
75.] 
 
 THE ARTICLE. 
 
 87 
 
 b) Not only the neuter, but in the nominative singular the 85 
 masculine ateo, ends in o. 
 
 The other is the postpositive article, o, r h o, who, which. This 
 is declined precisely like the adjective pronouns in 74. 1. 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 Prepos. Art. 
 
 Postpos. Art. 
 
 Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. 
 
 Norn, o 
 Gen. TOV 
 Dat. TCW 
 Ace. TOV 
 
 ?; TO 
 Trjg TOV 
 
 Tt]V TO 
 
 ov 
 
 t 
 
 ov 
 
 Dual 
 
 
 N. A. TO! 
 G. D. To7v 
 
 t t 
 TU T(O 
 
 TOUV TOlV 
 
 If 
 ol v 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Norn, ol 
 Gen. TOIV 
 Dat. Tolg 
 Ace. TOU 
 
 ai M to. 
 
 T(OV T(OV 
 
 Tcug TO^g 
 
 i r 
 
 Tag TO, 
 
 o't 
 
 oTs 
 ov g 
 
 ov 
 
 r 
 
 a co 
 alv oiv 
 
 ai u_ 
 
 (OV (OV 
 
 tug oTg 
 cig a 
 
 8. The postpositive article or relative pronoun is often 
 strengthened, partly by the enclitic 71*0, as ognto, yiifo, onfo, 
 &c. and partly by composition with Tig, as b'grig, &c. for which 
 last see below in 77. 
 
 REM. 1. The peculiarities of the dialects are the same, as in 
 the first and second declensions, as TO!O for TOV, a for T?', Tag for 
 
 lg* &c. 
 
 indefinite article, although the two words have nothing in them that con- 
 nects, or can be called a joint. It is therefore but reasonable for the 
 Greek grammarians to follow the ancient Greek names, as they contain 
 in themselves their own justification. At least, the articles need not be 
 considered, in any language, as forming a distinct part of speech. They 
 are essentially adjective pronouns, and therefore should be classed among 
 them. 
 
88 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 [76. 
 
 86 
 
 REM. 2. In the ancient language the two articles were in form 
 the same, and were only distinguished by their place and accent ; 
 as is still the case with ^', oi', at. The epic poets have also o for 
 6V, and all the forms of the prepositive article which begin with 
 r, are used by the Ionics and Dorics for the corresponding forms 
 of the postpositive article, as TO for o, nqv for ^'i>, &c. Besides 
 this, the Dorics use TO/, ra/, both for o*, , and for oi', at'. 
 
 REM. 3. In strictness, however, both forms are nothing else 
 but the ancient simple demonstrative pronoun this ; and, as will 
 appear in the syntax, are both often used for this pronoun in the 
 writings of the ancients. . 
 
 76. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 1. The Greeks have a double form for the general demonstra- 
 tive pronoun this, that. The one is formed simply by appending 
 the enclitic particle dt to the prepositive article, viz. odfe, *?&, 
 rotfe, G. TOvdt, Tr^de, &c. PI. o'tds, atde^ rmfe, Tovsde, &c. 
 
 2. The other, OVTOS, is derived from the same article, and 
 conforms itself to it, throughout a very anomalous inflection. For 
 where the prepositive article has the aspirate or the r, this pro- 
 noun has the same ; and where the article has o or w, this pro- 
 noun has ov in the first syllable ; and where the article has v\ or 
 a, the pronoun has av in the first syllable ; as o- ovTog, ol- OVTOI, 
 
 TODV- TOVTODV, ?J- OUTI?, TCi- TCXVTa, &C. 
 
 N. 
 
 TttVTU 
 TOVTO)V 
 TOUTOlQ 
 TCCUTK 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 avTos 
 
 ur?; 
 
 TOVTO 
 
 ioVTOl 
 
 UVTUt, 
 
 G. 
 
 TOVTOV 
 
 TavTqg 
 
 TOVTOV 
 
 TOVTWV 
 
 TOVTOJV 
 
 D. 
 
 TOVTO) 
 
 Tuv-ry 
 
 TOVTCO 
 
 TOVTOIS 
 
 TCCVTUl^ 
 
 A. 
 
 TOVTOV 
 
 TKVTTjV 
 
 TOVTO 
 
 TOVTOV? 
 
 TttVltt? 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. A. 
 
 TOVTO) TCCVTCt 
 
 TOVTO) 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 TQVTQIV TVVT&W 
 
 TOVTO 1 1' 
 
77.] INTERROG. AND INDEFINITE PRONOUN. 89 
 
 77. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PKONOUN. 
 
 The interrogative pronoun for who ? which ? what ? is Tig, neut. 
 TI, G. Tivog. It has the accent always on the t, as Tivfg, D. pi. 
 Tiai, and is thereby distinguished, as it also is in the nominative 
 singular, by the invariable acute accent ( 11), from the indefinite 
 pronoun Tig, neut TI, G. Tivog, a certain one, any one ; which, 
 moreover, as enclitic, is commonly used without accent. The 
 declension of Tig, both as interrogative and indefinite, is regular, 87 
 according to the third declension, and the t, is short throughout. 
 
 REM. 1. In the few cases, where the monosyllable Tig TI, in 
 consequence of other enclitics following it, receives the acute, the 
 context or the accent of the preceding word will distinguish it 
 from the interrogative ; as uvr t o tig HOTS. 
 
 2. For the genitive and dative of both pronouns, the following 
 forms are often used, viz. TOV and ro7 (for all three genders), or- 
 thotone for Tivog TIVI, and enclitic for Tivog TIVI.* 
 
 For the neuter plural of the indefinite pronoun we find UTTCI, 
 Ion. uaact, not enclitic, instead of TIVU, as dtLvu UTTU for dfiva 
 
 Tll'U. 
 
 3. The compound relative ogtig, which is a strengthening of 
 og, has a twofold inflection, viz. 
 
 Nom. ogTig, yug, O,TI (see 15. 2.) 
 
 Gen. oviivog, rjguvog, 
 
 Dat witvi, nTivi, &.c. 
 
 Also the following form, analogous to the secondary form of 
 Tig mentioned in no. 2, viz. O'TOV, OTO), for ovTivog, MTIVI, but 
 not for the feminine, and also UTTU, Ion. UGOU, for a\ 
 
 REM. 2. The secondary form TOV, TOJ, must be carefully distin- 
 guished from the genitive and dative case of the article, from which 
 it is shown to be distinct by the threefold gender* and the usage of 
 the dialects. The TOV of the article is by the epic poets resolved 
 into TO/O, but the TOV for Tivog and Tivog is resolved into Tto by 
 the Ionics, and Ttv by the Dorics. 
 
 * As TOJ TfXf-iai^rj TOVTO ; whereby nrorest thouthit? yuv<XMO$TOV 
 of a certain woman ; %QT]O&ai Tin to vse any thing. 
 
 12 
 
90 CORRELATIVES. [> 78. 
 
 4. By composition with ov and JUT) are formed from the in- 
 definite Tig the negative pronouns ovits ovri, ^Tig Hn*^ none, 
 which are declined like riff. 
 
 78. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. Correlatives are words, referring to each other, of which the 
 one contains a question, the other the various most simple an- 
 swers to it. The general correlatives are already contained in the 
 foregoing pronouns, viz. 
 
 Interrogative Tig who ? * . 
 
 Demonstrative o, odf, OVTO?, this. 
 
 Indefinite TI$, any one, some one. 
 
 Relative oc, compound ogrt?, who. 
 
 Negative OVTIG, fojrt, or ovdttg, juij&ig, none ( 70. 1.) 
 
 Each of these has its feminine and neuter. 
 
 . 2. When, however, the ideas contained in those words are 
 directly referred or confined to two objects or divisions of the sub- 
 ject, they are expressed by the following, viz. 
 
 'Interrogative nOTfoog, a, ov, which of two. 
 
 Demonstrative o, 6 (Jiff, OVTOQ, this. 
 
 Indefinite o tripos (>J titga, &c.) one of two. 
 
 Relative onorffjo? which of two. 
 
 Negative ovdtTfQOg, prjdtTfQQg, neither of two. 
 
 REMARK, o tifpo? often forms with those portions of the article, 
 which end in a vowel, a crasis, in which however a long a is 
 
 ' 
 
 always found.* E. g. ar*00, oW(>a, arfpot, for o tripos^ y 
 ol txfQOt* JfrttTfQOV) -0-aTtooVi fratf(Hp 9 ^arf^a, for TO tT 
 
 ITtOOU, TO) tTtOCpi id tTlQtt. 
 
 This o trtoos corresponds precisely to the Latin alter ; and, 
 when one has been already named, it is to be rendered the other. 
 
 3. To the question Tig and nOTtpog, may be answered every one. 
 This answer has in Greek the form of a comparative or superla- 
 tive, viz. txaTfQog, or, ov, each of two ; txuGTog, , ov, each of many. 
 
 * This long a probably has its origin in an elder Doric form of KTfOOg 
 for tTiQOS, of which the short a becomes long by a crasis with the article, 
 a& mentioned in the text. 
 
79.] CORRELATIVES. 91 
 
 4. Other particles responsive to rig are the following, viz. u),- 
 log another ( 74. 1), nag, ndvTfg, each, all; corresponding to 
 which, when the question is noifyog, are the following, viz. o t-Tt- 
 Qog the other ; apyoTtoog, a, ov, ufACforegot, ai,a,both. For this 89 
 last we find, in certain connexions, simply the dual N. A. apqco, 
 G. D. dti(foh>. with the accent thrown forward, and for all three 
 genders. 
 
 79. OTHER CORRELATIVES. 
 
 1. Besides these general correlatives, there are others more 
 precise, referring to the properties or relations of the object, such 
 as how made, where found, &c. These are formed in Greek by a 
 very distinct analogy, but as they are partly in the adjective, and 
 partly in the adverbial form, the latter must remain to be con- 
 sidered below- 
 
 2. Every such series of correlatives has its radical form and 
 termination of inflection common ; but is peculiar in its initial let- 
 ters. The interrogative begins with a n, as noaog quantus, how 
 much ? how large ? how many ? The same form, with a change 
 however of accent, is sometimes used indefinitely) as noaog ali- 
 quantus, of a. certain size or number. When, instead of a n, it be- 
 gins with a T, it is in the demonstrative, as TOGO? tantus, so great, so 
 much, so many. If, instead of this consonant, the word begin with 
 the aspirate, it is relative, as ooog quantus> as large as, as much as. 
 The negative of these forms is not found in the common dialect. 
 
 3. In addition to the simple relative, there is also the compound, 
 which is used by preference in certain connexions. It corresponds 
 to ogng, OTOV, among the general correlatives, and is formed by 
 prefixing the syllable 6, without variation, to the interrogative 
 form, as 716 aog, relative ooog and onooog. 
 
 4. The simple demonstrative roaog is used as a perfect demon- 
 strative pronoun, for the most part only in the poets. Resort is 
 commonly had to a strengthened form ; and as the article 6 (the 
 primitive demonstrative, subsequently used merely as an article,) 
 is strengthened either by the enclitic ds (ode), or by being chang- 
 
92 
 
 CORRELATIVES. 
 
 [79. 
 
 ed into ovrog, so the corresponding process is observed here, -og 
 being in the latter case changed into -OVTOQ, e. g. roGog, rooogde 
 or TooovTog. The first of these is inflected in the middle of the 
 compound, thus TOGogde, Toa>J<fc, roaoWf, G. rooovdf, &LC- 
 90 The form with -outog governs itself, with respect to ov 
 and u, according to the simple form ourog. In the neuter, how- 
 ever, it has both ov and o. Accordingly we have the following 
 forms, viz. 
 
 N. roGovTog, TOGOVTIJ, TOOOVTOV and TOGOVTO 
 
 G. TOGOVTOV, xoGavTyg, &c. 
 
 PI. TOGOVTOt, TOGUVTUt, TOGCXVTU, &C. 
 
 5. The following are accordingly the three most entire series 
 of correlatives. 
 
 Interrog. 
 noGog ; 
 
 how great-? how 
 
 many ? quant us ? 
 nolog ; 
 
 of what kind? 
 
 qualis ? 
 nifilxog ; 
 
 how old? how 
 
 large ? 
 
 NOTE. For the Ionic forms -/.OGOQ, xoToc,-, oxoao?, &c. see ^ 
 16. 3. c. 
 
 REM. 1. There are still other imperfect correlatives, which 
 in addition to the interrogative form have only the compound rel- 
 ative, as particularly nodanog, onodaiiog, where born? and the 
 derivatives from rroGog and TIOGTOQ (for which we have no. cor- 
 responding English word*) ; noGunhaGiog how many fold ? OTTO- 
 <Jro, onoGcuildGtog, &c. The same is the case with UOT^QO^ 
 and dnoitpoz mentioned above. 
 
 REM. 2. As the root of these words acquires *its correlative 
 force by virtue of the initial letters TT, r &c. some of them attain 
 other shades of signification, by composition with the general cor- 
 relatives, irfoog, (*AA0, nag &c. Thus to the question TTO?O may 
 
 Indef. Demonst. Relative. 
 
 710(70? 
 
 TOGOg 
 
 OGog 
 
 
 
 t i 
 
 
 TOGOgdf 
 
 OTtooog 
 
 
 TOGOVTOg 
 
 
 Tio tog 
 
 rolog 
 
 olog 
 
 % 
 
 xoiogde 
 
 onolo^ 
 
 #* 
 
 TOlOVTOg 
 
 Tijlixogd* 
 
 ijkixog 
 onrjUw 
 
 * The-how-manyeth ? would represent nOGTOg in English. In German, 
 der witvidstt . :> 
 
$ 80, 81.] AFFIXES. VERBS. 93 
 
 be answered ttfpoiog, a'AAo?o, of another kind, ncxvro'tog of every 
 kind. 
 
 In like manner, to nodu-xog' corresponds aModanog of anoth- 
 er country, nuvTodanog of every country, ^fifdanog of our country, 
 from I/jut??. 
 
 80. AFFIXES. 
 
 1. All the compounded and strengthened relatives, such as og- 91 
 TI?,OTOV, 07t, onooog, &c. receive upon all their forms the affix 
 ovv, which retains the accent on itself, and in this connexion cor- 
 responds precisely with the Latin cunque, and expresses the com- 
 pleteness of the relation, as ogng who, ogugovv quicunque, whoever, 
 whosoever, i]Ti,$ovi>, OTIOVV, OTMOVV, ovTivaovv or OVTIVOVV, 
 
 OSTlffJOKV, OnOGOgOVV, OTHlllXOVOVV, &.C- 
 
 REM. 1. To strengthen still more this signification, use is 
 made of the form d^Tioif, as o$Ttg&jpovi IGTIV whosoever it may be, 
 oaoi>dt^OTf, &LC. which is, however, often written in two sepa- 
 rate words. 
 
 2. In like manner among the Attics, and in the familiar style, 
 the demonstratives, for the sake of greater strength, append to all 
 their forms what is called the demonstrative i, which in like manner 
 retains the accent, is always long, and absorbs all short vowels at 
 the end of the word to which it is affixed, as OVTO$ OVTO$I this here, 
 hicce, avrij'i' from avTtj, TOVTI from TOVTO, TOVTOV?, &c TO.VII from 
 
 , odl from odf, txsivogi that there, txfivwvt, &c. TOOOVTOVI, 
 
 l, &C- 
 
 REM. 2. When the enclitic yt ( 150. 2 j is attached to the de- 
 monstrative, this /follows it, as TOVTO yf, rovroyt. 
 
 81. THE VERB. 
 
 1. The parts of a Greek verb, such as the modes and tenses, 
 may be presumed to be known, from the analogy of other langua- 
 ges. The Greek, however, is richer than either the English or 
 Latin, particularly by the distinction of the Middle Voice, of the 
 Optative as a different mode from the Subjunctive, of the Jlorist 
 as a separate tense, of the Dual as a separate number, and by a 
 
94 THE VERB. [ 81. 
 
 great diversity of modes and participles, in reference to the .tenses. 
 Meantime it should here be remarked, that by no means all that 
 can be formed by conjugation and declension is actually found to 
 have been used in every verb, although for convenience, all the 
 parts are exemplified in one verb, in the grammar. 
 92 2. In the second place it should be premised, that in the Greek, 
 more than any other language, a certain form endowed by the 
 general analogy with a certain signification, may yet, in single 
 cases, have another and even an opposite signification ; as a 
 passive form may have an active meaning. The grammar of 
 course must treat of the forms as they are in themselves, and 
 then attach to them their most usual signification. It is impos- 
 sible, however, that the significations should be fully known, till 
 they are systematically unfolded in the syntax. 
 
 3. All that is necessary to the understanding of the formation 
 of the verb is here for the most part supposed to be known from 
 other languages, such as the general idea of the various voices, 
 modes, and principal tenses. With respect to the optative mode 
 and middle voice, sufficient preliminary information will present- 
 ly be given. The tenses alone of the Greek verb require a more 
 detailed previous description. 
 
 4. The most obvious distinction of the tenses is into present, 
 past, and future. The past time, however, in common language 
 admits of more subdivisions than the others. Among the tenses 
 which fall under this head, (and which bear in Latin the common 
 name of prceteritct,) is this difference to be observed, that in one 
 of them the mind of the speaker remains in the present time, and 
 makes mention of a thing past or happened. This is the perfect 
 tense. In the other preterite tenses, the mind transports itself 
 to the past time, and narrates what then happened.* This narra- 
 tive tense has in the Greek the subdivisions of imperfect, pluper- 
 fect, and aorist, whose signification will be unfolded in the syntax. 
 
 5. Hereupon is founded the division of the tenses into the 
 
 * In a lively narration this is therefore often done by the present itself. 
 
<^ 82.] VERBS. SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 95 
 
 LEADING TENSES, viz. present, perfect, and future, and HISTORICAL TEN- 
 SES, viz. imperfect, pluperfect, and aorist. 
 
 6. All the tenses are distinguished from each other in a two- 
 fold manner; (l) all of them by their respective terminations, and 
 (2) the past tenses by a prefix, called the augment. The historical 
 tenses are farther distinguished from all the others, and among 
 them from the perfect, by an augment appropriated to themselves, 
 and by a peculiar manner of declension. Of each of these, in order, 
 an account will be given. 
 
 82. THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 
 
 1. The augment is of two kinds, according as the verb begins 93 
 with a vowel or a consonant. If the verb begin with a consonant, 
 the augment makes a syllable of itself, and is therefore called the 
 Syllabic Augment. 
 
 2. The augment of the perfect tense is formed by prefixing the 
 first letter of the verb with an *, as rvmoj, perf. it-rvqa, and 
 therefore the augment of the perfect is also called a reduplicative 
 augment, or simply a reduplication. If the first letter is an aspirate, 
 it follows from what was said in 18, that instead of the aspirate, 
 the corresponding smooth is used, as yUitollovt, Tif-qlfyxa' &u(*> 
 I sacrifice, Tt-&vxa. The third future, which is derived from the 
 perfect ($ 99), retains this augment. 
 
 3. The historical tenses, on the other hand, simply prefix an 
 . a- TVTIKO, imperf. t-Tvmov, aor. i-rvya, and the pluperfect, 
 
 which according to its form and signification is derived from the 
 perfect, prefixes this to the reduplication of the perfect, as TV- 
 TiTWj perf. Ti-Tvqa, plup. i-^trwpew. 
 
 4. If the verb begin with p, this letter is doubled after the *, 
 as QUUTW I sew, imperf. tppanTOv ( 21. 2 ); and in this case the 
 perfect and pluperfect take no other augment than this, instead 
 of the usual reduplication, as perf. ippa^a, plup. i(jpctq.fiv. 
 
 5. When a verb begins with a double consonant, instead of 
 the reduplication, t alone is used, which remains without change 
 
96 VERBS. - TEMPORAL AUGMENT. [<> 83. 
 
 in the pluperfect ; as i/AAca / play, perf. *"i//aAxa, plup. t 
 &Tt(t) I seek, >'w I abrade, perf. pass. i&pnfpui, t^tnfjiat. The 
 same takes place in most cases where two consonants begin a 
 word ; as perf. tepftoQaL from (p&tlgto, perf. pass. t(snuof.iut, from 
 Gnt'iQto I sow, t%Ti(J}Ji&.i, from xr/co / create, trnvypui, from HTVOGM 
 
 I fold. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. From this last rule the following are excepted, and, of 
 course, are subject to the general rule, viz. 
 
 94 a ) Two consonants, of which the first is a mute and the second 
 a liquid; as ypdya) I-write,yt'ypac[(x. So too y.i'/.^tf.iai, xt'nvtvxa, 
 &c. But yv and often y\ assume only a simple f , as yvo>pia), ly- 
 vo)()iO[.iai' %aT-yk(i)TTi(Jnt'voG, di-t-ykunictt and diu- ytykvrtTai. 
 
 b) The perfects ^.^vii^ui and yttXTrjf.KM, from [AVUCO I remember, 
 and XTcxOjitca I acquire. 
 
 c) Some anomalous perfects, as Titmapai, and TrtW^xa, in 
 which, however, the nx is formed by syncope from TTST. See in 
 the list of anomalous verbs nfxavvv^t,, ntTOpai, ninTw. 
 
 2. A few verbs beginning with liquids, instead of the redupli- 
 cation, take the syllable si or ft, as AHBQ H^apa, See in the 
 anomalous verbs ka/uffavw, htyco, (ufipoftat,, and PJEfi under nnav. 
 
 3. In the three verbs fiovhofiai I will, dvVKfJitti I can, |Ui'AAco / 
 shall, the Attics often add the 'temporal to the syllabic augment, 
 as ijovvufiifv for edvvotfitiy. For the syllabic augment before a 
 vowel, directions will presently be given. 
 
 4. The augment of the historical tenses is often omitted by 
 the Ionics and all the poets, except the Attics ; as /?/,6 for I'ftahf, 
 
 , ^ (iri for J'/?77, ytvovTO for lytvQVTO &c. In the pluperfect this omis- 
 sion prevails even in prose ; as ifrvcpfinav, XITVUTQ, for tTfrv- 
 (ptiGav, IrtrvnTO' dfdlfi for efo&ttt,, &c. 
 
 5. In the epic writers the second aorist active and middle of- 
 ten takes the reduplication, which in this case is retained through 
 all the modes ( 85) ; as nim&ov f neni&tiv, for 
 
 from 
 
 83. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 
 
 1. When the verb begins with a vowel, aspirated or not, the 
 . augment, with that vowel, is converted into one long vowel ; and 
 this kmd of augment, which is called the Temporal, remains un- 
 change^ through all the preterite tenses. In general in this aug- 
 ment, a and * are changed into ?;, and o into w ; as dvvw I fulfil. 
 
83.] VERBS. - TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 97 
 
 impf. r t v v ov, perf. r/yvxa, plup. ijvvxtiv, iKni^w I hope, impf. r t k- 
 , perf. ?jA:iYxa, plup. yknixtiv, OfAite'a) I associate with, impf. 
 
 , perf. e0jU/Ai?xa, plup. ojfAtkrjXfiv. 
 2. The following verbs, viz. *;fw, a*w, i'Axco and iAxuw, I^TTW 9.5 
 and tgnvc0, tftw (see anomalous verbs) and *#/w, tUaGM, 6<rrw, 
 (wo>, TO> and tno^ai, tQyd&pai,, change the not into 17, but in- 
 to *, as impf. fi%ov, perf. fiyyaGfiat, &c. 
 
 REM. I. See also c7).ov, * < A*?i', among the anomalous verbs un- 
 der aipf'cu, and the verbs belonging to the radical form *E&, 108. 
 
 3. The vowels i and u can only be augmented when they are 
 short, and that by lengthening them, as 7**rUtt, aor. 'ixtTfVGct, 
 and even when the vowel is already long by position, this aug- 
 ment ought to be indicated in pronunciation ; as iVjfi/aj "layvov, 
 
 VflVtO) VftVOVV. 
 
 4. Of the other vowels already long in themselves, <x, accord- 
 ing to no. 1, usually becomes jy, while the others,??, co, l, v, admit 
 no augment whatever, as ^TTaoftui, impf. ^TTOJ^P, perf. qfrriffiaf, 
 plup. ifrn}/*!;^ excepting in the case of the accent, as specified 
 below. 
 
 5. A diphthong is susceptible of augment, when its first vowel 
 can be altered in the above mentioned manner ; in which case, if 
 the second vowel be t,*the iota subscript is used. Accordingly 
 uw I increase makes qv'ov' tvyopui I pray, 
 
 demand, adw I sing, frfov, ydov' olxtfu I dwell, dj 
 
 Many verbs, however, neglect this augment, as is stated in the 
 next remark, and with ov it never takes place ; as ovroft>, OUTU- 
 ov. 
 
 REM. 2. In general many verbs, in which the augment would de- 
 stroy the euphony or lead to confusion, remain unchanged. Among 
 these are many beginning with an a, av, or oi, followed by a vow- 
 el, as ai'o), avatvw, o/x/a>, only that the short , as in Yw, is 
 lengthened, imp?: aibv (a long), avuivtio, oiccxi&v, &c. Some 
 others also beginning with ot, have no augment, as o/Ww, olxov- 
 Qt'w, oiaiptoj. In like manner also all which begin with ti, as 
 fixo),fixov, e?(x, with the single exception of {Ixafa^I conjecture, 
 which in the Attic writers receives an augment, as eixctaa, fi'xa- 
 afiat, Att. jjttaaa, rxaafiai,. Those that begin with a. are not uni- 
 form in th'is respect, as nfgopff*, yvxtpip and ev%6fttiv. Those 
 13 
 
8 VERBS. - TEMPORAL AUGMENT. [ 83. 
 
 compounded with fv will be mentioned below, 86 Rem. 5. The 
 96 Ionics and the poets not Attic often omit this augment, as^ they do 
 also the syllabic, in verbs of all sorts; as aj4ti$zo for i]u6ififTO^ 
 f'cav for tita'v from /aw, a[.mai for vyAfjiai. 
 
 REM. 3. Inasmuch as the increase, effected by this augment, 
 consists only in lengthening a short vowel, it has the name of Tem- 
 poral Augment, avti](j(Q yjtovi'/.r]^ from f /jjoi>o$ time, which word 
 denotes also the quantity of syllables. 
 
 REM. 4. This augment has its origin in the contraction of the 
 syllabic augment f with the vowel of the verb ; as uyw t-uyov 
 yyov> In this, however, the contraction of te into ^, and eo into 
 co, departs from the common practice (see 27) ; while that of to. 
 into *?, and tf into ti, t-t%ov f^oi>, conforms to the general law of 
 contractions. 
 
 REM. 5. Hence is to be explained the accent of some com- 
 pounds. For while the tone, as far as possible, inclines to the 
 antepenult, we find in avynTov from avumw a circumflex on the 
 penult, which had its origin in this contraction. In this manner, 
 the augment is occasionally visible only in the accent ; as from 
 untigyu is formed the imperative anfigyt^ but the third person of 
 the imperfect tense is antTpyf. 
 
 REM. 6. The syllabic augment, moreover, has actually main- 
 tained itself in many cases before a vowel. Among these cases 
 are reckoned, in the common dialect, the following three verbs, 
 which by the general rule should not have the temporal augment, 
 viz. 
 
 indtw I push^ (ovtOfMxi I buy, orpiO), 
 Impf. tm&Qvvt Cfiitrau/w}*, touyovv. 
 
 REM. 7. In like manner, in the perfect tense, the temporal aug- 
 ment has its origin in the syllabic f, for, since the common redu- 
 plication consists in repeating the first consonant with an *, when 
 the verb began with a vowel it admitted only of prefixing the *, 
 which was then with the initial vowel of the verb transformed in- 
 to the temporal augment. Even the f of this kind is retained un- 
 altered in the verbs just quoted, as perf. tfuv^fiat from aiyeojuai, and 
 besides this in three other perfects, viz. &>**, oA;ra, o.py, from 
 i'xo), ATTOJ, tpyto. The o in these perfects is formed by a muta- 
 ^ 7 tion of the vowel of the root which will be treated of below 
 and the f is a reduplication, so that we have tpyca f-opycr, like 
 
 REM. 8. As we saw above ( 82 Rem. 3 ) that the syllabic 
 augment was increased by the temporal, so in the verb o'paco / see 
 the temporal augment is commonly increased by the syllabic, re- 
 taining the aspirate, as impf. 6o)pori/, perf. H\QU-/.&..< 
 
 REM. 9. When a verb begins with fo, the second vowel takes 
 the augment. This occurs in the verb i QQTU& I celebrate afesti- 
 
84, 85.] VERBS. - ATTIC REDUPLICATION, ETC. 99 
 
 val, twyTu&v, and in the pluperfects belonging to the perfects men- 
 tioned in Rem. 7, viz. ajJx^y, tatlmtv, tatjfftiv. 
 
 84. ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 
 
 Though a reduplication like that of the syllabic augment does 
 not exist in verbs that take the temporal augment, yet several of 
 them have, in the perfect tense, a peculiar, and, as it is called, the 
 Attic reduplication ; which, however, is so far from being found in 
 Attic writers alone, that most of the verbs which assume it, reject 
 altogether the above described simpler form. It consists in this, 
 that in the perfect tense, before the ordinary temporal augment, 
 the two first letters of the verb, without changing the vowel, are 
 
 repeated, e. g. ^ 
 
 ayslgw I assemble, (f/^pxa 
 
 I spit, (// ( *xa) 
 
 I dig, (uyvya) 
 
 oco / smell, (oJ<5a) 
 
 REM. 1. This form inclines to a short vowel in the third sylla- 
 
 and therefore shortens the long vowel, as in afaiqta, perf. 
 
 ),i(f.u, A?;A/ ( ajuat' axot-oj, perf xjxoa. 
 
 REM. 2. The pluperfect sometimes takes a new temporal aug- 
 ment, most frequently in x?;xo, 7;x?;xom-. This however is not 
 generally the case ( 82 Rem. 4.) 
 
 REM. 3. As the second aorist in the poets, with the temporal 
 augment, sometimes assumes the reduplication of the perfect ( 82 
 Rem. 5 ), the same also happens with this Attic reduplication, in 
 such a way that the temporal augment precedes it ; as APQ, perf. 
 uoriQa, aor. r t oagov. In common language the verb /co (see an- 
 omalous verb*) has such an aorist, viz. yyayov. This reduplica- 
 tion also remains in the other modes, which drop only the tempor- 
 al augment, as pp//, er'ya/fly, u 
 
 85. 
 
 THE AUGMENT IX REFERENTS TO THE MODES AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 All the augments prevail as well in the passive and middle, as 98 
 in the active voice. As far as the modes and participles, however, 
 
100 VERBS. - AUGMENT IN COMPOSITION. [ 86. 
 
 are concerned, the aorist and perfect only come into consideration. 
 since the imperfect and pluperfect tenses are confined to the in- 
 dicative mode. Here the following rule prevails, viz. 
 
 The augment of the perfect is retained through all the modes and 
 participles ; that of the aorist, only in the indicative. 
 
 Thus with the syllabic augment, e. g. from TVUTCO. 
 
 Perf. Ttxvcpa Inf. Titvy/tvat Part- 
 
 Aor. fTVtya Inf. TVtyai, Part. 
 
 So also with the temporal augment, e. g. from uxQi 
 
 Perf. rixyifiowa Inf. yxpificoxivat Part. 
 
 Aor. 77xp//?ey(7a Inf. coc^/?co<7a Part. 
 
 REMARK. This rule may be more precisely stated, viz. Every 
 thing that is a reduplication, or stands in the place of reduplication, 
 (consequently the irregular reduplication of the aor. Af'Aa#oi>, 
 part. A*Aa#cuj/, and the like, 82 Rem. 5.) remains through all 
 the modes ; while the simple augment is confined to the indicative. 
 For this reason the irregular aorist tfyayov drops in the infinitive 
 mode the temporal augment, but retains the reduplication, as 
 ( 84 Rem. 3.) 
 
 86. OF THE AUGMENT IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 The following is the chief rule for the use of the augment in 
 the compound verbs, viz. 
 
 In the verb compounded with a preposition, in the augmented ten- 
 ses the augment follows the preposition. 
 
 E. g. Tipoeg^a), nQO$-*($fQQV' dnodvw, un-edvoa, dno-$t$vx&' 
 ovhfa'yct)) Gvv-tkfyov' cwaAAaTrco, an-riKXaTTQv. 
 
 In most other forms of composition the augment is prefixed, 
 as jU^AoTio^'cw, IpfhoTioiovv, |U^uAo7ro/??xa' 
 
 Rem. 1. In some cases, where the simple verb is nearly or 
 quite ^obsolete, the augment precedes the preposition ; asf'xcrtfw- 
 dov, 6 5 xai < hbi', rj(piovv from ng>lfjfnt. The best writers however 
 sometimes use the other form, as 
 
87.] VERBS. INFLECTION. 101 
 
 REM. 2. Properly speaking, all such verbs have the augment 
 prefixed, as are not so much themselves compounded with anoth- 
 er word, as derived from a compound word of another part of 
 speech^ as fatvonufttm, idtivona&ovv, from ffcyq7ia#ifc' oixodo- 
 Htw, cpxodoftovv, from olxoddpog* With these, however, are 
 classed in respect to the place of the augment, the other compound 
 verbs not compounded with a preposition, although they retain 
 the single verb without change, as (.itKonoitw, dqoovto), &c. 
 
 REM. 3. Hence it results, that even some verbs compounded 
 with ^repositions prefix the augment ; as ivuvTioi'fiui, ^VUVTIOI^- 
 fjiriv ovTt/foJlcu, ffi/Tft/fto'Aoi'p, the former of which has its origin in 
 Ivarilos, and the latter is formed altogether by composition, with- 
 out a previous existence as a simple verb. It is most usual, how- 
 ever, that even in such verbs the augment should foHow the pre- 
 position. Hence we find uniformly ttxli)oicta*, tvfxoj/ulaov, 
 nQOfqrjifvGa, Gwrj^ovv, IniTtiqdfvxa, lift^flgovv, and various 
 others, although of all these verbs (IvgAffaMKyw, /xa>iuaa>, UQO- 
 (frjTfva), avvfoyeco, ImTydeva), ey/fioto),) no simples exist, but they 
 are all derived respectively from f'xxA^d/, efxwfuov a JiQoqnjrifa 
 (Jvvfgyos, tnittjdfQ, and from Iv and %tio. 
 
 REM. 4. The following verbs usually take the augment in both 
 places at once, viz, dt>o$j&6<t> I set uj), i/voi^OW ivo%\tw I trou- 
 ble, ^Vto^A^da- aWyojuat / endure, ^vftyofjiriv' nccpoivtw I rare. 
 Tifnapqwiixa. Still more anomalous is this in the verbs diaxovt'tv 
 to minister to and diuviuv to decide, dfdirjxovrjxoc, xuTfdiTjTrjoa, in- 
 asmuch as these are derived from diowovog, diaiTa, where the a 
 does not begin a new word. 
 
 REM. 5. The words compounded with f v and dvg assume in the 
 middle only the temporal augment; as tvfpyfTfw, fvypytTuvv 
 dvgaQtOTtlv, dvgt]oi(jTovv. When, however, an immutable vowel 
 or a consonant follows those particles, they either receive the aug- 
 ment at the beginning, as tdvGOJTiovv from dvgoo7if7v, d*dvGrv%Y)*a, 
 rjvtyQaivfTO, or those beginning with ev more commonly take no 
 augment, as ivcoftoviAtiv from 
 
 87. 
 
 INFLECTION BY TERMINATION. NL 7 MBERS AND PERSONS. 
 
 1. All terminations of the Greek verb are divided, in virtue 
 of their ending and their inflection by numbers and persons, into 
 two leading classes, plainly distinguished from each other. In sig- 
 nification the one class is for the most part active, and the other 
 passive. In consequence of this, notwithstanding the departure 
 
102 
 
 VERBS. INFLECTION. 
 
 in single tenses from the prevailing signification, the one class is 
 called the active voice, and the other the passive. 
 
 2. In each of these classes, the leading tenses, viz. the present, 
 perfect, and future, follow an analogy in some degree peculiar to 
 themselves, and in which they are distinguished from the histori- 
 cal tenses. 
 
 3. All this is apparent from the following table, which contains 
 the usual terminations of the different tenses, and their inflection 
 by the three numbers and persons. It is applicable in the present 
 form only to the indicative mode- Its application to the subjunc- 
 tive and optative will be explained below. 
 
 ACTIVE FORM. 
 
 PASSIVE FORM. 
 
 Leading lenses. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 /ucu 
 
 (da*) 
 
 xat, 
 
 wanting 
 
 TOV 
 
 TOV 
 
 flt&OV 
 
 O&QV 
 
 G&Ol 
 
 ptv 
 
 Tf 
 
 GII>, at, 
 
 [Af&CC 
 
 G&f 
 
 VTU.I 
 
 Historical tenses. 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 (M]V 
 
 (GO) 
 
 TO 
 
 wanting 
 
 TOV 
 
 TTf\V 
 
 pt&ov 
 
 G&OV 
 
 G&*1 
 
 [.IfV 
 
 Tf 
 
 V (ffttl^) 
 
 pf&a 
 
 a&t 
 
 VTO 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 Dual 
 Plur. 
 
 Thus Avowal, A&u/uat, At;0o/ua, ivdyaofiat) are respectively the 
 first person of the leading tenses of the passive form of Auw / loose. 
 All that intervenes between the termination pat, and the root Au, 
 or if nothing intervenes, is the peculiarity of the particular tense ; 
 and this will be treated of below. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. The terminations in the foregoing table, begin with that 
 consonant from which the remainder of the word onward, in the 
 same tense, is in the main the same. A portion of the conju- 
 gational form attaches this consonant immediately to the root of 
 the tense (see below the perfect passive and the conjugation in f-u); 
 but by far the greater portion of the conjugational form interposes 
 another vowel, called the connecting vowel between, which is far 
 from, being uniform, as kv-o-fitv, Au-f-rf, kv-fi-?. The more 
 precise detail therefore of the mode, in which the termination ie 
 attached to the root, must appear from the paradigm below. The 
 
87.] VERBS. - INFLECTION. 103 
 
 foregoing table exhibits only in one point of view, that in which 
 the various forms of tenses coincide. 
 
 2. The first and third persons singular Act. are not indicated 
 in the table, because in most cases they do not terminate in a con- 
 sonant, but have as it \vere, the connective xowel alone,* which, 
 however, differs widely in the different tenses. Compare e.g. 1. 
 ?.t'-cu, 3. lu-ti, with to-o-pftr, or 1. At'<7-, 3, i'kva-t , with iAt'd-a- 
 ju^f. In the greater portion of the historical tenses, the first per- 
 son has a permanent v (*XiM>-y, &*At;*-t-y,) and the third person. 
 when its vowel is 6, takes the v tyilxvaTixov, (tkv-iv or tlv-.) 
 In the infrequent conjugational form in /w, both persons have a 
 termination in the present, altogether peculiar, viz. ^u*, 0f, ( 106). 
 
 3. The third person plural, active voice, iu the leading tenses, 
 is given according to the common usage of language. It is proper, 
 however, to remark here, that in the Doric dialect it terminate? 
 in vii, and that the vowel before the 6i in the common form is 
 always long, because an v has dropped out ; as rwrrwtf*, Dor. 
 
 TVJITOVTI' TtIl'(j<Ji(Jl, Dor. TtTfq Ul'Gl, ( 103. IV. 1.) 
 
 4. The terminations oat and 00, in the second person of the 
 passive, are only to be regarded as the foundation ; for in most ca- 
 ses they undergo some change. The manner in which they are 
 combined with what precedes them, will be explained in its place 
 below; see 103 Rem. II. 
 
 5. With regard to the peculiarities, in which the historical 
 tenses differ from the leading tense?, the following points must be 
 attended to in reference to the preceding table. 
 
 a) A character, which runs through the whole active and pas- 
 sive form, is that the third person dual, which in the leading ten- 
 ses is the same as the second, (as pres. runr^roi/, rvnrfTov, pass. 
 ttocuedw, TvhxeG&o*,) in the historical tenses uniformly ter- 
 minates in >;f, as imperf. 2. trunrepov, 3. tTVTiTiTijv, pass. 2. tivn- 
 
 b) Besides this, the third person plural active affords but one 
 other permanent distinction between the leading and the historical 
 tenses. In the former it always terminates in aiv or at> (ovaiv, 
 or afff,) while, in the historical tenses, it has a fixed y, (ov, 
 
 c) In the passive form, on the other hand, the two classes of 
 tenses throughout the whole singular number and all the third 
 
 * It may still be called the connective vowel, though in these cases it 
 has nothing to connect, because in substance it is identical with that vow- 
 *el, and is dropped in those forms which do not take the connective vowel. 
 Compare e. *. tTt&f] with trtfrlf-V and trfot^fltp, in -which f or TJ be- 
 longs to the root. 
 
104 VEIIBS. INFLECTION. [ 88- 
 
 persons are distinguished. From the f-ica of the leading tenses is 
 uniformly derived {.i^v in the historical ; and from the T<U, both 
 singular and plural, in the former is always derived TO in the lat- 
 ter. Equally constant is the distinction between the terminations 
 oat and <io. 
 
 6. The du$l is wholy wanting in the first person of the active 
 voice, that is, it does not differ from the plural. 
 
 88. INFLECTION BY MODES AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 J. The imperfect and pluperfect exist only in the indicative 
 mode. All the other tenses exist in the other modes and partici- 
 ples, though by no means found in actual use in every word. The 
 future only always wants both the imperative and subjunctive. 
 102 2. The Greek language has the optative, in addition to the oth- 
 er usual modes, which derives its name from the signification im- 
 plying a wish, but is used in various others. Its precise force is 
 taught in the syntax ; it need here only be remarked, that its im- 
 port is substantially that of the imperfect tense subjunctive mode 
 in Latin, which is not found in Greek. 
 
 3. This remark is intimately connected with the following 
 main rule, relative to the inflection of the optative and subjunc- 
 tive, viz. 
 
 In the subjunctive mode, all the tenses are inflected according to the 
 analogy of the LEADING tenses of the indicative ; in the optative mode, 
 according to that of the HISTORICAL tenses.* 
 
 Consequently, in the table given above ( 87. 3), the upper 
 row contains the terminations also of the subjunctive mode, and 
 the under row those of the optative. 
 
 4. The subjunctive uniformly connects with the terminations 
 of the leading tenses the vowels w and rj, instead of the peculiar 
 vowels of those terminations in the indicative. The subjunctive 
 therefore, both active and passive, of the common conjugation, as 
 in XVTITW, may be easily formed by the following rule, viz. 
 
 * Accordingly the third person dual of the optative, even of the leading 
 tenses, always ends in ??J/, and in the third person sing, and plur. of the 
 passive voice always in TO. 
 
83.] VERBS. - INFLECTION. 105 
 
 Where Ike indicative mode has to, o, ou, the subjunctive has ft) ; 
 where the indicative has f, tt,, r h the subjunctive has '?;, y. E. g. 
 
 % 
 
 Ind. TV71T(Q, 0/U6J/, OUffJ, 0[4(Xl, &C. 
 
 Subj. rfTTTW, ODftfVi) ft)ff, WflCtl. &C. 
 
 k. 
 
 Ind. TvnrfTt, ;rou, &c. 
 Subj. xvjiTTjTe, ^rat, &c. 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Subj. TVHTys, r^ 77, &c. 
 
 The subjunctives of afl the different tenses and conjugations, 
 follow these endings of the present of the usual regular conjuga- 
 tion. 
 
 5. The optative has, as its peculiar characteristic, an t, which 
 it combines, with a vowel of the verb or the termination of the 
 tense, in a diphthong, that remains unchanged through all num- 
 bers and persons. The termination of the first person active is 
 either \u or >;i/, as TVTITOI,{.U, Tt,Qtir}v, and in the last case this ^ 
 remains, together with the diphthong, through all the other ter- 
 minations, as oi[4i, 04?, ot, &c. f/^v, tiijGi *ii?, tlijaaV) &c. In the 
 passive voice this diphthong stands uniformly directly before the 
 terminations of the historical tenses, as Tvniol-fitjp^ rt&f7-To. 
 
 6. The imperative has a second and third person in all the 
 numbers. Its terminations in all the tenses are these, viz. 
 
 Active S. . . , TOD D. TOV, TOJV P. Tf, TOJGUV or VTMV. 
 Passive S. (ao), a&o) D. a&ov, o&wv P. a#*, G&caaav or o&ow. 
 
 7. The infinitive has the following terminations, viz. 
 
 Active tiv or VVLI or ui. 
 Passive o&at. 
 
 8. The participles are all adjectives of three endings; the 
 feminine is therefore, agreeably to the rule in 58. 2, formed af- 
 
 ( ter the first declension of nouns. The masculine active has i/ro<? 
 in the genitive, which requires ? or v in the nominative, and in 
 the feminine <7. E. g. 
 
 14 
 
106 VERBS. - INFLECTION. [ 89. 
 
 uv or o'fb, ovoa, ov 
 G. ovrog. 
 
 , aaa, a*/ 
 
 G. ttVTOQ, 
 
 G. fviog. 
 
 {>, aa, vv 
 
 G. WTO?. 
 
 From this the participle of the perfect active is wholly differ- 
 ent, being uniformly as follows, viz. <?, v?a, o, G. oro. 
 The participles of the passive voice all end in pfvog, ??, ov. 
 
 REMARK. Among the modifications which the preceding in- 
 flections undergo, attention must be particularly paid to the con- 
 traction, not so much of the contract verbs properly so called, as of 
 some parts of the usual conjugation, where contraction takes place; 
 as will be shown below. See 95 Rem. 6. 103. III. G. 
 
 <$> 89. INFLECTION OF THE ACTIVE, PASSIVE, AND MIDDLE 
 VOICES. 
 
 1. The idea of passive includes in it the case, in which the 
 action that I suffer, is performed by myself. Such an action may 
 
 104 therefore be expressed by the forms of the passive voice. This 
 is what is called the reflective sense. The Greek language, how- 
 ever, goes farther, and uses the passive voice, in connexions in 
 which the verb has only a secondary connexion with the subject, 
 as I prepare myself a house. All these cases, which will be farther 
 explained in the syntax, make out the idea of middle ; and the 
 passive, when used to express them, is called the Middle Voice. 
 
 2. We have already seen above ( 87 ) the general differ- 
 ence of the active and passive forms. According to that differ- 
 ence, every active is converted into its natural passive ; which is 
 here, for greater convenience, exhibited only in the first person 
 of the indicative of the general tenses. 
 
 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 Impf. ov 
 
 Pres. co 
 
 Perf. , XK fjiat 
 
 Fut. \ ? a J* u * ! Aor. 
 
 ffti ovuai ii / ov onm> 
 
$ 89.] VERBS. INFLECTION. 107 
 
 3. N"ow in this natural passive form the present, the imperfect, 
 the perfect, and the pluperfect tenses express in all cases, where 
 the idea of middle can exist, that idea ; so that it is only from the 
 context, that it can be determined, in any given case in these 
 tenses, whether the signification is passive or middle. But in the 
 aorist and future, the above form of the passive is, for the most 
 part, used only as a middle, and for the passive idea a particular 
 form is used, which has this peculiarity, that the aorist, notwith- 
 standing its passive meaning, assumes nevertheless in its inflection 
 of person and number the active form ; while the future, formed 
 from this aorist by increment, passes again into the passive form, 
 viz. 
 
 Aor.Pass. **" 
 
 Fut. Pass. 
 
 { rjaouat. 
 
 In distinction from these forms, the above mentioned forms of the 
 natural passive are called in the Greek grammar the Future and 
 Jlorist Middle. The four first named tenses, however, the pres- 
 ent, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, which may be used equal- 
 ly in both significations, and might hence well be called Passive- 105 
 Middle forms, are in the Greek grammar simply called passive, 
 and can only be called middle in connexions, where they have a 
 reflective sense, and this must be ascertained by the syntax. 
 
 REMARK. It may be observed here that the medial form of 
 the aorist is not only banished from all verbs, which do not admit 
 the idea of the middle voice ; but that in many, the passive aorist 
 in &r]v and vjv has adopted the medial signification, and "is there- 
 fore used only in a limited, though not an inconsiderable class of 
 words. Here, however, every verb is assumed in the grammar 
 to be entire ; and it must be left to further remark to ascertain in 
 what parts any particular verb is defective. 
 
108 
 
 VERBS. INFLECTION. 
 
 [90. 
 
 90. INFLECTION BY TENSES. 
 
 1. As the tenses in general are comprehended in what has 
 been stated above, it is only further to be remarked, that some of 
 them appear in two forms, which bear in the grammar the names 
 of first and second, without any diversity of signification. The 
 double form of the perfect is found only in the active voice, that 
 of the future and aorist in the active, passive, and middle voices. 
 
 2. Besides this, the passive has still another third future, or 
 paulopost future, as it is called, which takes the reduplication of 
 the perfect, and of which the signification will be given in the 
 syntax. 
 
 3. All the tenses, belonging to the Greek verb, will now be 
 detailed according to the division given above of active, passive, 
 and middle. 
 
 NOTE. In the following table the augments and the termina- 
 tions of the first person singular are indicated. The larger dash 
 standsjbr the proper root of the verb ; the shorter, in the begin- 
 ning, for the first letter repeated in the augment. The aspirate 
 over the termination denotes that the preceding consonant is as- 
 pirated. 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 0) 
 
 Impf. 
 
 4 0V 
 
 1. Perf. 
 
 -4 or xci 
 
 1. Plup. 
 
 l-f iiv or xetv 
 
 2. Perf. 
 
 -f a 
 
 2. Plup. 
 
 4-4 IIV 
 
 1. Fut. 
 
 (Jli) 
 
 1. Aor. 
 
 1 oa 
 
 2. Fut. 
 
 to 
 
 2. Aor. 
 
 4 QV 
 
 3. Fut. 
 
 wanting 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 
 4 
 
 -4 
 4 S -4 
 
 MIDDLE. 
 
 like 
 
 the 
 
 passive 
 
 -6 
 
 ov(Jiai 
 4 Ofirjv 
 wanting. 
 
 J 06 4. The connexion of these terminations of the tenses or tem- 
 poral /orms, as they might be called, with the root of the various 
 verbs, requires a particular explanation, which is called the doc- 
 trine of the formation of the tenses. This, however, must be pre- 
 ceded by the consideration of the characteristic of the theme. 
 
91,9J." - VERBS. THEMK. 109 
 
 91. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THEME. 
 
 1. That letter, which immediately precedes the chief vowel 
 of a temporal termination, is called the characteristic of said tense, 
 viz. according to the foregoing table, <i is the characteristic of the 
 first future and first aorist active and middle. 
 
 2. More particularly, however, the letter which remains (af- 
 ter casting away every thing which belongs to the termination of 
 the conjugation) at the end of the root itself, is called the charao 
 teristic of the verb. It is necessary therefore only to cast away 
 the oj of the present tense, and the last letter or the two last let- 
 ters are the characteristic, as in fo'y-(o the y, in qovfvo) the fv.* 
 
 92. A TWOFOLD THEME. 
 
 1. That however, which remains, after dropping the w of the 
 present tense, is not always the pure root of the verb. For when 
 the other tenses are divested of their peculiar augments and ter- 
 minations, there remains with many verbs a root, more or less 
 diverse from that of the present. 
 
 2. Some of these differences consist merely in the changeable ' 
 nature of the vowel, or its being shortened or lengthened, as rp*'- 
 JTOJ tToanov, ftljpxa) (fctfo^xa, AfiTrcu ti.iTiov, qalvo} qavw f'yrjva, 
 IjctMa) tpulov, which are to be considered merely as changes in- 
 cident to inflection. 
 
 3. In others the difference is more considerable, where the 
 puie and simple root of the verb, as recognised in the other 
 tenses, is in the present by additions or changes rendered more 
 full and larger ; as TVTITM trvTrr^ root 7T77, in the present 
 TTJTT; r<7<jw tTayr<v, root TAP, in the present TA2S; 
 
 * The etymological root of the verb, which in (fovtvo) is (fOV, is not 
 here meant ; but the grammatical root of the verb, of which tv is also a 
 part. So in (ptfao) and riuaoj. f and er. not ), and ti. are the character- 
 istic?. 
 
110 VERBS. - THEME. [92 
 
 root AAB, AHB, in the present AAM- 
 BAN. 
 
 107 4. It appears, therefore, that the ancient and more simple form, 
 which has been preserved in some of the tenses, has passed over 
 into a more strengthened form in the present. But since the 
 grammar, for the sake of uniformity, always starts from the pres- 
 ent, m all verbs where more considerable discrepances of this 
 kind appear, an obsolete or ancient present, corresponding with the 
 form preserved in the other tenses, is assumed for the conven- 
 ience of grammatical use. 
 
 5. Every form of the present tense, whether obsolete or not, 
 from which you start in forming the single parts of any verb, is 
 called a theme. To prevent the unnecessary multiplication of 
 themes in this grammar, instead of an obsolete theme in co, its 
 root alone in capital letters is sometimes given, as 7T77, TAT, 
 fee. 
 
 6. In reality, this confounding of forms, like the similar one in 
 the declension of nouns ( 56), is an anomaly ; and accordingly 
 the catalogue of anomalous verbs (to be given below) consists prin- 
 cipally of verbs of this class. When, however, the difference of 
 the usual from the obsolete or assumed theme is common to a 
 considerable number of verbs, which also coincide in the charac- 
 teristic of the present tense in use, this also is reckoned among the 
 diversities of the usual conjugation. 
 
 7. Here are to be reckoned those verbs, in which the true 
 characteristic is only concealed in the perfect tense by insertion 
 or change of letters. These are of three sorts, viz. 
 
 a) In verbs whose characteristic is nr, the T is an addition for 
 the sake of strength, while the true characteristic is one of the 
 labials /?, TT, <jr.* E. g. 
 
 ytyvnrOD I hide, TVTTTOJ I strike, gamut I sew. 
 
 KPTB& TTII& 
 
 * See $ 20. 
 
92.] VERBS. THEME. Ill 
 
 b) Of most of the verbs in GG or TT, the true characteristic is 
 one of the palatics /, x, #. E. g. 
 
 raoaaj I dispose, qoiGoaj I shudder, /?/;aaw I cough. 
 TAT& <t>PIK& BHX& 
 
 Some, however, have one of the linguals ; see Rem. 2 and 3 be- 
 low. 
 
 -c) Of most of those in (Dor. ad) the true characteristic is 
 <?, but several have y. E. g. , 
 
 yoda) I say, ow I smell xpw I scream. 
 &PAA& OA& KPAFSl 
 
 8. All these verbs retain the fuller and less simple form in the 
 present and imperfect of the active an^ passive, while every thing 
 else is formed from the simple theme. For the sake, however, 
 of brevity and grammatical uniformity, these differences of the two 
 themes are usually treated as common inflections ; and as if e. g. 
 in TV^O), TVTtffc, &c. the T of the present TVTHOJ were dropped ; 
 or as if before the a in qrpa'aw (fut. of qrpajcu), not the simpler 
 characteristic d, but were omitted. 
 
 REM. I. To the verbs in , whose pure characteristic is #, be- 
 longs the greatest number of derivatives in /o> and aoj. To the 
 characteristic y belong all that indicate a sound or call, as xao> 
 I scream, Gifvu^o) I groan, TOI'^OJ I chirp, OlfHU&a I lament &-C. with 
 some others, particularly OTUOJ I drop, GTI^W I prick, oiijota} I 
 prop, oq>vat I palpitate. The three following, viz. v\am I drive 
 about, xAa^oi / sound, oufai(o I soimd a trumpet, on the contrary, 
 have yy as the true characteristic, (future n^uytw &c.) 
 
 REM. 2. On the other hand, some verbs in GG or IT have, as 
 the true characteristic, not the palatic, but the lingual, and follow 
 therefore the analogy of those in C, as juaaaco / form, THXGGO) I 
 stroke, miaow I husk grain, fut. TI/.UGO) &c. 
 
 REM. 3. Some verbs vibrate between the two characteristics d 
 and y. See in the list of anomalous verbs aoTia^cu, 7ra/w, fiaGid- 
 
 d), VttGOb). 
 
 REM. 4. It has been stated in general terms above, that in the 
 characteristic TIT, the true characteristic is always one of the labial 
 mutes ; and in era or TT, one of the palatics, or according to Rem. 
 2,- one of the linguals. Which particular letter, however, it may 
 be in any single case, is for the most part indifferent ; since, as we 
 shall see below, most verbs are in use only in those tenses (the 
 first future, first aorist^ and perfect,) which are obliged, in obedi- 
 ence to the general rules ( 1 8 &c.) to change this pure charac- 
 
112 VERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. [$ 98. 
 
 teristic ; and indeed the three mutes also in the like way. For ex- 
 ample, from the future /ty'w it is clear, that the true characteristic 
 of P^OGM is a palatic, but not which. It is true we are able, in 
 these cases, to conjecture from kindred forms, which palatic is the 
 true characteristic ; but as the declension of the verb is not there- 
 ^ by affected, it is not unsafe in all verbs, whose true characteristic 
 is not obvious from the conjugation, to regard n as the true char- 
 acteristic of those in m, and of those in oa or TT either y or d 
 (Rem. 2), which latter is the basis of the kindred termination . 
 It will remain therefore only to take note of the few verbs, which 
 really, in one of their tenses, retain unchanged a different letter 
 from the regular characteristic of that tense, viz. 
 
 3) In m, pkdnTa) I injure, xQvmco I conceal^ in both of 
 which the true characteristic is /?. yunrw I sew, frama) I bury, 
 ffx7irw I dig, Qimto I throw, &@vm(o I break, in all which the 
 true characteristic is (p. 
 
 b) In oa, TT, qpp/aaco / shudder, the true characteristic of 
 which is x. 
 
 93. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 
 
 1. The attaching of the temporal endings, as they are given 
 above ( 90), cannot take place directly, nor without consideration 
 of the general rules of euphony ; which require, that the charac- 
 teristic of the verb, if it do not harmonize with the ending, should 
 undergo various changes and modifications. In addition to this, 
 various peculiarities, founded in usage, are to be considered. 
 
 2. The subject will be more intelligible, if we observe what 
 tenses are derived one from another, or coincide one with anoth- 
 er. The tenses in this respect are divided into three classes, in 
 which they are arranged in the order, in which, in most verbs, 
 they are found. 
 
 1. 1 Present and imperfect active and passive. 
 
 II. First future and aorist active and middle. 
 
 First perfect and pluperfect, with perfect and pluperfect pas- 
 sive, and paulopost future. 
 First aorist and first future passive. 
 
 III. Second future and second aorist active and middle, second 
 
 aorist and second future passive, second perfect and plu- 
 perfect. 
 
I 94.] VERBS. TENSES. 113 
 
 Should any particular verb, made use of as a paradigm, want 
 any of the preceding tenses, such tense of that verb is neverthe- 
 less inserted in the grammar, as a guide to other verbs, in which 
 it is used. 
 
 Every change made in a verb in the tenses quoted first in ei- 110 
 ther of the preceding series, takes place in the other tenses of the 
 same series, unless some particular rule or exception prevent. 
 
 REMARK. The circumstances in which the tenses, in each of 
 the preceding series, for the most part, agree with each other, 
 are principally the following, viz. 
 
 a) The tenses in series I. make no alteration whatever in 
 the radical form of the present active, which is in real use ; and 
 where the present active belongs itself to a strengthened form of 
 the root (in conformity with what was stated above), it is found in 
 all the tenses of this series, as TVTITW, trlmrov &c. while the tenses 
 of the second series, for the most part, and of the third series 
 altogether, are derived from the simple form. 
 
 b) The series II. comprises all those tenses, in which the 
 characteristic of the verb is generally changed by inflection, par- 
 ticularly by the addition of a consonant in the termination, as TU- 
 
 1/JO) &C. 
 
 c) The series III. on the other hand, retains unchanged 
 the characteristic of the verb, as hvnr}v, and alters only occasion- 
 ally the radical vowel. In this series of tenses alone, therefore, 
 when the first series contains a strengthened form the true 
 characteristic of the verb is to be recognised, since in the second 
 series, should the said characteristic be a palatic, though this fact 
 may be known, yet it cannot be ascertained by mere inspection, 
 which of the palatics is the characteristic. 
 
 94. THE TENSES. 
 
 I. In order to learn the formation of the tenses, it is necessary 
 to assume only one part or form of the verb, from which to derive 
 them all ; and the present indicative active is made use of for this. 
 All the other varieties of person and mode as soon as this one 
 person is known are derived uniformly in all verbs, according to 
 the manner to be unfolded in the paradigms below, with the qual- 
 ifications expressed in 87, 88. 
 1 5 
 
114 VEfe-BS. FUTURE ACTIVE. [ 95. 
 
 REMARK. The perfect alone is of a form so peculiar, that sever- 
 al of its personal and modal inflections must be learned at the 
 same time, as being in some degree independent of each other 
 (97,98.) 
 
 2. Several tenses are formed in a manner so simple and regu- 
 lar throughout, that they may be satisfactorily learned from the ex- 
 amples, which follow below. For more convenient inspection, 
 however, they are here detailed in the usual conjugation in w. 
 The tenses then are derived as follows, viz. 
 
 a) From the present in o>, the imperfect in o v, TI'TTTW tTvnrov. 
 
 b) From every tense in to, a passive in o^uca. From the pres- 
 ent active, the present passive, IVTTTW ivmofAai, and from the fu- 
 ll } ture, the future middle, rvipw xm^o^ai. Under this moreover is 
 
 included the second future or the circumflexed future in o~, middle 
 ovpcu ( 101. 2.) 
 
 c) From every tense in or, a passive in opyv. From the im- 
 perfect, the imperfect passive, tTVTtrop, ITVTTTO^V^ and from the 
 second aorist active, the second aorist middle, 6Tvmn> tivno^r t v. 
 
 d) From the first aorist, the aorist middle, merely by append- 
 ing the syllable yu} v i t^vipa tTvtyapiiv. 
 
 e) From the perfect in every case the pluperfect ; in the ac- 
 tive voice, by changing the a into j>, tlrvtytt tTtTvqtu>, in the 
 passive voice, by changing put into ^?/j>, Tttvpjuai mri^u/w^v. 
 
 f) From each of the two forms of the aorist passive, the cor- 
 responding future passive is formed by changing yv into 
 
 and livjiqv TVtftfrrtQQftai, rvnijoopai. 
 The other tenses have their particular rules. 
 
 95. "FUTURE ACTIVE. 
 
 1. The principal form of the Greek future is the termination 
 ocw. It is found in by far the greatest number of verbs, and is 
 thence called the first future, as navo), fut. navow. 
 
 2. When the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, the 
 changes incident to or take place, viz. 
 
95.] VERBS. - FUTURE ACTIVE. 115 
 
 xco, Ttv%w, fut. Ai'i'w, 
 
 ), Jlfi&O), TTf'jO^W, - (JTUUJCO, 7ll(JO},7l()Ga}. 
 
 3. In verbs in Tir, in aa or rr, and in , the real characteristic 
 according to 92 is adopted. In consequence rrr is changed in- 
 to 1/;, ffff or TT into , and into a, e. g. 
 
 ( TYII&) fut. 
 
 raaaco 
 
 In the rarer cases, as is also taught in the same place, 
 changed into , and GO or rr into a, e. g. 
 
 4. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel, the syllable 
 before the ending <TW is by rule long, whatever be itfe quantity in 
 the present, e. g. 
 
 daxQvw (i;) fut. dctxpvao) ({;) 
 
 T/CO (l) - Tlfffil (t) 
 
 In consequence of which rule f and o are changed into >; and 
 <M, as qptAuu, (^//Aoto. gnA?J(7a), ^Aojaca. 
 
 For exceptions- to this, see Rem. 3 below. 
 
 5. The characteristic a is changed into ?; in the future, except 
 when one of the vowels f , /, or the consonant p precedes, in which 
 case the future has long ,* e. g. 
 
 w, fut. Tiuyaoj, Kj 
 
 taw (a) 
 
 avw () 
 
 For exceptions see below Rem. 4. 
 
 * Cdmpare the similar rules in the first declension $ 34. 5, and in the 
 feminine of adiertives 59. ?. 
 
116 VERBS. - FUTURE ACTIVE. [<> 95. 
 
 6. On the other hand, the penult syllables of the futures in 
 aero), law, vow, are always short when they come from verbs in eo 
 or in (jo, TT, as in qp^aow, dixdoo}, vo^inta, xAuffto, from 
 <?txao), vo[*i(o, xAt;co, and in TrAcmco, 7ir/<7co, from nAaaaco, 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. When the ff of the future is preceded by a labial, the change 
 takes place mentioned 25. 4, as GTitvdM, fut. OTTfluw. 
 
 2. In the Doric dialect, in the first future and aorist, most of 
 the verbs in , ffff, ", which commonly have a, take an , as 
 xo/u/j-o), &xioj, from xo/Wto), &xaw. 
 
 3- Several verbs, that have a short vowel as a characteristic, 
 have the same unchanged in the future, as y^Aco / laugh, antiw 
 / draw, fut. affor a<Wa> I praise, xaA*o) / ca//, Vo) / &oi/, fut. *<rw 
 apdoj I plough, fut. daw aWw / fulfil, lyvm I extract, fut lyffw. 
 Some verbs vibrate between both forms, partly in the future itself, 
 as7iot>ao / desire, fut. HTOJ and 7}<7co, partly in the tenses which are 
 derived therefrom (compare 92. 2.) as AU'GJ 1 loose, fut Auaw, 
 perf. pass, \tlviiui. See in the anomalous verbs aivtw, aipta), 
 dio), TTO^'CO, dvo), ftvw, Ivw. 
 
 4. The verb axpoaojua* / Aear has oMQoaaofjiai, contrary to the 
 analogy of fioao) fut. rjao). On the other hand, ^w, ^^aOjUat, f. 
 ^>J(jco, &c. is contrary to the analogy of dpa' co, acrw. 
 113 5. The following six, viz. /iw / pour out, pf'w I flow, via) 1 
 swim, -nfa'a) I sail, nvf'co I blow, t^'w 7 rim, have tv in the future, 
 as yfvcw, ptvaofitti, &c. see anomalous verbs. The two follow- 
 ing, XCK/W / burn and xAa/oj / weep, whose original form, preserv- 
 ed in the Attic dialect, is xAo>, xco, with a long a, take av in the 
 future, as xuvaaj, xhavaw, see anomalous verbs. 
 
 ATTIC FUTURE. 
 
 6. When the termination CM is preceded by a short vowel, the 
 <y is occasionally omitted, in the Ionic dialect, and, in the Attic di- 
 alect, the two syllables are contracted into one, and marked witk 
 a circumflex, as from rtKtw I finish, 
 
 Fut. TthiGOJ TtktGtig, &C. 
 
 Ion. rsA/eo r*A? rfitft, Tfh'ofAfv xfliext 
 Att. re Ao7 Tf?.f7? Tftel Tthovfifv 
 
 From (3i@aw I lead, 
 
 Fut. /?J/?fJCO (3t,(j(X(Jl? &LC. 
 
 Ion. (/?/?'co /?*/?*{ &c. obsolete.) 
 Att. /3*/?o> fiipqg (lifta pipwptv fitfa 
 
 The same prevails in the modes and participles, and in the mid- 
 dle voice. See the present tense of the contract verbs below. 
 
\) 96.] VERBS. - FIRST AND SECOND AORIST. 117 
 
 , _ ! _ , __ __ _ 
 
 7. If the short vowel be *, the two vowels do not admit of 
 contraction. In this case, after the omission of the a, the w is 
 circumflexed, and inflected, in every respect, like a contract verb 
 in o as from 
 
 Fut. xo/u/0a> xo[*lo(,g &c. 
 
 Att. xoftiQ) xOfM*?? tu tovfittv MM* iQVGi. Mid. xof4iov(.tai>&ic. 
 
 In the Attic writers, this is the most usual form of the future in 
 verbs of this class. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 8. When, in order to form the future, the termination i'co, and 
 the o>, fig &c. ovfica &,c. formed from it, are attached to the char- 
 acteristic of the verb, it is called the second future ; which form of 
 the future is the most common with verbs, whose characteristic is 
 A, JM, i/, Q, with respect to which more precise rules are given be- 
 low in 101. A formation of the same kind, in some other verbs, is 
 to be regarded as wholly anomalous ; see in the anomalous verbs 
 in(x^0f4(xt and i'&uat,. 
 
 9. The Dorics attach the terminations w &c. ovpev, ovftut (or, 
 more exactly in the Doric dialect, tvptv, tu(*ai>) to theory (|, t/;) 
 of the common first future, as ri'i/'<u, rin^ovfiev or TvyjevptV) and 
 this form is also used in the Attic and common diaiect, as the 
 future middle of some verbs ; as from nviyw I suffocate, Fut. Mid. 
 
 10. An entirely anomalous form of the future, viz. in 
 may be seen under nivw and l(j&iw, in the list of anomalous 
 verb?!. 
 
 , 96. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST. 
 
 1. The Aorist terminating in a. is called the First Aorist. This, 
 however, has a twofold formation, adding either oa or simply a, to 
 the characteristic of the verb. In the same cases where the fu- 
 ture, according to the rule, ends in aw that is, universally, ex- 
 cept in verbs in A, ju, i/, p the first aorist ends in aa, wherein the 
 same changes take place, as in aw, viz. 
 
 aor. I. 
 
 Tli'fW, 7lVfV(JO)< - tTIVtVGCC. 
 
118 VERBS. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST. [ 96. 
 
 Verbs, on the other hand, in A, ^, v, p, whose future ends not in 
 <ico, but in co, have this aorist not in aa, but in a alone ; the par- 
 ticular rules for which will be given in treating 'verbs of this class 
 below iri 101. 
 
 REM. .1. A few verbs of the anomalous class, though they are 
 not verbs in A, ^ v, Q, form their first aorist in a instea'd of <r, as, 
 /aw, jjgco. For the first aorist in xa.of some verbs in [.u, as tdm- 
 xa, see those verbs below. 
 
 2. The aorist in ov is called the Second Aorist. The termina- 
 tion is immediately attached to the characteristic of the verb; 
 where, however, three things are to be observed, viz. 
 
 a) The second aorist is uniformly derived from the pure and 
 
 simple characteristic, when the same exists, according to 
 92, in a strengthened form in the present 
 
 b) The penult of the present is commonly shortened in tho 
 
 second aorist. 
 
 c) The f in the radical syllable of the verb is usually changed 
 
 into , in the second aorist. 
 
 3. It is only by these changes that the second aorist is distin- 
 guished, in form, from the imperfect ; and all verbs which cannot 
 undergo these changes (e. g. tpvoi), /pagrw, &c.) or where there 
 would be no difference but the quantity of the vowel (as in xAZvw), 
 have no second aorist* 
 
 4. It is also altogether wanting in derivative verbs, formed 
 from other words with a regular termination, like w, iw, a/ you, 
 vvw, turn, o'w, aw, and *w. 
 
 REM. 2. Of other verbs, moreover, the greater part have the 
 first aorist. and much the smaller portion the second, although it 
 is assumed in the grammar, even in verbs which do not possess it, 
 in order to teach the formation of other tenses, particularly the 
 second aorist passive.! 
 
 * They may have nevertheless a second aorist passive, as tyodcpfjv. 
 see $ 100. 
 
 t The learner is therefore to be apprised, that in the following 1 exam- 
 ples the forms trtttzov, ?K$v(3ov, tgycKpov, yMayov, tXCtOV, &c. are 
 
 either not found at all in Greek writers, or very rarely; and that J'rui/'tt, 
 
96.] VERBS. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST. 119 
 
 5. In conformity with these principles, the changes and abbre- 
 viations (indicated generally above in no. 2,) of the characteristic 
 and vowel of the present into the characteristic and vowel of the 
 second aorist, are accomplished in the respective cases, as fol- 
 lows, viz. 
 
 Pres. A A Sec. Aor. A /?t*AAw tfjahov 
 
 / 71 TV71TOJ tTVHOV 
 
 TIT < 8 XQVnTO) tXOV&OV 
 
 i I >/ 
 
 \ (f QU71TW tQQKtyOV 
 
 (iff, IT y aAAaaoca ^AAayov 
 
 tqoudov 
 
 ' y xo:,"o> txyctyov 
 
 at a x/oj ty.a.ov 
 
 ?/ a Atf^fo 
 
 or a in the verbs A, /w, v, 
 v ytvyoi 
 
 REM. 3. To avoid the danger of mistaking an imperfect, or in 
 other modes a present, for the second aorist, or the reverse, it is 
 to be observed in addition to the rule in no. 3, that, as was taught 
 94. 2, the real imperfect tense of a verb always conforms exact- 
 ly to the actual present tense, and consequently, in the indicative 
 mode, that only is the true aorist, which differs in form from the 
 imperfect in actual use, and, in the other modes, from the present 
 in actual use. Accordingly tytjuqov from /paqroo, can only be im- 
 perfect, and '/cuqr,g only subjunctive present. 
 
 REM. 4. In some verbs, the second aorist has the syllable be- 
 fore the termination long, content with the other points of differ- 
 ence noted in no. 2, as ZVQOV, t/ftUtaroy, &c. see the anomalous 
 verbs fvp/axco, jftUtor&ff. In a few cases, where the vowel would 
 otherwise be long by position, a transposition restores the common 
 relation between the present and second aorist, as d'tyxo), J&ittxov. 
 See the anomalous verbs degxtu, nt'y&fn. 
 
 REM. 5. The second aorists in ^y, WP, vv, and the syncopated 
 aorists, are treated below under the head of verbs in /tu, 110 
 Rem. 5, 6. 
 
 /;AAa|a, &:c. are used instead of them. The former, however, are given 
 to show the formation of the second aorist passive of these verbs, which 
 actually occurs in the Greek writers. 
 
120 VERBS. - FIRST AND SECOND PERFECT. [ 97. 
 
 97. FIRST AND SECOND PERFECT. 
 
 H6 1. The first perfect has two terminations, both ending in , 
 ?, &c. 
 
 a) If the characteristic of the verb be /?, TI, qp, or y, x, #, this 
 letter is (or remains) aspirated, and a is attached to it. E. g. 
 
 ypdqpw, perf. 
 
 If the characteristic of the present is changed ( 92), it can still 
 be recognised in the future ; and as the same letters, which effect 
 in the future a change into | or i/>, produce in the perfect a ^ or 
 qp, so to form the perfect from the future it is only necessary to 
 change those double letters into these aspirates. E. g. 
 TOtoao) (rao)), perf. r*r/a 
 
 TVUTO) (ri^/w), - TtTVCpCC. 
 
 b) In all other cases the first perfect ends in x. This termi- 
 nation in the verbs which make the future in dtu, is attached to 
 the root in the same manner, and with the same changes, as the 
 aw, e. g. 
 
 TIO> rZ(7fc> erf. TtTMOt 
 
 <77rxa 
 nvtto (nvtvow) ntnvtvxa. 
 
 So also the following, with the omission of the linguals, viz. 
 
 perf. ntnewa 
 
 The verbs in A, JM, v, p will be considered below in 101. 
 
 2. Several verbs have a second perfect in a. It is this form, 
 which, in the elder grammarians, in consequence of its being, in 
 a few rare instances, found to have an intransitive or reflected 
 
 * With l long as in the present. 
 
VERBS. - FIRST AND SECOND PERFECT. 121 
 
 meaning, was called the Perfect Middle. In reality, however, it 
 is found, both in virtue of its prevalent signification and of the 
 analogy of its formation, to be a second form of the perfect active. 
 This form attaches the same terminations, as the first perfect, to 
 the characteristic of the present, without any change, as A?i#<w 
 A*'Aj?#a, fffJTia) aF?;7i, (ffvyo) ntytvya. 
 
 3. There are three things here to be noted, viz. 
 
 a) When *he characteristic of the present is not simple ( 92) 
 the simple characteristic appears in the second perfect, precisely 
 as in the second aorist, e. g. 
 
 ri G a to (nAHFQ) ntT 
 
 oa> 
 
 b) In general this form prefers a long vowel in the penult, 
 even when the second aorist has a short one. Hence the second 
 perfect of yevyaj (second aorist tyvyov) is ntqevya. The short 
 a, accordingly, whether it exists simply in the present, or has been 
 introduced into the other tenses by shortening the y or at of the 
 present, is commonly changed in the second perfect into t;, e. g. 
 
 (fut. #~>lw) 
 
 (aor. 2 tt.udov) 
 data) (aor. 2 idaov^) 
 But sometimes this is merely made long, as xpw 
 
 c) This perfect, moreover, is inclined to the vowel o, and it 
 therefore not only remains unaltered, as in XO'TIZW (A 077/2) x*xo- 
 jra, but it is also adopted as a change of t, as &ipxey, &'&>pxa, 
 TEKQ, TITOXO. (see anomalous verbs T/XT<W). This circumstance 
 operates in a twofold manner on the ft of the present, according 
 as f or t is the basis of this diphthong, which is to be determined 
 from those tenses that shorten the vowel, a e second future and 
 second aorist. If the radical letter be f, w uch is the case only 
 
 * The mode of writing didj]U as also ntqprjvu, OtOi'Ticc &c. is incor- 
 rect. 
 
 16 
 
122 VERBS. PERFECJ PASSIVE. [ 98. 
 
 in verbs in A, /u, v, p, then ft is changed in o ; if it be *, then it is 
 changed into ot, e. g. 
 
 (fut. <77ipo>) 
 
 (aor. 2 A7iOi>) 
 
 4. The same remark may be made of the second perfect, which 
 was made above ( 96. 4) of the second aorist, viz. that it exists 
 118 only in primitive verbs, and that the greater number of these, as 
 also all derivatives, have only the first perfect. 
 
 REM. 1. Some first perfects also change t into o. Such are 
 ntftTiw I send, niTtOf.iq.ct' xAf'nrw / steal, xfxAoqrer ryZTio) I turn, and 
 TQtfy to I nourish, Ttrpoqct. See also Afyw, ovvn'ko%a, among the 
 anomalous verbs. In like manner ft, is changed into ot, in didotxtt 
 from the anomalous AE/Q. 
 
 HEM. 2. It has already been remarked ( 84 Rem. 1), that af- 
 ter the Attic reduplication the vowel of the perfect is shortened, 
 as dxovw axfjxoa, akfi'qo) aAi?Afqra, EAET(")i lh'ih;\)a. 
 
 REM. 3. For several shortened forms of the perfect, as 
 for fii'(ji]%(/., />f/? ( Mf for /;te/?>/xa J i'&c. see 110 Rem. 4. 
 
 ^ 93. PERFECT PASSIVE. 
 
 1. In the Perfect Passive the terminations pat, ucu, rat, &,c. 
 and in the Pluperfect, pi]v, GO, TO, &c- are attached to the charac- 
 teristic of the verb, not, as in the other passive forms, by means 
 of the vowel of connexion ( 87 Rem. 1, o^at, fiat, &c.) but im- 
 mediately, inasmuch as the characteristic precedes the &> or x<x of 
 the regular first perfect active, from which the perfect passive is 
 formed. 
 
 REM. 1. When therefore a verb has no first perfect in use, it is 
 supplied in the grammar, as in falno) (A&Utffifc) the first perfect 
 tihtiqa is supplied, to form therefrom the perfect passive Af'Aft/t- 
 
 jLlCtl. 
 
 2. There are accordingly two general rules for the formation 
 of this tense, viz. 
 
 T. If the first perfect have qc, #, these letters undergo a change 
 
98.] VERBS. - PERFECT PASSIVE. 
 
 before , a, r, according to the general rules in 20, 22, 23. 
 Hence from ttrvtfa and 7Tt'-ihf%a are formed 
 
 TtTV-flfAtil, rfVv-^/OMj TtTV-Tliai,, 
 
 for -q[iai, -grocu, -qrai. 
 
 for - 
 
 fn order to avoid the concurrence of fftree consonants (19. 2 ) in 
 the farther inflection of this tense and the pluperfect, the a is omit- 
 ted from the terminations a#*, a&cu, a#w, &c. e. g. 
 2d pers. pi. t&ftXp&t for -(fade or -*/'#*, 
 Inf. 7i7tte'&ai, for -<7#ca or -#*. 
 
 The third person plural in i/rca and JTO cannot be formed, con- 
 sistently with the analogy of the Greek language ; and its place is 
 therefore supplied by an union of the participle with a tense of 
 tlvui to be ; see the paradigm of XVTIIW below. 
 
 REM. 2. In the Ionic dialect, however, instead of VTCU, and VTO 
 there is found UTUI and aro, see 103 Rem. III. 5. 
 
 II. The second general rule for the formation of the perfect 
 passive is. that when the first perfect active is formed in xa, this 
 termination is merely changed into ca, and this as follows, viz. 
 
 a) If the characteristic of the verb be a vowel, this change is 
 directly effected, e. g. 
 
 nfnolijxa itTt6ii)fH>u, oat, rat, &c. 
 (fi'w, vtvooj,) vt'vtiy.u vtvtVjiai, octi, xui, &c. 
 
 b) But when before the x of the first perfect active, as also 
 before the ow of the future, a lingual has dropped out, its place is 
 supplied by an <7 before the terminations of the perfect passive, e. g. 
 
 ni'iftiGfUU, 3 pers. Tii^fiarat &c. 
 r;<TTi &c. 
 
 IU.I &c. 
 
 Before another <i, however, this a is again omitted, as 2. pers. 
 sing. Titntt-aat, 2. pi. ntTitiG&f, 3. pi. as above. rf 
 
 c) The rules for the perf. pass, of verbs in A, /u, v, p, are given 
 separately in vj 101 below. 
 
124 VERBS. PERFECT PASSIVE. PS 98. 
 
 REM. 3. The o of the perfect active, which is derived from an 
 s in the present, does not pass into the perfect passive, as jdfVrrco 
 (xfxAor/a) K&Ai/Ujuat. But the following three verbs, viz. TQIIKO I 
 turn, TQtq-co I nourish, arpfyto / turn (trans.) have in the perfect 
 passive a peculiar change of the f into a, as TtTpot[A[A(u,rtT(jayat, 
 &c. Ti&Qttftnai, from rg/eqtcu (that is &PL'<l>Q,see 18. 2), arrpajK- 
 uat, 
 
 REM. 4. Some verbs change the diphthong fv, which exists 
 originally in their present, or is assumed by them in the future, 
 into v in the perfect passive, as Tfvyco, (rtTtvya) Ttrvyfjictt. So 
 also qfvyw, and nvtto [nvtvoco ntnvtvxa) ntnvv/uai. In %tio (/<> 
 <7to) this change is already made in the perfect active xfjft/xa, 
 Kt%vpcu Of the variable quantity of some verbs in *iw, vw, see 
 above 95 Rem. 3. 
 
 REM. 5. The CF before the termination of the perfect passive is 
 assumed by several verbs, which have no lingual, but a vowel for 
 their characteristic, viz. pure verbs, as axotxw ^'xoi><7|uca, xftevw 
 Mtxifavapat) and particularly several of those which retain a short 
 vowel unchanged, as re Aao (T^GOJ) TtTt'hfGftai,. 
 
 REM. 6. When yy is brought to stand before p, one y is omitted, 
 as tfa'yjroD, perf. tkylfyya, pass. AfjAty/uaf o<piyya),(O<f>iyttat.. The 
 other terminations follow the rule, as Ihyfoygai,, yxTou, &c. eo- 
 , &c. 
 
 REM. 7. In like manner where the perfect passive would have 
 /i*|U, and another /M is added from the root of the verb, one {*, it 
 naturally omitted, as xafinTw, ft&cqu/Kft*, xtKantyat, &c. 
 
 REM. 8. The subjunctive and optative can only be formed, 
 when the termination is preceded by a vowel allied with the ter- 
 mination of the subjunctive, or which combines with the t of the 
 optative, e. g. 
 
 xroo/ucu, xtKTijpai, Subj. 
 
 Opt xfXTyfAqv, HiXTyo, xf'xr^ro, &c. 
 
 Tit QUO), 7lnQCl[4CCl, Opt. TffneQdlfl^V, &C. 
 
 Also when the vowel is i or w, optative tenses may be formed (as 
 v is a kindred vowel) by the suppression of the i. The vowel 
 must, however, be long, as Kvw, l&vpou, (see 95 Rem. 3.) Opt 
 3. pers. ta'AJro. The use, however, of all these forms is very 
 limited, and usually superseded by composition with the tenses of 
 tlvttt. See the paradigm. 
 
99, 100.] VERBS. pFUTURE AND AORIST3 PASS. 125 
 
 99. THIRD FUTURE. 
 
 The Third Future or Paulopostfuture of the passive, in respect 
 to signification ( 139) and form, is derived from the perfect pas- 
 sive, of which it retains the augment, substituting aoficu for the 
 termination of the perfect passive. It is therefore only necessary 
 to take the ending of the 2d pers. perf. pass, in out, (ty<xt, |ca) and 
 change the at into opai, e. g. 
 
 REM. 1. In those cases, in which the vowel of the first future 
 is shortened in the perfect passive, the third future makes it long 
 again as Ke\v(JOf.ia.i. See 95 Rem. 3. 
 
 REM. 2. The verbs which have the temporal augment, and 
 the verbs A, /u, i>, Q, have no paulopostfuture. 
 
 100. FIRST AND SECOND AORIST PASSIVE. 
 
 1. All verbs form the aorist of the passive either in Qyv orrjv, 
 and many in both ways at once. The former is called first aorist, 
 the latter second aorist ; see above 89. 3. 
 
 2. The first aorist passive attaches fti]v to the characteristic 
 of the verb, e. g. 
 
 It is here understood (see 20), that the characteristic of the 
 verb, when it is a smooth or middle mute, is changed into one of 
 the aspirates, e. g. 
 
 TV71TW ( TTII&) tTV(f&f}V 
 
VERB?. FIRST AND SECOND AOR. PASS. [ 100. 
 
 3. Tn respect to the remaining changes of the root, which take 
 place in the series of the first future ( 93. 2), the first aorist pas- 
 sive governs itself principally according to the perfect passive, in- 
 asmuch as it assumes <7 in the same* cases, e. g. 
 
 The radical vowel is also in most cases changed in the same 
 way, as in the perfect passive, e. g. 
 
 - ltlf41]&T]V 
 
 4. The second aorist passive attaches r\v to the pure charac- 
 teristic of the verb, and in so doing, follows all the rules given 
 above for the second aorist active. It is necessary therefore to 
 form the second aorist active, whether it is used or not, and then 
 change the ov into w, e. g. 
 
 TU7TTO), 
 
 REM. 1. A few verbs, whose characteristic is a vowel, assume 
 in the first aorist passive, without having it in the perfect passive, 
 as nuvQD, Tttnuvf-tat,, tnuvo&rjv' [Avuoftcu, (/itfJivfif/tui^ IftvrjG'O'ijv. 
 For the opposite exception oojw, aiGWGpui, low-driv, see anom- 
 alous verbs. 
 
 REM. 2. Those which, without being verbs in A, p, v, p, change 
 their t into a in the perfect passive ( 98 Rem. 3), retain their t 
 in the first aorist, as 
 
 REM. 3. As it is not possible in the passive voice, for a confu- 
 sion of the imperfect and second aorist to take place as in the ac- 
 tive, so those verbs have a second aorist passive, which, according 
 to 96. 3, cannot have it in the active. In this case it may be 
 formed from the imperfect active, as in other cases it i formed 
 from the second aorist active. The rule, however, prevails that 
 the long vowel is made short in the second aorist, e. g. 
 yydyw, impf. ty^aqov, tyQetyyv 
 Tpifioj. impf. iTQlpov, ixQipriv (short t). 
 REM. 4. For the same reason also some verbs, whose radical 
 vowel is f, form a second aorist passive, without changing e into 
 a, as qcAfyeo, fytiytjv. 
 
101.] VERBS IN A, <U, V, p. 127 
 
 101. VERBS IX A, fl f V y {>. 
 
 1. The verbs, whose characteristic is one of the four letters A, 
 jw, Vj p, depart so extensively from the analogy of the other verbs, 
 that it is necessary here to exhibit their peculiarities in one con- 
 nected view. 
 
 2. All verbs of this class, strictly speaking, want the first future 
 in aw, and have instead of it the second future ( 95 Rem. 8.) 
 The termination of this future, in the Ionic, is t'w, *'$, Mid. t'oiiai, 
 &c. and this in the common dialect is contracted as follows, vix. 
 
 ), fut. vfpi'o), com. 
 , fut. f.ttt-io), com. 
 Of this future the further inflection (wo7, f7g, *7, ov[*6v. Hie. 
 OVGI, &c. Mid. oi^ciat, jj, iirai, &c. see in the paradigm,) is to be 
 compared with the present of the contract verbs in *w ( 1 05.) 
 
 3. The syllable before the termination, when it is long in the 
 present, is without exception shortened in this future, e. g. 
 
 l/'ttAP.OJ, (JrMACO, fut. l/'uAcu, (JTfkd) 
 
 xo/i>eo, a t uvi'0), fut. xoivo)* uuvvw. 
 
 To this end, the diphthong at is changed into short a, and ft, into 
 ^, as (/.too, fut. aooy xrf/rw, fut. y.iivw. 
 
 4. The first aorist of these verbs is formed also, without a, in 
 a alone. They retain therewith the characteristic as it is in the 
 future, but lengthen again the syllable before the termination, in- 
 dependently however of the present, as they either simply lengthen 
 the vowel of the future, e. g. 
 
 i/AAco (T//.OJ) i-Til.u. 
 i'xolva 
 
 or they- change the t of the future into , and into y, e. g. 
 
 ). r; tVco, (uev &j, OT^AW, Ttvta) fyftva. tartila, frttvu 
 
 Several verbs, however, which have at, in the present, take a long 123 
 in the first aorist, as rrfoaii'f) (nfQavu), *W(wi/, Inf. 
 
128 VERBS IN A, jU, I/, Q. [ 101. 
 
 REM. 1. The verbs UIQW and a'AAo^ca beginning with a, have 
 in the first aorist, which, only in the indicative, in consequence 
 of the augment, is changed into 77, as ijya, ayai, ' 
 
 5. The second aorist retains the vowel exactly as it is in the 
 future. E. g. 
 
 /?AAeu (/?A&7) J'/JaAoi/, pass, ipdhrjv 
 
 qalvco (qpai/cu) a. 2 pass. i<fa.vi]v 
 
 xA/i'w (xAr*/co) a. 2 pass. iKllvijv (short *). 
 
 But the 6 of the future in dissyllable verbs is changed into a (comp. 
 96.2.) E.g. 
 
 XTllVW (XWJ/W) - tXTUVOV 
 
 6T&\w (dreAw) a. 2 pass. fdraA^v. 
 Polysyllables retain the ;, as ogjt /Aw, w^f Aov. 
 
 6. The second perfect, when it is used, is formed entirely ac- 
 cording to the rules given above ( 97. 2, 3.) E. g. 
 
 tfaAAoj TtV^Aa, tyalvu ni(p7]vct 
 APEM& didQO[ia. 
 
 The a of the present, since (as appears from the future) it has its 
 origin, in verbs of this class, not in the radical *, but in f, passes 
 into o alone, and not into o*, as anftQO) (dTTfpoj), i'onOQu. 
 
 7. The first perfect, the perfect passive, and first aorist passive, 
 follow the general rules in attaching the terminations x, /uiu, &c. 
 
 /, to the characteristic, retaining the changes of the future. E. g. 
 
 (gpaj/cJ) ntcpccyxcc, lya 
 (dpca) T^^xa, 
 
 Inf. a 
 
 The perfect passive also drops the a of the terminations 
 cite, &c. (5 98. 2.) E. g. 
 
 dqpaAAcw, saqMttya^ 2 pers. pi. 
 
 , inf. 
 
 * The mode of writing with the i> subscript, as ^p, a^a^, t(f>yvtt^ &c. 
 md with the acute in the infinitives, as ntQCtvai, &c. is incorrect. 
 
101.] VERBS IN A, /U, I/, p. 129 
 
 8. Here, however, the two following departures from the anal- 
 ogy of the other verbs are to be observed, viz. 
 
 a) When the future has an *, the dissyllables in these tenses 
 change it into a. E. g. 
 
 <7r*AAa> ((jreAw) ^araAxa^ffzaAiuaj, eorcUdi^ aor. 2 pass, ioru^v 
 7i*7ia(*xa, ntnaQpui, aor. 2 pass. Inaprjv. 
 
 b) The following verbs in iVco, e/i/co, woo, viz. xp/f w, xAn/w, 
 
 TiAi'i/w, drop the > in these tenses, and assume the 
 short vowel of the future, but in such a way, that those in tlvot 
 change that short vowel, which is , into a. E. g. 
 
 XQIVOJ (xp/ra)) xf'xprxa, x&pfjifa*, ixgiftrj* 
 (re i>d)) r/raxa 
 (jrAJi/w) mViAixa 
 
 REM. 2. The polysyllables, according to the rule, retain f un- 
 changed in the penult, as a'/y^'AAcu, ^/yfAxa, qyf&4hjv. This is 
 done also in the perfect passive of dissyllables which begin with 
 , as /0<w, &p|U<u. 
 
 REM. 3. The verbs which retain v, occasion difficulty in the 
 perfect passive. They preserve, however, the v unchanged in 
 the following cases, viz. 
 
 a) In the second person singular, where it even remains before 
 ff, as (fa/Vco, R&pavffo*. 
 
 b) In the terminations which begin with dt^, in which howev- 
 er the a is dropped in consequence of the v, as inf. mydv&cu. 
 See no. 7 above. 
 
 c) In the 3d sing, as niyuvrat he has appeared. 
 
 In the same manner, however, the 3d pi. is formed, (as xe- 
 xgavTctt, from xpa/vto,) where v is omitted, according to the next 
 remark. But this form is extremely rare on account of this very 
 confusion, and the compound form with tiai is preferred. 
 
 REM. 4. Before the terminations beginning with ,u, the follow- 
 ing is the usage with respect to the v. 
 
 a) The v passes into ^u, as ^a^v^fACti from aia'/vvai. 
 
 b) The v is dropped, retaining the long vowel, as 
 froiw TQCC%VVCO. 
 
 c) Most commonly instead of v we find a, as (faivw 
 
 REM. 5. The elder and the JSolic dialects formed the future 
 and the first aorist, even of these verbs, with a, as xeigw 
 ra'peo Tipffco, which form is the most usual in some verbs, as 
 I knead, (pvoaw. 
 
 17 
 
130 VERBALS IN iog AND Tiog. ["<$ 102. 
 
 125 102. VERBALS IN TOg AND WOff. 
 
 1. With the formation of the tenses must be connected that of 
 the verbal adjectives in TO? and Tiog, which, in signification and 
 Use, nearly resemble participles. See the Remark below. 
 
 2. Both terminations always have the accent, and are attached 
 immediately to the characteristic of the verb, which undergoes 
 the changes required by the general rule. The vowel is in va- 
 rious cases changed. These changes coincide in every respect 
 with those of the aorist passive, except that of course when the 
 aorist has qr-#, jj#, these forms have TIT, xr. We can therefore 
 compare with these verbals the 3d sing. perf. passive, which has 
 also T, though in respect to the leading syllable it departs, in many 
 verbs, both from the first aorist and the verbals. 
 
 3. Accordingly we have the following forms of verbals, viz. 
 
 hiyo) 
 
 yyanrog 
 
 atgi'd) 
 
 i, Inava&yv) 
 
 e(jrc<A#?7*>) OTatotog 
 Tfrvo) (rtTv.Ttu, i'i&&'qv\ TUTiog 
 
 %i(o (xtyvTat, l%v&i]v) %vTog 
 
 nvita 
 
 REMARK. The verbal in xog corresponds in form with the Latin 
 participle in tow, and has in fact the same signification, e. g. itfatt- 
 Tog woven, OTQITHO? twisted. But most commonly it conveys the 
 idea of possibility, like the Latin termination i/w, as (Jryimog ver- 
 satilis, flexible, oyaTogvisibiliS) visible, dxovOTog audible. The ver- 
 bal in woff, meantime, has the idea of necessity, and corresponds 
 with the Latin participle in dus, as cfttyTtog amandus, a person to 
 be loved. See 134. Rem. 4. 
 
103.] BARYTON VERBS. 131 
 
 103. THE BARYTON VERB. 
 
 1. The foregoing rules, as well as the other details of the va- 
 rious modes and tenses, will now be all illustrated in an example 
 with the common baryton verb TVTITOJ, to which will be subjoin- 
 ed some other peculiar examples of baryton verbs as they are 
 used, and lastly one of the class in A, /w, v, o, viz. ayytMm. 
 
 2. Baryton verbs, as was explained above in 10. 2, are in 
 their natural form, in which the termination of the present tense is 
 always unaccented ; in distinction from those, whose two last syl- 
 lables are contracted and marked with a circumflex, and hence 
 called verba contracta by the Latin grammarians, and perispomena 
 by the Greek. The latter will be treated separately below. 
 
 REM. 1. The learner will bear in mind that TVTITU) is here 
 used only as a paradigm or example, in which every thing is ex- 
 hibited in one view, which belongs to the various verbs of this 
 kind, although neither TVJITOJ nor any other single verb is found 
 in all the modes and tenses here given.* See 104. 
 
 2. It was formerly usual to give the second future active and 
 middle with the paradigm of TVIITM. Inasmuch, however, as this 
 form is wanting in all the verbs of the class to which TUTIICD belongs 
 viz. those whose characteristic is not A, /u, j/, p, of course in the 
 greatest number of verbs, it was here omitted in the preceding 
 edition, but introduced in full in oyy&Aw, in the paradigm of 
 verbs in A, /w, i>, p. It is now subjoined also in TVUTW. 
 
 REM. 3. In order to havfe the whole conjugation in one view, 
 a table is subjoined, which gives the first person of the declinable 
 modes, the second person of the imperative, the infinitive, and the 
 masculine gender of the participle, in all the tenses of the active, 
 passive, and middle voices. This is immediately followed by the 
 same verb, inflected at full length. 
 
 * The parts of TVTITW in actual use may be seen in the list of anomalous 
 verbs, where it is placed, in consequence of another form of the future not 
 here introduced, viz. 
 
132 
 
 FARADIGM OF 
 
 103. 
 
 127 
 
 
 
 s <* <* 
 
 
 lit 
 
 tf R N 
 
 j> 
 
 ^3 $ o. % 
 
 g ii' 5 ^ 
 
 g ^-3- R R 
 
 * o. * 9 <=> 
 
 o ^X ^ $ 
 
 "2 ^ ^ ^ s-"*c H" 
 
 R g d- 6J R R g 
 
 o> 
 
 2 *** 
 
 Mj **^ "^ S) ^ 
 
 a X s a a a 
 
 s ii i ii 
 
 
 
 t* N S h k t* * 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 1 
 
 I | |lll 
 
 .; d> ^ ^ <te 
 
 2 K> s> 
 
 to -^.^ 
 h> N M ^ 
 
 ^ <S<S'-g*&_i" 
 
 ^R v g ^|| 6"g 
 
 mil 
 
 
 
 
 -G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S> o 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 fc 
 
 o R* 4s 
 
 "* * S 
 
 5 w * 
 
 R ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 g ^ R 
 
 -1 ' 1 1 1 
 
 O> y$ 
 
 * -t 
 
 
 
 
 ^T t- t- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ** * 
 
 . 
 
 JPTATIVE. 
 tVUTOlftt 
 
 ffTU<f>Ol[4t 
 
 1- >* * ^ 
 
 | 11,5-3- 
 
 1 11 1J 
 
 A la .1 
 
 ! 1 MM 1 
 
 V 
 
 cu 
 
 -5 ^ ^ S Sk 
 
 
 
 
 .V 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 $fr 
 
 4) 
 
 
 
 '"2 
 
 a- 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 _ 
 
 5. k-g 
 
 < 
 
 3 g, 
 
 11 i 
 
 3 S k 
 
 1 1 J 
 
 J 1 1 1 
 
 s, r * 
 
 e .t j 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ** * 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 -*j 
 
 U 
 
 
 ^ . 1 s 
 
 CU 5k .4 2. 
 
 ^ A 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 5js"s^" Os *5- 5^ 
 
 s ^ s- 
 
 g g 2 | 
 
 Itlll'l I 
 
 
 rM--3- 
 
 |1P 
 
 
 
 t-vj( * ik 'wt^'uS 
 
 
 ||| 
 
 Jllllll 
 
 ff H~" ^t 5n QJ 4) 4) 
 
 Illllllll 
 
 2 - 2 *- 
 
 n 2 s .2 
 "3 o "a o 
 
 ,_ 
 
 ^ &< G< ~ ~ <3^ &* 
 
 ~ ~ cs>^ co 
 
 ~ ~ G* G* 
 
 
 3AUOV 
 
 3AISSVJ 
 
 31GQM 
 
 * For the regular subjunctive and optative, which occur in only & few verbs, see above in 
 98 Rem. 8. For that which is here given, gee 108. IV. 
 
103.] PARADIGM OF TV71TOJ. 133 
 
 128 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 Present, I strike. 
 
 o ' ' 
 o. TfJITft), TUTlTflg^ 
 
 D. rVTTTfTOf, 
 
 P. zvnTOfttV) ri/TTTfrf, 
 
 rvnrti, 
 
 TVTlTfTOV^ 
 
 Tvnrovot, (v). 
 
 Imperfect, / -was striking. 
 S. i'lvittov, mnrrfS) irvms 
 
 D. 
 
 P. tTVHTOfifV, iTVTlTfTf, tTUUTOV. 
 
 First Perfect, / have struck. 
 S. lYrugrcf, TiVuqra^, Ttrvcff (i/), 
 
 D. WrV^OTO*, TtTVtyUTOV 
 
 P. 
 
 First Pluperfect, / /w 
 
 S. IviTlHftlV, iTfTlKfflS, ll(TV(ffl, 
 
 D. ttfTvyfiTO 
 
 P. tTillHpflfifV, tT6TV(fflT, fTfTVifftOav Of 
 
 Second Perfect, / farce 
 
 S. TiTVTia, TlTVJiaS, TtTVUf 
 
 D. 
 
 P. TtTvnantv, TtivnotTi, 
 
 Second Pluperfect, / had struck. 
 
 S. mTV7I*', iTfTVTTtlS, tTfTVTlfl, 
 
 D. tTfTVTlflTOV) tTfTVTttUllV, 
 
 P. eTfTvntiittv, trtrvjitiTti tTtTvnfiaav or 
 
 First Future, 
 
 S. zui^ca, 
 
 D. 
 
 P. T\)\pOl>ltV. TVlfJtTf. TVWOVGtV. 
 
134 
 
 PARADIGM OF 
 
 [$ 103. 
 
 129 
 
 
 First Aorist, / ^rwcfc. 
 
 
 S. n/ya, 
 
 V/ff, 
 
 imyt (i/), 
 
 D. 
 
 ITUIJJCCTOV* 
 
 iTVWCCTTlVm 
 
 P. tVi^apc 
 
 V, tTVWttTt) 
 
 V 
 
 
 Second Future, / 5Aa// *iriA:e. 
 
 
 S. TV7KW, 
 
 TfTTf^, 
 
 rim?, 
 
 D. 
 
 XVUtlTOV 
 
 TVnflTQV, 
 
 P. rvnovfu* 
 
 v, T vntlxf, 
 
 TVnOVGl, (v). 
 
 
 Second Aorist, / struck. 
 
 
 S. iTfTTOJ/, 
 
 >/ 
 
 " r \ 
 
 D. 
 
 tivntrov., 
 
 IrvTrtryv, 
 
 P. iTvnoufi 
 
 ', tnmtTf. 
 
 fivnov. 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 S. TVljJG), 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 TVTlT^JTf 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 First Aorist. 
 
 TV71TT], 
 
 Cfaxji* (i/) 
 
103.] 
 
 PARADIGM OF TVUTO). 
 
 135 
 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 S. Tl/TICO, 
 
 Tvnrj?, Tvny, 
 
 D. 
 
 TUTl^TOr, ZVTirjTOV) 
 
 P. TVHWUfV. 
 
 TVTIVTC, nmtutti (v). 
 
 
 OPTATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Q ' 
 
 TUVTT(M, TVTITOI, 
 
 D. 
 
 1V71TOITOV, TV71TOIT1]V) 
 
 P. Tvmotfifv, 
 
 rvmoiTf, Tvmoitv- 
 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 S. T*rV9>Of/U, 
 
 TfTlKfOt?^ TfTlXfOl, 
 
 D. 
 
 TfTiqOlTOV, TtTVyOtTllV, 
 
 p ' 
 
 TCTVfOlTC. TfTVgjQtfV. 
 
 
 First Future. 
 
 S. TVlpOtUt- 
 
 f ; 
 
 D. 
 
 TVlfJOlTOV., TVIJJOIT11V) 
 
 P. TI/V/O^W, 
 
 TVyOITt, TUIPOM. 
 
 
 First Aorist. 
 
 ' 
 
 TUWtttG^ TVWdt^ 
 
 D. 
 
 TUlL'CllTOV^ TV\l)CtlT?]V. 
 
 P. tiyaiw 
 
 Tvyairc, rvyaiev* 
 
 
 Second Future. 
 
 S. TV7lo7f4l, 
 
 Tvfto7$, rvnoi, 
 
 D. 
 
 TUTIO?TOI/, Tvnohrjv, 
 
 P. ^7^, 
 
 Twro7 "' TWI0 " 1 " 
 
 130 
 
 * See Remark III. 3. 
 
136 
 
 PARADIGM OF TV7ITW. 
 
 K 
 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 
 SI 
 . TVnOl(M>, 
 
 rvnoig, 
 
 TVTIO^ 
 
 D. 
 
 TVnOlTOV, 
 
 Tvnolrrjv, 
 
 p ' 
 
 i 
 
 TVTtQtrTf* 
 
 Tvnotfv. 
 
 131 
 
 s. 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 
 D; 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 Present 
 First Perfect 
 Second Perfect 
 First Future 
 First Aorist 
 Second Future 
 Second Aorist 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 Present, Strike. 
 
 TVUTf, TVUTtTQ), 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 TfTVqifTOV) 
 
 Fiist Aorist. 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 Tvnf, 
 
 TVntTQV, 
 
 TvneTf, 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 TVHTftV 
 
 TITVntVQU* 
 
 TV\l)t,V 
 
 Tvipat' 
 Tvntiv 
 rvnstv 
 
 orvvmovTuv, 
 
 TVTllTOOV 
 
 to strike. 
 
 to have struck. 
 
 to have struck. 
 
 to be about to strike. 
 
 to have struck. 
 
 to be about to strike. 
 
 to have struck. 
 
103.J PARADIGM OF TVUTW. 137 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, striking. 
 
 TvnTOvaa, TvnroV) 
 
 G. TvnTOVTog, 
 
 Perfect, having struck. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 First Future, about to strike. 
 
 N. TVlptoV, TVtyOVOa^ TVtyOV, 
 
 G. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 First Aorist, having struck. 
 
 Second Future, a&owtf <o strike. 
 
 N. Tfxrtoi/, rvnovGct^ 
 
 G. Tvnovvrog, rvnovaitf, 
 
 Second Aorist, having struck. 
 
 N. TV71MV, TVnOVGCt) 
 
 G. TvnovTog, rvnovaqg, rvnovrog* 
 
 18 
 
138 
 
 PARADIGM OF TV711U). 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 132 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present S. rvjiTO^ut 
 
 I am struck ivnir t or (, * Tvmt] 
 
 D. 
 
 TUTlTfG-Oov 
 TV71TOVTCM 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 TV71TOITO 
 
 TVnTolGfitjV 
 TVJlTOl'pt'&a 
 TVnTO(,G$t 
 riJUTOiVTO 
 
 Imperfect S. li 
 I was struck livmov 
 
 tTVTlTtTO 
 
 D. trvmopfftov P. tTvmont&a 
 IrvTiTioftrjv ITVTITOVTO 
 
 Terfect S. 
 I have been struck itivtyat 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 co I TfTVf*pt'vog 
 See below the verb -ti 
 
 Pluperfect S. *; 
 / had been struck frt; 
 
 D. 
 
 1 Future rfqD^wffOjwat 
 I shall be struck Tvqy&rjOy or /, 
 &c. as in the 
 Present 
 
 Subj. wanting 
 
 as in the 
 Present 
 
 1 Aorist S. ervyfhjv 
 I was struck ITV^TJS 
 
 ItVff&f) 
 
 D. ' 
 
 TiXf&rjQ 
 
 TVCf&Yl 
 
 TV(f ftfliyg 
 TVCp'U'tt'tl 
 
 tTlXfi&TjTtJV 
 P. lTU(f.<'0'1][4.fV 
 
 Tvq. Q yjTOv 
 
 TV(f)&fiflfV 
 
 Ir^e 
 
 rv^nre 
 
 TVCf'&tlTt 
 
 tTV<t#r]Gav 
 
 r^flam* Vj 
 
 rlffl^T" 
 
 2 Future 
 
 I shall be struck 
 
 Aorist 
 
 I was struck 
 
 3 Future 
 
 Seo h(;lo\v liem. H. 
 
 through ail the 
 through all the 
 
 I shall have been struck, through all the 
 I Tlie shorter form is more cominonjy 
 
103.] 
 
 PARADIGM OF TVHTUJ. 
 
 139 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 be struck 
 
 TV7TTOV 
 
 or 
 
 VOICE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 to be struck 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 133 
 
 vmofifvog, *?, ov 
 being struck 
 
 o have been struck 
 
 TtTVCf&OV 
 
 or 
 
 to have been 
 struck 
 
 77, ov 
 having be&i struck 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 wanting 
 
 to be about to 
 be struck 
 
 7, ov about to be 
 struck 
 
 Tugrt^rt be struck 
 
 TVCIL'O't TO) 
 TV(IV"y]TOV 
 
 xvcpftrjz 
 
 TV(f>-&r t TWGUV 
 
 to have been 
 struck 
 
 Tvyi&tle struck 
 Gen. 
 
 Modes like 
 Modes like 
 
 the 1 Future 
 
 the 1 Aorist 
 
 Modes like 
 
 the 1 Future 
 
 used in the 1st and 2d persons, and always in the 3d. 
 
140 
 
 PARADIGM OF TVUTW. 
 
 103. 
 
 134 
 
 MIDDLE 
 The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 1 Future rui/w/ua* 
 
 like the Pres- 
 ent pass. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 wanting 
 
 like the pres- 
 ent pass. 
 
 1 Aorist S. i 
 
 irvtyaxo 
 
 llVtyUG&OV 
 
 P. i 
 
 Itvweurro 
 
 tvfnjo&ov 
 
 TVtyCltTO 
 
 TVll>ui/Llf&01> 
 
 TVljJUtG'&OV 
 
 TVlpCtlVTO 
 
 2 Future S. TvnovfAai 
 xvny or fl 
 
 D. 
 
 Tvneio&ov 
 
 P. 
 
 tvnQvvrai 
 
 wanting 
 
 TVTIOIO 
 ivjioho 
 
 TVUOlG'&OV 
 
 TV7loi[At&(X 
 
 Tvnolo&e 
 
 TVnOlVTQ 
 
 Aorist 
 
 like the Im- 
 perfect pass. 
 
 | TVUOlf4^V 
 
 These two modes like the Pres- 
 ent pass. 
 
 The verbal adjectives ( 102) are 
 
$103.] 
 
 PARADIGM OF TfTTTW. 
 
 141 
 
 VOICE. 
 
 tenses are the same as in the Passive Voice. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 wanting 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 *7? Ov 
 
 
 TV aa&cu 
 
 r 
 
 TVljJCCl, 
 
 
 
 n, ov 
 
 Tvyjao&ov 
 
 
 
 TVtyaG&f 
 
 
 
 wanting 
 
 
 TVTlOVfAtVOS) 
 
 T), OV 
 
 TVTIOV 
 
 TvntO'&ov 
 
 TVTltO'd'WV 
 
 **%*. 
 
 TVHOflfVOG, 
 
 r), ov 
 
 TvntG&wcav or TvntG&wv 
 
 
 
 TVTtTOg, TVTTTfOS. 
 
 135 
 
142 
 
 PARADIGM OF TlCtldfVQ). 
 
 103. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF OTHER BARYTON VERBS AS THEY OCCUR IN USE. 
 
 I. naidfvo) I educate, Middle / cause to educate. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Ind. Subj. Opt. Imper. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 natdfvftg 
 &c. 
 
 Subj. 
 nou/divto 
 
 nt>tid(VT) naidfvoig 
 
 nuidfvy &LC. nuidivoi &c. & 
 
 Fartic. 
 ncudtuovaa 
 
 naioevew 
 
 Imperf. 
 tnaidtvov, ?, f (v) &c. 
 
 Perf. Ind. 
 ntnuidevxa, 
 a?, f (f ) &c. 
 
 Subj. ntnaidfvxa) Opt. 
 
 Imp- not in use Inf. 
 
 Part, ntnaidfvyiwc;, via, O 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 , ft, &c. 
 
 Future 
 naidtvow 
 
 Opt. naidfvaoifAi, Inf. ncitdfiafftv 
 
 Part, naidtvoow 
 
 Aorist. 
 tnaidtvbcc, 
 
 f v &C. 
 
 Subj. Opt. Imper. 
 
 fro) natdfvoaiiM naidtvaov 
 
 &,c. naidfvouig 
 
 Tiatdfvoai, &LC. &c. 
 
 Part. 
 
 noudivGai 
 
 naidevaav 
 
103.] 
 
 PARADIGM OF TietldfVO). 
 
 143 
 
 Pres. Ind. 
 
 JlCtldfVOMCU, 
 
 or 
 
 &c. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Subj. Opt. Imper. 
 
 nuidtvoljLtrjv natdtvov 
 
 naidfvoio nttt&tvio&to 
 
 \i &c. nccidfuoiio &c. &c. 
 
 Inf. Part. 
 
 ** * f\ ft ' 
 
 ov 
 
 Imperf. 
 
 (>,/; i>, tnaidfvov, InatdfVfTO Sac. 
 
 Perf. /nrf. 
 
 S. 
 
 D. nnuidtv(.it&ov P. n 
 
 Subj. and O/f. wanting. /m/?. T 
 
 &c. 
 
 Pluperf, 
 
 S. t7TfHU(,dtVf.lt]lf D. tJlt7TUldU[.l({)OV P. : 
 
 iritJiaidtVTO 
 
 Future. Ind. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Inf. ntttdtv&rjGfG&ai, 
 
 Aor. Ind. 
 
 ubj. Opt. Imp. 
 
 evQw TiMW&v&fiTjv neuJkv&tf 
 
 Inf. Tia.idevi^r t vui, Part. ncudfvfteiS 
 
 3 Future. Ind. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Part. TieT 
 
 Inf. nfnaidtvGto&at> 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Future. Ind. , Opt. natdfvooi^trjv Inf. HcudfvGtG&cu, 
 natdfVGOiiat Part- Tfcufovtidpevog 
 
 Aor. Ind. ' Subj. 
 
 naidtvow/Liat, 
 
 (>0), OUTO &C. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Imp. 
 ncttfevocu 
 
 &c. 
 
 , airo &c. 
 
 Inf. TiaidevGaG&ai, Part. naidfVGaiutvog [&tc 
 
 Verbal Adjectives ntudivrog^ 
 
144 PARADIGM OF OilQ), ETC. 103. 
 
 II. Gtiw I shake, Middle / move myself vehemently. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Pres. c>f/w Subj Gflu. Opt- ottoi/ut, Gioi$, Gfioi &c. 
 
 Imp. Gfif, otiiia) &LC. Injin. GfUw. 
 
 Part. Of/Co*/, GflovGa, Gtlov. 
 
 Imperf. eattov* Perf. ataewa. Pluperf. lafOflxtw. Fut. 
 Aor. tGfioa. Subj. GSIGGD. Opt. actocufii, Gei 
 
 Imper. GMGOV, ctra) &c. Inf. 
 
 Part. GfiGas, GfiGaGcc, Gftoav. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Pres. Gilo fiat Imperf. lofto^v. 
 
 Perf. GtGtlGlAM D. GfGflGflf&OV P. GGftG[it&K 
 
 GlGflGUl, GtG6lG&OV GtGflG& 
 
 GiGttG&ov 3 pers. wanting. 
 
 Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. GtGtiao, GfGsiG&w &c 
 Inf. GiGelG&ai, Part. GfGfiGfttvos 
 
 D. loeOtfajU&OV P. i 
 
 tGtGtlG'&OV 
 
 iGfGfiG&rjv 3 pers. wanting. 
 
 Fut. GftG\)7]GO[Acu> Aor. tGfia&ijv 3 Fut. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Fut. GfiGOiiat, Aor. fGftGcifirjv 
 
 Verbal Adjectives GSIGTOS, 
 
 III. heinw I leave, Middle (poetical) / remain. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Pres. fainto Subj. falnm Opt. ^flno^^lflno^ telnoi, &c. 
 
 Imp. fains Inf. falnuv Part, fainwv 
 Imperf. tteinov 
 
 Perf. (2) A*' loina Pluperf. itelointw 
 
 Fut. hfi\\)oi 
 
 Aor. (2) tfanov Subj. A/TTW Opt. Mnoipt Imp. hint 
 
 Inf. Kmflv Part, hnwv, OVGCC, 6v. 
 
103.] PARADIGM OF yQ(X(fCO. 145 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Pres. fainopai, Imperf. 
 
 Perf. fa'faifApai Sub}, and Opt. wanting. 
 
 fafaiyai, Imp. fa'faityo, fafaiq&w &c. 
 
 fafa&mat &,c. Inf. fafaiy&cu Part, 
 
 Pluperf. tfafatpfAijV) ipo, mo &c. 
 Fut. kfi(f&rjaof.ia(, Aor. thficpfhjv 
 3 Fut. fa fa lip opai. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Fut. faiipo[4ai> 
 
 Aor. (2) D.mofirjv Subj. Mnwpai Opt. 
 
 Imp. fanov &c. Plur. 
 /n/*. hnt'a&ai, Part 
 Verbal Adjectives Aft^ro?, faimt'og. 
 
 IV. ygdcfw I write^ Middle / write for myself, I accuse. 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. yovqxo Imperf. 
 
 Perf. ytyQacpa, Pluperf. i 
 
 Fut. yoai}jQ> Aor. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. yodyiopai, Imperf. 
 
 Perf. ytyoapftai, yt'yoatyai, yiyaanrai, &c- 
 Pluperf. tyfypapftrjv, i//o, mo &c. 
 
 1 Fut. yQOKf^r^o^ui seldom used 
 
 1 Aer. lyoatydqv seldom used 
 
 2 Fut. yQcKprjOopat, 2 Aor. 
 
 3 Fut. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Fut. yodipoftai' Aor. 
 
 Verbal Adjectives yoamog, 
 19 
 
146 PARADIGM OF UM. 103. 
 
 
 V. a'p^w / lead, rule, Middle / begin. 
 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. a 
 
 @%(a Imperf. ?IQ%QV 
 
 Perf. (: 
 
 7p/a) and Pluperf. are very rarely used 
 
 Fut. a 
 
 pw 
 
 Aor. ^ 
 
 p'a Subj. ayw Opt. ttplttlftt, (*Q%tAi$, aQ^at, &c 
 
 
 Imp. ay^ov, ay^ciTO) &c. 
 
 
 Inf. aQ%ai Part. aQ^ctS. 
 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 ccQ%o[A(x(> Imperf. ^Q^o^v 
 
 Perf. 
 
 ri{>yiA.at, D. rjQyfJie&ov P. fyyfAf&a 
 
 3d pers. wanting 
 . and O/?tf, wanting. 7m/>. ^p^o, i](j%&oj &c. 
 
 /n/! ri{)%&a.i, Part. ypyfttvoG 
 Pluperf. %Qyf4fiv D. iJQt-piQ& P. 
 
 3d pers. wanting 
 Fut dp#i}oo/ 
 Aor. JJQX&IJV Subj. aQ%&w Opt. Q%&citjv Imp. 
 
 Inf. UQ^ftrivai Part. a 
 3 Future wanting (see 99 Rem. 2.) 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Fut. apo/uct 
 
 Aor. v}Q'a(A.viv Subj. ttQfafmtt Opt. ag^ai^v Imp. a 
 Inf. aQ&a&frat Part, aytupevog 
 
 Verbal Adjectives (in an active and middle meaning) 
 
103.] PARADIGM OF GXfVttfa. 147 
 
 VI. Gxtvdo) 1 prepare. 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. 0xeuao> Imperf. laxevafrv 
 
 Perf. fGxfvaxa 
 
 Subj. foxtvuxio Opt. eaxfvdxotiu Imp. not used 
 
 Inf. laxtvuKivui Part, tGXfvaxwg 
 Pluperf. taxfvdxfiv 
 Flit. axfvdoM 
 
 Aor. Icxtvaaa Subj. Gxfvdooj Opt. oxevaGaifii, aaig, oat, &c. 
 Imp. GXfvaoov 
 Inf. oxfvdaut Part, 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. Gxfvct&ftat Imperf. 
 
 Perf. ta%fvuoi4at, D. tGXfvaGfit&ov 
 
 Zoxtuaoat tGxtvaG&ov 
 
 fGxfvuGxat, tGxfvaG&ov 3d pers. wanting 
 
 Subj. and Opt. wanting Imp. AwiWo, tGxtruG&w &G. 
 
 Inf. tGXfvaG&at, Part, l 
 
 Pluperf. tGxtvuGfjir]v, ado, KOTO &c. 
 Fut. 
 Aor. 
 3 Fut. (iGxevdoo/uat,) not in use. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Fat. GXfvctGOfAat, 
 Aor. taxfvaGdfirif Subj. GxtvuGwiictt, Opt. axtvaactifiijv 
 
 Imp. <7Xf/'U(7CU, GX{V(tG(XG&Q) &C. 
 
 JTI/*. flrxfj;ao(i^t Part. GxtvctGUf4tvQg. 
 Verbal Adjectives ax*u<7roV, oxevctaiiog. 
 
148 PARADIGM OTg KO^O). [ 103. 
 
 VII. xofilw I bring) Middle / receive. 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. xo[ilco Imperf. txo/tttd? 
 
 Perf. Ktxofiwu Pluperf. Ixixoplxtw 
 
 Fut. XO/M/(JO> 
 
 Attic Fut. xOtuw D. --- P. 
 
 XOfAtUTOV XOfJllOVGt, v 
 
 Opt. MOfMolfM) 0? &C. Inf. XOfitilV 
 
 Part, noftiwv, ovoa, ovv Gen. ouvroe 
 
 Aor. IxofMGa Subj. xo^u/aw Opt. xoju/acajiu, d^?, GUI &c. 
 . xo/uffoi/ /n/ 1 . xoftiaat Part, 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. xoftl&ftat Imperf. t 
 
 Perf. xtxopiGfiAai, (compare l 
 
 Subj. and Opt. wanting Imp. xt%6[MGO, IG&W &c, 
 
 //j/! xfxO|ti/(7^a^ Part. 
 
 Pluperf. I 
 
 Fut. 
 
 Aor. 
 
 3 Fut. xfxo/aoca not used. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Fut. XO/W/ffOjMtt* 
 
 AttiC Fut. %0[4lOV[l(Xt> D. XO[4lOV[4f&OV P. 
 
 xotuti * 
 
 XOftltttCtl 
 
 Opt. XOfMOlfAIIV) KO[M070 &C. 
 
 /?!/*. xofJutiGftcu, Part. 
 Aor. lxofiiaai*Tjv Subj. ^O^IIGM^UV Opt. 
 
 . HQjtiaou Inf. xoploaa&ai Part. 
 
 Verbal Adjectives xOjU*(JroV, 
 
 * See Rem. II. 3, below. 
 
103.] PARADIGM OF (puA<T<70J. 149 
 
 VIII. q vldaoo} I guard, Middle / guard myself. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Pres. qvldaow Imperf. fqvluoaov 
 
 Perf. nfqv).u%a Pluperf. 
 
 Fut. <i;Adw Aor. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Pres. (pvldGcroficu Imperf. f 
 
 (f vKuTfOfjiai, t 
 
 Perf. ntvkaAtti, D. nt<v).ajit&Qv P. 
 
 nfqikay&ov 3d pers. wanting 
 
 Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. ntqvha'Zo, 7ifqvha%$o) &c. 
 
 Inf. nequXa'tdcu, Part. 
 
 Pluperf. tnf(fv)>ctyi.ir]v D. intq.vXayiAi&ov P. li 
 
 3d pers. wanting 
 Fut. 
 Aor. 
 3d Fut. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Fut. gtvla^Oftdt Aor. l 
 
 Verbal Adjectives ^uAaxroV, q:vlctxTios. 
 
150 
 
 PARADIGM OF OQVGGtU. 
 
 103. 
 
 Pres. OQVGGW 
 
 OyV 
 
 Perf. ow 
 
 Pluperf. OQWQV 
 
 Fut. 
 
 Aor. 
 
 IX. OQVGGOJ I dig. 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Imperf. WQVGGOV 
 
 0)(JVTTOV 
 
 Subj. opa/pv;faj Opt. 6 
 
 Imp. not used Inf. 6 
 
 Part, o 
 
 Subj. OQVO) Opt. OQv^atfjii Imp 
 Inf. o(jv^ut Part. 
 
 Pres. OQVGCi 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Imperf. w 
 
 Perf. OQwyvypat, 
 
 Subj. and Opt. wanting Imp. OOWQV^O, tpttpvgt* &c 
 
 Inf. OQ((Jv%&ui, Part. 0{ 
 Pluperf. OQwQvyuriv 
 1 Fut. Qpv%&itaoftcu 2 Fut. 
 
 1 Aor. topvX'Oyv 2 Aor. 
 
 Inf. 0(jv%&r]vcci, &,c. Inf. oyvyrjvai &c. 
 
 3 Fut. wanting (see 99 Rem. 2.) 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Fut. 
 Aor. 
 
 Subj. OQvw[Jiai Opt. opv'gaiftqv Imp. 
 Inf. 6yv,uG&ai Part. o 
 
 Verbal Adjectives O 
 
103.J 
 
 PARADIGM OF 
 
 151 
 
 Present Ind. \ 
 
 EXAMPLE 0F VERBS IN A, /M, V, Q. 
 
 dyyt'Mw I announce. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Subj. ayyAAw, Opt. dyytMoipi, Imp. ay/fAAf, 
 Inf. ayytkkfiv, Part- ayyi'Muv. 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Perfect Ind. 1 
 
 Subj. vyythxti), Opt. tjyy&xotfUj Imp. not used, 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 2 Future 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 Indicative. 
 ayytfa7g uyythtl 
 dyyt).HTQv dyyf^.f7rov 
 .dyytkovf.iti> dyyf^Tf dyytkovoi (v). 
 
 136 
 
 Optative. 
 
 S. dyytko7f.it dyyfko7g 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 or 
 
 Part, ayyehwv, 
 
 o/?;, &c.* 
 
 ^ ayythovv, Gen. a 
 
 1 A or. 
 
 Subj. dyyfikw, Opt. dyyfttctifui, Imp. dyytikov. 
 Inf. dyyf7kat) Part, d 
 
 2 Aor. Ind. 
 ijyyelov. 
 
 Subj. dyytto), Opt. dyytkoipi, Imp. 
 Inf. ayyf).t7v. Part- a 
 
 * See below, Rem. III. 2. 
 
152 PARADIGM OF ft'/pttAAdO. [ 103. 
 
 137 Pres. Aid. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 , O/tf. <xyyf\)ioi[it]v, Imp. dyyi'Mov, 
 
 Inf. dyy&Kea&ai, Parf. d 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Perfect Indicative. 
 
 yyythpaii yyyehaat, tjyytfocu, 
 
 D. yyy&fte&ov, liyythftov, iiyyfh&ov, 
 
 P. yyythfit&a, yyyeh&f, (yyythpevot, elalv.) 
 
 (Subj. and O/><. yyyflfJitvos co and eiijv.) 
 Imp. r/yyihao, r\yyt\$w, &c. /n/". yyytl&at, Part. y 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 D. ijyytkf.if&ov, rjyyth&ov, 
 P. wd 
 
 I Future 
 
 t, Sue. 
 
 1 Aor. /nd. 
 
 
 ;. ayyfkftw. Opt. ayyfk&flqv, Imp 
 
 Inf. ayyfk&fjvai, Part. 
 
 2 Future 
 
 &c. 
 
 2 Aor. Aid. 
 
 Subj. ayyfkw, Opt. ayytfahjv, Imp. 
 Inf- ayyf^rjva^ Part, a 
 
 3 Future wanting. (See 99 Rem. 2.) 
 
103.] PARADIGM OF dyytto). 153 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Future Indicative. 
 
 dyyfly or ?> 
 
 D. <xyyf).ovp(&ov, dyyf^a&ov, 
 P. dyytlovfjit'&a, 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 S. 
 
 D. dyyflotpt&ov, u 
 
 P. dyyeXot^if&a^ dyytho'io&f, 
 
 Inf. dyyete'ia&cu,, Part, dyytlovpfvog, r\, ov. 
 
 1 Aor. Ind. 
 
 Sub}. dyyei\M^.ui, Opt. dyyfilalftrjv, dyyeihaio, &e. 
 
 Imp. 
 Inf. ctyytttuo&ai,, Part, dyyedd 
 
 2 Aor. Ind. 1 Subj. dyy^ot^a^ Opt. dyyfholfirjv, Imp. dyyflov, 
 Inf. dyytlto&aii Part, 
 
 Verbal Adjectives a 
 
 20 
 
154 REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS. [ 103. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 I. Accent. 
 
 139 1. As the foundation of the doctrine of accent in the verbs, it 
 is to be understood, that it is placed as far back as possible, and, 
 in consequence, always on the first syllable of dissyllables, as TVTI- 
 
 In trisyllables and polysyllables, whenever the nature of the 
 last syllable admits, it is placed on the antepenult, as rvmo^itv^ 
 rviiTOi'Gi, Ttti'CfaGi* Ti'Trro^ai, tivmf, 6'r<;i//, 6<pi>Act|a. So also in 
 imperatives,, as qctUarr^, <p#Aa|o*', <piMa, where the present is 
 qvkuTTCo, inf. gpuAc^rwtv, in consequence of the long final syllable. 
 
 Hence verbs of two syllables, when compounded, throw the 
 accent, if the last sellable admits it, on the preposition, as (ft&f, 
 
 2. Apparent exceptions to this rule are cases, where a contrac- 
 tion takes place, viz. 
 
 a) Cases where, according to 83 Rem. 4, 5, the temporal 
 augment had its origin in a contraction, as in such compound verbs 
 as avrjuTOv from ai CCTTTW. 
 
 b) The case of the circutnflexed future of every kind, accord- 
 ing to 95 Rem. 6 seq. Also the aorist of the subjunctive pas- 
 sive (see below Rem. III. 6) ivq&M, TVTIW. 
 
 3. Real exceptions to the general rule are the following, viz. 
 
 a) The second aorist (for the sake of distinction from the pres- 
 ent) has the accent on the termination in the following cases, viz. 
 
 (1) In the infinitive and participle active, and infinitive middle, 
 always, as Timtlv, ivnwv, Timf&&l&. 
 
 (2) In the 2d sing, of the imperative of some verbs, as ytvov 
 tint, &c. 
 
 b) The infinitive and the participle of the perfect passive, are 
 distinguished from all the rest of the passive form, in having the 
 accent regularly on the penult, as ttTVip&cti, ntnoirj<s&&.i,, 
 
 c) Infinitives in va.i have the accent on the penult, as 
 vcti, ?\)tyfti*]voi.i^ Tvnrfi'txt. 
 
 d) The infinitive ofihejirst aorist active in , and the 3d per- 
 son of the optative active in ot and at, retain the accent on the 
 penult, even when they are polysyllables, e. g. 
 
 Inf. <fvlacx.i, naidtvaai. 
 3d pers. Opt. qc 
 
 * By this, and because, according- to $ 12 Rem. 5, the 3d sing, opta- 
 tive never has the penult circumflexed, the three singular forms of the first 
 
$ 103.] REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS. 155 
 
 5. All participles in o)g and ft? have the acute on the la?t syl- 140 
 lable, as r^n^oi, 1 , ivyfttfe, Ti'Tit-j^. So also, in the verbs in /ut, 
 
 the participles in fig. c. ot>?, and u. 
 
 6. Where the masculine of a participle has the accent, the 
 other genders retain it, without any other consideration than that 
 of the nature of the syllables, as ptuUftrgf*, qrt'AarroL'da, 
 
 ' ' 
 
 II. Second person singular passive. 
 
 I . The original termination of the second person of the passive 
 form GUI and oo (see the table above in 87) has been retained, in 
 the common conjugation, only in the perfect and pluperfect, and 
 in the verbs in [it. It was found originally also in the present and 
 imperfect, as TVnrttfai. tTvnreoo, in the imperative TiwTtao, in 
 the first aorist middle tTVipaOo, in the subjunctive rvmyvat, &c. 
 
 2. The Ionics dropped the a from this ancient form, and, ac- 
 cordingly, form it in ;ca, >?</, fo, o. The common dialect again 
 contracted these forms into ?;, oi', and w, as follows, viz. 
 
 Ion. Com. Ion- Com. 
 
 Present Ind. nmrtiu, TI'TTT?/, Imperat. twrrfo, T*;nTOi>, 
 Subj. ivTiTijui,, TvnTtj, Imperf. tivTiTfo, iivmov^ 
 1st Aorist Middle, Ion. ttvyao. Com- ITVI^OJ. 
 
 In like manner in the optative, from 0^00 was formed Of o, which, as 
 it does not admit of contraction, was retained as the common form. 
 
 3. The Attics had the peculiarity, that instead of contracting 
 the tai into rj, they contracted it into ti, (see the paradigm.) This 
 form is only used in the future active, and in the verbs ^ot-Ao^^, 
 oi'o/uca, and the fut. o\i>o t uui (see anom. opaoj,) 2d pers. /?oiU, 
 oif*, oi^jsijso that /vouAr; and oir t are necessarily in the subjunctive. 
 
 III. Particular lonisms and Atticisms. 
 
 1. The Ionic dialect forms, from the imperfect and the two 
 aorists, a peculiar form in (Txof, passive and middle dxOjM^v, which 
 however, is formed in the indicative alone, and has commonly no 
 augment, e. g. 
 
 TVTiTfGuopriV, from rvmov, -6ftv]v 
 rvipttmtoftrp from cru^te, - ( 
 rujifdxo^M?^, k from ixvnov, 
 
 This form is only used of a repeated action. 
 
 aorist are distinguished, viz. Inf. act. naidtvofxi, 3J Opt. act. naidfvocu, 
 Imperat. mid. naidtVOtU. Since, however, the numher of syllables or 
 the character of the penult rarely admits this accentuation, in general two 
 of these forms, and in such verbs as TV71TW all three, are liable to be con- 
 founded with each other. 
 
156 REMARKS ON THE PARADIGMS. [ 10o< 
 
 9. Instead of the optative in oi^u, there was also a form in 
 o/?;*/, oi'fjs, o/??, plural olvjiAtv, 0/17 rt, olijaav, that bears the name 
 of the Attic. It is found chiefly, however, only in the contract 
 verbs (see below,) and hence also in the 2d fut. as (pttvofyv from 
 q&a/ PCO, fut. qiavaj. See in dyyf'M.0). 
 
 3. Instead of the Opt 1st aorist active in atpi, there was a 
 provincial form in fia (rvysiu, <?, f, &c.) of which the following 
 terminations were much more common than the regular form, viz. 
 
 Sing. 2 tvijjfut^ 3. xvipfie (t>), for -*ff, -at, 
 Plur. 3. TVtytiitV) for awv. 
 
 141 4. The form in VTODV and Pass, ai^coj/of the 3d pers. pi. of the 
 imperative is called the Attic, because it is the most common in 
 the Attic writers. In the active voice, it is always identical with 
 the genitive plural of the participle of the same tense, with the ex- 
 ception of the perfect 
 
 5. In the third pers. pi. pass- in the indicative and optative, but 
 never in the subjunctive, the Ionic dialect converts the v into cr, 
 as follows. 
 
 Opt. TiniTolctTO for TVTITQIVTQ 
 
 Perf. nfnavaTcti for ntntcwtai 
 
 KfStJUaTdt for KfxAtfTat. 
 
 This never takes place in the termination oviai, though occa- 
 sionally in Of TO, with the change however of o into f, as ifiov- 
 tewo for tpovhovTO. Particularly is the 3d pers. plur. perfect 
 and pluperfect passive formed by the help of this lonism, when 
 the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, (see 98. 2.) e. g. 
 
 TfTlXffXTUt, for -( 
 tTfTCl^CCTO for - 
 
 fdrcUarcu for - 
 from TVTITOJ, TUTTCO, ortHoD &c. 
 
 6. The circumflexed forms are by the Ionics resolved with a 
 change of accent, and this not only in the 2d fut. ( 95 Rem. 6, and 
 101. 2,) but also in the infinitive 2d aorist active in *7i/, as <pvyi- 
 (iv for (f-vyfiv from (jpfvyw, tqvyov, and in the subjunctive of both 
 aorists passive in w, (comp. the subj. of verbs in pi) e. g. 
 
 Subj. 1 aor. pass, tvcp&tu for 
 Subj. 2 aor. pass, rvnto for 
 
 This is, by the Epic writers, lengthened into ti or >;. 
 
 IV. Additional peculiarities of dialect. 
 
 1. The 3d pers. plur. of the leading tenses instead of aiv or <Jt 
 has commonly in the Doric dialect VTI, as was remarked in 87 
 Rem. 3, and hence the long vowel before the n in the common 
 form is explained, viz. 
 
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 157 
 
 TVTITOVTI, zfTvqavn, for TVTITOVOI, 
 Subj. TviTTajvit, for TIJTTTOJ^, 
 2 Fut. pfvt'ovTi contr. pevevvu for (pert'ovai) fifvovai. 
 
 2. The Doric dialect forms the 3d plural of the aorist passive 
 m fv instead of r t auv, as tivq>&tVi tivrttv^ for -?iouv. See below 
 in the conjugation of verbs in f.u. 
 
 3. The 1st pers. plur. active in ptv is converted in the Doric 
 dialect into /$ (rvTiiOfutg, etvipapts) ; and in the 1st plur. and 
 dual ]aass. in ( fthx, ffftfop, the Dorics and the poets interpose a, as 
 
 4. The infinitives in eiv and vat,, in the ancient language and 
 in the dialects, had a form in pev and jiifvui, viz. 
 
 TVTlTtUfV, TV7nt(.lVV.l, for TVTlTflV 14*2 
 
 TTvqt'ii{i\-t\ui>ai for TeTvqtvut, 
 
 vvnrjfttv, Ttm^ftfva^ for Tvnrjiiccl. 
 
 b. The Dorics more particularly formed the infinitive partly 
 in fv or tji> instead of c^f, and so also the 2d pers. of the present 
 in 6,' instead of i$. 
 
 Q. The ancient language, in the 2d pers. of the active form, 
 has instead of g the termination o&u, which in the poets is still 
 frequently found appended to the subjunctive and optative, as 
 *&ttya$a for A^/.^v, xlutoio-0-ct for y./.uloig. In the common dia- 
 lect this is retained only in certain anomalous verbs (see below 
 ?//, <p/7</, and oi(fc). 
 
 7. The epic poets, in the 3d person of the subjunctive, have 
 or jyfjt instead of ij, as TimTyaiv, *Xy&+) for 
 
 104. LIST OF BARYTON VERHS. 
 
 1. In the foregoing rules and tables, the manner of forming the 
 several modes and tenses in different sorts of verbs has been giv- 
 en, as far as it results from the examination of several regular 
 verbs. But in the numerous cases, in which a verb has several 
 formations of the same tense, it is not possible from the foregoing 
 rules and examples, to fix with certainty, what form is actually 
 most in use. And as in Latin, particularly in the third conjugation, 
 it requires to be remarked in each single case, what the perfect 
 and supine are, so in Greek, it is necessary to observe what is the 
 usage in each single verb ; that is, to observe each of the tenses, 
 which has been made the subject of separate remark above. 
 
158 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. X [$ 104. 
 
 2? Principally, however, it is important to know whether, in 
 any particular verb, the second aorist active, the second perfect 
 and the second aorist passive, are in use. For since the other 
 form, viz. the first perfect, and first aorist passive is taking the 
 whole catalogue of verbs by far the most usual,"it is to be assum- 
 ed in each verb, if the use of the other form is not particularly 
 known. It must also be known, with respect to every one of the 
 enumerated tenses ; since it by no means follows, that a verb, 
 which has the second aorist active, has also the second aorist pas- 
 sive, &c. 
 
 3. Here, however, prevails the following fixed rule, that all 
 trisyllable and polysyllable derivative verbs, which have for the 
 most part the following endings, viz. w, /cu, aiVw, vvco, 
 
 o'eu, w, 0), and are such as the following, viz. 
 143 tOjjTuo} from ioQrr\, pOftt'Coi from 
 
 from (J^aa, fv&vvw from 
 
 from itwig, dovkda) from 
 
 from Ti[tr h (pihtco from 
 
 form without exception, only the 1 Aorist active, 1 Perfect (in 
 xa,) 1 Aorist passive. 
 
 REMARK. Some of these verbal terminations, however, are to 
 be regarded in several verbs not as derivative terminations, but as 
 merely lengthened forms. This is the case when the verbs are 
 not derived from a noun or adjective, but are only a more simple 
 form of the present lengthened ( 92). These latter are able, from 
 their simple form to derive some tenses, as the 2d^ Aorist, and are 
 accordingly pluced in the anomalous verbs, as ofca#<xtou from 
 OA'i2fa&, 2 Aorist ottr#oi' < cfa/uiu from AEMSl, tdapov. The 
 termination uixn is always merely a lengthened form of this kind, 
 and the verbs which have it, belong accordingly to the anomalous 
 verbs. 
 
 4. For all other verbs and for all forms which are not fixed to 
 particular cases in the preceding remarks, individual observation 
 in reading the classics must be recommended. To aid this obser- 
 vation, however, lists of the baryton and contract verbs will be 
 given, containing the verbs of most frequent recurrence, particu- 
 larly the primitives, with au enumeration as exact as possible of 
 the forms in use. 
 
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 159 
 
 Explanations of the lists. 
 
 1. As the lists are intended to serve as collections of examples 
 of the preceding rules, besides the primitives the most common 
 derivatives are also contained in them. 
 
 2. It is to be assumed of each verb, when nothing else is stated, 
 that it has its aorists and perfect after r JTTTOJ, and that its whole 
 inflection may be known from the preceding rules. The same 
 holds of every tense not expressly given, so that when, for in- 
 stance, under any verb, nothing but the second aorist stands, this 
 holds only of the second aorist active (and middle,) while the aorist 
 passive and perfect active follow the paradigm. 
 
 3. Where the second aorist passive is given, it is necessary 
 also always to form the first aorist passive, as very commonly it ex- 
 ists, as a less frequent form, together with the second aorist, and 
 the verbs f which actually want it altogether, cannot be given with 
 any certainty. 
 
 4. The perfect active in many verbs is not in use ; but this also 
 can seldom be asserted with entire confidence ; and it is therefore 
 necessary in each verb to form it according to analogy, and derive 
 the perfect passive from it. 
 
 5. The formation of the passive can without scruple be also 
 applied to intransitive verbs, as there are cases, in which the third 
 person of the passive is also used in intransitive verbs. 
 
 6. But to form also the middle of those verbs ? in which that i** 
 voice is not used, would be an exercise in barbarisms of no utility. 
 
 In order, therefore, to do this with confidence, it must be marked 
 in each single case, where, it is found. It needs only to be noticed 
 that in many verbs, where it is found, it is only in compounded 
 forms, which are to be learned from the lexicon. For mere exer- 
 cise, however, the simples may be made use of. Where nothing 
 but MID. is given, there the aorist and future middle are formed 
 from those tenses in the active. 
 
 7. All verbs are regarded as regular, whose tenses are con- 
 structed by the preceding rules ; without regarding the significa- 
 tion or their anomalies. For this reason not only the deponents 
 of the passive and middle voice ( 113. 3) are here inserted, but 
 also verbs, whose single tenses do not correspond in signification. - 
 with their forma ; as, in the more important cases, is especially 
 remarked. 
 
 8. When future middle is immediately subjoined to the active, 
 it signifies, that sucb a verb has its future of the middle formation 
 (according to 113. 4,) though with the signification of the active 
 voice. 
 
 9. The expression l PASS, has a 7 refers only to the first aorist 
 and perfect, and is found only under verbs, in which the a in these 
 tenses is not a matter of course ; see above 98 and 100. 
 
100 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. [ 104. 
 
 List ofbaryton verbs. 
 
 
 adorn, MID. am proud. 
 
 announce, MID. 2d Aorist active and middle, little 
 used. 
 
 assemble, Attic redup. MID. 
 strangle, transitive in the Act, MID. intransitive. 
 ado) contracted from dfidco sing, Fut. Mid. 
 
 collect. 
 play. 
 abuse. 
 
 xro^ou, Mid. conceal by a riddle. 
 lift, 101 Rem. 1, MID. 
 
 act. and depon. rush, hasten. Attic V.TTO). 
 ttia%vvto put to shame, 101 Rem. 4. PASS, am ashamed. 
 ai'to hear. Only the present and imperfect. For augment see 
 83 Rem. 2. 
 
 ctxouo) hear, fut. mid. 2d perfect ax*}xoa, plup. yxrjxofw. (See 
 84 Rem. 2.) PASS, has or, perfect without reduplication ^fxouc- 
 
 halloo, fut. |w, 92 Rem. 1. 
 anoint, perf. 84. MID. 
 , TTW, change, PASS, second aorist. 
 145 aMojuat Mid. spring, see 101 Rem 1. 
 
 blunt. 
 
 change, MID. 
 milk. 
 
 cifivvo) defend. Perfect wholly wanting. MID. 
 dvcdvofiat' (not a compound) MID. deny, has no other form 
 except first aorist, which takes rj, 101. 4. 
 
 avvw fulfil, 95 Rem. 3. PASS, has'ff. MID. 
 unolavw enjoy. Has the augment in the middle, though the 
 simple is not used. See 86 Rem. 1. 
 kindle. 
 
 fasten., MID. cleave to, touch. 
 ecpdw irrigate. PASS, has only present and imperfect. 
 
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 16 1 
 
 and op/uorrw fit, MID. 
 
 rob, commonly donuaco &c. iJQnoijIhiv. The dialects 
 not Attic make aQnaiw &c. r^ndyr^, see 92. Rem 3. 
 drazw ou*, like aVu'w, MID. 
 rtt/e, MID. begin- 
 
 , MID. embrace, greet. 
 gasp. 
 
 lighten- 
 
 ( go, future Mid. 
 dip, characteristic q>. PASS, second aorist. 
 
 bear, fut. aco. In the Passive it takes the other char- 
 acteristic, ypcu, y$nv. See 92 Rem. 3. 
 
 , cough. 
 
 Mid. compel PASS, see 113 Rem. 3. 
 injure, characteristic /?, PASS. 2 aorist. 
 see, second aorist, PASS, see 100 Rem. 4. 
 jlow out. 
 
 counsel, MID. 
 
 sound, has no aorist nor perfect. 
 moisten, PASS, am damp, second aorist. 
 am full, has neither aorist nor perfect. 
 cause to taste, Mid. taste. 
 cut, augment of the perf. see 82 Rem. 1 . 
 w recognise. 
 
 write, second aorist, PASS. 100 Rem. 3. MID. 
 weep. 
 
 loan at interest, MID. borrow at interest. 
 Stywjlay, PASS, second aerist. 
 
 rule. 
 moisten. 
 
 Mid. receive. PASS, see below 4 Anomaly of significa- 
 tion,' 113 Rem. 3. 
 
 judge, Mid. 
 
 (not a compound) pursue. 
 21 
 
162 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. [ 104. 
 
 dovhow enslave. 
 
 dpKO) do, act, not to be confounded with the forms of the anom- 
 alous di$QCtUXfD- 
 
 dQtnw pluck, MID. 
 
 accustom, augment fi. 
 conjecture. Augm. see 83 Rem. 2. 
 yield, augm. see 83 Rem. 2 and 5, not to be confounded 
 with the anomalous E1KQ. 
 
 f'igyoo shut out, augm. 83 Rem. 2 and 5. 
 lkiy%w refute, Att. reduplication, perf. pass. 98 Rem. 6. 
 IMaaw, TTCD, wind, augm. ft. MID. * 
 I'Axw draw, augm. ti. MID. 
 ihnioj hope. 
 
 i'Ajro) cause to hope, thnopcci hope, has besides the present and 
 imperfect only the perfect and pluperfect, viz. i'ohnu, twhniv, 
 83 Rem. 7 and 9, with the signification of present and imperfect, 
 hope, hoped. 
 
 celebrate a festival, augm. 83 Rem. 9. 
 (not a compound) promote, PASS, hasten. 
 vot apply myself, augm. 86 Rem. 3. 
 
 Mid. labour, augm. ft PASS. 113 Rem. 3. 
 prop, Attic reduplication MID. 
 tpiaow, TIW, rote;, fut. oco. 
 
 interpret' 
 
 spit out, second aorist. MID. 
 l@la) contend, rival, Attic reduplication. 
 147 e'jOTico creep, augm. ti. 
 
 commonly t^tTO^at, examine, 
 make straight, direct. 
 Mid. pray, augm. 83 Rem. 2, 
 please, Mid. enjoy, rejoice, 
 come, arrive. 
 
 sprout, second perf. 
 
 warm. 
 
 bury, characteristic q, 2 aorist, PASS, see 18. 3. 
 
104.] LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 163 
 
 admire, fut. mid. 
 ascinate. 
 reap. 
 #777/0) whet. 
 
 crush, second aorist, PASS. 100 Rem. 3. 
 break, shatter, PASS, has o. 
 
 &QVUTW rub, characteristic cp, 2d aor. pass, see 18. 3. 
 &vot, see anomalous verbs. 
 place, put. 
 straighten. 
 
 supplicate. 
 ) scourge, fut. aw. 
 act. and pass, depon. desire. 
 iTC7ifV(o ride. 
 iG%vo) am able. 
 
 xa#/pcu (not compounded) purify, 1 aorist has rj. MID. 
 xalvco kill, 2d aorist. The perfect is wholly wanting. PASS. 
 has neither perfect nor aorist. 
 hide, MID. 
 
 bend, PASS. perf. 98 Rem. 7. 
 shave, PASS. 2d Aorist. MID. 
 
 order, PASS, has a. 
 land, fut. x*'Aaa>, see 101 Rem. 5. 
 
 care for, only present and imperfect. The active 
 injure, only in the poets. 
 Txct), proclaim. 
 incur danger. 
 
 xAd^o) sound, characteristic yy, 92 Rem. 1. Perf. x^xAayya. 
 xA^/w shut, PASS, both with and without ff. 
 xA*Wo> 5 <eaZ, fut mid. -Perf. see 97 Rem. 1. PASS. 2d 
 aorist 
 
 xA/i/w bend, 101. 8. b. PASS. 1st and 2d aorist -MID. rarely 
 used. 
 
 xAi;to rinse. 
 xWo> twitch, burn. 
 
164 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 104. 
 
 a(w punish, fut. mid. 
 
 mutilate, PASS, with and without a. 
 tn'n^. MID. obtain, receive. 
 be dust, (xovlaco, xfxovlfiai,.) 
 KOHTCO cut, epic 2d perf. PASS. 2d aor. MID. 
 x(juu scream, characteristic y, perf. xtxyoi'ya, 2d aor. 3d 
 fut. instead of fut. act. 
 
 vw judge, 101. 8. b. MID. 
 knock, PASS, has a MID. 
 
 hide, characteristic . PASS. 1st and 2d aor. MID. 
 Mid acquire, perf. xiXTij/uai possess. 
 kill, see 101. 8, 1st and 2d aor. 2d perf. 
 %TIGO found. 
 
 roll, PASS, has a. 
 prevent- 
 
 say, MID^ See this verb, for some of its compounds, in 
 the list of anomalous verbs. 
 pour out, shed. 
 leave, 2 aor. 2 perf. MID. 
 shell, PASS. 2d aorist. see 100 Rem. 4. 
 cease. 
 
 Mid. reckon, conclude. 
 destroy, 1st aorist has r\. MID. 
 , see anomalous verbs. 
 
 depon. rave, 2d aor. pass, 2d fut. rnid. or 2d fut. 
 pass. The active is found only in the compound tttftaivaj mad- 
 den. The perfect active (Ufju^j/a has the intransitive signification. 
 , TTW, soften. 
 
 wither, 1st aorist has long , PASS, wither in its in- 
 transitive sense. 
 
 Mid. blame. 
 , see anomalous verbs. 
 ifa divide, MID. 
 interpret. 
 
104.] LIST OF BARVTON VERBS. 165 
 
 fiuivoj pollute, 1st aorist has ??. 
 ftokvva) contaminate. 
 
 vaoaco, TTW, Jill, fut. w. It has in the PASS, the other form 
 See 92 Rem. 3. 
 anomalous verbs. 
 vt VCD wink, nod. 
 
 Mid. swim, 
 snow. 
 
 vo[Aia) think, believe, 
 odvpoput Mid. lament. 
 
 bewail. 
 
 deplore, fut. oifiw'Zopcu, aor. w[.iw'a. 
 disembark, trans. 
 D$iiira) sharpen, stimulate, 
 reproach, 
 name, 
 arm, MID. 
 
 opt'yw reach, Att. redup. MID. 
 limit. 
 
 TTW, dig, Att. redup. MID. 
 educate, MID. 
 
 7ictiw play, fut. nai^o^cn and nut,'^oi)(.iat, see 95 Rem. 9. But 
 the aor. is tTicuaa, perf. pass, ntnaiaftat, &c. see 92 Rem. 3. 
 icD, see anomalous verbs. 
 
 wrestle, PASS, has ff, 
 s/ia^e, PASS. 2d aorist. 
 jraoraw 6e5trety, fut. dw. MID. 
 
 strike, MID. 
 
 put to rest, PASS. 1st aor. see 100 Rem. 1 MID. rest, 
 nfi&a) persuade, PASS, believe, which signification is shared al- 
 so by the 2d perf. Tit'noi&a. 
 
 perforate, PASS. 2d aorist. 
 
 send, perf. 97 Rem. 1, perf. pass. 98 Rem. 7. MID. 
 am />oor, used only in the present and imperfect. 
 finish, 1st aorist, see 101. 4. 
 
166 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 104. 
 
 compress, oppress. 
 
 believe- 
 
 7iAcu cause to wander, characteristic yy, see 92 Rem. 1. 
 PASS, wander. 
 
 nkaoow, TTM, t forrn, fut. GOJ, MID. 
 braid, PASS. 2d aor MID. 
 wash, see 101 Rem. 8. 
 
 7i viyw svjfocate, trans. Fut. mid. Dor. 95 Rem. 9. PASS. 
 suffocate, intrans. 2d aorist, see 100 Hem. 3. 
 
 bring, lead, PASS, journey. 
 ioj procure, MID. acquire. 
 
 ), TTK>, do. It has throughout. Istperf. / have done, 
 2d perf. ntnyuyu I have been, MID. 
 
 adorn, become, only in active. 
 saw, PASS, has a. 
 stumble, PASS, has o. 
 
 crouch. 
 
 miaow stamp, fut. ffco. 
 nivooajfold, MID. 
 
 spit, PASS, has a. 
 rot. 
 ) sew. 
 sink. 
 
 , see anomalous verbs. 
 
 wag the tail, flatter, only in active, 1st aor. has ^. 
 Out oca sweep, 1st aor. has ??. 2d perf. 
 
 sound a trumpet, characteristic yy, see 92 Rem. 1. 
 'depon. reverence. 
 Of l(o shake, PASS, has ^, MID. 
 aijftalvw denote, mark, 1st aorist has ij, MID. 
 
 151 ar)nco cause to decay, PASS, rot, has 2d aorist. This meaning 
 extends also to 2d perf. 
 
 injure. 
 aj limp. 
 
 dig, characteristic % PASS. 2d aorist. 
 
104. J LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. 167 
 
 ox f no) cover. 
 
 Mid. survey. 
 o) prepare, MID. 
 
 act. and mid. support myself. 
 scoff 1 . 
 GUHQW sow, d perf. PASS. 2d Aorist. 
 
 pour out, shed, see 95 Rem. 1. MID. 
 hasten. 
 
 onovddo) 'pursue with zeal, fut. mid. 
 arCw drop, fut. |co, see 92 Rem. 1. 
 ' cover. 
 
 tpaj tread, PASS. 2d aorist. 
 GTfl%a) step, 1st and 2d aorist. 
 or^'AAw send, PASS. 1st and 2d aorist, MID. 
 
 sigh, only in the pres, and imperf. 
 dco groan, fut. |w, see 92 Rem. 1. 
 love, am satisfied, 
 crown, MID. 
 ]Oia) prop, fut. ^w, see 92 Rem. 1. 
 
 MID. conjecture. 
 act. and mid. ia&e the jield. 
 
 turn, trans, see 98 Rem. 3, and 100 Rem. 2. PASS. 
 1st and 2d aorist, MID. 
 Gvplaj pipe. 
 
 GVOOJ draw, PASS. 2d aorist. MIDr 
 deceive, PASS. 2d aorist. 
 slay, PASS. 2d aorist. 
 
 aq-lyyto bind, PASS, perf see 98 Rem. 6. 
 Gqi'w palpitate, fut. <w, 92 Rem. 1. 
 G'/io) split. 
 
 am at leisure. 
 
 , TTO), disturb, MID. 
 
 ), arrange, PASS. 1st and 2d Aorist. MID. 
 wet. 
 stretch, 101. 8. 
 
168 LIST OF BARYTON VERBS. [ 104. 
 
 limit, 1st Aor. has rj. MID. prove, testify. 
 build, 1st Aor. has r\. 
 
 , an obsolete word little used but in composition, as tnir 
 commit. See 101. 8. MID. 
 TV%W prepare, see 98 Rem. 4, compare the anomalous ivy- 
 
 soften, melt, PASS, melt intrans. 2d Aor. The 2d perf. 
 has the same meaning. 
 
 T/Meo tear out, see 101. 4. 
 TIGO, see anomalous verbs. 
 
 shatter, MID. 
 
 tremble, has no aor. nor perf. 
 
 turn, see 97 Rem. 1, 98 Rem. 3, and 100 Rem. 2. 
 The 2d aorist is the most common tense in ACT. PASS, and MID. 
 T(jt(pw nourish, fut. fipeifja), &c. 18. 2. Perf. TtTpoqa. PASS. 
 perf. Tf'&QaiAfAai, Te&Qcttyftut,, 2d aor. iTydyrjv, 1st aor. (which is 
 rare) t&$tq>&r)v. Fut mid. for pass. MID. 
 rub, 2d aor. PASS. 100 Rem. 3. 
 chirp, fut. <w, perf. TfTQlya. 
 to treat with indignity, abuse. 
 weave, 1st aorist has rj. 
 vca rain, PASS, has o. 
 
 cpaivw show, PASS, together with. the fut. mid. and 2d aorist 
 pass, appear. 
 
 , TTOO, physic. 
 Mid. spare. 
 
 , flee, fut. cpfv^o/uai, and ^61/lotJ/iat, see 95 Rem. 9 
 2d aor. 2d perf. see ^97.2. Perf. pass, see 98 Rem. 4. 
 opuxt Blid. sound, perf. 98 Rem. 6. 
 
 destroy, 2d perf. PASS. 2d Aorist. 
 burn, trans. PASS. 2d Aor. 100 Rem. 4. 
 speak, indicate, MID. 
 153 qrpaaffcu, TTW, surround, PASS. 2d Aor. MID. 
 q GI (jaw, TIM, shudder, characteristic x, 2d perf. 
 care for* 
 
':>.] CONTRACT VERBS. 169 
 
 vyw roast, PASS. 2d aorist, see 100 Re m. 3. 
 daaa), TTOJ, guard, MID. 
 
 knead, fut. qvQGw, see 101 Rem. 5. 
 plant. 
 
 Mid. am kind, grant. 
 v(jD dance. 
 
 r,w need, desire, only in pres. and imperf. Compare the 
 anomalous paoj. 
 
 /co anoint, PASS, has o. MID. 
 
 oj strike the harp, sing. 
 va) touch, PASS, has a. 
 t'yw blame, 
 vdw deceive, PASS. lie. 
 
 ia) count, number, MID. decree by vote, 
 v'^oj, see anomalous verbs. 
 wdivw travail. 
 
 105. CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 1. Verbs in aw, tea, o'w, in most of their forms, follow altogeth- 
 er the preceding rules and examples ; and reference is uniformly 
 had to these verbs, in the chapter on the formation of the tenses. 
 But in the present and imperfect, of the active and passive voices, 
 when the vowels a, t, o, immediately precede the vowel of the 
 termination, (and in the Ionic dialect partly remain there unchang- 
 ed,) a contraction takes place in the Attic and common dialect. 
 
 2. This contraction is subject to the general laws of contrac- 
 tion, given above in 27, with the exception of a few terminations 
 in the verbs in ow. While according to the general rule, ott, 
 should be contracted into ov, and oy into w, the t of the second and 
 third persons prevails in the verbs in o'w, and the terminations otis 
 and or are contracted into 01?, and oei> and oy into 01, as follows, 
 viz. 
 
 22 
 
170 CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105. 
 
 154 3 
 
 So also 2d pers. /nd. and Subj. Pass, pta&oii contr. 
 
 Inasmuch, moreover, as oot is also contracted into ot, in these 
 persons in the active voice, the three modes, indicative, subjunc- 
 tive, and optative, are alike. The infinitive in oeti/ is regularly 
 contracted, viz. /ot*9$fW, prirffovv. 
 
 3. Also the verbs in co have the whole indicative and sub- 
 junctive alike in the active and passive, in the contraction made 
 according to the general rule, whereby both at and ? are con- 
 tracted into j aft and ay into , and o, aou, aa>, into w. 
 
105.] 
 
 CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 171 
 
 T 
 
 
 * ^ 
 
 
 
 O o 
 
 O O *w nj * 
 
 c* ,**, 5L >- to 
 
 1 
 
 vS I 
 
 *3 o 3 ooooo 
 ^S^icj; iji C> ^5 C> 05 
 to to to 1 to to to to to 
 
 1 
 
 0"P ^T 
 
 ' *l'Il 
 
 2L5L5. 5L5.3L2L5. 
 
 s. 
 
 jT 5.^> 5. 
 
 v 
 
 
 g'd 
 
 
 
 o to 
 
 h*. 5k 
 
 
 -S => 
 
 ^X 
 
 
 ^> 
 
 ^ ' | o ^ My | 
 
 35- * t fe-'vL,!* 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 sT 
 
 M. v *b n. O g O 
 
 
 o * 
 
 *0*3*o -0^0-0 '0*0 
 
 "< 
 
 ? <g 
 
 tototo \ to to to to to 
 
 to 
 
 2 2 
 
 3L5. =L .3.3.3.3. 
 
 i 
 
 SL 5. 
 
 
 
 fm 
 
 2 
 
 ^ ^ fc 
 
 
 I I 
 
 
 
 ,f* 
 
 C/k k ^ ^- < ^O 
 
 ^ 
 
 -a *3 
 
 2 ' 5S"^ ^s* ^^s^2^S^^s *2 
 
 % ^ 
 
 5L 2L 
 
 w 5-5-5-15-5-5-5-5- 
 
 5- 
 
 s s s 
 
 O . i ****** Ph^t-t- 
 
 o - i 
 > g J 
 
 N 
 
 O "^ 
 
 "1 ^- 
 I -S 
 
 w ^ T 
 
 > tH S^X 
 
 P ^ * * 5 g 
 o 322 1! I'll 
 
 2 
 
 1 .1 
 
 -i .i 
 
 111- \ 5-1- 1-5- 5- 
 
 
 
 O O 
 
 5- 5- 
 
 
 S 
 
 t* ** 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 H.lsj 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ t 
 
 *3 iy 2 >w ^ o'*u o 
 
 '5 
 
 '-"I -1 
 
 ooo \ ooooo 
 
 ^ftftR ftftftftft 
 
 g 
 
 - o o o 
 
 s *~** 
 
 ^ s5 
 
 
 Id %& 
 
 A =- * 2 
 
 
 *** * ' 
 
 o, ? s * 
 
 Ik 
 
 sT 
 
 f^ ^ Si ht g. Si <> 
 *>C *>Vl , "^ '^ *-W "*/ ~*W 
 d \ i S ^ <* 
 
 -* 
 *w 
 
 'S 
 
 -1 1 
 
 3 
 
 000 |0 0000 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 .ftftft RRftKft 
 
 ft 
 
 . R K 
 
 .cn P Cb 
 
 <u 
 
 1 * 
 
 Q 
 
 *9 
 
 % o 
 
 "r* 
 
 e 
 
 "** ^^ 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 155 
 
172 CONTRACT VERBS. [105. 
 
 II 
 
 s ... 
 
 111 1 11111 111 1 11111 d ."!s- 
 
 2L 5. 5L 5.5.5.5-5t 5L5.5. =L =L 2L 2L CL -^-^^ 
 
 ** o o o 
 
 _ _ L^ *^_^ Cj) Si hi ^ t<l H> 
 
 _C/> ^l^- 1 *-^^ ^ ii <i ^4 ~^, >i -i O 
 
 3 T- sr, srsrosro ooo ooooo 
 
 S|^ a 
 
 2 sr 3 o o o 
 
 _____ _ ~o 
 
 to to to I e 
 
 5.4.3. 5. H.5L 
 
 ^ _ 
 
 o O * * 
 
 SJ-C/i^ ^ J 1 * "?- *" JJJ <^ ^- 
 
 3 ?r. Sr, s-s~^dSrS ooo oooo^o _R~ ^^" 
 
 1. 1- 3- 1 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- 1 3-3- 1*?- 3- I- ^ 
 
 o o ooo 
 9PPlooo5 oo|ooo 
 
 ts t e tt g.;fe 
 
 ^ . -ff. - 
 
 3 ST. sr. S-S-3S-3 ooo ooooo 
 
 ' I S' 2' "' ' '' 
 
 l 
 
 Q 
 
 I '2 S 2'S'2 2 
 
 ooolooooo ooolooooo o 
 
 4 g g 1i ti 3? K ft R ft K^^feK ft 
 
 I J 
 
105.] 
 
 CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 173 
 
 a 
 ^ 
 
 <fc <8 
 
 o o o o 
 
 to to to to to :|_ 
 H 1 =1 =1 5. 2L 
 
 it 
 
 -l-f-S 
 
 .SL^S. 
 
 If Iff 
 
 to to to 
 ~5L 5. 3. 
 
 to to to 
 5L =L 5. 
 
 - 
 
 *w"^ O j O 
 
 "O O~O"O O 
 
 , < 3? ^ <fc C> 
 
 | to to to to to 
 
 "111 
 
 I'll 
 .-5-I-5- 
 
 157 
 
 3 
 
 ll 
 S S 
 
 2- 
 
 I* I* 
 
 -3- 2- 3- 3- 
 
 3- 3- 3- 2-* 
 
 t* fc* t* t* 
 
 -111 I I5-S-3--S- 
 
 $ i 
 
 I I 
 
 I 
 
 6 3 
 H ft* 
 
 " 
 
 M-i^- I 1 1- 1- Ll 
 
 _fc> N _N _M ta fc> _h (s. 
 
 y 
 
 i~* 
 
 8 
 
 -c- a 8 
 
 Ill 
 
 -s *! 
 
 
 
 t! R 
 
 111 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 * 
 
 .M 2 
 ^ Cf 
 
 ^O^^ kCtOKtO 
 
 ,"!"! I l"| 
 
 f^ f^ fl^y r*^ ^%^ *vy ft wy "wy 
 
 2k 5k 
 
 6 5? 
 
 * 
 
 o o 
 
 O O O 
 
 R R R R 
 
 g"* J 
 
 S* s o 
 
174 
 
 CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 [ 105. 
 
 158 
 
 p f oooop._opo 
 3.3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 
 
 |v** 
 
 ** <} &> ^ O ^ **> 
 
 9 x *u d> db *^ 3$ 
 * S. S. 3.5 to 3.to 
 5 ST. m O * m - O ^ 
 
 -S"| 
 
 to to 
 
 . 
 
 a- s-'3 s- 3 
 3-0 o'o-o 
 
 5- c- 3J3- te ^ 
 
 O KV ^ Q u H< 
 
 t* Si s> S> N *< S* 
 
 t 
 
 3 s-, sr"3 :cvx-~3 sr 3 
 -8-3'5i 3^8 8 3-B^S 
 
 ^-2-3-^^2-s-i-^ 
 
 * =. 9 
 
 g|2gg2g 
 
 ""-"$- v X"5 'X'2 
 
 00000000 
 
 oooo'ooooo 
 
 ' Q 
 
 * ft 
 
105.] 
 
 CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 175 
 
 o ft 
 
 < 
 
 OOOOoOOOO 
 
 Sso^c-i^c^ck^^ 
 totetooototooo 
 
 3 JJb 
 
 ^to to o is 
 o o o o o 
 to to to 
 
 5L 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5.5.5.5. 
 
 21 5. 
 
 opoppopop 
 totote'totototobto 
 
 I ft ft 8 
 
 ft ^ O S-Q^ K) o 
 
 -1-2 iJshlSJi-l 1 
 
 OSOOOOOOO 
 
 o-^p-o o-p o o-o-p 
 totoo^tobtotototo 
 
 5L5L3.5L5L5.55.a 
 
 ft- | 
 3,g 3 HT 3 J| 
 
 o -1 ? -1 1 -! J 
 
 p o-o p'o o to 
 to to to to to to 5 - 
 5L 5L 5. 5. 5. 5. O 
 
 o ^ ft 8 
 
 <35 S-5 
 
 o o n.-e> <, x ^-o ^ o 
 o-c-p p-o o o~o~o 
 
 2v2>^^2-2-4-^-*2 ; 
 
 o ft ft 8 
 
 3-2-3-3-5-2-S-3-2- 
 
 xSS'^SiKhiSiSi 
 
 ft ft 
 
 ooooocooo 
 8-8-3 8-8 S 8^1-8 
 =1.5.5.5.5.5.5.5.5. 
 S>J-HtM^^22 
 
 3|I^|| 
 
 ^^to^to^to^to^to-8 
 ^l|| l ||f 
 
 _ ft | 
 
 3 o 3 
 
 ft 3 
 a o> 
 to & 
 
 3 ~*> 
 
 ft ft S 
 
 S-<fc 
 
 3-> 
 
 &. 
 
 ft ft 
 
 ^5 S- 
 
 to to to to - 
 
 * 
 
 g-g-3-2-5-S-S 
 
 "^-o *u o 
 8*8 8-8 8 8-8-1 
 
 o ft 
 
 ^ O 
 
 2 2 
 
 o o 
 
 -3-S 
 
 o 
 
 O O O O O O O 
 0000000 
 
 O O O O O O t* 
 
 K ft ft R K R 
 
 ll 
 
 .toto5.toft ^^^^d^^S 
 
 -ilTI-S-2 ^*5^.5*S g 
 
 o 
 
 n, 
 
 ^< 
 
 0000 
 
176 
 
 CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 105 - 
 
 All other tenses admit no contraction. But inasmuch as the 
 declension of the perfect and pluperfect passive of these verbs is 
 not sufficiently clear from the paradigms just given, they are here 
 inflected at length. The other tenses are inflected like TUHTM. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Indicative. S. nfnoir]fjiai 
 
 D. 
 
 mnofao&ov, 
 
 P. nenoirjfit&ot 
 
 Infinitive. nfnoi^G&ca 
 Participle. TifnoiTjpevOV 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Optative. S. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 , &c. 
 
 nfnoirjO 
 TifnohiTO 
 
 ntnoiya&t 
 
 Imperative. S. ncrtoiyGO 
 
 D. TifnoiyGftov 
 P. 
 
 lAplO&0)l*&OV 
 (AfftlG'&OlO&OV 
 
 [i(4iG&G)0& 
 
 &C. 0>, (IDICU, &C. 
 
 (AffAlG&WO 
 
 TfTtfirjVtO 
 TfTlflTjGO 
 
 oav 
 
 See 
 
 -Rem. JJ. 
 
105.] 
 
 CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 177 
 
 S. ' In fnoir t LU]V 
 eafnolijtfo 
 
 D. t 
 
 , Pluperfect. 
 
 P. tntnoit'j/ut&a 
 
 161 
 
 fTtTtfttJO&OV 
 
 1 Fut. 
 
 1 Aor. inoiri&riv 
 
 3 Fut. 
 
 1 Fut. 
 1 Aor. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Verbal Adjectives. 
 
 Tlf-lIJTO? 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. The uncontracted or original form of these verbs is, in res- 
 pect to verbs in 6w, peculiar to the Ionic dialect. In the other 
 verbs, it is wholly disused, with the exception of a few poetical 
 forms in acu. 
 
 2. In the Attic and common dialect, the foregoing contractions 
 are never omitted ; with the exception however, in general, of the 
 shorter words in fco (as r^f'w), from which, though we say rp*7, 
 
 5, 7ivt7v, &c. we use, on the other hand, the full forms rpi'cw, 
 pt'opfv, nviovGi, nviy, &LC- 
 
 3. A few contract verbs in oj, instead of the vowel of contrac- 
 tion a, have a Doric r t see Rem. 9 below. They are principally 
 the following, viz. 
 
 o&ui to make for one'j self, TijuctG&ctt to honor as in the active, 
 to cause to let to one's self, i. e. to hire, 
 
 23 
 
178 CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105. 
 
 Ji> to live, %ofi<J'9(xt, to wse, 
 
 Ttttv^v to hunger uityijv to thirst^ 
 
 from aw, #pw, (see both among the anomalous verbs below,) 
 nfivdw, distyaw. Accordingly we have Jff, >?, *'*?, %yn*<xi, &c. 
 
 Further remarks on the dialects. 
 
 1(52 4. As the Ionics form the 3d pers. of the common conjugation 
 in eon, and *o, the verbs in tot are subject to a multiplication of 
 vowels ; such as Ttoit'tat, inaivi'tai, &c. which, however, with res- 
 pect to M-J, is remedied bj' an elision of the , as Inoteo. 
 
 5. The Ionic dialect often converts a, in verbs in ao>, into , 
 as oyt'ct) ootoftfv for opaco opao/t&f, %otfT(/.i for %toaT<xi>, &c. 
 
 6. In the 3d pers. plur. where the Ionics, according to 103. 
 III. 5, change the o into , and in particular use *azo for ovro, 
 they make use of the same termination, with the elision of one 
 also for t'ovto of the imperfect, as t[jr]%av-taTO,(for-aovTO,-60V 
 commonly ifM.i]%av(ovfO. In the perfect, they not only change 
 rai into yaTcU) but commonly shorten also the y into 6, as 
 tctTui for T^III-YIVIOLI. 
 
 7. The epic writers have the peculiar license, on account of 
 the metre, to protract again the vowel of contraction by inserting 
 before it the kindred long or short vowel, as (QQUIIV) oQCfv,OQcta.v' 
 (p^aw) D(M, DOOM. Particip. fern, (yftdovaa) ^o7(ia, ^J/^wwda, &,c. 
 
 8. The Doric dialect, instead of contracting *o into ou, com- 
 monly contracts it into f, and that this is also done by the Ionics 
 has already been remarked ; see 27 Rem. 5. These dialects 
 moreover not only say nonvntv, nouvufti, noievvif?, tnolivv, from 
 verbs in t'w, but also in the verbs in ow, e. g. Idixetitvv, rdyptw- 
 Ttg, from dix&iooi^ Tcfajooo). 
 
 9. The Dorics, who uniformly use elsewhere for 77, desert 
 in this case this analogy, and make use of ??, without^* ^subscript, 
 instead of all contractions of aft and fti, as o^fy* for 
 
 Tf for TQ\A.UT V.Qd.J]V for 
 
 List of contract verbs. 
 
 The same explanations apply to this, as to the preceding List 
 of baryton verbs. 
 
 love. 
 
 tt* am ignorant of, fut. mid. 
 
 wrong. 
 
 atytopcw depon. am ashamed of, fut. f'ffo/uat, perf. and aorist 
 have <y. 
 
 make bloody. 
 
105.] LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. 179 
 
 algtw, see anomalous verbs. 
 a/Weo demand, MID. 
 
 Mid. criminate. 
 
 Mid. heal. fut. iaouui. perf. takes a. 
 axoAo ftft'a) follow. 
 mSQtffott know accurately, MID. 
 uxgoaouui Mid. Aear. 
 
 ctAtto/ua* depon. wander* 163 
 
 alyiu) suffer pain. 
 A*o> grind, retains in its inflection, Attic redup. PASS. 
 
 has <j. 
 
 aAoatw tftmft, fut. &c. 95. 5. 
 d t uuaj wow, MID. 
 aiufiofaTiaj contest, differ in opinion, augment at the begin- 
 
 ning. 
 
 civiuo) (not a compound) Pass, with fut. mid. am grieved. 
 aziooj estimate. 
 
 anuvTua) meet, fut. mid. Augment in the middle. 
 CHiardctj (not compounded) deceive. 
 ujitifa'o) (not compounded) threaten. 
 
 Mid. beg. 
 
 iw count, MID. x 
 
 apx^'w suffice, retains in its inflection. Pass, with the same 
 
 meaning has a. 
 aQvioput, Mid. deny. 
 apoco plough, retains o in the inflection, Attic redup. Pass. 
 
 without a. 
 
 apraoj hang, fasten, MID. 
 ceoxi'co exercise. 
 
 /5tdcu, see anomalous verbs. 
 pouot cry out, see 95 Rem. 5. Fut. mid. 
 povxoticjfeed, trans. 
 a) thunder. 
 
 i, fut. mid. Has in inflection. PASS, has o. 
 
180 LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105. 
 
 ytvvaw beget, MID. 
 danavaw Act. and depon. expend, 
 df&ooftat Mid. salute with the right hand, 
 deco, see anomalous verbs. 
 injure, MID. 
 manifest. 
 
 (not a compound) am a judge, PASS, abide, live; for 
 augment see 86 Rem. 4. 
 dicwoviw (not a compound) minister to, for augment see 86 
 
 Rem. 4.^ MID. same signification. 
 164 dityaw thirst, see Rem. 3 above. 
 dovhow enslave, MID. 
 
 do, (different from &$pdx<w, see anomalous verbs.) 
 
 am unfortunate. 
 law permit, augm. ft. 
 
 (not compounded) pledge, MID. guarantee. 
 
 deliver over, augm. 86 Rem. 3. 
 cAf 0) pity. 
 
 Ipt'co spit, has f in the inflection, Att. redup. PASS, has o. 
 depon. am opposed to, augm. at the beginning, 
 depon. consider, augm. 86 Rem. 3. 
 tvo%fa'a) annoy, augm. 86 Rem. 4. 
 desire, augm. 86 Rem. 3. 
 undertake, augm. 86 Rem. 3. 
 love, 1 aor. Pass has a with active signification. 
 Act. and Mid. investigate, 
 make -waste. 
 
 blush. 
 tpwtaw ask. 
 
 entertain, treat, augm. f^. 
 
 benefit, augm. 86 Rem. 5. 
 am pious, augm. 86 Rem. 5. 
 
 tva)%i<o feast trans. PASS, feast intrans. augment 86 Rem. 5. 
 aw, see anomalous verbs. 
 ft'oi boil intrans. retains f in its inflection. 
 
105.] LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. 181 
 
 r]h6w emulate, am zealous for. 
 tTt(o seek. 
 
 paint. 
 am young. 
 
 Mid. think, believe. 
 
 tame. 
 
 drive. 
 
 PASS, am inferior, am overcome: 
 echo, sound. 
 
 eu, &aQOtt, confide am bold. 
 Mid. behold, contemplate. 
 
 hunt. 165 
 
 crush, a in the inflection. PASS, has a. 
 ftvptcuu burn incense, perfume. 
 am wrathful. 
 Mid. heal. 
 idpoto staeat. 
 iftdo) draw up, MID. 
 w inquire, 
 injure, weaken. 
 Mid. boast. 
 t'a} prick, sting. 
 
 xAaa> break, a in the inflection. PASS, has or, (not to be con- 
 founded with xAaoj, xAcc/oi, see anomalous verbs.) 
 
 choose by lot, MID. cast lots. 
 scrape, contracts at into ?/. See above Rem. 3. 
 
 to sleep, tranquillize, PASS. (Epic mid.) sleep. 
 Act. and Mid. ma&e common, share. 
 
 partake. 
 xoAAaw glue. 
 KoKvupuw swim. 
 
 j>w sweep, (diflferent from xogtvvvftt, see anomalous verbs.) 
 
 adorn. 
 
 s'oj Act. and Mid. am angry, resent, retains t in its inflection 
 x()cm'cu have power, take hold of. 
 
182 LIST OP CONTRACT VERBS. [ 105. 
 
 strike, clap. 
 
 Mid. acquire, Perf. possess. 
 f'tD sound, roar. 
 acD pilot, direct- 
 speak. 
 implore. 
 
 reproach, Act. Pass, and Mid. 
 Ivntw grieve. 
 
 Mid. abuse. 
 remit, rest. 
 testify. 
 smile. 
 166 ftfTQio) measure, MID. 
 
 Mid. contrive, devise. 
 Mid. imitate. 
 hate. 
 spin, (for vtw swim, see anomalous verbs.) 
 
 conquer. 
 votco think. 
 
 vov&iTtw exhort, warn. 
 &'a) abrade, smooth, polish, retains the f in the inflection, and in 
 
 PASS, has a. 
 o*Wo) dwell. 
 olwofafitfa build, MID. 
 oxvtco hesitate, am not willing. 
 Ofiolofttu agree with, confess. 
 onTaa) roast. 
 
 OQ$faa set upright, MID For augna. of compound uvog&o w 
 see 86 Rera. 4. 
 
 Act. and Pass, hasten, strive. 
 lie at anchor. 
 
 Mid. spring, dance. 
 vQtw, augm. 83 Rem. 6. 
 
 drive trans. PASS, drive intransit. 
 
 rage, augm, 86 Rem. 4, 
 tread. 
 
105.] LIST OF CONTRACT VERBS. 183 
 
 suffer hunger, see above Rem. 4. 
 ntipdw try, examine. neiQao^ai, with fut. mid. and aor. pass. 
 
 attempt, undertake. 
 
 Tifpda) pass over, fut. ntpdao) (long a) &c. 
 Tit oato 6rwg o-ucr, fut. ji*pa(j<w (short a), Att. fut. ntpw, a?, . 
 &c. PASS, has or. 
 
 mislead, PASS, 
 am covetous. 
 
 novtw Act. and Mid. Ja6or. 
 give -wings to. 
 sell. 
 cause to root, PASS, take root. 
 
 mark, MID. 
 keep silence, fut. mid. 
 Mid. eat, feast- 
 keep silence, fut. mid. 
 leap. 
 
 scour, contracts ae into 13. See above Rem. 3. 
 draw, a in the inflection. PASS, has a. MID. 
 
 crown, MID. 
 (71'Aacu plunder. 
 ayQiydw swell, am puffed up. 
 
 -if tiw finith, fulfil, retains t in the inflection, PASS, has d. MID. 
 tr t otw observe. 
 Ti(.iotoj honor, MID. 
 
 ia) help, revenge, MID. 
 
 dare. 
 
 t'w tremble, see above Rem. 2. retains t in the inflection. 
 bore, perforate. 
 am effeminate, debauch. 
 make proud, PASS, am prm.id. 
 <f:&ovt(n envy- 
 
 ./ear 
 
 visit. 
 
184 VERBS IN fit. [ 106, 
 
 blow* 
 
 yield, relax) a in its inflection, PASS, has a. 
 Act. but more commonly Mid. subject- 
 go, yiel^ fut. mid. 
 
 rub) contracts ae into 77, see above Rem. 3. MID. 
 Mid. 6wy, augm. 83 Rem. 6. 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 
 106. VERBS IN fit. 
 
 1. The first class of irregular verbs are those in ft*, a class 
 which contains but few verbs and parts of verbs, which differ also 
 still further from each other in several points. 
 
 168 REM. 1. The verbs, which are given in the grammar as exam- 
 ples of this formation, are almost the only ones in which it pre- 
 vails in all those parts, to which it can be applied. Whatever else 
 is governed by this analogy will be given in the list of anomalous 
 verbs. For the most part, it is only single tenses of certain verbs. 
 
 2. All verbs in pi have a root, which, according to the usual 
 formation, should terminate in w pure. It is therefore usual in 
 the grammar to deduce the more frequent from the obsolete form, 
 and to say that Tlfhjpi is derived from SEQ. 
 
 3. The conjugation in [ni> is peculiar only in the Present) Im- 
 perfect and Second Aorist ; and the essentials of it consist in the 
 terminations of inflection. Thus (lev, rf, */, |Wa, instead of being 
 attached to the root by a connective vowel (ofifV) 6rf, 0V) o/uca), 
 are joined immediately to the radical vowel of the verb, e. g. 
 
 ri&f-[4V) lOTCC-pai,) dido-re) tdtixvv-Tf) e&ij-v. 
 See Rem. 8. 
 
 4. In addition to this, there are some peculiar terminations, viz. 
 
 pi in the 1st pers. sing. pres. Indie. 
 
 GI or aw in the 3d pers. sing. pres. Indie. 
 
 &i in the 2d pers. sing. Imperat. 
 
 Besides, the infinitive of those tenses always ends in vui) and the 
 nom. masculine of the participle not in v, but in , with the omis- 
 sion of V) whereby the radical vowel is lengthened in the usual 
 
106.] VERBS IN /UJ. 185 
 
 manner, as ?, **<?, ov, u, which ending has always the acute ac- 
 cent. 
 
 5. The subjunctive and the optative combine the radical vowel 
 of the verb with their termination into one long vowel, which 
 should regularly be always accented. In the subjunctive, when 
 the radical vowel is a or *, this contracted vowel is w and 17, as 
 
 But when the radical vowel is" o, the contracted vowel is uni- 
 formly w, as 
 
 w, w, w, o7|M/, euW, coff^f. 
 
 The optative has a diphthong with i , to which is subjoined the 
 termination in ijv t as Ti&-ir)v, ioT-air)v, did-olriv. 
 
 The verbs in tyu most commonly form these two modes ac- 
 cording to the analogy of verbs in i)w. 
 
 6. Several short radical forms connect with the abovenamed 
 ch'anges a reduplication, wherein they repeat the first consonant 
 with an ;, as 
 
 AO& didwui, 9E& rli^fii. 
 
 If the root begin with dr, TIT, or an aspirated vowel, i alone is 
 prefixed with the aspirate, as 
 
 2T.4SI iGTtjfAi, IITAQ 'tntaf-ia^ *EQ 'i^i. 
 And it is only in this way, that the second aorist can be formed in 
 verbs of this kind ; as it is only by the absence of this reduplica- 
 tion, that it is distinguished from the imperfect, and, in the other 
 modes, from the present (see 96 Rem. 3.) as 
 ridrjUt, Impf. hi&i]v, Aor. tfrqv. 
 
 7. The radical vowel, in its connexion with the terminations 
 of this conjugation, in the singular of the indicative always be- 
 comes long ; viz. a and f become n (1st pres. 77^), o becomes at 
 (1st pres. w^u), and v is lengthened, as v^i. In the other termi- 
 nations it almost always appears in its original shortness, as T/#IJ- 
 pt Ti&fpfv, l&tffatr, Ti&tvctt, Ti&fTt,, r'&/*a*,bat with some ex- 
 ceptions, which will be seen as they occur in the paradigms, and 
 in the fcst of anomalous verbs below. 
 
 8. All the other tenses are formed in the usual manner from 
 
 24 
 
186 VERBS IN U. 10G. 
 
 the root and without reduplication, as Tt&ijfAt (0E&), fut. fttjao). 
 The verbs, however, of this class, have, as anomalous verbs, even 
 in these tenses, other peculiarities, which are not incident to their 
 character as verbs in /w*, and are therefore to be separately con- 
 sidered. 
 
 REM. 2. The two verbs 'iwrjfAi and didwpi shorten their vow- 
 el, even in those tenses of the passive voice, which are regular. 
 
 E. g. Act GT^OU perf. Tffz^xa, Pass. perf. toitt/uaf, aor. 
 00X700 tfc'doixa, dtdofACti, 
 The verbs xl^r^n and 'ir^m ( 108) do the same only in the 1 
 aor. e. g. titVrjv (for *W#^, from 0E&,) 
 i&tig part. 1 aor. pass, (from *E&.) 
 
 In the perfect active and passive, these two change the radical 
 vowel into , e. g. 
 
 T#6X, Tl&tllACtl' tTxK, fTflCtl- 
 
 REM. 3. The three verbs Ti&ijfu, fy^iu, dldwfjit, have a form 
 of the 1 aor. in xa wholly peculiar to themselves, as 6^xa, ^x, 
 70 Vxa, which must be carefully distinguished from the perfect. 
 
 REM. 4. In the imperative of the 2 aor. some verbs, instead 
 of &i, have simply , e. g. 
 
 fttg for #A<H, t'g for &h, dog for dV>#*. 
 
 REM. 5. As the termination of the 2 pers. pass, in the common 
 conjugation (?;, ov) had its origin in foai. foo (see 103 Rem. II. 1, 
 2.) and as the connective vowel is dropped in the verbs in ji/fc, the 
 termination of this person in these verbs is simply aai, 00, as in 
 the perfect and pluperfect of the common conjugation. Accord- 
 ingly we have rl&f-aa^ m'-te-oro, J'or-at, &c. But here also 
 a contraction with the radical vowel takes place, as zifty, irl&ov. 
 IOTK, t'ffTto, for 'iataaai, iavaoo, &c. 
 
 REM. 6. The form in VIAI belongs only to a few very anoma- 
 lous verbs, which derive their tenses, with the exception of the 
 perfect and imperfect, from a simpler form, as dflxvvfii from 
 AEIK&, <J/?fWi.yu from 2B.EQ &c- and are therefore introduc- 
 ed here as defectives (see 112.6.) In order to know with ease, 
 when v is long or short, it is necessary only to compare the verb 
 lawifAi. Thus deitovvft* has its v long, as <'<ir??/iu its ?/, and d'tix- 
 vvftfv has v short, as I'arufifv its a. Aor, 2 i6v(*tv has long v, 
 as eoryfifv has its penult long, &c. see 9vto in the anomalous verbs. 
 
 REM. 7. All verbs in fit increase their anomaly in this, that. 
 even in the present and imperfect, in various persons and modes, 
 they very often abandon the analogy of verbs in /tu, and are de- 
 clined regularly like verbs in <w, w, o'w, that is, as contract 
 verbs ; and those in v[.w like verbs in vo) ; retaining, however. 
 the reduplication, that is, following an imasrinarv root, as 77- 
 &c. 
 
107.] 
 
 VERBS IN /*. PARADIGM. 
 
 187 
 
 107. 1. PARADIGM OF THE CONJUGATION IN [41. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 I place I cause to stand I give 1 show 
 
 (from 9E&) (from 2TA&) (from AO&) (from 
 Indicative. 
 
 S. 
 
 D. 
 
 TlfttlOV 
 Tl&fTQV 
 
 P. Tt&tpev 
 
 Tl&tTf 
 
 ") 
 
 (v) 
 
 or 
 
 'lGTrjfA.1, 
 
 IGTUTOV 
 
 iacccai 
 
 (v) 
 
 dido act, (*>) 
 
 or 
 fadovGi (i/)* 
 
 dfixvfif.it 
 
 dtlxvviov 
 
 or 
 
 (v) 
 
 f)* 
 
 | IGTU 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 ll&lVKt, 
 
 Participle. 
 M. r*$/*(fWo) l iGTag (avrog] didovg(6vTog) 
 
 F. r^6?(J iGTUGi 
 
 N. r^V arf 
 
 IGTOJ 
 
 dtwvvv 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 S. 
 
 D. fjlQV, TjTOV 
 
 p. 
 
 O^farbe. 
 S. 
 
 ]roi>, %TOv 
 
 wrov, WTOV 
 
 from 
 
 D. 
 TifieiriTOv 
 
 P. 
 
 Tl&fltjlf 
 
 diduiri 
 
 (didoi^Gav) 
 
 from 
 
 171 
 
 The third per?ou plural in U.GI is the Attic ; the cifcumflexed form 
 , didooGi., duxvuGi^ is rather Ionic. 
 
Ib8 
 
 VERBS IN fU. PARADIGM. 
 
 107. 
 
 172 
 
 Of this optative there is in the dual and plural an abridged form, 
 which in the 3d pers. plur. is exclusively used, as follows, viz. 
 D. Ti&iiTOv IGTUITQV 
 
 P. 
 
 Tl&iltV 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Tt&tTt,* 
 
 rw, &c. 
 
 3 PL Tl&tTWGCCV 
 
 or 
 
 IGTCUTI 
 
 iGiattv 
 
 com. 
 
 , ro> &c. 
 
 didolfv 
 
 dido&t, 
 
 orw 
 
 iGTttTCQGaV 
 
 or iGTavTwv I or 
 Imperfect. 
 
 dflvtwd"^ com. 
 
 or 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 araroi/ 
 
 IGTO.T( 
 
 ididwg 
 
 ididoTOv 
 
 ididoGuv 
 
 ideixvvv] 
 
 IdflXVVTOV 
 
 Ifolttvvo&v 
 
 Perf. 
 Plup. 
 
 Fut. 
 1 Aor. 
 
 a 
 
 fc'dovxa 
 efodatxtw 
 
 fotffto 
 
 from 
 AE1K& 
 
 from 
 AE1K& 
 
 * With regard to Ti&fTi, see 18. 4. The second person in &t is lit- 
 tle used in prose. Instead thereof, in the abbreviated form, iGTy and 
 dfitiPV are used ; and in the verbs declined like contracts, Ti&fi and dldov. 
 
 t The sing-ular of this tense, with the exception of 'iGT^/a,^ is usually 
 declined like the contracts, and like the form in OO), as 
 
 iTiftow, 6ig, it,, ididovv, ovg, ov. t6tl*vvov, tg, t (v). 
 
 $ With respect to the perfect and pluperfect of iGTtjfM the following 
 things are to be remarked, viz. 
 
 1. The augment ; inasmuch as the , which stands instead of the re- 
 duplication, is aspirated, contrary to the analogy of other verbs (see 82. 
 5), and the pluperfect often increases this augment by the temporal aug- 
 ment (,. 
 
 2. The abbreviated forms in use, instead of those of the regular conju- 
 gation, which see below. 
 
 3. The change in signification, which will also be mentioned below. 
 
 From this irregular aorist in x (see $ 106 Rem. 3) no modes or par- 
 ticiples are formed. 
 
107.] 
 
 VERBS IN |U. PARADIGM. 
 
 189 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 S. " 
 
 like the 
 Imperf. 
 
 P. 
 
 Infin. 
 Part. 
 Subj.\ 
 Opt.% 
 Imperat. 
 
 Second Aorist.* 
 
 (GTrjTOV 
 
 &c. 
 
 or 
 
 like the 
 Imperf. 
 
 GTUIT]V 
 
 &c. 
 
 GTIJTOV, GT^TOJV 
 GTT]T, IWGCtV OF 
 GTCtVTWV 
 
 wanting 
 
 do u vat* 
 dovq 
 
 dOTOV, 
 
 do-it, TWGUV or 
 
 * The 2 aor. tGTrjv departs from the analogy of the imperfect and of 
 the verbs in fit, in general, by its long vowel in the dual and plural ($ 
 106. 7.) The 3d pers. pi. tGTrjGav is the same with the 3d pi. 1st aor. 
 and must therefore, as their significations differ, be ascertained by the 
 connexion. 
 
 t The singular (indie, act.) oft'&t]v^ tdtav^ is very rarely used. 
 
 \ This tense, in these modes, is declined precisely like the present, 
 and the optative undergoes the same abbreviations in dual and plural. 
 
 $ The imperative (ttrfd'b is in composition sometimes abbreviated, as 
 
190 
 
 VERBS IN 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 107. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 S. TltfffAttt 
 
 il&fGui, or 
 Ti&ri 
 
 Tl&tTOil, 
 D. Tl&f'flf&OV 
 -lift ft 0V 
 
 P. 
 
 Inf. 
 Part. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 S. 
 
 ti&taftt 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 Optative. 
 
 174 
 
 D. Tt&liflf&QV 
 
 P. 
 
 "tt&tfo&IJV 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Present. 
 
 'iGtaftai, 
 iGraGui or 
 
 I GTUVTtXt 
 'iGTO.G'&a.b 
 
 lOTMfAf&OV 
 
 IGTOIO 
 
 IOTCUG-&QV 
 
 IGTOIVTO 
 
 dido Gut 
 dido Tat 
 
 dld6f4&OV 
 
 dldoG&ov 
 
 didoo&t 
 
 didofifvos 
 didw 
 
 didwoftov 
 didwG&ov 
 dufotut&u 
 
 didotfAyv 
 dtdo7o 
 
 tildoiTO 
 
 didolcftov 
 
 didolvTQ 
 
 dtlxvvaut 
 
 d'fiXVVG'&UV 
 
 dtixvvvTttt 
 
 from 
 dfixvvw 
 
 from 
 
 * The subjunctive and optative are hete formed according- to the strict 
 rules. In the common language and in single verbs, some irregularities, 
 especially in the accent, take place. These irregularities consist in plac- 
 ing the accent nearer the beginning of the verb, as 
 and in the termination OiAtfv for ii,t]v as Ti&oiTO for 
 
107.] 
 
 VERBS IN (Al. PARADIGM. 
 
 191 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 ii&fGO or 
 
 Tl&OV 
 
 &c. 
 
 or 
 
 idrtu 
 
 6'id'oGO or 
 ditiov 
 
 &c. 
 Imperfect. 
 
 d fix woo 
 
 S. t 
 
 Tt&fOO OF 
 
 D. i 
 
 P. 
 
 hi&fO&i 
 
 tTtftfWO \ 'iGTUVTO 
 
 'iGTUOQ OF 
 
 lOTO) 
 IGTCCTO 
 iGTCtfAf&OV 
 lOTUO&OV 
 
 ididoGO or 
 
 itiidov 
 td'ldoTO 
 
 tdldovTO 
 
 tdtixvvoo 
 
 IdflXVVTO 
 
 idtMtvv n$& 
 iixvvo&ov 
 
 IdttKVVVTO 
 
 Perf. it ft filial 
 
 &C. 
 
 Plup. I 
 
 &c. 
 
 dt'tio fiat, 
 
 &C. 
 
 from 
 AEIKQ 
 
 From the other modes of the perfect it is easy ta form the Infini- 
 tive TtftflG&ui, dfdoG&at,, Participle l$&ftfiivo. Imperative i'n- 
 raao, &c. The Subjunctive and Optative are not in use. 
 
 I Fut 
 1 A or. 
 
 from 
 AEiKR 
 
 The 2d and 3d fut. and 2d aor. are wanting. 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 I Fut. 
 1 Aor. 
 
 from 
 AE1K& 
 
 175 
 
 * In T6x9-?j(TOjUat, (ftfrqV) the Tf is not to be mistaken for the redu- 
 plicative augment. It is the radical syllable #f, which however is chang- 
 ed to Tf, in consequence of <& in the termination ($ 18.) Otherwise it 
 would be t&t&rjv, &&r']GO[A(xi. 
 
 t The aorists l&rptdfftfV, Ifiatxapiiv belong exclusively to the dia- 
 lects. The common prose uses in the middle voice, only the 2d aorist of 
 these verb c - 
 
192 
 
 VERBS IN fM. PARADIGM. 
 
 I07 - 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Subj. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Imper. (x^'uo) &ov 
 
 t&ov &c. | (tdoao) edov &c. 
 
 decline according to the imperfect passive. 
 
 doG&ut, 
 
 wanting^ 
 
 OTOUJO ara> 
 
 (dooo) dov 
 
 decline according to the present passive. 
 
 & 
 
 '0-evos 
 
 Verbal Adjectives. 
 
 GTCtTOG 
 
 from 
 
 II. Remarks on 
 
 I The verb tOTijfu is divided between the transitive significa- 
 tion to place and the neuter to stand ( 113. 5.) In the active voice 
 the following tenses have the transitive signification, viz. Present 
 i'ar^jUt, Imperf. toiyv, Fut. OTrjaa), Aor. 1st toitjGoi. 
 
 The following have the intransitive signification of stand, viz. 
 Perfect e'or^xa, Pluperfect nJx*, 2d Aor. tarrjv. 
 
 The passive has throughout the signification to be placed, and 
 the middle signifies variously to place one's self, to place, t,o erect. 
 
 2. In addition to this, the perfect active has the signification of 
 the present, and the pluperfect of the imperfect (see 1 13 Rem. 2.) 
 
 i'(JT?)Xcc I stand 
 tOTiixfiv I was standing 
 tGtijxwS standing &c. 
 
 3. In this case there commonly prevails, in the dual and plural 
 176 and in the other modes, an abbreviated form of the perfect and 
 
 pluperfect, resembling the formation of the present of verbs in ^ 
 which is found also in other verbs and will be explained below 
 in 110. 
 
 * The 2d Aor. middle of I'OT^fit is not found in the Greek writers, and 
 is only inserted here as a guide in other verbs, e. g. for Imctfiqv from tTC* 
 (see among the anomalous verbs nfTOf4Cti). 
 
107.] 
 
 
 VERBS IN fAt m 
 
 193 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perf. 
 
 Plur. 
 Du. 
 
 tGTCCUfV, tGTUTf, IGTUGl, 
 i'GTUTOV 
 
 
 Piuperf. 
 
 Plur. 
 Du. 
 
 tGTUJJlfV, tGIUTf, IGiaGdV 
 IGTUTOV, tGlUTfjV 
 
 
 Subjunc. 
 Imperat. 
 In/in. 
 Panic. 
 
 
 4(7rw, r^, t] &LC. Opt. tGTuh]i> 
 i'OT(X&t,, tGlttld) &C. 
 
 (Imawg) toiwg, tGTWGa, tGTwg. G. to 
 
 rojroi,- 
 
 (/on. 
 
 It is hence apparent, that this perfect and pluperfect, in the 
 greater part of their declension, have both the formation and the 
 signification of the present and imperfect. 
 
 4. In consequence of this present signification (and because the 
 future UtiJffOJ means Ishallplace, and GIT,G(J^UI I shall place myself 1) 
 there has been formed from i'ar^xa / stand, a separate anomalous 
 future Arz ijico or tarijiiopat / shall stand, with which may be com- 
 pared the similar future of #y?;(jxoj among the anomalous verbs. 
 
 III. Remarks on the dialects in the verbs in pi. 
 
 1. Several of the dialectical peculiarities of the regular conju- 
 gation of verbs are found also in the verbs in pi. Such are the 
 imperfects and second aorists in <rxo*>, which always before this 
 termination, have the short radical vowel, as imperfect rn^axot', 
 didoGxov, 2d aor. OTUGXOV, fioGxov. In like manner the infinitives 
 Ti&tfttv for u&tvai, dofttvai, for dovvat, &c. 
 
 2. The Dorics use ri for a*, in sing. Tt&riTi for TI&TJGI, &c. and 
 in the plural, replacing also the v which had dropped out according 
 to 103 Rem. IV. 1. as Ti&ivii, iGrdvu, didovxt,, for f7oi, UGI, OVGI. 
 
 3. The third pers. pi. in Gav of the imperfect and of the 2 aor. 
 act. is diminished a syllable by the Doric and epic writers, and 
 ends merely in v with a preceding short or shortened root, as ert- 
 <&fv for hi&fGav, I'GIUV for tGT^Guv, tdov, edvv, for idoGav, ed'vauv. 
 
 The subjunctive undergoes in the Ionic dialect a resolution or 
 lengthening, as 
 
 'o, &t'o), -trg -iy &c. for TI&W, &w, -y$, -/;, &c. 
 
 >, GTt 0} &C- for IGTW &C- 
 
 ye &c. for daj, dro$ &c. 
 To which may also be added the mode of lengthening used by 
 the epic poets, as &{m, GT^YI &c. (see KK5 Rem. III. 6.) 
 
194 IRREGULAR VERBS. "llJfU. [ 108. 
 
 177 108. 'ESI, 'Eft, AND ' 
 
 Among the other irregular verbs in pi are some small ones, 
 whose radical form is partly '/i'J2, and partly ' EQ and V.J2, and 
 which are therefore easily confounded, especially in composition, 
 where the breathing is partly lost. Thus ii<jO6u>(u may come 
 from flvai and from ffvut, and although in ctqcwai and dntlva^ 
 the effect of the rough and smooth breathing respectively is visi- 
 ble, yet even this distinction disappears in the Ionic writers, who 
 do not aspirate the consonant. 
 
 The radical form ' '' KQ has three chief meanings, viz. 1. / send, 
 2. / p/ace, 3. / clothe ; * EQ has the signification / am ; and *1& is 
 I go. 
 
 I. *' ' fri[ki send, throw, from '., 
 
 This verb may be compared with Tlftrjm, from the analogy of 
 which it departs but little. The i, according to 106 Rem. 6, 
 takes the place of a reduplication. When the short radical vowel 
 t begins the word, it is susceptible of the augment in passing into 
 ti. See 83. 2. 
 
 REMARK. The comparison of this verb with r*Vh?/w* is here 
 necessary. Every tense and mode, therefore, which any where 
 occurs, is given in the following paradigm. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Dual. Plur. 
 
 iaoiv or 
 Imperfect. 
 
108.] IRREGULAR VERBS. - frjftt. 19$ 
 
 First Aorist. Perfect. Pluperfect. 
 
 | fx. | 
 
 First Future. 
 
 -opev, -er 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 *'/ui/, i'rf, f'rrav, or with 
 augm. fTfAti/, flee, tlaav. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 178 
 Present. 
 
 irjiov, \ 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 Present. 
 
 , ieirjiTjV, \ iilrjfifv IflrjTf, i 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. Dual. Plur 
 
 (com. 'iti, h'roj \ lerov^ tircw, \ for*, 
 
 from V^'J2. 
 
 Second Aorist 
 
 tl<JV 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. Second Aorist. 
 
 Uvcu. fivui. 
 
 * Not used in the singular, the first aorist taking its place. 
 t For which common use employs tlf-itv. ffrf, (Tcv. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. "/IflM*. [ 108. 
 
 Present. Second Aorist. 
 
 l$, Itlott) itv. * 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present (Passive and Middle). 
 at, \ [Jie&ov, a&ov, a&ov, 
 
 Perfect (Passive and Middle). 
 \ 
 
 179 First Aorist (Passive.) 
 
 , or with the augment fl' 
 
 First Aorist (Middle.) 
 
 Sing. Dual. Plur. 
 
 tw, aro, \ a 
 
 Second Aorist (Middle.) 
 or commonly with the augment 
 
 Subjunctive (Second Aorist) aj 
 
 Imperative ov 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 Participle tuevog 
 
 Verbal Adjectives. 
 
 REMARK. This verb occurs but rarely in its simple form. It is, 
 therefore, to be remarked chiefly for the use of the preceding 
 forms in compounded verbs, ^as 2d aor. agpe/fo*, 'qr, v&ftpfv for 
 avthjfifv. Mid. TTpOfWot^ dtytfi6vo<s,&LG. The compound tttpi 
 often takes the augment in the beginning, as Tftpl 
 
108.] IRREGULAR VERBS. ' ' HlHU.1. 197 
 
 II. '& place,* Ifpat, sit. 
 
 1. From this "ER, in a transitive sense, the following forms 
 only are in use, viz. 
 
 First Aorist *faa, Middle flaafAfjv, 
 
 where the diphthong is properly an augment, but passes never- 
 theless into other portions of the verb, as 
 Participle fi'aa?, 
 
 Future Middle f'iaopai. 
 
 2. Another form of the perfect passive from this root has ac- 
 quired the force of an intransitive present, viz. rjftat I sit. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. 
 Sing. Dual. Plur. 
 
 rjftai,, IOQU, r\To.i or 
 riGTa.1. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 ?;ro or ^aro, | rjpi&ov, ya&ov, rja&rjv, \ y 
 
 ) 
 
 Imperative. 
 Present. 
 
 Infinitive. Participle. 
 
 Present. Present. 
 
 yo&ui. | yfitv-og, i], ov. 
 
 Of more common use i? the compound xcei^t^a/, &ct&ijfnjv, 3d 
 Sing, lita&qio or xa^>/(7ro, Inf. xa&rjo&ai, Subj. xa&wpcu, Opt. 
 xa&oiftiiv, xa&otro. 
 
 III. ' Evvv^Jit I clothe, I put on. 
 
 This verb is declined like dtixvvpi,, and forms the defective por- 
 tions from the theme 'ER^ see 112. 6. 
 
 Except in composition its use is confined to the poets. Hence 
 we find 
 
198 
 
 IKREGULAR VERBS. jElfAl am. 
 
 [ 108. 
 
 Fut. tow, i(j(j(o. 1st Aor. tGGa,(Jnf. iWj,) Mid. l 
 Pert Pass. fTpcti, fTaui, that, &c. also ebftat. 
 Plup. 2d pers. &00, 3d pers. taro. 
 
 In prose, the compound afHfntvvvf.il is used, viz. 
 Fut. dftyitao), Att. w^gtcy. 1st Aor. tjftyieoa. 
 Perf. Pass. (a/u^fi/Eiae) com. ijpyitafAuii y(*q,iia<xi,y(A<f-itaTM, &c. 
 
 181 
 
 
 IV. Z'/ju/ / am, from jE*J2. 
 
 1. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 S. /ji/, 
 
 % or *J, laitv or tar/, 
 
 D. 
 
 caroV, *orov, 
 
 P. tantv, 
 
 laTt flaw, ** ffl '* 
 
 
 Stthfunctive* 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 S. w, 
 D. 
 P. fay, 
 
 ?7, ^?, 
 rfTOv, ^rov, 
 
 T "* / \ 
 
 
 QjHatvtH. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 S. V, 
 
 ?, *!? 
 
 D. 
 
 fi-rjTOV) flr t Tijv^ 
 
 P. >, 
 
 iirjTt; eiyoav or f/v. 
 
 
 /m/7cra^t3e. 
 
 S. 
 
 Present, 
 foi'h* Icrrco, 
 
 D, 
 P. 
 
 fOTOv, Jarwi/, 
 Jffrf, tGtcooav or eorwv. 
 
 * Not to be confounded with /fftf* Anow, see ol$, H 109. 
 
108.] IRREGULAR VERBS. - Elpt go. 199 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. fa ^com.^ox^(176. 6.) ?\v, 
 
 D. TJTOV, 
 
 P. 7j^i/, *jr 
 
 The Future is borrowed from the Middle. 
 S. i'ao/uca, toy or lff, tatTui com. 
 
 D. taof.if&ov 9 totoftov, tata&ov, 
 
 P. laoptda, toea&f, i'aoviat. 
 
 Infinitive present tivcti, fut. tata&ai. Participle present wv (Gen. 
 6Wo,) ot-aa, 6'*', fut. taopfvof. 
 
 Verbal Adjective tort'ov. 
 
 2. Besides the future tense there is also borrowed from the 
 middle voice the imperfect ???*> and the imperative *"ao, both 
 of the signification of the active voice, but rarely found in the old- 
 er writers. Of this imperfect the 1st pers. sing, is most in use, 
 and commonly with the particle V were/, should I be, see 140.8. 
 
 3. The present tense *//w/, with the exception of the second 
 person /, is enclitic. It is actually subject to inclination, where 
 it is the mere copula of a proposition ; but wherever it signifies 
 real existence, it retains the accent. The third person singular 
 in particular, has it in that case on the first syllable, as &eoz ta- 
 rt V *"<m pot oiUog. "Emt,v, moreover, is always accented on 
 the first syllable at the beginning of a sentence, after the unac- 
 cented particles o, oi'x, *i, and after TOVTO and ftiUcr, when these 
 words are subject to apostrophe, as ova *?*, TOVT' tGitv. When, 
 however, the inclination is only obstructed (see 14. 5), the ac- 
 cent is placed on the last syllable, as in the other parts of the 
 present tense, as Aoyo? ir/, xaxoV tf ioiiv, iopiv ya^, &c. 
 
 V. El[At,, /go, from V^2. 
 
 Ind. Pres. S. ftpi fig com. fl {7oi (v) 
 
 D. ITOV I'TOV 
 
 P. t'ptv iTt iaat (v) 
 
 Subjunc. 'ioj. Opt. toifji, or lolriv 
 Imperat. *#, hco &c. 3. pi. iTwaotv or IOVTMV 
 Infin. tivui 
 
 Part. imv (with the accent always on the last sylla- 
 
 ble, as other verbs in the Part. 2d Aor.) 
 
200 IRREGULAR VERBS. - 
 
 Irnperf. S. yew com. -yi'a or >] 
 tig 
 
 D. 
 
 OF TjTOV 
 
 or 
 P. yftfAfv or r/j 
 
 ytattv 
 
 The middle, with the signification of to hurry, is also only us- 
 ed in the present and imperfect, viz. 'iffiut, itftrjv, and is declined 
 like it put,, from i'^tu. 
 
 Verbal Adjectives hov, htov, and / 
 
 REM. 1. In the common dialect no other parts of this verb 
 occur, and it is therefore a true defective, ft is to be noted, how- 
 ever, thnt according to usage, the preceding active forms belong 
 to the anomalous verb f'jyofAui, ^Atfoy, (see the list of anomalous 
 verbs,) of which Ihpy supply the place of several obsolete tenses. 
 
 REM. 2. With respect to the present indicative tiftt,, the fol- 
 lowing rule must be carefully noted, viz. 
 
 The Present fif.ii has the force of the Future I WILL GO. 
 
 It accordingly takes the place of the rarer form IhfVGOficu (see 
 the anomalous epftopcu). 
 
 The other modes oftipi may be used either as present or fu- 
 ture. 
 
 REM. 3. The epic language has also fut- tiao/uut, 1st aor. 
 
 the same as the corresponding tenses from fidw (see otda 
 109), with which, therefore, they must not be confounded. 
 
 109. OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS IN (41. 
 
 I. ,<Dijiii I say, from 
 
 Ind. Pres. S. <pqpi yyg 
 
 D. (f,aiov 
 
 P. qaftiv yaTt qaai(v) 
 
 Subj. yw Opt- yuiriv Imperat. 
 
 Infin. (pavctt, Part- q 
 
109.] IRREGULAR VERBS. - KflflCtl. Oldtt. 201 
 
 Impf. S. tqnj* t<p*iG com. tq/qaftat i'q-tj 
 
 D. ttfaxov Iqidtijv 
 
 P. tqctptv I'qaTf t'qaaav 
 
 Fut. qpijaat. Aor. 1st tq you. 
 
 The middle qdo&ai, tqdprjv, is also used ; and, in a Passive ac- 
 ceptation, some perfect tenses, as nfqdo&o) beitsa{d,nfq>cca^t'vog. 
 Verbal adjectives q>aTO$, qciTt'os. 
 
 REM. 1. The present indicative, with the exception of q>fa, is 
 subject to inclination, see 14.3. 
 
 REM. 2. This verb, like the foregoing", is a defective, which in 
 use combines with the anomalous verb finely, and forms a whole 
 with the tenses of the latter. 
 
 REM. 3. The single tenses of this verb are arranged and nam- 
 ed above, according to their formation. In practice, however, it 
 is to be observed, that the imperfect fqi^v is usually a genuine 
 aorist, and synonymous with tlnov. To this i'q.ijv is conformed 
 the infinitive qui'ui, which is always a preterite.* 
 
 REM. 4. By aphaBresis the following forms occur in the_com- 184 
 mon language, viz. ripi I say, inquam^ and jn the imperfect r\v, tj. 
 for ((jpijv^ iifiji or gr*Jt/, qrj, in the phrases r\v tf fyoj said I. r\ o 
 0$ said he. 
 
 II. Kt^cu I lie, from KE&. 
 Pres. X6?|ua^, xftaai, nttTui, &c. 3. pi. xtlvTui 
 Inf. xf?dt^at. Part, xtiufvo?. Imperat. xf?ao &LC. 
 Subj. X*(D[icil, xt'y &c. Opt. xfoiprjv 
 Imperf. eKfi^v, ixftoo, ixtuo &c. 
 Fut. xtiaopui 
 Compound xarcexf^a^, xaraxfioo &c. Inf. 
 
 III. Oldu I know, from EIASl. 
 
 1. The ancient verb iidw properly signifies I see ; a few of its 
 tenses only signify / know. As these latter have several other 
 anomalies, they are here considered separately. The significa- 
 tion may be seen in the list of anomalous verbs below, under the 
 head 
 
 * That is to say, where a direct proposition, as tq/rj 
 Pericles said, is converted into an indirect, as q>dv(xi TOv HfQlxMa, then 
 (favat, corresponds with *'<?? Whenever a present infinitive is requisite, 
 resort is had to Itytiv or qxxaxfiv. 
 
 26 
 
202 IRREGULAR VERBS. - Oldct. [110. 
 
 2. Strictly speaking, oldot is the second perfect from tidw (as 
 iWxa, Ion. olxa, from ttxca) ; but acquires with the signification 
 know, the force of the present tense, as the pluperfect does that of 
 the imperfect ( 113. 2.) In the regular declension of oidu the 
 second person oidag, and the whole plural otdafifv, o'ldctTf, o'iduai, 
 are but little used. In the place of oJdug is used oifft^a, abbrevi- 
 ated from the ancient form o'iduo&a (see 103 Rem. IV. 6); for 
 the other part see the Rem. below. 
 
 Perf. (Present) S. oida I know, ola&a oidt (v) 
 D. IOTOV IGTOV 
 
 P. i'apfv 'tore 'toucti (v) 
 
 Inf. fidtvai Part. ft&frS 
 Sub. fldw Opt. fidtlfjv 
 Imperat. i'ffi^^,* IGTM &c. 
 Pl^perf. (tmperf.) S. ydfiv I knew 
 
 P. yfetftfv or y 
 
 or t}6ctv 
 Future HOO^OU (more rarely tedriiHai) I shall know. 
 
 Verbal adjective IGTIOV. 
 
 The aorist and the real perfect are supplied from 
 REMARK. Instead ofioptv the Ionics say t<fy/f>, from which it is 
 apparent that all the forms idpfv or 'jopev ( 23. 2) tarf &c. are 
 formed by syncope from o?#ajue?, o'idart &c. (see 110 Rem. 3.) 
 In the Doric dialect there is a peculiar present UJ?](AI, (loafti) which 
 has the same origin, but is rare and very defective.! 
 
 110. OF ANOMALY. - SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. 
 
 1. One species of anomaly in verbs arises from Syncope. In 
 some verbs this takes place in the radical portion, from which the 
 
 * Not to be confounded with iG&t from flf4i. 
 
 t It is to be observed that the lexicons commonly exhibit all these 
 tenses under the head of the present (Wo), ft&'co, and iai][M. 
 
110.] V.ERBS. ANOMALY. 203 
 
 vowel Is dropped, as nsTaaw, perf. pass. nfmctfiut. See the anom- 
 alous verb ntTavvvfti. 
 
 Rem. 1. In some verbs the 2d Aorist is formed in this manner 
 alone, as ntfopai, (Imperf. intiOfAyv), Aor. tniOfHjv. See below 
 iytigu. 
 
 2. The most common syncope is that of the connective vowel. 
 To this class belong all the verbs in pi, as we have seen above. 
 Some particular cases require separate remark here. 
 
 REM. 2. A few verbs have such a syncope only in some parts 
 of the present and imperfect. Most complete is M^UI, (fo 
 
 Also the first person present and imperfect of 
 o'iofAui, (p6prp>. See also kovw below. 
 
 REM. 3. In the perfect and pluperfect, shorter forms are some- 
 times produced by syncope ; and when such perfects have the sig- 
 nification of the present (113. 2) they have also an impera- 
 tive in t*h, as from x^ao> 
 
 Perf. x^'xpa/a, 1st plur. 
 Pluperf. lxtx(j(iy6tfAv, sync. 
 Imperat. xtXQu%&i. 
 
 Here too may be mentioned the example already referred to, 
 of the shorter forms derived from oMa, which had their origin in 
 the abbreviation of the diphthong, as 'idpev, lOfufv, and their deri- 
 vatives for?, ia&i, vjaptv for fidtiftfv &c. The poetical dialect 
 furnishes also several examples. This sortof abbreviation is very 
 natural when the characteristic of the verb is a vowel, as fo'dict 
 (which is another form or a second perfect from dtddind*) makes 
 the following, viz. 
 
 Perf. Plur. ^tfttper, tit9tri (for titdlaptv, re) 
 Pluperf. ididifitV) IdtSizt (for idtditipfV) Tf) 
 
 Imperat' didifti. 
 
 REM. 4. Hence is to be explained the transition of some very 186 
 common perfects into the formation of those in /wt, as follows. In 
 some perfects in yxa of verbs in 'oj, there is assumed a simpler 
 form, or a second perfect, in , several examples of which are 
 actually preserved in the epic dialect,! and this is then in most ter- 
 minations syncopated in the manner shown above. Thus rAaco, 
 TErA^xa (r*VAaa,) Plur. rtrlactpfv, sync. Tftlaptv (with short a.) 
 Infin. TfT\utvui, sync, mlaviu (with short a). As this coincides 
 
 * See the anomalous, verb AE1Q. 
 
 t As @tp(xaai, pfpaw?, for 0eprjxa0i, fttflviKWG, from the anoma- 
 lous verb 
 
204 VERBS. - ANOMALY. [ 110. 
 
 exactly with i'(?ra i af*>, iGravcu, the greater part of the other forms 
 of the verbs in pi are found, as well as these perfects, in the verbs 
 in question. E. g. 
 
 Perf. Plur. Tttl&ficv, rtrAart; rAa<7 (*>) 
 
 D. Tt'rActroi/ 
 Pluperf. Plur. miAa/m', mVAaTf, ixixhuGav 
 
 D. iT&OnQV* tTfT%CtT1]V. 
 
 Infin. TirXuiai (short a) 
 . Imperat. TfrAaih, z^rAarw &c. 
 
 Opt' Texfatiijv. 
 
 The Sutj. of this verb in this form is wanting ; see instead of 
 it above (on eor^xa in Rem. II. under i'aTijpi) the subjunctive 
 
 M, jjff, J &C. 
 
 The participle alone is not formed upon the analogy of verbs 
 , but ends in cu, contracted from woji,*, so that the masculine 
 and neuter are the same, viz. awg and aoe, G. aorog, contr. w, 
 euros, and this contracted form has a feminine peculiar to itself in 
 OJG ...., as from /5t'/??;x (see anomalous verbs /?atVo>) Particip. pffi?]- 
 xws, via, 
 
 ptpus, fa 
 G. 
 
 Of the perfects governed by these laws, which are chiefly 
 these four, viz. r&Af?**, Tf'^t-^xa, /tfi'^xa, i'mrixu,* the.singular 
 alone in the perfect and pluperfect is used in the regular form 
 (rr/b;xa, <x^ , , /TT A^x; ^^ #*?, ^*), while all the other parts have 
 these abridged forms, which are more used than the regular forms. 
 
 REM. 5. Many verbs form by syncope an aorist in v, or a 2d 
 aorist, which distinguishes itself from the imperfect, principally 
 by the absence of the connective vowel, and in respect to the ra- 
 dical vowel and its quantity, follows exactly the first perfect or 
 perfect passive, as 
 
 co (perf. ntqvxw) Imperf. tqvov, 2d Aor. tq.-vv (long t ( ). 
 
 (l(3ioov) Ifiiovv, 2d Aor. tftltav. 
 
 The greater part, however, of the aorists of this class occur 
 only in very anomalous verbs, whose imperfects admit no compari- 
 son therewith. In the other modes and participles they coincide 
 with the formation in jtu, except that the vowel and its quantity 
 are quite variable, and in consequence every such aorist requires 
 to be learned separately, from the list of anomalous verbs. See 
 particularly the verbs /y/j/co, ftd^aaxco, dvo), 
 
 * See the anomalous TAAR, ftv^GM), (jaivw, and tOTijfti above 4 . 
 
VERBS. - ANOMALY. 205 
 
 REM. 6. In the epic language there are also syncopated aorists 187 
 in the passive voice in ftrjv, ao, TO, as Auto, i'Auro (with short v), 
 even when the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, as dt%opai, 
 ldtyfjr]i>, tfoxro &c. 
 
 3. The metathesis of a vowel with a liquid ( 19. 2) alters the 
 root of a verb, in the midst of its inflection. This, however, rare- 
 ly occurs. See the anomalous verbs &'pxw, TU'^CO, and also 
 
 111. ANOMALIES FROM DOUBLE THEMES. 
 
 1 . By far the greater part of the anomaly in verbs, as in the 
 declension of nouns, consists in twofold for^u and variety of themes, 
 which has been already treated above in 92. Besides the cases 
 there quoted, and which may be reckoned among the most com- 
 mon changes of conjugation, there is a great number, where the 
 new form departs much farther from the regular form, commonly 
 without the slightest change of signification. 
 
 2. Often, moreover, the two forms are jointly in use, and many. 
 as kiinta and JUfinavw I leave, xrfiVcu and xnWiyu / slay, are 
 found both ways in the best prose writers. Often, however, the 
 one. form will belong rather than another to a certain dialect, (as 
 ct'/ivtoj for ayo.) / lead, qvyyuvoj for qfvyo) I fly are more in use 
 with the Ionics ;) or has remained in use solely with the poets, 
 among which are to be reckoned most of the epic forms. 
 
 3. Commonly the new form, created by lengthening the sim- 
 pler, does not extend beyond the present or imperfect, see 92. 8. 
 If the simple form in these tenses is driven wholly out of use by 
 the latter form, the verb is hereby constituted anomalous ; inas- 
 much as the other tenses are then derived from a verb not in use, 
 as /?/Voj, ipuivov, fut. j3i}GO[itti, perf. /?*'/?7;xa, &c. from BsJQ. 
 
 REM. 1. Often several such different forms are in use together, 
 so that a verb, in the course of its declension, will have a mixture 
 from three or even more sources. Thus from the root TIH(~J& 
 or IIA(-)Q exists only the aorist tTiafiov. Another form, strength- 
 ened by i/, viz. TIEXQQ, from which comes the perfect ntnovfta. 
 &c. expelled the simpler form from use, but has, in its turn, yield- 
 ed in the present and imperfect to rruo^a, which, in the lexicons, 
 
206 VERBS. ANOMALY. [ 112. 
 
 is placed at the head of the whole verb. From HETAQ is form- 
 ed nfraoo) &c. but in the perfect pass, the syncopated form TJtma- 
 /u, and in the present and imperfect, nothing but the increased 
 form TittuvvvfAi is used, &c. 
 
 188 R EM - 2- Finally there are some verbs, which form single tenses 
 from roots wholly diverse, whose present is more or less obsolete, 
 as in Latin^m), tuli^ latum. Such, particularly, in Greek are awtw, 
 e/nfp, IjpjfO^uat, icvica, OQUW, r*/o>, ytgta, which are to be con- 
 sulted in the list of anomalous verbs. 
 
 OTHER ANOMALIES. 
 
 1. Many new forms of verbs are of such a kind, that few or no 
 examples precisely similar of such a change in the root are extant 
 in the language ; as the example given above of dyivta) from ciyw, 
 and 7i<xo%w from HEN&Q, and among those quoted below as 
 anomalous, la&io) from *(5co, Ihauva) from Adco, &c. Most, how- 
 ever, stand in some visible analogy with others, and must there- 
 fore be comprehended in one survey, to be more easily remem- 
 bered. 
 
 NOTE. When, in the following examples, two forms are con- 
 nected by and, this word shows that both are in use ; where, how- 
 ever, the word/rom stands, the latter form is either wholly obso- 
 lete, and only to be recognised in the tenses formed from it, or 
 belongs only to the ancient poets. 
 
 2. One of the easiest changes is w into w or KM (contr. to) ; 
 as QITITOJ and $mrt(i)' xrvniw from KTTIIQ (thence exTvnov), 
 
 dapdco from AEMQ (thence edupov)* 
 
 As often, therefore, as the regular inflection of a verb was attend- 
 ed with any difficulty, or even productive of indistinctness or want 
 of euphony, it was inflected as if the present ended in * lai, e. g. 
 
 'i/><y, fut. tipqoti' au$a> 4 av^rjow 
 
 TUTTTOJ, TVIJJW and Tvnrrjoto' jU/AA 
 
 3. The verbs in CD pure sometimes take the termination 
 
 as y^^aw and y^paoxw, ytyv(OGxa) from 
 and aTt 
 
^ H2.J VERBS. - ANOMALY. 207 
 
 4. Before the termination, v is sometimes interposed, as daxvw 
 from AAKR, whence tdaxov. See also below Tf'fJivta and xdfiva). 
 
 By this process, from /co and i.'w, come ivw and vv w, as 7i/Vw 
 from IH&, TIM and r/i/w, fivco and #iW, and from aw come 
 aftw and aiVw, as q&avw from <&S^4&, fiaivw from BAQ.< 
 
 5. Trisyllables and polysyllables in j/w and aiVw have, for the 189 
 most part, as a radical form a theme in w, which at the same time 
 forms some tenses as from *w, viz. 
 
 tf/ladrai/w from BAA2T&, 2d Aor. tjttaOTOv, Fut. plaOTrjaw, 
 
 oliO'&uvw and ohotiaivco, 2d Aor. wliotiov, Fut. oho&ijat#. 
 
 Those in a*>a> are accustomed to insert a nasal in the radical syl- 
 
 lable of the word, but also to shorten the radical vowel, if it he 
 
 long, in the following manner, viz. 
 
 ta/7T(w and A^Tra^oj, cptvyw and gryyai/w, Aj#w and hav&avco. 
 See also below &iyydvco, Aa/u/?ay<w, Aa/^at/ ca, nuv&avw, nvv&avo- 
 
 REMARK on nos. 4 and 5. The termination avw has the penult 
 short ; hot and iVoi, on the other hand, have it long, both with very 
 few exceptions. 
 
 6. A very common change is also o> into vvpi* as 
 from AElKtt, whence df/^a), &c. See below 
 
 When a vowel precedes this termination, the v is usually 
 doubled, and o is changed into o>, e. g. 
 
 and x0/uawi;/uf, see below xfQdi>vv(.u, 
 and ^tvvvfit^ see below 
 
 and wvvvi see below 
 
 7. Several also, like the verbs in fu, have a reduplication in 
 the present, as yiyvwntca from 7TVOJ2, whence yvinaoftai. So also 
 HiftvrjGxa), 7T*TTC/<7xw, &c. In like manner ^cfVoi and /u/^j/w, TII'TT- 
 TO> from IIETSli ylyvofiai from FENR. 
 
 * See above 5 106 Rem. . 
 
208 VERBS. - ANOMALY. 
 
 8. Sometimes from one of the tenses a new theme is formed, 
 and the derivations from this occur partly as anomalies in the com- 
 mon dialect, and partly, and this more commonly, are used as po- 
 etical peculiarities ; such as the Fut. idr^a;, (see above the 4th 
 remark to for^u,) and Tt&vri'Zw (see ftvyaxw,) from tor^^a and 
 ri'#j/?7xa, derived as from present tenses. Imperative Gioe as from 
 Fut. OIGCO (see gp*pw.) 
 
 190 Particularly does the 2d Aor. occasion in some verbs a new for- 
 mation as from iw, as well the 2d Aor. active on account of its in- 
 finitive in HV, as the 2d Aor. passive when it has an active signifi- 
 cation, by the ending ijv. Examples of the former are several 
 anomalous verbs belonging to no. 5 above, as 
 
 Of the latter i 
 
 113. ANOMALY IN SIGNIFICATION. 
 
 1. This whole subject belongs properly to the Syntax, where 
 we must treat of the signification of the several forms of the con- 
 jugations, which cannot be separated from the rules respecting the 
 connection of words. Those cases only can here be enumerat- 
 ed, in which the variation in signification is in certain verbs so 
 common, that this anomaly is to be observed as belonging to the 
 formation itself, as in Latin odi ; hortor ; audeo, ausus sum. Cases 
 of this kind are in Greek far more numerous and more various. 
 
 2. The perfect sometimes has the force of the present The 
 transition from the former tense to the latter, may be rendered 
 conceivable, by reflecting, that in the perfect tense the mind rests 
 often not so much on the past action, as on the present state or 
 condition that resulted from it. Thus Tt'&vyxa signifies properly 
 / have died ; but regarding the consequent state as permanent, it 
 signifies / am dead, and is accordingly a present tense. In some 
 other verbs, the original perfect was still farther lost, as xrao^ucM 
 / acquire, in the perfect xtxx^pat / have acquired. The conse- 
 quence of acquisition is possession, and thus X/XT^MCM came to sig- 
 nify simply I possess, without any thought of a past acquisition. 
 
$113.] IRREGT7LAR CONJUGATION. 209 
 
 In every such case, it is to be understood that the pluperfect is an 
 imperfect. 
 
 REM. 1. Sometimes the perfect is to be understood, like the 
 middle voice, reflectively. In this case, it becomes a present intran- 
 sitive, as in the verb larr^i I place, taT^xa I have placed ; reflec- 
 tively / have placed myself, i. e. / stand. 
 
 REM. 2. It easily happens, moreover, where the ideas are riear 
 akin, that the present tense itself assumes the signi6cation of the 
 perfect made present in this manner, or the reverse ; whereby the 
 present and perfect often come to have the same meaning, es- 
 pecially in the poets, as [*t\?i it goes to the heart, t ut'injt.f it went to 
 the heart, that is, / take an interest ; hence both mean I feel interest- 
 ed, I care for. Aiyxfu I perceive, dtdo<jy,a I have perceived, that is, 
 I see. It is particularly common that the perfect becomes present 
 in verbs, which signify to sound, to call, as xtxyciyu I scream, r/fc) 
 and iiTtjlyu I hiss. 
 
 3. To the anomaly of signification belongs a departure from 
 the signification of the voice. The most prominent cuse of this is 
 that of the deponent verbs, or those which, with a passive or mid- 
 dle form, have an active signification. This irregularity is very 
 common in Greek, as is~ apparent from the lists of verbs already 
 given. 
 
 REM. 3. Several deponents of the middle voice are neverthe- 
 less used in the perfect passive in apassive sense, and form in ad- 
 dition to this tense only a 1st Aor. passive ; see above, in the list 
 of baryton verbs, {J 
 
 Future Middle. 
 
 4. Very common is the case of verbs in the active voice, which 
 make little or no use of the future active, and employ instead the 
 future middle, which then has the transitive or intransitive signi- 
 fication connected with the active voice ; and of such a verb the 
 remainder of the middle voice, with its appropriate signification, is 
 usually not employed. This occurs in several of the most familiar 
 verbs, as BKOI/OJ / hear, tixoyaoftat (never axou'doj) I shall hear. 
 Examples also of this are furnished above in the lists of baryton 
 and contract verbs. See also the 8th remark before the first of 
 these lists. 
 
 REM. 4. Very often the future middle is used for the ftiture 
 passive. 136. 3. 
 
 27 
 
ANOMALOUS VERBS. 114. 
 
 5. Under the head of anomaly in signification, must also be reck- 
 oned the distinction of causative and immediate signification. This 
 is commonly expressed by different verbs, of which the one is de- 
 rived in part from the other. In all languages, however, and par- 
 ticularly in Greek, there are verbs, which express in one form an 
 action both directly and as occasioned or caused. Thus yaivfiv 
 signifies immediately to appear, and causatively to make appear, 
 that is, to show- Ka&tfav, in like manner, signifies to sit and to 
 set. In the older dialect this appears to have been very common, 
 and thence it may be accounted for, that several verbs have one. 
 of these significations in one part, and one in another, and are 
 hence accounted anomalous, as we have seen above in fimg/ut. 
 
 114. LIST OP ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 NOTE 1. All wholly obsolete themes, which are assumed merely 
 for the explanation of those in actual use, are here, as throughout 
 this grammar, printed in capital letters- Every theme, on the oth- 
 er hand, in actual use, is given in the common character. It is to 
 be observed of those obsolete themes, moreover, which are not in 
 every instance set down, but are occasionally left to the attentive 
 student to supply, that they are merely formed by grammarians 
 192 from analogy, and are not regarded as having any existence his- 
 torically in the language. 
 
 2. To facilitate the use of the list, these obsolete themes, 
 where it is requisite, are inserted alphabetically in the table. Sup- 
 posing then, that the learner is able to discover the regular themt 
 of the verbs, which occur in reading, according to the general 
 rules, this theme is found in its alphabetical place, with reference 
 to the form in common use. Thus inQafh]* is derived from 
 JIPAQ, and this in the list refers to niTiQa(j'/.w. 
 
 Yet the merely apparent themes, which are formed by syncope 
 or metathesis, are given only by their first letters ; thus fttfttyxv. 
 by BA which refers to /?AAco. 
 
 3. Of every verb, not the anomalous forms only are given, 
 but all the forms in use, except such as are of themselves appar- 
 ent. Here the same remark is to be made, as on occasion of the 
 first catalogue of the regular verbs, note 2. 
 
 4. Whatever signification, active, passive, middle, or intransi- 
 tive, prevails in the present tense, the same extends also to every 
 other tense, where pass, or mid. or some other indication is not 
 specially given. Thus when in /?ot/Ao/ucrt the future fiovfa](joua(< 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 is borrowed from the middle, and the aor. ov-d-rjv from the pas- 
 sive, we are to understand, that only these two forms occur in the 
 signification which /W'AOjuat has in the present, and consequently 
 that no aorist r^ov)iT]odiir]v and no future /Soi/A^tbjdo/waMS in use. 
 
 Last of anomalous verbs. 
 
 A. 
 
 ayajnut admire, Pres. and Imperf. like i'oTaficu, fat. dydaopcu, 
 aor. liydo&qv. 
 
 ayvvpi break, forms from AT& f. w &c. (see 112. 6.) and 
 has commonly the syllabic augment, 83 Rem- 6. Aor. ta , aor. 
 pass, tdyyv (short a). The 2d perf. taya has the passive signifi- 
 cation, am broken. 
 
 ayoQtvo} see tinilv. 
 
 ayw lead, has a reduplication in the 2d aor. tfyayov, dyaye7v &c. 
 (see 84 Rem. 3.) Perf. rj^a and with an anomalous reduplication, 
 dyqoya. Perf. pass. >]/,*. MID. 
 
 alvtw praise, f. alvtaoj &c. Perf. pass. "jfptyMti, but 1st aor. 
 pass, yvt&rjv (see 95 Rem. 3.) 
 
 lake, alpaca) /Jpi'^^v (see 95 Rem. 3.) Aor. act. 
 7v &c. from 'EA&. MID. The Ionics have in the per- 
 fect a peculiar reduplication doaiorjxa, uQulgr^ai, with the smooth 
 breathing. 
 
 aia&uvO[4(xi perceive, f. a/<j#?j(70jMca &c. Aor. yo&oprjv (see 193 
 112. 5.) 
 
 afo'go) arerf, f. a'Afl^cu (see 112. 2.) Aor. Mid. 
 (from AAEK&.} 
 
 ^-nnrf, f. a/t^'acu (Ao7) perf. pass. b} 
 am captured, forms its tenses from *AAOQ, as fol- 
 lows, fut. aAwffowat and (with active form but passive meaning) 
 syncop. Aor. ( 110 Rem. 5,) i'Awv, better dAwy (pi. It 
 &c.) Jn/". d\Mvai, Subj. AJ, co?, &c. O/?f. aA 
 Perf. (in like manner with passive meaning,) 
 see in its order. 
 
 * The active of this verb never occurs, but instead of it always ctiof 
 
212 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114. 
 
 am frail, err, apa0ri?00pcfe. Perf. -??xa. Aor. ij- 
 (See 112. 5.) 
 
 miscarry, fut dpffhwaM &c. from ft^/JAow. 
 and (Xfj7Ti<j~/vovf.>(u, see below in /w. 
 vfMi AMi&IEQ, see above in tvvv^t, 108. JII. 
 
 see the list of regular verbs. 
 
 consume, expend, forms its tenses from apaApo). With 
 the Attics it has no augment, as uvuKwau. In other dialects it is 
 alternately awjjUotfa and ijvdhcoaa, and the same in the perfect. 
 or avotyvvfii^ see oiyw. 
 
 * please, Fut. dytaw &c. Perf. Pass. J'pf fT^at.-MID. 
 Fut. a'^ffo), 2d Aor. tfpagov. Perf. ayaya, with 
 present signification. 
 
 ai>'i"<w nd ai>Sfw increase, Fut. ai?$ifTo> (see 112.2.) PASS. 
 with Fut. Mid. means increase intransitively. 
 am indignant, d 
 
 B. 
 
 , Fut. prisoned, Perf. /?*/fyxa, 2d Aor. }?ijv like twerp, 
 accordingly also t^r^fv, pijvaf j^?Ji^* ^TW' fiairjv, ^cu. Some of 
 the compounds have also a passive, as nuQufialvw I transgress, Perf. 
 Pass. -naQu^^u^ai, Aor. Pass. TKx^f^dd^v. Verbal Adjective 
 (faros __ All these forms come from RAQ, and conform entirely 
 104 to i(7T^fAi } except in the Present The abbreviated forms of the 
 Perfect, as pfffaai, /?*/ffwff, (see 110 Rem. 4,) are in this verb 
 exclusively poetical. 
 
 This verb has with the Ionics also the causative signification t 
 bring.^ This signification is exclusive in the Fut Act. ft^aca and 
 the 1st Aor. 'i'pfjaa. See also 113. 5. 
 
 jtfaAAco throw, Fut /?Aw, sometimes also /SaAA?jffco ( 112. 2,) 
 Aor. tpcdov, Perf./^Aryica, 1st Aor. Pass, tp^&yv. See 110. 
 1 MID. 
 
 * Shortened in composition, 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERES. 213 
 
 BA&, see <W 
 
 pifiywaxo) eat, from BPOQ, Fut. /?pojaoo, (^ocooofiat,) fee- Aor. 
 
 . See 110 Rem. 5. 
 /?*oo> /ire, Fut. piwGQpui, 1st Aor. tfiiojua and 2d Aor. tptuv, 
 of which, for the most part, the other modes only are in use, a* 
 
 i, Part. piov?, Opt. /?wV- See 110 Rem. 5. MID. 
 
 sprout, plaOTyaw, ttttaGTOv. See 112 Rem. 5. 
 , Fut. tfoax^aw, &c. See 112. 2. 
 
 (iovkopai, will, ftovlijooftcu, Perf. ftf^ovlijfuu^ Aor. ii3ov\ri$r)v, 
 rjSovlii&rji'. With respect to the augment, see 82 Rem. 3. 
 #jP0 see 
 
 7. 
 
 marry, Fut. "/antao), Alt. '/apco. Aor. ty^cc, y/7/ua, 
 from rAMQ. Perf. yfy&w/.a, &c PASS, with Fut. Mid. 
 cw husband, marry. 
 
 PENR. To this root, which corresponds with the Latin g-igno 
 genui, belong two significations ; the causative fcegef, and the im- 
 mediate or intransitive am born, become. The voices are anoma- 
 lously mingled. Of the Active nothing but the Perfect yt'yova is 
 in use ; all the rest of either signification belongs to the medio- 
 passive voice. The whole, as found in actual use, may be reduc^ 
 ed to a twofold present as follows, viz. 
 
 1) yelvopat has only the signification of birth, (poetically 
 in the present tense,) am born. The Aor. l*/{ivct[ir]v is used 
 transitively, beget, bear. 
 
 2) yi'yvoftai- (ancient and Attic; more recently ylvopui,) Fut. 
 ytvyfjoftai, Aor. tytvopiiv, Perf. yey&iifuu, or (in the active 
 voice) -/('-/ova. All these parts of the verb signify intransitively 
 bom, or simply become, fieri. To these unites itself the signifi- 
 cation of simply to be, since tycvofMt* and yi'yova are also used 
 as preterites to eivcu, 
 
 ytyvcoaxo) (ancient and Attic ; more recently ytvaoxw,) know. 
 from rNOQ, Fut. yvwaoftcu, Aor. tyvwv, Plur. eyvoapfv, &c. Inf. 
 
214 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [114. 
 
 yvwvui. Imp. j/j/wt'h, yvajio), &c. Opt^yvoiyv. Part. yvovg. See 
 110 Rem. 5. Perf. tyvwxa, Pass. t 
 
 A. 
 
 ddxvco bite, from AMKQ, Fut. d^o/jo*, Perf. dtdrftu, &c. Aor. 
 i'duxov. See 1 1 2. 4. 
 
 , see tinder <fc]ua>. 
 
 sleep, Fut. dap&yoopat, Perf. dMp&yxct, Aor. *"&<0- 
 See 112. 5. 
 , see &w. 
 
 show, Fut. &<<, &c. See 107. 112. 6 MID. 
 AElQ Epic &'to. From this ancient present is derived the 
 1st Perf. dtdowa (see' 1st and 2d Perf. 97 Rem. 1.) and the 2d 
 Perf. dtdia (short i), both of which have the force of the Pres. / 
 /ear. From dtdia are derived the syncopated forms dtdiptv, didt,- 
 it, idtdiauV) and an Imper. didi&i. See 1 10 Rem. 3. Fut. dtiao- 
 IACCI, Aor. tfawct. 
 
 &/R9I build, Aor. efafta, Perf. ^'^^xa. Compafe 1 10. 1. and 
 112. 2. MID. The same theme furnishes tenses also to da- 
 paw tame, Aor. i'dafiov^ Perf. dttifujptt, Aor. Pass. Iddfirjv and 
 
 ), commonly dtQ*Of*ctt or Stdopxa, see, regard, Aor. ^- 
 xov, see 96 Rem. 4, also tdydxyv and tdt?Q%&ijv, all active. 
 
 ^i'co 6inc?, drjG(, idijaa dtdtxa, dt'dff.iai, idt&viv. See 95 
 Rem. 3. The 3d Fut. dtdriaopat (see 99 Rem. 1,) takes the 
 place of the 1st Fut df-frqaoftat which is not Attic. MID. 
 
 dewfail, want, Fut. dfrjaw, &c. is commonly impersonal, astfc?, 
 i^ere i Tajan^wg, ilfaut, Subj. Sty, Opt. dtot,, Inf. deHv, Part, dtov, 
 Fut. df^tt^ &LC. The Pass. diofjia.i I need, is never impersonal, 
 
 AHKQ, see ddxvw. 
 
 196 Maaxco ^eacA, loses a in its formation; <fc<?do>, dtdlda%(x, &c. 
 MID. 
 
 d*^ptix(o escape, run ats;ay, is found only in composition (ano- 
 didgdaxw diadtdQtxaxw) from APAQ, Fut. fyaaoficti, 
 xoe 2d Aor. J'^av, a? a auii; &c. 3d Plur. 
 
114.J LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 215 
 
 Svby. $0co, #, &c. Opt. dQahjv. Imper. dgSi&i. Inf. dQctvat. 
 Part. dpdg. See 110 Rem. 5. This must not be confounded 
 with the regular 
 
 do, see above in the list of Contracts. 
 see 107. MID. 
 duxtca seem, think, from AOKQ, Fut. d6'w &c. The Perfect 
 is borrowed from the passive dtdoyftui have appeared. The regu- 
 lar formation doxy oo), &c. is less usual. 
 AOQ, see d 
 APAQ, see 
 
 can, Pres. and Imperfect like iGrocfiai, 2d. pers. Pres. 
 better than dvvy, which is only Subjunctive. With regard 
 to the Augment, see 82 Rem. 3. Fut. dvvr t (jo^ai, Aor. ridvvri- 
 'ftyv, (also Idvvaa&rjv), Perf. dtdvvrmui. Verbal Adjective dfivwoq. 
 6vo). This verb originally connects the immediate significa- 
 tion enter, with the causative inclose, see 113. 5. In the 
 common usage it has only the latter (to inclose, to sink, &c.) and 
 retains this meaning in Fut. and 1st Aor. 1/001, tdvau, Pass. Idv- 
 See 95 Rem. 3. The MID. dvouui, inclose myself, dvao- 
 ItfuGctfAfjv passes into the intransitive meaning enter, submerge. 
 &c. which, however, again reverts to a transitive meaning, as en- 
 ter a garment, that is, dress. These significations of the immediate 
 kind are retained in the active voice in the Perf. did'vxa, and the 
 2d Aor. i'd'vv, duvai, dvg, dv&i, durt. See 1 10 Rem. 5. To this 
 is to be added a new active form dvvw, which is almost equivalent 
 in signification with the middle 
 
 E. 
 
 awake transit, regular in the Act. Perf. tyrjyfpxa. The 
 MID. has the immediate or intransitive signification awake, and has 
 in the Aor. iiyQOfiijv, see 110 Rem. 1. The 2d Perfect with 
 an anomalous reduplication 
 
 fywyopu 197 
 
 belongs, like other 2d perfects, to the immediate signification, but 
 
216 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114. 
 
 passes over into a new present signification, / have awaked, that is, 
 / am awake, I -wake.* Pluperf. with force of Impf. lypyyoyfiv. 
 I'dw, see to&lco. 
 
 see t&ftai. 
 
 u&i&nui, sit. Fut. xuftfdoviiai. See 95 Rem. 8. 
 and #Aw will, Fut. i&tJiijaw, falyata, &c. See 112. 2. 
 am -wont ; instead of this present, use is made of the an- 
 omalous perfect fi'co&a. 
 
 tiffw see, an ancient verb, of which, in this acceptation, only 
 tidov, idelv, idt'a&cti, &c. are in use as the Aorist of the verb o'0ao>, 
 and are to be seen under that verb. In the Epic language, how- 
 ever, some other parts of 6idu are found as tenses of the same 
 verb. See on this subject and on the tenses which have the sig- 
 nification know ( oldtt, yfeiv, fiooptu,) above 109 and 113. 2. 
 
 6ixo). Of this verb there is used as a Present the Perf. f'oixa 
 am like, seem. Part, toixws, Ait. f/xoi?, Nmt. 61*65', (Ion. or/a, 
 otxwg, olxog,) Pluperf. twxttv. See 83 Rem. 7 and 9. The 
 verb 6ixw yield, see among the regular verbs. 
 
 t, see ME1POMAL 
 and fJpi, see 108. 
 
 soy, 2d Aor. Indie* finov, Imper. tint. This is more com- 
 mon than the 1st Aor. tina, see 96 Rem. 1. Imperat. tlnov with 
 anomalous accent, finara) &c. Inf. final. 
 
 With this Aorist, use has closely connected the Fut. IQW (Ion. 
 6QtQ)) from ti'yw and from PEQ the perfect 6iQij*a, see 82 
 Rem. 2. Perf. pass. cigr][MXt, Aor. pass. iQfqfrqv and iQQt&tjv 
 3d Fut. instead of the common Fut. pass. tipyoopKi. 
 
 For the present of this verb, tyrjpi is used, see 109, sometimes 
 
 . also ayopfvfiv (properly to speak in public), particularly in com- 
 
 position, as anayo()va) forbid, interdict, (tnftTiov forbade. In some 
 
 compounds Af/co furnishes the present, as tivti^tyta, avrelnov. 
 
 198 9 , . , 
 
 , see finfiv and 
 
 see 
 
 * In most lexicons this perfect is found under /ygijyopio) or yQr)yOQt(a, 
 -vhir:h are forms of a degenerate period of the Greek language. 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 217 
 
 tlavvw drive, Fut. lActao) (short ) &c. Perf. A?/Ax Pass. 
 perf. e'AijAa/ucu, Aor. ijluftiiv, Verbal adj. Aaro? (less correct ijAee- 
 , Aaaro?.) The theme Aaw is rare in the present ; but Aw, 
 $$, A &c. ///. Ac7//, is the prosaic Attic future, 95 Rem. 6. 
 EAE'I&Q, EA9Q, see t^ofiui. 
 see ulgiw. 
 
 ;.\ /:/A^ &c. see 
 see 108. 
 
 tnlmctfiai understand, laiperf. qmaTctpnv (thus far like i' 
 Fut. tTiiGir'ioopcd, Aor rpuazy&ip' 
 
 am employed, pursue. This ancient verb, of which for the 
 most part compounds only are in use, has the augment 
 and an Aorist iuio/-. T.t*r, ajroiv, (foarwOf, inivneiv, 
 which are rather poetical.) , 
 
 tTiQft&foUoto, <in6u-,jt>, ttyonai. This very common middle 
 verb has an Aorisl w!:ich corresponds with that of the active Jio>, 
 except that in the indicative it is aspirated, tanOfiijv^ O7r*W*, 
 onov, which forms occur chiefly in composition. 
 EPTQ and t^&u, see ptfa. 
 itO) see ejpo/uca and compare tint7v. 
 
 ask, occurs in tlie common language only as an Aorist, 
 , >/p*ro, whence also the other modes are found. The in- 
 finitive nevertheless is written both ep*(f&9U and fpf'oftat,, Fut. 
 fp^ooftat. The detective parts are supplied from /ocurcfoi. 
 The lonians however make use of the present, but write it 
 ttQOfUUj 6/ooto/j/, iiQqoofiat. The Epic dialect has an active form 
 
 go ocway, Ipyrjooj, yofaact, see 112. 2. 
 
 , from EAJETG&, Fut. l^fvaoftai, Aor. rjlvQov com- 
 monly r]Ai^ot', ik&elv, Imperat. t/Mt, (see 103 Rem. I. 3.) &c. 
 Perf. iKri/.v&u. Besides this and especially in composition, sev- 
 eral tenses of6/tu are more in use than those which belong to this 
 root. See 108. 
 
 eat. from !#ai, Fut. &Opai, 95. Rem. 10. Perf. ldr t doxcf. 
 
218 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114. 
 
 Perf. pass. Aftpfcoy**^ Aor. pass, ydta&yjv. Aor. act. fqccyov (from 
 ) Verbal adj. 
 qV) see 
 , xaG&udt* sleep, f. fvdrjoo), HCt&tvdr}<w. Augmen 
 
 j and Ixa&tvdov. 
 
 tvpioxcajind, from JfTPQ, Aor. tvpov, Imper. fvyt, Fut. 
 &c. See 112. 2. Aor. pass, tvptfii}*, Verbal adj. fupfros. Aug- 
 ment 83 Rem. 2. MID. 
 
 i;fw foroc, f. *cu, with the aspir. (see 18 Rem. 3.) Aor. (as 
 if from ^XJ2) eo%0v, o%tw, Subj. ff#w, ff/>7? & c - (compound 7iaj)a- 
 ff^w, 7TpfT^j?). O/><. G%oiriv. Imperat. oytg. MID. to)(6/urjv, Im- 
 perat. 6%ov (nuQcto%ov). Hence a new future a/rjoco^ Perf. tayyxoi 
 &c. Aor. pass. io%&t}. Verbal adj. txTog and a%fiog. 
 
 From the aorist, o%tlv is derived a new form of the present, 
 i'fj/w, which in particular significations, such as hold, seize, &c. is 
 preferred, in which also the Fut. (jyqnw more properly belongs to 
 this present. From J'/co there are the following anomalous com- 
 pounds to be remarked, viz. 
 
 ctW^w which, only in the middle ayfjftffftat, with the signifi- 
 cation to bear, endure, has the double augment in the imperfect 
 and Aor. Tj^tt^Qfajv^ t]vta%6fiTjv, see 86 Rem. 4. 
 
 a[47tt'%a) enclose, Imperf. a(Antl%ov, Fut. afi<f>t$C9, Aor. ^fini- 
 (J%ov, a(.int,G%slv. MID. u.(Jin%Qpat, or a^nio^vov^at, wear, 
 
 ise, F. v 
 commonly from the passive, v7ioo%t&iiTi,. Perf. VTU 
 
 o) cook, f. tipr'jna) &c. Verbal adj. tcp&og or 
 and ^'^2, see 108. 
 
 Z. 
 
 /ire, has according to 105 Rern. 3. w, VJe, ^, &c. Imperf. 
 &c. Inf. yv. Jmperat. & and 
 
 * The TT stands here, on account of following 1 %, instead of cp : proper- 
 instead of api(pli0%OV, ccfifpiO %i:1v &:c. 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 219 
 
 oin, connect, f. tv(o &c. See 1 12. 6. 2d Aor. pass. 
 
 (ovvv[*t gird, f. woft> & c . p er f. p ass . tgwopai, see 112. 6. 
 -MID. 
 
 Wai, see 108. 200 
 
 ?Jju/, }y, see above in (prjpi 109. 
 
 9. 
 
 , perfect as present rt&ijTia, I am astonished, where the 
 second aspirate is changed, while in the Aorist eicKfrov, the first 
 is changed ; see aspirates, 18. This verb is to be distinguished 
 from &(*7iTO}, ltdqi]v, in the list of baryton verbs. 
 
 see &fc'Aa). 
 
 tw run, f. -frfuaopcu or dtwovfitu, see 95 Rem. 5 and 9. 
 The other tenses are supplied as in rp^co. 
 
 ftiyyavo) touch, formed from &iy(a, Fut. ^i|o> and &iQpai, Aor. 
 t&iyov. 
 
 die, from 0slNQ, Aor. t&uvov, Fut. ftctvovnat,, Perf. 
 , as from SN-4Q, see 110. 3. Hence in common lan- 
 guage the following abbreviated forms, according to 110 Rem. 4. 
 tt&vapfv, ciTf, Tt&vaaw, txiftvuGuv, Tt&vdvai, Tf&vabjv, Tt&- 
 va&i. Part- if&vrjKwg, commonly masc. and neut. Tf&vto'js (de- 
 rived from Tt&vaojg, Tt&vaog,) G. f COTOG, fern. Tf&vfuaa. From 
 Tt&vyxcc, however, is derived an Attic form of the future 
 or 
 
 VU sacrifice, &voa) &c. 1st Aor. pass, trv&rjv (short i) see 
 18 Rem. 2. and 95 Rem. 3. 
 
 i'(o, y.a&lo) set, set myself; MID. set myself, sit, fut. l^ijcro), 
 , or xa^cui (for xu&iaa) according to 95 Rem. 7.) Aor. 
 txa&ioa &c. 
 
 un^Qfuu come, more commonly &f*xirit6fut*, f. 72-o^af, Aor. xo- 
 JM;V, Perf. f/juca (dg/^^ /# 9*j^*.) The radical form i'xw 
 is Epic. 
 
220 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 1 14. 
 
 Mid. expiate, atone, propitiate, Fut. 'duGOfAai (short a). 
 i, see ntTOfuu. 
 see Ofoctj 109. 
 
 , see 107, with Rem. II. iniorafAott see in E. 
 i f a%(0, see i'^eo. 
 'til, see */>, 108. 
 
 201 JT. 
 
 , xa<07cu, see i'^o^ai, 
 
 burn transit. Alt xacc (with long and without contrac- 
 tion,) f. xavau &LC. (see 95 Rem. 5.) PASS. 1st Aor. txav&rjv, 
 and 2fl AQF war^ (short a), Verbal adj. xwiroV, xai'ffiH)?, xavartog. 
 The Epic poets have also a 1st Aor. without a, 
 ca//, f. xaAf'oeo, Att. xAt7 and xaAo<;jM 
 
 txltj&rj*, &c. Ferf. pass. XX^JM> m called, my name is. 
 Opt. vty.lritw* y.t>dt;o &c. ^5ee 98 Rem. 8. MID. 
 
 tire, from K^iM^l, see 1 12. 4. Aor. exa^ov, Fut. x- 
 perf. x^x^>yx, as from KMAQ, see 110. 3. 
 see 109. 
 
 mix, fromxfpfxw, see 112-6. f. xfpaow, Aor. - 
 (with short ). A syncope with 9 long a takes place in the 
 Aorist Mid. Ixcaaafiiiv, Perf. XJ'XJ/UXK, Paw. x. c 'x^a|M^, txQa&r]V. 
 We also find xext^crt^ttft*, lxf()(/.o{)qv. MID. 
 xi%pr)fti, see /^w. 
 
 xA/co 'e/), Att. xAco (with long a and without contraction), f. 
 '/Acrt;ao/uo!/ or ^avGovfucci, Aor. txAauffa, see 95 Rem. 5. The 
 Fut. xAf ^Jdco or xAajoco is rarer. Verbal adjec. xlavrog, xAauro?, 
 . MID. is .-rare. 
 
 satiate, f. xop^Vw &c. see 112. 6. Perf. pass. x*xo'- 
 (Ion. x6xo'p?7|Mca). This is not to be confounded with the 
 regular xopew, -/joco sweep. 
 
 MQUW commonly x/x^cf/cc cry, see 113 Rem. 2. 
 
 &c. see 110 Rem. 3. Fut. 
 KPA see xf(><xm//f{i. 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 221 
 
 xpffAarvvfi* hang, Pass. yiQf^uvvvfiKi am hung, and as MID. hang 
 myself ; xpt'fiafAtti, (like YoiafAai) hang intransit. to which belong 
 Subj. XQJfHOfiai, Opt. XQtftaifiTjv and xQifjiolfJii]v. Fut. Act. 
 0(D (short a), Att. xpt/iro, yg, , &c. The Aor. pass. 
 is common to the Mid. and intransit. signification ; but the Fut. 
 pass. y,of[jiaG&r i Goua.(, belongs solely to xptjunnrvptu. In conse- 
 quence of which the intransitive has a peculiar future, xQenrjaofictt 
 / rcill hang. 
 
 xvvt'ca kiss, f. xiri/?J0o/ua*, or (from KTQ) xvaoi, tuvaa (short 
 w.) The compound *QOXwlta kneel, adore, is regular. 
 
 A. 202 
 
 ).ay%dvo) obtain (by lot or fortune,) from AHXQ, f. Ifeofuu, 
 Aor. that'/ov, Perf. 6t).7j%a^ 82 Rem. 2, or A*Aoy/a (as if from 
 
 lapfiavtu take, from AHBQ, f. lijyofiat, Aor. &a/?ov, Perf. 
 see ^ 82 Rem. 2. MID. The Ionics form A Aa^/xa, see 
 1 12. 8. and (from AA'MBSS) ^d^ipofiat, t).dnq&r]v, Itfatfiftat* 
 
 lav&dvco, rarer A?;t?w, am Aic?, ATiaw, thuftov, K&n&ci. MID. 
 ,, rarer lii&0[iat>, forget, IrjGOfiai, tKa&onrjv, ^tKrjGfjiai. 
 say, has in this simple form no perfect active whatever ; 
 in the pass, it has A&fcypa*, &t%&rjv. In its compounds, in the sig- 
 nification of gather, it has f/'Ao^a (<Jf w/Ao^a), fifaynat (see 82 
 Rem. 2,) Aor. pass, tke'yrjv, see 100 Rem. 4, and a MID. Also 
 &HgJityOfiai converse, has dulteffict^ but in the Aorist 
 
 AHBQ, see Aa/4/?ceyo. 
 
 ATJ^OJ, see 
 
 AHXQ, see 
 
 Aouw a'a*A. In this verb the Attic dialect almost without ex- 
 ception omits the connective vowel before the termination, as 3d 
 pers. Impf. *"Aoi., 1st pi. e'Aot/tfi', Pass. AojT/iat &,c. KOVG&OU, see ? 
 110 Rem. 2 MID. 
 
 Afoi ioo*e, Ai)ffo> &c. Perf. pass. A*'Au/ueu, 1st Aor. pass, t 
 95 Rem. 3. MID. 
 
222 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114. 
 
 M. 
 
 ficcv&dva) /earn, from MHSQ, Aor. tfia&ov, f. pcrd-iyaofJiaiy 
 Perf. pfpadyxa, see 112. 5. 
 
 [td%0[4.ai> contend, fut. (*a%t(JO[tai, commonly fjLa^ovfjiai. See 
 95 Rem. 8. Aor. If4a^(od^v, Perf. /uffia^f 0/utu and fjufin^r^ui. 
 Verbal Adjectives /ua/freoj/ and [Aa%r}Ttov. 
 
 ftfiyopai obtain, Aor. I'^fAOQOv, Perf. t^^iOQa. From the cem- 
 sa/ive sense of ME1PQ, allot, (whence (itQOQ part,) comes the 
 Perfect Pass, ti'/uaprat it is fated, an impersonal form, where also 
 the ft is instead of the reduplication, see 82 Rem. 2. 
 
 203 |M*AAa> sfta//, am a&owf, intend, Fut. /u^AA^'aco &c. For the aug- 
 ment, see 82 Rem. 3. 
 
 /ut Aw concern, go to heart, is in the Active voice used princi- 
 pally in the 3d pers. pttei,, JJL&OVGI,, Fut. pthriaei,, &c. (Epic Perf. 
 /wf/M^Af, see 113 Rem. 2.) PASS. /u*Ao|Wa I take care of, more 
 commonly tiufi&opcu, [Khyaofiat,, tfKlyihjv. 
 
 [livco remain, has in the Perf. /wf/uV^xa, see 112.2. Verbal 
 Adjective [ttftttov. 
 
 and fi/fj/co, mingle. Fut. /u/w &c. See 112. 6. 
 
 remind, from MNAQ, Fut. fiv^aco &c. and Pass. 
 xofMJit, I recollect,! recall, I mention, l^vr]Q^r\v, [4vrjO&yao[iai. 
 The perfect hence formed, /M 4*1/77^ CM, has the signification of the 
 present, / remember, that is, / am siZ/ mindful of. To this perfect 
 belongs the 3d Fut. [ASfAvrjGOfiat, I shall continue to be mindful of. 
 
 The simple form (jMi/ao^at) jUi>W|Uca is in the foregoing signi- 
 fication in use only among the Ionics ; in the signification woo, it 
 is also in use in the common dialect. 
 
 divide, allot, Fut. vff40> and vtfirjoa), Aor. tvtifict, Perf. 
 t, &c. Aor. Pass, tvtuiri&riv and lt>[it&t]v. MID. 
 i/ao 5tB?im, fut. vfvoofiat and vfvaovpai ( 95 Rem. 5.) 
 &c (i/f o) spin, is regular.) 
 
 Wco wcuA, takes its tenses from vlma), viya &c. MID. 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 223 
 
 O. 
 
 oai smell, intrans. Fut. Q&OOJ, &c. Perf. o&odahasthe power 
 of the present. 
 
 oi'yoj or oiyvvfM, commonly dvo/yoj, dvo/yvvfii, open, has the 
 Augment in the anomalous manner mentioned 83 Rem. 8. Impf. 
 uirtqtyoV) Aor. aWoilia, Inf. d?o?, &c. and 1st Perf. avitpxct. 
 The 2d Perf. dvf'cpyct has a neutral signification, / am open. 
 
 o'tffa, see 109. 
 
 oi'ojwca think, Impf. (Jo/npr. 1st pers. pres. also oJfiai, Impf. wfirjv. 
 Fut. oitjGonat, Aor. wt}&r}v, olr^r t vai. 
 
 oiyofjiut, go, am gone, ol%yoo t uui, Perf. at^r^ut, or in the active 
 form (with oj) oi'/wxa. 
 
 O7/2, see oio^txt and ytgw. 
 
 okuj&avco or -uivo) glide, oha&rjoa), tofoo&oi'. See 112 ^ 
 Rem. 5. 
 
 O//.IYU annihilate, from OAQ, Fut. oAoi, Aor. (ultaa, Perf. oAoi- 
 A*x. MID. oMvfuai pass away, Fut. oAoujua^, Aor. colofATjv, to 
 which belongs 2d Perf. oAwAa. 
 
 Sftvvfu swear, Fut. O<UOW/MCU, ;?, f?Ta^, &c. 0[iHa&at, (from 
 see 112. 6). Aor. w/woaa, Perf. optoftoxo, Perf. Pass. 
 
 t, but in the 3d pers. also optapOTai (as if from OMOQ.) MID. 
 to wipe off, Fut. o^opw, &c. See 112. 6. MID. 
 profit, radical form ONAR ; hence present and imper- 
 fect like 'fart] pi. Fut. oV/;'(7cu, Aor. w'f^aa, &c. MID. oy/ 
 />ro/Sf 6y, 2d Aor. fuvypifv (> t (jo, r t xo, &c.) or tovafiijV) Opt. o 
 Inf. ovao&cti,. 
 
 OUTQ, see opaw. 
 
 opaf *ee, Impf. Ionic a>pojj>, commonly ioJpwi/, see 83 Rem. 
 8. Perf. iojoaxtt Aor. ddov, idtiv,!dwv, /W, &c. MID. tidofjiriv, 
 uk'c&uii idov, (and as an interjection *#oi5 *ee /) See above ^ i'dw. 
 Fut. oi^ofjiut will see, from OTITQ. PASS. Perf. tojoapai or 
 (though less frequently) wnpai, oJi/', (onrui, &;c. fc^tfa*. Aor. 
 <<p(h}v, dty&yvai. Verbal Adjectives OQcuxog, OTIZO?. 
 
 * A particular reduplication instead of ovrjfu. 
 
224 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [ 114, 
 
 oQvi>(.tt excite, from 0PJ2, Fut. opffw, 1st Aor. (apace. See 
 101 Kern. 5. MID. OQvvfAat arise, Aor. ojQopqv, to which belongs 
 2d Perf. oywpa. 
 
 owpQUtvojuxt smell transit. Fut ooypyGOftcu, Aor. OJG^QO^V. 
 See 112. 5. 
 
 oyfiko) owe e. g. money, must, Fut. o'tpe tAijaa), &c. The 2d 
 Aor- fZtyfkov occurs only as the expression of a wish. See 151, 
 
 oq\M and (more common in the present) oyhaxdvo), am guilty, 
 condemned, Fut. oyhrjOM, &c. 
 
 n. 
 
 naiw beat, Fut. commonly nutyaw, but the other tenses are 
 , ntnciwa., Inaio^^v. MID. (Compare 7ra/co in the regu- 
 lar verbs.) 
 
 nuG%o} suffer, from 77/7^/2, Aor. v 7ia#oi/, from TIEN&Q, 
 Perf. ntnov&ix, Fut. ntlaofAai, according to the rule 25. 4. 
 Verbal Adjective ncc&yrog. 
 
 t) HEN&Q, see 7i<y/w. 
 see noytiv. 
 
 7167ITW, See TltGOtoJ. 
 
 Tity&G) destroy, Aor. tnQa&ov. See 96 Rem. 4. 
 
 TTWffCO, TTfWo), COO^ Fut. TTf^-'W, &C. from TT^TITfO. 
 
 , see TIITITO). 
 
 expend, Fut. TKTaaa), &c. See 112. 6. Perf. Pass. 
 (see 1 10. 1.) but Aor. Pass, is again tnfr<f^jv. 
 
 . From this root is formed by syncope an Aor. *V 
 , TTTfa&ui, &c. See 110 Rem. 1. Fut. nfTyaopat, common- 
 ly jTTr)<JOf.i<M, which may be derived from the lengthened form 
 ntTaoput. To this also belongs a formation in ^uf, partly in the 
 present Tifrotficu and 'inTUfAui, partly in a second form of the Aor. 
 inrctp.yv, mdoftat, &c. In addition to this there is a third Aor. 
 tnrrjv, nrrivat,, mag, &c. and a Perf. nlnT^a, formed from the 
 active, which is entirely obsolete in the present. 
 I1ET&, see TI/TTTW. 
 
 i, see nvv&dvo/ucti. 
 
) 1 14.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 225 
 
 nyyvvp* make fast, f. 7njco, &c. See 1 12. 6. Aor. Pass, ina- 
 yt]v, 2d Perf. ntnrjyu intransit / standfast. 
 
 nlfudriiufill, nipTddvai,, follows 'iGTrj^t in present and imperf. 
 Fut. TrA^ffco, &c. Perf. Pass. TTfTTtyopou, Aor. Pass. tnhjoQrjv, from 
 HAAQ ornKri&w which last form, however, has in the present 
 tense only the intransitive meaning am full When, in composi- 
 tion, fi comes before the first n, the fi in the reduplication is 
 dropped, as f fining fit, but returns as soon as the augment is in- 
 terposed, as Ivtnlftntyv. 
 
 nlftn^rjfit, burn transit. niftnQccvai, follows um? ( in the Pres. 
 and Imperf. the rest from IIPAR oT7io^&o),asln^G^v The, 
 same holds of e/nTrln^^t,, lvmi[jiiiQj]v, as of n/innh^ii. 
 
 nlvm drink, from 777J2, Fut. niopai,, see 95 Rem. 10. Aor. 
 tntov, niflv &c. Imper. commonly n7&i. All the rest from HO&, 
 Perf. 7i^'n:(Mx, Perf. pass. nfnof4cxi, Aor. pass. tHo&ijv, Verbal adj^ 
 TIOTOS, noTfov. The forms TT/OTW, {'maa, have the causative sense, 
 give to drink, 113. 5, and have as present Tiiniaxo). 
 
 ninydaxw sell, Fut. and Aor. wanting. The remainder from 
 TIPAR, TitnQcixa, tngdfhjv, &c. 
 
 ninia> fall, forms from TIET& (see 112. 7,) in the Dorian 
 manner, the fut. ntoovficu, Aor. I'ntaov. Perf. ntmcoxa. 
 
 TLAAQ, nKr&w, see jilfntbtfu.* 
 
 TiAftu sail, f. ntevoofiai, nfavaovftat inlfvo*, &c. eee 95. 
 Rem. 5. Pass, nenfavoftai, inteva&ijv. 
 
 nb'](JGu), n^rjTTO), strike 2d Perf. This verb retains the y in 
 the 2d Aor. pass, tnlriyijv, except the compounds which signify 
 affright, lxldyr}V, xctTcnkdyrjv. 
 
 nv(0) blow, f. nvfvaw or nvevaovpou &c. Aor. pass tnvfvo&yv. 
 desire, f. Tto&eato and no&yoa), Perf. nfno^tta, Perf. 
 
 , 1st Aor. pass, cno&fa&qv, see 95 Rem. 3. 
 , i'nopov.Igave, a defective poetical Aorist To the same 
 theme (with the idea assign) belongs, by means of a metathesis 
 ( 110. 3.) the perfect pass. ntngwTou it is destined, Part. 
 
 29 
 
J20 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. [< 114. 
 
 iuG^KV buy. A defective verb, whose forms (InfJidftijV;, UQI- 
 
 &c.) are used as the Aorist of wvtia&at,. 
 HPO see noQtiv. 
 TITA TITO see nfTuvvv^i, ntrofiat, ninTW. 
 
 hear, from nev&oiACu (poet.) Fut. nevGopcti, Aor. 
 , Perf. nenvapai,, Verbal adj. nfvoiog, 
 
 P. 
 
 and tpda) do, Fut..0w or (from ^P/^) tQ%a> &c. Perf. 
 
 otso, f. QfVGO(.iai, Aor. fpfifvaa. More in use, however, in 
 the same active signification is the 2d Aor. Pass. Ippvyv, with the 
 Fut QvriGOnai', and a new perfect IQ^VIJKU^ formed from this Aorist. 
 112.8. 
 
 $rjywfH tear transit- f. (>?iw, 112. 6. Aor. pass. tp$<>tyij* 
 2d Perf. tQQwyu with the intransitive meaning, / am torn. 
 
 Qlmw and $inr4w throw ; both forms are used in the present 
 and imperfect ; the other parts are formed only from (HJITW, as 
 (Hi/xw &c. Aor. pass, fffiqnjv. 
 
 Qwvvvni strengthen, QWOW &c. 112. 6, Perf. pass. E 
 Imp. ZQQWGO farewdl, Aor. pass. ipfaH 
 
 extinguish, f. aptaa) &c. toptapca, iopiofhjv\ see 
 112. 6. The Perf. ca/ff^xa (with ?;) and the 2d Aorist lafiyv, plur. 
 i'apyptv. Inf. aprjvcci, (see 1 10 Rem. 5.) have the intransitive sig- 
 207 nification to go out, for which meaning however, the passive ofltv- 
 vvfiat is more usual. 
 
 (Midavwiit, scatter, f. axidaow &c. Perf. pass. fVx^attyia*, see 
 112. 6. 
 
 cca) wipe, Gftys &c. see 105 Rem. 3. Fut. G^OOJ &c. Aor. 
 
 (from Ofir/yo).) 
 ontlv, antG'0-cu,, see iw. 
 
 see IGT^^I. 
 fw deprive, declined regularly ; but in the passive much 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 227 
 
 use is made of the simpler form <mpo/Mca, Part. 2d Aor. GTtgtig, 
 Fut. OTfprjaofiai. 
 
 OTOQfvvviH, GTOQVVLII, and OTQuvvvpt,, spread, extend, form both 
 GTOQtaw, laroptaa, and (jTpwaco, larptuaa. Perf. pass. tOTQOjpai, 
 1st Aor. pass. fOTOQt'a&ijv Verbal adj. drpwro?. 
 
 o%{tv, ta%ov &LC. see J;fco. 
 
 oa)a) save, has in Aor. pass. iatoJhp without a, from the elder 
 form Gdoat laacifh)*. MID. 
 
 T. 
 
 and Tacfyvat, see &A3>Q, and damco 104. 
 ,_ T.///2, the apparent root of rW, rcraxa &c. See 101. 8. 
 
 see T/xrw. 
 
 cw<, forms from TEMQ, see 112. 4, f. Tfjuw, Aor. r;- 
 . Perf. zttfiiflta, Aor. pass. tTfiij&ijv. Less used is Aor. *Va- 
 . The lonians have also in the present sfefc*** 
 
 ^w. Two kindred verbs must be carefully distinguished, viz. 
 1) Tfv%w prepare, regular, as xfv'^o}, ixtv^a, TtT{v%a, it- 
 
 2) Tvy%dva) happen, f. u|ofiea, Aor. I'TV%OV, Perf. Tf- 
 
 %r)xa. 
 
 The idea of rvy^dva) has its origin in the passive of Ttv%<a. 
 
 bear, from TEKQ, f. rt^co commonly Ttopai, Aor. i'if- 
 xov, Perf. raVoxa. MID. poetical. 
 
 see T/W. 
 
 uw bore, from TP4&, tQr t G(o &c. Another form, more 
 used by the Attics, is ttTQaivw, *Vrp?i>a. The perfect is always 
 from the radical TPAQ, Tf'rp^xa, TiTQrmai- 
 
 TITQWGXW (epic TQtooj) twounc?, Fut. rpwaw &c. 208 
 
 T/CO honour, is used only by the poets, and is regularly declin- 
 ed. Perf. pass. TtTiftai. In the signification of expiate, it derives 
 its tenses from r/ixw expiate, f. Tiaco, perf. pass. TtTtaftat, 1st Aor. 
 pass. tTiad-^v. The MID. Tivopcu (tiaofJiai,, faoaprp} has the 
 sismification of avenge, punish. 
 
228 LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. (j> 114. 
 
 TAAQ suffer, a verb not used in the present, but from which 
 the following tenses are derived, Fut. T^GOfiui, Aor. tTh]v,T^i>at, 
 T\ah]v, rA/Jih see llORem. 5, Perf. iVrA^jca, whence the synco- 
 pated forms Tfr^a^v &c. see 110 Rem. 4. 
 TM see T^IVOD. 
 
 TQtqja) nourish, f. &$t\}tt 18. Perf. xtTQQCpa, see 97 Rem. 1. 
 Perf. pass. Tt&Qannai,Tf&()a(p&cti,, Aor. pass. irgayriv, more rare- 
 ly Idpiqi&yv, Verbal adj. ftptmo?. 
 
 run, forms its tenses rarely from itself, as ^Qt^o^ut, 
 ( 18) ; but commonly from APEMQ, Aor. tdQapov, Fut. 
 
 Perf. dedQupyxu, see 112. 8. 
 - TP T4>&, see ^VHTOD. 
 
 eat, f. rpwo|wca, Aor. tTpayov (from TPATQ1] 
 
 see Tfv%w. 
 
 TV-five*) strike, basin the Attic dialect commonly fut. 
 Verb. adj. rvm^itog. Aor. pass. eTvnrjv.* MID. 
 
 tv<pw incense, smoke, burn, f. &viljw &c. 18. Aor. pass. 
 
 , see 
 
 see qr^jM/ 109. and gpafVco 101 Rem. 4. 
 bear, has (from OJ&) f. oi'fftw and a particular Imperat, 
 oiae, for which see 112. 8. Besides this it has (from EFK& or 
 ENEKQ) 1st Aor. r t vfy^a, 2d Aor. jjvtyno*, Perf. tnfao%a, (com 
 pare 97 Rem. 1.) Perf. pass. irqv*fftu*i Aor - P ass - Ypilftn* Fut. 
 pass. tvX&uaopcu, or oia&yooitat. Verbal adj. olorog, OIOTZOG. 
 MID. The Ionics have Aor. tfvfwa, Ivtwat, Pass. yvtiy&r}v. 
 
 come before, anticipate, forms from 0(9^^2 either y&uaw. 
 or y&rjGOnai, ty&iiv, ((pflw, (f&rjvai, cpftas, see 110 
 Rem. 5.) Perf. ty&axcc. 
 
 qjvw beget, qivaw, tcpvGa. But the Perf. ntcpvxa, and the 2d 
 209 Aor. f'qivv, yvvat, Part, yvz, see 110 Rem. 5, have a passive or 
 intransitive signification, to be begotten, to become, to be, of which 
 meaning are the present and future (jpvoftat, yvao/ncu. 
 
114.] LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS. 229 
 
 X. 
 
 %utQO) rejoice, f. /cupijffto. Aor. (from the passive) i%ctQr t r, 
 whence again a perfect with the signification of the present, x^ap?;- 
 xa, commonly xeyayij/nai, see 112. 8. 
 
 *eo pour out, f. /fi/ao),- 1st Aor. ^a, see 91 Rem. 1. /n/. 
 #*, //n/7. ^W, xtdiw &c. Perf. x*/uxa, Perf: pass. v.iyy\.a.i, Aor. 
 pass. l%v&r]v, 98 Rem. 4. MID. 
 
 2Po>. Of this verb there are five different forms, with as 
 many distinct meanings. 
 
 1) %yd(o I give an oracular response, declined regularly ; #po>, 
 #(>ftV, xgrjoo) &c. Aor. pass. i%Qr t <5&r}v. 
 
 2) x//(j?;7U lend, like for^/u*, (but without 2d Aor.) Zi?ffa>, 
 tyatioa, &c. Mid. xl%Qupw, borrow, xprjaopai, lfgvpnp.ip* 
 
 3) g(xro/*' use, takes in its contraction (according to 105 
 Rem- 3) ? instead of a, as /^, 2d sing, ^pijrea, %pTja&at, &c. 
 The rest is regular, Aor. i%Qr t aaiA.r t v, Perf. *fyQr t pm.* Verbal 
 adj. xgrjaios. 
 
 4) ^?i oportet, it is necessary, impersonal, is inflected partly 
 like verbs in /iu, as Inf. XQyvcti, Opt. XQti'n, Subj. %@jj, Part, (ro) 
 
 t'ovv}, Imperf. tygriv (irregular accent,) or iQr\i> (never 
 
 5) dndxpr] it suffices, pi. ertOJpwdw, 7n/! (rr 
 
 . Impf. &n*ZQr) Fut. ftTio^^aft &c. 
 
 r, f. /oojaw &c. see 1 12. 6, Perf. pass. xt 
 
 %tvvvpi heap, dam ; also the regular form /o'w. /rj/". 
 /aiaoj. &c. Perf. pass. xtY 
 
 t&i<* push, has the syllabic augment (o>'#ot;i') according to 
 83 Rem. 6, and forms Fut. w^ao), and (from /2^J2) ojoey, 
 J'cuxa t&atat &c. 
 
 * This perfect is chiefly used in the sense of I need. 
 ~ Has its origin in /paov. according to f 26 Rem. 7. 
 
230 PARTICLES. [ 115, 
 
 210 11. PARTICLES. 
 
 1. The particles are called by the ancient grammarians In- 
 Jlexibles, because they admit of no declension, nor conjugation. Ev- 
 ery thing, therefore, which regards their formation or derivation, 
 belongs properly to the subject of the formation of words. Some 
 points, however, which are closely connected with the other parts 
 of speech, or by which several particles are placed in a certain 
 relation to each other, and some small changes effected by posi- 
 tion or euphony, shall here be detailed. 
 
 2. The most common adverbial form is the termination co, 
 which may be regarded altogether as a part of the adjective, since 
 it is necessary only to change the termination og, nominative or 
 genitive, into ojg as follows, viz. 
 
 G0(f)0)$. 
 
 UQlSig, fVTOg, %<XQI,tVT(it)?. 
 
 tog, fv&t'wg. 
 -rig, tog, contr. ovg, ahrj&tcog contr. ubi&ajg. 
 
 3. Certain cases and forms of nouns often supply the place of 
 particles, either by virtue of their signification, as will appear in 
 the syntax, or by ellipsis. When such a form occurs very fre- 
 quently, it is regarded quite as an adverb. So with the dative, viz. 
 
 properly with care, hence very much. 
 
 with diligence, labour, hence hardly, scarcely. 
 
 Also a number of feminine adjectives (originally agreeing with 
 odai from y odog way, mode, method,) e. g. 
 
 nf^Tj on foot, xoivy commonly, Idia privately, dr^oGio: 
 
 publicly &c. 
 So also in the accusative, viz. 
 
 properly in the beginning, in the foundation, hence 
 totally. 
 
 gratis, for nothing, (from nQol' gift.) 
 (sc. odov) far. 
 
115.] PARTICLES. 231 
 
 REM. 1. Some also are cases with preceding prepositions, e. g. 
 7iapa%()ritua immediately (properly during the thing.) 
 xa&a and ycaitunfo (for x#' a, x#' 7if p,) cw, as rf, /i&e. 
 
 TlpOVOyOl' (for 7TOO 6pyOt',) fo ^6 enrf. 
 
 Some such compound words have small peculiarities of orthogra- 
 phy and accentuation, as 
 
 ixnodow out of the way, aside, (for *x TTO^W*'.) 
 ifi-noStov in the way, inconvenient, (grammatically irregular 
 for tv noo iv.) 
 
 4. The neuter of the adjective is also an adverbial accusative, 
 when it stands instead of the adverb, as well in the singular as the 
 plural. This use, as far as the positive is concerned, is for the 
 most part peculiar to the poets; and is used in prose, in only a 
 few instances, as Tayv swiftly, fiixpov or /tuxpa a little. 
 
 5. In the comparative degree, it is very much the usage, that 
 the neuter singular of the comparative and the neuter plural of tht 
 superlative serve also as degrees of comparison for the adverb, as 
 GoqwxfQOv Tioitlz thou actest more wisely, a'iff%iOTa difTthtGfv he 
 lived most shamefully. The appending of w? to the form of com- 
 parison of the adjective, as xaAA^o'rw^, is far less common. 
 
 6. Instead of w, the more ancient dialect formed the adverb 
 in ca, hence oi>roj and OVTW, 30. 4. Here are to be reckoned 
 ttCfvo) suddenly, onion behind, and several formed from prepositions, 
 as icu without, tow and fi'oca within, uvoy above, xarco below, TTOO'- 
 GOJ forwards, no'opw far. These form their degrees of compari- 
 son in the same manner, as avowtQta, avtoraTW, and in like man- 
 ner degrees are formed of some other particles, as dno from, a- 
 
 very far from; tvdov within, IvdoraTO) inmost; txctg far, 
 r uy/ov near, ay/orarW paxQcxv far, ,axporf(jco. 
 
 7. In all the particles, which take the degrees of comparison 
 without being derived from adjectives in use, the analogy of the 
 adjectives is observed in forming the degrees of comparison, as 
 tyyvz near, iyyuxigw or tyyvTegov &c. or tyylov, tyyi<na, where- 
 in just the same peculiarities and irregularities are observed as 
 there prevail, see Rem. 2 below. Particularly compare with 
 " /on/, *(jro?," ( 67. 3) and ' irregular comparison' 68, the fol- 
 lowing, viz 
 
CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. [116. 
 
 cty%t, near, UGGOV, 
 
 cn very, / uaUo*', 
 
 And the adverbial neuter corresponding to tjGacw, ( 68. 2.) 
 rjGGOv, TJTTOV, less, yxiGTa least. 
 
 REM. 2. The following deserve notice, viz. 
 
 on the other side, over, ntpaiTtiiw or nf^aiTKrcc., 
 near, TihyGiaiztpov and -tOTtpov, 
 v (Rem. 1) npovpyiairfpov. 
 
 3. A few forms of verbs become particles, by common 
 use, particularly interjections. Thus wqilov, see the anomalous 
 oqitikco and 151- idov see, (see the anomalous opw'w.) 
 So too tlev (from eiy) be it so ! well ! 
 
 aye, cpiyt, come on, which is used without alteration as 
 
 an address to several. 
 i&t, (to one), ITS (to more), come on. 
 
 REM. 4. The adverb devpo hither is also used as an impera- 
 tive, come hither, and in this acceptation it has a plural, when ad- 
 dressed to several, dtvte ! which is explained as a contraction of 
 dfvp 'tit. 
 
 116. CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. 
 
 (Compare 79.) 
 
 1. Some relations of place are indicated by particles append- 
 ed to words, and that as follows ; when the question is 
 
 whence ? by &fv, as a'AAo#i> from some other place, 
 whither ? " G6, " AAoff to some other place, 
 where ? " -0-*, " aAAo^ somewhere else. 
 The vowel before these terminations is a matter of some vari- 
 ety, which, however, is best learned by observation, e. g. '-//#??- 
 vfj&tv, OVQ&vo&ev, ayQO&t in the country, nQTiQw&t on which of 
 the two sides, tWpo>#* on the other side. 
 
 2. When the question is whither, the enclitic dt is also appen- 
 ded, and that to the accusative without any change, as ovptxvovfa 
 to the heavens, Aa& (from a'Ae) into the sea, tQtftfafo (from TO 
 
 to Erebus. 
 
 REM. 1. O'txadf home, from olxog, and (pv^adf to flight^ from 
 rj, are departures from the analogy ; but in *J#h}*a&', 0iJ/?^, 
 the d of the particle <fc together with the G of the accusative plur. 
 
CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. 
 
 233 
 
 have passed over into ( 3. 2.) Several words, however, as- 
 sume the , although not in the plural, as &VQCC& without, from 
 &VQCI door ; 'Okv[.i7iiaf from 'Olvpula. 
 
 REM. 2. When the question is where, the termination oiv or 
 at, is attached to the names of several cities ; r]at> when a conso- 
 nant, and aat when a vowel precedes, as 
 
 s4&nvqG^ nhctTataotv 
 from '^tfhjvcu, TTAarcaa/, 
 Some other words take the termination o*, as 
 
 213 
 
 from Vax^/uo?, Ilv&a), ra J 
 
 which termination has always the circumflex, except in oi'xo* 
 home. 
 
 3. To the three relations of the place quoted, refer the three 
 
 following interrogations, viz. 
 
 uoftev ; whence ? 
 not ; whither ? 
 TIOV ; where ? 
 
 of which the first only coincides with the terminations quoted 
 above under no. 1 .f On the other hand, these and some other 
 interrogations, of which the most common are norf and nrjvlxct 
 when ? Ticos how ? nr\ in what direction ? in what way ? stand with 
 their immediate correlatives (indefinite, demonstrative, relative) 
 in the same analogy, which we saw above ( 79) in the case of the 
 correlative adjectives. 
 
 Interrogative. Indefinite. Demonstrative. 
 all enclitic. 
 
 TOTf 
 
 nov 
 not-, 
 
 nov 
 not 
 no&tv 
 
 TQ&fV 
 
 Relative. 
 simple, compound. 
 
 OTl OHOTf 
 
 OV OjlOV 
 
 of 6not> 
 o&fv dno&fv 
 
 nrjvixct ; ... Tf^ixa j rjvixa onrjvixa 
 
 The signification of the foregoing correlative adverbs is obvious 
 from that of the corresponding adjectives in 79. 
 
 * Olvuniuai, with short a, is the dative plural from if 'Olvpnidg. 
 t The poets, however, have also nOOf and uofti. 
 
 The Iota subscript in this series is omitted in those forms where no 
 
 real nominative exists as a root. 
 30 
 
 See Rem. 4 and 5. 
 
234 CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. [ 116- 
 
 REM. 3. As the relative pronoun 6's, besides the compound 
 QSriS, is also strengthened by nep QofifCJL &c.) the same is_also 
 found in several of the foregoing relative adverbs, as wgntQ, yntQ, 
 For the Ionic forms xou, 6xco, &c. see 16 Rem. 1. c. 
 
 4. The demonstratives in this table are the original simple 
 demonstratives, like o, ij, TO among the demonstrative adjectives. 
 None of them but TOTS then, is in common use ; the others only 
 in certain phrases or in the poets. It is also to be remarked that, 
 instead of TW?, we sometimes find co used as a less common de- 
 monstrative, and that with the acute accent, to distinguish it from 
 the relative particle tog. 
 
 5. With the foregoing must be reckoned two other demonstra- 
 tives, which in signification belong to the questions nov ; no&tv ; 
 but in form depart entirely from the preceding analogy ; viz. 
 
 i'v&a. here, there ; i'v&tv thence. 
 
 They are both, at the same time, relatives (like ov and o&fv) 9 
 and common in prose. 
 
 6. The demonstratives T?Wxa, tv&a, tv&tv, Ty, and to, are 
 capable of the twofold strengthening, mentioned above, 79. 4. 
 from which the demonstrative particles, most used in prose, have 
 their origin, e. g. 
 
 iv&a iv&udt IvdavTa Ion. IvTctv&a Att 
 
 iv&tv ev&tvdf, iv&evTtv Ion. Ivzev&tv Att 
 
 or oi>Tco.* 
 
 2. The most of these demonstratives with others, not included 
 in these analogies, take, besides this, a demonstrative t,, see 80. 
 
 2. E. g. 
 
 ovrattf, ivrtv&ivi, tv&adl, wdi 
 
 vvvl from vvv now, devpl from devpo hither. 
 
 And the relatives, (like the adjectives above 80.) for the sake of 
 strengthening the idea of universality, assume 
 ovv and 
 
 * It is very obvious, that, as ry and w? are derived from the proper 
 demonstrative o\ ij, TO, the strengthened form is derived from the 
 strengthened demonstrative 6'tJf, OVTO?. 
 
117.] MUTATION OP PARTICLES. 235 
 
 as onovovv wheresoever, onwgovv (and with the interposed TI, on- 
 
 cogTiovv), onovdrinoTf: &c. 
 
 REM. 4. As the corresponding adjective forms ( 79) create 
 correlatives of still wider use, in appending their characteristic 
 terminations to other general ideas, as aUolog, navro7og, &c. (see 
 79 Rem. 2.) so also it is with the adverbs ; as aAAorf another 
 time, aMy (in answer to the question nr t ) in another way ; nuv- 
 fug, naviri (in answer to nwg, Tirj) in every way, wholly ; aviov, 
 (XVTO&I (in answer to TIOV, TIO&I} in the same place, there, &c. Very 
 commonly are the adverbs of this kind, derived from a'AAoff, nolvg, 
 nag, and ixuaiog, lengthened by the insertion of ay, as 
 
 dKKayov elsewhere, navTa%ov, TioAAa^ou, in every place, in 
 
 many places, 
 
 txaOTa%6&tvfrom every side, a'AAa^, &c. 
 
 REM. 5. Negatives ofjnost of these relative particles are also 215 
 found ; from nore and najg, as from r/ff, by simple composition are 
 formed ovnoTf, firinors never, ovnco$, fi^ncog by no means. 
 
 Most commonly however, the negatives are formed from the 
 ancient adjective ovdapog, fir]daf4,6<s, none, as 
 
 by no means, ovdapfi, ovdupov, ovdctfio&fv,&LC. 
 
 117. MUTATION OF SOME OTHER PARTICLES. 
 
 I. In the form. 
 
 According to fixed principles, o\>, oJx, ov% are interchanged 
 for the sake of euphony, see 30. 5. In like manner *| out of, is 
 allowed to stand only before a vowel, or at the end of a clause, as 
 
 l IpOV, l QV, X&HUV J'|. 
 
 Before consonants it is changed into Ix, as 
 
 e TOVTOV Ix dahdaGg Ix rs. 
 
 REM. 1. That some particles, for the sake of euphony, have a 
 moveable v or at the end, has been already remarked in 30, 
 as also the changes of avv and Iv in composition, 25. 
 
 REM. 2. For ov not, and vul yes, we find, for the sake of great- 
 er emphasis, ov%i, vai^i, (12 Rem. 4.) 
 
 REM. 3. Varieties of form, without any change of signification, 
 are the following, viz. 
 lav, YIV, av, if- 
 
 orjufpov, Att T^fAfQOv to day. ##& and i%&i<; yesterday. 
 ovv, anciently ^vv } with. fig, Ion. Ig, in. 
 
236 FORMATION OF WORDS. [118. 
 
 *t/, Ion. Ivi, in ; see also below no. 2. 
 *t, Ion. and Poet, ctiti and V, always. 
 
 or cWxev, Ion. ettoxa, tivfxtv, on account of. 
 Ion. InftTfv afterwards. 
 
 II. Change in accent. 
 
 Several dissyllable prepositions, with the accent on the last 
 syllable, as jrapa, and, rap/ , &c. undergo an anastrophe, as it if 
 called, that is, they draw the accent back, in two cases, viz. 
 1. When they stand after the noun they govern, as 
 TOVTOV ntQi for niQi TOVTOV 
 ftttov ano for ano &fwv* 
 
 216 2. When they are used instead of the forms of the verb ilvui 
 compounded with them, (in which case, instead of eV, the Ionic 
 Ivi is used even in the common dialect,) as 
 lyta nctQu for ndpfifti 
 im, JW, vjfOy for eneest &c.* 
 
 118. OF THE FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 1 . The doctrine of the formation of words, as a subject of 
 grammar, does not extend to all words. This, on account of the 
 obscurity attending the origin of language, is reserved for the 
 particular investigation of etymology. It belongs to us here, 
 to treat only of the formation of those words, which are derived 
 from other words, according to a plain analogy, embracing whole 
 classes of words. 
 
 2. In this place we have to treat only of Verbs, Substantives, 
 Adjectives, and Adverbs ; since whatever might belong here res- 
 pecting the other parts of speech, has already been discussed in 
 former sections. 
 
 * To speak more exactly, in all these cases the preposition stands 
 independently, the accent being changed and the verb tiv&i being under- 
 stood. 
 
119.J FORMATION OF WORDS. 237 
 
 119. DERIVATION BY TERMINATIONS. 
 
 I. Verbs. 
 
 1. Those verbs only are here to be considered, which are de- 
 rived from nouns (substantive and adjective). This derivation com- 
 monly takes place by the terminations w, *cw, ow, *wco, w, 
 
 lo), (HlVO), VVO). 
 
 2. These terminations take the place of the termination of the 
 nominative, if the radical word follows the first or second declen- 
 sion, and in the third also if the nominative ends in a single vowel, 
 or in g with a vowel preceding it; asi^Mi riftaa), -ntfQov nTtgoco, 
 &avna &avuaw, dtyfrqe ctlrj&evo). In other words of the third 
 declension they take the place of the genitive og, as'xo'Aag xoA- 
 
 XiVCD, TIVQ nVQQO). 
 
 REM. 1 . The words of the third declension ending ia a, ctg, 
 tg, which take a consonant in the genitive, can be directly chang- 
 ed only into kindred terminations of verbs (a and ag into aw, /?a>, 
 and t$ into /cu), as &av(ta. &av[Atxo} and /Ntf/iflwW, &7rfg Aw/hi. 
 Every other termination is attached to the consonant of the geni- 
 tive, as cpvyag (pvyadfvw, xgrjpct xptiftcrrtfa. 
 
 3. With regard to the signification of these terminations, we 
 can here consider only the most common usage of the language, 
 and enumerate the chief signification of the majority of the verbs 
 of each termination. 
 
 a) t'w and evw. These verbs are formed from almost every 
 termination, and chiefly express the condition or action of that 
 which the radical word denotes, as xoipavog ruler, xoipavtco rule ; 
 MOivwvog partaker, xowojvt'co partake ; dovkog slave, dovKtvw am a 
 slave, serve ; xoAa$ ( /?a#mr 1 xohaxfvo) flatter ; alrj&yg true, d^- 
 &tvw am true (speak truly); /ffacrdit;?, paarttvo) &c. most frequent- 
 ly as intransitives ; yet sometimes as transitives, as cp 'dog friend, 
 (fifa'd) love. 
 
 In general these two terminations are the common derivations, 
 and are therefore used still farther for a variety of significations, 
 which are also in part included in the terminations which fol- 
 low ; thus in particular, for the exercise of that which the radical 
 word denotes, as noltptiv, a&lt7v,noiiuifvtiv,%OQfVfiv, (fVvtvtiv, 
 , or for that to which it most naturally refers, as cxtUo? 
 
238 FORMATION OF WORDS. [ 119. 
 
 flute, avhflv to play on the flute ; ayopa assembly, ayoQtvtw to ad- 
 dress an assembly ; innivtiv to ride on horseback, &c. In particu- 
 lar, the termination *w, the simplest of all, is used in most of those 
 derivations, which arise from composition ; as {i>TV%eo}, im%iQtw, 
 oixodofttoj, Ipyohafitu), (uviioixaxfo) &,c. But in all cases these 
 terminations are most commonly intransitive. 
 
 b) aw. These verbs are most naturally formed from words 
 of the first declension in a and rj, but also from others ; and imply 
 chiefly the possession of a thing or quality in an eminent degree, 
 and the performance of an action ; as xo/ut; hair, #oA?? gall, KO- 
 fiKV to have long hair, %okqv to have much gall {to be angry) ; A/Tips 
 
 fat, \inav to have fat (to be fat) ; @oy outcry, yoog lamenting, floav, 
 youv' ToAjMtt boldness, roAjK^y to be bold. Hence, transitively, the 
 exercise of a thing towards others ; as Tifjir) honour, Tiptxv Tiva to 
 honour any one. 
 
 c) ooj. These verbs, formed for the most part from words of 
 the second declension, express (1) The making or forming to that 
 which the radical word signifies, as dovhou make a slave of, en- 
 slave ; ^Ao? known, (J^Aoco make known. (2) The manufacturing 
 or working wify the thing denoted by the radical word ; as %QV- 
 ooco gild, /w^Ardco paint with ochre (|U/Aroe), nvQOw put into fire, 
 TQQVQW make with the TOQVOQ. (3) The providing with the thing, 
 as (JTtyavoa) crown, mtyoco give wings (megov), OTavgow crucify 
 &c. 
 
 d) aw and /<w. Verbs with the first termination come most 
 naturally from words in a, ?/, ag, &c. and for the sake of euphony 
 from nouns with other endings. Verbs with both terminations, 
 however, embrace so many relations, that they cannot be reduced 
 to definite classes. Yet it deserves notice that, if they are formed 
 from proper names of nations and men, they denote the adoption 
 of the manners, the party, or the language of the same ; as ^di- 
 &tv to incline to the side of the Medes, eMfvtftW to speak Greek, 
 doQia&iv to speak the Doric, <pt,hnnitw to be of the party of Phil- 
 ip. 
 
 e) uivw and vvco. The latter termination comes always from 
 adjectives, and expresses the imparting of the quality of the ad- 
 jective ; as tfdvvetv to sweeten, Ofuvvvtip to make venerable. And 
 here it is to be observed, that those adjectives, of which the de- 
 grees of comparison (tew, IOTOS) appear to presuppose an ancient 
 positive in vs, form the verbs in v vw after that positive, as aia- 
 %po? (afo%iow from A1ZX. T2) <xi(j%vvw. So also paxpos, xaAo?, 
 iU7?xi;i>ftj, xaAAujxo &c. The same signification often belongs to 
 verbs in aivw, as tevxalvuv to make white, xoriaivfw to hollow 
 out &c. yet several of these have a neutral signification, as xAf- 
 nctivfie, dvs%Qulv(i,v to grow angry &c. They also sometimes 
 come from substantives, especially in pa, with different modifica- 
 
119.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 239 
 
 tioos of meaning ; e. g. or^a sign, oypaiva* signify ; dtlpa. /ear, 
 I dread. 
 
 4. There is a particular method of forming verbs from nouns 
 by merely changing their termination into o), but the preceding 
 syllable, according to the nature of the consonant, is strengthened 
 in one of the ways described above in 92. 
 
 E. g. Thus from noixtlo? 7iotx/JU<, ayye Ao? dyyftUoi, x#a- 
 QOS xatffc/po), fiaJUexo'g ^aAaaaw, (fuo^cty.ov yapfAaoGO}, nvpfTOQ 
 nvpeGGO), %cd7idg %cdt'm(}, &c. The signification is always that, 
 which is most readily suggested by the radical word. 
 
 5. To these must be added the following more limited classes 
 of derived forms of verbs. 
 
 a) Desideratives, denoting a desire, and most commonly formed 
 by changing the future in GW (of the verb cognate to the thing 
 desired) into a present in otloj, as ytlaGflo) I should like to laugh, 
 no^ff^tjGflo} desire war &c. 
 
 Another form of desideratives is that in aw or idw, properly 
 from substantives, as ftavccTav long for death, GTpciTyyiav wish to 
 be a general ; also from verbs, by first forming substantives from 
 them, as tovtiG&ai, (wV^nis) wvrjTiuv to wish to buy ; xkx/w (xAa- 
 oig) xlavGiav to be disposed to weep. 
 
 b) Frequentatives in co, as fjiffet (from gimtiv) to throw 
 from one place to another, Mid. to throw one's self this way and 
 
 that, to be restless ; (ttfvu&iv (from Gxivitv) to sigh much and deep- 
 ly ; so txtTfw to demand, mmfctt* to beg ; IQTHIV to creep, *Q7ivtiv 
 to creep slowly. 
 
 c) Inchoatives in axw, in part intransitive, as yfwiWxco to get. 
 a beard, ypctGxoD to grow to manhood, (the same as yevftct^oo, ij- 
 pctat) ; in part transitive, as fif&vGxw to intoxicate (from pt&vw 
 am intoxicated.) 
 
 II. Substantives. 
 
 6. Substantives are derived from verbs, adjectives, and other 
 substantives. 
 
 A. Substantives derived immediately from verbs. 
 With respect to these, we have to premise in general the fol- 
 lowing remarks, viz. 
 
 1) Those terminations which begin with a, follow the ana- 
 logy of the future : those which begin with p and T. the analogy 
 
240 FORMATION OF WORDS. [$ 119- 
 
 of the perfect passive ; those which begin with a vowel, the ana- 
 logy of the second perfect ; even if the respective tense of the 
 verb in question, is not in use. 
 
 2) The terminations which begin with a vowel (as 77, og, 
 tvs), are also formed from contract verbs in eta and aw in such a 
 manner, that f and a are omitted (as qi&ovt'a), (p&ovog) ; yet the 
 smaller verbs are excepted, which cannot lose their vowel, as it 
 belongs to the root, but only change it, as Qtw, pay. 
 
 REM. 2. With reference to no. 1 next above, two particular re- 
 marks are to be made, viz. 
 
 a) The a which is to be inserted before p and T, is retained in 
 words formed from verbs which have a lingual for their charac- 
 teristic. Those formed from pure verbs (verba pura), on the con- 
 trary, sometimes assume it and sometimes not, uninfluenced by 
 the inflection of the verb. 
 
 b) In regard to the vowel, when a is not inserted, the analogy 
 of the future is to be followed, and e. g. &UTy$, fttapa, #u/uor, 
 have the vowel long, like ftfaaoftat, #uaw, with few exceptions. 
 
 7. To express the action or effect of the verb, there are chiefly 
 the following terminations, viz. [tog, [tr] or /ua, oig, oicc, 77, , og 
 masc. os neut. 
 
 a) fiog, (A^I or firj, fia. These terminations may, it is true, be 
 compared with the perfect passive ; but those in (*o<s commonly take 
 the a, when a vowel precedes in the radical word ; but the other 
 two do not always, even when the perfect passive does ; and those 
 which do not adopt the o, preserve the long vowel of the future, 
 even where it is shortened in the perfect, (yet in such a manner 
 that some of them var between ?? and *,) e. g. TI&TJ^ (Ttfaiftcu) 
 &tO[jio$, &t'/ua or -O^rjfta' dtca (dtdfftcti) dfOfio?, diftu, diudri- 
 jwcr yiyvwoxw (tyvoMJpui) yvwitrf Auco (l&vfitu) At/m. As 
 to their signification ; those in pos properly denote the abstract, 
 as TiftAAw nuKfAOQ shaking to and fro, odvQOfiat, odv^fiog lament- 
 ing, A/>w (AuSw) kvy[A.6? hiccupping^ Oflca GfiGftog quaking. The 
 termination /ua, on the contrary, expresses rather the effect of the 
 verb as a concrete, and even the object, so that it for the most 
 part accords with the neuter perfect passive participle ; as npci- 
 yfia, (TO nfTtoayfAtvov) the deed, p!prji*a the imitation i. e. the like- 
 ness, Gnfiooj (TO icnaQnivov} GTIIQUU the seed, &c. The termi- 
 nation jW?? varies between the two ; as ftviiprj memory, eniarrjfir} 
 knowledge, Tipi] honour, OTiyfAq a point, yoaftfMI the line, which 
 in their signification have only a shadow of difference from <m'- 
 a puncture, yQu^a a letter. 
 
119.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 241 
 
 b) Gig, ala. These denote the abstract of the verb, and very sel- 
 dom deviate from this signification, as (tiftijais the imitating, noci&g 
 the action, axJi^?, &c doxiftaola the examining, &vo let the sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 Of the following the signification cannot be so accurately given ; 
 yet the idea of the abstract, is the prevailing one. 
 
 c) 77 and a, for the most part oxytone, as fvyi? prayer, from ev- 
 %0{*at' aquyi] slaughter, from oq:a(jj, fut. creator 6 id u%y doctrine, 
 from didaoxo), fut. -a|o>* %uQajoy. from yaiQw. So also, with a 
 change into the sound o Rafter the manner of the second perfect), 
 Tout] from lefAixa, y&opct from q&fiya), &c. Some also admit of 
 a reduplication, which is similar to the Attic reduplication of the 
 perfect, and always has an o> in the second syllable, as dywyi] 
 leading from uyo), idto&rifood from t'd'w. 
 
 Examples of pa roxy tones, are fihupT] hurt, from /?A7ira), /SAa- 
 @a)' i>i'/.t ( victory, from ?xaa>. 
 
 fiu. To the class of paroxy tones, also belong those nouns in 
 na which are formed from verbs in tva) by merely changing ev 
 into ft, as rraidfi^. from naukvw. These nouns have always a 
 long u, and therefore have the acute on the u. 
 
 REM. 4. Let the following rules be observed as to the accent of 
 all nouns in fiu, viz. 
 
 e Properispomena, are the feminines of adjectives in vg, as 
 
 ytit?, ^]dflu. 
 
 Proparoxytona. 1) The abstract nouns from adjectives in 
 rig, as ahrj&fia, see no. 10. a. 2) The feminines of mas- 
 culines in tv$, as tt'ytia priestess, see uo. 12. c. 4. 
 
 Paroxytona, are the above mentioned abstract nouns from 
 verbs in fioj. 
 
 d) og masc. as TVTTO? blow, impression, from rvmo). But by far 
 the most have in the chief syllable an o, either by nature or in ex- 
 change for f, as xporo? clapping, from x^orHo' q&ovoQ envy, from 
 <jp#OfHW Aoyoe speech, from A^'yco' poo? (goug) from (>HU. 
 
 To these may be added the substantives in rog, which are com- 
 monly oxytone, as a'/u^rd? mo-wing, reaping, xtoxvTog -wailing. 
 
 e) og neut. as Toxrjdog care, from xrjdw J.u%oglot, from Aay^a- 
 i/co" Tiyuyog, the same as nyayficc, &c. These verbals never have 
 an o in the chief syllable ; hence TO pt'oog part, from ME1PQ. 
 
 8. The subject of the verb, as male, is designated by the fol- 
 lowing terminations, viz. 
 
 31 
 
242 FORMATION OF WORDS. 119. 
 
 a) T^g, rrjQ, TWQ. Of these the termination i^g following the 
 tirst declension is the most common, and the words are partly oxy- 
 tone, partly paroxytone, as atH^rt/'g combatant from ft&Afteo, /tta- 
 scholar from [Au&eiv, fticiTyg spectator from fttdopai, dwa- 
 from <JVxattf, xptrJ? from xp/j/cu, &c. On the other hand, 
 pvrjTiig pilot from xvjftQvctco, Ttkd<JTqg (from 7iArro>, ntnKu- 
 , tivvctQTrjg, ipttfaiW &c. 
 The terminations r??/) and r<w(> are less frequent forms, as aw- 
 saviour, QVITWQ orator (from dao'co and * 
 
 b) fiJff, as yyatyfvg -writer, ty&OpevQ destroyer. 
 
 c) o?, for the most part only in composition, as 
 er, naTQOXTOvog a patricide, &c. 
 
 d) ^ff and a?, Gen. oi>. Only in some cases of composition, as 
 liVQOnw\r]$ vender of ointments, TQiriQUQ^r^ (and -o^) captain of a 
 galley, QQvi&o&riQag fowler, &c. 
 
 9. The names of instruments and other objects belonging to an 
 action, are formed from or after the preceding names of the sub- 
 ject, viz. 
 
 a) rrjQiov, TQOV, TQU (from the terminations of the subject x^g 
 or TVIQ), as KOVCTJQLOV bathing tub, KOVTQOV water for bathing, bath, 
 cMQoaTV]Qiov a place to hear in, auditory, ^VGTQO, curry-comb, OQ%ri- 
 
 Qa, place for dancing. 
 
 b) tlov (from the termination (vg), as MOVQI'IOV barber's shop from 
 xovyevg barber and this from xfipfiv to shear, TQoqiiov the recom- 
 pense for being educated from TQOtpfvg, &c. 
 
 B. Substantives derived from adjectives. 
 
 10. This is also a principal class of substantives, which serve 
 chiefly to express the abstract of the abjective. To this class be- 
 long the following terminations, viz. 
 
 a) /, always with long a (ion. ??), as aoyog wise, aoyla wis- 
 dom ; in like manner, xax/a, ddhtu, &LC- /?Aax/a stupidity from 
 ,/?Ag &c. 
 
 From this termination arose the nouns in 
 
 fia and oia 
 
 by contraction ; the is here short, and the accent is on } the an- 
 tepenult ; the former come from adjectives in rig, tog, as akq&tta 
 truth from ahyftr)g, the latter from adjectives in ovg, as vivota want 
 of sense from avovg. 
 
 b) Tfjg fern. G. rqiog, as iGOT^g equality from i'oog, 7ia%vTi]g 
 thickness from na%vg. They are generally paroxytones. 
 
 c) -ovvi], as OMCUOGVVII, most frequently from adjectives in 
 
FORMATION OF WORDS. J-J.i 
 
 ODV, G. oi/o?, as owyQOOvvi] discretion from awqppwt/, oi/o?. Those 
 which have the fourth syllable from the end short, take an w in 
 the antepenult, as dya&a)avvr] (compare the same rule in the com- 
 parison by if<jO, rceroe). 
 
 d) og neut. chiefly from adjectives in vg, as @&&o<; depth from 
 .?, Ta%og swiftness from Ta%vg. 
 
 C. Substantives derived from other substantives. 
 
 11. Among these, some terminations are first to be mentioned 
 which are formed after the analogy of the verbals, viz. 
 
 a) Masculines in xr t g (of which all those in myff have long t) 
 often signify a man in some relation with the subject which the 
 radical word denotes, as 7roA/r?7<? citizen from nokig city, 6n\itr^ 
 an armed man from bnhov weapon, ImiQTijg horseman from innog, 
 g.v\txrig one of the same tribe from (fvKrj. 
 
 b) In like manner those in fvg, as ifQtvg priest from IIQOV tem- 
 ple (or rd itQu sacrifices), yQtntvs, uhevg, fisherman, from yolnog 
 net, A sea; ypuppaTfvg, &c. 
 
 c) Those in flov particularly denote a place devoted to an ob- 
 ject, as Movatlov &c. see no. 9 above. 
 
 12. The rest may be reduced to the following divisions, viz. 
 
 a) Those which designate a place where certain objects exist 
 in numbers ; such are those in coi/, G. wvo?, masc. and -amor, as 
 dftnthojv vineyard, Qodwia rose bed, avdgiov hall for men. 
 
 b) Amplificatives in (v, tovog (masc.) as ydaTQtov he who has a 
 large belly, &c. 
 
 c) Feminine appellations, viz. 
 
 (1) TfiQot, TQia and TQI?, G. TQidos, properly from masculines 
 in Trig and TWQ, yet also from masculines in TTJ?, as aotTf^tt a fe- 
 male deliverer, OQfflGTQiot, a dancing girl, av&7]T()i a female player 
 on the flute (masc. 6o.%riGTr)$, av^rrj?.) 
 
 (2) *ff, G. ido<s, is the most common termination, which takes the 
 place of that of the masculine in tjg and as of the first declension ; as 
 dfonorrj? master, dtOnotig mistress ; itttTijg suppliant, ixiri' 
 &r]Z, %v&ig' [tvpOTwJiijg vender of ointments, mvQOTiojkig. 
 
 (3) cuva, chiefly from the masc. in ow, as &t(*imo* 
 frtQanuiva. maidservant; Mwv (ovrog), fa'awa lioness; 
 (ovog), TtXTaiva a female artisan ; also from some nouns in og, as 
 &tog, fttaiva, goddess. 
 
 (4) fia, from some masculines in tvg^ as Itgttot priestess from h- 
 Qivg, &c. 
 
 (5) aoa, from several terminations in the third declension, as 
 paattioaa from fiaattevg, avaaoa from ava, KiKiGGu from Kl- 
 Ki%, Sgyaan (Att. ^Qaira) from SyfiS or 
 
244 FORMATION OF WORDS. [ 119, 
 
 d) Diminutives, as follows, viz. 
 
 (l) I>QV or iov (TO), which is the chief termination, as nuidiov 
 a small boy, OCD^KXTWV a little body, pdxiov from TO ydxog rag, &c. 
 To strengthen this diminutive form, this termination is often 
 lengthened by a syllable, especially in -id'tov and -doiov, as nivuxi- 
 dtov from nivat tablet, naidaytov from nuig. 
 
 REM. 4. Several words in IQV have entirely lost their diminu- 
 tive signification, as ftqoiov beast from d &rjo, fiiptiov book from 
 
 (2) laxog, laxrj, as GT(f>aviGxog, nccidioxij. 
 
 (3) / Gen. tdog and ?<5o?, always feminine, as 
 (from -#*pa7iaM/a), Gxoivtg, idog, from 0/0/1/0? ro/?e &c. 
 
 4) t'Aoff (rather Doric) as ' EywTvKog from'^ipcwp. 
 
 uttvG used only of the young of animals, as dfTidtv$ from 
 
 f) Gentilia, i. e. names designating one's country. These are 
 partly mere adjectives of three terminations, in 10$, a'tos, vog, xos 
 (see below), and partly substantives. 
 
 A. Masculine, viz. 
 ,0) *#, icttije, twryg, as ' 4fidr]Qlrrj$, 
 
 (2) tvg, as^iolfvs, <J>a)%fv$ Phocian, 
 
 ', iWavTtvfvg from jfyfavTtvtia, IRctrcttevS from 
 
 vg, better (bawuivg, Phocaean, from C^wxa, Evfiotvg 
 from Evpoia. 
 
 B. Feminine. These either do but change (see c. 2, above) 
 the yg of the masculine termination into ig, as 2nu.QTici.Ttg, v- 
 fiaQiTig &LC. or they annex the terminations is and dg in the 
 manner that the euphony of the radical word may require, as 
 ^4lo\ig, Awplg, Mtyayt'g, <&wx/, (bcoxafg, Ar^Kidg (from Arjkog). 
 All these names, according as yvv^ or yr\ is understood, are used 
 of a woman and of the country. 
 
 g) Patronymics. 
 
 A. Masculine. Here the terminations are the following, viz. 
 
 (1) idr}g, ddyg, iddrjg, Gen. Of, the most common forms, of which 
 that in ifyg is derived from the greatest number of terminations, 
 while that in ud'rjs is used only in nouns of the first declension in 
 ag and yg, as Kpovog Kgovidrig, Kt'xpoip KtKQonidrig, '^ftfvag 
 ' ^4\fvadtif, 'fnnoTrjg *JnnoTu6rig. The termination ictdrjg comes 
 chiefly from names in tog, as MfvoiTiog MfvoiTiudyg, but is also 
 attached to many other nouns which have a long syllable before 
 the patronymic ^termination, as (t>f^Tiddrjg from <t>iprjg, ??ro, 
 Te^ufiwvKxdrjg, y ^4avTiddrig &,c. 
 
 (2) MOV Gen. wvog (seldom ovog], commonly with a long i, is a 
 more rare form in use with the former, as KQQVIWV from Kgovog, 
 ' w 
 
119. FORMATION OF WORDS. 245 
 
 REM. 5. Patronymics from nouns in tug and xA?? have origi- 
 nally ttdrig, and hence in the common language by contraction 
 fidr t g, as TTrjlftdiiS, Tvdfld'^g, from Ilr^tvg, Tvdtvg' 'ifpaxltldijg 
 from 'HoayJ.rjg. The same is true with regard to the termina- 
 tion iW, as flttelvov. So also o with i is contracted in Tlw&oi- 
 <J>;, ArfTOtdvig, from Ilav&oog (IJav&ovg), Ar t TM, oog, Lalona. 
 
 B. Feminine. These in general correspond with the mascu- 
 line terminations, and for the forms in Idrjg, ddrjg, we have the 
 feminine in ig and ug, as Tavia\ig, 'ArtavTig, PjeGrictg. For the 
 masculines in tldrfc we have the feminines in rff'G, as NijQijfs. For 
 those in leap, we have others in icovrj and *V^, as 'Attotonavr}, A- 
 
 III. Adjectives. 
 
 13. Of adjectives which clearly have the mark of analogical 
 derivation, by far the most terminate in og, and here it is the 
 preceding letter or letters which are to be taken into account. 
 
 a) wg is one of the most general terminations, of which it can 
 only be said, that it comes immediately only from nouns, and that 
 it signifies something belonging to the subject, having respect to 
 it, or proceeding from it, &c. as ovgctviog, noTafiiog, qoviog, to- 
 niyiog &c. By means of it a new adjective is also sometimes 
 formed from an adjective in og, as llfv&fgo$ free, Itev&tQiog lib- 
 eralis, becoming the free ; xu&apog pure, Ka&aQiOG cleanly, &c. 
 From this /o?, by attaching the t, to a preceding vowel, are formed 
 the new terminations 
 
 aiog, nog, oiog, wog, 
 
 as ayopa7og from dyoQa, 'Aftrivuiog from 'A&rjvcci, fiiQiiog from 
 #t0 Gen. to? summer ; uidoHog, r t OMg, from uldfu$ Gen. oog, rjcog 
 Gen. o'o?. Yet usage has sometimes made one of these termina- 
 tions more particular in its signification and more expressive ; as 
 -lUTOwg relating to fathers, ancestors, country, in general ; TiaTQwog 
 relating to the father. 
 
 In particular, the termination fiog is in use as a mode of deri- 
 vation from such words as denote definite classes or individuals of 
 living beings, as dv&pcoTitiog human, yvvaixfiog &c next, of all 
 classes of animals ; and in particular it is the most common form 
 of the derivation from proper names of persons, where the termi- 
 nation admits of its use, as 'Op^ofiog, * Enixovg&Qg, Ilv&ayo- 
 pttog, Evgmidftog &c. 
 
 b) t og signifies for the most part only the subject, from which 
 any thing is made, and is contracted into ovg, see 60. 2. 
 
 c) Kog is to be understood in a manner quite as general as cog, 
 and extends also to verbs ( as yoctqixog belonging to painting, 
 ao%i-/.Qq governing &,.) The most common form is wog, and if 
 
246 FORMATION OF WORDS. [ 119. 
 
 at> precedes, we usually find the form a/xog, as rpo^a/xd? from 
 TQo%ulog. From words in vg is formed -vxog, as &i]faut6$ from 
 firjhvg womanly. So also -axog from the terminations which are 
 preceded by an i, as 'Okvpnia, "lliog, 'OhvfATuanog, 'i 
 Gnovdtlog, aTiovdfiaxog- Yet the termination taxog (like 
 is often used without having an i preceding, as 
 
 d) vog is a more ancient passive termination (like Tog, xtog) ; 
 hence dewog dreadful, atftvog (from df/So/ua,) venerable, orvyvog 
 hated &LC. 
 
 tvog as proparoxytone almost always denotes a material, as 
 IvJUvog of wood, M&ivog &c. A single case is av&Qwmvog, as ex- 
 tensive in its meaning as oiv&Q(oniio$ As an ox^tone it forms 
 adjectives from words expressing ideas of time, as yptQivog from 
 -q^ipa, %{rt(Jiv6g of yesterday, from %fttQ. 
 
 Tifdtvdg and the words in -fivog show a fullness, or something 
 prevailing throughout, as ntdivog entirely plain, ogtiwOG mountain- 
 ous, fvdnvog entirely serene, &c. 
 
 Ivog, avog, t]v()$, are merely names of nations &c. as TUQUV- 
 Tlvog, ' AGIU.VQS, J^uMiavog, Kv&xr}v6e;> &c. 
 
 e) Ao? is a more ancient active termination ; hence dtdos he 
 who fears. The lengthened terminations rjKog and wAo, which sig- 
 nify an inclination or habit, are the most common, as anaTr^og 
 deceptive, fi^rwAo^ he who easily errs, habitually sins, &c. 
 
 f) ipog is found only in verbals, chiefly denoting fitness for 
 use both actively and passively, and is attached to the radical 
 word according to very different analogies, as #p?jo^uo? (from 
 %paO[4ai)fa to be used, Tgotyipog nutritious, tfavaGipog mortal, TTO- 
 Tt[A.og jit to be drank. 
 
 g) Qog, tgog, tiQog, chiefly express the idea of full of, as o/x- 
 TQogfull of grief , ^ovfQog full of envy, voof(jog sickly. 
 
 h) aAf'o? signifies nearly the same, as 0<xg>(kcA&g bold, from 
 &aQ@og confidence, foipcdtog fearfid, ipwQcdiog scabby. 
 i) rog and Ttog, see 102. 
 
 14. The other adjective terminations are the following, viz. 
 
 a) tig Gen. fviog, as yuglfigfull of grace, v^ fig full of woods, 
 rrvgotig full of fire, fvgweig of doubtful signification, from 
 
 We have already seen that those in ftg and fig admit of a 
 contraction, 41 Rem. 3. 62 Rem. 2. 
 
 b) 77$, tg, Gen. ovg, are for the most part contractions (see 
 130) ; yet there Comes from them the particular termination wdyg, 
 wdfg, Gen. ovg, properly with a change in the accent from 
 -Qtidr\<i (from tidogform, manner), as Gtyr}xwd*iQ wasp-like, yvvcti- 
 womanlike ; commonly denoting full of, especially by way 
 
119.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 247 
 
 of reproach, as yttftpwfyg, ctiftaTOjfyG, tivojdijg, full of sand, blood, 
 slime. 
 
 c) ,MCUJ> Gen. ovog, verbals after the analogy of the substan- 
 tives in /ucc, and in part formed from these ; for the most part sig- 
 nifying the active quality suggested by the verb, ^vor^mv from 
 voriv intelligent, TTohvjiydyfHov from TiohvQ and ngay t uu or TIQCIT- 
 Ttiv, one who makes for himself much business &c. iTulqOftwfor- 
 getful. 
 
 Finally, a multitude of adjectives are formed merely by con- 
 traction, of which we shall treat in the following section. 
 
 IV. Adverbs. 
 
 1 5. Besides the simple method of forming adverbs by changing 
 the termination of the declension of the adjective into o> (see 
 115), there are the following particular terminations of adverbs, 
 viz. 
 
 a) / or tl. These denote a circumstance connected with the 
 action which the proposition expresses. The verbals in particu- 
 lar terminate in TI or ret, which are attached exactly after the 
 manner of the termination TO'?, as ovopaarl by name, dyilaati 
 without laughing ; dvidgwri without sweating, without toil ; ccxrjov- 
 XTfl without announcing. From this, and from what was said 
 above (in no. 3. d) of verbs in /o>, comes the signification of adverbs 
 in OTI, viz. after the manner, custom, language of a nation, a class, 
 an individual, as m-rjviarl after the Greek manner, in the Greek lan- 
 guage, yvvaixiOTi after the manner of women ; so avdpanodiOTi, fio- 
 \'<ni &c. 
 
 Those formed from nouns have merely / or */ added to the 
 termination of the declension; as tttovrl willingly, itavtyful as a 
 whole nation, that is, with united force ; d^a^ft without contest, av- 
 TO'/fiQi with one's own hand' 
 
 b) dr t v belongs to verbals of nearly the same signification as the 
 preceding, the termination being attached partly after the manner 
 of the termination TO? (yet with the necessary change of the char- 
 acteristic of the verb, and never with a), as *vM,yfHhjw collectively, 
 that is, on the whole, in general ; tujvftmjp secretly, @ctdr,v by steps, 
 
 , dvi'dyv loosely, without fear, (from avirjut,, uvtiog) ; partly in the 
 form ddyv attached to the radical word with a change of the vow- 
 el into o, as GnOQafojv scattered, ntjOTQOTiddTjv (qtvyfw) directed 
 
 forwards, without turning round, &c. 
 
 c) dov, r t dov, are chiefly derived from nouns, and relate for 
 the most part to external form and character, afor^eJUf&p in herds, 
 Sorovtiov like grapes, ^ihv&rjdov (from -nKlv&o?) laid like tiles, xv- 
 
248 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [ 120. 
 
 vijdov like a dog. If they are verbals, they agree with those in 
 dr^v, as avatyuvdov before men, openly. 
 
 d) , a rare form, which is chiefly made by means of a pala- 
 tic already in the radical word, and has a general adverbial signi- 
 fication, as ai/a|it/| mixed together, promiscuously, 7iapAA alter- 
 nately. 
 
 120. DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. The first part of every composition is either a noun, or a 
 verb, or a particle, either changeable or inseparable. 
 
 2. If the first word is a noun, its termination is commonly in o, 
 which, however, when the second word begins with a vowel, usu- 
 ally suffers elision. E. g. 
 
 uidoTpipvjg, acwjMarogDuAH, i%fruontoJii) (from 
 vg, vog), dwoypoupog (from $/xi?). 
 
 from vopog and &Q%w, naiduywyog from nuig and 
 xa/m from xaxo's and ifyg. 
 Yet in most cases where v or i is in the termination of the noun, 
 no o is adopted ; e. g. tv&vdMog, nohvydyog, nohnoQ&og, from 
 
 The same is true after ov and av ; e. g. fiovyoyfiog, vavpa%ta, 
 from /?oJg, vavg. 
 
 Frequently also after v, as (jitKay%oMa, nthupntnhog, from /we- 
 Aaff, avos m napydyog, from nag, navrog. 
 
 REM. 1 . The o sometimes keeps its place before vowels, as (Ay- 
 vofidyg, /ui>06//x?i, dya&ofyyog. Yet in words compounded with 
 tgyov or EPFtt, the o is commonly contracted with the f, as drj- 
 ftiovyyog from ttypiof and &PFSL 
 
 REM. 2. An co proceeds either from the Attic, or from the con- 
 tracted forms of declension, as vttncofwf (from o vtcng), oytawo- 
 ftog (from OQtvg, G. dytwg), xyfwqdyog (from *Q*ag G. aog, cog). 
 From yr\ the earth we have in all contractions yfco-, as yfcoyQa- 
 yog^ instead of FAQ- from the ancient form TAA, see 26 Re- 
 mark 7. 
 
 REM. 3. Some in pa, G. arpg, often change their a into o, or 
 lose it by elision, as aifiooTayyg, OTOfAahyla, from w\w., OTO[*a. 
 
 REM. 4. In some contractions, especially such as are poetical, 
 the form of the dative singular or the dative plural in chosen for 
 composition, as nvginvovg, 
 
$ 120.] COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 249 
 
 (from 0()0$, tog), vuvGinoQog, fyyrtalfjuuyog. The very common 
 form in , (from o s *, G. 0*'), is a contraction of the last form, as 
 from TO r*'Ao axo. 
 
 3- If the first word is a verb, its termination is most common- 
 ly formed in e with the characteristic of the verb unchanged, or 
 in a*, e. g. 
 
 ap/j'xaxo from aoytiv, ftctxi&vpog from daxvcu, i'duxov. 
 At'0/Troj/o? from Auw, T^tipl^caS from rp7i(w, lyeQGi^oQog 
 
 from iftiQfa. 
 
 Here too the vowel is struck out before another vowel, as q>t- 
 ig &c. 
 
 REM. 5. The cases are more rare, in which i is used without 
 ff, as in many from uoyttv, as apgrf&po?, or in which the verb 
 assumes an o, as in the case of those from \tint iv, as \einor a E,iov. 
 
 4. The indeclinable words remain unchanged in composition, 
 with the exception of the changes which follow from the general 
 rules, and such as in the case of prepositions are effected by eli- 
 sion ( 29. 2) ; as ///wAo$ from ay/t, and aX? ncdouytvrig from 
 naKai' ttvafialvto, a^'o/o-ua*, from aW* lt f p%0ficci>, txfituvw, from 
 $* ffifiatvo) from ev' nyo&yo), nfyiuyo), ( 29. 2.) 
 
 REM. 6. The preposition HQO sometimes submits to a contrac- 
 tion, as Tioot'/o), rr^orrrroi', for TTOO^/OJ, nQOomog. Especially is 
 this the case with the augment, as TTjjovdcoxa for Tiooidwy.a. 
 
 REM. 7. In the preposition ntyi, elision does not take place. 
 So also, sometimes, in opiqp/, as a^/Ao?, ojjuqpfettg, from Aff, 
 
 REM. 8. In dividing the syllables, the rule is, that if the pre- 
 position end^ in a consonant, this consonant in the division belongs 
 to the first syllable ; therefore fis- *jt*^o/u*, TIQO$- ayw, JV- vdgog, 
 -(/Opa. But if the consonant in the preposition begins the 
 second syllable, it does the snme even when the vowel suffers eli- 
 sion in the composition, as TICK- ociyo), a- 
 
 5. Of the inseparable particles the most important are 
 which denotes difficulty, hardship, and the like, (as dvg 
 difficult to tread on, tivgdalftotda contrary fate ^ and the so called 
 
 a privativum, 
 
 which is directly negative like the English in- and tm-, and the 
 
 32 
 
250 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [ 121. 
 
 Latin in-, as a^aro? impassable, ana.i$ childless. Before a vowel 
 this a commonly takes v, as avail to? innocent from alt in. 
 
 REM. 9. Yet several words beginning with a vowel, assume 
 only an a, as d^TTrjiog, aotvo? &c. Hence it is subjected to con- 
 traction, as in ttxow unwillingly for aixwv, a^yog idle, at leisure, 
 with a change in the accent from 
 
 6. In all compositions, if the second word begins with Q, be- 
 fore which there is a short vowel, this p according to 21. 2, is 
 usually doubled, as iaoQptnrjs from ioog and penw, 7ti(>t(>$t(o, a- 
 TtO$$rjTO$, a(jp?jTog from a and p??ro. 
 
 7. We have already seen ( 25) in what cases the v, especial- 
 ly of the prepositions tv and ovv, remains in the composition un- 
 changed, or passes into another consonant, or is dropped altogeth- 
 er. 
 
 121. 
 
 1. The form of the last part of a compounded word decides. 
 whether the whole word is a verb, a noun, or a particle. 
 
 2. The most frequent compounded form of verbs, is that in 
 which the verb remains unchanged, and preserves its own inflec- 
 tion with the augment and termination. Strictly speaking this 
 takes place only with the common prepositions, a'^qw, ava, avxl, 
 a.no, dia, itg, lv, l, In I, xara> ftfra, napa, THQI, TIQO, Tipog, ovv, 
 vntQ, vno. Every similar union of the unchanged verb with real 
 adverbs and other parts of speech, is considered merely as juxta- 
 position of words, and they are therefore commonly written sep- 
 arately, as fv nQQliTtw, xaxwg TIQIIIV. 
 
 3. With other words besides these prepositions, and with all 
 the particles which are always inseparable, verbs can be com- 
 pounded only by submitting to a change in their own form ; that 
 is, there arise peculiar compounded verbal forms with termina- 
 tions of derivation, as * w, aw &c. and here a noun, compounded 
 in a manner to be shown below (no. 4) usually lies at the foun- 
 dation; as from Ijpyov and A/M/?*/to comes Ipyohafiog, and from 
 this epfOJMfttiv, from ev and tpdat (EPrSl) comes tvfpytrqf ben- 
 
121.] COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 251 
 
 efactor and hence ivfoyfTfw to do good ; from dvg and aps' 
 comes dv?v.Qt<5TO? dissatisfied, dvgaQtorelv to be displeased &e. and 
 when instead of <f-tld{G&ai to spare, the negative idea not to spare, 
 to neglect, with a privative is required, aqptidfw is formed from 
 the adjective a<ffidr t g. 
 
 REM. 1. If in such compounded words the verb appears un- 
 changed, the cause lies in an accidental coincidence between the 
 derived termination and that of the radical verb, as noitto make, 
 fitkonoiog, pflonoit'o} make songs. In like manner jUf^pncoAiw 
 comes not from [WQOV and nwfo'aj, but from nvQOTrwkijg, aqpQOVtw 
 not from a- and y-poi'ita, but from aygwv Gen. ovog &c. 
 
 REM. 2. In the same way verbs are sometimes compounded 
 with prepositions, as dvTt,ote1v from aVr//?oAo?, compounded of 
 uvti and 
 
 4. Substantives are seldom so compounded as themselves to 
 remain the leading idea unchanged ; thus j-eVog the guest, ngo^f- 
 vog the public or the nation's guest ; odog the way, coming, avvodog 
 the coming together. Adjectives, on the contrary, by this kind of 
 composition may be simply modified in signification, as vnrtO trust- 
 worthy, aniGTog not trustworthy ; qttog dear, vn*Q<f>llos exceedingly 
 dear. 
 
 REM. 3. When an abstract substantive, as TIUTJ honour for ex- 
 ample, is to be made negative in its signification (dishonour), an ad- 
 jective, as artJRO?, is commonly first formed, and from this a new 
 substantive mr*fUa (see no. 7.) 
 
 5. In most compounded nouns, of which the last word is an 
 unchanged noun or came from a noun, this indicates only the near 
 or remote object of the proposition, which is contained in the 
 whole, as dftaidaipwv .(from AElQ and falptt* the divinity) one 
 who fears the gods, qmoig he who has no child, childless, naxp6%{iQ 
 he who has a long hand, anOixog he who is removed from his own 
 home, an exile &c So also, with the assumption of a particular 
 termination of declension, TQt%tdeinvog (from rp^cu and fomvov) 
 he who runs after feasts, fv&vdwos he who exercises direct right 
 (dixrj), aTiftos he who is deprived of honour, dishonoured, xaxorj&ijg 
 he who has a bad character (^#oe), cpdo^Qfj^uTog he who loves mo- 
 ney (xwptt, /p^ara,) &c. 
 
252 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [ 121' 
 
 6. Yet most frequently, when a compounded noun is formed 
 by the aid of a verb, the verb takes the last place, and receives 
 the termination of a noun ; and then the preceding 1 word contains 
 either the definite idea or the object of the action of the verb ; 
 as lyyohafiog he who undertakes a work, innOTQoqog he who nour- 
 ishes horses. The simple termination og is in compositions of this 
 sort the most common ; besides this we have for substantives the 
 terminations rig and ag of the first declension (see the examples 
 119. 8. d) ; and for adjectives, ijs of the third, as evfttefrrjg he 
 who learns well ; also the other terminations of nouns, mentioned 
 in 119. 8, as vopo&tTrjg from vopog and T/#I?/U, &c. 
 
 7. From all such first compositions, other words are again form- 
 ed by derivation, as aTiftta, dtioi&xiftovla, vopoflfaia, i'0|wo#*z- 
 xog &c. and in like manner the compounded verbs mentioned in 
 no. 3, as innoT^ogje'co from innoiQQcpog, {vnafitco from fvna&w, 
 &c. 
 
 8. Among the changes which sometimes take place in the se- 
 cond word in the composition, it is particularly to be observed, 
 that the words which begin with short a, or with e and o, very fre- 
 quently assume an rj or w ; yet this does not apply to verbs com- 
 pounded with prepositions in the manner described in no. 2, but 
 does apply to the nouns derived from the same, and also to verbs 
 compounded in the second manner (no. 3) ; as vnyxoof obedient 
 from vncwovW xaTJiyogog accuser, xctTtiyoptw to accuse (from 
 xr and uyoQa, dyope ucu); svrivtfjLog from avt[iog, dugfyarog from 
 ihavvco, uvw[4.0Tog from opvvpt>, &c. Those from ovopa, more- 
 over, change the second o into t>, as avtavvftog, evtovvfios &c. 
 
 9. In relation to the accent, the general rule is, that the ac- 
 cent of the simple word (according to the established analogy 
 23. 2. a.) is thrown by composition as far back as the nature of 
 the accent will permit. So e- g. from Ttxvov, &fog, we have 
 yrioTfKvog, qdo&cog- from odog, vvvodog* fro*n nalg naidos 
 comes anaig anaidog' from r^(% ccTipog* from txutQog, nag&- 
 
 . vog, come qp*AV^off, tvnaQ&fvog' from ncudtVTog come unaidev- 
 &c. 
 
121.] COMPOSITION OP WORDS. 253 
 
 REM. 4. Words which are not themselves compounded, but are 
 derived from compounded words, follow in their accent the gen- 
 eral analogy of their terminations ; thus the abstract verbals in r\ 
 and a, as aiMoyjJ, 7T^o?gop, from <n/AA*Va, npogqt'go). So too 
 from a&xo, adtxttv^ comes adlxijr**Q9' from nccQotvvto TrayoZv- 
 Gpos' from nQQgdo*qv, npogdoxrjTog. But when compositions are 
 again made from these, the accent is thrown back, as dnQQodo- 
 XIJTO?. 
 
 REM 5. Compounded words of which the first half is formed 
 from a noun, the second from a transitive verb, with the simple 
 termination o? (not ro, vog, and the like) usually have, when 
 their signification is active, the accent on the verb ; but when pas- 
 sive^ on the syllable preceding the verb. E. g. 
 
 throwing stones, 
 thrown at with stones. 
 
PART II. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 122. 
 
 1. The syntax teaches the use of the parts of speech, whose 
 formation has been shown in the preceding part of the grammar, 
 
 in the following order, viz. noun, verb, particle, as stated above 31. 
 
 2. We shall accordingly treat of, 1st. The noun in itself, and 
 connected with other kindred forms ; 2d. The noun in connex- 
 ion ; 3d. The verb ; 4th. Particles ; 5th. Phrases and construc- 
 tions of a more complicated character. 
 
 123. THE NOUN. 
 
 1. Every thing joined to the substantive of the nature of an 
 adjective whether adjective, participle, pronoun, or article 
 must agree with it in gender, number, and case. 
 
 REMARK. In the Attic dialect, however, the feminine dual com- 
 monly is joined with masculine adjectives, as a^co TOVTW TO) pf- 
 yaho) notes, for ctfMjpct) ravca TCI psyctka notes. 
 
 2. The adjective is often found without any substantive, with 
 which it may agree, the substantive having been omitted, or being 
 easy to be supplied by the mind. In this case the adjective is said 
 to be used substantively. E. g. o ooyog the wise man, *?' avvdoog 
 sc. yfj the desert, y QQ&r} sc. odog the straight road, ol noMoi the mul- 
 titude, TU Ificc my property. So also the pronouns ovTog, lusivog, 
 rig, &c. 
 
 124. THE PREPOSITIVE ARTICLE. 
 
 1 . When the substantive is represented as a definite object, it 
 regularly takes the prepositive article o, r t , TO, the. 
 
125.] ARTICLE. 255 
 
 2. The indefinite article of modern languages is not expressed - 
 in Greek. When, however, an indefinite object is to be distinctly 
 pointed out as an individual, the pronoun Tig, TI, is made use of. 
 E. g. yvvrj Tig oovtv tl%tv a certain woman had a hen. 
 
 3. Proper names receive the article, as 6 ^(oxgaTrjg, at 217 
 *A&rivtu. It is however very often omitted, and always, when a 
 more precise distinction with an article follows, as JSwxodr??? o 
 
 REM. 1. The Greeks use the article in many cases where the 
 modern languages do not, and also often omit it, although the ob- 
 ject is definite With possessive pronouns, however, the use is in- 
 variable ; thus oog dovhog, (like fovAoe aov) can mean only a 
 slave of thee ; o odg dovkog (like o dovhog aov) means thy slave. 
 
 REM. 2. In the older dialect, o, ij, TO was rather a demonstra- 
 tive pronoun (see below 126), and the substantives for the most 
 part stood without the article, where we use the, as they do al- 
 ways in Latin. The more recent common dialect also frequently 
 omits it. 
 
 125. 
 
 1. The article is very often divided from its substantive, not 
 only by the adjective, (as o' fityag fta9tteu the great king, oi 
 vnuQ%ovTtg vonot, the existing laws,) but also by other qualifications 
 of the substantive, as IfifftvqTO Trjg Iv pavta dictTQifirig he remem- 
 bered the time passed in insanity. Often a participle, like ytvontvij 
 &LC. may in these phrases be supplied by the mind ; e. g. 
 
 77 noog TttAaras juap7 ; 
 
 77 nQlv a(j'ai, uvTOv dyery the virtue exhibited 
 by him before he reigned. 
 
 2. When the qualification thus interposed begins again with an 
 article, two and even three articles may stand in this way togeth- 
 er, if no cacophony ensue ; e. g. 
 
 TO Tyg dofTrig xaMog the beauty of virtue. 
 6 TO. Trjg notewg noay^dTa UQUTTMV. 
 TOVTO Tijg ^4&f]vag ctyah/ua loyaoa^fvov. 
 evo%og I'OTOJ rq> Trjg TWV tfav&fpow q,&ooug VOJ.IM. 
 
 3. These qualifications of the substantive mav for greater 
 
256 SYNTAX. [ 125. 
 
 emphasis or clearness come after, in which case the article is 
 usually repeated, and with participles must be repeated ; e. g. 
 
 TOV nalda TOV oov thy son. 
 
 6 %iM&Q%Q$ o Tag dyyfUagflgxo(Aia)v the commander 
 who is to bring the despatches. 
 
 ovvfifii dv&pconots Tolg ayu&olg I associate -with good men. 
 
 REIM. 1. The repetition of the article is necessary with the 
 participle ; for otherwise the phrase becomes what is called the 
 participial construction, which occurs very frequently in Greek, and 
 will be explained below in 145. 
 
 REM. 2. When the adjective without an article stands before 
 218 the article of the substantive, the object is thereby distinguished 
 not from others, but from itself under other qualifications, asijtfcro 
 Inl nKowtloig rolg noMiais signifies, not ' he rejoiced in the rich 
 citizens,' but, he rejoiced in the citizens being ricA, or inasmuch, as 
 they 'were rich. So fn xpb* Tolg vpeaw on the mountains where 
 they are highest i. e. quite up the mountains; okiyv tr\v VVMTU the 
 whole night. 
 
 4. When the substantive is understood from the connexion, it 
 is often omitted, and the article stands alone with the qualification, 
 as o quo? ndi^Q xal o TOV yikov my father and the father of my 
 friend. 
 
 REM. 3. Here too are to be noticed certain standing omissions, 
 as in the case of the adjective 123. 2. E. g. 
 
 ^te|tt?^pO o (inKlnTtov (sc. vlog son) or simply 
 
 JEfupfjOviaMv the son of Sophroniscus, i. e. Socrates. 
 elg vr]v QJdiJiTiot' (sc ywpai/,) into the land of Philip. 
 
 to, rrjg nokfwg (sc. Ti^ay^ara,) as above & 123. 2 TU Ifid. 
 ^See 128. 2. 
 
 01 Iv ctam. the people in the city. 
 
 TO: iAu.ru Uavoavlav the affairs of Pausanias. 
 
 TO, fig TOV TlOAf^OV. 
 
 ol GUV TM puaihti. 
 
 b. As every qualification, though indeclinable in itself, maybe 
 declined by aid of the article, adverbs without farther change are 
 converted into adjectives by its being joined to them, as from 
 v between comes o (Jtion-v Tonog the intervening place ; from 
 near, al nfkug xojfAai the neighbouring villages. 
 
 01 TOlf (XV&fjOJTJOl. 
 
 ol 7?cU(/. aoqot audio tg. 
 
 V] Ufa) nokig the upper city. 
 
 tig tOv VLVWTO.IW Tonov^ see ^115. 6- 
 
 J toU<f>t>f]$ f-ietuoiciGis the sudden removal 
 
126.] ARTICLE. 257 
 
 Or so, that the adverb with a repetition of the article follows, 
 as oiut i'yfi'jtfiji'f lx ir^ dpffaiug TUVT^S Tr t g uyuv when ye awaken 
 from this excessive negligence. 
 
 REM. 4. If in this case the substantive, which suggests itself 
 from the context or the idea itself, be omitted, the adverb acquires 
 the character -of a substantive, as from avpw* tomorrow, by the 
 omission of yftfoa day, is -t] avytov the morrow ; r\ ^ivdiOTi the 
 Lydian mode, (uyfiovta being omitted) ; ol TOTf the men of that age ; 
 t rovnt'oai (for TO 0*71/00) behind, backward, where [4tf>o$ part, 
 may be regarded as omitted ; although in the case of a neuter 
 article, it is neither necessary nor possible always to supply a par- 
 ticular substantive. 
 
 REM. 5. By another peculiarity, the article TO, with whatever 219 
 it is attached to, becomes adverbial, some word being omitted, as 
 TO T tktv i alov finally, TUVVV (that is, rd vvv) for the present, TCI 
 dno Tovdt from henceforth. Compare 131. 8. 
 
 6. From all these cases, in which various parts of speech and 
 even phrases acquire the character of substantives, by virtue of 
 the remaining article of an omitted idea, are to be distinguished 
 two cases, in which such -words and phrases become substantives, 
 by virtue of an article peculiar to themselves, viz. 
 
 1) The infinitives, as TO nyaTTew the doing, TO xaxcuff Itycw 
 the speaking ill, jjdofuxt TGJ itfQKiufelv I take pleasure in walk- 
 ing. How extensive this use of the infinitive is in the Greek 
 language will appear from 141. 
 
 2) Every word and phrase, which is itself considered as a 
 subject, as TO foycj the word Af'yW XQtjTai TW Fvw&i, aavTOv he 
 uses the maxim, know thyself. 
 
 126. OF 0, ij, TO, AND 6V, %> 0\ AS DEMONSTRATIVE. 
 
 1. Not only the prepositive article o', if, TO, but the postposi- 
 tive b'g, ii, o, were in the elder dialect used as demonstrative pro- 
 nouns for ovTog or txs7voe, which usage remained particularly in 
 the language of epic poetry. 
 
 2. The same usage also remained in the common language in 
 certain cases, particularly in the division and distinction of objects. 
 In this case, o' piv commonly stands first, and afterwards once or 
 
 33 
 
258 SYNTAX. [ 127 
 
 - . - , - 1 - . -- : - --^_ 
 
 oftener 6 dt, this that ; or (when speaking of indefinite objects) the 
 one the other another, &c. through all genders and numbers, e. g. 
 
 10 v fitf fr/'/uo, rov dt ov, he honours this one, that one not. 
 TO ptv yap avoi}Tov, TO dt pavixov, the one action is foolish, 
 
 the other insane. 
 
 rcov (iTOUTtajTwi 1 (or also oi arpcmcorca) oi fAtv txvfifvov, 
 ol dt inwov, oi dt eyvpvtiovTO, of the soldiers some played 
 at dice, some drank, some exercised themselves. 
 TMV ojwv TO. [4ti> t%ti, nodus, ia d' ioilv anoda. 
 ttotloaov xwAouiff nt'vtoftcur] xaxcog n\ovTtlv TO /utV yao &c- 
 
 ov, TO <f Initlfiijaiv (f-iyet. 
 
 Isocrates says of the Athenians, who, on account of the ex- 
 
 cessive population, were sent to settle colonies, that in 
 
 22Q this way, i'otoaav a^OTtQovg, xcu rovg 
 
 4JiV(titzet<S' TO!<S ^tv yay l^a.vr t v TV\V otxoi 
 , xol$dt nhtiw Trj<s 
 
 REM. 1. The postpositive article (o$ {itv, off ^* /wfV, dt, 
 &c.) is thus used, but less frequently, as noteig 'imyvidag, ug (Atv 
 avcuQwv, tig ag dt TOvg qvyddug xuTaywv, destroying some of the 
 cities of Greece and reinstating the exiles in others. DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 3. In narration o, tj, TO, is often used only once with dt', in ref- 
 erence to an object already named, as o dt tint, but he said; T^V 
 dt &.no%MQriGai, (accusative with infinitive) but that she went away. 
 
 REM. 2. When persons are spoken of as the subject, such a 
 clause may be connected by xa/, in which case in the nominative 
 the postpositive article o, r t , oi', ai, but in the accusative (with Jhe 
 infinitive^ TOV of the prepositive, is used ; as xcu off* a'xotW? Tavra, 
 
 tv avTOv IK Trjg Tcitwg he hearing this, thrust himfrom the rank; 
 
 oi',dta^v&tvTtg r ,tgt(3(xivov tg Tag vrjug (HERODOTUS). xatToV 
 dovvcu and that he commanded to give it him. 
 
 127. PRONOUNS AND THE ADJECTIVE TTttff. 
 
 1. The three chief meanings of the pronoun avTog (see 74- 
 2.) are to be distinguished as follows. 
 I. It signifies self. 
 
 a) When it belongs to another noun so as to be in a sort of 
 apposition with it, that is, after the noun, or before its article, 
 as juaAAop TOVTO (pofiovficci ?} TOV fiavcxTOv CIVTOV I fear this 
 more than death itself; avTOv TOV fiaoihia mnvtu tpovhtTO he 
 wished to slay the king himself. 
 
127.] PRONOUNS. 259 
 
 6) When it stands for myself., himself, &c. the personal pro- 
 noun being omitted, as the context shows. In this way espe- 
 cially it is used in the nominative, as avTog tyf) he himself has 
 said it ; TTaofyfvoftqv avTog I myself went ; and in the oblique 
 cases only when they begin a clause, as UVTOV y&Q tldov for 
 I saw him myself. 
 
 II. It is used instead of the simple pronoun of the third per- 
 son only in the oblique cases ; and in this signification can stand 
 only after other words in the clause, as tdwxtv avToig TO nvg he 
 gave them fire ; Qvy tcooaxag avrov hast thou not seenhim? TO df~ 
 @a Aivfty itont*i exffvos fit UVTO xoc'&iiA.coGfv, he gave the skin to 
 JEetes, and he nailed it. See also no. 6. 
 
 III. When the article immediately precedes it, it means the, 
 same, as 6 avrog dvr]Q the same man, Ixfteuos TO UVTO (or rauro) 
 noielv he commanded him to do the same thing. Compare 133. 2. 
 
 2. In the reflective pronouns tpavTOv, OUVTOV &c. (see 74. 
 3.) the pronoun UVTOQ loses its peculiar power. AVIQV ae means 
 thee thyself, but otavrov merely thee, as a reflected pronoun, as 
 t&ie OCCVTOV accustom thyself. It is also used, like the Latin se, 
 to refer back to the first subject of two connected clauses, as vofti- 
 u Tovg noKliaq V7irjofTf7i> tavTW he thinks that his fellow citizens 
 serve him. In this case the simple aviov, as also the simple t, 
 (ov, &c. 0<f~i$, oqa^,) may equally be used. 
 
 3. The indefinite pronoun Tig is used in the same sense as the 
 French on and the German man, as av&gwnov avuidiaTtQOv ovx 
 civ Tig evgoi, even where it is applied to a whole assembly or col- 
 lection, as r^dri Tig tnidfixvvTO) totvTOv, that is, each one must now 
 put himself forward. 
 
 REMARK. The neuter TI often passes into a particle of limita- 
 tion, in some degree, hence ovTt, prjii, not at all 
 
 4. "^AAo?, without the article, is equivalent to the Latin alius, 
 another ; tTtpog, without the article, has the same signification, 
 but with a stronger expression of diversity ; 6 iTtQoq, on the other 
 hand, is used only when two are spoken of, and is the Latin alter, 
 the other ; compare 78. In the plural, allot, means others, oi al- 
 
260 SYNTAX. [ 128. 
 
 Ao* the others, ceteri, the rest. Ol tie^oi implies a more distinct ref- 
 erence to a division into two parts, as it were, the other party. The 
 singular o AAo expresses a whole with the exception of a certain 
 part in contrast with it, as r\ uMtj #wp the rest of the land. 
 
 5. The most of the pronouns, and the adjectives nag and dnag 
 stand commonly before the article or after the substantive, as 
 TOVTOJV TMV avd(j(uv of these men, 6 avr^o ourog this man, dtxyvi'Ti- 
 ve xavTTjv he sneered this punishment, ndvrtg ol " EMyvtg all the 
 Greeks, T(O drjftM dnavxt, to the "whole people Hag in the singular 
 without the article commonly stands for i'xaarog, as nag dvriQ each 
 man. 
 
 6. The possessives of the third person (og, aytTtpog) are but 
 little used. Instead of them use is made of the genitives of the 
 pronoun aviog, as TCI %yi]uaTa avTOi>,avTrjg, aviwv, his, her, their 
 property. Also of the two other persons, the genitive is often used 
 instead of the possessive, but in the singular number only the en- 
 clitic genitive, as o vlog pov my son. As soon, however, as any 
 emphasis is required, the possessive alone can be used. But to 
 this is sometimes added a genitive, by a sort of apposition, as diag- 
 nd^ovai ra Ipa, rov xaxodatftovog, they plunder the property of me 
 the miserable. But most commonly, the possessive is altogether 
 omitted in ideas that always stand in necessary connexion, as fa- 
 ther, son, friend, master, hand, foot, &c. and its place is supplied by 
 the article alone. 
 
 128. OF THE NEUTER ADJECTIVE. 
 
 1. The neuter of all words of the adjective kind stands without 
 a substantive, or as such, for every object conceived or represent- 
 ed as indefinite ; and particularly, as in Latin, extensive use is 
 made of the neuter plural, e- g. 
 
 ilnt TavTa he said this (these things). 
 ta %a\a the beautiful (that is, all beautiful things.) 
 ovdt xd dvayxatu dvvavxat, nopjfeo&ui, they cannot earn even 
 the necessaries of life. 
 
 Hence e. g. ra tfiu also signifies not only my things, but in 
 general, what concrens me. 
 
129.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 261 
 
 2. The neuter singular on the other hand, expresses more dis- 
 tinctly the abstract idea of the objects, e. g. 
 
 TO xa\6v the beautiful, in the abstract. 
 
 TO dtlov the divinity, and also every divine nature indistinct- 
 
 ly conceived. 
 TO Ttjg yvvatxo? doukov xcu &f oanf VTIXOV the servile and sub- 
 
 ject nature of woman. 
 
 REM. 1. The neuter of the article standing alone with the gen- 
 itive ( 125 Rem. 3.) is still more indefinite, and signifies only a 
 reference, as TO dt TOJV %QT][AUT<OV [ict).i<iTu no&MTe dxovoai, noaa 
 xal Tio&fv tOTcxi,in respect to money, you are particularly desirous of 
 knotting how much and whence it is ; TO. TOJV &fajv qtQtw di7 it is 
 necessary to bear what comes from the gods. 
 
 REM. 2. Of the neuter adjective as an adverb, see above in 
 115. 4, 5. 
 
 THE NOUN IN CONNEXION. 
 129. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 
 
 1. The nominative of the neuter plural is generally joined with 
 a verb singular, e. g. 
 
 TCI eua TO?yti> animals run. 
 
 TttVTa IGTIV ayu&a this is good. 
 
 'udAhpfx/w yu&TO TO. noaypaTa the affairs of the Athenians 
 
 increased. 
 tGTi TUVTV this w, i. e. this is true. 
 
 TOJV OVTOJV T(X [AfV fGTIV Ity* ^IIV^ TCC d' OVX t(f yfiiv, (t(f 
 
 i\iuv in our power}. 
 
 2. When the adjective, being a predicate, is separated from 
 the substantive, it is often neuter, though the substantive be mas- 
 culine or feminine, and singular, though the substantive be plural ; 
 the ^bject, in this case, being considered as a thing in general, and 
 the word thing being easily supplied. 
 
 ^ virtue is praiseworthy. 
 
 ydv, fir dviaoov -naldeg ytyvovTut, ayvotl. 
 
 3. As the dual is not a necessary number ( 33. 2), every sen- 
 tence which speaks of two, may not only be wholly in the plural. 
 but in the same clause a plural verb may be joined to a dual noun 
 and vice versa, and different predicates or references to the sub- 
 ject may, as euphony dictates, be either dual or plural 
 
262 SYNTAX, [ 130. 
 
 4. The subject, as in Latin, is commonly omitted where it is 
 known of course from the verb or the connexion, and no * stress is 
 laid on it ; and where, in the modern languages, its place is sup- 
 plied by the personal pronouns. 
 
 REM. 1. The subject thus omitted may however be in apposi- 
 tion with something else expressed, as o dt Mulug trig" ^T^UVTOQ 
 diaxovov 1*0.1 auto!?, that is, and I, the son of Maia the daughter 
 of Atlas, "wait on them. 
 
 REM. 2. The subject is also omitted, where the verb expresses 
 an action usually performed by said subject, as Galnlfci or atjpai- 
 vfi the trumpeter gives a signal. This usage also prevails where we 
 supply it, and mean an operation of nature or of circumstances, e. g. 
 
 vti> it rains. 
 
 nQoaypaivti it announces itself (as in the air.) 
 
 tdylwGt df and so it showed itself. 
 
 REM. 3. What are commonly called impersonate, that is, verbs 
 that belong to no subject or person, are different from the forego- 
 ing. In them the subject is not, as in the foregoing, left in obscu- 
 rity, but the action, to which they refer, whether expressed by an 
 infinitive or another dependent clause, is the true subject of such 
 verbs, whose peculiarity therefore consists in this alone, that their 
 subject is not a noun (as an infinitive with the article is also regar- 
 ded), e. g. i'&GTi [tot, ctTiitvui i. e. ro antfvui tttOTi pot, the going 
 away is lawful to me. Of this kind are &?, %(jr t , an6%<jr], doxei 
 (see all these in the list of anomalous verbs), nytnft it becomes, 
 lvtii%tTui it is possible, Sic. 
 
 5. When the nominative stands without the verb, some part of 
 is commonly to be supplied, e. g. 
 
 ' E\\riv tyw I am a Greek. 
 ra TOJV qittwv xotvd. 
 
 Mvldri ov Q&diov dmOTfiv oocjpog yaQ XKI &(lo$ o 
 
 yiO 71&G%IV OTIOVV CTOlfiOG (SC. ttjK?), tttV jMlJ 
 
 130. THE OBJECT. - OBLIQUE CASES. 
 
 1. The object of an action, or that on which any action is 
 exerted or to which it refers, must be either in the genitive, da- 
 tive, or accusative case ; and these three are called oblique ca- 
 ses. 
 
130.] OBLIQUE CASES. 2G3 
 
 2. The immediate object of B. transitive verb, that on which the 
 action is exerted, is usually in the accusative case, as Aa^avcu TI}V 
 uamSu I take the shield; the remote object which is found togeth- 
 er with the accusative and also after an intransitive verb, is join- 
 ed with a preposition, as Aa/</? ixa TIJV affnida a no T ov naa- 
 a A o v I take the shield from the nail ; i'oTrjxa tv r co iday it 
 I stand on the ground. 
 
 3. Of such relations as form a remote object, those which most 
 frequently recur are usually expressed by a case only ; and in 
 Greek, all three of the oblique cases are used in this manner. 
 
 4. Yet languages which have a genitive and dative, differ from 
 one another in this respect, and a preposition is often used in the 
 one, where the other uses only a case. 
 
 REM. 1. When in Greek a relation is expressed by a case mere- 
 ly, without a preposition, it must by no means be inferred, that a 
 preposition was ever used in such cases and afterwards omitted 
 for the sake of brevity. 
 
 5. In the ancient languages, both the near and the remote ob- 
 ject, when mention of them has already been made, and the rela- 
 tion of the verb to them is sufficiently clear, are very frequently 
 omitted (just as in other instances the subject of the verb, or the 
 possessive 127. 6); and in this manner the 'excessive use of 
 pronouns is avoided. 
 
 v 1} 6' OLV TQtV (fvXtoJV 7lkt7OTOl MGtV UvdoiXOJTCtTOl) I 
 
 oiv ol notiTat (here tuvtyv is understood before tnaivovaiv.) 
 tTtay/friaiiti'Ov TOV '^//^otAaot' T^V (nparttav Agesilaus offer- 
 
 ing to take the command of the army didouoiv ol x 
 
 (sc- aur) bouTito r ( n]Q^v.^ 
 
 QV ?]v 'idy TU? %lQu$ ovx dqt'ZfTai (sc. aV avrov). 
 
 Yet the pronouns may be expressed, whenever emphasis or ha?- 
 mony can thus be gained. 
 
 Rem. 2. Another case of the omission of the object, is that of 
 the reflective pronoun Mrvro*, Ipuviov &c. which occurs or may 
 be assumed, wherever a verb otherwise transitive in its significa- 
 tion, becomes intransitive in certain connections ; as, for example, 
 several compounds of uyfiv to lead, in which the intransitive idea 
 to ffo prevails, yet with an allusion to a train or multitude, as ts- 
 rye odov, noog&yovTOS rov TVOUVVOV, he -went out of the 
 
264 SYNTAX. [ 131. 
 
 way, as the tyrant drew near (as it were, moved himself forwards). 
 Such cases are explained in the lexicon ; yet it is to be observed, 
 that the omission oftavvov is not always to be presumed, since it 
 is frequently more correct to suppose that the verb had originally 
 the immediate as well as the causative signification (according to 
 113. 5), as in OQHUV to hasten and to impal. 
 
 131. ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 1. The most obvious use of the accusative, as designating the 
 near or immediate object ( 130. 2) needs no further explanation, 
 and we therefore limit ourselves to the cases, in which the usage 
 of the Greek differs from that of other languages. 
 
 REM. 1. The cases in which the noun appears as the near ob- 
 ject of the verb in the Greek language and not in others, must be 
 learnt from use and the lexicon ; an example is TOV$ &fov$ aifioofv, 
 where we say, he swore by the gods. Other verbs which in Greek 
 take an accusative as the near object and in English are govern- 
 ed by a preposition, are Kuv&avtiv (rivet) to lie concealed from, 
 ttnofiidQCtOtttw (r^t/a) to escape from. 
 
 2. Intransitive verbs are sometimes used transitively, and are 
 joined with an accusative case, as at nyyai ptovoi yaha xca /u*'A& 
 the fountains flow milk and honey. 
 
 3. Intransitive verbs govern an accusative of the noun, which 
 expresses the abstract of the verb, e. g. 
 
 xivdvvivGu TOVTOV xov xivdvvov I 'will incur this danger. 
 y fiiov ijdiGTOv he lives a most pleasant life. 
 
 TOV nokepov n 
 
 rjv ydixovv 6. 
 
 99 ;> 
 
 vxvv vnvov 
 
 naaav 
 
 4. The Greeks also use the accusative in many phrases, for 
 that which, according to the nature of the thought and the words, 
 is the remote object. Thus the near object of notflv is the action, 
 of Xtytiv the words ; the remote object of each is the person to 
 whom something is done or said ; nevertheless, the Greeks always 
 say xxcu noiflv rwa to do a person evil, xaxo> fo'yftv rwd to 
 speak ill of any one, to slander him. There are some verbs which 
 permit either of the two relations to be used as the near object ; 
 
131.] ACCUSATIVE. 265 
 
 as in English to fold, e. g. he folds himself (in the cloak), and he 
 folds the cloak (round himself.) 
 
 5. From these two cases the peculiarity of the Greek usage is 
 to be explained, that all such verbs have both these relations in 
 the accusative case. In other words : Many verbs, especially such 
 as signify to do, to speak, to clothe, to deprive, to beg, to ask, $<:. 
 govern two accusatives, of which the one usually denotes the person, 
 the other the thing ; e. g. 
 
 it 7iot,ii<Jio avion ; what shall I do to him. 
 
 TroAAd uya&u vqv nohv i~ioir t Gtv he has done the state much 
 
 service. 
 
 diduGxouai rot'? ncudu? GwqQOOuvriv they teach the youths 
 probity. 
 
 yov'jituTU r t Tr t Gav. 
 tivd lov yiTMva. 
 
 Tiuu. xupfiuTtvus to put coarse shoes upon a person. 
 ov rr t v Wi"/r t v d(f ft If TO from whom he hath taken life. 
 tTf^ov nuidu txdvaag %ircai>a, xov tuvrov exi'ivov 
 
 tjv vavv 
 TOVIO 
 ov at 
 
 6. The noun signifying the part, circumstance, or object, of 
 which any thing is affirmed, is put in the accusative, e. g. 
 
 Aof? lott TO oojfia, he is comely in person. 
 odus <wxf swift of foot. 
 no velv TO, ax^'X// to suffer in the legs. 
 ci\<Z tui yi>(i&<ji'2 I am afflicted in the jaws. 
 
 jro TO, TOV noki-fiov admirable in warlike affairs. 
 i]v ti]v TiuTQida he was a Syrian as to his country. 
 Tovvopa. Socrates by name. 
 
 REM. 2. This is the Greek construction so familiar to the Latin 
 poets, as 05 humerosque deo similis. Sometimes a preposition, as 
 xcaa, is actually expressed to govern one of the accusatives; and 
 as a preposition must commonly be supplied in English, the learn- 
 er is often taught to say, that one of these accusatives is governed 
 by a preposition understood. It is so common a construction, how- 
 ever, that it ought to be taught as a principle of the language. 
 Compare 130 Rem. 1. 134 Rem. 3. 
 
 7. The accusative of the pronoun is found in this way with 
 verbs, which would not admit a similar accusative of the noun, 
 
 e.g. 
 
 34 
 
266 SYNTAX. [ 132. 
 
 i avTwfor what shall I use it ? 
 
 olda O,TI ooi xpwpcct, I know not for what I shall employ 
 thee. 
 
 tvdui[JiovHv to be happy in all things. 
 
 226 REM. 3. To the two preceding rules are to be referred ^instan- 
 ces of the double accusative, like the following, evixyof TOV? /?(>- 
 fidpovs T?]V $v MaQuQtovi f4(x)[tjv he conquered the barbarians in 
 the battle at Marathon. TCI {ityiora wqrfA^dfr* TTJV noktv. rcoA- 
 Ac /ue t]d!xr]Gfv he has injured me in many respects. 
 
 For the accusative joined to the passive and middle, see below 
 134, 135. 
 
 8. The noun expressing duration of time or measure of dis- 
 tance, is put in the accusative, e. g. 
 
 nokuv XQOVQV napt'ftttvfv he remained a long time. 
 xu&r t vTO iv Maxfdovla Tprig oKovq ^vag they remained in 
 
 Macedonia three whole months. 
 
 TO, TioAAa xu&frufei he sleeps the greater part of the time. 
 dtxa OTadiovg it is ten stadia distant. 
 
 REM. 4. Certain adjectives and pronominals of the neuter gen- 
 der, standing in the midst of a clause and rendered in other lan- 
 guages adverbially or with a preposition, are put in the accusative 
 case, e.g. 
 
 TOvvavTiov (for TO ivavxiov.} OVTOQ de, nav TOVVUVTIOV, 77- 
 fiovkfTO jri*V, o vx ydvvuTO di\ but /ie, 071 the contrary, wish- 
 ed but could not. 
 
 TO fafdfifvov. AA* ?J, TO foyopivov, XUTOTUV eopnjg ^'xo- 
 fAtv ; but do we, according to the proverb, come after the 
 feast? 
 
 TO TOV noiyTOv &c. AA yap, TO TOV noir]TOv,tpyov ovdtv 
 ovudog, but, as the poet saith, no labour is a reproach. 
 
 132. GENITIVE. 
 
 1. The most familiar use of the genitive with another substan- 
 tive belongs to the Greek as to other languages. Those uses of 
 the genitive are accordingly given here, which are more peculiar 
 to the Greek, especially those in which it is united with verbs, ad- 
 jectives, and adverbs. 
 
 2. The genitive includes in its leading signification, the idea 
 of the prepositions of and from. 
 
$ 132.] GENITIVE. 26T 
 
 3. The genitive is used in the following cases, viz. 
 
 a) With most verbs signifying to liberate, to restrain, to cease, , 
 to differ; e. g. 
 
 anaMaTTfw tivu. voaov to free one from a disease. 
 
 fipytiv Tiva Tr t q ^aAa'aa^ff to keep one from the sea. 
 
 navtw TIVO. TIOIXJDV to cause one to cease from his troubles. 
 
 tiiyfiv TJjg &r)Qa<s to cease from the chase. 
 
 af.iciQTfiv odov to fail of the way. 
 
 dt,ucfjtQtt,v TOJV a'AAooi' to differ from others. 
 
 apyatv aya&o* ovdfv diutyt'pfi na.TQO$ ayu&ov a good ruler 
 
 diners in nothing from a good father. (With respect to 
 
 ovdtv see 131. 7.) 
 
 b) The genitive is used in all expressions implying choice, ex- 
 ception, and part, viz. 
 
 (l) With adjectives and pronouns by which the object is dis- 227 
 tinguished from others, e. g. 
 
 fiovos av&QOJ7i(t)v alone of all men. 
 
 ovdtig Ek\Y\vwv not one of the Greeks. 
 
 oi (fQOvipOl TOJV av&gwnow the prudent part of mankind. 
 
 TUV dvdpatv ro7g xaAo?? xa/u^-o?^ alptiaJTfpov laTt &uvf7v 
 TJ dov\fvtiv. See also the above mentioned example ( 
 130. 5) Iv r t d' av TWV (pvlwv in which of the (different) 
 tribes, i. e. in which tribe. 
 
 Particularly with a,ll superlatives, e. g. 
 
 17 fifyiGirj TWV vdawv avaidfia shamelessness is the greatest, of 
 maladies. 
 
 navzoav T^UICOTUTOV IGIIV dvriQ <$i\og avvfrog Tf 
 
 (2) In statements of time and place, given as parts of a larger 
 duration or extension, e. g. 
 
 TQI r^? rjntQas thrice daily. 
 
 onoTf TOV tTOvs at what time in the year? 
 
 HUT t%f7vo xaioov at that point of time. 
 
 noi yy? ag.ix6(ii^v to what part of the earth have I come ? (like 
 
 ubi terrarum ?) 
 
 7iavia%ov Trjs d/opa? every where in the market. 
 ]G 9Jfa*iB9 advanced in years. 
 
 (3) Wherever any thing is limited to a part, as ptTcari pot TWV 
 nQaypttTOw I have a part in the business ; and hence wherever the 
 idea of somewhat or a part can be supplied, e. g. 
 
268 SYNTAX. 
 
 cot, xwv xyyftatwv I have given thee of my wealth- 
 (4) The noun expressive of the thing eaten, drunken,, enjoyed, 
 profited of, in the most general sense, e. g. 
 
 la&i'fiv %QMi>, Tiii-fiv uduiog, (to&itm r a * Q iu would sig- 
 nify to devour the flesh, viz. all of it ; and nl-veiv vd(DQ 
 may mean, to be a wuter-drinker.^ 
 anoKuvfw TIVOQ to enjoy a thing. 
 dvivao&cti Tivog to profit of any thing. 
 
 c) The material of which any thing is made, is in the genitive, 
 even if the idea of to make is expressed ; e. g. 
 
 ati<pavtfs vaKivftwv a wreath of hyacinths. 
 
 tt>o$ M&QV nav nfTioiijTat' it is all made of one stone. 
 
 228 d) Quality or circumstance is put in the genitive, e. g. 
 
 divdQQv TToAAto*' tiwv a tree of many years. 
 
 -v\v yd(j dsKoftarog (Afydhovfor he was of greatest esteem. 
 
 4. The following classes of words also take the genitive, viz. 
 
 a) Adjectives derived from verbs take the object of the verb 
 in the genitive ; e. g. 
 
 from liiiGTaG&al TI to understand a thing, comes 
 
 TWOS understanding in a thing. 
 from $twu(siv rt, to investigates thing, comes 
 
 xivoqfilfor the investigation of a thing. 
 ol TiyaxTMoi itov dwalcav (from ra dtxaia). 
 
 b) Words expressive of abundance or -want, value or worthless- 
 ness, e. g. 
 
 ftoQvfiov full of confusion. 
 tart, TO yv qyovTidojv life is full of cares. 
 %@i)/LictTajv to be in "want of money. Hence, also, 
 when dflo&at, means beg, it governs the genitive of the 
 person, as dfrffttti rtvog to beg any one that 
 a'j-toe Ti[.irjg worthy of honour. 
 
 c) Verbs of the following significations, viz. 
 
 remember and forget, as pt'iiviifioct TOU %QQVOV, rig a'AxiJs im- 
 
 care for, admire, and despise, as Kfj&O&W rivo$ to care for some 
 
 one, 
 spare, 
 desire, naidivows In^vf47v. x To this class belongs the verb 
 
132.] GENITIVE. 269 
 
 Ttvog to love, with the primitive idea of desire ; but 
 
 viva denotes the idea of an inclination. 
 rule, excel, aYtfpcunoji/ a^e*?, ydovW xQaTtlv, ntQitivw, TOV 
 
 accuse, condemn, 
 
 All this, however, is not without various exceptions and limi- 
 tations, since several of these verbs may have the accusative even 
 in the same relation. 
 
 d) Most verbs expressive of the senses (except of sight), e. g. 
 ouv pvywv to smell of ointment. 
 
 vtxyov |u*J ciuTfa&ut, not to touch a corpse. 
 
 rovg fovlovq tyfvot T^S ttev&tQiu, 
 
 dxovo) Tiaidlov xAa/OfTO I hear a weeping child* 
 
 e) Especially is the genitive governed by the comparative de- 
 gree, e. g. - Q 
 
 (.ifi(av tpov greater than I. 
 
 IOTI TOV didctoxulov he is wiser than his master. 
 
 yiu.W.iov iuov adfig thou singest more sweetly than L 
 ovdtv y.Tru tan 
 
 RFM. 2. The more full construction of the comparative is that 
 with ?f, the Latin quam (see 150), which, however, is only used 
 where the genitive cannot stand. 
 
 5. In the following and other more remote references like 
 them, the genitive case is used, although it is common to say that 
 it is governed by a preposition, or other part of speech, under- 
 stood. 
 
 a) The more particular qualification of a general expression, 
 made in English by the phrase in respect of, e. g. 
 
 fyyvrara UVTW tipi yt'vovg I am very near him, in respect of 
 kin. 
 
 aQQtvcav -nuldfov childless in respect to male offspring. 
 j>/uoi>. 
 
 Under this head should be reckoned the genitives for which 
 tvexa on account of, is usually supplied, as et<fcu/uw/oj af TOV 
 
 I esteem thee happy on account of thy disposition. 
 
 b) The price of a thing, where nvxi may be supplied, e. g. 
 dyoQa&iv TI to buy a thing for a drachm. 
 
 * dxovtiv most commonly governs the accusative of the sound, and the 
 genitive of that which produces it ; but neither without exception. 
 
270 SYNTAX. [ 133. 
 
 c) The time when, if indefinite and protracted, e. g. 
 
 vvxxog, r}(jiiQa.g noif7v TI, to do any thing by night, by day. 
 noKKwv rjntQwv ov fiffAfktTijxct I have not exercised myself for 
 
 many days. 
 Ixe7af OVK ayixvtiTai ITWV pvQiow he comes not thither in 
 
 ten thousand years. 
 
 REM. 3. Verbs signifying to take hold of, govern the genitive of 
 that part by which the whole is taken hold of, e. g. 
 
 httptiv com. hapiG&at, rwci nodog, %tt,yog, to take any one by 
 
 the foot, the hand. 
 
 xrig %ti>poe ay* lead him by the (his) hand. 
 TOP \vxov TWV OJTOJV xpctTo> I hold the wolf by the ears. 
 This, therefore, must not be confounded with kafitiv nva, %(>Qi to 
 seize one -with the hand. 
 
 REM. 4. Sometimes the omission of the idea on which the gen- 
 itive depends, is very obvious, as in the following phrases. 
 230 TOVTO ovx tGTiv avdpog aoqov this is not the part of a noise 
 
 man. 
 
 ov navtog fivcM not to be the part of every one. 
 TOJV ddlxwv loiiv it is one of the unjust acts, i. e. it is unjust. 
 
 133. DATIVE. 
 
 The dative case, the idea of which is properly the reverse of 
 the genitive, is regularly used in all expressions where the idea of 
 approach lies at the foundation, and in consequence, in most of 
 those where we supply the prepositions to and for. E. g. dovvat, 
 
 to give to any one, l%&yos rwt> hostile to any one, nil&tlffttu 
 
 vopoig to be obedient to the laws, &c. 
 
 2. The dative case is also used in expressions like the follow- 
 ing, viz. 
 
 a) Of uniting or meeting, e. g. 
 
 tivi to associate with any one. 
 i fivt, tofght with any one. 
 
 b) Of equality, e. g. 
 
 like any one. 
 
 Hence o e amog the same, governs the dative, e. g. 
 
 OVTOS laws 6 amog exflvo this one is the same as that. 
 
 And this even when the reference is direct, as 
 
 TO. avTa naa%(*) ooi< I suffer the same the same things as thou, 
 
134.] DATIVE. . . . PASSIVE VOICE. 271 
 
 xara TOV avrov 
 
 c) Of benefit or injury, e. g. 
 
 Mtvekdw Tovdf 7i\ovv lGTfl\a^ev we undertook this voyage 
 for the ad-vantage of Menelaus. 
 
 3. The dative is also used to express 1) the instrument, 2) 
 the manner, 3) the cause, and 4) thejixed time, e. g. 
 
 1) %$rjG&ui Tivt, to make use of a thing. 
 adoy to strike with a stick. 
 
 D.r] ntnoir^ivov made with a knife. 
 
 QWGXtTUt, fit'fal 1$ TOV W(.lOV. 
 
 2) TUVTU tytvfTO Tfodf zco T go TIM this happened thus. 
 naorjk&ti' he came running. 
 onovdrj nai>TU (TtyuiTfTO. 
 tnparrov I did it from fear. 
 vootp xivi to labour with a disease. 
 ii'l to suffer pain at any thing. 
 v 7T07rA^i/ he died of apoplexy. 
 ov yao /o*x/ Trparrco TOVTO. 
 4) Trappy rr t TQtiy iqniQu he arrived the third day. 231 
 
 ti] vGTtQaiq. Tqv ^ov^v Ixcdovv the following day they called 
 the council. 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 134. THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 1. As in treating of the noun in connexion, the influence of the 
 verb in its first and simple form, that is, in the actii* voice, was 
 sufficiently explained ; it remains here only to investigate the use 
 of the passive and middle. 
 
 2. The passive, from its nature, has as its subject in the nomi- 
 native, that which followed the active voice as the near object in 
 the accusative. The subject or nominative of the active voice 
 now becomes that/rom -which I suffer ; and hence if it is express- 
 ed, the passive voice is followed by the genitive (with the pre- 
 position vno ) of what was the subject of the active voice, e. g. 
 
 Act. o './dfrtJUUvg XTfivft TOV " EV.TQQV.. Pass, o "xTO}y XT(I- 
 
 VfTCtl V7TO TOV A^I>\\tW^. 
 
 RFM. 1. Often instead of 1)710. the preposition n$og is used 
 
272 SYNTAX. [$ 134. 
 
 with the genitive, as npog dnavrcov &fpctn?vG&tu to be served by 
 all. HO.QU is also sometimes used in the same sense. 
 
 REM. 2. The dative also not unfrequently stands after the 
 passive voice, without any preposition ; e. g. 
 
 ov ydy tig negiovGiuv inyuTTtTO avTQJg rot. T^Q nofawg the 
 affairs of the city were not conducted by them for their own 
 advantage. ^DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 r^Civ TiavTa noiehai, all has been done by us in vain. 
 
 Most commonly this takes place with the Perf. Pass, as 
 
 oot it has been well spoken by thee. 
 
 3. When the active (according to 131. 5) governs two accu- 
 satives, the one of the person and the other of the thing, the pas- 
 sive often governs the accusative of the thing; e. g. 
 
 oi nwd'fg didaoxovTai, oo)g}^oGvvrjv the children are taught 
 
 discretion. 
 dqpaiyf&fig Ttjv a.Qyv\v deprived of the sovereignty. 
 
 4. In such instances, the accusative of the person in the active 
 voice becomes the subject of the passive, and the accusative of the 
 thing remains as the object of the passive. Further, the remote 
 object of the active, expressed in the dative, often becomes the nomina- 
 tive of the passive, and the accusative of the active remains as the ob- 
 ject of the passive ; as from iniTQintw TM SOWQUTSI rr^v diui,Tioiv 
 to entrust to Socrates the decision, we have in the passive, 
 
 o (DxyctTi]g IniTQt'nfTttt, ir\v diaiTuv Socrates is entrusted 
 with the decision. 
 
 ix %fi@tov ttQnufrfiat, she is torn from my hands. 
 
 VTIO noktojg TYJV t]yff40vlav n 
 ttpony&tvg vn afTov Ixtlpfio TO rjnap (where xtlptiv 
 means to tear out.) 
 
 REM. 3. The accusative with the passive in no. 4, may often 
 be referred to xr understood, in the manner mentioned in 
 131.6, as nhyTTOftai iriv xfqalyv In other instances,, the verb, 
 even in the passive voice (as in the active, according to 131. 3,) 
 governs an accusative containing as a noun the idea of the verb, 
 so that something more definite, as an adjective, may be added to 
 it, as TvuTtTui, nhyycig noMdg, i. e. he receives many blows. 
 
 REM. 4. As the verbal adjectives in TOQ and TI 'og are of the na- 
 ture of the passive voice ( 102), they commonly have the sub- 
 ject of the active voice in the dative case, according to Rem. 2 
 above ; e. g. 
 
>).] MIDDLE VOICE. 273 
 
 TOVTO ov Qifiov IOTI [tot, this is not to be spoken by me. 
 
 rj noki? (a(ff^,TjTfa GUI fan, the city ought to be served by thee. 
 
 Yet very commonly the dative, when it is general in its na- 
 ture, is omitted ; e. g. 
 
 Ivxiog o loiovxog vopog %al ovx tart'os xvpws tivut. 
 
 The neuter of the verbal in rtog, both with and without IOTIV, 
 corresponds to the Latin gerund in dum, (faciendum est,) e. g. 
 TUVTU nuvTu Tiot^iiov pot, all this must I do. 
 rolg t.oyotg nQoqtXTtov TQV vovv ioitv. 
 
 135. MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 1. In explaining the use of the Middle Voice, it is necessary 
 to distinguish between Middle inform and Middle in signification ; 
 for the usage of the Greek language is by no means regular, in 
 discriminating between the significations of the Passive and Mid- 
 dle Voices, even in those tenses, which have a separate form for 
 each voice ; so that under the name Middle, we cannot always con- 
 sider both form and signification at the same time. In the syntax, a 
 true middle has always a middle signification with a passive form. 
 
 REM. 1. This statement includes of course also the passive 
 aorist of all those verbs, where it has a middle signification. See 
 below. 
 
 2. That the leading signification of the Middle Voice is the 
 reflective, and that this arises naturally from the signification of the 
 passive, has been shown above in 89. 1. The proper reflective 
 signification, moreover, is that in which the subject of the verb is 
 also its nearest object, and stands in the accusative with the active 
 voice, as Aot'co icvot, I wash any one, fovficti Pass. / am "washed, 
 Mid. / "wash myself, that is, / bathe. So also an<xy%tiv, andy^ai 
 TIVU to strangle any one, to hang, Mid. anuy%to&ai, a7iay$aa&ai, to 
 hang one's self. So ttnt'^fiv, dnoa%fw, to restrain, Mid. oragtiKtaf) 
 (X7ioG%ta{tai, to restrain one's self, i. e. refrain. This true reflec- 
 tive meaning of the Middle Voice prevails, however, in but very 
 few verbs ; principally in those which express some familiar cor- 
 poreal actions like dress^ sheer, crown, &c. All other verbs, when 
 
 35 
 
bYNTAX. 135. 
 
 the reflective sense is to be expressed, require the pronoun 
 
 ffttiVTOV, tCXVTO* &C. 
 
 3. The reflective sense of a verb may often more convenient- 
 ly be stated as a new simple intransitive signification, so that the 
 middle voice of many verbs becomes an intransitive ; as avtMtiv 
 to send, GTtM.ta&at, to send one's self i. e. to journey ; nuv^v to put 
 to rest, Tiavfaftcu, to put one's self to rest 'i. e. to cease ; nlafclp to 
 drive about (any one), 7iAtt'&(7i9a to wander ; tvw%tiv to regale 
 any one, 6 violation, to revel 
 
 4. But, on the other hand, the middle often becomes a true 
 transitive verb. This is particularly the case where the active 
 voice has two objects ; as ivdtftiv TIVU %iTtova to clothe one in a 
 robe, Mid. IvduGao&at, %ITWVO. to put on a robe (on one's self.) 
 Hence the following rule, viz. 
 
 The middle voice often governs the accusative precisely as 
 the active voice governs it; e. g. 
 
 ntQuiovv TWO, to carry one over (a river.) Mid. nfQmovG&a.i 
 233 t carry one's self over, i. e. to pass, which middle verb, thus 
 signifying actively to pass, governs its accusative, as nftjuiov- 
 G&CCI iov T'ly^iv to pass the Tigris. 
 
 qofitiv Ttt'U to affright any one, (fo(3{7o&ui (to affright one's 
 self), that is, to fear. Accordingly ty+feiG&eu rovg &tovg to 
 fear the gods. 
 
 TtK\tiv to pluck, TiMstpO-ai to pluck one's self, i. e. to pull out 
 one's own hair ; and, since this is an action of mourning, TI\- 
 kio&ai Ttvcc signifies to mourn for any one by tearing the hair. 
 
 5. When the active governs two objects, the middle often re- 
 tains one in the accusative ; e. g. 
 
 hvGaoftai- TTjV wvt]v to unfasten one's girdle. 
 hpvvae&u: TI]V xfqcdt'iv to wash one's head. 
 u.y.ivu.Y,riv TiaAca naptaxfvuGfttvtj ocfotTTfi tavrrjv. 
 
 Among middle verbs of this class also, there are many from 
 which a new simple and transitive .sense arises, as ne$tta&a* rt 
 to procure something for one's self, i. e. to acquire. 
 
 6. Sometimes, when the active governs two accusatives, the 
 middle retains both, with the addition of the reflective sense ; e. g. 
 
 alrta Gf TOVTO I ask thee this (without its being defined 
 whether for my own sake or another's.) 
 l ae TOVTO I ask thee this for myself 
 
135.] MIDDLE VOICE. 275 
 
 7. In general any remote reference of the action to the sub- 
 ject may be expressed by the middle voice ; e. g. 
 
 Ijro^fTfva} I lead through pipes upon or into, tno^trevo^ai 1 
 
 draw into myself. 
 
 xkaiflv id nd&r] Tivog to weep for any one's sufferings, ixKav- 
 odfirjv TO, nd-fty I weep for my own sufferings. 
 
 ftul riva. to make some person one's ally. 
 qrt'?.CKxa to place guards for one's own sake. 
 TI to raise any thing, toQta&toi it, the same, but only 
 when it is raised for one's own use. 
 
 tvpiaxca I find, ivQioxOfiiui I find for my ownuse, i. e. / obtain, 
 cor. 
 
 TTOvijptctv he who has shown his own malice. 
 
 8. The middle voice governs the accusative actively, signify- 
 ing causation ; thus vuigofnui, I shave myself, but also / let myself 
 be shaved ; (the passive xap^a* has only a passive meaning). 
 This too implies a more remote relation ; e. g. 
 
 TQunfuv I cause a table to be set before me. 
 I let, fAia&ovpai Tt, I cause let it to me i. e.J hire it. 
 tov vlov to cause to teach one's son.* 
 TWO. to condemn any one, xaTfdixctodprjv UVTOV 
 I have caused him to be condemned i. e. / have gained a law- 
 suit against him. 
 
 REM. 2. The middle voice is often entirely active in its use 
 and signification, without any trace of the reflective meaning ; e. g. 
 unocpaivtiv and aTtoqaivfG&ai to show, to make evident. 
 7iot.Qi%iiv and naQ*%fG&cu to furnish, afford. 
 Of two or more meanings belonging to a verb, one, though 
 equally active, is often appropriated only to the middle voice ; 
 in which case great care ought to be taken to avoid confusion ; e. g. 
 aiQflv to take, aiQtiG&ai to choose. 
 
 REM. 2. The middle voice often expresses a reciprocal or 
 mutual action, as fiovfavtiv to counsel, contrive, povfavsa&ui, to 
 take counsel with one another ; oialvtiv to reconcile (others), 
 to be reconciled with each other. 
 
 * This is perhaps rather a rhetorical than a grammatical use. We 
 say in English he cultivates a large farm, meaning he causes to cultivate ; 
 or applying the verb not to the instrumental but to the remote perform- 
 ance of the action. 
 
276 SYNTAX. [ 136. 
 
 136. THE MEDIAL USE OF THE AOR1ST PASSIVE. 
 
 234 
 
 1. It was observed above ( 89) tbat the forms, which com- 
 pose the middle voice, are generally the present and imperfect, 
 the perfect and pluperfect of the passive, and an aorist and fu- 
 ture peculiar to the middle. 
 
 2. The aorist middle accordingly has neither in form nor 
 meaning any connexion with the passive. Nevertheless in many 
 verbs the aorist passive has also a middle signification ; e. g. 
 
 Mid. to lay one's self down. Aor. pass, xcaf- 
 I lay myself down. 
 
 i Mid. to depart (take one's self away.) Aor. 
 pass. dnyMdyyv I departed. 
 
 The same holds in nepcuovv, (fofitiv, Tieititiv, xo^<i>, dptytw. 
 &c. e. g. 
 
 ryv noliOQXittv dmiMuyy having given up the siege he 
 departed. 
 
 lie^ down to sleep. 
 
 rov fp/hnnov he was afraid of Philip. 
 Ti%vr}v I exercised myself in the art. 
 
 REM. 1. In such verbs the aorist middle is generally obso- 
 lete or rare. Sometimes it has one of the significations of the 
 verb appropriated to itself. Thus the aorist pass. OTcdyvai is at- 
 tached with the medial signification to OTt'MfO&ai to journey ; 
 whereas aTfttciQ&ai, the proper aorist middle, belongs only to 
 GTtKfao&uti to clothe one's self or send for. 
 
 REM. 2. These verbs, even where the signification is a pas- 
 sive one, cannot be explained (by 134. 4) as of the passive voice 
 followed by an accusative ; for they have the subject of the ac- 
 tive in the accusative ; in one of the above examples were XCIT- 
 
 in the passive, it would be xaTfnhayv) vno TOV 
 
 3. With the future middle the contrary usage holds ; for while 
 it is rare that the future passive has the medial signification, the 
 future middle is used passively in many verbs, as in w^wi*^ o[Aa- 
 
 , yvftvd&iv, (pvhdiTdv, dnaM.<xTTtiv, 
 f &c. part of which have also a passive future, 
 
138.] TENSES. J77 
 
 137. THE SECOND PERFECT AS INTRANSITIVE. 
 
 The Second Perfect, or Perfect Middle as it is commonly cal- 
 led, vibrates in its acceptation between all three voices ; a cir- 
 cumstance to be ascribed to the intransitive signification, which is 
 peculiar to it. If the verb be an intransitive verb, the Second 
 Perfect bears the same relation to it as any other perfect, (as may 
 be seen in the catalogue of regular verbs, in the verbs i^aAAw, 
 xpa'scu, (foloooj.) If the verb possess both significations, the Se- 
 cond Perfect prefers the intransitive, as in Tipaaow. In many 
 verbs, however, the original intransitive signification has passed 
 over into the passive and middle voice (see 113. 5,) and to this 
 signification the Second Perfect therefore attaches itself where 
 the verbs in question have the Second Perfect. See the follow- 
 ing words in the catalogue, viz. 
 
 ayvvfit (break transit.) ayvvpcit (break intransit.) 2 Perf. 
 
 tuyu am broken. 
 
 avoiyca, aWco^w, ctvoiyo t uat I open, avt'wya I stand open* 
 , tyrjyfpxu, tyoTjyoQa I wake intransit. 
 cause to hope, AnGjuae, a>A;ra hope. 
 , oAaMfxw, oA&pCM I perish, Perf. 6'AtoAa. 
 tjvi'fAcm, I originate intransit. Perf. opcupa. 
 Titr/.a, Titiftouut, ntnoi&a trust, and as a near 
 transitive, believe. 
 
 nityvvpf, nrifrvp&i stand fixed, Perf. ntTifjya. 
 Qiiyvvfii, Qr,yi'V[*ai (tear intransit.) Perf. tppojya am torn. 
 Gt'jTio) rot transit. Gynonut, rot intransit. Perf. otG^iia. 
 T?/'XOJ melt transit rrjxofiat melt intransit. Perf. r^'r^xa. 
 
 REM. 1. In the same way are to be explained the perfects of 
 some deponents, as ylyvoitai yt'yova, fietfoofiat /w^wr/va. 
 
 REM. 2. In a few verbs, the 1st Perfect is similarly situated ; 
 see in tOTr^i and yvoj. 
 
 $ 138. THE TENSES. 
 
 1. As the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, 
 and the future, agree in the main with the corresponding tenses 
 of other languages, it is necessary only to speak briefly of the 
 Aorist and the 3d Future of the Passive voice. 
 
278 SYNTAX. [ 138. 
 
 2. The 1st and 2d Aorist are of course different forms of the 
 same tenses, and differ not in signification. Few verbs have them 
 both, and the 1st Aorist is found much oftener than the second. In 
 order to understand the Aorist, it is necessary to have an accurate 
 idea of the other preterite tenses. The perfect tense, then, is 
 properly speaking not an historical tense. It does not relate the 
 past as it happened, but brings the past into connexion with the 
 present (as / know it, FOR / have seen it) ; although this connexion 
 is not always expressed, but it is of itself implied in the mind; / 
 have seen it, i. e. I am one who saw it now, at this time, it has 
 already happened.* The pluperfect removes this connected past 
 and present time into the past time, connecting a more remote 
 with a less remote past time, / had seen it- The imperfect relates 
 the circumstances accompanying or attending the past action, / 
 236 was seeing it. The aorist differs from all these, in expressing sim- 
 ply a past action without any connexion in idea, with present or 
 any other past time, / saw it. The past or imperfect tense in En- 
 glish, therefore, is an aorist. In Latin the perfect, and in other 
 languages the imperfect, is used to express the Greek aorist. E. g. 
 Uvppos 6 (laaifave; odfvwv lvtjv%t Y.VVI (fpovpovvTi vfxyov 
 Ktxl Ixtlfvae fjitft' iavxov xopt&w, Pyrrhus the king, jour- 
 neying, MET WITH a dog watching a dead body, and COMMANDED him 
 to be brought along with him. By substituting has met, had met, or 
 was meeting, for met f the difference between the Aorist and the 
 other past tenses will be felt. So oMyai$ de vattQOv tfnipaif 
 &?a0*f t]v, xai nap?]* o xv*w' Idwv dt TOVS (fovtve, I f&'ft <% ft l 
 y.al y, a &v A a xxti, UVTOVG, a few days after THEY WERE HOLD* 
 
 * The pure perfect, especially in the Greek, always implies that the ac- 
 tion is terminated or has ceased. He who says in Greek, 4 1 have known 
 it,' says that now he knows it no longer. He who says, oixo 
 W/.a, considers the house as yet standing ; if he says, 
 he leaves it undecided, yet uses the same form if he actually knows that 
 *i stands no longer. 
 
138.] TENSES. 279 
 
 ING a review, and the dog WAS ATTENDING. And HE SAW* the mur- 
 derers, and RAN FORTH and REMAINED BARKING at them- 
 
 3. The aorist may be used for the perfect, and even for the 
 pluperfect, where the circumstance of time is otherwise sufficient- 
 ly clear from the connexion. It occurs most frequently for the 
 perfect ; e. g. Xenoph. Memor. I. 6. 14, Socrates says, TOVG #77- 
 GUVOOUZ T.MV nul.ui, (joqrcGV, ov<? ixtivoi, xccztkinov, Iv fiifikl- 
 oig yodipai'Tf? dV^O/acu, where the sense obviously requires 
 the perfect, which they have left us in books. 
 
 REM. 1 . Examples of the aorist instead of the pluperfect. 
 
 XENOPH. " her husband was in Bactria as ambassador, f'nfft- 
 
 \pf df avrov o '^GOVQIO? TifQi toju/ua/ft,*? that is, had 
 
 sent him. 
 THUCYD. oi * Adrivuioi tv&vG Inftdrj avf%(oor]oav Ivf 
 
 4. As the imperfect tense is used to express the limitation of 
 circumstances under which the thing related happened, a greater 
 or less duration or continuance, of course, is suggested by it. 
 Hence the imperfect, as in xa&v XaxTti of the example in no. 2, is 
 used to express a continued action, whilst the Aorist expresses a 
 momentary action. In consequence of this difference of significa- 
 tion, the imperfect and aorist are sometimes used alternately in a 
 narration, the imperfect being introduced so often as the action is 
 of a more continued nature, as rove uiv ovv nthvwtag Itii'gctvTO 
 ol fictppaoot (received, a momentary action) xat tyiajgovTO (and 
 fought with them, a continued action) Inel tf tyyv$ r t (j(xv ol onKiiat 
 (when the heavy armed were near, a regular imperfect, according 
 to the rule at the end of no. 2) IxQunovro (they turned, a momen- 
 tary action), y.ul ol nt\TUGT(x.l (v&ve t'inovTO (and the pehastae im- 
 mediately pursued them, a continued action.)- 
 
 In this way the imperfect came to be used wherever an habitu- 
 al or often repeated action was to be expressed in past time, as Ml- 
 ACOJ/ o A~!porcu//{ar>; qo&K f*.vag VQetuv t'txoGi Milo the Crotonian 
 was accustomed to eat twenty minas ofjlcvh. 
 
 * tdwv is here rendered by a verb, because the English lan-uag-e hr- 
 no Aorist participle.' 'Remained barking. 1 DCCHHSP duration of action is 
 ressed by the Imperfect. 
 
280 sinsrfAX. [ 138. 
 
 237 Rem. 2. This difference of the aorist from the imperfect often 
 suggests a difference in the clauses, which is easily overlooked. 
 Thus the imperfect in o xvcov egtdpafic xcti xa#&Adxm auTOvg 
 implies a continued barking; if it were xuftvluKTriGt, it would be 
 as momentary as 
 
 5. It appears from the foregoing, that the aorist inclines to the 
 expression of momentary action, or such as it is intended so to re- 
 present, in contrast with some more continued action, in the pro- 
 gress of the narrative. This distinction between continued and mo- 
 mentary action exists also both in the present and future. / exhort 
 and / am exhorting ; I -will exhort, and / will be exhorting, differ in the 
 same way as / exhorted and / was exhorting- In the indicative mode 
 there are no separate forms for this distinction, but in the other 
 modes they are discriminated. There are in fact two views to be 
 taken of the other modes, in respect to time. (1) Each has the 
 definite time of its own indicative (2) They are also aoristical 
 as well in the present tense as the aorist, containing (like the En- 
 glish infinitive) no exact expression of time, and corresponding 
 in time as far as U is necessary, with the indicative on which they 
 depend in the construction. In this case, therefore, we have a dou- 
 ble form, without any distinction of time. Thus TVUTZW and iv- 
 tyat, are equally to strike, qil^rjs and (fri^ays equally the subjunc- 
 tive thou lovest ; with the difference that the present tense of these 
 modes is usually employed for a continued, and the aorist for a 
 momentary action. Thus when Demosthenes says, 
 
 TQirjQfig nft>Ti]%ovTcx napaGxfvaGaG&ai qv t [4i, dtiv, 
 
 flT aVTOVQ OVTVD TCt$ yVO)[4CXS t% f IV, 
 
 he would say that they should immediately fit out the ships, and 
 therefore uses the aorist infinitive ; but the state of opinion which 
 he recommends by '/vwpag tyiw, is to be permanent, and there- 
 fore he uses the present infinitive. He continues 
 
 iv i] dice TOV (fsofioy r^v^iav *%y ?] notpidcov zavTa acpv- 
 Axro h ?]$)&?] that either through fear he will remain quiet 
 (a continued action), or overlooking these measures, be taken 
 (momentary) unprepared. 
 So, too, in the imperative, 
 
138.] TENSES. 281 
 
 UTIUVTU ay.ovarjif, xpivarf, xcu 
 
 uv { Tf,Le. judge (momentary), while the state of 
 mind expressed in the last clause is necessarily gradual in its 
 formation, and therefore n^o\u(.t^avfTt. 
 
 REM. 3. It is to be observed, however, that this distinction is 
 often very slight, conveying only a trifling modification of idea, 
 and that therefore there is often no choice between the present 
 and the aorist, and we may say indifferently k'ytw and Ae'jra*, A*- 
 yt and A;OJ/. For want of a distinction corresponding to it in our 
 own language, it is often altogether impossible to retain it in the 
 English. 
 
 6. The participle of the aorist always expresses past time, to 238 
 be rendered either by the phrase after that, or by the participle 
 of the perfect tense having ; though in consequence of the latter, 
 it is often equivalent to the present ; e. g. a'rro/SaAcoV who has lost, 
 i. e. 710 longer possesses ; (.ict&wv who has learned, i. e. who knows ; 
 &aixov having died, dead ; ol maovTfg the fallen, the slain, &c. 
 
 Demosthenes says, the true author of^an oration full of Just 
 reproaches is d na<jf(7/qx(<)$ TCC toyu, ov% o lo%([A[At'voG, ovd o 
 (ifoi/uvrjo~ui<s ra dlxcuu htytw, i. e. one who has furnished actions, 
 not he who has carefully prepared himself and endeavoured to speak 
 what is right. 
 
 REM. 4. Some verbs in their very signification destroy the na- 
 tural import of the tenses, as //xo> / come is alvyays to be consid- 
 ered as a praeter tense, / have arrived ; aou tjXfig rj noi\ai hast 
 thou just arrived, or long since ? So OifOfuu I depart often signifies 
 I hove gone, whereby the imperfect <)>*TO attains the character of 
 the pluperfect. Thus also limtiv riid, besides the signification 
 of beget or bear, has also that of to be father or mother to any one; 
 and of consequence, this, m the present tense, may have the mean- 
 
 ing of the perfect, as noKlov Of tiviiTolq atiov ilxtft, ncttyo. 
 
 REM 5. The perfect has also a subjunctive and optative, and 
 the future an optative, which are really used, when the kind of 
 uncertainty, peculiar to these modes ( 140), falls in with these 
 tenses, as titif d i-td? vfntxirxot that my son may have conquer- 
 ed As in most of such cases the modes of the present and aorist 
 are sufficient, those tenses are used only where distinctness re- 
 quires it ; and even then it is more common to use the periphras- 
 tical form, as Tifydyxcog tu and eiijv. The imperative of the per- 
 fect occurs in the second person only in those verbs of which the 
 perfect has a present signification, as *f*(M*X&t, [tt'fivrjoo. But 
 the third person often serves as an emphatic expression, e. g. 
 
 36 
 
282 SYNTAX. [ 139, 140. 
 
 vvv di TOUTO itTO^[A^G&o} einfiv be it ventured, \, e. / will 
 
 venture. 
 -nensiyao'&o) be it attempted, i. e. do but attempt. 
 
 139. THIRD FUTURE. 
 
 1. The third or paulo-post future is properly, both in form 
 and iignification, compounded from the perfect and future. It 
 places what is passed or concluded, in the future, e. g. 
 
 r\ Tfototfloi Tfhtwg %txo(J[,tr}OTai, fctv 6 TOIOVTOG avir]v ITII- 
 Gxonfj qpv&ai, the city -will have been perfectly organized, if 
 such a watchman oversee it ; i. e. disponita erit not dispo- 
 nelur. 
 
 fti/tTijv tftoi xfxhctvoiTcti I shall have wept in vain. Compare 
 134 Rem. 2. 
 
 Now as the perfect often signifies a continued state, (as e. g. 
 fyytyjpotpptu signifies not merely / have been inscribed, but / stand 
 on the list,) this signification remains in the third future, e. g. 
 
 Ovdtig Kara anovduq (AtTtyyyuqrjGfTat,, ' <4\X oi$TitQ r^v TO 
 TifjwTOV, eyyeyQatyttat, no one's inscription shall be altered 
 from favour, but as each was from the jirst, so he shall stand 
 inscribed. ARISTOPH. 
 
 2. Consequently this is the natural future of those perfects, which 
 have acquired a separate meaning of the nature of the present ; 
 as Xt'kfinTui has been left, i. e. remains ; teteiiptxai, shall have been 
 left, i. e. shall remain; faiq&yafTat will be left or deserted. So x- 
 ! possess, jU^ti/^ ( aa^ / remember, %fXTr]OO[4(M, 
 
 REM. 1. Besides this, *he Attics employ the 3d future of seve- 
 ral verbs in the passive, as a simple future passive. See the ano- 
 malous dt'to bind ; so too mnuvaopai,, %f%6 \\>o^ui, &c. 
 239 REM. 2. In some verbs the third future has a peculiar import, 
 either (l) It shall, I will, as -itQatytput, he shall (not he will) be 
 buried ; or (2) a hastening of the action, as q-pat xat nfn^aE,e- 
 TVU, speak, and it shall be accomplished immediately -- It is on this 
 acceptation that the name of paulo-post future rests. 
 
 140. MODES. 
 
 1. The Greek language appears to have the advantage of the 
 Latin and of the modern languages, in the optative mode. Oa 
 
$ 140.] MODES. 283 
 
 comparing, however, the use of this mode with the rule given 
 88. 3, it will appear that the optative mode is nearly equivalent 
 to the subjunctive mode imperfect and pluperfect tenses, which 
 accordingly are wanting in Greek. For instance, in the expres- 
 sion of a wish, we say, " had I hut that ;" this is equivalent to if 
 I had, the subjunctive imperfect of our language, although the 
 time in reality is present. Hence the following rule is establish- 
 ed. 
 
 2. The relatives and particles (except the compounds of i>, 
 which in connexion with the present and future require the sub- 
 junctive), take the optative, in connexion with the historical ten- 
 ses, e. g. 
 
 ovx t%M or OVA, oidu, OTTOI rpctTCUjuai non habeo quo me ver- 
 
 tam, / know not whither I may turn myself. 
 ov* fl/ov, ovx rfaiv, bnot Tyu7ioi[4r t i> quo me verterem non 
 
 habe'bam, I knew not whither I should turn myself. 
 Tia(j6i(.n, 'ivu idta, I am present that I may see. 
 
 ' ' I was present that I might see. 
 
 3. In consequence of this, the particles and pronouns which 
 t \ke the indicative mode in sermone directo, require the optative 
 in sermone obliquo, e. g. 
 
 ?;pfrp, ft OVTWS *io*i ne asked, if it were thus. 
 
 tkit [401, OTl fj 66'6s CfiQQI, (1$ TfJV TloklV, 1]V7ltp 
 
 Use of el and av. 
 
 4. For the further use of the modes, it is necessary to under- 
 stand particularly the force of the particles el and , which alone 
 and in composition are variously employed. 
 
 5. The conjunction el signifies if and whether. In either ac- 240 
 ceptation it is joined by correct writers with the indicative or op- 
 tative, never with the subjunctive mode. 
 
 6. The particle av* can seldom be rendered by a correspond- 
 ing English word. It adds an expression of uncertainty or possi- 
 bility, which not only strengthens or modifies the natural meaning 
 
 * In the epic poets xf, xfv. 
 
284 SYNTAX. [ 140. 
 
 of the subjunctive and optative, but communicates itself (though 
 with the exception, for the most part, of the present and perfect) 
 to the indicative and to other verbal forms. It always stands af- 
 ter one or more words of the clause, and is thereby distinguished 
 from the av which is abbreviated from lav. 
 
 7. The particle uv is attached to all relatives, and to certain 
 particles, with some of which it coalesces into one word, as par- 
 ticularly o<se orai/, Inftdrj Intidav. With tl it forms lav, 
 and is abbreviated into the wholly synonymous forms v\v and 
 av, which is distinguishable from the a.v treated of in the forego- 
 ing paragraph, inasmuch as like lav it regularly begins a clause. 
 All words of this class attain by the addition of av an expression 
 of possibility, and consequently take the subjunctive mode. When 
 the clause which contains them comes in connexion with past time 
 or the sermo obliquus, it either remains unaltered in the manner 
 of words quoted ; or the simple particles (/, or*, lntidr h o<s, og- 
 fig, 600?, &c.) with the optative mode take its place, e. g. 
 
 naQi'aoftui, lav TI dt-y. 
 
 i'qy nuytivai, ft Tt, dtoi or dtriaoi. 
 
 8. The Greek language is particularly rich in the expression 
 of hypothetical or conditional propositions. The most important 
 principles, in this respect, are the following, viz. 
 
 In every conditional proposition, the condition is either possi- 
 ble or impossible. The possible cases either do or do not con- 
 tain an expression of certainty ; and in the case of uncertainty, I 
 either do or do not hold out a prospect of a decision : hence the 
 following cases. 
 
 1) Possibility, without the idea of uncertainty, is expressed by 
 tl with the indicative, e. g. 
 
 241 tl t&oQVTr)6 %ai i]GTQa\ptv if it has thundered, it has also 
 
 lightened. 
 (i TI tyttGi do?, if thou hast any thing, give it. 
 
 2) Uncertainty with prospect of decision is expressed by lav 
 with the subjunctive, e. g. 
 
 lav TI t%u)[4v, dwaoptv, should we have any thing, we 
 give it. 
 
140.] MODES. 285 
 
 lav z/ TIVU TWV VTIUQ'/OVTWV vopwv prj xAw i%ii>v iiyf}- 
 tai,- yyaqt'oftoj, should any one esteem any of the existing 
 laws inexpedient, let him enter a complaint. 
 Here there is understood in the protasis of the sentence, u and 
 that will appear," &,c. 
 
 3) Uncertainty, without any such qualification, is expressed by 
 tl with the optative mood, and in the apodosis the optative with 
 > e. g. 
 
 ft ztg TO.VTU TiyaTTOi, ptya p av wptlqatit, should any one 
 
 do this, he would render me a great service. 
 ft TI$ TO.VTU Y.U.& UVTU ItfTciofifv, ivyoi V, should any one 
 
 investigate this for itself, he would find 
 
 Here there is nothing supplied by the understanding, but " it 
 is problematical whether this be done." 
 
 4) Impossibility or disbelief, or an assertion in general that a 
 thing is not so, is invariably expressed, in the Attic writers, by the 
 imperfect tense, either for present or indefinite time, with av at- 
 tached to it in the apodosis, e. g. 
 
 */ ri fi%tv } ISidov iiv, had he any thing, he would give it. 
 Here there is a necessary reservation of " but he has not." 
 
 9. When in this last case both clauses are in past time, the ao- 
 rist is necessarily used instead of the imperfect, at least in the apo- 
 dosis, e. g. 
 
 tt TI to'/fv, eduxfv uv, had he had any thing, he would have 
 given it. 
 
 In like manner, the clauses may be of different times, e. g. '* 
 
 ft Infla&rjv, ovx civ ypyojOTOvv, had I obeyed, I were nol(now) 
 sick. 
 
 REM. 1 . All these cases are frequently modified by their con- 
 nexion with the preterite, according to the foregoing principles, 
 as observation, in the single cases, will show, e. g. 
 
 xat, ft Tt, t%oi, tx&tvGf dovwu, and if he had any thing, he 
 
 commanded him to give it. 
 
 Here txtfavne belongs not to the apodosis, but to the previous 242 
 context ; the optative is used, in consequence of being preceded 
 by a preterite, see above no. 8. 2, and dovvat constitutes the apo- 
 dosis. 
 
 10. When the phrases and particles compounded with civ have 
 the aorist subjunctive, they constitute a conditional preterite, and 
 
286 SYNTAX. [ 140, 
 
 (if the context regard the future) a future preterite, the Latin 
 futurum exactum, e. g. 
 
 yQYl df OTUV jU*V Ti&IJO&e TOVg VQHOV9, OnOlOl TWtg flat, 0X0- 
 
 TitHv' l?itMv dt ft 7] G& t, yvhaTTfiv xui %y?JG&ai, when 
 
 you shall have passed them. 
 intiddv anavra axovcijTf, KQivart, when you shall have 
 
 heard all, then judge. 
 avirj ri na^ao^ev^Jita^flvat, dvvrjGtTai,, twg av nfQiytvoj- 
 
 [At&a TOJV ty&ptav till we shall have conquered the enemy. 
 
 The future lies at the bottom of these constructions, and the 
 aorist only has its own preterite. 
 
 11. The optative with av is, according to no. 8. 3 above, only 
 the apodosis of a supposition, with the suppression of which sup- 
 position the optative often remains. In consequence, the optative 
 is often used in any simple proposition, intended to be represent- 
 ed merely as a wish, and where in English might, could &c. is 
 made use of, e. g. 
 
 TO G(!*aTOtidtg IGTIV, oi> xiq av U^CUTO, the corporeal is that 
 
 which [if he will ] a man may touch. 
 yivoiTO 6 uv nuv iv TM ^wax^w %QOVCp in the lapse of time 
 
 all things may happen. 
 
 ydtajg av QfaGaiftijv TUVTCI gladly would I see this. 
 a'AA' ouv, fjtnoi Tig av but, some one perhaps may say 
 iGcag av ovv Tivfg IntTt^afiuv To7g flQr^^votg perhaps now 
 
 some may blame what has been said. 
 
 And hence comes it, that this phraseology, by the moderation 
 of language conspicuous in the Attic writers, became used in the 
 place of the most confident assertions and predictions, e. g. 
 
 ov yy av tyt yr) yiyevijfitvtt rr\ vvvt 
 
 dvvrjfttirjfAfv for what has already happened, we could not 
 
 with the present forces prevent. 
 ovx av (ffvyoig thou canst not escape. 
 
 243 This mode of expression is often used for the simple future. So 
 too for the imperative ; e. g. fa'yotg av for fo'yt. 
 
 RFM. 2. Every conditional or uncertain proposition may be 
 converted in Greek into an infinitive or a participle, retaining av, 
 wherein this language possesses an advantage, which others want, 
 of imparting the expression of the Optative and Subjunctive to the 
 Infinitive and Participle ; e. g. 
 
 oiovTat, ava[iu%tGaG&ai av ovf4[4d%ovg ngoghafiovTig, they 
 
140.J MODES. 287 
 
 think, they might recover themselves by acquiring allies ; (for 
 ai>una%t'acuvT' a.v, ft lufioifv.) 
 TaAAa GIOJTTOJ, TioAA aV t'%wv flntlv, though I have much that I 
 
 could say. 
 
 ot oaditag olnoxTivvvi>Tf$ xai dvaftiaHJxontvoi y ccv, fl oToh 
 J}GUV, -who would readily kill and bring to life again, if they 
 were able ; (for avtfiuHOMOri' aV) PLATO. 
 The sense of the Infinitive and Participle of the future is often 
 also thus expressed j e. g. 
 
 oJx tariv tvoi (ivdyu V dvvr^'&tjval HOTS anccvTa xavra Tioa- 
 *, it is not. possible, that one man should be able ever to do 
 all those things. Avvi)&riv&i nort without ai> must have 
 referred to the past See also the example below 145. 
 4. a. 
 
 After o'ifG&ai, i\nliiv, &,c. this is the common way to express 
 the future. 
 
 REM. 3- The position of civ is wholly decided by euphony. 
 This is to be remarked, in order that, by observing the connex- 
 ion, it may always be brought to the verb to which it belongs; 
 
 e - ' , 
 
 fdoxfi oiv r^uv qdf-'ws TIUVTO, dianQucu. 
 
 Here ai> is to be separated from the verb near which it stands, 
 and to be joined to dtumQatai, he appeared to us, as if he would 
 perform every thing willingly (or dianQU^fltv r.) Thus TOVTOV 
 rov i/;r/gr/0|UaTO? Kuou&fvros civ, tt ftij d'i ;,? rjdlxyvTO ol /?- 
 aikfl?,^ i. e. ft TO yrftiofAu txvQ&rfhj (without V), ol 0aodt7g ij- 
 dixrjVT oiv (would have been offended), tl IAJ] di r^ug (i. e. had 
 we not been.) 
 
 vvv dt juo^ dox*7, xav datfifiav fl xaTccyiyvojOxoi IIQ ret TTOO$- 
 yxovTu. 7iotf.lv, here the ai> contained in xV belongs to the 
 Inf. noiflv, i.e. doxf ? (.101, xi, firig aatfltun xctTayiyvMaxot, 
 ret -noozyxovTu Tioiflv &i>, it seems to me also that, if any one 
 should accuse him of impiety, he would do right. 
 REM. 4. The particle a.v often gives to the Indicative the sig- 
 nification of habitual performance of the action ; e. g. 
 
 Demosthenes says, no one of the former orators has had so 
 great influence in so many respects at the same time, AA o 
 (Litv yoctqwv ovx uv f7iotoj3fi>fv, o d't TtQf-Gfifvow ovx aV 
 typaqf, but he who proposed laws was not commonly an ambas- 
 sador, and he, who went on embassies did not commonly pro- 
 pose laws. 
 
 REM. 5. It is a peculiar use of the Optative, when it stands in 
 the protasis instead of a preterite indicative, to signify the repeti- 
 tion of^an action : e. . 
 
 ovg ptv 'idot, fvraxiojg xcu otojuy iovxag, Tioogtlavvow av- 
 ' ftfv rjMiJTa, xai fnfl -JIV&OITO, inrjvfi. ''whom 
 
288 SYNTAX. K 141. 
 
 j that is, ' so often as he saw any,"* with which the inel 
 o connects itself. 
 
 a do(ifv UVTM he did what [in each case] seemed 
 right to him. 
 
 OGCX InfQiOTWio, rayv untxplvaro, what he was asked, he an- 
 swered immediately. 
 
 In such constructions, care must be had not to attribute to the Op- 
 tative any expression of uncertainty. 
 
 REM. 6- The Subjunctive is not used alone except for exhorta- 
 tions in the 1st person, as luptv let us go (where in the 2d and 3d 
 244 person the Optative would be used), and in dubious questions, part- 
 ly with and partly without fiuvktt or &tkfi preceding; e. g. 
 716$ tv flvvkft, a <j tea [A at, ; whence wilt thou that I begin? 
 {Soviet ovv GxoTiojjufi' ; dost thou wish then that we examine? 
 TI noun) ; what shall I do ? 
 nij ftu f not rijujiw^ai, ; whither shall I go? whither shall I 
 
 turn myself? 
 
 ii-noj uvv GUI TO aiTiov ; shall I tell thee the cause ? 
 vvv axoffftu uv&ii ; shall I hear again. 
 
 141. INFINITIVE. 
 
 1. The infinitive mode is used in Greek in the same cases as 
 in the Latin and modern languages, and in various others, particu- 
 larly after verbs of saying, believing, promising, permitting, beg- 
 ging, &c. 
 
 2. The infinitive is often used to express what is expressed in 
 Latin by ad and the gerund, or by the participle in dus, viz. end 
 or destination ; e. g. 
 
 Idcaxev O.VIQ dovkco qopiiout he gave it to a slave to carry. 
 6 av&ya)no<; ntqvxf qdtlv man was formed to love. 
 Tia<ji%ro IpetVTO* tywTuv I present myself to be questioned. 
 'innov nuyfiftf TM avdtji u. 
 idefv Of. 
 
 3. The infinitive is governed by an adjective (or substantive) 
 expressing^/fonm or qualification, e. g. 
 
 noulv xijit to do any thing. 
 ov Oiivdg *GU Xtytiv, aAA* advvecTOG aiyav,he is not powerful 
 
 in speaking, but he is incapable of keeping silence. 
 dfival yvvcuxfq svyioxfiv Tt%vag women are skilful in invent- 
 
 ing devices. 
 
141.] INFINITIVE. 289 
 
 It is also thus employed in a passive sense, where, neverthe- 
 less, the form of the active voice is commonly used, (in Latin the 
 
 supine in u,) e. g. 
 
 Qdiog votjaai easy to observe (to be observed). 
 dxoveiv pleasant to hear (suave auditu). 
 
 The form of the infinitive passive, however, is not wholly un- 
 used ; e. g. Gijlvqiccvijg oq&rjv at, feminine in aspect, as in Horace 
 niveus videri. 
 
 4. Whenever an infinitive thus qualifying the preceding phrase 245 
 or clause, does not admit of a sufficiently obvious connexion, par- 
 ticularly in consequence of other words being interposed, it is 
 commonly introduced by o^re, (more rarely oj,) which also, in 
 an entire construction, will be found to refer to a preceding de- 
 monstrative, e. g. 
 
 riv df nfTifudeVfiivoQ ovitag, O)TS navv Qqdiwz t/fiv p- 
 
 XOVVTU, he was so brought up, as very easily to have what 
 
 sufficed him. 
 (fikoTifiOTctTog r t v, w$Tf TiuvTtt vTiOf-iilvcti TOV incuvfiG&ui, 
 
 tvtxa, he was very ambitious, so as to bear every thing for 
 
 the sake of being praised. 
 i'0)Tool tiGiv iq ajQTf tidtvui oi'cov TiaTtQwv GTtQi]viai, they 
 
 are too young to know of what fathers they are deprived* 
 wg /ujx^oV fAtycdo.) flxaoui,, (parenthetically,) to compare 
 small things with great* 
 
 5. The infinitive is used as a neuter substantive ( 125. 6. 1) 
 
 not only singly, but in connexion with phrases provided with an ar- 
 
 ticle, which are thus subject to all the constructions of nouns, e. g. 
 
 TO (fAaca rdya&d TOV xiqaaofitti %cdfno'nf()0t> to preserve 
 
 property is harder than to acquire it. 
 
 TO f.ifv ovv fjilooxov xaAf/V TLVO.^ uvev TOV TO, 7ifnoctyf.it vet 
 dft'/.vvvai, KoidoQia. IOTIV^O call one perjured, without show- 
 ing his deeds, is calumny. 
 10 kt'yfw cos tf*?, uiyiGiov IOTI atjfif7ov TOV (faovt'iv fv. 
 
 TO TlioVTtlv IGTIV iv TO) %Qr)G&Ul /UttAAov ij Iv TU XfXTrjO&CCl. 
 
 REM. 1. In this way, a preposition may be used, where other- 
 wise only a conjunction would be admitted, e.^g.^ 
 
 'ddrivii t QQiWf TOV? avKovg dux TO r/Ji/ oipw avivje noi- 
 trv apooqov Minerva cast away the pipes, because they 
 disfigured her countenance. 
 
 37 
 
290 SYNTAX. [ 142, 143. 
 
 Other subordinate clauses also may be interposed between the ar- 
 ticle and its infinitive, e. g. 
 
 TO df, ooa y ydf'cug 77 tyv%ri dt%tTut,, ravTct fxai/w? IxnovfTv 
 &0*4ua(t, he recommended properly to digest as much as na- 
 ture receives with pleasure. 
 
 REM. 2. The infinitive of some short parenthetical phrases ad- 
 mits of explanation from the foregoing constructions ; as from no. 
 2, the phrase an^w? fintlv in short- Thus too *)wo* doxflv means 
 as I think, which infinitive, though without TO, takes the place of 
 the accusative ; see 131. 6 and Rem. 4. 
 
 142. INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 
 
 246 1. When the infinitive has a subject, it is regularly put in the 
 accusative case. Thus in the infinitive introduced by TO, e. g. 
 
 TO afjKtQTUveiv dv&Qcuriovg ov dctvpaorov that men should 
 
 err is not surprising, 
 ovdfv lnQatfd"fj, did TO txiivov [A?J naptlvai, nothing was done, 
 
 because he was not there. 
 
 2. The infinitive is thus construed with the accusative, when, 
 after verbs on which another clause directly depends, especially 
 verbs of saying and believing, the subject of the dependent clause 
 passes into the accusative, and its verb into the infinitive, e. g. 
 
 ol pv-frokoyot pant, rov OvQavov 8wa(tttVQ<M TIQMTQV 
 TOV navTog, mythologists say, that Uranus first ruled the um- 
 x verse. 
 
 3. The subject of the infinitive is often omitted, if it is in any 
 degree already expressed in the preceding verb, as dtopai oov 
 naQa.^.ivtiv I pray thee to stay, ovvtmiiv opoloyo) I confess that I 
 assented, t<pr\ Onovtid&iv he said that he was in haste. In a case 
 like the latter, the Latin language, though addicted to this con- 
 struction, would prefer the repetition of the subject, dixit svfesti- 
 nare. 
 
 143. INFINITIVE WITH CASES. 
 
 1. If an adjective or substantive &c. be attached to the above 
 mentioned subject of the infinitive, as a farther qualification of 
 
143.] INFINITIVE WITH CASES. 291 
 
 the idea, in the way of a predicate or attribute, such adjective or 
 substantive is of course put in the accusative, if the subject-accu- 
 sative of the infinitive be expressed, e. g. wprjv Of nuQtlvcti, /u 6- 
 vov aTiavTfg vofii&fitv, xr^v yfjv aywgav twai. 
 
 2. If the subject of the infinitive be not thus expressed, an AT- 
 TRACTION. as it is called, takes place, whereby the aforesaid words 
 of qualification are placed, not in tte accusative, but in the same 
 case as the object to which they refer in the preceding clause. 
 
 Of this attraction there are two cases, viz. 
 
 1) If the subject omitted with the infinitive is likewise nomi- 
 native to the preceding finite verb on which the infinitive depends, 
 the qualification must also he in the nominative, as o '^Qavdyos 
 tqccGxtv flvat, Aio$ I'tog, Lat. dicebat SE ESSE Jovis FILIUM ; which 
 is also done, though the subject of the first verb is not express- 
 ed, e. g. 
 
 tvoptifOV ovd* aviol Gw&rjGfG&cu they thought that they them- 247 
 
 selves would not be saved- 
 tquGxtg tivat, dfGTiOTTjQ. 
 iTitiGu UVTOV* (ivut #;o. 
 
 2) If the omitted subject of the infinitive is the immediate or 
 more remote object of the preceding verb, those qualifications are 
 attached to the infinitive in that oblique case in which their sub- 
 ject is governed by the foregoing verb as its object ; e. g. 
 
 In the genitive, 
 
 idiovTO UVTOV, tivat, nQO&vfivv, they begged him to be zealous. 
 Or in the dative, 
 
 ttfoii, pot, ytveo&cu tvdaifnovi, which may also be express- 
 
 ed in Latin, licet illis esse beatis. 
 
 an tin fv avTo7$ vavrutQ tlvui he forbade them to be navi- 
 gators. 
 z not.fGt, TOVTO /uaAAoi' KvGiTttel, $ dovlcti? o<p&rjvcu yi- 
 
 Or, finally, in the accusative, in which case it coincides with the 
 principal rule, as xft.tvco GC eivai, nQQ&Vfiov. 
 
 REM. 1. The same attraction holds, where the clause which 
 contains the infinitive, has the article TO before jt, e. g. 
 
 o TO ov^tQOv w(H dw TO (ftt.avTOi iivo.t> they live mere- 
 ly for profit, because they are selfish. 
 
292 SYNTAX. [ 144. 
 
 TM ypcxqfig anotyuytiv Demosthe- 
 ud in having escaped when accused. 
 ov yap lxTit'i*HOi>Tat> Int ro7 dpyhot. aAA' inl TW of.ioioi To7g 
 teinofAivoig livui they (colonists) are not sent out as being 
 like slaves, but as being like those which remain behind. 
 ty>' T\yCiv ion TO fnitMtot v.u.1 q.-avJiotg flvctt it depends up- 
 
 on us to be reasonable or corrupt. 
 
 If, however, the subject of the infinitive is included in the pre- 
 ceding clause as accusative, the infinitive has as usual the accu- 
 sative with it, as Im'dti'gt rag no far flag npO%oi>Gag IM dwuiOTi- 
 pug tlvai, he showed that states had the advantage by being more just. 
 REM. 2. Also in the construction with wgit (see 141. 4) the 
 nominative is joined with the infinitive, if the first clause require 
 it, as ovdflg T^kwovTog fOTW nay viuv, ugTt Tovg vo^ovf Tiaptx- 
 fiag pi] dovvai dix?]v let no one be so great among you, that, break- 
 ing the laws he can go unpunished. 
 
 REM. 3. The infinitive is sometimes used quite absolutely, in- 
 stead of wish, request, order ; and this, in the third person, either 
 with the subject in the accusative, as yvftvdv anflpfiv, yvpvov dt 
 248 POWTHV (where the subject is to be assumed to be the indefinite 
 third person, r/<?, though Virgil has rendered it in the second, nu- 
 dus ara, sere nudus\ or impersonally, as w Zfv, i*ytviQ&ai pot 
 *^4&t]vai'ovg TioctGftai, may it be conceded to me. Still more fre- 
 quently the infinitive is used instead of the imperative of the sec- 
 ond person, and in this case the subject and all that belongs to it, 
 if expressed at all, are^ expressed in the nominative, e. g. 
 
 '^M ov/ ail]}' A%i\i]\\ftiow Inl vr\aq '^f%ui(jji>, Eini~iv. 
 
 HOMER. 
 
 av d* aoa ti TW [trjXM novtav a%&y, /w>; 'tpl aiTicia&ui IQV- 
 TWV, blame me not therefor. 
 
 144. CONSTRUCTION WITH THE RELATIVE. 
 
 1. The construction with the relatives og, oaog, oTog, &c. (of 
 which the construction with the participle is only an abridged 
 form,) is not used to express connexion alone, but also expresses 
 the ground, cause, or other circumstance usually denoted by a 
 conjunction, e. g. 
 
 &av(4U(JTOv noitUg, og r\^v ovdtv didwg, thou doest strangely, 
 
 in that thou givest us nothing. 
 
 al slfjyiitti tptyoux^t^OP, t^v (.IVJTI-OCI, ol'ojv Ttxvcov Mvpyof, 
 i. e. on TOIOVTOJV Ten. exup. the Jlrgive dames blessed the 
 mother that she had such children. 
 
144.] CONSTRUCTION WITH THE RELATIVE. 293 
 
 So, particularly with the subjunctive, to express design or ad- 
 vantage ; e. g. 
 
 slg xaAof iJjMy avrog odf TT^X^'^TO, w f.ifTado)pfv iijg 
 oxt'ytwg opportunely has he sat down by us with whom we 
 can share the inquiry. 
 
 2. The nature of the relative construction properly requires, 
 that the first verb have a noun, and the second a relative refer- 
 ring to it, and each in the case demanded by the clause in which 
 it stands ; e. g. 
 
 oviog taTtv d uvrjo ov tidtg. 
 
 TfUlV 71UVTWV, 6<7 TlttQrjV. 
 
 ovx /w, (pTivt, niGTtuacu av dvvai^v. 
 But the substantive of the first verb is often omitted, and attach- 
 ed to the relative in the second clause, and in the same case, e. g. 
 
 oviog itSTiv, ov fldeg avdoa. 
 
 oi'x low, rivTivu ovx r)Qev aQ%nv, there is no office which he 
 hath not held. 
 
 Often, when emphasis requires it, the clause so constructed 
 precedes, as oV tldts at/^a, ovrog IGTIV. 
 
 3. When the noun (either in the genitive or dative) to which 
 the relative refers, is without a demonstrative, like oi-iog or fxfl- 
 vog, the relative, otherwise in the accusative, is put in the same 
 case with the noun by ATTRACTION ; e. g. 
 
 ptTadidwg UVTM TOV a/iot', ovTifp avrog t%fig thouimpartest 
 to him of the food, which thou thyself hast. 
 
 Here ovnfy, on account of the genitive aiiov, to which it re- 
 fers, is in the genitive instead of being in the accusative ovnfQ, 
 which the verb i'%tig requires. In like manner the following. 
 
 (v jiyogytafTctt, TO/? qr/Ao?, oTg t%ii. he treats well the friends 
 
 whom he has. 
 
 rco qyffiiovt niajevaofuv, uav Kvpog dq7, for 6V civ A'^o? dw. 
 HjjcayGug fteyodiDv for^iaTwv, ow 6 ttl.wv tTitryantio 
 
 avioj. 
 
 REM. 1. This construction became so prevalent as sometimes 
 to remain, though the first^ noun had a demonstrative expressed : 
 as ol dr t t.iiQVQyol zm'ron', ojv 
 
 4. The noun, by which" the relative is thus attracted, is often 
 transported into the clause with the relative, where, together 
 
294 SYNTAX. [ 144. 
 
 with the relative, it stands in the case governed by the verb on 
 which it depends ; e. g. 
 
 UWM, ovTitp txvros i'%tis ahov. 
 
 wv 'yw uyu&uv. 
 
 oTg tinov nQOOTCtTaig, evdwljjiovtg r\Gav (from y[Q^- 
 TipoaraTr, to have a magistrate) having those magis- 
 trates, which I have named^ they were prosperous- 
 
 Sometimes there is at the same time an inversion, which sounds 
 very strange, as oTg t%ti gp&otff, t v nQogq>tQTa.t,, the friends whom he 
 hath, he treats well. 
 
 5. The noun is sometimes wholly omitted, giving to the rela- 
 tive the appearance of belonging directly to the preceding clause, 
 
 e. g. 
 
 f.iff*vr][4ti>o<s wv *7rpf, for /w^u/^/uiVo? xwv nQctypaTCtiv, MV 
 nd this fora tnya'&v. 
 a'AAo OTyaTfVfAa npos (o npoG'dfv ti%t (for 
 
 UQOO-&6V *^f.) 
 
 250 And with the inversion, oTs i'/w ^pw^a^, for a J;f(w, TOVTOIS 
 
 fltU. 
 
 REM. 2. In one case the nominative of the relative undergoes 
 this attraction. When in an entire clause the nominative of the 
 relative oTo? would stand with the verb tivcci (as navu ydfcag ya- 
 Qi^ovTCit uvdQi TOIOVIW, oTo g ov ft, they would gladly please such 
 a man as thou art,) not only the demonstrative but the verb f Ivan, 
 is omitted, and the relative is then so attracted by the leading 
 clause, that together with all the nominatives connected with it, 
 it assumes the case of the noun, to which it refers, and is even in- 
 serted before it, as navv yfa'wg xaQi'&VTCti O'IM ool avtigl. 
 
 REM. 3. When the relative, by means of a verb like to be, to 
 name^ to believe, &c. is joined with a noun, in the same case, it 
 conforms itself, in gender and number, to this noun, and not to 
 that, which is its proper antecedent ; e. g. 
 
 nciQfGTiv aviM qo{jog, r\v aidai xaAo/u*i/, he has a fear, which 
 
 we call modesty. 
 TOV ovyuvov, OVQ dtj nohovg xahovffiv. 
 
 Or with omission of the first noun, e. g. 
 
 tlalv iv r t [uv, ug ilnidag ovopct&ftsi', there are (emotions) in 
 ns, which we call hopes. 
 
5 145.] CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. 295 
 
 145. CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 1. The Greek language, having participles for most of the 
 tenses, makes a far more extensive use of them, than other lan- 
 guages. By combining their use with that of the relative and in- 
 finitive, many clauses can be interwoven with each other, without 
 confusion ; e. g. 
 
 Here is the object of idovxag, this the subject of 
 
 and this dependent on yyfiro : he related only those things, of which 
 
 he believed, that they had died, who saw them. 
 
 2. Not only those verbs, which are connected with other verbs 
 by relatives, but almost every verb introduced in English with as, 
 because, after that, so that, although, (whose subject has been already 
 named with the preceding verb) is, with the omission of those par- 
 ticles, converted into a participle of the same case as its subject- 
 verb ; as tTifOxtnTOfAijv TOV iicuQov VOGOVVTCC, which may signify, 
 according to the context, either, / visited my comrade, who was 
 sick, or when or because he was sick. 
 
 roj f,ifya).co ftuGitel ov TIUTQIOV tanv avdpog axpoa<7# ^ 
 noogxvvriGui'ios, it is not the hereditary custom of the great 
 king, to hear a person who does not (or, if he do not) fall 
 down before him. 
 
 to do7|U (5wr)QfjLO(nai aoi, uixydv ptpo? Kupovii ZXCCGTOV, thy 
 body has been composed by taking a small part from every 
 thing. 
 
 REM. 1. The participles, which express the ideas of after that 
 or in that, in translating both from Greek and Latin, may often with 
 advantage be made to precede the verb, with which they are con- 
 nected, with the conjunction and between ; e. g. 
 
 ovTtntiit ra$ yvoJfAug *i*S **, lav n &'/?, ntevaif'ov f!$ rag 
 
 V(XV$ CtUTOtS tfA^OLGiV. 
 
 Here, as usual, Jthe personal pronoun r^jCiv is omitted with nfav- 
 GTtov for avTOtg here means selves agreeing with (ttpaai, and that 
 with qpiv understood,) and the whole is to be rendered we must 
 make up our minds, that we ourselves, if necessary, WILL EMBARK on 
 board the vessels AND sail. 
 
 3. The participle of the future is used to express the force of 
 in order to in English ; e. g. 
 
296 SYNTAX. [ 145. 
 
 o -Kvoog tncpipe TOP fwppvav 
 
 Cyrus, having learned this, sent Gobryas in order to see 
 TQV adwuZvTO, Tiuyd roug dixuoiug (iyftv dtl dlxqv doj 
 
 in order that he be punished. 
 zovg GV(ii[ta%ovg del Gcofciv, xai rovgiovio noirjGovTccg GTOCC- 
 
 tiojTag IxfttfjintlP, and to send forth troops in order to effect 
 
 this. 
 
 4. Certain verbs (which will appear in the examples) govern 
 a participle, in cases where we should use a verb with that. As 
 in other participial constructions, such a participle (regarded as a 
 verb) has either the same subject as the preceding verb, and in 
 that case is in the nominative, or it has a different subject, and 
 stands with the same in an oblique case, as an object more or less 
 direct of the preceding verb. 
 
 a) Examples of the nominative, where, as usual, the proper 
 subject word may be omitted. 
 
 atff%in>0[Jiai TUUTU noiwv or noirjoctg I am ashamed, that I do, 
 or have done this. Whereas aloyvvofjiui noiflv would mean , 
 / am ashamed to do this. 
 
 (At[Ai>qGO av&fjcoTiog wv remember that thou art a man. 
 ov Gvvitaav (naTyv novovvxtg they understood not that they 
 
 laboured in vain. 
 dia(3f{jfa][.ii:'i>OG ov pavfiavfig ; discernest thou not that thou 
 
 hast been deceived ? 
 
 252 *v ft 7 ft V ctvio? ivdaifAcav r t dfi yfyov(*t<S nohrtta, in which 
 
 city he was conscious of having become happy, olda yfyova)$ 
 meaning / know that I have become. 
 
 oxonov(A6vo cvQtGttov ovda[A,ojg av ahkojg TOVTO dianQa^a/m- 
 vog on reflection I found that I could not do this otherwise. 
 ISOCR. ( 140 Rem. 2.) 
 Hence too with a passive verb, e. g. 
 
 ypag dnarwv he is convicted of having deceived 
 
 o (frlKimiog TYIV Okvvftov TroAjopxcui/, it was an- 
 nounced, that Philip besieged Olynthus. 
 
 b) Examples of the accusative. 
 ol Itioocti dia^vri^ovfvovGi TQV KVQOV tyovTa cpvoiv the 
 
 Persians relate that Cyrus had , from which passively o 
 
 Kvfjog dia^ivri^iovfveTui %ojv. 
 oidct Gviolcov TCO TO, fikiiGiv. tinovTi I know that it will re- 
 
 dound to his advantage, who shall give the best counsel, (im- 
 
 personal construction 
 
145.] CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. 297 
 
 c) Examples of the genitive and dative. 
 
 TJG^O^V aviwv olof4t'i/tav iHvut, GoqwiaTwv I perceived, that 
 they thought themselves very wise. o(fOJTai(av is foraoqro)- 
 TUTOVZ by the attraction mentioned 143. 2. 2. 
 HydtTiOTt (ttttfidiyat pot aiytjaavti, (p&tytafuvu dt jroMaxf?, 
 it has never repented me, that I kept silence, but often that I 
 spoke, (from ptTapifai pot, it repents me-) SIMONTDES. 
 ovdtv diaqtofi lot itfo'movTi, ji/Xya rj 6[.tixo6t> v(f-f)iO[Afv(p? 
 it differs not to the thief (in his punishment), whether he have 
 stolen little or much. 
 
 REM. 2. Jn such verbs as have the reflective pronoun, as avv- 
 oida. t'ttai'rqj I am conscious, this participle may be in a twofold 
 case ; e. g. 
 
 ovvoida luuvTO) Goqog wv. PLATO. 
 
 Gttviot avvrfietS adwovvTi. DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 tuviov ovdtis opoloyfi xaxovyyo? wv. GNOM. We might also 
 
 say y.v.xovfj'yQv oaro. 
 
 REM. 3. Also the verbs, which signify the cessation of an ac- 
 tion, have a participle, where we employ the infinitive ; e. g. 
 
 tnavoaif UVTOV OTQUTTjyouvTct ye have made him cease to be 
 
 general. 
 
 ov ^lou "//j.ioojv, I will not cease to rejoice- 
 
 REM. 4. The participles of the verbs, from which a nominative 253 
 depends, as fivai, xaJU?0#*, change this nominative commonly 
 into the case in which they standj e. g. 
 
 vpiv 6f ovatv 'A&nvaiotS ov noinfi to you, being Athenians, 
 
 it is not becoming. 
 
 InoQfvovio did TWV Jffhvoqayojv xtdovfuvtov &ptf*(ov, 
 where, in resolving the phrase, Oouxt? is the subject of 
 
 REM. 5. Sometimes that which in signification would be the 
 chief verb, is made a participle, and depends on another verb, 
 which itself takes the place of an advert); e.g. 
 
 TVfYavtiv (happen) ; of? de iJAtfoi', e*v%tv dniwv, as I cqme, 
 
 he happened to be going. 
 
 larfravtn (to be concealed) ; TO.VTV. noiyoag tKa&tv vntxqw- 
 ywv having done this, he escaped unperceived ; or in respect 
 to the subject itself, TOV qovtu Ka.vfia.vti fiooxo/jv he feeds un- 
 consciously his murderer ; tladt nfcwv he fell unobserved. 
 ty&avtiv (to anticipate) ; ttpfhj* dqfkcav I took it away just 
 before. 
 
 v (remain) ; diartfai naowv he continues to be present. 
 (rejoice) ; %aioovo(,v fnaivovvTf? they gladly praise. 
 
 38 
 
298 SYNTAX. [ 146. 
 
 146. CASE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 1. In the foregoing rules, the participle has depended on some 
 of the nouns belonging to the leading verb of the sentence, and 
 has been, of consequence, in the same case as those nouns. If a 
 new noun be introduced as a subject, it is put with the participle 
 in a case independent of the verb, and called absolute. 
 
 2. The most common instance is that, where a noun and par- 
 ticiple are put absolute in the genitive. The original force of the 
 genitive absolute was an expression of time, according to 132. 
 5. 3. Now, as VVXTOS means by night time, so also 
 
 lf.iov xufitvdoi'TOQ TVVTCC tyt'vtTO means at the time that I slept> 
 
 this happened. 
 nuvTwv ovv GiwnwvTWv tine roiudt 'while all men were silent, 
 
 he spake as follows. 
 [Afta TUVTU HUftafwvTQS yd?! TOV TlfkonovvrjOiaxov noKt^ov 
 
 t7ii(j TOV dt][j.ov, At(jxu(jaioi ccnooif^.at pofptewtv, 
 
 REM. I. If this duration of time is ascertained by a historical 
 person, the preposition tni is often used with these genitives. 
 
 Thus Inl KVQOV fiaGiXtvoviog, Cyro regnante, in the reign of Cy- 
 rus. 
 
 3. This construction is adopted not only to express time, but 
 every idea expressed in English by if, since, because, in that, &c. 
 e. g. 
 
 t 
 
 dt TOJV Tlohtf-llfOV TT t 7IoA.fl, klftOQ IJTTTtTO TtUV 
 
 while the enemies besieged the city, famine assailed 
 the Romans. 
 
 ftyjTXGrq? TOV fiuGifa'tag r&7 viol avrou ivttv% inasmuch as 
 the king was dead, he applied to his son. 
 ov didoi'TO?, ovdiv 'iayvei ga#oVo, if a god grant a gift, en- 
 vy prevaileth not. 
 
 TOVTWV OVTWg l"/OVT(t)V, fttfalOV f'(JTV.l TlfOlfAfVflV, SIHCC things 
 
 are thus circumstanced, it will be better to wait. 
 
 REM. 2. If the noun be obvious from the context, the partici- 
 ple may stand by itself, in the genitive, as nuoovra TOV yytpova 
 jpSwvro, (jmovTOZ 6t ijattyatvoi', where there is an omission of av- 
 TOV with anovTOg when he was absent. The same holds of imper- 
 sonals, as vfi it rains, vOfrTQg as it rained. 
 
 REM. 3. In certain cases, nominatives and accusatives absolute 
 are used. With such impersonals as e$<Fi** it is permitted, UQI- 
 
147.] ADVERBS. 
 
 Tiei it is becoming (see 1 29 Rem. 3), the absolute case is always 
 the nominative or accusative of the neuter participle, e. g. 
 
 did TI fifW^, t'gov unlives, why dost thou remain, when it is 
 
 lawful to depart ? 
 
 REM. 4. Datives absolute are also used, particularly in state- 
 ments of time, e. g. 
 
 nfouovTi roj tvictVTfo -naktv (faivovat qoovo&v Inl ii]V JEZjUv 
 as the YEAR elapsed, they make another demonstration against 
 fife, 
 
 To this rule may be reduced such datives joined to the verbs 
 ttvut or yiyvea&at, as these, viz. 
 
 ft 001 ijd'of.itvat liftt if it be agreeable to thee. 
 f'i aot, ftovKofAtvw IOTI if it be according to thy wish, 
 REM. 5. When an expression indicates a reason in the mind of 
 a third person, why he does a thing, this is commonly done with 
 the conjunction co? or eo'en^, and accusatives or genitives abso- 
 lute; ^e. or. 
 
 *<uoma, 0)$ navies fidorag or TTUVTMV tidoTWv, he held his 
 peace, because all knew &,c- 
 
 o TIGCTIO^S fioyovai Tovg vfg TTO TOJV 
 
 TI]V TOVTOW Ofuhiav dwkvGt* OVGUV aofr/;^, fathers re- 
 
 strain their children from bad men, as intercourse with them 
 is the destruction of virtue. 
 
 x TOVTMV ov 
 
 they neglect their brothers, as if no friends could be 
 formed from them. 
 
 THE PARTICLES. 
 147. ADVERBS. 
 
 1. Adverbs derived from adjectives, especially comparatives 
 and superlatives, govern the same case as their adjectives ; as 
 a'S/eo? r t f.iwv no^ffA^ao^ttv we will wage war worthily of ourselves ; ncr 
 
 TKXVTCDV most of all ; ol m'vrjTf? TWV fvduipovojv ^uaAAot/ 
 la&ltiv Tf xui Ka&tvfoiv better than the rich. See 132. 
 4. e. 
 
 2. Adverbs approaching the nature of prepositions, govern the 
 case of the preposition which they resemble, as opov and apa to- 
 gether govern a dative, (like aiiv with,) and are sometimes used as 
 adverbs, sometimes as prepositions! Thus all prepositions may 
 properly be called adverbs. 
 
300 SYNTAX. [ J48. 
 
 Adverbs of time and place in like manner govern the genitive ; 
 as lyyvs near (f-yyv? vivog}, #twp/? apart, 'without, diya twofold, se- 
 parate, without, tv&v obviam, towards. 
 
 3. Other adverbs are related to verbs and whole sentences, and 
 in this way connect two sentences ; especially the relative adverbs, 
 as na@tGO(ACxi onoxt ufhtuoeig I shall be present, WHEN you command 
 it. This is the origin of conjunctions, and strictly speaking, ev- 
 ery particle connecting in this manner, should be called a con- 
 junction, especially if it has an influence on the verb (like that of 
 the preposition on the noun), and according to circumstances gov- 
 erns a mode depending upon it. Thus a%Qt, or pt%Qt> and &> gov- 
 ern the subjunctive or optative mode, when uncertainty is express- 
 ed, as ntpifttvw i'ojg or [AtX^^ "'" *'^J7 tM he come ; but when 
 certainty is expressed, the indicative, as noiyaov TOVTO i'w$ tTt> 
 e'&GTt do this so long as it is still lawful. 
 
 REMARK. TIKriv signifies except, and may be connected with 
 phrases, as nlrjvti except if. It also governs the genitive, asTrA^V 
 TIKVV oA/yojf with the exception of very few 
 
 4. It has already been observed, 125. 5, that particles joined 
 with the article become nouns. 
 
 148. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. The following are the most common prepositions, express- 
 ing the most general notions of place, viz. 
 
 avTi, ano, 1$ (*x), UQO governing the genitive 
 iv, ovv (ui') the dative 
 uvotf tig, o)g the accusative 
 diet, xr, vntQ the genitive and accusative 
 cifityi, tni, /uTa, nuQ<x, ntQt, n(jo$, vno the genitive, dative, 
 and accusative. 
 
 2. Those prepositions which govern different cases, answer, 
 for the most part, to the question -whither with the accusative, and 
 to the question where with the dative. The genitive admits of 
 various significations, though more or less connected with the idea 
 out of f from. 
 
148.] PREPOS1TI 301 
 
 REM. 1. Of the foregoing prepositions, the easiest and simplest, 
 in respect to meaning, are these, viz. 
 nd, from, i| out of 
 
 fig to or into, in answer to the question whither ? 
 iv in, in answer to the question where ? 
 Tioo before, oil- with. 
 
 For most of the significations which these prepositions bear, 256 
 (with the exception of some peculiarities which the course of 
 study will teach,) admit of being reduced to the leading idea here 
 assigned to them respectively ; as when t implies the reason and 
 is rendered on account of, e. g. 
 
 fx TOVTOV on account of that, (therefore). 
 Or when it signifies mere sequence of time, e. g. 
 
 vvv yt).ta t uv ex iwv nQO&&tv daxQVanr. 
 
 So when fig, like the Latin in, has the force of against, or merely 
 indicates reference or relation, e. g. 
 
 iroi* eig noltfiov eniGnjfifav tort*. 
 
 Or finally, when rroo has the force of the Latin pro or the English 
 in behalf of, e. g. 
 
 diuy.tfdvi'fi'fiv TTOO TOU fiaoikfojg. 
 
 In all these cases the connexion of the modified meaning of 
 the preposition with its original signification is obvious. 
 
 REM. 2. On the other hand, the following are more arbitrary 
 and difficult to remember. 
 
 ' Avd signified at first on, (comp. dvoj and its compounds.) But 
 its most common signification in prose is in, upon, through, under- 
 stood ^of some large space or time ; e. g. 
 a.va Tianav Tr t v yr t v in the it-hole earth' 
 y qqui, f/.fttv uvd T^V TTO/.II> the report prevailed through the 
 
 whole city. 
 
 ol ana TO Titdtov those throughout the plain, 
 ava nuGav n]v tjfilpw throughout the whole day. 
 Avil, as a single preposition, has lost its original signification 
 of against (see Rem. 8 below), and most frequently signifies in- 
 stead, fir, in the ideas of change, exchange, purchase, value, &c. 
 
 Aia TOV, through, spoken of space and the means ; did TOV, on 
 account of,' e. g. 
 
 dice ^iuy.fdutftoviorg i'yvyov they were banished on account of 
 
 the Lacedemonians, 
 dta oe ftK&ov I came on thy account- 
 
 Aia with the accusative also expresses through, when it signifies 
 cause ; e. g^ 
 
 did TOig &fov$ ev TrodxTW through the gods I am prosperous. 
 Mfrd TOV, after (post) ftfid TOV, with pttu rw, only in the 
 poets^ among (inter}. 
 
 Apy'i and Tifol TOV signify about ; which lies at the bottom of 
 all merely approximating specifications, e.g. 
 
302 SYNTAX. [ 148. 
 
 pi TO, oor) tft'wtto he was about^ the mountains. 
 For the idea ctpipi or nfyi TI or TIVU t%iw or tlvat,, to belong to or 
 to be occupied about something, see below 151. 
 
 Ilept ro>, with the idea of care for something, is attached to 
 verbs of fear, anxiety, confidence, or contention, '^wqu and nfot 
 TOV signify of (de), concerning, (as to speak of.) So too tyofttlG&ai,, 
 ytlovfixfie ntpi TWOS. '-^uqn', however, is far less common than 
 nfyi in this sense. 
 
 Tnty i6i>, over, farther, beyond, (supra, ultra,) vnto TOV, over, 
 above. This last receives the modified meaning of instead, in be- 
 half of, particularly in a sense of defence, care, e. g. 
 
 nodrTtiv, tintiv vnto TOV xoivov, to act, to speak in behalf of 
 
 the public. 
 
 uno&avtiv vjiio TOV (jpilov to die for his friend. 
 
 257 REM. 3. That the genitive inclines to the idea of from, depar- 
 ture, &,c. is plain from naud, npoe and vno. These prepositions 
 with the dative and accusative retain their peculiar significations, 
 but with the genitive, they are all three most commonly to be 
 translated by from. The following instances of their use deserve 
 particular remark, viz. 
 
 nayu TOV, to ; but in answer to the question where, near or 
 
 next to. 
 
 Besides this it has the signification of the Latin praeter, besides, be- 
 yond ; e. g.^ 
 
 t%tiv oyov TKXQU TOV UQTQV besides the bread to have meat. 
 
 $nov*i Tiaoa, Tovg ofJUoi/f he laboured more than others. 
 
 Tccvra tan naga Tovg TWV ftfuv Gcwpiwg this is against the 
 
 divine laws. 
 
 Tiaoa dotzav against expectation, (praeter opinionem.) 
 II(x(ja TM means simply with ; nuQa TOV means from, after 
 verbs signifying come, bring, receive, learn, &LC. and sometimes af- 
 ter the passive. 
 
 Ilpog, to, with, has the accusative rather in answer to the ques- 
 tion whither, and the dative in answer to where; -noog TOV more- 
 over, means against in every signification ; nyog TOU on the part of, 
 after verbs signifying hear, receive praise or censure, and often after 
 the passive. It is also used in obtestation, as TT^O'S TWV &ewv by 
 the gods.^ 
 
 ' Trio tov under, both to a place and in it ; vno TM under, in a 
 place ; vno TOU from, after passives, and actives involving a passive 
 sense, as natrfttv. So also 
 
 ftavtlv vno Ttvog to die by means of. 
 Hufttlv vn ai>ayxii to be taught by necessity. 
 Even actions may in this way assume a passive form, as enotvjof 
 TOVTO vno dt'ovg from fear. 
 
 HEM. 4 The greatest attention is due to the prepositions tni 
 and xara, with respect to which, though observation of the single 
 
148.] PREPOSITIONS. 303 
 
 cases of their use must be resorted to, the following principles 
 prevail, viz. 
 
 ' L-xi has for its leading idea on ; and in answer to the question 
 where most commonly governs the genitive, though sometimes 
 the dative, (as *V i'n:iov Q%K9&at and Aupo icf ITITCO) 7100 fuf- 
 TO) ; in answer to the question whither, the accusative, (as * m Ao- 
 <fOi> Tii'U xctTccqfvyfi he flies to a certain hill) But at the same 
 time it is applied in a more general sense for at or in, and, in an- 
 swer to the question whither, for towards or to, whenever the con- 
 nexion of the sentence sufficiently indicates the more exact idea 
 of these expressions; and with the accusative it particularly de- 
 notes a certain direction to or towards. But besides this, it gov- 
 erns the genitive after the question whither, meaning towards, to, 
 
 > V * 
 Tit 2,ccpota)v. 
 
 (they sailed} em rr; Xlov. 
 
 nl TOV often fixes a time by a cotemporaneous person or thing. 
 
 in our days. 
 tTii TUV qprf(MM> 
 
 'ETII T(O, in denoting place, signifies hard by, e. g. 
 
 ITII Tr t TU(f(jo> on the verge of the ditch. 
 
 Tivpyov* frtl rw rrora ( co coxodoiiei. 
 It also expresses in addition to, like irpo'c, e. g. 
 
 ITTI TictGi I'OVTOi* KJLtjfitQ hrit/uvt [ioi. 
 Very often it expresses design and condition, e. g. 
 
 7iaoctGXvafG&ui ijii TIVI, to prepare one's self for any thing. 
 
 ITI ITUXVW -novov vntdvfTO. 
 
 Inl TOVTOIS fiyrjvrjv tTiotrfiavTO on these conditions they made 
 
 peace. Compare below 151, lq' to. 
 Finally em rw expresses power, in such phrases as 
 
 tq r t fnlv ion, it is in our power. See 143 Rem. 1. 
 The accusative also often expresses the design, the end, but 
 with a distinction like the following, viz. 
 eh&f7i> lm TOVTM to come to effect this. 
 &&e7v Ini TOVTO to come after this (i. e. to take this). 
 
 Kara. The leading signification of this preposition, (as appears 
 from the comparison of xarw and the compounds.) \sfrom ; with 
 the genitive down from ; e. g. 
 
 xr i(<)i> TTfTOOiv oirrTfiv Ttvuto cast one down from the rocks. 
 
 X7 TOV Tft'/OVQ. 
 
 More frequently xr TOV occurs in the sense of to, against, chief- 
 ly with verbs signifying speak, think, &c. e. g. 
 
 eijiflv TO <*/. /;#*' xr TII>O$ to speak the truth against any one. 
 Kuto. TOV, spoken of a place, expresses the being in a place, in the 
 most general sense, without more particular specification, e. g. 
 
304 SYNTAX. [ 143. 
 
 yqv xui xara ftakuTTctv by land and sea. 
 ol xr T^v '^foiav vno fiaaikti oircg those in Asia subject to 
 
 the king. 
 
 Kara TOV expresses therefore every modification of time, place. 
 and relation, resulting from the ideas themselves, e.g. 
 oixovat Kara xco^uag they dwell in villages (vicatim) 
 laxijvovv xr iutig they encamped in divisions. 
 TCCVTU (Atv iytvixo xaia ii]v vooov this happened during the 
 disease. 
 
 OVTOJV 
 
 v the Lacedemonians being at this variance with 
 the Athenians. 
 
 at xarw ro GW(.ia Tjdoval corporeal pleasures. 
 xaia -nuvia, TtTyvyajvTai they are in every thing exhausted. 
 Very often is XT used to express the Latin secundum, accord- 
 ing to, e. . 
 
 ttaia TOUTOV TOV \oyov aptivov torw OVTOJS according to this 
 
 discourse it is better thus. 
 XCCTCC flflictTtovct according to Plato. 
 xccru T?]V xaftfTOv according to the plumb-line. 
 Tioirjoco Kara TO, TOV /2a<jU*ft* yQapnuxa I will act according 
 
 to the rescript of the king. 
 dtOfAui O.VTOV xaia navia. TQOUQV I have need of him in every 
 
 way. 
 
 REM. 5. The preposition ojg must not be confounded with the 
 adverb or conjunction co?. It signifies <o, in reply to whither ? and 
 always refers to persons ; e. g. 
 
 eigqk&fv co? ?^u6 he came in to me. 
 259 oi.vriy$i]Guv eJ ffaaifa'a they travelled to the king. 
 
 This preposition never enters into composition with a verb. 
 
 REM. 6. The case after the preposition is sometimes omitted, 
 when it would require to be repeated from what precedes ; the 
 preposition thus used stands adverbially. In prose the Greek lan- 
 guage permits this only with JT^O'S, as- xal itpo?, HQOG dt, moreo- 
 ver, and further, besides. 
 
 REM. 7. That prepositions in the anastrophe, that is, with 
 change of accent, sometimes follow their case, and sometimes 
 stand for the compounds with tivui, has already been observed 
 above in 117. 2. 
 
 REM. 8. Prepositions in composition have in general their orig- 
 inal signification. The compounds of fi/, however, have mostly 
 the signification against, as avxiiOLTTtiv to array against, ctvTifoyti>v 
 contradict ; those of W to ascend, and those of xara to descend, as 
 
 Of significations more or less remote from the primitive mean- 
 ing of the word, the following deserve remark, viz. 
 
149.] NEGATIVES. 305 
 
 u t u(fi,- with the idea of two sides, as a 1 a<jc//?oAo equivocal, <x[4(pi- 
 orofto? opening on both sides. 
 
 ava- means often back, as avu-xhtlv to sail back. 
 
 diu- acquires the idea of the Latin dis, apart, as diaanav to 
 sunder, 8iatvyvvvtu disjungere, to separate. 
 
 xuia- most frequently has the idea of completion, as xarcc- 
 nQUTTtiv perficere, to accomplish, to fulfil ; GTQttftw to turn, 
 xaTa<JTOt'(f{t,v to turn around ; ntpTiodvui to burn, xctTctni[.i- 
 HQU.VUI 1o consume. Hence it has come to express the idea 
 of destruction, as xaTaxvpfUfiv xr\v ovoiuv to waste a for- 
 tune at dice. In both cases it corresponds to the Latin per 
 in composition. 
 
 (ttTa- is used to express the idea of change and transposition, 
 (the Latin trans), as lAtTuptfiu&u' to bring to another place, 
 fteTCtvQfi* to change opinion, to repent. 
 
 naaa- from its signification of praeter in some compounds im- 
 plies failure, and falsity, as nuoccfiaivtw TOV$ vopovs to 
 break the laws, nccoooav to overlook, 7iuodG7iov6o a violator 
 of truce, (onovdni.) 
 
 149. NEGATIVES. 
 
 1. The Greek language has two simple negatives, ov and py, 
 from which all the more qualified negatives are formed by com- 
 position. Every proposition, however, containing one or more of 
 these qualified negatives is, in general, affected in the same way 
 as if the simple negatives only, of which it is compounded, occur- 
 red in it. Every thing therefore, about to b<? affirmed of ov, holds 
 equally of ovde, oudti'g, ovdupwQ, &c. and the same with respect 
 to fArj, prjdflg, &c. 
 
 2. But between ov and pr] and their respective compounds, 
 there is a total difference of use, which requires for its compre- 
 hension an exact observation of the classical writers ; but of which 
 the foundation is as follows. 
 
 a) Ov is the direct independent negation, which utters, without 
 reference to any thing else, the judgment or decision of denial^; 
 as oux Ifi-tlto I will not, ov q.d(o I love not, oix ayuftov IGTIV, ov- 
 dti<3 naorjv &c. A direct negation of this kind can never be ex- 
 pressed by,M?j or its compounds. Such a denial may, however, be 260 
 expressed as uncertain, as orx nv povlolftTjv I would not wish; ar 
 39 
 
306 SYNTAX. [ 149. 
 
 it may be interrogatively expressed, as dux. TL yap ov 
 'why is he not present ? 
 
 b) Mr], on the other hand, is uniformly a dependent negative. 
 It is therefore used in all propositions where the negation is repre- 
 sented not as a fact, but as something dependent on the concep- 
 tion of a subject. It is accordingly the necessary particle in neg- 
 ative conditions and premises, as ov ky^'opai, fl (41? GV xtkeitis. 
 And thus pij is always used with #, *i/, r { v, oiuv, ffjft^Kv, tug, 
 i/, &c. since all these represent a fact, not as such, but as a sup- 
 position or assumption. On the other hand *;i*/, f;u*<foy, (since, 
 after that), take ov, because they always refer to actual facts, as 
 urj [4,e XTf7v, Infl ov/ 0{*oyd(JTpi,og r 'xTOo6<S fif*t, kill me not, as 
 I am not the brother of Hector. HOMER. Dependent also is every 
 proposition implying design ; and hence /?; is used after i'vu, (o$, 
 onwg, wgif, whenever these particles have that import. 
 
 c) Mt], without any such particle, and standing by itself, ex- 
 presses design, wish, prayer, prohibition, in cases, where the Latins 
 use ne and not non. 
 
 d) In the multitude of cases, in which |U?J is used after relatives, 
 with infinitives, and participles, it is commonly easy to point out 
 the dependent or conditional character of the negation. 
 
 3. When [ty expresses a wish* it has always the optative, as 
 (i?l ytvoiTO, prj idoie TOVTO. In negative prayers and commands, it 
 takes the present tense or the aorist, according as the action is 
 conceived of as permanent or momentary, (which however is often 
 arbitrary, according to 138. 5.) with this rule, viz. That with 
 the present it takes only the imperative mode, with the aorist only 
 the subjunctive, as pr) pe /?AA, or pr} fif /?aA^. 
 
 4. The expression of a fear, which is positive in English, is 
 made negatively in Greek as in Latin, didoixu |U?j TI na&yt vereor 
 ne quid accidat illi, I fear lest somewhat befal him- 
 
 It is obvious from 140. 2, 3, that this subjunctive in connec- 
 tion with the past time and in dependent clauses passes into the 
 optative. 
 
 REM. 1. Sometimes the verb, which expresses the fear or the 
 warning, remains in the idea, and py in this case makes of itself a 
 proposition, e. g. 
 
 Hi} TOVTO aAAcu %YI I fear lest this be otherwise. 
 
 5. Mr t is often only an emphatic particle of interrogation (whose 
 negative quality is extinguished), somewhat stronger than [iwv, 
 as [ty doxii ooi TOVTO elvcu, fvrj&sg ; does this seern to thee foolish ? 
 
i 150.] VARIOUS PARTICLES. 307 
 
 On the other hand, ov is the negative question, when the asker 
 wishes to be understood as affirming the proposition ; as ov xal 
 xcdov IGTI TO uyadov is not the good also fair ? This question ex- 
 pects yes in reply ; while the question by pri commonly expects 
 no. 
 
 6. When to a proposition already negatived, other conditions 
 of a general nature are to be attached, such as ever, any body, any 
 where, it is usual to do this by compounds of the same negative 
 term, e. g. 
 
 ovx tnoitjOf TOVTO ovdufAOu ovdtlg no man has any where done 
 
 Jhis. 
 
 rcUAw raryuj oviwv ovdtvl ovdafty oudu t uw<s ovdtfuiav xoi- 
 votviav /. PLATO. 
 
 Thus also to the negation of the whole is attached, in the sam 
 sentence, the negation of the parts, e. g. 
 
 ov dvvurat OVT fv ktytiv OVT fv noitiv TOV$ qikovg. 
 
 So that two negatives do not (as in Latin) cancel each other. 
 On the contrary they strengthen each other. 
 
 REM. 2. To this last principle there are some exceptions de- 
 serving of note, as the phrase ovdus O$TI<S ov (nemo now); e. g. 
 ovfelz b'giig ov noiriati nemo non faciet, there is no one who 
 
 will not do this- t 
 ovdevi QTW ovx dpi'axti, nemini non placet. 
 
 150. OF SOME OTHER PARTICLES. 
 
 1. The use of the particles in Greek is so various and in part 
 so difficult, that the most important will here be given. 
 
 ol$, as a relative adverb, has the following significations, viz. 
 1) as, so as, as if; hence 2) of time, as co dt r t ).dov, ov 
 nuQr t v as I came, he -was not present. 3) It strengthens the 
 superlative, particularly in adverbs, as co$ TCK%IGTU as quick as 
 possible, and of some adverbs, the positive, as wg aA^^cu^ cer- 
 tainly. 4) about, as tag Tifvr^xovTa about ffty. 
 
 As a conjunction, it signifies 1) that, as Tiuvrfg OjUoAo/ou- 
 tit>>, o)$ y dofTii xoaTUSTOv Ion,. 2) in order that, with the 
 subjunctive, optative, or future indicative. 3) so that, with 
 the infinitive, (commonly wgtf,) see 141. 4. 4) inasmuch 
 as, (see 146 Rem. 5.) 5) quippe,for, as xadrtOTOv IOTOU 262 
 
308 SYNTAX. [ 150, 
 
 Gvy%ci)atjG<xi, oug GV doxtlg ovx ayrjGtiv [At, it will be best for 
 me to yield, for it appears that thou wilt not give me up* 
 For the preposition cog see 148 Rem. 5. 
 
 w'ff with the accent (see 116. 4) for ovtcag, is very common 
 
 with the poets, particularly the Ionics. In prose it is chiefly 
 
 used only in the phrases xi wg and even thus, and its oppo- 
 
 site oud (og nor thus. 
 
 OTiotg, as an adverb, means a* ; as a conjunction, in order that. 
 i'va, as an adverb, where; as a conjunction ( 140- 2) also in 
 
 order that, as i'va TI wherefore ? as it were 4 in order that 
 
 what ? [should happen]."* 
 wgif so that, commonly with the infinitive ( 141. 4 and 133 
 
 Rem. 2.) With the other modes it means the same, but may 
 
 be rendered therefore, itaque. 
 OTi that, used before words quoted without change, as artfxpl- 
 
 vaio, oxi (jctoitetuv QVY. av btai(*ijv, he answered / will not 
 
 . 
 
 i also signifies because, elliptically for dta TOUTO OTI, or the 
 abbreviation of this phrase, dlori. It strengthens all superla- 
 tives, like (ag, as on (.it'yiGTog as great as possible, on pakt- 
 
 GTtt, &C. 
 
 (this is an epic form) therefore. Ovvexa, l) where- 
 
 fore. 2) as a conjunction, because, (for TOU tvtxu, ov 
 
 it if; in the indirect question, whether, (see 140. 5.) 
 
 After -dav(.iaoj and some other verbs of the affections, it 
 should properly signify if, and be used of doubtful things; but 
 Attic caution, unwilling to assert too positively, uses this con- 
 junction, not for probable things only, but even for those 
 which are entirely certain, and so it stands for bxt,, e. g. 
 Jco%QCLTijg t&avfutfev, elftij q.ou>tjov ccvioig IGTIV, OTI> ov 
 dvvarov IGTI, TOVIO {he wondered that ). 
 
 ft xal with the indicative, although. On the other hand, xal fl 
 and xi/ ft, unless, even if. 
 
 s'ijig, tin, properly if any one, if any thing. This word, how- 
 ever, is used as wholly synonymous with the pronoun ogng, 
 for great emphasis, as tty&tiyov thi %yrjainov r t v iv rw nfdlco. 
 
 i yctQ is an optative exclamation, for which we otherwise find 
 ti&t, that I 
 
 Inei after, then. 2) quoniam, since, Fr. puisque. Before ques- 
 tions and imperatives, it has the force of for, as Infi nojg OLV 
 diaxQtvoiutv O.VTO for how then could we distinguish it ? ' Ind 
 ftt'ctoai auTog for see yourself ^c. 
 
 onov where. 2) as a conjunction, siquidem, since. 
 
 av (poetically xf, x^V) see 140. 7 seq. 
 
 tav,r t v, uv brav, tnfidav, see ibid. 
 
 lav, particularly after verbs that signify to investigate, to see, 
 
150.] VARIOUS PARTICLES. 309 
 
 has the force of the Latin an ; as axonti idv ixavdv } see if 
 it be adequate. 
 
 r\ or, which signification it always retains in questions, e. g. 
 OlrtcoG lotiv' r] ovx otti ; is it so ? or thinkest thou not ? 
 TI TOUT ( Quuug ; 77 ou dijhov, on why dost thou ask this? 
 
 or is it not plain, that ? 
 In comparisons it signifies than, quam, e. g. 
 ooi TOVIO ^waA^// dytaxti, ?J Ipoi, this pleases thee better thanme. 
 Wholly ditferent is 
 ] whose original signification is certainly, but which is common- 
 
 ly only a sign of interrogation num. ? 
 
 x/ and it have the same significations in reference to each 
 other, as et and que. When Tt precedes xoi, the former sig- 
 nifies no< on/y, the latter but also ; e. g. 
 
 uvrog rt ivpawog fytvtTO, xal ro? TIOIOI njf T 
 
 xui and &' in one clause (but separated from each other in prose) 
 signify and also ; e. g. 
 
 VVV 7lf<Jl tyV%WV TWV VUtTtQWV tGTtV 6 dy(OV XCtl TlfOl "/UVCCl- 
 
 /.wv df x rtxvtov the contest is now for your own lives and al- 
 so for your wives and children. 
 
 dt but, has by no means always a disjunctive signification. In 
 most cases it is merely a particle of transition to something 
 else, where in English either simply and, or nothing whatever 
 is used. For the Greeks use it, where no other particle could 
 be used, to avoid the entire want of connexion between two 
 sentences, 
 
 fif'v and dt are two particles referring to each other, of which 
 the same may be observed as of dt alone. They form a con- 
 nexion like that of indeed but, but are continually employed 
 in Greek, where no such opposition of ideas is intended, as 
 would be expressed in English by indeed in the protasis and 
 but in the apodosis of a sentence. Nay, it is not unusual in 
 the Greek, for a section or even a book to end itself thus, xt 
 cavTa [itv ovrojg fyt'vtro. In^which case, the following sec- 
 tion or book would begin ry d* vmfpaiq on the next day. 
 
 The mode of division by o pv o d'*', or 6g /u*V off de, 264 
 which has its origin in this opposition of particles, has been 
 treated above, 126. Similar modes of division are formed 
 by aid of the adverbs united with the same particles ; and not 
 only are the demonstrative and relative forms, but even the 
 indefinite, thus used ; nort fiiv nore dt, now now, orat this 
 time at that. So also TOT* or or* (for ro'w and ore) and rfj 
 jU*V Tt] de, or nr) (Jitv nri dt\ tv&u (Atv t'v&a dt &c. With 
 respect to all such constructions, it may be observed, that 
 o fttv, d d f ov, sometimes stands alone without a verb, with 
 
310 SYNTAX. [ 150. 
 
 reference to a preceding proposition, in which case the piv 
 contains a kind of affirmation in itself;^ e. g. 
 
 navtag cfjihyitov, AA ov idv /wff , xov d ov, all are to be lov- 
 ed, and not this one, indeed, but that one not' 
 Tta<jf]Gi;i> ou% o fAtv o d ov' AA navTfg, they were present, 
 not this one to be sure, and that one not, but all. 
 
 OVT6 and ^if, 
 
 ovdt and |M?;<)V. Both these forms express negation in connexion, 
 and correspond to the Latin neque. They signify 1) and not. 
 2) ovif or ^rf repeated neither nor. 
 
 The forms ovdt (Jir]dt signify also 1) nor, 2) not even, 
 which last signification they uniformly have, in the middle of 
 a clause. 
 
 AA is d'i strengthened. It is often used emphatically where 
 no single corresponding word in English can be given. 
 
 yay for, always follows other words, like the Latin enim. It 
 has an extensive elliptical use requiring a reference in idea 
 to small phrases, such as " I believe," or " no wonder," un- 
 derstood. 
 
 ovf therefore, follows other words. Of ouv appended (as ogrtg- 
 ovi>, &,c.) see 80. 1. and 116. 7. Here are to be remark- 
 ed the following, viz. 
 
 1) (tv*tv properly an interrogative of inference, as ovxovv 
 ivrj-Q-fG tovtO ; is not this then foolish? Often, however, the 
 interrogative force and with it the negation vanishes, and 
 OVXOV* is to be translated simply therefore, and begins a clause. 
 2G5 ^ ovxow is the strengthened negation. In the significa- 
 
 tion therefore not (without a question,) it is better to write 
 ovy, ovv. 
 
 av again. 2) nn the other side, vice versa. 3) farther, then too- 
 
 TIQIV before, is a comparative in signification, and therefore, 
 when it refers to another proposition, takes the particle 77, 
 commonly with an infinitive, as nfjlv r\ tKfttiv t(At before I 
 came. The /f however is often omitted, and TIQIV becomes 
 itself a conjunction, Tiylv &Ptlv Ipt. But TrptV uv JA^w re- 
 fers to the future. 
 
 wv tir] just now, and with preteritesjw^ before. 
 
 no) and nnmoTf glance at past time, and commonly stand with 
 negatives; OVUM, ptjTiw not yet ; ovdfTtwnOTf, pydf nwnox f, 
 never yet; from which negatives, however, they may be 
 disjoined by other intervening words. The idea thus far, 
 hilJierto, prevails in all these phrases. Thence ovdtnoTf 
 means never in general, and in reference also to the future ; 
 ovdfnwnOTf never, only in reference to the past. 
 
 i'-ci alone signifies yet, farther ; and with the negatives ou'xm, 
 no more, no longer. 
 
^ 150.J VARIOUS PARTICLES. 311 
 
 (Ao, and vr\ are particles of obtestation, always governing the ac- 
 cusative of the object sworn by, as vy Ala. by Jupiter. i\r t is 
 always an affirmative oath; n<x, on the contrary, is attached 
 both to affirmative and negative obtestations, as val fiu Ala, 
 and ov juce Ala. When, however, it stands alone, it is nega- 
 tive, (AO. Ala, no, by no means. 
 
 2. These and other particles have an extensive use, which 
 must be learned by individual observation. The older gramma- 
 rians speak of expletive particles ; but an expletive use of particles 
 is the most that should be assumed. There are, in all languages, 
 particles conveying shades of meaning so delicate as to prevent a 
 translation, but not imperceptible to the skilful reader. The 
 Greek language is preeminent for particles of this kind ; and 
 though their force must be left to be learned by careful study, the 
 following observations may be of use. 
 
 yi (enclitic) properly signifies at least, in which sense yovv is 
 more common. Besides this, it is almost always used when- 
 ever a single object or a part is named with reference to the 
 whole or a greater number. For this reason it is often ap- 
 pended to lyco (tyatyt,) whereby the individual thinks of 
 himself in distinction from the mass, as it were, / for my 
 part. It may often be translated by certainly. 
 
 ago, never stands at the beginning of the clause. It means, 1) 
 and most frequently therefore ; 2) where it appears exple- 
 tive, it has a shade of meaning like in the nature of things, of 
 course, ex ordine, rite. Hence it serves to mark the transition 
 to an expected proposition. 3) After fi, lav, it signifies some- 
 thing like perhaps. 
 
 The interrogative apa, always placed at the beginning of 
 the clause, signifies num ? 
 
 TO/ (enclitic) is properly an ancient form of the dative for TOJ 
 and means in consequence of, which signification, though it has 
 vanished in the single word, remains in composition, as TOI- 
 yup, TOiydoioi, TOiyapovv. Toivvv is used when in a con- 
 clusion or inference an idea like and now I say further, but 
 now, is introduced. The TO/, which stands alone, retains the 
 power of strengthening or rendering emphatic. 
 
 ACitioi and certainly. 2) and doubtless, and yet, indeed. 3) al- 
 though. 
 
 certainly ; hence 2)61^, however, a stronger expression 
 
 ^ 
 
 r) properly now, for which ??<5V; is commonly used j whence it 
 is used in various ways to strengthen the power of a phrase. 
 
312 SYNTAX. [ 151. 
 
 as aye drj come on then, ii dr t -what then ? After relatives, as 
 ogrt$ drj, bnov drj,* it adds generality to the ever ; whosoever, 
 wheresoever. 
 
 pi]v a confirmative particle truly. 2) But certainly, however, and 
 ye [irjv certainly but. It is therefore also a strengthened d'f. 
 Kou i*,r\v immo, yea, and in contradiction atqui, and yet. 
 
 After interrogates, which follow a negative of the inter- 
 locutor, fir]v is used to signify then, as nort fjir\v ; when then? 
 rig (MJj/ ; who then ? (that is, who else ?) it ^v]v ; why not ? 
 r\ ^r\v is the common form of swearing or asseveration, some- 
 times with the indicative, e. g. 
 
 r] pv]i! tyM fntt&ov TOUTO I protest that I suffered this. 
 267 Sometimes with the infinitive, depending on other verbs; e. g. 
 
 0(AW[M, i] /uqv dvuGeiv 1 promise solemnly to give. 
 V7ifde"aTO tf ^v (.irj anoQelv amoug Tyoqprjy he promised 
 
 solemnly that they should not want food. 
 ov ur\v but not /^ 2) a negative asseveration corresponding to the 
 
 affirmative ?} fitjv. 
 
 vv, vvv (short and enclitical, except in the Ionic dialect used 
 only in the poets,) properly synonymous with vvv, more 
 commonly, however, equivalent to of>v now, therefore. 
 ntQ (enclitic) altogether ; hence aigney properly means altogether 
 as ; xalney although indeed, in which sense ntQ alone often 
 stands. 
 
 norf (enclitic) ever ; in questions it has an expression of admi- 
 ration, as -rig Trore tarty oviog who may this be ? 
 nov (enclitic) any where ; 2) perhaps. 
 
 151. VARIOUS PHRASES. 
 
 X 
 
 U' rf nisi, except, but. 
 on fjij] after a negation except, but. 
 irTi ye nedum. 
 
 OTI, and ^ ori, ovy o*ov, ov% ooov and ovy onctig. All 
 
 these phrases have, in the main, the same signification. Orig- 
 inally a verb was omitted with the negation, as ov ktyco I say 
 not that, &c. or pr) unoJictffayS think not that, &c. 
 
 a) If another proposition follow with AA, all the phrases 
 just given signify not only. 
 
 b) If tt'AA* ovdt (but not even), they all mean not only not. 
 
 c) If the other proposition precedes, and oJ/ OTI, &c. fol- 
 low, it means not to mention, nedum. 
 
 * Usually written separate; but, when nOTf is added, more commonly 
 as one word. See f 80 Rem. 1. and } 116. 7. 
 
151.] VARIOUS PHRASES. 313 
 
 oaov ov or oaovov, tantum non, nearly, almost, as ivv 
 
 xul OGOVOV Tiaodtra noltftov the approaching and only not ex- 
 isting war. 
 
 'roft in duunaGTOv oaov, resembles the Latin mirum quantum, 
 i. e. 50 much that it is to be wondered at, i. e. very much. In like 
 manner, it precedes or follows superlatives of quantity, as 
 TikfiGia ooa or OGCX, TiAfiaTu, quamplurima, as many as pos- 
 sible L 
 
 ' MV stands (according^to the rule in 144. 5) for UVTI 'txfl- 268 
 vow a, as Aer/J* IOVTO, dv& wv tdontug poi, take this in return 
 for what you gave me. It is also used for uvii TOLTOV brtfor 
 that, as '/^(Jiv ooi oida, dv& wv rj}.&{$ I thank thee for that 
 thou earnest- In like manner, 
 
 f oj properly stands for tni TOVIC) 6, commonly, however, 
 for *TII TOI'TOI o*V, and since tm with the dative carries an 
 intimation of connexion ( 148 Rem. 4.)fg' w signifies under the 
 condition that ; as Af |co oot, tq u) Giyr/otiG 1 will tell thee, on 
 condition thou keep it secret. 
 
 >' fjTrf is. in like manner, used for fm TOVTOI aferf. It has, how- 
 ever, commonly an infinitive with it ; e. g. 
 
 ypt&ijtoccv tq wre 01 yy-ja^ai vofiov$ they were chosen on 
 
 the condition that they should make laws. 
 ( not *V Tf > ^r it stands for fj OTt) till, so long as. 
 0/0$, before an infinitive, so constructed thai, &c. e. g. 
 
 ol TtgQG&tV oftoVTti; TlUfJi ^U>0t^ (jTot TtUl'ftV flOlV, 01 dt 
 
 yoiuqiot oi 01, nct-jct TQVTWV fou(ievoi kfaivfii; so con- 
 structed as to cut as receiving from them to grind. 
 ov yao t t t> oluz ^o Trui^zo? Kfod^.iiftv he was not one cal- 
 
 culated to profit by any thing. 
 
 oJo$ r* (or ofefrf, olo$it) means, of persons, able ; of things, 
 possible, e. g. 
 
 oTogri tGTi -Jiui'j dnodfitai he is able to manifest every thing. 
 AA' oi'/ oTovrt TOLIO but this is not possible. 
 roAAce, ^for r a).).u, in other respects, i. e- for the rest, else, as ta- 
 TIV UTiuig, TU).\U fi'datuovfl he is childless, but, in other re- 
 spects. happy ; hence 
 
 TO, if a'AAa with y.ul in the following clause, as in other things 
 so, particularly, in this ; e. g. 
 
 TOC Tf aA/.w fcduiuot'fi. XCKI ncttduQ f'/ti ttOTqxo&Vf; UVTOJ as 
 in other things he is prosperous, so particularly in having 
 dutiful children. (Compare r.ai and ri in the preceding 
 section.) 
 
 Hence is formed the elliptical phrase T Tf AA x/, which 
 means strictly "among other things also ; but which is to be 
 translated, in an especial manner. 
 40 
 
314 SYNTAX. 151 
 
 Tf y.Q.1 signifies also especially. 
 
 TiQv, TO Ityonevov, and other parenthetical phrases, see 
 209 in 131 Rem. 4. 
 
 xal TUVTCI and in addition to this, as TifitxuuTiyv TiagftfvQV tv 
 x<jpA/? tfygtipcif, YML TUVIU tvonkov hast thou had such a vir- 
 gin in thy head, and that armed ? 
 
 aviM, GVT^, &c. with the omission of <?*>*', signify together with; 
 e. g. ouiwhovTO ui vr)f$ avxolg uvtiQCtotv the ships were destroy- 
 ed, with their crews. 
 * "ipo rov, better rtooiov before, formerly, for nyo TOVTOV TOV 
 
 '/QOVQV. 
 
 rov hotnov (sc- xpovov) henceforth, TO \Qi7i6v, or i.oinov from 
 
 this time forward. (Compare 132. 5- c.) 
 
 TToAAotJ &?, impersonal, it wants much thereto ; for which is found 
 also noMov ^i'w, / am far from e. g. Myuv TOVT,O saying this. 
 Very often the infinitive absolute (see 141 Rem. 2) is used, 
 ;roAAou few as it were so that it is far from, i. e. certainly not, 
 as TOVTO ya@ "roAAof dt7v ftnoi ti uv for no one certainly 
 w.ould say that. 
 
 So too, for the opposite idea, use is made of HWQOV or 
 okiyov dti, &w, dt^v, to express nonmultum abest quin, nearly ; 
 as pAiyou d'to) tiTiuv I could almost say. OMyov or P.MQQV is 
 often found alone in this sense. 
 
 t nollov IOTI [tot, or nfyi noMov notovfAui or yyovfiat, I 
 greatly prize, it is highly important to me that ; so also TISQL 
 iteyi TiAf/arot', and, for the opposite idea, ntpt pi- 
 &c. 
 
 d'i standing alone must always be translated or rather, 
 fitv (in reference to the following ft dt pii) it were best 
 if possible, as xaTttyiyvcvaxfTf avfOV ftultUKA |M*V ftavcaov, 
 tidi fit}, deiqvy'mv, condemn him, it were best to- death, if not, 
 to perpetual exile. 
 
 (in writers not Attic o'qpMOf) I should have ; hence it ac- 
 quires an optative sense, partly alone, as^^jror utcpthov Tioislv 
 O that I had never done it ! partly with OK? or with tiQi, ft yv.Q. 
 O that, utinam, e. g. 
 
 (OQ Mqtfegnuyewv.t O hadst thou been present. 
 tl yuo (oqfkov dui'ilv O that I had died. 
 
 heed not ; hence doubtless, certainly. 
 
 stands before relatives of all kinds; thus tGTiv OTf est cum 
 i. e. sometimes, I-GTIV eg est qui, some one. It even stands thus 
 before a plural ; e. g. 
 
 xtxl I'aiiv oi WTWV ZTITOWOXOVIO and some of them were 
 
 wounded. 
 i'ariv olg oujf ovTwg tdoztv there are some, to whom it seemed 
 
 not thus. 
 This phrase was then regarded altogether as one word, as 
 
151.] VARIOUS PHRASES. 315 
 
 tl ydo 6 Toonos I'anv oTg dvsaotOTf'i for if the manner dis- 
 please some. 
 'i' d't iyrjxtv t'niiv a he permitted to steal certain things. 
 
 tidov tat iv OTiov which I have somewhere seen. 
 ov<siuag av&y(*nvvg *i&avpk*ti9 trtl ao<fiq : hast 
 thou admired some men for their wisdom ? 
 , QtifTiv, fWcm, TtciofGTi TipdiTfiv (with the dative of the 
 person or universally) all signify it is lawful More accu- 
 rately considered, however, f'vtaxiv refers to the physical 
 possibility, it is possible ; tifGtiv to the moral possibility, it 
 is lawful ; tort is both the one and the other, as is also 
 ^ ftm?, with an expression, however, of ease. 
 tag tvt, in this phrase tvi according to 113. 2, stands for 
 xi if it is possible ; hence with superlatives 013 Kvi /ua 
 as much as possible. 
 to? ETIOS tlnftv so to say. 
 
 Iv TO/?, when these words precede a superlative, they signify 
 omnium, among a//, before a//, &c. 
 tv Tol? 7Tpo7rot nayrjactv oi A^^VOAQI the Athenians were pres- 
 
 ent before all others. 
 TOVTO tytu iv T0t<s fiuovTccra civ Ivtyxatpi I should feel this 
 
 more severely than all others. 
 Iv ro7g Trpcorr; nv.Qf/ivTO she arrived before all the others. 
 
 These phrases are to be supplied by a participle, as Iv ro7g 
 naooi'Giv' iv ro? /?pfw? qtyovaiv UVTO. 
 
 oi dpqi or oi nfol with an accusative, as oi a^qi " AVVTOV, com- 
 monly signifies not only those with or about Anytus, but Anytits 
 and his company ; oi afMft Su\i]v Thales and his school. The 
 Attic writers even use this phraseology in some cases, when 
 a single person only is spoken of; but always with some un- 
 certainty, whether it be one or more. 
 
 tZv among-, between. This particle is placed as an adverb 
 before a participle, as follows. 
 
 v TifQiTictTiav while he was walking. 
 
 fu dfi7ivoui>Tct ecp6v6u0iv avTOv 'he killed him while at 271 
 supper. 
 
 , with an adverb, means to be ; e- g. 
 xaAcu fyti, it is well. 
 oj e <? fi'/t as he was. 
 
 Sometimes with^a genitive of specification ; e. g. 
 tag fi%t fAOoqriS (in person). 
 (uQ xaxouptl'/ov, fijiovio they followed, with what swiftness 
 
 their nature admitted. 
 So too before prepositions ; e. g. 
 
 /qu T?/V xctfjiivov "/(D id TioAAa lam commonly at the stove. 
 oi dfi(fi yr)v t%ovT(g husbandmen. 
 
APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 
 
 272 i. To the full understanding of what follows, it is necessary 
 to make a remark on the different sorts of verse and their con- 
 nexion with the dialects. 
 
 All the varieties of Greek verse proceed originally from these 
 three sorts, viz. 
 
 The Epic or narrative. 
 
 The Lyric adapted to singing. 
 
 The Dramatic. 
 
 p. Each of these different sorts of poetry appropriated to itselft 
 in its perfection, one of the Grecian tribes. The Epic attained 
 its highest cultivation among the lonians, the Lyric among the 
 Dorians and Eolians, the Dramatic among the Attics. Hence it 
 was, that each of these sorts of verse, in language, metre, and mu- 
 sical character, united the character and more or less of the dia- 
 lect of the tribe to which it belonged, with the peculiarities which 
 it possessed in its own nature. See 1' 9 seq.* 
 
 3. What ^particularly deserves notice in respect to the metre 
 and poetical quantity, is, that the epic dialect inclines more to 
 softness, and, in order to bring the narration more easily under the 
 restraints of verse, to freedom in the forms and pronunciation of 
 words. On the other hand, dramatic poetry, particularly the com- 
 edy, having its origin in the language of real life, confines itself 
 
 273 more closely to received forms, and of consequence to the lan- 
 guage and pronunciation of the Attic tribe, of which few sacrifices 
 
 * It is here to be remarked, that when we speak of dramatic and Attic 
 poetry, we allude principally to the lamhic and Trochaic portions of the 
 drama, in which the proper dramatic dialogue is contained^ The remain- 
 ing portions belong more or less the choral songs wholly to lyric poetry. 
 
VERSIFICATION. 317 
 
 are made to the metre. The lyric poetry in this respect ap- 
 proaches nearer to the epic, from which, as the mother of all 
 Greek poetry, it derived a considerable part of its poetical lan- 
 guage and phraseology, uniting them, however, with the rougher 
 and harsher peculiarities of the Doric dialect, and thus exempting 
 the melody of the song from the monotony of narrative poetry. 
 
 Versification. 
 \ 
 
 4. The alternation of long and short syllables is called Rhythm. 
 Inasmuch as this alternation is ascertained by certain laws regu- 
 lating it by measure, it is called Aletre. And a single portion, which 
 can be embraced at once by the ear, as a metrical whole, is call- 
 ed a Verse. 
 
 5. Verses are divided into smaller metrical portions called 
 Feet, of which the following are the most common. 
 
 Spondee ( ) 
 
 Trochee ( u ) 
 
 Iambus (u ) loyovg 
 
 Pyrrhic ( u ^ ) 
 
 Dactyle ( wu) 
 
 Anapaest (u u ) 
 Tribrachys ( o u w ) My fit. 
 
 REM. 1. In the examples here used, each word constitutes a 
 foot ; but verses are measured by feet, of which the beginning and 
 end may be in the middle of words. 
 
 6. In measuring feet and verses, the short syllable is assumed 
 as the unit, and the long syllable is regarded as double the short 
 Every such unit is called a time or mora ; so that the Tribrachys 
 is equally long with the Trochee and Iambus, and the Spondee 
 equally long with the Dactyle and Anapaest. 
 
 ' 7. The length and shortness of the syllables is ascertained by 
 the rules given in the grammar under the head of Prosody ( 7), 
 to which may be added, for metrical use, the following princi- 
 ples. 
 
 a) Position takes place even between two syllables belonging 
 to words hi immediate succession ; and this without exception, 
 
318 APPENDIX. 
 
 when the two consonants are also divided between the words, the 
 274 one belonging to the former and the other to the latter ; as in 
 Aoyoe xAo, yo? is long by position in consequence of the x, which 
 follows it. In respect, however, to that position, where a short 
 vowel closes a word, and the two consonants or a double conso- 
 nant begin the next word, the usage fluctuates. 
 
 b) Mules before liquids (see under Prosody 7. 9, 10,) pro- 
 duce position in the Ionic dialect. This position, therefore, gene- 
 rally lengthens the syllable in the epic language ; while, on the 
 other hand, a short vowel before the mute and liquid is always 
 short in dramatic poetry. 
 
 c) The long vowel and diphthong at the end of a word, when 
 the next begins with a vowel, lose their natural length, for the 
 most part, in the epic and lyric languages, and become short, ex- 
 cept when the stress falls upon them, as 
 
 ayiorog toaeTai 
 
 In Attic poetry this case could not occur, see below, no. 8. 
 
 REM. 2. In a few words, particularly in noif7v, the diphthong 
 in the middle of a word before a vowel is short See the exam- 
 ple below, no. 17. 
 
 d) In most species of poetry the last syllable of the verse is 
 common; that is, the long syllable may be used, -though the foot 
 require a short one, and the reverse. 
 
 8. With one or two exceptions, the Hiatus is wholly forbidden 
 in Attic poetry.* In the other dialects, it oftener occurs, particu- 
 larly before certain words.j The long vowel, at the end of a 
 word, does not constitute a hiatus in the epic language, but is 
 merely made short, according to no. 7. c. 
 
 9. In all kinds of poetry, it is common for two vowels to be 
 written at length, which in scanning are to be read in one sylla- 
 
 * See Hiatus and Craw, $ 28. 2. 
 
 t This is particularly the case with the pronoun I', also with idliv, *p- 
 yor, &.va, &c. from which has been inferred, that in the ancient lan- 
 guage they had a stronger breathing at the commencement, probably a 
 digamma, see $ 6 Rem. 2. and the appendix on the Digamma below. 
 
VERSIFICATION. 
 
 319 
 
 ble, as a crasis, a contraction, or an elision ; as pr} ov, and the last 
 syllables of **//*, TroAtoj?, Ur^tfi'oid'fO), &c. This is called by 
 the Greek grammarians a uvlr}tjig or 2vvf^t(f(avrjtjtg. 
 
 10. In some sorts of verse, a syllable sometimes remains at the 
 end,, when the verses have been divided into feet. Such a sylla- 
 ble is called Catalectic. A verse whose laws require such a sylla- 
 ble instead of a full foot at the end, is called acatatectic verse. If 
 the syllable be regarded as superfluous, the verse is called hyper- 
 catalectic. 
 
 The kinds of Verse. 
 
 11. The most common kinds of verse are those which consist 
 of the frequent repetition of one and the same foot ; and amobg 
 these the dactylic, the iambic, the trochaic, and the anapcsstic 
 verse are the most familiar. 
 
 12. The best known among the dactylic verses is the hexam- 
 eter, of which epic or heroic poetry avails itself in unbroken suc- 
 cession to the exclusion of every other kind of verse. It consists 
 of five dactyles and a spondee. 
 
 275 
 
 Instead of either of the four first feet a spondee may be used, 
 and in consequence of the last syllable of every verse being com- 
 mon (agreeably to no. 7. d) a trochee may stand instead of the last 
 foot ; e. g. 
 
 1 Ahv&l pfVi 'sJQyvQOToZ ', og XQVGIIV a/uqpt/?c'/?i?xa; 
 
 2 KiKKuv Tf faOtr}*, Ttvtdoio it iqi avu 
 
 3 2utv&tv, tinoTt rot, %uQitvx Im vyov 
 
 4 V/*/ dr t nOTt TOI xara niova 
 
 5 TCHVQWV ?/<5' ctiywv, rodt JUG* 
 
 6 TtGfiav Aavuol epoc daxyva oo7oi 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 uo 
 
 VJO 
 
 uu 
 
 UVJ 
 
 uu 
 
 uu 
 uu 
 uu 
 uu 
 uu 
 uu 
 
320 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 276 
 
 REM. 3. Sometimes, instead of the dactyle in the fifth place, a 
 spondee is admitted, and such a verse is called Spondaic ; e.'g. 
 
 '^xyoTttTtj uopvyy nokvdttyadog 
 
 uu I uu I uu I uu I j 
 
 or 
 
 Bri dt XT' OvUvpnoio xctyrjvwv dfeccaa 
 
 13. The dactylic pentameter consists of two halves united by a 
 final syllaMe, each of which halves contains two dactyles and a 
 catalectic syllable, e. g. 
 
 The two first dactyles alone may be supplied by spondees. 
 The middle syllable is always long ; the last, as the final sylla- 
 ble, may be long or short. This sort of verse is commonly found 
 in connexion with hexameter, the two sorts being used in alter- 
 nately succeeding lines. A poem in this sort of verse, is called 
 "jtiktyot, Elegi, for which, at a later period, the name Elegia was 
 used; and a maxim or inscription consisting of one such couplet 
 , or a few, was called 'Eteytiov ; e. g. 
 
 tv (xv&ywnoiGi, fAOvi] &fO f o&krj tvfGTiv, 
 <T Ovlvftnovtf txTiyoliTTOvife i'fiav. 
 TIlaTig, ftfydht] i^oV, f?X fTO ^ uvdQwv 
 
 vf}, XayiTtg i', 0} g/A^, ytjv thnov. 
 d' ot)xri TUOTOI lt> 
 
 'wv d* uvdpaiv yfvog tyftiiQ^ ovdt ftt 
 ovdt w^V 
 
 i--l-n 
 
 u u | I u u I 
 
 I I II 
 - u u I u u I II 
 
 I u u J u u j 
 
 __ ou l l__ll 
 
 u u [ j u u I 
 
 _ u u I . I __JI 
 
 u u 
 
 u u 
 
 u u 
 
 U \J 
 
 u u 
 
 u u 
 u u 
 
 u u 
 
 U u 
 
VERSIFICATION. 321 
 
 14. The iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse is measured by 
 dipodes or pairs of feet, in consequence of which, those consist- 
 ing of four feet, are called dimeters, and those consisting of six feet 
 are called trimeters, &c. On the other hand, the Latin names of 
 quaternarius, senarius, &c. refer to the number of feet. 
 
 15. Every iambic dipode, instead of the first Iambus, may have 277 
 a Spondee ; accordingly we find, 
 
 \j , w or , \j 
 
 Hence it follows, that in every iambic verse in the odd place, (in 
 sede impari, 1, 3, 5, 7.) a Spondee may be found. 
 
 16. In every foot, moreover, a long syllable may be resolved 
 into two short ones. Hence the Tribrachys may be used in all 
 places instead of the Iambus, with the exception of the last Iambus 
 in the verse, in the place of which only the Pyrrhich, and that in 
 virtue of the final syllable being common, is admitted. In the odd 
 places, a Dactyle or an Anapaest may be used instead of the Spon- 
 dee. 
 
 REM. 1. In feet of four times, the Anapaest may also stand in 
 the even places. 
 
 17. Hence follows for the iambic trimeter the following scheme. 
 
 uuo 
 
 UUO, U V 
 
 I 
 
 - I 
 
 , uu I uu , uu 
 
 The irregular feet, however, particularly the trisyllables, must 
 not be so common, that the iambic character of the verse is ob- 
 
 -oured. 
 
 71&,VCU%QV 
 
 O xut ytoovi't Mat v('o t ) n^v 
 fyhwaov (Jiyqv Y,V.IQIU.V 
 
 , u | u , u 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 
322 APPENDIX. 
 
 El TO nvvt%wg xal noMu xui 
 ~ Llv TOV tyovtiv 7ia>^uo*>, al 
 
 nctw. 
 
 oo, o - --- . \j - oo - , o 
 
 -- , O - I 00 - , O - | O - 1 \J\J 
 
 Oo - , o - I -- , u - J o - . oo 
 
 278 U^OVTOQ dt fia.Ga.v6g IGTIV a 
 
 Of av tvnOQUv ya,Q aio%QCt 
 Tl TOVTOV dnoprjauvr av ovx out noitiv ; 
 
 U 
 
 u u 
 
 TtQOTtQQV 
 
 TOJV &fwv Ipol 
 Kod nQOTfQov Ofioaag UVTOS i 
 
 -/VfV/, \J\J\J , W 
 
 , ooo j , o j o ) o 
 
 ' OO, OOO I . OOO I ~ ~ U ' 
 
 18. Besides the senarius, the most common iambic verse, is the 
 tetrameter catalecticus ; e. g. 
 
 Ei |MO// yti'Oiro nag^lvos xaArJ r* x rtpsiva 
 
 : , o o , o u , o o , o 
 The rules and licences of this verse are in the main the same 
 as those of the senarius, and the catalectic syllable is common. 
 
 19. The trochaic dipode may have a spondee in the place of 
 the second trochee, e. g. 
 
 . o, o or o, --- 
 
 Hence it follows that in every trochaic verse, the Spondee may be 
 admitted in the even places (in sede pari 2, 4, 6, 8.) Besides this 
 the rule also prevails here, that every long syllable may be resolv- 
 ed into two short ones. The Tribrachys accordingly may stand 
 
VERSIFICATION. 323 
 
 in all places, and the Dactyle and Anapaest (instead of the Spondee) 
 in the even places. 
 
 REM. 5. Of the four timed feet the Dactyle is also found in the 
 odd places. 
 
 20. The most common trochaic verse is the tetrameter catalec- 
 ticus ; e.g. 
 
 p, xai vov$ axovei' raAAa xwqra xat 
 
 ccxtawj xaT&ctvf'iv. ALVM xads. 279 
 
 ooo, - u I - o, o u - I - o, I 0,0 
 
 21. In anapaestic verse, by uniting the shorts into a long, the 
 Spondee may stand instead of the Anapaest, and by resolving the 
 long again into shorts, the Dactyle may be introduced. As an ex- 
 ample, may be quoted a specimen of the tetrameter catalecticus, so 
 common in the comedians, as follows. 
 
 "Or* tyaj TCI dtxcua Ktyuv r}v&ovv xal acocppoavv.*] 
 
 eyoty oi/uoti yvwvcti TOVT' fivai ncioiv Of40i'cog 
 "Ort rovg %Qi]OTOvg TWV av&Qwnwv fv nQUTTtiv taxi dlxatov, 
 Tovg df novrjpovG xcti zov$ a&t'ovs TOVTCDV Tai>cti>Tia drinov. 
 u u , u u | --- , ---- | --- , --- | v u , 
 I I I 
 
 v w , - I I I I u u , v 
 
 oo, | ,00 I , I oo , 
 
 , o 
 
 oo, o o oo, -- j ---- , oo oo , 
 
 22. That part of a foot, which receives the ictus, the stress of 
 the rhythm (the beat of the time) is called arsis or elevation. To 
 denote it, the common acute accent is used ('). The rest of the 
 foot is called thesis or depression. The natural arm is the long 
 syllable of the foot, so that the Spondee ( ---- ) and the Tribra- 
 chys (o o o) leave it alike uncertain where the arsis falls. The 
 fundamental foot of a verse, however, (that is, the Iambus in iam- 
 bic, the Dactyle in dactylic verse,) determines the arm for all 
 
324 APPENDIX. 
 
 the other feet, which may be used as substitutes for it. The 
 Spondee, accordingly, in iambic and anapaestic verse, is accented 
 
 thus ^, in trochaic and in dactylic, thus . Hence TOVTOV 
 
 (without any respect to its prosaic accent), when it stands instead 
 of an Iambus or Anapaest, must be read TQVTOV, when it stands 
 instead of a Trochee or Dactyle, TOVTOV. Inasmuch, too, as the 
 stress or ictm of a long sellable, in consequence of the two morae 
 or times which it contains, fails on the first of them, it is to he pla- 
 ced when the said long syllable is actually resolved into two short 
 ones, necessarily on the first. 
 
 280 Therefore, when the Tribrachys stands for the Iambus, it is 
 pronounced u w ^ , when it stands for the Trochee it is pronoun- 
 ced ^ ^ w . The Dactyle, instead of a Spondee, with the stress 
 on the last syllable ( ), is to be read w ^ ; but the Ana- 
 paest, which is substituted for the Spondee with the opposite stress 
 
 - , is accented w . It is therefore necessary to read A*- 
 
 yfTf, faytTut, when these words stand as trochaic or dactylic 
 feet, and A#ym, Kty&ai when they stand as iambic or anapaestic. 
 Yet in reading, care must be taken not to consume more time in 
 pronouncing the short syllable on account of the arsis, for this 
 would make long syllables and so destroy the metre. 
 
 The following are intended for examples in laying the metri- 
 cal stress ; in doing which, of course, no regard is to be had to the 
 natural or grammatical accent. 
 
 Hexameter-* 
 i ii it ii ii it 
 
 uu I uu j \j\j I uu I uu I 
 
 Example. 
 
 tQya vtwv, fiovlai df ptacav, fv%ai df ytgovrcov 
 ii ii it ii ii 
 
 uu j J I uu I I uu I 
 
 * All the following examples of the various kinds of verse are of.thje 
 leading or most regular scheme. 
 
VERSIFICATION. 325 
 
 Pentameter. 
 
 it I i it i i * 
 
 uo J - uu j - II - wu [- uu 
 
 Example. , 
 
 I II I I II I I I I I 
 
 -- I -- I _ II _ ou I _ uo I _ 
 
 Senarius. 
 iii i j i i 
 
 v , u - J v - , u - I u - . v 
 
 Example. 
 
 yvalv novriQuv ptTapafaiv ov pctdiov 
 iii ii i i 
 
 W - , \J - | - W u, U - I - . \J <J 
 
 I II I II I I 
 
 O \J , V W O I - - , U - - I U O - ^ U - 
 
 Iambic tetrameter catalect. 281 
 
 __ __ j __ _!_ I _L * | _L 
 
 Examples. 
 avTO nigt, rov TiQOTfpo? tinfiv TIQGJTCI 
 
 Trochaic tetrameter catalect. 
 ii iii i i i 
 
 I u, u I u, u I u, 
 
 Example. 
 OVTUS vn dvdgwv fiaQ 
 
 aAAa fid Ai ov go.diw<s oviwg OLV aurof? dlftyvyt's 
 
 flJlfQ kTVfQV TWV H*\0)V TMV <&UoidfOVS 
 
 I I II I II I II 
 
 - u, w u - I \j, -- I - u, -- j "J u u, u 
 
 i i ii i it iii i 
 
 - u, V u o j - iy, -- | w u v, - v | - v, w 
 
326 APPENDIX. 
 
 Jinapa&stic tetrameter catalect. 
 I ' ' 1 ' 
 
 I \j v/ VI Vf I \J \J ^" VJ \J 
 
 Examples. 
 
 V.O.L ftavftaoTaig KU.I nohvvfivoig Iv o xfaivog diji 
 
 <-> v, <> u I <~> u, I , I u u , 
 
 I III III II l_ 
 , - - <-> u, - J uo , j u u , 
 
 Ccesura. 
 
 23. Caesura is properly the division of a metrical or rhythmical 
 connexion, by the ending of a word. There is accordingly, 1) a 
 caesura of the foot, 2) a caesura of the rhythm, 3) a caesura of 
 the verse, which must be carefully distinguished, as the word Cae- 
 sura, without qualification, is applied to all three. 
 282 24. The caesura of the foot, in which a word terminates in 
 the middle of a foot, is the least important, and without great in- 
 fluence on the verse, as the division into fe-et is in a great degree 
 arbitrary. 
 
 25. The caesura of the rhythm is that, in which the arsis falls 
 on the last syllable of a word, whereby the arsis is separated 
 from the thesis. Such a final syllable receives by the ictus a pe- 
 culiar emphasis ; so that the poets often place a short syllable in 
 this situation, which becomes long thereby, and sustains alone the 
 arm. This lengthening by caesura, as it is called, is particularly 
 familiar in epic poetry, e. g. 
 
 noiov Gf enog (pvytv tpxos 
 
 * As this usage is principally observed in the epic poets, and, as ia 
 hexameters, the arsis is always on the beginning of the foot, the caesura 
 of the rhythm and the caesura of the foot coincide ; this has led to the er- 
 roneous doctine, that the caesura of the foot lengthened the syllable. 
 With this was formerly connected another error, that of defining a cae- 
 sura to be the division of a word by the measure ; which would prevent a 
 monosyllable from being in caesura, as it often is. 
 
TERSIFICATION. 327 
 
 26. The caesura of the verse exists, when the termination of 
 a word falls on a place in the verse where one rhythm agreeable 
 to the ear closes and another begins. The estimation of this be- 
 longs to the minuter acquaintance with versification. In a more 
 limited sense, by the caesura of the verse is understood such a 
 caesura in certain places in the verse, one of which is necessary 
 to every good verse of the kind. Reference is had to this when 
 it is said of a verse, that it has no caesura. Whereupon may be 
 remarked : 
 
 a) That some kinds of verse have their caesura on a fixed 
 place. Of this kind among the foregoing verses are 1) the pen- 
 tameter which requires a word to end in the place marked above. 
 This caesura can never be omitted. (2) The iambic, anapaestic, 
 and trochaic tetrameter catalectic, which all have their natural cae- 
 sura at the end of the fourth foot This caesura may be neglect- 
 ed. 
 
 b) Other kinds of verse have more than one place for the cae- 
 sura, the choice of which is left to the poet. One, however, gen- 
 erally predominates over the rest. In hexameter this is common* 
 ly in the middle of the third foot, and either directly after its ar- 
 sis, as 
 
 Mr^viv attdt, &ta, \ ILyWddtm '^4%ttijog 
 Ovx CCQCC pouvov ir\v | tpldcov yt'vos, cUA* tut 
 
 or in the middle of the thesis of a Dactyle, e. g. 
 " \Avdga pot, (vvfnf, Movoa, j nokvrQonov, o 
 
 The first species is called the masculine or male caesura, the 
 second the female or trochaic caesura. It rarely happens that both 
 are absent from this third foot. Should they be wanting however, 
 they are usually supplied by a caesura in the second or one in the 
 fourth foot, which are generally masculine, and the verse is the 
 more harmonious, if both are used. 
 
 vtov Gvvotvoutvou XIVVVTO 
 
3:28 APPENDIX, 
 
 THE DIGAMMA.* 
 
 In addition to the smooth and aspirated breathings, the ancient, 
 language had another, which remained longest among the JEoli- 
 ans. This is most commonly called, from the appearance of the 
 character /", used to denote it, Digamma, that is a douhle F. It 
 was a true consonant, and appears to have had the force of f or v. 
 It was attached to several words, which, in the more familiar dia- 
 lect, had the smooth or the rough breathing. The whole doc- 
 trine, however, of the Digamma, for want of literary monuments 
 remaining from the period when it was most in use, is exceeding- 
 ly obscure. With respect to the application of the Digamma to 
 the criticism of the text of Homer, a subject of so much note in 
 modern times, the whole rests on the following remarkable obser- 
 vation. A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, among 
 which the most common are the following, ou, oT, t, tidw, oi/, 
 ttiiflv, Vi, '/Uo?, oivog, onto?, tyyov, too?, tituaio?, with their 
 284 kindred words, have a hiatus so often before them, that if these 
 words be excepted, the hiatus, at present so common in Homer, 
 becomes very rare, and in most remaining cases has some parti- 
 cular justification. The same words, in comparison with others 
 beginning with a vowel, are very rarely preceded by an apostro- 
 phe, and the immediately preceding long vowels and diphthongs 
 are far less frequently made short, than before other vowels. The 
 observation of these facts authorizes the assumption of something 
 in the beginning of those words, to prevent the apostrophe and the 
 shortening of the long vowels and to remove the hiatus. Since 
 even short syllables ending in a consonant, as o?, o*>, are often 
 made long before such words although not in c^sura just as if 
 a position existed, the conjecture has been advanced in modern 
 times, that all those words in the age of Homer were possessed of 
 this initial breathing/* or v, of a force equivalent to a consonant, 
 but had lost it before fhe poems of Homer, at a later period, were 
 committed to writing. Inasmuch as in this interval, as well as af- 
 terwards, the poems of Homer were subject to no inconsiderable 
 changes arid accidents, affecting the condition of the text, it is easy 
 to account for those instances in which even these indications of 
 the Digamma have disappeared from the Homeric poems. To 
 which may be added, that the transition or gradual disappearance 
 of the digamma may already have begun in the time of Homer, 
 and several words have been pronounced sometimes with and 
 sometimes without it. 
 
 * The following account of the Digamma is translated from the author's 
 larger Greek Grammar, page 19, (eighth edition,) and may be regarded 
 as a supplement to what is stated above $ 6 Rem. 2. 
 
GREEK GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 , accusative. 
 , transitive. 
 Aa, immutables, called 
 also ' Tygd. 
 
 pronoun. 
 , aorist. 
 
 , infinitive. 
 positive. 
 
 , deponent. 
 , positive. 
 
 do. 
 
 ^ article. 
 number. 
 , masculine. 
 augment. 
 g, intransitive. 
 , mutes. 
 
 grave. 
 
 B&QVTOVOV, havmg a grave on 
 the last syllable. 
 
 gender. 
 Tj, genitive. 
 s, aspirate. 
 voice. 
 Aiyoovpv, doubtful. 
 AOTIY.YI, dative. 
 Av'ixog, dual. 
 
 , mode. 
 , elision. 
 
 i, active. 
 ?, present 
 c Evixoq, singular. 
 ' , adjective, epithet. 
 
 , adverb. 
 nominative. 
 
 42 
 
 , optative. 285 
 
 'g.{ Axuor^xoi/, attracted, (e.g. fi- 
 nal v before a vowel.) 
 
 , semi-rowels, i.e. the 
 liquids, and o. 
 pa, theme. 
 
 v, simple, positive. 
 v, feminine. 
 , vocative. 
 KUvtw, to decline. 
 
 aig, declension, conjugation. 
 , crasis. 
 
 oitofici, proper name. 
 , future. 
 
 oKiyov, paulo-post- 
 future. 
 
 i^ colon. 
 Mioog, middle. 
 Jfo;p}, participle. 
 "Oi/o/ua, noun. 
 ^Ovopct(jTtxr], nominative. 
 *Ov<;, acute. 
 
 , oxyton. 
 J, nominative. 
 indicative. 
 neuter. 
 
 passve. 
 
 , perfect. 
 ?, imperfect. 
 
 , having an acute 
 on the penultima. 
 , past. 
 
 , having a circum- 
 flex on the last. 
 77Ayoc, oblique. 
 
330 
 
 GREEK GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 286 
 
 , plural. 
 a breathing. 
 , quantity. 
 
 preposition. 
 IlQQiiaQo,VTOvov, having an a- 
 cute on the antepenultima. 
 niQtGnw{itvoi>, having a cir- 
 cumflex on the penult. 
 v, substantive. 
 , imperative. 
 , accent. 
 Upogwnov, person. 
 
 case. 
 , verb. 
 , letters. 
 stop. 
 
 comparative. 
 Y conjugation. 
 
 J, syllable. 
 
 syllabic (augment). 
 consonants. 
 i) contraction. 
 ) conjunction. 
 , contraction in verse. 
 
 j, a full stop. 
 Tovog, accent. 
 ' ^yp, liquids. 
 
 , superlative. 
 
 , pluperfect. 
 comma. 
 
 subjunctive. 
 , vowels. 
 i hiatus. 
 
 > temporal (augment), 
 Xpovog, time, tense. 
 
EXPLANATION OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 Abundans a case of the same noun used in two different forms. 
 Jlnacoluthon a construction in which the end does not grammatically 
 
 correspond with the beginning, used for brevity or emphasis. 
 Jlnastrophe moving the Accent back. 
 Aphaeresis the cutting off of one or more letters at the beginning 
 
 of a word, as fi'/?o> for Af //?w, ?? for (f^ or t(f-rj. 
 Apocope, cutting off one or more letters at the end, as nag for naga. 
 Apodosis the last part of a sentence. . 
 -Apposition the adding of a noun to the preceding noun, in the 
 
 same case, for the sake of explanation, as KVQOQ fiaaitevg' 
 
 tflOl.GW ntiTQl. 
 
 Asyndeton different parts of a sentence not joined together by a 
 
 connective particle. 
 Attraction see 142 and 144. 
 Causative verbs, 114. 1. note. 
 Characteristic the letter preceding the o at the end of a verb. In 
 
 TIT, XT, fiv, the former letter is the characteristic. 91. 
 Connective vowel (called also mode-vowel,) see 87 Rem. 1. 
 Correlatives, 78. 1. 116. 
 
 Crasis a contraction of two vowels into a long one, 28. 
 Diaeresis the division of a diphthong in two syllables as nvnvog. 
 
 15. 3. 27 Rem. 3. 
 
 Diastole and hypodiastole, see 15. 2 u stops and marks." 
 Elision the omission of the former of two successive vowels. 
 Ellipsis the omission of one or more words, as tv '^xt^tddov in 
 
 the house of Alcibiades, (Jw/ua being understood. 
 Epenthesis the insertion of a letter in the middle of a word, as 
 
 BTpfapOS for 7TO>U/UO. 
 
 Heteroclite a noun of irregular declension. 
 
 Hiatus the concurrence of an initial with a final rowel. 
 
332 GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 Hyperbaton a construction where words are placed out of their na- 
 tural order, as fv a'AAors a'AAw for aAAorf Iv aAAw another time- 
 in another. 
 
 Metaplasm the name given to a noun, that forms its cases from an 
 obsolete nominative. 
 
 Metathesis transposition of letters, see 19 Rem. 2. 
 
 Paragoge adding a letter at the end, as Ivl for Iv. 
 
 Prosthesis addition of one or more letters at the beginning of a 
 word, as <7/iuxpo for /ut>c^off. 
 
 Protasis, the first part of a sentence. 
 
 Synaeresis the contraction of vowels. 
 
 Syncope omission of one or more letters in the middle of a word. 
 
 Synizesis or synecphonesis, contraction in verse. 
 
 Tmesis separation of the preposition of a compound verb from its 
 verb, as an wv fdovro Ionic for antdovTO ovv. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 1 Of the Greek language and its Dialects in general 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ACCIDENCE AND ETYMOLOGY. 
 2, 3 Characters and Pronunciation . . 5 1 
 
 4 Division of Letters, 
 
 5 Diphthongs. . . . Iota Subscript 
 
 6 Breathings .... 9 
 
 7 Prosody ..... 10 
 811 Accents ... . 1416 
 
 12 Place of the Accent . . 1? 
 
 13 Change of the Accent 
 
 14 Enclitics ...... * 9 
 
 15 Stops and Marks 
 
 16 Change of Letters. Consonants 
 
 17, 18 Aspirates ... 23 
 
 1925 Multiplication and consequent change of Consonants 2427 
 
 26 Change of Vowels ... 28 
 
 27 Pure vowels. Contractions 
 
 28 Hiatus and Crasis .... 31 
 
 29 Apostrophe ..... 
 
 30 Of v ig&fAxuffrjxoV, and other final Consonants 
 
 31 The parts of speech 
 
 32 JVowrw; gender . . . .34 
 
 33 declension ..... 35 
 
 34 first declension 
 
 35 second declension . . . 41 
 
 36 contracts ... 42 
 
 37 Attic . . 43 
 
 38 third declension, gender . . 44 
 
 39 41 inflection ... 45 
 
 42 vowel before the ending . 49 
 
 43 i examples ... 50 
 
 44 -, i accusative singular . . 52 
 
334 INDEX. 
 
 45 Nouns ; third declension, vocative ... 52 
 
 46 dative plural . . 53 
 
 47 ' syncope of nouns in i]Q . 54 
 
 4855 contracted (third) declension . . . 55 61 
 
 56 irregular declension. Heteroclites, Metaplasm 61 
 
 57 defectives and indeclinables ... 65 
 
 58 Adjectives ...... 65 
 
 59 in 0$ ..... 66 
 
 60 contracts in ovg .... 67 
 
 61 in we ..... 68 
 
 62 of various endings .... 68 
 
 63 of one or two endings ... 69 
 
 examples of declension ... 71 
 
 64 anomalous and defective . 73 
 
 65 degrees of comparison . . 
 
 66 comparison of those in i;, , 7?, ttQ . 74 
 
 67 by tow, iGTOg ... 75 
 
 68 irregular comparison ... 76 
 
 69 ~ defective comparison ... 77 
 
 70 numerals. Cardinal numbers . . 78 
 
 71 ordinals &c. . 81 
 
 72 74 Pronouns ; substantive and possessive . . 8285 
 
 75 the article .... 86 
 
 76 demonstrative ... 88 
 
 77 interrogative and indefinite . . 89 
 
 78 correlative &c. ... 90 
 
 79 other correlatives . . . 91 
 
 80 affixes ..... 93 
 
 81 Vtrbs ....... 93 
 
 82 syllabic augment .... 95 
 
 83 temporal augment .... 96 
 
 84 Attic reduplication . . . . 99 
 
 85 augment as to modes and participles . . 99 
 
 86 in composition . . . . 100 
 
 87 numbers and persons . . . . 1Q1 
 
 88 modes and participles .... 104 
 
 89 voices ...... 106 
 
 90 tenses ...... 108 
 
 Q! characteristic of the theme 109 
 
INDEX. 
 
 335 
 
 92 
 
 Vtrbs ; twofold theme . . 
 
 109 
 
 93, 
 
 94 formation of the tenses 
 
 . 112, 113 
 
 95 
 
 future active. Attic and second future 
 
 114117 
 
 96 
 
 first and second aorist 
 
 117 
 
 97 
 
 first and second perfect 
 
 120 
 
 98 
 
 perfect passive .... 
 
 122 
 
 99 
 
 third future (passive) 
 
 125 
 
 100 
 
 first and second aorist passive 
 
 125 
 
 101 
 
 in A, #, l>, Q 
 
 127 
 
 102 
 
 verbals in rog and rtog 
 
 130 
 
 103 
 
 baryton ..... 
 
 131 
 
 
 paradigm of TVTITO) . , 
 
 132141 
 
 
 of various verbs 
 
 142150 
 
 
 ofdyyt'Mat 
 
 151153 
 
 
 remarks on the paradigms, dialects, &c. 
 
 154157 
 
 104 
 
 use of different parts of the same verb &c. 
 
 157 
 
 
 List of baryton verbs . . . 
 
 160 
 
 105 
 
 contracted verbs .... 
 
 169 
 
 
 paradigm of verbs contract 
 
 171-177 
 
 
 List of contract verbs 
 
 178 
 
 106 
 
 in (At* 
 
 184 
 
 107 
 
 paradigm of verbs in iu . 
 
 187192 
 
 
 remarks on i'GTiyftli 
 
 192 
 
 108 
 
 irregular verbs in [M, as tijpl> &c. 
 
 194200 
 
 109 
 
 (frjf<ii) xt7[ACU>, oida 
 
 200 
 
 110 
 
 anomaly. Syncope and Metathesis 
 
 202 
 
 111 
 
 anomaly from double themes 
 
 205 
 
 112 
 
 other anomalies .... 
 
 206 
 
 113 
 
 anomaly in signification 
 
 208 
 
 114 
 
 List of anomalous verbs 
 
 210229 
 
 115 
 
 Particles ..... 
 
 230 
 
 116 
 
 correlative .... 
 
 232 
 
 117 
 
 mutation of 
 
 235 
 
 118 
 
 Formation of words .... 
 
 236 
 
 119 
 
 derivation by terminations. Verbs 
 
 237 
 
 
 Substantives 
 
 239 
 
 
 A Ji^*:,. 
 
 245 
 
 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 247 
 
 120, 
 
 121 derivation by composition 
 
 24-8253 
 
336 INDEX. 
 
 
 PART II. 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 122 
 
 General view ..... 
 
 . 254 
 
 123 
 
 The noun with adjuncts 
 
 254 
 
 124, 
 
 125 Prepositive article .... 
 
 254257 
 
 126 
 
 as demonstrative &c. 
 
 257 
 
 127 
 
 Pronouns and THXQ .... 
 
 258 
 
 128 
 
 Neuter adjective .... 
 
 260 
 
 129 
 
 Noun in connexion ; subject and predicate 
 
 261 
 
 130 
 
 oblique cases 
 
 262 
 
 131 
 
 accusative . 
 
 264 
 
 132 
 
 genitive 
 
 266 
 
 1 o 
 
 Anll-rrf* 
 
 270 
 
 1OO 
 
 134 
 
 V&rbs ; passive voice .... 
 
 271 
 
 135 
 
 middle voice . . 
 
 273 
 
 136 
 
 medial use of the aorist passive . 
 
 276 
 
 137 
 
 second perfect as intransitive 
 
 277 
 
 138 
 
 use of the tenses .... 
 
 27*7 
 
 139 
 
 third future (passive) 
 
 282 
 
 140 
 
 modes. Use of tl and av 
 
 282 
 
 141 
 
 infinitive .... 
 
 288 
 
 142 
 
 with a subject 
 
 290 
 
 143 
 
 with cases. Attraction 
 
 290 
 
 144 
 
 construction with the relative. Attraction 
 
 292 
 
 145 
 
 with the participle . 
 
 295 
 
 146 
 
 case absolute .... 
 
 298 
 
 147 
 
 Particles ; adverbs .... 
 
 299 
 
 148 
 
 prepositions .... 
 
 300 
 
 149 
 
 negatives .... 
 
 305 
 
 150 
 
 various particles 
 
 307 
 
 151 
 
 Various phrases ..... 
 
 312 
 
 
 Appendix on Versification 
 
 316 
 
 
 on the Digamma 
 
 328 
 
 
 Greek grammatical terms 
 
 329 
 
 
 
 
 
 Explanation of grammatical terms 
 
 331 
 
 END. 
 
. w THITIAL FINK OF 25 CENTS 
 
 ti BE ASSESS EO -^a"" "555 
 
 THIS BOOK ON TIE DATE ^ THE FO(JRTH 
 
 ^' L1 - ^"^^"co ON THE SEVENTH PAY 
 
 DAY ANP J 
 
 OVERDU 
 
 SEP 2 2 
 
 
 
 RECE.IYEQ 
 
 LD 21-100; 
 
VC 00372 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY