IH^_^ icki( '^icic ^^^ '^^^ '^^^ ^^-^ ^^^ "^^^ ^^^ M m r\r '\ O i n ^'' t r- CU„ ^^ I rz. D uu ,IJ O , LJ \ J \ J V y ^ m, W> I I ^ 1 UC-NRLF NiLe. l.^]^-f<<^-J<.fl HOTSS FOR TRAVSLLSKS m SGYFT. w 11' — C^7 v_^ 70 -9 M€m wmmmER mMomuL i<^^. .^^^ ^K^- wm^. ^^x. m^t ^^^ t^ -.. V THE NILE llotes for Craklkrs in ^gjipt, THE NILE. Jioba for iJratielkra in CgDnt. BY E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, M.A, Litt.D., D.Litt., D.Lit., FORMERLY TYKWHITT HEBREW SCHOLAR, AND SCHOLAR OF CHKISt's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, KEEPER OF THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM. NINTH EDITION WITH MAPS, PLANS OF TEMPLES, AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON: TIIOS. COOK & SON (EGYPT), Ltd. LUDGATE CIRCUS. CA IR : TIIOS. COOK & SON (EGYPT), Ltd. 1905. \EHtcred at Stationeii IlalL] HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY, ST. martin's lane, LONDON. INTRODUCTION. Having for some years felt the insufficiency of the information given by Dragomans to travellers on the Nile, and finding with one or two striking exceptions how limited is their knowledge of facts relating to the history of the antiquities in Upper Egypt, Messrs. Thos, Cook and Son have arranged with Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge to compile the following pages, which they have much pleasure in presenting to every passenger under their Nile arrangements on their Tourist Steamers and Dahabiyahs. In this way passengers will no longer be liable to be misled (unintentionally) by Dragomans, but will be able at their leisure to prepare themselves for what they have to see, and thus by an agreeable study add to the interest with which their visits to the various places are made. 4^7695 EGYPTOLOGICAL WORKS BY E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, M.A., Eitt.D., D.Litt., I). Lit., KEEI'RR OK THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN AN'l K^UITIES IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. The Book of the Dead. In three Volumes. Vol. I. The Complete Egyptian Texts printed in hieroglyphic type ; Vol. II. Vocabulary ; Vol. III. Translation. Illustrated by three large coloured fac- similes of sections of papyri, and eighteen plates in black and white. Demy 8vo. Price of the complete work £,2. \os. Vols. I. and II. (not sold separately) £1 ; Vol. III. (sold separately) ;^i 5 J. net. The Book of the Dead. The papyrus of Ani, in the British Museum. With translation and transliteration, and a series of introductory chapters on the religion of the ancient Egyptians. 4to. Half-morocco, £\ \os. The Book of the Dead (Papyri of Hunefer, Anhai, Nu, Queen Netchemet, Kerasher, etc.). Folio. £2. \os. Egyptian Religion. Crown 8vo. 3^. dd. net. Egyptian Magic. Crown 8vo. 31. 6af. net. Egyptian Language. Crown Svo. 35-. dd. net. The Book of the Dead. With over 400 illustrations. English trans- lation. 3 Vols., 3^. dd. each. The Rosetta Stone. 2 Vols. y. 6d. -each. The Decree of Canopus. 3^^. 6d. A History of Egypt in 8 Vols. 3x. 6d. each. Vol. I. Egypt in the Neolithic and Archaic Periods. Vol. II. Egypt under the Great Pyramid Builders. Vol. III. Egypt under the Amenemhats and Hyksos. Vol. IV. Egypt and her Asiatic Empire. Vol. V. Egypt under Rameses the Great. Vol. VI. Egypt under the Priest-kings, and Tanites, and Nubians. Vol. VII. Egypt under the Saites, Persians, and Ptolemies. Vol. VIII. Egypt under the Ptolemies and Cleopatra VII. With full Index to the whole work. First Steps in Egyptian. Demy 8vo. gs. net. An Egyptian Reading Book for Beginners. \Vith a Vocabulary. Demy 8vo. 15.V. net. The Dwellers on the Nile. 8vo. 3^. The Sarcophagus of Ankhnesneferabra. On text.s from the sarcophagus of this Queen, with translations, vocabulary, etc. 4to. ys. dd. The Mummy, or Chapters on Egyptian Archaeology. 8vo. i-zs, dd. Many illustrations. Catalogue of the Egjrptian Antiquities in the Harrow School Museum. 8vo. 3^. Catalogue of the Egyptian Antiquities in the Fitzwilliam Museum. Cambridge. 8vo. \os. dd. The Martyrdom and Miracles of St. George of Cappadocia. Coptic texts with English translation. 105. 6d. St. Michael the Archangel. Three Encomiums in the Coptic texts, with translations. Imperial Svo. 15^. net. The Earliest-known Coptic Psalter. The text in the dialect of Upper Egypt, edited from the Unique Papyrus Codex Oriental 5000 in the British Museum. Imperial 8vo. i$s. The Edition is strictly limited to 350 copies. LONDON : KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Ltd., Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road. PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION. The short descriptions given in the present work of the principal Egyptian monuments on each side of the Nile were first drawn up in accordance with suggestions made by my friend the late Mr. J. M. Cook ; they are not in any way intended to form a " Guide to Egypt." They were written for the use. of those travellers who have very few weeks to spend in Egypt, and who wish to carry away from that country some of the more important facts connected with the fast-perishing remains of one of the most interesting and ancient civilizations that has been developed on the face of the earth. They have been, however, added to considerably, and modified in the light of modern discoveries in Egypt. Those who are able to make a stay of two or three months in the country, and to visit sites in the Delta which are off the beaten track, and Mount Sinai, and to journey up the Nile beyond Khartum so far south as Gondokoro, will find the Egyptian remains, both ancient and modern, more fully treated in the " Handbook for Egypt and the Siidin," which I have written for Messrs. Thos. Cook and Son. Experience has shown that the PREFACE. greater numl^er of travellers in Egypt are more interested in the remains and civilization of the ancient Egyptians than in the history of Egypt under the rule of the Persians, Ptolemies, Romans, Arabs, and Turks. It is for this reason that no attempt has been made to describe, otherwise than in the briefest manner possible, its history under these foreign rulers, and only such facts connected with them as are absolutely necessary for a general understanding of its monuments have been inserted. In addition to such descriptions, a few chapters have been added on the history of the country during the rule of the Pharaohs, and on its people, and their buildings, their religion, and their methods of writing. The lists of hieroglyphic characters and their phonetic values, printed on pp. 191- 198, will, it is hoped, be useful to those who may wish to spell out the royal names on tombs, and temples, and the commoner words which occur in the inscriptions. In transcribing Arabic names of places, the system in general use throughout Europe has been employed, but well-known names like '' Cairo," " Luxor," etc., have not been altered. Similarly, the ordinary well- known forms of Egyptian proper names such as " Rameses," '' Amenophis," " Hophra," etc., have been used in preference to the more correct transcriptions, " Ra-messu," " Amen-hetep," and " Uah-ab-Ra." The dates assigned to the Egyptian kings are those of the late Dr. Heinrich Brugsch, who based his calcu- lations on the assumption that the average duration of PREFACE XI a generation was thirty-three years. Hence it will be readily understood that the date assigned to Rameses II. (VkC. 1333), for instance, is only approximately correct. In recent years many attempts have been made to reduce the length of the historic period of Egypt, and to prove that the reigns of the historic kings of Egypt were considerably antedated by the early Egyptologists. Recent excavations, however, have shown that the dynastic Egyptians and their predynastic ancestors occupied the Nile Valley for many thousands of years, and even if Manetho's list of kings were to be proved incorrect in every particular, and the total years of the reigns of the dynastic kings to be reduced by 1500 years, the great antiquity of Egyptian civilization is a fact which cannot be gainsaid. In the last three editions of '' The Nile," con- siderable alterations and additions have been made. As a result of recent excavations many of the articles have been entirely re-written, and a brief description of the antiquities between Wadi Haifa and Khartum has been included. So much general interest has been aroused in the Copts and Muhammadans, that additional chapters on the religious history of these peoples have been added. In deference to many suggestions, the summary of the events which have taken place in Egypt under British influence has been considerably amplified, and the short chapter on " Progress in Egypt " will prove to what excellent purpose Lord Cromer has toiled in that land. The Xll PREFACE. notes on the history and development of the idea of the Mahdi among the Muhammadans, will, it is hoped, explain to the reader, who has not found time to examine into the Arabic sources, how religious fanaticism, acting on the minds of people who have been the victims of a long course of systematic misgovernment and oppression, has overthrown kings and deluged whole countries with blood. In compiling certain sections of this work for facts and figures I have drawn frequently from Lord Cromer's official Despatches, and from the reports and works of Sir William Garstin, K.C.M.G., Major H. G. Lyons, R.E., and other officials in the service of the Egyptian Government. The works of Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., etc., Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pdsha, K.C.B., Father Ohrwalder, and Mr. Charles Royle have supplied many facts concerning Mahdism and the reconquest of the Sudan, and from Edward Lane's " Modern Egyptians " I have derived much information concerning phases of modern Egyptian life which have now passed away. In former editions of this work descriptions were given of the principal antiquities which were ex- hibited in the rooms of the Egyptian Museum at Gizah, but the frequent rearrangement of the collections made useless all attempts to indicate the places in which they were to be found. Now that the antiquities have been removed and arranged in the new Egyptian Museum at Cairo, and Professor Maspero has written and published an account of the PREFACE. XUl collection under his charge, it is unnecessary to do more than to refer the reader to the official " Guide to the Cairo Museum." For the convenience, how- ever, of those who are interested in the history of the National Egyptian Collection of Egypt, and of those who purchase small antiquities in the Museum, the general archaeological and other notes which appeared in former editions of " The Nile " have been reprinted. E. A. Wallis Budge. November 22, 1904, CONTENTS. I'AGE Map of Egypt Introduction by Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son ... V. Preface to the Ninth Edition ... ix. Egyptian History and its sources I Tablet of Abydos 5 „ SakHra 8 „ Karnak 9 Annals ... 9 Historical Stelae lO Decrees TO Biblical Notices lO Tell al-'Amarna Tablets 14 Greek and Roman Writers .. i8 Predynastic Period 21 Historical Summary — Dynastic Period — Ancient Empire 23 Middle Empire... •• 30 New Empire 40 Persians... 49 Macedonians ...... .. 49 Ptolemies .. 49 Romans... •• 53 The Byzantines •• 59 Muhammadans... 62 Turkish Rule ... 73 French Rule 74 Muhammad 'Ali 75 British Rule 81 XVI CONTENTS. Dates assigned to the Egyptian Dynasties by Egypto legists Progress in Egypt under British Rule The Country of Egypt The Nomes of Egypt The Ancient Egyptians The Nile The Barrages Aswan Dam Asyut Dam The Oases Ancient Egyptian Buildings, Sculpture, Painting, etc Egyptian Writing A list of the Principal Hieroglyphic Signs The Rosetta Stone — Translation Arabic Alphabet Coptic Alphabet Egyptian Months The History of Aahmes, son of Abana The Religion and Gods of Egypt The Modern Egyptians Sketch of Coptic History The Arabs and Muhammadanism :- Muhammad the Prophet . . . The Hijra ... Al-Kur'an Islam % Belief in God Angels Resurrection Predestination Prayer Almsgiving Fasting Pilgrimage to Mecca CONTENTS The Ka*aba Polygamy and Divorce Murder, Theft ... Festivals ... Ramadan ... Sects The Mahdi The Mahdi of the SMsin The Khalifa Birth, Marriage, Death Call to Prayer Weights and Measures Alexandria The Pharos Library and Museum Serapeum ... Pompey's Pillar ... Cleopatra's Needles Catacombs Damanh "Lord of the Shrine of the Vulture, i.e., Nekhebet, Lord of the Shrine of the Urseus, i.e., Per-Uatchet, mighty of terror in the lands " ; ^ /^ ^ T "^ '!^ > " Horus, exalted one of the white crown, beloved of Ra " ; fV ® n 9 7;? Ill ^ ^-=> cr^ 9 ^ ^^=^ , " Golden f^. oo A J} 111 in' Horus, mighty of valour, smiter of the Nine Bows," etc. In the earliest times the kings were named after some attribute possessed by them ; thus Mena, the first king of Egypt, is the "firm" or "established." In the Turin Papyrus only the prenomens of the kings are given, but its statements are confirmed and amplified by the other lists. The Tablet of Abydos''^ was discovered by Diimichen in the temple of Osiris at Abydos, during M. Mariette's excavations there in 1864. This list gives us the names of seventy-six kings, beginning with Mena or Menes, and ending with Seti I., the father of Rameses II.; it is not a complete list, and it would seem as if the scribe who drew up the list only inserted such names as he considered worthy of living for ever. * See pp. 6, 7. There is a duplicate in the British Museum (Northern Egyptian Gallery, No. 117). TABLET OF ABYDOS. The kings whose names are given on the Tablet of Abydos are : — Dynasty I. 1. Mena. 2. Teta. 3. Ateth. 4. Ata. 5. Hesepti (read Semti 6. Merbap. 7. Hu (or, Nekht). 8. Qebh (read Sen). Dynasty II. 9. Betchau. 10. Kakau. 11. Ba-en-neter. 12. Uatch-nes. 13. Senta. Dynasty III. 14. Tchatchai. 15. Nebka. 16. Tcheser-sa. 17. Teta. 18. Setches. 19. Ra-nefer-ka. Dynasty IV. 20. Seneferu. 21. Khufu (Cheops), 22. Tet-f-Ra. 23. Khaf'Ra (Chephren). 24. Men-kau-Ra (Mycerinus). 25. Shepseskaf. Dynasty V. 26. Userkaf. 27. Sahu-Ra. 28. Kakaa. 29. Nefer-f-Ra. 30. Usr-en-Ra. 31. Men-kau-Heru, 32. Tetka-Ra. 33. Unas. Dynasty VL 34. Teta. 35. Userka-Ra. 36. Meri-Ra. 37. Mer-en-Ra. 38. Nefer-ka-Ra. 39. Mer-en-Ra-sa-emsaf. 40. Neterka-Ra. 41. Menka-Ra. Dynasties VII-X. 42. Neferka-Ra. 43. Neferka-Ra-nebi. 44. Tetka-Ra-maa- .... 45. Neferka-Ra- Khentu. 46. Mer-en-Heru. 47. Senefer-Ka. 48. Ka-en-Ra. NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. ^ yggi-^i;i^£g-^^i?j^(Ma^ KEB-^ I :JS]-^ ^IK^^B^ • < (j(B:i^i^i@jjj o-^^iiy'(M>i!i-^i lii(57ffl>^ {!j(*T3)-^^l]:iJ^g^i1 ^ \ < IgSI-^-WO^^llJ^iglll^ W(z3l-*M^ffi^>^lW^II^ •1 n m \:j^^\'j<^m^^']rjk^^ KEI-^Wi^^^lW^D^ i'jdUi^iti^^Mith^m'^ -C3 f:ie3^W®11^^11J^^Bl^ Ijy (TTgl ^ I J^^-^ ^IIJJ^B IS' {'4(nBM'J^M^^ll%<^^ c 'J^E^^ W^tD^ ^^^ fm-^ -^lU^Si-^ u^rr^^^ i^M'J^^-^UH'J^Si-^ jUm^t'^m^t^ i^idi^^i'j^M i^om^ ^]p^^ ^ii'j<^^ i^^^^irh^^ m m^-^ 0^^ j)t^ i^'MS^ Ia/^MD^ ^Hth^^ i^m-^^n^^B-^ W@3(^ mljS^^ s pgia^f^@a-^ , ^^^ j^jirh^^ H^Kj)-»^ll^[@IC^ H@gi^ *— ♦« h — — :^EE5 s ii^i^na-^ -, NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 49. Neferka-Ra-tererel. 50. Neferka-Heru. 5 1 . Neferka-Ra-pepi-senb. 52. Seneferka annu. 53 kau-Ra. 54. Neferkau-Ra. 55. Neferkau-Heru. 56. Neferka-ari-Ra. Dynasty XL 57. Neb-khem-Ra. 58. Seankhka-Ra. Dynasty XII. 59 60 61 Sehetep-ab-Ra (Amenemhat I.). Kheper-ka-Ra (Usertsen I.). Nub-kau-Ra (Amenemhat II.). 62. Kheper-kha-Ra (Usertsen II.). 63. Kha-kau-Ra (Usertsen III.). 64. Maat-en-Ra (Amenemhat III.). 65. Maa-kheru-Ra (Amenemhat IV.). Dynasty XVIII. 66. Neb-pehtet-Ra. 67. Tcheser-ka-Ra (Amen-hetep I.). 68. Aa-kheper-ka-Ra (Thothmes I.). 69. Aa-kheper-en-Ra (Thothmes II.). 70. Men-kheper-Ra (Thothmes III.). 71. Aa-kheperu-Ra (Amen-hetep IL). 72. Men-kheperu-Ra (Thothmes IV.). 73. Neb-Maat-Ra (Amen-hetep III.). 74. Tcheser-kheperu-Ra- setep-em-Ra (Heru-em-heb). Dynasty XIX. 75. Men-pehtet-Ra (Rameses I.). 76. Men-maat-Ra (Seti I.). The Tablet of Sakkara was discovered at Sakkara by Mariette, in the grave ot Thunurei *=> V , , , iJlJ w] ' ^^0 Hved during the reign of Rameses II. In spite of a break in it, and some orthographical errors, it is a valuable list } it gives the name? of forty-seven kings, SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 9 and it agrees very closely with the Abydos list. When complete it contained fifty-three names of kings. It is a curious fact that it begins with the name of Mer-ba-pen, the sixth king of the 1st dynasty. The Tablet of Karnak was discovered at Karnak by Burton, and was taken to Paris by Prisse. It was drawn up in the time of Thothmes III., and contains the names of sixty-one of his ancestors. They are not arranged in any chronological order, but the tablet is of the highest historical importance, for it records the names of some of the rulers from the Xlth to the XVIIth dynasties, and gives the names of those of the Xlth dynasty more completely than any other list. The tablets of Abydos, Sakkara, and Karnak supply the names of about loo kings, />., about one-third of the number of royal names which existed in the Turin Papyrus. II. Annals of Egyptian Kings inscribed upon the walls of temples, obelisks, and buildings. The narrative of such inscriptions is very simple, and practically these records merely represent itineraries in which the names of conquered and tributary lands and peoples are given ; incidentally facts of interest are noted down. As the day and month and regnal years of the king by whom these expeditions were undertaken are generally given, these inscriptions throw much light on history. The lists of tribute are also useful, for they show what the products of the various countries were. The poetical version* of the history of the famous battle of Rameses II. against the Kheta by the poet Pen-ta-urt is a pleasant variety of historical narrative. The inscription on the Stele of Piankhi, the Ethiopian conqueror of Egypt, in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, is decidedly remarkable for the minute details of his fights, the speeches made by * See the notice of the official Egyptian account under Abu Simbel. lO NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. himself and his conquered foes, and the mention of many facts * which are not commonly noticed by Egyptian annalists. The vigour and poetical nature of the narrative are also very striking. III. Historical Stelae and Papyri, which briefly relate in chronological order the various expeditions undertaken by the king for whom they were made. Egyptian kings occasionally caused summaries of their principal conquests and of the chief events of their reign to be drawn up ; examples of these are {a) the stele of Thothmes III., preserved in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, and {b) the last section of the great Harris Papyrus, in which Rameses III. reviews all the good works which he has brought to a successful issue to the, glory of the gods of Egypt and for the benefit of her inhabitants. This wonder- ful papyrus measures 135 feet by 17 inches, and was found in a box in the temple at Medinet Habu, built by Rameses III. ; it is now in the British Museum. (No. 9900.) IV. Decrees, Scarabs, Statues of Kings and Private Persons, which are fruitful sources of information about historical, religious, and chronological subjects. V. Biblical notices about Egypt and allusions to events of Egyptian history. The earliest recorded contact between the Hebrews and the Egyptians is mentioned in (^eneses xii. 10-20, where we are told that Abram went down to live in the land of Egypt, * For example, it is stated that when Piankhi had taken possession of the storehouses and treasury of Nemart (Nimrod) his foe, he went afterwards into the stables, and found that the horses there had been kept short of food. Bursting into a rage, he turned to Nimrod and said, "By my life, by my darling Ra, who revives my nostrils with life, to have kept my horses hungry is more heinous in my sight than any other offence which thou hast committed against me." Mariette, Monuments Divers, pi. 3, 11. 65, 66. SOURCES OF KGYPTIAN HISTORY. TI because there was a famine in the land. The Patriarch probably entered the country by the old caravan road which ran from Syria to the northeast of the Delta, and sojourned in the district round about Tanis, where grain was to be had in abundance, and where the fertility of the land was proverbial. This portion of the Delta was inhabited by a mixed population of Egyptians and temporary, or perman- ent, dwellers from the Eastern Desert and Syria, from time immemorial. Famines were frequent in Syria and Palestine, and the Hebrews and other nomad tribes must often have been compelled to send to Egypt for grain, and the trading transactions which existed between the Egyptians and the desert peoples must have been considerable. If the gener- ally accepted chronology be correct, Abram probably visited Egypt under the Xllth dynasty, at the time when so much was being done for the irrigation of the country, and when the power of the Egyptians over the dwellers in the Eastern Desert and in the peninsula of Sinai was renewed in a very effective manner. From the history of Joseph many side-lights on the social conditioii of Egypt may be gleaned. In the first place, it is seen that a famine in Syria first compelled the Patriarch Jacob to send his sons into Egypt to buy corn, and in so doing he was following the example of his great ancestor Abram. When Joseph's brethren sold him to the proprietors of a caravan on its way to Egypt, they did what it has been the custom of Orientals in the desert to do from time immemorial, and every detail of the story has found innumerable parallels in the histories of free-born desert men who have been kidnapped and taken to Egypt and sold as slaves there. The description of Potiphar, Joseph's master, the incident of the love turned to hate of his mis- tress, the prison life, the interpreting of the dreams of the butler and baker, and the rapid rise of the young Hebrew to power as the wazir or prime minister of the king of the 12 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. district, are most accurately described, and every part of the narrative proves how intimately life in the Delta was known and understood by its writer. That Joseph should marry Asenathj the daughter of a priest of Heliopolis, was as natural for a high official in his position, as it was for the king to make him take the Egyptian name of " Zaphnath- paaneah," which means something like, " God spake, and It is of course impossible to assign a date to the period dur- ing which Joseph lived in Egypt, but the facts of his his- tory are older than the recension of them with which we are familiar. The arrival of Joseph in Egypt and the settlement of his father and brethren in Goshen may well have taken place under the rule of the Hyksos, /.^., some time before B.C. 1700, and a good deal may be said in favour of this view. On the other hand, the names of Potipherah, and Asenath, and Zaphnath-paaneah all belong to a period some 700 years later, i.e., to the time of the XXIInd dynasty; certainly the Egyptian inscriptions contain no evidence which would show that they were used during the period of the Hyksos," or during that immediately following. It is also impossible to identify the famine in Egypt which took place under Joseph's rule, for severe famines of the kind have taken place in the country with terrible frequency from time immemorial. The earhest seven years' famine mentioned by tradition is that which the inscription on the rock on the island of Sahel in the First Cataract says took place in the reign of Tcheser, a king of the Ilird dynasty, about B.C. 4000 ; this famine was caused by a succession of low Niles, and the lack of food was so absolute that the people sank down through exhaustion in the streets, and died where they dropped. Of the awful seven years' famine which lasted from a.d. 1066-72, many details are known. A cake cost 15 dinars (the dinar =10 shillings), an egg i SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 1 3 dinar, a dog 5 dinars, a cat 3 dinars, and a house was exchanged for 20 lbs. of flour. Passengers in the streets were caught by hooks let down from upper windows, drawn up, killed and eaten ; and human flesh was sold in public. In I2CI another awful famine began, and the people habitually ate human flesh ; parents killed and cooked their children^ and a wife was found eating her husband raw. The plague came in the following year, and at Alexandria a Muhamma- dan religious official said the funeral prayers over 700 per- sons. In connexion with the history of Joseph, and as an instance of the influence of Egyptian customs on the Hebrews, it may be noted that when Jacob died, Joseph " commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his " father : and the physicians embalmed Israel (Genesis 1. 2). '' And forty days were fulfilled for him ; for so are fulfilled " the days of those which are embalmed : and the Egyptians " mourned for him threescore and ten days." In accordance with the oath which Joseph sware to Jacob, and with Pharaoh's permission, Joseph and his brethren carried their father " into the land of Canaan, and buried him in the ** cave of the field of Machpelah, which Abraham bought " with the field for a possession of a burying place of Ephron *' the Hittite, before Mamre" (Genesis 1. 13). Finally, " Joseph died, being an hundred and ten years old : and " they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt " ; and in Joshua xxiv. 32, we read that the bones of Joseph were buried at Shechem, in a parcel of ground which Jacob had bought from the sons of Hamor, the father of Shechem. The Hebrews maintained a steady intercourse with the Egyptians for centuries, and always regarded them with consideration ; this is clear from the command, " Thou " shalt not abhor an Egyptian, because thou wast a stranger in his land " (Deut. xxiii. 7). From i Kings iii. i, we learn that " Solomon made affinity with Pharaoh king of " Egypt, and took Pharaoh's daughter, and brought her 14 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. " into the city of David." The kings of Egypt became alHes of the Hebrews, for Solomon received help from Pharaoh against the Canaanites (i Kings ix. t6), but after the division in the kingdom of David, Shishak {i.e.^ Shashanq I.) invaded Palestine, went up against Jerusalem, and took away the treasures of the house of the Lord and the king's house, and the shields of gold which Solomon had made (i Kings xiv. 25, 26), that is to say, he supported the house of Israel under Jeroboam against the house of Judah under Rehoboam. The prophecies against Egypt are numerous (see Isaiah xix., xx., xlv. 14; Jeremiah xliii. 8-13 ; xliv. 30, xlvi.; Ezekiel xxix.-xxxii. ; Joeliii. 19 ; Zechariah x. 11, etc.), and they throw much light upon the relations which existed between the kings of that country and Palestine in the eighth and seventh centuries before Christ. The New Testament supplies very little information about Egypt, but in the Apocryphal Gospels are preserved a number of interesting traditions of the sojourn of the Holy Family in the region of Heliopolis, and of the miracles which were wrought by the Child, and Egyptian literature of the Christian period is full of legends of the wanderings of Mary the Virgin, who is said to have journeyed up the Nile with our Lord nearly so far as Luxor. Both traditions and legends are often improbable, but the light which they throw upon the social condition of Egypt is considerable, and the narratives themselves are valuable material for the study of Egyptian Christianity. VI. The Tell al-Amarna Tablets, or the collection of about 320 documents written in cuneiform on clay which were found at Tell al-Amarna, the site of the town built by Khu-en-aten or Amenophis IV., about 180 miles south of Memphis. The Berlin Museum acquired 160, a large number being fragments, the British Museum 86, and 55 are in the Museum in Cairo. These documents were probably written between the years b.c. i 500-1450. SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 1 5 The Tell al-Amarna tablets supply entirely new informa- tion concerning the political relations which existed between the kings of Egypt and the kings of Western Asia, and prove that an important trade between the two countries existed from very early times. They also supply facts con- cerning treaties, alliances, religious ceremonies, etc., which cannot be derived from any other source, and they give us for the first time the names of Artatama, Artashumara, and Tushratta, kings of Mitani (the Mathen of the Egyptian inscriptions), and of Kadashman-Bel (?), king of Karaduni- yash. They mention also two kings of Babylonia called Burraburiyash and Kurigalzu. The dialect in which most of these inscriptions are written has a close affinity with the language of the Old Testament. The first conquest of Syria by the Egyptians took place in the reign of Amasis 1., B.C. 1700. Thothmes I., B.C. 1633, conquered all Palestine and Syria, and set up a tablet at Ruthen to mark the boundary of Egypt. Thothmes III., B.C. 1600, marched through Palestine and Syria and made himself master of all the country from Gaza to the Euphrates. At Tunip he established the Egyptian religion, and at Ruthen, in the 33rd year of his reign, he set up a tablet by the side of that of Thothmes I. The cuneiform tablets call him D.P. Ma-na - akh - bi - ir - ya a very close imitation of the pronunciation of this king's prenomen Men-Kheper-Ra fotf^ ^'1 . Amenophis II., b.c. 1566, marched to Ni on the Euphrates, and slew seven kings in Ruthen, and brought their bodies to Egypt. Amenophis III. was not a great conqueror in the strict sense of the word, but he was pro- claimed conqueror of Kadesh, Tunip, Sankar, and north- western Mesopotamia, to which country he was in the habit I 6 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. of going to shoot lions. Now we know from a scarab that a lady called Thi ( J lj(] W ^ 1 » the daughter of luaa Egypt to become the wife of Amenophis in the tenth year of his reign. We know also that she became the "great Queen of Egypt," and as she is depicted with a fair com- plexion and blue eyes, there is no doubt that she is to be identified with the lady called Ti -^ '^f ?:£ g:g, in the inscriptions on the Tell al-Amarna tablets, who came from the country to the north-east of Syria. Thi was the mother of Amenophis IV., the " heretic king." Besides this lady, we learn from the tablets that Amenophis married at least five other ladies from Mesopotamia, viz., a sister and two daughters of Kadashman-Bel (?), king of Karaduniyash, and a sister and daughter of Tushratta, king of Mitani ; but none of these ladies was acknowledged as " Queen of Egypt." Tushratta's sister was called Kilkipa ""^ /^^^/)' in cuneiform ^ »^ >^yy^ I^ ^ ^ Gi-lu-khi-pa, and his daughter Tatum-khipa. In the time of Amenophis III. a Mesopotamian princess was honoured by marriage with the king of Egypt, but when Kadashman-Bel (?) wished to marry an Egyptian princess, Amenophis replied haughtily, "the daughter of the king of the land of Egypt hath never been given to a nobody"; yet in the reign of Khu-en-aten we learn that an Egyptian princess was given in marriage to Burraburiyash, king of Karadu- niyash, a proof that the Egyptian power was waning in Mesopotamia. The greater number of the tablets are addressed to "the king of Egypt," either Amenophis III. or his son Amenophis IV., and they reveal a state of disorganization and rebelhon in the Egyptian dependencies in Palestine and Syria which cannot be understood unless we assume that for some years before the death of Amen- SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 17 ophis III. the Semitic peoples of Western Asia were being encouraged to reject the rule of the Egyptians by their kinsfolk living in Egypt. It will require time to settle all the historical and philological difficulties which are raised by these tablets, but the examination of them already made has thrown most valuable light upon the social condition of Egypt and of the neighbouring countries. One of the tablets is written in the language of Mitani, and others are inscribed with cuneiform characters in a language which is at, present unknown ; and some of them have dockets in hieratic which state from what country they were brought. The discovery of these tablets shows that there must have been people at the court of Amenophis III. who understood the cuneiform characters, and that the officers in command over towns in Phoenicia subject to the rule of Egypt could, when occasion required, write their despatches in cuneiform. The following is a list of the Tell al-Amarna Tablets in the Museum at Cairo : — I. Letters from Kadashman-Bel (?). 9. Letter from Ashur-uballit, King of Assyria, B.C. 1400. 10. Letter from Amenophis III. to Tarhundaradush, King of Arzapi. 11, 12, 14. Letters from the King of Alashiya. 40. Letter from Aziru. 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 78, 79, 83. Letters from Rib-Adda. 94. Letter from Zatadna. 96. Letter from Namyawiza. 98, 99. Letters from Abu-Milki. 100. Letter from Shuardata. T09. Letter from Milkili. 115. Letter from Biridiwi. 116, 117. Letters from Shubandi. 118, 121. Letters from Widya. 124. Letter from Yabni-ili. 125, Letter from Arzawya. c 1 8 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 127. Letter from Dashru. 131. Letter from Sham u- Adda. 138. Letter from the lady .^ ^tl W "iiV T^^ 150. Letter from Nurtuwi ....(?) 151. Letter from the governor of the city of Nazima. 152. Letter from Ara of the city of Kumiti, 153. Letter from Pu-Addu. 154. Letter from Addu-asharid. 195. Letter from Bayawi. 196. Letter from Aba . . . . zi. 239. Part of a legend. 5, 17, 18, 20, 197-209. Letters from unknown writers. From the Annals of the Kings of Assyria we learn that Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal marched against Egypt; Tirhakah defeated Sennacherib at Eltekeh, but was defeated by Esarhaddon, the son of Sennacherib, who drove him back into Ethiopia. Esar- haddon's son, Ashurbanipal, also attacked Tirhakah and defeated him. Tanut-Amen, the Tandamanie of the Assyrian texts, attempted to re-assert the Nubian supremacy, but he was obliged to flee before the Assyrian army, and Ashurbanipal marched up the Nile so far south as Thebes, and looted the city. Egypt was divided by Esarhaddon into twenty-two provinces, over some of which Assyrian viceroys were placed. A fragment of a Babylonian tablet states that Nebuchadnezzar IL marched into Egypt. VI L The Greek and Roman writers upon Egypt are many; and of these the best known are Herodotus, Manetho, and Diodorus Siculus. Herodotus devotes the whole of the second and the beginning of the third book of his work to a history of Egypt and the Egyptians, and his is the oldest Greek treatise on the subject known to us. In spite of the attacks made upon his work during the last few years, the evidence of the hieroglyphic inscriptions SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 1 9 which are being deciphered year after year shows that on the whole his work is trustworthy. A work more valuable than that of Herodotus was the Egyptian history of Manetho (still living in b.c. 271) of Sebennytus, who is said by Plutarch to have been a contemporary of Ptolemy I. ; his work, now lost, appears to have been written during the reign of Ptolemy 11. Philadelphus (b.c. 286-247). According to words put into his mouth, he was chief priest and scribe in one of the temples of Egypt, and he appears to have been perfectly acquainted with the ancient Egyptian language and literature. He had also had the benefit of a Greek education, and was therefore peculiarly fitted to draw up in Greek for Ptolemy Philadelphus a history of Egypt and her religion. The remains of the great Egyptian history of Manetho are preserved in the polemical treatise of Josephus against Apion, in which a series of passages of Egyptian history from the XVth to the XlXth dynasties is given, and in the list of the dynasties, together with the number of years of the reign of each king, given by Africanus and Eusebius on his authority. At the beginning of his work Manetho gives a list of gods and demi-gods who ruled over Egypt before Menes, the first human king of Egypt; the thirty dynasties known to us he divides into three sections : — I.-XI., XH.-XIX., and XX.-XXX. Diodorus Siculus, who visited Egypt about b.c. 57, wrote a history of the country, its people and its religion, based chiefly upon the works of Herodotus and Hekataeus. He was not so able a writer nor so accurate an observer as Herodotus, and his work contains many fanciful statements. Other important ancient writers on Egypt are Strabo,''*" Chaeremon,t Josephus,{ Plutarch§ and Horapollo.|| According to Manetho, there reigned over Egypt before ^ About A.D. 15. t About A.D. 50. X About a.d. 75. § About A.D. 100. I! About A.D. 400. C 2 20 NOT?:S FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Mena, or Menes, the first mortal king of that country, a number of beings who may be identified with the Shesu Heru, or "followers of Horus"; of their deeds and history very little is known. During their rule Egypt was divided into two parts, each ruled by its own king ; and the whole of Upper and Lower Egypt was divided into a large series of small, independent principalities, which were united under one head in the person of Menes. The kings of Egypt following after the mythical period of Manetho are divided into thirty dynasties. For the sake of convenience, Egyptian history is divided into three periods : — I. the Ancient Empire, which includes the first eleven dynasties; 11. the Middle Empire, which includes the next nine dynasties (Xllth-XXth) ; and, III. the New Empire, which includes the remaining ten dynasties, XXIst-XXXth, one being Persian. The rule of the Saite kings was followed by that of the Persians, Macedonians, Ptolemies and Romans. The rule of the Arabs, which began a.d. 641, ended a.d. 1517, when the country was conquered by the Turks ; since this time Egypt has been nominally a pashalik of Turkey. The date assigned to the first dynasty is variously given by different scholars : by Champollion-Figeac it is B.C. 5867, by Bockh 5702, by Bunsen 3623, by Lepsius 3892, by Lieblein 3893, by Mariette 5004, and by Brugsch 4400. Much confusion has been introduced into Egyptian chrono- logy by the attempt to make it square with Archbishop Ussher's dates, which have been, unfortunately, printed in the Authorised Version of the Bible, and by the well- meaning endeavours of those who would limit the existence of ancient Egyptian civilization to a period of two or three thousand years. Brugsch's system of chronology is an extremely good one for all practical purposes, and his dates, with a few modifications, which are the result of new facts are adopted throughout this book. 21 HISTORICAL SUMMARY. THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD. According to Manetho, the reigns of the gods and demi-gods lasted in Egypt about 12,843 years, and according to Panodorus only about 1,183^ years. The gods and demi-gods are probably nothing more than a long series of petty chiefs or kings who reigned over very limited areas in different parts of Egypt, many being, no doubt, contemporaneous. After these came the Ne/c^es- or Manes, who are said to have reigned for 5,813 years, and with some of these we are no doubt justified in identifying the Shemshu Heru, or " Followers of Horus," a class of beings who are frequently mentioned in Egyptian texts, and who seem to have introduced a higher grade of civilization into Egypt. Of some of these followers of Horus the tombs have undoubtedly been found at Abydos and other places in Upper Egypt, and their rule appears to have lasted until the time when Mena or Menes made himself sole king of Egypt. All the evidence on the subject now forthcoming proves that all Egypt was, before the time of Menes, divided into two entirely distinct and independent kingdoms. The kingdom of the Upper Country, or of the South, probably extended from the Fayyiim to Silsila, and that of the Lower Country, or of the North, included the Delta, and most likely a small portion of Middle Egypt. The title of the Ruler of the South was " Suten," which is indicated by I or more fully I , and the title of the North was " Bat," I /VWNAA which is indicated by the hornet {not the bee) \M\^ and may be of Libyan origin. King Menes, in order to show 22 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. that he was lord both of the South and of the North, prefixed both signs 4\^ to his name, and all his successors followed his example. One of the commonest names for Egypt is " Taui " ^^ i.e., the " Two Countries," and the countries referred to are those of the South and North. The Suten of the South wore the White Crown /), and the Bat of the North wore the Red Crown >/ ; the union of these YJ symbolized the sovereignty of both countries, just as 4=\^ did. The early kings, who were Lords of both the South and the North, prefixed to their names the title _^^ , which indicated that they were Lords of the famous shrine and city of the goddess Nekhebet in the South, and of the shrine and city of the goddess Uatchet in the North. It is probable that at a very early period the Sutens and Bats of Egypt were formerly crowned, or acknowledged to be legal kings, by the priesthood of Nekhebet and of Uatchet respectively, and that the kings who prefixed the tide _u^ to their names intended this fact to be understood. In fact, the title indicates that the kings who bore it were chosen to reign by the goddesses Nekhebet and Uatchet, just as in dynastic times the titles " chosen of Ra," "chosen of Amen," " chosen of Ptah " proclaimed that the kings who adopted them had been elected to rule by Ra, and Amen, and Ptah, either by some motion made by the figures of the gods which were enshrined within their sanctuaries, or by declarations made on their behalf by the high priests. Another early royal title, of which an example occurs on the ivory plaque of king Aha, now in the Cairo Museum, is m^ \. About the meaning of this there can be little HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 23 doubt, and we are justified in assuming that it is something like ** chosen of the Hawk-god, chosen of the Serpent-god," or " lord of the shrine of the hawk, lord of the shrine of the serpent," and that king Aha employed it to symbolize his rule over the South and the North. The names of a number of kings of Egypt who probably lived in the Predynastic Period have been found in recent years on objects from very early tombs, but until definite positions can be assigned to them it is better to omit their names from the list of the kings of Egypt. DYNASTIC PERIOD-ANCIENT EMPIRE. Dynasty /., from This. B.C. 4400. Mena, the first dynastic king of Egypt, founded Memphis, having turned aside the course of the Nile, and established a temple service there. He has been identified by some with a king whose Horus name was Aha. 4366. Teta wrote a book on anatomy, and continued buildings at Memphis. 4333. Ateth, or Ata. 4300. Ata. 4266. Semti f 1^^^ ] . Some papyri say that the 64th Chapter of the Book of the Dead was "found" in his time. Semti was a devotee of the " God on the Staircase," i.e.^ Osiris, and he appears to have reformed the cult of Seker, the old god of the dead of Memphis. 4233. Mer-pe-ba. 4200. Hu or Nekht 4166. Sen, whose name has been wrongly read as Qebh 24 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Dynasty II., from This. B.C. 4133- Neter-baiu,* in whose reign an earthquake swallowed up many people at Bubastis. In his reign the sign '^^ was first used to indicate the union of the South with the North. H etep-Sekhemui. 4100. Kakau, in whose days the worship of Apis at Memphis, and that of Mnevis at Heliopolis, was continued. 4066. Ba-en-neter, in whose reign, according to John of Antioch, the Nile flowed with honey for eleven days. During the reign of this king the suc- cession of females to the throne of Egypt was declared valid. Uatch-nes. Per-ab-sen. 4000. Sent. Sepulchral stelae of this king's priests are preserved at Oxford and at Cairo. Ka-Ra. Nefer-ka-Ra. Nefer-ka-Seker, in whose reign an eclipse appears to be mentioned. Hetchefa. Tchatchai. Dynasty III, from Memphis. Neb-ka. 3900. Tcheser, the builder of the famous ''Step Pyramid " at Sakkara. An inscription on the Island of Sahal says that a seven years' famine took place in his reign. His tomb was discovered at HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 25 B.C. Bet Khallaf by Mr. John Garstang in 1901. 3900. Tcheser worked the turquoise mines of Sinai, and his Horus name is inscribed on a rock at Wadi Maghara. Tcheser-Teta. Ahtes. Setches. Nefer-ka-Ra Huni. The Prisse Papyrus says that this king was succeeded by Seneferu. Dynasty IV., from Memphis. 3766. Seneferu. Important contemporaneous monuments of this king exist. During his reign the copper mines of Wadi Maghara were worked. He built the pyramid of Medum. His wife's name was Merti-tef-s. 3733. Khufu (Cheops) vanquished the people of Sinai; he built the first pyramid of Gizeh. His son Herutataf was famous for his learning, and tradition ascribes the discovery of a Chapter of the Book of the Dead to him. In the reign of Khufu, Teta the magician flourished. A tradition of the XVIIIth dynasty indicates that in the reign of this king the Sphinx was buried in desert sand. Ra-tet-f Assa. In his reign an Egyptian officer went to the country of the Pigmies, and brought back a pigmy to dance before the king and to amuse him. 3666. Kha-f-Ra (Chephren), the builder of the second pyramid at Gizeh. He performed some work in connexion with the Sphinx. 3633. Men-kau-Ra (Mycerinus), the builder of the third pyramid at Gizeh. The fragments of his coffin are in the British Museum. Some copies of the Book 26 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. B.C. 3633. of the Dead say that the 64th chapter of that work was compiled during the reign of this king. Shepses-ka-f. Dynasty V., from Elephantine. User-ka-f, 3533* Sahu-Ra, the builder of a pyramid at Abusir. Kakaa. Ra-nefer-ari-ka. Ra-shepses-ka. Ra-nefer-f, 3443. Ra-en-user, the builder of a pyramid at Abusir. Men-kau-Heru. He built a pyramid at Abusir. 3366. Tet-ka-Ra. He built a pyramid at Abusir. The Precepts of Ptah-hetep were written during the reign of this king. 3333- Unas, whose pyramid at Sakkara was explored in 1 88 1 by Prof. Maspero. The walls of the corridors and chambers of this pyramid are inscribed with religious texts of a most important character. Dynasty VI., from Memphis, 3266. Teta, the builder of a pyramid at Sakkara. Ra-user-ka. 3233. Ra-meri, Pepi I. In his reign lived Una, a man of humble birth, who began life in the royal service as a " crown bearer" ; he was next made overseer of the workmen, and was soon after sent to Turra to bring back a block of stone for the sarcophagus of the king. He was then made governor of the troops, and was set at the head of an expedition against the Aamu and the Herusha. On five different occasions did Una wage war successfully against Egypt's foes, and having HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 27 B.C. 3233. wasted their countries with fire and sword, he returned to Memphis crowned with glory. The inscription is of the greatest importance for the history of the period, and is interesting as showing that a man of very humble birth could attain to the highest dignities at the Egyptian court. He built a pyramid at Sakkara. 3200. Mer-en-Ra, Mehti-em-sa-f. 3166. Nefer-ka-Ra, Pepi II. Ra-mer-en-meht-em-sa-f. Ra-neter-ka. 3133 (?). Nit-aqert (Nitocris), "the beautiful woman with rosy cheeks." Dynasties VII.— XL According to Manetho we have : — Vllth Dynasty. l^^rom Memphis; 70 kings in 70 days. Vlllth Dynasty. From Memphis ; 27 kings in 146 years. IXth Dynasty. From Herakleopolis ; 19 kings in 409 years. Xth Dynasty. From Herakleopolis; 19 kings in 185 years. Xlth Dynasty. From Thebes ; 16 kings in 43 years. The Tablet of Abydos gives the following selection of royal names: — Ra-neter-ka. Ra-men-ka. 3133. Ra-nefer-ka. 3000. Ra-nefer-ka- Nebi. Scarabs of this king exist. 2966. Ra-tet-ka-maa — . . . 2933. Ra-nefer-ka-Khentu. 2900. Mer-en-Heru. 28 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. B.C. 2866. Senefer-ka. 2833. Ra-en-ka. Scarabs of this king exist. 2800. Ra-nefer-ka-tererl. 2766. Heru-nefer-ka. 2733. Ra-nefer-ka-Pepi-senb. 2700. Ra-nefer-ka-Annu. 2666. Ra- . . . -kau. 2633. Ra-nefer-kau. 2600. Heru-nefer-kau. 2533. Ra-nefer-ari-ka. Dynasty IX. ^ from Herakleopolis. Khati, the Akhthoes of Manetho. The successors of this king may have been : — Ra-maa-ab. Ra-sekha-en. Ra-nub-taui. Ra-aa-hetep. Ra-kha-user. The above five names are found on scarabs, and each has the title neter nefer, | T " beautiful god," prefixed to it ; it is possible that they may be later than the Xlllth dynasty. Dynasty X, jrom Herakleopolis. Ra-ka-meri, who was greatly helped in his wars by the princes of Siut (Asytit), Khati I., Tefaba, and Khati IL Dynasty XI.^ from Dio spoils, or Thebes. It is not at present possible to arrange in chronological order the names of the kings of this dynasty, although several of th^m are well known. Names common to some HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 29 of them are Antefa and Menthu-hetep. Some of the kings appear to have ruled for long periods, but their reigns were on the whole uneventful ; the burial place of the kings of this dynasty is at Drah abu'l-Nekkah. Antefa, who bore the titles of erpa d and ha. Neb-hetep, Menthu-hetep I. He worked the granite quarries in the First Cataract, and the quarries in Wadi Hammamat. Ra-neb-taui, Menthu-hetep II. He also worked the quarries in Wadi Hammamat. Ra-neb-kheru, Menthu-hetep III. His temple at Der al-Bahari was excavated by Messrs. Naville and Hall in 1903 and 1904. He built a pyramid tomb at Thebes. It has been customary to include among the kings of the Xlth dynasty the following : — Antef-aa I. His coffin is in the Louvre. Antef-aa II. His coffin is in the Louvre. Antef-aa III. His coffin is in the British Museum. Antef-aa IV. His favourite dog was called Behuka. Antef-aa V. His tomb, with its two obelisks, was discovered by Mariette. These kings, with the exception of Antef-aa IV., probably reigned in the period between the Xlllth and XVIIth dynasties. Antef-aa IV., whose Horus name was Uah-ankh Y jT , was the son of Heru- nekht-neb-tep-nefer ^s^^'^'"^ f?\ A A"tef-5a, and the grandson of Heru-seankh-ab-taui, son of Ra-Menthu-hetep ^[1 '^'0'^'^'^^^ % 30 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS -IN EGYPT. B.C. 2500. Se-ankh-ka-Ra. This king is known to us through an inscription at Hammamat, which states that he sent an expedition to the land of Punt ; this shows that at that early date an active trade must have been carried on across the Arabian desert between Egypt and Arabia. His officer Hennu set out with 3,000 men and dug wells at Atahet and Aaheteb. Se-ankh-ka-Ra appears to have been the immediate predecessor of the Xllth dynasty. MIDDLE EMPIRE. Dynasty XII., from Diospolis, or Thebes. 2466. Amenemhat I. ascended the throne of Egypt after hard fighting; he conquered the Uaua, a Libyan tribe that lived near Korosko in Nubia, and wrote a series of instructions for his son Usertsen I. The story of Senehet was written during this reign. 2433. Usertsen I., the Sesonchosis of Manetho, made war against the tribes of Ethiopia; he erected granite obelisks and built largely at Heliopolis. He and his father built pyramids at Lisht, a necropolis situated about 30 miles south of Cairo. 2400. Amenemhat II. Khnemu-hetep, son of Nehera, whose tomb is at Beni-hasan, lived during the reign of this king. 2366. Usertsen II. He built a pyramid at Illah^n. In his reign a party of 37 Aamu visited Egypt, bringing eye-paint with them. 2333. Usertsen III. He built a pyramid at Dahshfir. 2300. Amenemhat III. During this king's reign special attention was paid to the rise of the Nile, and canals were dug and sluices^ made for irrigating the HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 3 1 B.C. 2360. country ; in this reign the famous Lake Moeris, in the district called by the Arabs Al-Fayyum,* was made. The rise of the Nile was marked on the rocks at Semneh, about thirty-five miles above the Second Cataract, and the inscriptions are visible to this day. He built a pyramid at Havvara, and the Labyrinth. The famous Sphinxes which were usurped by the Hyksos kings were made for him, and some attribute the making of the Sphinx at Gizeh to his reign. 2266. Amenemhat IV. Sebek-neferut-Ra. Ra-au-ab. 2233. Dynasties XIII -X VII. The so-called Hyksos Period. According to Manetho these dynasties were as follows : — Dynasty XIIL, from Thebes, 60 kings in 453 years. XIV., „ Xois,t 76 „ „ 484 » „ XV., Hyksos, 6 „ „ 260 „ XVL, „ 10 „ „ 251 „ „ XVn., from Thebes, 10 „ „ 10 „ The Hyksos made their way from the countries in and to the west of Mesopotamia into Egypt. They joined with their kinsmen, who had already settled in the Delta, and succeeded in defeating the native kings; it is thought that Joseph arrived in Egypt towards the end of this period. The name Hyksos is derived from the Egyptian J^j M\(|P J^^l ^'•?« Shaa^"^ i.e., "princes of the Shasu," or nomad tribes on the east and north-east of Egypt. * In Arabic ^\ , from the Coptic 9IOJUL, " the lake." t A town in the Delta. 32 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Dynasty XIIL, from Thebes. Ra-khu-taui. His name is found on the Tablet of Karnak. Ra-sekhem-ka. A stele of this king is in the British Museum. Ra-Amen-em-hat. Ra-sehetep-ab I. Aufna. Ameni-Antef-Amen-em-hat. A granite table of offerings dedicated by this king was found at Karnak. Ra-semen-ka. Ra-sehetep-ab II. ka. Ra-netchem-ab. Ra-Sebek-hetep. Ren-seneb. Ra-au-ab. Ra-setchef- Sebek-hetep I. This king carried out works at Bubastis. The heights of the Nile during the first four years of his reign are recorded on the rocks at Kummeh in the Second Cataract. Ra-user- Mer-Mashau. Two statues of this king were found at Tanis by Mariette. Ra- -ka. Ra-user-set (?). Sebek-hetep II. His name is found on the Tablet of Karnak. Nefer-hetep. He restored the sanctuary of the temple of Abydos. Ra-Hethert-sa. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 33 Sebek-hetep III. Two gray granite statues of this king lie on the Island of Argo, between the Third and Fourth Cataracts. Ra-kha-ka I. Sebek-hetep IV. Sebek-hetep V. Aa-ab I. Ai. Ana. Ra-seankh-nefer-utu. Ra-mer-sekhem-an-ren. Ra-s- -ka- -Heru-a. Ra-seuatch-en. [Six names wanting.] Ra-kha-ka II. Ra- Ra-mer-kheper. Ra-mer-kau, or Sebek-hetep VI. A statue of this king was found at Karnak. [Three names wanting.] [Ra]- . . . -mesu. Aba. Ra- -uben. [Four names wanting.] Ra-Nehsi. A statue of this king was found by Mariette at Tell-Mukdam in the Delta. Ra-kha-kheru. Ra-neb-f- Aa-ab II. This king is mentioned on a stele in the British Museum. P 34 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Dynasty XIV., from Xdis^ a city in the Delta. Ra-seheb. Ra-mer-tchefa. Ra-sta-ka. Raneb-tchefa. Ra-uben I. Ra-senefer-[ab]. Ra- -tchefa. Ra-uben II. Ra-aut-ab. Ra-her-ab. Ra-neb-senu. [Name wanting.] Ra-seuah-en. Ra-sekheper-ren. Ra-tet-kheru. Ra-seankh-[ka]. Ra-nefer-Tem. Ra-sekhem- .... Ra-ka- Ra-nefer-ab. Ra-a- Ra-nefer-ka- Ra-smen- Ra-mer-sekhem. [Two names wanting.] Ra-senefer-[ab]. Anab. Mariette found a stele of this king at Abydos. [Two names wanting.] Sebek-em-sa-f. A statue of this king was found at Abydos, and his funeral scarab, made of basalt set m gold, is in the British Museum. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 35 Sebek-em-sau-f. This king is mentioned on a large limestone cone in the British Museum. Ra-sesuser-taui. Ra-neb-ati- Ra-neb-aten- Ra-smen-[Ra]. Ra-seusert-a. Ra-sekhem-Uast. Ra-user- Ra-user- Dynasties XV. and XVI., Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos kings, according to Manetho, were : — Salatis, who reigned 19 years. Bnon, who reigned 44 Pachnan, who reigned 61 Staan, who reigned 50 Archies, who reigned 49 Aphobis, who reigned 61 Josephus, quoting Manetho, says that the Hyksos kept possession of Egypt for 511 years, and JuHus Africanus declares that the period was 518 years; but it is impossible for the total of the reigns of the XVth dynasty to amount to either of these numbers of years. The chief jrod of the Hyksos was Set I ^ T^» or Sutekh 1 ] m1^ . A conspiracy was formed in the harim of Rameses III., the object of which was either to dethrone or murder him ; HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 4 1 B-c. it was unsuccessful, and the ringleaders were either killed or made to commit suicide. His reign repre- sented an era of great commercial prosperity. 1166. Rameses IV., son of Rameses III. The great event of his reign was an expedition to the Wadi Hammamat, undertaken probably with the object of suppressing a revolt. The officers and men em- ployed numbered 8,368, and 900 of them perished between the time the expedition left Thebes and returned to that city. Rameses V. Rameses VI. The official Pennut devoted the revenues of an estate to the maintenance of the tomb of this king for ever. Rameses VII. Rameses VIII. Rameses IX. In his reign the robbers of the royal tombs at Thebes were prosecuted, and the high priest of Amen usurped much of the royal power, and obtained the king's consent to levy taxes on the people. Rameses X. Rameses XI. Rameses XII. repaired the temple of Khensu at Karnak. About this time was made the copy of the Maxims of Ani, which is now in the Museum at Cairo ; it was written for Ani's son Khonsu-hetep, and the following are taken from it :— "If a man cometh to seek thy counsel, let this drive thee to books for information. " Enter not into the house of another ; if a man maketh thee to enter his house it is an honour for thee. 42 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. " Spy not upon the acts of another from thy house. " Be not the first to enter or to leave an assembly lest thy name be tarnished. "The sanctuary of God abhorreth noisy declamations. Pray humbly and with a loving heart, whose words are spoken silently. God will then protect thee, and hear thy petitions, and accept thy offerings. "Consider what hath been. Set before thee a correct rule of life as an example to follow. The messenger of death will come to thee as to all others to carry thee away; yea, he standeth ready. Words will profit thee nothing, for he cometh, he is ready ! Say not, ' I am a child, wouldst thou in very truth bear me away? ' Thou knowest not how thou wilt die. Death cometh to meet the babe at his mother's breast, even as he meeteth the old man who hath finished his course. "Take heed with all diligence that thou woundest no man with thy words. " Keep one faithful steward only, and watch his deeds, and let thy hand protect the man who hath charge of thy house and property. " The man who having received much giveth little, is as one who committeth an injury. " Be not ungrateful to God, for He giveth thee existence. " Sit not while another standeth if he be older than thou, or if he is thy superior. " Whosoever speaketh evil receiveth no good. "When thou makest offerings to God, offer not that which He abominateth. Dispute not concerning His mysteries. The god of the world is in the light above the firmament, and his emblems are upon earth ; it is unto those that worship is paid daily. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 43 *'When thou hast arrived at years of maturity, and art married and hast a house, forget never the pains which thou hast cost thy mother, nor the care which she hath bestowed upon thee. Never give her cause to complain of thee, lest she lift up her hands to God in heaven, and He listen to her complaint. " Be watchful to keep silence." Dynasty XX I.^ from Tanis. Nes-ba-neb-Tettet, the Smendes of Manetho. He sent 3,000 men to obtain stone from a quarry near Gebelen to repair a portion of the temple of Luxor. Pa-seb-kha-nut I. He cut his name on one of the black granite sphinxes of Amenemhat III., side by side with the names of kings Apepa and Mer-en-Ptah. The face of this remarkable monument has given rise to much discussion, and the theories pro- pounded on the subject of the origin of the monu- ment have been many. Mariette believed it to have been made by the so-called Hyksos, or " Shepherd Kings," and saw in the strange features of the face, and short, thick-set lion's body, a proof of their Asiatic origin. Some have seen a likeness to a Turanian original in the features, and others have insisted, probably rightly, that the king for whom the monument was originally made was a foreigner. Judging from the style of the work and the form of the lion's body, we should probably attribute it to a period anterior to b.c. 2000 ; that the name of the so-called Hyksos king Apepa is inscribed upon it proves nothing except that this king, in common with many others, had his name 44 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. li.L"- inscribed on the statue. On the right shoulder, almost effaced, is the name of Apepa; on the left shoulder is the name of Menephthah I. ; on the right-hand side and front of the pedestal are the cartouches of Rameses II. ; and on the breast is the cartouche of Pasebkhanet. Amen-em-apt. Sa-Amen, who restored a portion of the temple of Rameses II. at Tanis. Pa-seb-kha-nut II. His daughter is said to have married Solomon, king of Israel. Dynasty XXL, from Thebes. iioo- Her-Heru, the first priest-king. In his reign the looo priest Unu-Amen was despatched to Syria to buy wood for a new boat of the god Amen. Painetchem I., grandson of Her-Heru. Painetchem II. He married the daughter of Pai-seb-kha-nut I., king of Tanis. Masaherth. Men-kheper-Ra. Pai-netchem III. Dynasty XXII., Libyans who ruled the country from Bubastis (Tell-Basta). The founder of the family of the kings of the XXI Ind dynasty was a Libyan called Buillliaua 966. Shabhanq (Shishak) I. (see 1 Kings xiv. 25-28 ; 2 Chron. xii. 2-13) besieged Jerusalem, and hav- ing conquered it, pillaged the Temple and carried away much spoil. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 45 B.C. 933. Uasarken I. >) 900. Thekeleth I. | Under the rule of these kings 866. Uasarken II. I Egypt finally losr most of her 833. Shashanq II. foreign possessions, and the feebleness of their rule made her an easy prey for the war- like. Thekeleth II. Shashanq III. 800. Pamai. Shashanq IV. J Dynasty XXIII., from Tanis. 766. Peta-Bast. Uasarkena III. In the reign of this king Piankhi the Ethiopian invaded Egypt, and a full account of his conquest is found on the stele which he set up at Gebel Barkal. The text gives a detailed account of the expedition of this king into Egypt and of his conquest of that country. It was reported to Piankhi in the 21st year of his reign, that the governors of the northern towns had made a league together and had revolted against his authority. He set out for Egypt with his soldiers, and when he arrived at Thebes he made offerings to Amen-Ra, and commanded his soldiers to pay proper homage tl the god. Passing northwards from Thebes he captured city after city, and finally besieged Memphis, which he soon captured, and thus made himself master of Egypt. The details of the capture of the towns, the speeches of the king and of his vassal princes, and the general information contained in the narrative, give this inscription an importance possessed by few others. Dynasty XXIV., from Sa'is (Sd el-Hagar). 733. Bak-en-ren-f (Bocchoris). 46 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Dynasty XX V., from Ethiopia {Nubia). B.C. 700. Shabaka. Some think that this king is to be identified with the So of the Bible (see 2 Kings xvii. 4), but there is no satisfactory evidence for so doing. Shabaka's sister was Queen Amenartas, who married the Nubian Prince Piankhi. Shabataka. He was defeated by Sennacherib at the Battle of Altaku, and was subsequently deposed by Tirhakah, who cast him into prison, and is said to have had him murdered. 693. Taharqa (Tirhakah, 2 Kings xix. 9) is famous for having conquered Sennacherib and delivered Heze- kiah; he was, however, defeated by Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, the son and grandson of Sennacherib. He was succeeded by Tanuath- Amen, the Tandamanie of the cuneiform inscriptions, who was compelled to flee before Ashurbanipal. Dynasty XXV I. ^ from Sais. 666. Psemthek I. (Psammetichus) was the son of Nekau, whom Ashurbanipal had appointed Governor of Sais and^ Memphis. He allowed Greeks to settle in the Delta, and employed Greek soldiers to fight for him. He protected his country by garrisons stationed at Elephantine, Pelusium, Daphnse, and Marea. He added a large gallery, with side chambers, to the Serapeum. 612. Nekau II. (Nccho) defeated Josiah, king of Judah, and was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar II. son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon. See 2 Kings xxiii. 29 ff ; Jeremiah xlvi. 2. He maintained a large army, which was largely recruited from the Greeks, HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 47 B.C. and he was a great patron of all trading enter- prises. He began to clear out and enlarge the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, a work which was probably intended to facilitate the movements of his fleets. 596. Psammetichus II. 591. Uah-ab-Ra (Hophra of the Bible, Gr. Apries) marched to the help of Zedekiah, king ol Judah, who was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar II. See Jeremiah xliv. 30. His army rebelled against him, and he was dethroned ; Amasis, a general in his army, then succeeded to the throne. 572. Aahmes or Amasis II. favoured the Greeks, and granted them many privileges; in his reign Naucratis became a great city. 528. Psammetichus III. was defeated at Pelusium by Cambyses the Persian, and taken prisoner ; he was afterwards slain for rebellion against the Persians. Dynasty XXVII.^ from Persia. 527. Cambyses marched against the Ethiopians and the inhabitants of the Oases. The army which he sent against the Oasis of Siwa (Jupiter Ammon) was overwhelmed by a sand storm in the desert. He is said to have committed suicide. 521. Darius I. (Hystaspes) endeavoured to open up the ancient routes of commerce ; he established a coinage, and adopted a conciliatory and tolerant system of government, and favoured all attempts to promote the welfare of Egypt. He completed the digging of the canal to join the Nile with the Red Sea, which had been begun by Necho. He built a temple at Hebt, in the Oasis of Kharga. 48 NOTES FOR TRAVELT.ERS IN EGYPT. B.C. 486. Xerxes I., the Great. He suppressed the revolt which was headed by Khabbesha (UP] 465. Artaxerxes I., during whose reign the Egyptians revolted, headed by Amyrtaeus. 425. Darius II. (Nothus), during whose reign the Egyptians revolted successfully, and a second Amyrtaeus became king of Egypt. 405. Artaxerxes II. Dynasty XXVIII. ^ from Sdis, Amen-rut (Amyrtaeus), reigned six years. Dynasty XXIX., from Mendes. 399. Naifaaurut I. 393. Haker. 380. P-se-mut. 379. Naifaaurut II. Dynasty XXX., from Sebennytus. 378. Nekht- Heru-heb, the Nektanebes of classical writers, defeated the Persians at Mendes. 360. Tch-her, the Teos of Manetho's list, surrendered to the Persians. He restored the temple of Khensu- hetep at Thebes. 358. Nekht-n-b-f, the Nektanebos of classical writers, was a great warrior and builder, and all the great temples of Egypt bear witness to his activity in the service of the gods. He opened a new quarry at Turra. He is said to have devoted himself to HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 49 B.C. the pursuit of magic, and to have neglected his empire; when Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) took Pelusium he fled from his kingdom, and the Persians again ruled Egypt. Thus came to an end the rule of the last native king of Egypt. PERSIANS. 340. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus). 33^- Arses. 336. Darius III. (Codomannus) conquered by Alexander the Great at Issus. MACEDONIANS. 332. Alexander the Great visited the Oasis of Siwa, and was acknowledged by the god Amen, who was worshipped there, to be the king of Egypt by virtue of his divine birth and achievements. He founded his great city of Alexandria close to the old town of Rakoti, opposite the Island of Pharos. He died of poison at Babylon in June, 323, and his body was taken to Alexandria and buried there. Ptolemy Lagus than became governor of Egypt, and ruled it on behalf of : — Philip II., Arrhidaeus. Alexander. THE PTOLEMIES. Ptolemy I. Soter, the son of Lagus and Arsinoe, was born B.C. 367. He married Artacama, daughter of Arta- E 50 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. bazus, in 324, became satrap of Egypt in 325 ; lie married Thais in 323, Eurydice, daughter of Antipater, in 321, and Berenice in 317, and in 304 assumed the title of Soter. He died in 283-2. He was the founder of the Alexan- drian Library. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus was born about 304. He became king in 287 or 286 ; he married Arsinoe, the daughter of Lysimachus of Thrace, in 285 (?) ; he divorced her in 280 and married his sister Arsinoe XL ; he made his son co-ruler about 267, and died about 246. He built the Pharos, founded the cities of Myos Hormos and Berenice on the Red Sea, caused Manetho, a priest of Sebennytus, to com- pile a history of Egypt, and caused the Hebrew Scriptures to be translated into Greek. Ptolemy III. Euergetes I. married Berenice II. about 246 ; his daughter Berenice died about 238, and he himself died in 222. He was the founder of the temple of Edfii, and was a great patron of the arts, sciences, and literature. He made an expedition into Persia, and brought back the statues of the gods of Egypt which had been carried there by Cambyses. The Stele of Canopus was set up in the ninth year of his reign. This important stele, preserved in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, is inscribed in hieroglyphic, Greek, and demotic characters, with a decree of the priesthood which was promulgated at Canopus. It sets forth the good deeds of Ptolemy III., and enumerates the benefits which he and his wife Berenice had conferred upon Egypt, thus : — I. Rich gifts and endowments to the temples. 2. Endow- ments for Apis, Mnevis and other sacred animals in Egypt. 3. Restoration of the statues of the gods from Persia to Egypt. 4. The maintenance of a general peace. 5. The remission of taxes during a period of famine. 6. The free distribution of corn, which had been purchased out of the royal revenues in Cyprus, Syria and Phoenicia. In return for these benefits the priests decreerl additional honours for HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 5 1 Ptolemy III. and Berenice, and their ancestors, the appoint- ment of a new order of priests, the creation of a four days' festival, everlasting honours to Berenice, the king's virgin daughter, the setting up of gold statues in the temples, etc. At the same time, the priests decreed a reform in the calendar, i.e.^ they wished to add one day in every fourth year, in order that the winter festivals might always be cele- brated in the winter, and the summer festivals in the summer. Ptolemy IV. Philopator I. began to reign about 222 ; he, with the help of Sosibius, murdered Berenice, Magas, and Lysimachus in 221 ; he married his sister Arsinoe III. in 217, and caused her to be murdered between 209 and 205. His son Epiphanes was born in 209 or 208, and was made co-regent in 208 ; Ptolemy IV. died probably in the same year. Ptolemy V. Epiphanes became king of Egypt in 205 ; he was betrothed to Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus III. of Syria, in 199 ; he was crowned at Memphis in the ninth year of his reign (198) ; he married Cleopatra in 193, and his three children, Philometor, Cleopatra and Euergetes, were born between 186 and 181. In 181 he died of poison. In his reign Coelesyria and Palestine were lost to Egypt. The famous Decree of Memphis, a copy of which is in- scribed on the Rosetta Stone, was promulgated in the ninth year of his reign. The period of the rule of Ptolemies VI.—IX. is one of difficulty for the historian, and authorities diifer as to its details. According to Dr. Strack, Ptolemy VI. bore the title of Philometor, and Ptolemy VII. that of Eupator. This authority makes Ptolemy VI. the sole ruler of Egypt in 181 ; to marry his sister Cleopatra II. in 172 ; to be made prisoner by Antiochus IV. in 170; to rule conjointly with Cleopatra and Ptolemy IX. Euergetes II. in 169; to be expelled from Egypt by his brother in 164; to return in E 2 52 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 163 ; to rule with Cleopatra 11. in the same year ; and to die in 146 or 145. Dr. Strack thinks that Ptolemy VII. Eupator was born before 162, and that he reigned for a few weeks over Egypt and Cyprus jointly with Cleopatra II. Ptolemy VIII. Euergetes II. was king in Alexandria, ruling with Cleopatra II. in 170, and in 164 he was king of all Egypt j he married Cleopatra 11. in 145, and ruled with her first with the title of Eupator, and later he and his wife adopted the title of " Euergetai." Ptolemy Memphites was born in 145 (?). Ptolemy VIII. married his niece Cleopatra III. in 143, and ruled, with both Cleopatras, about 133 ; he murdered Memphites and another son in 130, and died in 116. Onias begged permission to build an altar to the god of the Hebrews either from Ptolemy VI. or Ptolemy VII., according to the view taken of the order of succession of the rulers. Ptolemy IX. Euergetes II. (Ptolemy VIII. ac- cording to Strack) finished the building of the temple of Edfil. Ptolemy X. Soter II. (Lathyrus) was born in 142 ; he began to reign in 117, and married Selene in 115 ; he was expelled from Egypt and went to Cyprus in 106, and Ptolemy XI. Alexander I. and his mother, Cleopatra III., reigned with the title "Philometores Soteres." Cleopatra III. was murdered by her son in loi. Ptolemy XL died about the year 87, and Ptolemy X. in 81. Ptolemy XII. Alexander II. was bom about 105 ; he married his stepmother Cleopatra-Berenice in 80, and died in the same year. Ptolemy XIII. Philopator Philadelphus (Neos Dionysos) was about 95 : he began to reign in 80, but was not crowned until 76 ; his sovereignty was acknowledged in Rome in 59 ; the year following he was driven out of Egypt and he died in 51. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 53 Ptolemy XIV. was born in 6i ; he ruled jointly with his sister Cleopatra the Great in 51, and for a short time with Arsinoe (?) in 48 ; he was drowned in the Nile in 47. Ptolemy XV. was born in 59;. he ruled jointly with Cleopatra in 47, and was murdered in 44. Cleopatra VII. Tryphaena, the Great, the illegiti- mate daughter of Ptolemy XIIL, was born in 69, and she became sole ruler of Egypt in 44. She named her son Ptolemy XVI. (Csesarion) co-regent in ^6, and died of poison or by the bite of an asp in 23. Ptolemy XVI., Caesarion, was born in 47, and died in the year 23, during his flight to Ethiopia. The lengths of the reigns of the Ptolemies were as follows : — Ptolemy Soter I. Ptolemy Philadelphus... Ptolemy Euergetes I... Ptolemy Philopator ... Ptolemy Epiphanes Ptolemy Philometor ... Ptolemy Euergetes II. Ptolemy Soter II. Ptolemy Neos Dionysos Cleopatra The dynasty ruled in all 275 years. Egypt became a province of Rome B.C. 30. 20 years ... 38 25 17 24 35 29 ... 36 29 22 ROMANS. 30. Caesar Augustus becomes master of the Roman Empire. Cornelius Gallus is the first prefect of Egypt and Gaius Petronius the second. 54 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. B.C. 23. Under the third prefect, Aelius Gallus, Can- dace, queen of the Ethiopians, invades Egypt, but is defeated. In the consulship of Marcus Silanus and Lucius Norbanus, Germanicus set out (a.d. 19) for Egypt to study its antiquities. His ostensible motive, however, was solicitude for the province. He sailed up the Nile from the city of Canopus, which was founded by the Spartans because Canopus, pilot of one of their ships, had been buried there, when Menelaus on his return to Greece was driven into a distant sea and to the shores of Libya. "Next he visited the vast ruins of ancient Thebes. There yet remained on the towering piles Egyptian inscriptions, with a com- plete account of the city's past grandeur. One of the aged priests, who was desired to interpret the language of his country, related how once there had dwelt in Thebes 700,000 men of military age, and how with such an army Rhamses conquered Libya, Ethiopia, Media, Persia, Bfactria, and Scythia, and held under his sway the countries inhabited by the Syrians, Armenians, and their neighbours, the Cappa- docians, from the Bithynian to the Lycian Sea. There was also to be read what tributes were imposed on these nations, the weight of silver and gold, the tale of arms and horses, the gifts of ivory and of perfumes to the temples, and the amount of grain and supplies furnished by each people, a revenue as magnificent as is now exacted by the might of Parthia or the power of Rome. But Germanicus also bestowed atten- tion on other wonders. Chief of these were the stone image of Memnon, which, when struck by HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 55 •c. the sun's rays, gives out the sound of a human voice ; the pyramids, rising up Hke mountains amid ahiiost impassable wastes of shifting sand ; raised by the emulation and vast wealth of kings ; the lake {i.e.^ Moeris) hollowed out of the earth to be a receptacle for the Nile's overflow ; and elsewhere the river's narrow channel and pro- found depth which no line of the explorer can penetrate. He then came to Elephantine and Syene, formerly the limits of the Roman empire, which now extends to the Red Sea." — Tacitus^ book ii., §§ 59-61 (Church and Brodribb). A.D. 14. Tiberius. In his reign Germanicus visited Egypt. The last prefect of Egypt appointed by Tiberius was Avillius Flaccus. 37. Caligula. A riot broke out in Alexandria, and Flaccus was recalled. The mob made an effigy of Caligula, and took it about the streets with a paper cap on its head. In his reign a persecution of the Jews took place. 41. Claudius. Egypt was prosperous, and the Romans greatly developed the trade routes and irrigation of the country. 54. Nero. In his reign Christianity was first preached in Egypt by Saint Mark. The Blemmyes made raids upon the southern frontier of Egypt. The Romans made an expedition to Meroe. 68. Galba. He was murdered. 69. Otho. Reigned three months. 69. Vitellius. He was murdered. 09 Vespasian. He is said to have restored sight to a blind man. He was a tolerant man, and was present at the installation of an Apis Bull at Memphis. Jerusalem destroyed a.d 70. 56 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. 79. Titus. 82. Domitian causes temples to Isis and Serapis to be built at Rome. During his reign there was a religious fight between the people of Tentyra and Ombos ; an Ombite was caught, killed and eaten by. the people of Tentyra. 96. Nerva. 93. Trajan. The Nile and Red Sea Canal (Amnis Trajanus) re-opened. The Greeks were besieged by the Jews in Alexandria, and were relieved by Marcius Turbo; the Jewish colony was almost annihilated. Turbo built the fortress of Babylon. 117- Hadrian. He founded the city of Andnoopohs in memory of his favourite Antinous, and made a road from it to Berenice on the Red Sea. He visited Egypt twice. 138. Antoninus Pius. 161. Marcus Aurelius caused the famous Itinerary to be made. A revolt of the Bucolic troops took place. 180. Commodus. 193. Pertinax. Didius Julianus. Pescennius Niger. 193- Septimius Severus. He visited Egypt. 211. Caracalla visited Egypt, and caused a large number of young men to be massacred at Alexandria. Geta. 217. Macrinus. 218. Elag-abalus. 222. Alexander Severus. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 57 A.D. 235. Maximinus. 238. Gordianus I. Gordianus II. Balbinus. Pupienus. Gordianus III. Philippus. 249. Decius. Christians persecuted. 253- Valerianus. Christians persecuted. 251. Gallus. 252. iEmilianus. 253- Valerianus. 260. Gallienus. Persecution of Christians stayed. Zenobia, Queen of Pahiiyra, invades Egypt a.d. 268. 261. Macrianus I. Macrianus II. Quietus. He made a successful expedition against the Blemmyes. 268. Claudius II. In this reign the Romans in Egypt were masters in Alexandria only. The Blemmyes invaded Egypt, and the troops of Zenobia, 70,000 in number, led by Zabdas, marched against Egypt. 270. Quintillus. 270. Aurelian. Zenobia becomes Queen of Egypt for a short time, but is dethroned a.d. 273. 276. Probus. The Blemmyes become masters of the Thebaid. 282. Carus. 283. Carinus. 58 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. 284. Diocletian. The Romans were obliged to make a contract with the Nobatae to keep the peace in Upper Egypt, and to hold the Blemmyes in check. In 295 Diocletian crushed the rebellion in Alexan- dria headed by L. D. Domitianus, and practically destroyed Alexandria. *' Pompey's Pillar" erected a.d. 302. Persecution of Christians a.d. 304. The Copts date the era of the Martyrs from the day of Diocletian's accession to the throne (August 29). It is thought that " Pompey's Pillar " was set up by the Alexandrians as a mark of gratitude to Diocletian who, in order to relieve distress in Alexandria, had ordered that a portion of the annual tribute of corn from Egypt to Rome should be devoted to the needs of the inhabitants of that city. 305- Galerius 1 311 ' -_ . . ^ Persecution of Christians. 305- Maximinus 313 J 313- Licinius. 323 Constantine the Great, the Christian Emperor, in whose reign, a.d. 325, the Council of Nicaea was held. At this council it was decided that Christ and His Father were of one and the same nature, as taught by Athanasius; and the doctrine of 324. Arius, that Christ and God were only similar in nature, was decreed heretical. " Arius was a most expert logician, but perverted his talents to evil purposes, and had the audacity to preach what no one before him had ever suggested, namely, that the Son of God was made out of that which had no prior existence ; that there was HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 59 A.D. a period of time in which He existed not; that, as possessing free will, He was capable of virtue, or of vice ; and that He was created and made." — Sozomen, Eccles. Hist., Bk. I., chap. xv. For the statement of the views of Arius by his opponent Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, see his letter addressed to the Catholic Church generally, in Socrates, Eccles. Hist., Bk. L, chap. vi. Athana- sius, Archbishop of Alexandria, was charged with having usurped the imperial power by levying a tax on the Alexandrians, and as this act was con- strued by Constantine into part of a scheme to overthrow the Government, and as the Alexandrians themselves sided with Licinius, Constantine's rival, the Emperor founded the city of Byzantium, or Constantinople. 337. Constantius. George of Cappadocia, an Arian, is made Bishop of Alexandria. 361. Julian, the Apostate. He rejected Christianity as the State religion, and in consequence the Pagans attacked the Christians and wrecked their churches, and built temples to the old gods of Greece and Rome. 363- Jovianus. 364- Valens. 379. Theodosius I., the Great, proclaims Christianity the religion of his empire. The Arians and followers of the ancient Egyptian religion were persecuted. THE BYZANTINES. 395. Arcadius, Emperor of the East. The Anthropomor- phites (the leader of this persecution was Theo- 6o NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. philus, Bishop of Alexandria, who, before he dis- covered that the majority of the Egyptian monks were Anthropomorphites, was himself opposed to this body), who affirmed that God was of human form, destroyed the greater number of their opponents. 408. Theodosius II. In his reign the doctrines of Nestorius were condemned by Cyril of Alexandria. Nestorius, because of the two natures of Christ, in- ferred also two persons, a human and a divine. " In the Syrian school, Nestorius had been taught (a.d. 429-431) to abhor the confusion of the two natures, and nicely to discriminate the humanity of his master Christ from the Divinity of the Lord Jesus. The Blessed Virgin he revered as the mother of Christ, but his ears were offended with the rash and recent title of mother of God, which had been insensibly adopted since the origin of the Arian controversy. From the pulpit of Constantinople, a friend of the patriarch,* and afterwards the patriarch himself, repeatedly preached against the use, or the abuse, of a word unknown to the apostles, unauthorized by the Church, and which could only tend to alarm the timorous, to mislead the simple, to amuse the profane, and to justify, by a seeming resemblance, the old genealogy of Olympus. In his calmer moments Nestorius con- fessed, that it might be tolerated or excused by the union of the two natures, and the communication of their idioms {i.e., a transfer of properties of each nature to the other — of infinity to man, passibility to God, etc.) : but he was exasperated, by con- * Anastasius of Antioch, who said, " Let no one call Mary Theotokos; for Mary was but a woman ; and it is impossible that God should be born of a woman." — Socrates, Eccles. Hist., Bk. VII., chap, xxxii. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 6 I A.D. tradiction, to disclaim the worship of a newborn, an infant Deity, to draw his inadequate similes from the conjugal or civil partnerships of life, and to describe the manhood of Christ, as the robe, the instrument, the tabernacle of his Godhead." — Gibbon, Dedifie and Fall, chap. 47. In this reign Hypatia was murdered by the monks in the Church of the Caesareum. 450. Marcianus. The Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches was condemned at the Council of Chalcedon A.D. 45 r. Eutyches, from the one person of Christ, inferred also one nature, viz., the Divine — the human having been absorbed into it. Silko invaded Egypt with his Nubian followers. The Blemmyes and Nobatae agreed with the Romans to keep the peace for 100 yeais. In this reign the Temple of Serapis was burned by the Alexandrians. 457. Leo I. Proterius the bishop was murdered by the Alexandrians, who made Timotheus Achirus their patriarch; he was rejected by the Emperor in favour of Timotheus Salophaciolus. 474- Leo n. 474- Zeno. He issued the Henoticon, an edict which, while affirming the Incarnation, made no attempt to decide the difficult question whether Christ possessed a single or a double nature. The Alexandrians elected Peter Mongus as their patriarch. 491. Anastasius. In this reign Peter Mongus died and the Persians inva(jed Egypt. 518. Justinus I. 527. Justinian. The Monophysites separated from the Melkites, or " Royalists," and chose their own 62 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. patriarch ; they were afterwards called Copts, i2jJi]\.* In this reign Narses was sent to Philae to put an end to the pagan rites and worship which were celebrated there. He imprisoned the priests, and carried off the statues of the gods to Constantinople. 565. Justinus II. 578. Tiberius II. 582. Mauricius. 602. Phocas. 610. Heraclius. The Persians under Chosroes took Egypt, and held the country for ten years ; they were expelled by Herachus a.d. 629. In 639 the Arabs captured Pelusium, and marched against Heliopolis and defeated the Romans there ; they then occupied the country south of Memphis and besieged the fortress of Babylon. This fortress was built by Turbo in ti6, and was captured by 'Amr ibn al-'Asi in 640. MUHAMMADANS. 632. The Khalifa Abu Bakr. 634. The Khalifa 'Omar. 640. 'Amr ibn al-'Asi conquers Egypt. 'Amr began his expedition against Egypt with about 4,000 men, but the Khalifa Omar sent him reinforcements, and by the time the famous general arrived at 'Arish his army numbered 1 6,000 men. Having * The name given to the native Christians of Egypt by the Arabs, from KTIXT^IOC for Ayy-nrtoc. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 63 vanquished the garrison at Pelusium, he marched along the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and passed by way of Bubastis to HeHopolis. A truce of four days was obtained for George, the Makawkas, the governor of Upper Egypt, by the Coptic Patriarch Benjamin, and it seems that the Egyp- tian official, who was a Jacobite Copt, and a hater of the ruling class in Egypt, greatly aided the Arab general. The Arabs moved on towards Memphis, and soon after, under Zuber, 'Amr's colleague, made a general assault upon the fortress of Babylon, scaled the walls, and so became masters of the capital of Upper Egypt. George, the Makawkas, arranged the details of the capitulation, and a capitation tax of two dinars for every male adult, besides other payments. 'Amr then marched on Alexandria, and as the Greeks took to their ships and fled, George, the Makawkas, who had gone to Alexandria after the fall of Babylon, offered to capitulate on the same terms as he had made for that city. 'Amr returned to Memphis, and made the head-quarters of the army at Fostat, near which the modern town of Cairo has grown up. 'Amr refused to possess himself of any land, and he was not even given a site whereon to build a house. One of his most useful works was to re- open the old canal which ran from Belbes through the Wadi Tiimilat to the Bitter Lakes, and thence to the Red Sea ; by this means it was possible to convey corn which had been loaded into ships at Memphis from that city into Yenbo, the port of Medina in Arabia, without transhipment. This canal was in use for about eighty years, when it became silted up. After the second siege of Atex- andria (a.d. 646) the Arabs made Fostat the capital 64 NOTKS FOR TRAVELLKRS IN EGYPT. A.D. of Egypt. Mr. Butler has proved that Al- Makawkas is no other than Cyrus, who was appointed Patriarch and Governor of Alexandria by Heraclius after the recovery of Egypt from the Persians. 644. 'Othman. The governor of Egypt was 'Abd-Allah ibn Sa'ad. 'UMAYYAD KHALIFAS Who lived at Al-Fustat. 656. 'Ali. 661. Mu'awiya. 680. Yazid I. 683. Marwan I. 685. 'Abd-al-Malik. 705. Al-Walid I. 715. Suleman. 717. 'Omar ibn 'Abd al-*Aziz. 720. Yazid II. 724. Hisham. 742. Al-Walid III. 744. Yazid III. Ibrahim. Marwan II., the last of the 'Ummayyad dynasty, was put to death in Egypt. THE 'ABBASID KHALiFAS (Who lived at Hamra al-Kuswa near al-Fustat). 750. As-Saffah. 754. Al-Mansur. ftlStORICAL SUIMMARY. 6^ A.D. 775- Al-Mahdi. 785. Al-Hadi. 786. Harun ar-Rasbid. 809. Al-Amin. 813. Al-Ma*mun. He visited Egypt and opened the Great Pyramid. 8^S- Al-Mu'tasim. 842. Al-Wathik. 847. Al-Mutawakkil. 861. Al-Muntasir. 862. Al-Musta'in. 866. Al-Mu'tazz. TULUNID KHALIFAS. (Tliis Dynasty lasted 37 years and 4 months.) 868. Ahimad ibn Tulun was born in 835, and came to Egypt in 868 ; he died in 884. He was a man of con- siderable learning, and was renowned for his know- ledge of Arabic grammar and literature ; his power of work was great, and he was just as well as generous. He arrived in Egypt a poor man, and when he died he left behind him a sum of money equal to ^2,500,000, and yet he never increased the taxes on the people. He crushed three rebellions in Egypt, conquered Mesopotamia, and made Egypt an absolutely independent State. In 870 he built the suburb of Al-Katai, which covers an area of one square mile. He built a splendid palace under the old " Dome of the Air," and he supplied it with water by an aqueduct. His famous mosque was F 66 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. built on the top of the rocky hill of Yeskhur, on the 868 spot where God is supposed to have talked with Moses. It contains true pointed arches, was built of new materials instead of old ones stolen from Christian churches, etc., and its 300 arches and pillars are built of brick. Its total cost was over ^63,000. 833. Abu'1-Jesh Khumaraweyh, the second of Tulun's seventeen sons, succeeded his father. In the battle against the Turkish Governors of Mosul and Anbar he was seized with panic and fled, but his General, Sa'ad al-A'sar, stood firm, and eventually entered Damascus in triumph. Subsequently Khumaraweyh defeated his enemies in two pitched battles. He enlarged the suburb of Al-Katai, and made a beautiful garden of the Medan. He filled his " golden house " with pictures of himself, his wivesj and his singers, and slept upon an air bed, which was laid upon a lake of quicksilver nearly 100 feet square. He was murdered by his slaves at Damascus in 896. 896; Abu'l-'Asakir Jesh murdered three of his uncles, and was himself murdered a few months later. Abu Musa Harun succeeded when a boy of fourteen ; he was murdered by Sheban, son of Tultin, at 'Abbasa, a small town on the Syrian frontier, in 904. On January loth, 905, Muhammad ibn Suleman, the General of the Khalifa of Baghdad, marched into the suburb of Katai, put all the black troops to the sword, burnt their headquarters, and destroyed the beautiful buildings everywhere. For four months murder, lust, and rapine reigned, and then Sheban and all the other descendants of Tulun were deported to Baghdad and kept prisoners. tllStORiCAL SUMMARY. 67 A.t). 905. Muhanlmad al-Khalanji entered Ai-Fustat; he ruled Egypt for eight months, but was betrayed to the KhaUfa's Government and taken to Baghdad, where he was executed in May, 906. THE FATIMID KHALIFAS. 910. Tekin al-Khassa» 914. Khubasa, the Fatimid General, captured Alexandria* 915. Dhuka ar-Rumi. 919. Restoration of Tekin. 921. Mahmud ibn Hamal (3 days). 921. Restoration of Tekin (a few days). 921. Hilal ibn Badr. 923. Ahmad ibn Keghalagh. 924. Restoration of Tekin. 933. Muhammad ibn Tekin. 935. Muhammad ibn Tughj became master of Egypt ; he died at Damascus, and was buried in Jerusalem. He is best known as the Ikhshid. Laid out the beautiful " Garden of Kafur " near the modern bazaar of the brassworkers. 946. Abu'l'-IJasim. 961. Abu'l-Hasan 'AH. 965. Abu'1-Misk Kafur, the black tutor of two of the Ikhshids' sons ; he died in 968. 969. Al-Mu4zz was the first Fatimid ruler of Egypt ; he belonged to the Shi'a section, i.e.^ the "freethinkers" among the Muhammadans, who think that the succession to the Prophet's office belonged to 'Ali, the husband of Muhammad's daughter Fatima, F 2 68 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. and father of Muhammad's only male descendants. 969. He was an able and prudenl ruler. The general of Mu'izz was Gawhar, who founded the new capital Al-Kahira,"^ and built the mosque Al-Azhar. Mu'izz died in 975 975. Al-'Aziz. Cireat peace and prosperity in Egypt. 996. Al-Hakim was a social and religious madman. He founded a hall of science, and established an ob- servatory on the Mukattam Hills. He declared that he was an Incarnation of God, and he founded the sect of the Druzes. He was nmrdered about February 13, 1021. 1021. Zahir died of the plague in 1036. 1036. Maadd or Abu Tamim Ma'add al-Mustansir- bi-Uah ; in his reign Palestine and Syria were lost to Egypt. 1094. Al-Musta'li. iioi. Abu-*Aiial-Mansur. 1131. Al-Hafiz. 1149. Az-Zafir. 1154. Al-Faiz. 1 160. Al-Adid was the last of the Eatimid Khalifas. 1 169. Salah ad-Din, or Saladin ; born at Tekrit 1137, died 1193. He built the great walls of Cairo and the Citadel, and his architect Karakush excavated the fLimous Well there, which is 280 feet deep. He also built the Gizah Dyke. J^U)1 69 THE AYYOBID dynasty OF EGYPT. Saladin's successors were : — A.D. T193. Al-*Aziz *Othman, his son. 1198. Al-Mansur Muhammad. 1200. Al-*Adil Seyf ad-Din. 1 218. Al-Kamil Muhammad. 1238. Al-*Adil II. 1240. As-Salih Ayyub, grandson of Saladin's hrother, 1249. Al-Mu*azzam Turanshah. 1250. Al-Ashraf Musa. THE FIRST MAMLUKS. 1249. Louis IX collected 2,800 French knights, 5,000 archers, and sailed for Egypt in 1,720 ships. He took Damietta, and marched on to Mansura, but here some 1,500 of the flower of his army were killed. Subsequently he retreated to Damietta, but the Saracens pursued him and annihilated the Christian army. It is said that 30,000 Crusaders were slain. King Louis and the remainder of his army were held at ransom for 10,000,000 francs, hut TiUanshcih is said to have reduced this sum by one-quarter. The Mamluks derive their name from the fact that they were originally slaves, who were either purchased or captured in war. The Bahri Mamluks, i.e., "the white slaves of the 7^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. river," were thus called because they lived on the Island of Roda, opposite Fustat. The 25 Bahri rulers were : — Sheger ad-Durr, a Queen. 1250. Al-Mu*izz Aybek. He was murdered in his bath by his wife in 1257. 1257. Al-Mansur *Ali ibn Aybek. He was deposed in November, 1259. 1259. Al-Muzaffar Kutuz. He conquered the Mongols, who were led by Hillfigii. He was murdered in October, 1260. 1260. Az-Zahir Rukn ad-din Bebars, He was the first Mamluk Sultan. He died in July, 1277. 1277. As-Sa'id Baraka Khan. He abdicated the throne, and died in 1280. 1279. Al-Adil Selamish. He was deposed. 1279. Al-Mansur Kala'un. He built the Maristan (completed in 1284). He died in his tent in 1290. 1290. Al-Ashraf Khalil. He captured 'Akka (Acre), May 1 8th, 1292. He was murdered in 1293. 1293. An-Nasir Muhammad. He was deposed in a year, but restored in 1298 and 1309. 1294. Al-*Adil Ketbugh^. A terrible famine occurred in his reign. 1296. Al-Mansur Lajin. He was murdered in January, 1299. 1298. An-Nasir (second reign). Deposed for 10 years. 1308. Al-Muzaffar Bebars II. He abdicated and was shut up in prison in Gaza. T309. An-Nasir (third reign). Reigned for 30 years more. He died in June, 1341. HISTORICAL SUMMARY, 71 A.D. 1341- Al-Mansur Abu Bakr. 1 34 J- Al-Ashraf Kujuk. 1342. An-Nasir Ahmad, 1342. As-Salih Isma'il. 1345. Al-Kamil Sha'ban. 1346. Al-Muzaffar Haggl 1347- An-N4sir Hasan. In his reign the plague attacked Egypt, and 10,000 to 20,000 people died in Cairo in one day. 1351- As-Salih Salih. 1354. An-Nasir Hasan (second reign). 1 36 1. Al-Mansur Muhammad. 1363. Al-Ashraf Sha'ban. 1376. Al-Mansur *Ali. 1 38 1. As-Salih Haggi. He was deposed in 1382 by Barkuk, who founded the dynasty of the Burgt or Circassian Mamluks. 1389. As-Salih Ilaggi (second reign), THE BURGITE CIRCASSIAN MAMLOKS. The Burgi Sultans were all Circassians, with the exception of two, Khushkadam and Timurbugha, who were of Greek origin. The Circassian Mamluks obtained the name of " Burgite," because the founders of their dynasty were quartered in the " Burg," or Citadel. 1382. Az-Zahir Barkuk. He died in 1399. 1.399- Farag. He was executed in 141 2, and his body cast on a dung-heap.. 72 NOTES FOR TRAVFXLERS IN EGYPT, A.D. 1405. *Abd al-*Aziz. 1405. Farag" (second period of rule), 141 2. Al-Musta4n. 141 2, Al-Mu*ayyad. T421, Ahmad, 142 1. Sayf-ad-din Tatar. 142 1. As-Salih Muhammad. 1422. Bars-Bey, captured Cyprus in 1426; he died in 1438. 1438. Al-*Aziz Yusuf, 1438. Gakmak persecuted the Jews and Christians ; he died in 1453, aged 80, 1453. 'Othm^n was deposed after a rule of six weeks, 1453 Seyf ad-Din Inal. 1461. Al-Mu'ayyad Ahmad abdicated. J 46 1. Khushkadam, the Greek, abdicated. 1467. Yel-Bey, called the "madman," was deposed after a rule of two months. 1467. Timurburgha, a learned man, who was deposed, but allowed to live at Damietta. 1468. Ka'it Bey built two mosques, ajid restored many monuments. The pjague visited Egypt in 1492, and J 2,000 people died in one day in Cairo. Ka'it-Bey died in 1496. 1496. An-Nasir Muhammad. 1498. Kansuh. T500. Ganbalat. T50T. Tuman Bey. 1501. Kansuh al-Ghuri was killed at the battle 9/ .'Ueppo, August 24th, 1 5 16. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 73 A.D. 1 516. Al-Ashraf Tuman-Bey was hanged on April 14th, 15 17, when the Turks occupied Cairo. The last Abbasid Khalifa of Egypt, Mutawakkil, died in 1:538, having bequeathed his title and rights to the Sultan of Turkey. Thus Egypt became a province of the Turkish Empire. TURKISH RULE IN EGYPT. 15 1 7. lYiman Bey is deposed by Selim I. of Constantin- ople, and Egypt becomes a Turkish Pashalik. Soon after his conquest of Egypt, Selim divided the country into twenty-four provinces, over each of which he appointed a local governor ; these governors were placed in subjection to a Pasha, who, with the help of a council of seven Turkish officials, ruled the country. One of the twenty-four governors was elected to the important office of " Shekh al-balad," or governor of the metropolis, a post which was greatly coveted by his colleagues when they saw what frequent opportunities were enjoyed by him of " squeezing " the natives, and of making himself a rich man. This system worked well for a time, but as the power of Turkey declined, so the power of her nominees the Pashas of Egypt declined, and at length the twenty-four local gover- nors became the actual rulers of Egypt, for the revenues of the country were in their hands, and they paid the Turkish Pasha his salary. 1 77 1. 'Ali Bey, a slave, obtains great power in Egypt. He was accused of entering into a conspiracy against the Sultan at Constantinople, and a messenger was sent to Egypt to bring back 'Ali Bey's head. 'Alj 74 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. caught and slew the messenger, and having called 1772. his colleagues together, drove out the Pasha and declared Egypt independent. He was poisoned by Muhammad abu-Dhabab, a man on whom he had showered favours. 1773. Isma'il, Ibrahim, and Murad strive for the mastery over Egypt. When Murad became ruler, a Turkish army invaded Egypt and seized Cairo, 1790. and attempted to follow the rebel (Murad) into Upper Egypt. FRENCH RULE IN EGYPT. 1798. Napoleon Bonaparte lands near Alexandria with an army of 36,000 men (July i) ; storming of Alexandria (July 5) ; Murad meets the French in battle at Embabeh, opposite Cairo, with 60,000 men, but is beaten, and about 15,000 of his men are killed. This fight is commonly called the Battle of the Pyramids. A few days later Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Abukir Bay. 1799. Destruction of the Turkish army by the French at Abukir. 1800., Sir Sydney Smith signs a treaty at Al-'Ari,sh grafting General Kleber's army permission to Itjave Egypt; (February 24), but as he had to admit later that he had exceeded his powers, and that the British Government demanded the surrender of the whole French army as prisoners of war, Gen. Kleber attacked the Turks at the village of Matariyeh, and is said to have routed 70,000 men, an army six times as large as his own. A fe^y months lat.e.i; HISTORICAL SUMMARY, 75 A.D. Kleber was assassinated, and General Menou became commander-in-chief of the French army in Egypt. 180T. Sir Ralph Abercromby lands at Abukir Bay with 17,000 men (March 8); battle of Alexandria and defeat of the French (March 21); the French capitulate at Cairo (June 27); the French capitu- late at Alexandria (August 30) ; evacuation of Egypt by the French (September). 1803. England restores Egypt to the Turks. As soon as the English left Egypt, severe conflicts took place between two Turkish parties in the country, the Albanians and the Ghuzz : to the former belonged Muhammad 'Ali. MUHAMMAD 'ALI AND HIS FAMILY. 1805. Muhammad 'Ali is elected Pasha of Egypt by the people. His election was afterwards confirmed by the Porte. He was born at Cavalla, a small town on the sea-coast of Albania, in 1769, and he served in the Turkish army at an early age. He was sent with a body of troops to fight against the French, and enjoyed at that time the rank of major {bimbashi) ; he married the daughter of the governor of his native town, and by her had three sons, Ibrahim, TusCm, and Isma'il. 1807. General Eraser arrives at Alexandria with 5,000 British troops (March 17), but being unsuccessful in his mission, he evacuated Alexandria on Se)^- tember 14. 76 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. Assassination of the Mamliiks by Muhammad 'Ah. 1 8 T I . These unfortunate men were invited by Muhammad 'Ah to attend the investiture of his son Tustin with a garment of state at the Citadel on March i. When they arrived they were graciously received and led into the Citadel, but as soon as they were inside, the gates were closed and Muhammad 'Ali's soldiers opened fire upon them ; about 470 of the Beys and their followers were murdered, and of all who entered, only one is said to have escaped. 1S20. Expedition to the Sudan led by Isma'il, w^ho was burned to death at Shendi by an Arab shekh called Nimr (1822). Khartum founded. 182 1. Muhammad 'Ah sends about 8,000 troops to assist the Turks against the Greeks. In 1824 a false Mahdi appeared near Thebes, with about 25,000 followers, but nearly all of them were massacred by the Government troops. 183 1. Invasion of Syria by Ibrahim, son of Muhammad 'Ali. Acre was invested on November 29, but was not captured until May 27, 1832. Ibrahim was victorious at Emesa on July 8, he defeated Rashid Pasha, and destroyed the Turkish fleet so completely that Constantinople was in imminent danger of capture. In 1833 the whole of Syria was ceded to Muhammad 'Ali, and the rule of his son Ibrahim was firm but just. In 1839 war again broke out between the Turks and Egyptians, and two years later Syria was given back to the former. In 1847 Muhammad 'Ali visited Con- stantinople, and soon after his reasoning powers became impaired. 1848. Ibrahim is appointed to rule Egypt on account of his father's failing health. He died after the reign of a few months, but Muhammad did not HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 77 A.D. die until August 3, 1849. Muhammad 'Ali was 1849. '^" ^t)le ruler, and one who had the interest of his country at heart. He created an army and a navy, and estabhshed equitable laws for collecting the revenues ; he founded colleges of various kinds, and also the famous Bulak printing press. There is no doubt that but for the obstacles placed in his way by the British Government, and its inter- ference, he would have freed Egypt entirely from Turkish misrule. His health and spirits were broken by England when she reduced his army to 18,000 men and forbade him to employ his fleet, which rotted away as it lay inactive at Alexandria. 1849. 'Abbas Pasha, the son of Tusun, the son of Muhammad 'Ali, succeeds Ibrahim. He was an incapable ruler, and is said to have been strangled at Kenha in July, 1854. 1854. Sa'id Pasha, the fourth son of Muhammad 'Ali, becomes ruler of Egypt. Though not a strong ruler, he was a just man, and he will be chiefly remembered for having abolished a number of cruel monopolies. In many particulars he sought to carry out his father's plans, and first and fore- most among these must be mentioned the building of railways in the Delta, and the enlarging of the canals with the view of improving irrigation and of facihtating communication. He it was who supported the project of making the Suez Canal, and he gave M. de Lesseps the concession for it. He founded the Bulak Museum, and encouraged excavations on the sites of the ancient cities of Egypt. 1S63. Isma'il, son of Ibrahim Pasha, and grandson of Muhammad 'Ali, becomes the ruler of Egypt ; he was born in 1830, and by a decree of the Sultan, 78 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPt. A.D. 1863. dated May 14, 1867, was made "Khedive"* of Egypt. In the early years of the rule of this remarkable man everything seemed to go well, and the material welfare of the country of Egypt appeared to be secured. Apparently Ismail was straining every nerve to rule his country according to Western ideas of justice and progress. Railways were built, schools were opened, trade of every kind was fostered, and agriculture, upon which the prosperity of Egypt depends, was encouraged to a remarkable degree. The making of the Suez Canal, which was begun in 1859, was carried on with great «eal under his auspices (as well as the Fresh Water Canal, which was begun in 1858 and finished in 1863), and the work was successfully accomplished in 1869. But the various enterprises in which he embarked cost 1875, large sums of money, and towards the end of 1875 his liabilities amounted to ^^7 7,667,569 sterling. The salaries of the officials were in arrear, and the Treasury bills were shunned by all. In this year he sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British Government for ^3,976,582 sterling; these shares 1878. are now worth over 25 millions sterhng. In 1878 M. Waddington, the French Minister of Foreign ■ Affairs, urged Lord Derby to co-operate with France in an attempt to put the finances of Egypt on a sounder base, and a Commission of Inquiry was instituted by the Decree of March 30, under the presidency of Mr. Rivers Wilson. In April Isma'il was obliged to find the sum of ^1,200,000 to pay the May coupon of the Unified Debt, and - Ox y * The Arabic form of the title is oV* Jc>- Khudewiy. HISTORICAL SUMiMARY. 79 A.D. 1878. it is said that he did so by the famihar process of "squeezing" the native. The labours of the Commission proved that *'the land tenures were so arranged that the wealthier proprietors evaded a great portion of the land tax, and the system of forced labour was applied in a way which was ruinous to the country." (Royle, Egyptian Cam- paigns, p. 6.) Ismail had built himself palaces everywhere, and he and his family had become possessed of one-fifth of the best of the land ot Egypt. The taxes were collected with great cruelty and injury to the native, and peculation and bribery were rampant everywhere. In August of this year a Cabinet was formed with Nubar Pasha at the head, with Rivers Wilson as Minister of Finance, and M. de Blignieres as Minister of Public Works. At this time Isma il announced that he was, in future, determined to rule the country through a Council of Ministers. It must be remembered that the debt of Egypt at this time was about ;^9o,ooo,ooo. 1879. On February i8th, 1879, Nubar Pasha and his Cabinet were, owing to the machinations of Ismail, mobbed by about 2,500 officers and men at the Ministry of Finance, but at the critical moment Isma il himself appeared, and the uproar ceased. At the same time, however, he told the European Consuls-General that unless more power were given to him he would not be answerable for what might happen. Soon after this he issued a Decree to raise the number of men in the army to 60,000, and in April he reduced the interest on the Debt. When Nubar Pasha resigned his office, Ismail appointed his own son Tawfik as Prime Minister, but soon after So NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. this he dismissed the whole Cabinet and appointed 1879. ''^ set of native Ministers with Sherif Pasha as Prime Minister. As the result of this truly Oriental proceeding England and France, after much hesitation, demanded the deposition of Isma il from the Sultan. About this time Isma'il sent large bribes to the Sultan, but these availed him nothing, and on June 25th Mr. Lascelles, the British Consul-General, and M. Tricon, the French Consul-General, together with Sherif Pasha, waited upon IsmaHl to inform him that he must at once abdicate in obedience to the orders of his sove- reign master, the Sultan, which had been received from Constantinople. Isma il of course refused to do this, but about 10.30 a.m. a telegram addressed to Isma il Pasha, late Khedive of Egypt, was received at the Abdin Palace, and it was taken to him by Sherif Pasha, who called upon his master to resign in favour of Tawfik Pasha. Almost at the same hour Tawfik received at the Isma'iliyya Palace a telegram addressed to Muhammad TaAvfik, Khedive of Egypt, and when he went to the Abdin Palace with Sherif Pasha, who had come from there to tell him about the telegram to Isma il, he found his father ready to salute and to wish him better fortune than he him- self had enjoyed. On Monday, the 30th of June, Isma'il left Egypt in the Khedivial yacht for Smyrna, taking with him a large sum of money and about 300 women; in 1887 he settled in Constantinople, where he died in 1895. Under Tawfik's rule the Control was restored, and on September 4 Riaz Pasha became Prime Minister. 1 880. Commission of Liquidation appointed, and a number of reforms, including a reduction of the taxes, are made. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. Si A.I). 1881. A rebellion headed by Ahmad Arabi or ** Arabi Pasha " and others breaks out. Arabi was born in the year 1840 in Lower Egypt, and was the son of a peasant farmer. He offended Isma'il, and was accused of malpractices and misappropriation of army stores, but this the despot forgave him, and promoted him to the rank of colonel, and gave him a royal slave to wife. Arabi was the leader of a secret society, the aim of which was to free Egypt from foreign interference and control, and to increase the army, and make Tawfik appoint an Egyptian to the office of Minister of War in the place of Osman Rifki. These facts coming to the notice of the authorities, Arabi and two of his colleagues were ordered to be arrested, and when this had been done, and they had been taken to the barracks in Cairo for examination, the soldiers who were in their companies rushed into the rooms and rescued them. The rebel officers and men next went to the palace where Tawfik was, and compelled him to grant their requests, and to do away with the cause of their dissatisfaction. BRITISH RULE IN EGYPT. 882. On February 2 of this year Tawfik was called upon to form a new Cabinet, and Arabi became Minister of War, and Mahmdd Sami was appointed President of the Council; Arabi was created a Pasha by the Sultan and his power became para- mount. In May a serious dispute arose between Arabi and his colleagues and the Khedive ; and on the 19th and 20th three British and three G 82 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. French vessels arrived at Alexandria. On May 1882. 25th the Consuls-General of England and France demanded the resignation of Mahmild Sami's Cabinet, and the retirement of Arabi from the 1882. country. These demands were conceded on the following day, but shortly after Tawfik reinstated Arabi, with the view of maintaining order and the tranquillity of the country. " On June 3 three more British and three more French warships arrived at Alexandria. On June 1 1 a serious riot broke out at Alexandria ; and the British Consul was stoned and nearly beaten to death, and Mr. Ribton, a missionary, and a British naval officer and two seamen were actually killed." The massacre had been threatened by Mahmiid Sami, and the riot was pre-arranged, and the native police and soldiery were parties to the murders of the Europeans which took place on that day; Mr. Royle {Egyptiait Campaigns, p. 54) estimates the number o( Europeans killed at 150. On June 25 the Sultan decorated Arabi with the Grand Order of the Medjidieh ! On July 11 at 7 a.m. the bombardm^t of Alexandria was begun by H.M.S. " Alexandra" firing a shell into the newly made fortifications of the city, and the other British ships, " Inflexible," "Superb," "Sultan," " Temeraire," " Invincible," *' Monarch," and *' Penelope," soon after opened fire. After the bombardment was over the city was plundered and set on fire by the natives, and an idea of the damage done may be gained from the fact that the Commission of Indemnities awarded the claimants the sum of ;^4,34i,oi i sterling (Royle, op. cif., p. 102). On July 14th British seamen were landed to protect the city, and on the 15th HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 83 A.E. many forts were occupied by them. Early in 1882. August Arabi was removed from his post, and he at once began to prepare to resist the Enghsh soldiers who were known to be on their way to Egypt; on August 15 Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived in Egypt; on the i8th the British fleet arrived at Port Sa'id , on the 20th the British seized the Suez Canal, and the British Government was declared by M. de Lesseps to have paid to him ;^i 00,000 for loss of business! (Royle, op. cif., p, 152). On September 13 Sir Garnet Wolseley was victorious at Tell al-Kebir, at a cost of about 460 British officers and men ; the Egyptians lost about 2,000, and several hundreds were wounded. On the 15th Cairo was occupied by the British, and the 10,000 Egyptian soldiers there submitted without fighting. On December 26th Arabi left Egypt for exile in Ceylon. [883. A rebellion led by the Mahdi breaks out in the Sudan. The Mahdi was one Muhammad Ahmad, a carpenter, who was born between 1840 and 1850 ; his native village was situated near the Island of Argo, in the province of Donkola, and though poor, his parents declared that they belonged to the Ashraf, or " nobility," and claimed to be descendants of Muhammad the Prophet. His father was a religious teacher, and had taught him to read and write. He studied at Berber under Muhammad al-Kher, and later at Khartum under the famous Shekh Muhammad Sherif, and when he became a man he led a life of great asceticism on the island of Abba in the White Nile. His piety and learning secured for him a great reputa- tion in the Stidan, and the greater number ot the inhabitants sided with him in a serious quarrel G 2 84 NOTES FOR TRAVRLT.ERS IN EGYPT. A.D. which he had with Muhammad Sherif. He 1883. wandered about preaching against the Christians, and he declared that the decay in the Muham- madan rehgion was due to the contact of Arabs with Christians, that true faith was dead, and that he was deputed by God to restore it. He then attached a number of important people to himself, and having retired to Abba Island, he declared himself to be the '' Mahdi," or the being whose advent had been foretold by Muhammadan writers, who would restore the religion of the Arabs to its former purity. In July, 1881, Rauf Pasha, the Governor-General of the S(ldan, sent for him to come to Khartfim, but the Mahdi refused, and six- weeks later he and his followers defeated the Government troops which had been sent to bring him, and slew half of them. In December he defeated Rash id Bey, the Governor of Fashoda, and slew nearly all the 400 soldiers which he had with him at Geddin. In April, 1882, Giegler Pasha, the temporary Governor-General, next attacked the Mahdi, and under his able general- ship considerable loss was inflicted on the rebels ; but on June 7 the Mahdi and his Dervishes massacred the combined forces of 'Abd-Allah and Yussuf Pasha, and in September he besieged El-Obed, which capitulated on January 17, 1883. In the same month Colonel W. Hicks, a retired Indian officer, was appointed head of the Army in the Siidan, and on February 7 he left Cairo for Khartum via Berber, which he reached on March i ; in April he set out against the Dervishes, and on the last day of the month he defeated about 4,000 of them and killed about 500. On September 9 he set out with reinforcements for Duem, intending HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 85 A. IX to recapture El-Obed, but early in Noveml:>er the 1883. Mahdi attacked his force of about 10,000 men with some thousands of soldiers from the old Egyptian Army, near Lake Rahad, it is said, and the gallant Englishman and his officers and men, who were suffering greatly from want of water, having been led into an ambush, were cut to pieces. Thus the Mahdi became master of the Sudan. 1884. [n February Baker Pasha set out with about 3,800 men to relieve Sinkat, but his motley troops were defeated at Tokar, and about 2,400 of them slain, and thousands of rifles and much ammunition fell into the hands of the Dervishes. In January of this year Charles George Gordon (bom January 28, 1833, murdered at Khartum on the night of January 26, 1885) was sent to Khartum to arrange for the evacuation of the Sudan ; he left Cairo on January 26 and arrived thereon February 18. On February 28, General Graham defeated the Der- vishes at At-Teb, and nearly 1,000 of them were slain. On March 13 he defeated OsmanDikna's* army at Tamaai and killed about 2,500 of his men ; Osman's camp was burnt, and several hun- dred thousand of the cartridges which had been taken from Baker Pasha were destroyed. On the 27th, Tamanib was occupied by Graham and then burnt. iVbout the middle of April the Mahdi began to besiege Gordon in Khartum, and preparations for a rehef expedition were begun in England in May ; this expedition was placed (August 26) under Sir Garnet Wolseley, who decided to attempt to reach Kharttim by ascending the Nile. This route made * i.e., " Osman of the beard " ; he is the son of a Turkish merchant and slave dealer who settled in the Eabtern Sudan early in the XlXth century. 86 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. it necessary to travel 1,700 miles against the stream, 1884. and six cataracts, and other natural barriers, made the progress extremely slow ; General Sir F. Stephenson, the highest authority on the subject, advised the route tnd Sawwakin (Suakin) and Berber, and by it troops could have entered Khar- tum some months before Gordon was murdered. On the other hand it has been urged that, as the town of Berber surrendered on May 26, the main reason for an advance along the Suakin-Berber road was taken away {Sudan Campaign, Pt. I, p. 25). The expedition consisted of 7,000 men, and all of them had reached Wadi Haifa by the end of November. On December 2, the troujjs at Don- kola set out for Korti, which was reached by Sir Herbert Stewart on the 13th of tlie same month. Here it was decided to send a part of the force to Khartum across the desert, 7ud Matemmah, and a part by way of the river. On December 30, Sir Herbert Stewart set out with about 1,100 officers 1885. and men, and on January 2 he seized the Gakdul Wells, 95 miles from Korti ; after one day he returned with the greater part of his force to Korti (January 5) to fetch further supplies, having left 400 men at Gakdul to build forts and to guard the wells. On the 8th, he again set out for Gakdul, and on the i6th he reached a spot about four miles from the wells of Abu Klea,^ and 23 miles from Matammah ; next day the famous battle of Abu Klea was fought, and 1,500 British soldiers defeated 11,000 Dervishes. The Der- vishes succeeded in breaking the British square, * M'.re correctly Abu Tlih X:^ ^} t uc, a place abounding in acacia irecs. Historical summary. 87 A.D. but every one of them who got in was killed, 1885. and 1,100 of their dead were counted near it; their number of wounded was admitted by them to have been very large. On the i8th General Stewart moved on towards Matemmah and, after a march which lasted all day and all night, again fought the Dervishes on the 19th, and killed or wounded 800 ; in this fight, however, he received the wound of which he died. On the 20th Abu Km, or Gubat, was occupied by the British : on the 2 1 St Sir Charles Wilson attempted to take Matemmah, but the force at his command was insufficient for the purpose. On the 22nd the British soldiers began to build two forts at Abu Kru ; on the 23rd Sir C. Wilson began to make the steamers ready to go to Khartiim ; and on the 24th he set out with two steamers and twenty men. Four days later he came to Tuti Island and found that Khartum was in the hands of the Mahdi, whereupon he ordered his vessels to turn and run down the river with all speed ; when they were out of the reach of the enemy's fire, Sir C. Wilson stopped them and sent out messengers to learn what had happened, and it was found that Khartiim had fallen on the night of the 26th, and that Gordon had been murdered a little before sunrise on the 27th. His head was cut off and taken to the Mahdi, but his body was left in the garden for a whole day, and thousands of Dervishes came and plunged their spears into it ; later the head was thrown into a well. On February 13 the British troops, including those which had marched with General Buller to Gubat, retreated to Abu Klea, and a fortnight later they set out for Korti, which they reached on March i. 88 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. The portion of the British troops which attempted 1885. to reach Khartum by river left Korti on Decem- ber 28, 1884, and reached Berti on February i, 1885, and on the 9th was fought the battle of Kirbekan, in which General Earle was shot dead. On the 17th the house, palm trees, and water- wheels of Suleman Wad Gamr, who murdered Colonel Stewart, were destroyed, and on the 24th, orders having been received to withdraw, the river column made ready to return to Korti, which was reached on the 8th of March. When it was seen that Lord Wolseley's expedition had failed to bring Gordon from Khartum, it was decided by the British Government to break the power of Osman Dikna, and with this object in view the Suakin Expedition was planned. On February 17, 1885, the British Government made a contract with Messrs. Lucas and Aird to construct a railway of 4 feet 8^ inches gauge from Suakin to Berber. On the 20th General Graham was placed in command of the Suakin Field Force, which consisted of about 10,500 officers and men. On March 20 General Graham fought an action at Hashin, and two days later a fierce fight took place at Tofrik, between Suakin and Tamaai. General McNeill was attacked by about 3,000 Dervishes, of whom 1,000 were killed, but the British loss was, relatively, considerable. In May the British Government recalled Graham's expedition, and abandoned the making of the railway to Berber, and thus Osman Dikna was again able to boast that he had driven the English out of the country (Royle, Sudan Campaigns, p. 436). On June 22, the death of the Mahdi occurred ; he was succeeded by 'Abd-Allah, better known as the *' Khalifa." In HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 89 A.D. July the last of the British troops of Lord 1885. Wolseley's expedition left Donkola ; by the end of September nearly the whole country as far north as Wadi Haifa was in the hands of the Mahdi, and it was seen that, unless checked, the Dervishes would invade Egypt. General Sir F. Stephenson and General Sir Francis Grenfell attacked them at Kosheh and Ginnis on December 30, and about ijooo ofthe Mahdi's troopswere killed and wounded. 1886. Towards the close of this year Osman Dikna with- drew from Suakin to Omdurman, partly because the Arabs about Suakin had defeated his troops and occupied Tamaai, and partly because he hoped for much benefit from the Mahdi's attack on Egypt. 1887. In June, Osman Dikna returned to Suakin with about 2,000 Baggara Dervishes, but failed to move the people ofthe country ; in the following month he returned to Omdurman, but hearing that the Egyptian garrison at Suakin had been reduced, he returned with 5,000 men and determined to capture the city. 1888. On January 17, Colonel (now Lord) Kitchener, at the head of some friendly Arabs, attacked and captured the Dervish camp, but eventually the Dervishes re-formed and turned the Egyptian victory into a defeat. On December 20, General Grenfell, with reinforcements, attacked Osman Dikna's troops and killed and vvounded 500 of them. 1889. In April Wad an-Nagumi had advanced as far north as Hafir with about 5,000 men, and another 1,000 werQ at Sarras, only about ^^ miles south ot AVadi Haifa. On July i, Colonel Wodehouse, with about 2,000 Egyptian soldiers, defeated the Der- vishes, under Wad an-N.agumi, at Argin, near AVadi Haifa, killing 900 and taking 500 jn-isoners. On 90 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGVPT. A.D. the 5th, General Grenfell left Cairo for the south with reinforcements, and made arrangements to meet the attack of Wad an-Nagumi, who, un- daunted by his defeat at Argin, was marching north ; and on August i this redoubtable warrior 1889. collected his force of 3,300 men and 4,000 followers on the hills to the south of Tushki, or Toski. On the 3rd General Grenfell disposed his British and Egyptian troops in such a way as to check the advance of Wad an-Nagumi, who, however, only wished to get away and not to fight. He was at length forced to fight, and he fought bravely, but General Grenfell's tactics were so thoroughly well planned and carried out, that the Dervish force was completely routed and destroyed. About 1,200 were killed and 4,000 were taken prisoners, and the Egyptian loss only amounted to 25 killed and 140 wounded. The effect on the country was marvellous, for, as Mr. Royle says {pp. at., p. 485), "the victory of Toski marked the turning point in the invasion, and was a shock to the cause of Mahdism which it took years to recover." The Dervish reinforcements beat a hasty retreat, and the Mahdi suspended all further operations for the invasion of Egypt. 1890. Osman Dikna continued to make raids upon Suakin from Tokar. 1 89 1. In January Colonel (now Sir C.) Holled-Smith set out to attack Osman Dikna, and on February 19 he routed the enemy at Tokar, killing 700 men. 1892-1895. Osman Dikna continued to harass the Arabs round Suakin, and made raids wherever he thought he had any chance of success. On January 7, 1892, the Khedive, Tawfik Pasha, died after a short illness at Helwan, and he was succeeded by A. D. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 9 1 his eldest son, Abbas II. Hilmy ; the Imperial 1895. Firman from the Porte confirming his succession cost about ;^6,i545 and was read on April 14. 1896. In the early part of this year Osman Dikna's forces were attacked and defeated with great loss by Colonel Lloyd, Major Sydney, and Captain Fen- wick. On February 29 the Italians were defeated by the Abyssinians at Adowa, and the garrison at Kassala was in imminent danger from the Dervishes. With a view of assisting Italy by making it necessary for the Dervishes to turn their attention elsewhere, the British Government determined to advance to Akasheh and Donkola. In the hands of General Kitchener, who had succeeded General Grenfell as vSirdar of the Egyptian Army in April, 1892, the conduct of the new Sudan Expedition was placed. On March 21 he left Cairo for the south, and the first serious skirmish between the Dervishes and Egyptians took place on May i. Early in June the Sirdar divided his forces, and one column marched upon Ferket by way of the river, and another across the desert. On June 7 the two columns joined hands, and a fierce fight ensued. The Sirdar's arrangements were so skilfully made and carried out, that the Dervishes were utterly routed ; they lost about 1,000 killed and wounded, and 500 were made prisoners. Among the killed were about forty of their chief men. The Egyptian loss was 100 killed and wounded. On September 19 the Sirdar occupied Hafir after a fight, and four days later the Egyptian troops entered Donkola ; Debbeh, Korti, and Marawiwere next occupied, and the country as far as the foot of the Fourth Cataract was once more in the hands of the Egyptians. 92 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. Early in this year the decision to make the Wadi 1897. Haifa and Abu-Hamed Railway was arrived at, for the Sirdar regarded it as absolutely necessary ; by this route nearly 350 miles of difficult river trans- port would be avoided. When the railway had advanced considerably more than half way to Abu Hamed, General Hunter marched from Marawi to Abu Hamed and defeated the Dervishes, who held it in force, and occupied it on August 7. Of the Dervish garrison of 1,500 men, about 1,300 were killed and wounded. vSoon afterwards the Dervishes evacuated Berber, which was entered by General Hunter on September 13. On October 31 the railway reached Abu-Hamed. 1898. On April 8th, Good Friday, the Sirdar utterly defeated the great Dervish force under Mahmud at the Battle of the Atbara ; the Dervish loss was about 3,000 killed, and 2,000 were taken prisoners, while the Sirdar's loss was under 600 killed and wounded. The forces engaged on each side were about 14,000. On September 2nd the capture of Omdurman and the defeat of the Khalifa 'Abdu-AUahi were accomplished by the Sirdar. The Khalifa's forces numbered at least 50,000, and those of the Sirdar about 22,000. The Dervish loss was at least 11,000 killed and 16,000 wounded, and over 4,000 were made prisoners ; the Sirdar's loss was rather more than 400 killed and wounded. The Khalifa escaped and fled south, having first taken care to bury his treasure; the body of the Mahdi was removed from its tomb, and burnt, and the ashes were thrown into the Nile ; the head is said to be buried at Wadi Haifa. The tomb was destroyed because, if left untouched, it would always have formed a centre HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 93 A.D. for religious fanaticism and sedition. On Sunday, 1898. September 4, the Sirdar held a memorial service for (leneral Gordon at Khartum, when the British and Egyptian flags were hoisted. On the 19th the Sirdar hoisted the Egyptian flag at Fashoda, which had been occupied by Major Marchand, the head of a French expedition, who sought to claim as a right a position on the Nile on behalf of France. The village of Fashoda is now known by the name of Kodok, which, strictly speaking, is the name of a neighbouring village. 1899. In January Colonel Kitchener, brother of the Sirdar, set out to catch the Khalifa, who had fled towards Kordofan, but his expedition failed for want of water. In November it was said that the Khalifa was at Gebel Geddir, which lay to the north-west of Fashoda, on the west bank of the Nile, and about 160 miles from the river. The Sirdar pursued with a large force, but the Khalifa fled towards Khartum. On November 22 Colonel (now Sir) F. R. Wingate (now Sirdar of the Egyptian army) pursued him to Abba Island on the Nile, and learning that he was encamped at Umm Dabrikat, attacked him on the 24th. After a fierce but short fight in the early morning, Colonel Wingate defeated the Khalifa, killing over 1,000 of his men, and taking prisoners 3,000. The Khalifa met his fate like a man, and seeing that all was lost, seated himself upon a sheepskin with his chief Emirs, and with them fell riddled with bullets. The Egyptian loss was 15 killed and wounded. It was claimed that the death-blow had been given to Mahdism by the defeat of the Dervishes at the Battle of Omdurman, and the destruction of the Mahdi's tomb, but this 94 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. was not true, for as the power of the Mahdi was 1899. beUeved to have been transferred to the Khalifa 'Abd-Allah, the Dervishes regarded it as a real and living thing so long as 'Abd-Allah was alive. Mahdism did not die until he and his Amirs were killed by Colonel Wingate on the memorable morning of November 24. On March 4 of this year, Mr. John M. Cook, the late head of the firm of Thomas Cook and Son, died at Walton-on-Thames. The services which he rendered to the Egyptian Government were very considerable. In the Gordon Relief Expedition his firm transported from Asydt to Wadi Haifa, a distance of about 550 miles, Lord Wolseley's entire force, which consisted of 11,000 British and 7,000 Egyptian troops, 800 whalers, and 130,000 tons of stores and war materials. In 1885, 1886 and 1896 his firm again rendered invaluable services to the Government, and one is tempted to regret, with Mr. Royle {The Egyptian Cam- paigns, p. 554), that, in view of the melancholy failure of the Gordon Relief Expedition, his con- tract did not include the rescue of Gordon and the Sddan garrisons. He transported the wounded to Cairo by water after the battle of 'i'ell al-Kebir, and when the British Army in Egypt was decimated by enteric fever, conveyed the convalescents by special steamers up the Nile, and made no charge m either case except the actual cost of running the steamers. He was greatly beloved by the natives, and the Luxor Hospital, which he founded, is one of the many evidences of the interest which he took in their welfare. Thousands of natives were employed in his service, and it would be difficult to estimate the benefits which accrued indirectly to HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 95 A.D. hundreds of families in all parts of the country through his energy and foresight. 1900. In January Osman Dikna was in hiding near Tokar, and Muhammad 'Ali, the loyal Gamilab Shekh, found that he had entered his country. Major Burges and Ahmad Bey left Suakin on January 8 and lo respectively, and a few days later they arrived at the Warriba range, which is about 90 miles to the south-west of Suakin ; and there Osman was seen apparently waiting to partake of a meal from a recently killed sheep. At the sight of his pursuers he fled up a hill, but was soon caught, and was des- patched from Suakin in the S.S. " Behera," and arrived at Suez on January 25, en route for Rosetta, where he now lies in prison. On September 25 Slatin Pasha was appointed British Inspector of the SCidan. On November 2 Major Hobbs opened a branch of the Bank of Egypt at Khartilm. On December 31st, 1900, the outstanding capital of the Egyptian Debt amounted to ;^io3, 7 10,000, of which ;£^7, 2 73,000 was held by the Debt Com- missioners, leaving a balance in the hands of the public of ;^96,437,ooo. 1901. — The revenue was ^E. 12,160,000 and the expenditure ;£E. 11,396,000, leaving a surplus of ;^E.i,46o,ooo in excess of the estimates, which were ;^E. 10,700,000 and ;£"E. 10,636,000 respectively. The net financial result was a surplus of ;^E. 7 00,000. The balance standing to the credit of the General Reserve Fund was, on December 31st, 1901, ^E.3,795,000, and on the same date the sum of ;^E. 1,287,000 stood to the credit of the Special Reserve Fund. Debt to the extent of ^445,000 was paid off in 1901, and on December 31st, 1901, the outstanding 96 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EOVPT. A.I). capital of the Debt amounted to ^103,265,000, 1 901. ^95,000,000 being in the hands of the public. On March ist postal savings banks were opened at 27 first class post offices ; the rate of interest allowed is 2^ per cent, per annum. The number of depositors was 6,740, and the amount deposited ^E.87,000. Of Domains lands, 13,764 acres were sold for ^^2 19, 000, leaving in the hands of the Commissioners 165,051 acres, valued at ^3,330,454. Profit on railways amounted to ^E. 1 50,000. The new Port Sa'id Railway was estimated to cost between ^E. 3 5 0,000 and ^E. 400, 000. The profit on telegraphs was ^E. 1 2,000. Of salt, 52,221 tons were sold; the revenue was ^E. 2 23,000. The imports amounted to ;£'E. 1 54, 245,000 and the exports to ^E. 1 5, 7 30,000. The tobacco imported weighed 6,120,548 kilos, and the tambak 325,661 kilos.; the quantity exported was 529,034 kilos., which is equivalent to 380,000,000 cigarettes. The profit on the Post Office was ^E. 28,000. About ^.E49o,ooo were spent on irrigation works. On the Aswan Dam ;^E. 900,000 were spent, and on the Asytit Barrage ^E.800,000. The total number of men called out for the corvee was 8,763 for 100 days. The Cairo roads cost in upkeep ;^io,772, and ;^i27,ooo were spent on public buildings. There was a general increase in crime, 2,382 cases being reported. Prison administration cost ^E. 60, 000. In Egypt slavery was practically non-existent. There were 23,477 in-patients in Government hospitals. The Zoological Gardens were visited by 52,711 persons, and the gate money amounted to ^E.1,114. The fees paid by tourists for HISTORICAL SUMMARY* 97 A;t)» visiting the temples, &c., amounted to jCE.$,2i^. 190T. On the preservation of Arab and Coptic monu- ments ^E.7,000 were spent. Lord Cromer reported that the year "was one of steady and normal progress . . . The fiscal system has been placed on a sound footing. The principal irrigation works are either completed or are approaching completion. Means of locomotion, both by rail and road, have been improved and extended. The institution of slavery is virtually defunct. The corvee has been practically abolished. iVlthough both the judicial system and the organization of the police admit of further improvement, it may be said that law and order everywhere reign supreme. The courbash is no longer employed as an instrument of government. The army is efficient and well organized ; the abuses which existed under the old recruiting system have been swept away. New prisons and reformatories have been built. The treatment of prisoners is in conformity with the principles generally adopted in Europe ; the sick man can be nursed in a well-equipped and well-managed hospital. The lunatic is no longer treated like a wild beast. Means have been provided for enabling the peasantry to shake themselves free from the grip of the money- lenders. A very great impulse has been given to education in all its branches. In a word, all the main features of Western civilization have been introduced with such adaptations as have been necessitated by local requirements. Broadly speaking, it may be said that all that is now required in Egypt is to persevere in the course which has already been traced out, and to H 98 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. gradually introduce into the existing system such requirements as time and experience may sliow to be necessary." 1902. The revenue was ^E. 12,148,000, the ex- penditure ^E. 11,432,333, and the surplus ;£^E. 716,000, being ^E. 506,000 in excess of the estimate. The balance standing to the credit of the General Reserve Fund was on December 31st, 1902, ^E. 2,93 1,000, and on the same date the sum of ^E. 1,678,000 stood to the credit of the Special Reserve Fund. Debt to the extent of ^527,000 was paid off in the course of the year, and on December 31st, 1902, the out- standing capital of the Debt amounted to ^103,245,000, ^94,471,000 being in the hands of the public. The Government lent to the Fellah in, or peasant farmers, the sum of ;£E. 202,942, the number of borrowers being 34,532. The balances on deposit in the Post Office Savings Bank increased from ^E. 38, 000 to ;£,E.86,ooo, the number of depositors being 13,587. The debt on the Domains Adminis- tration was reduced to ^E. 1,932,000. The amount of French capital invested in Egypt was more than ^E. 5 7,000,000. The net receipts from the railways were ^E. 1,059,000, and the Kena-Aswan Railway brought in ^E. 60, 000. The profit on telegraphs was ^E. 14, 000, and on telephones ^E. 1,350. Out of 5,097,431 acres of land, 554,409 were held by Europeans. The circulation of notes amounted to ;£E.ii6,ooo. About 53.425 tons of salt were sold, and the royalties were ^E. 181,000. The value of the imports was ^E. 14, 2 11,000, and of the exi)orts ^E. 17,6 17,000. The eggs HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 99 A.D. (JxporLecl numbered 79,500,000. The total 1902. amount of tobacco withdrawn from bond was 6,336,700 kilos., and of tambak 379,100 : 54 per cent, came from Turkey, 33*5 per cent, from Greece, and 12*5 per cent, from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The average consumption per head was 1 lb. 6 oz. ; the number of cigarettes exported amounted to 385,000,000. The profit from the Tost Office was ^E.37,500. The amount of unirrigated land was 143,000 acres, as compared with 947,000 in 1877. The number of men employed in corvee work was 4,970 for 100 days. About ^E. 5 0,000 were spent on repairs of Government buildings, ^E. 1 54,000 on new buildings, and ^79,000 on drainage. The number of persons in prison was 9,256. During the year 238 slaves were freed. There were 22,717 patients in the Government hospitals. In all, 1,489 deaths from cholera occurred in Cairo. The revenue was ^E. 12,464,000, and the ex- penditure ^E. 1 1,720,000, and the surplus ^E. 744,000, being ^E. 7 19,000 in excess of the estimates. The balance standing to the credit of the General Reserve Fund was on December 31st, 1903, ^E. 2, 76 1,000, and on the same date the sum of ;i^E.2, 1 28,000 stood to the credit of the Special Reserve Fund. The value of the sums invested on behalf of the Conversion Economics Fund was ^/;E.5, 507,000, as against ^E.4,991,000 in 1902. Debt to the extent of ^1,289,000 was paid off during the year, and on December 31st, 1903, the outstanding capital of the Debt amounted to ^102,187,000, ^93,383,000 being in the hands of the public. On December 31st, the loans to H 2 lOO NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A,D. the Fellahin amounted to ;^E. 2, 186,746, the 1903. number of borrowers being 78,911 persons. The Debt on the Domains Administration was reduced to ^E. 1,685,042, and that on the Daira Adminstration was reduced to about ;£'E.4,986,ooo. The railways carried in 190^ about 15,000,000 people and 3,000,000 tons of goods, as against 2,800,000 people and 1,200,000 tons of goods in 1883, and in that period of 20 years the receipts rose from ;^E. 1,200,000 to ;^E.2,26o,ooo. The receipts from telegraphs amounted to ;;^E.76,ooo, and the expenditure was ;j^E.57,ooo ; 1,618,000 messages were despatched. The sum of ;£E.3,439,864 was paid for the Aswan Dam and the Asyut Barrage. Some 170,000 acres of basin land were converted into perennial irrigation at a cost of ;£"E.i9o,ooo; as a result, the annual rental of these acres has been in- creased by ;^E.5 10,000, and the present sale value by ^E. 5, 100,000. In corvee work 11,244 men were called out in 1903. The imports were ;£E. 16, 146,000 and the exports ^^E. 19, 118,500. About 96,500,000 eggs were exported. Of the imports 42*5 per cent, were from Great Britain and her possessions, and of the exports 52*8 went to Great Britain. The tobacco imported amounted to 6,517,000 kilos., and the tambak to 370,000 kilos. ; the average consumption per head was i lb. 7 ozs., or i oz. more than in 1902. About 74,400 passengers landed at Port Sa'id and Alexandria. The average daily cir- culation of currency notes was ;^E.2i8,ooo, and the value of the notes in circulation was ;s^E.382,ooo. About -57,000 tons of salt were- HISTORICAL SU^fMA-RY.' ' ' '/ ', ; , i •/. ; ] TOl A.D. sold, and the gross revenue was ;^E. 189,000. 1903, The profit of the Post Office was ;^E.46,ooo. It was decided that executions were to be con- ducted within the prison walls in the presence of certain authorized officials, and that repre- sentatives of the press were to be admitted. About 2,121 persons were convicted of crimes, and the number has been on the increase since 1896, when it was 1,866. About 176,474 cer- tificates of Moslem marriages were issued, and there were 52,992 cases of divorce. It is said that in a great many cases the husband takes his wife back again after divorcing her, and the Inspectors believe that if account could be taken of these reunions, the number of divorces would be reduced to about 18,000. The Cairo tram- ways were used by 18,957,000 people. The following are the sums which have been spent on education, beginning with the year 1887, when the expenditure on this department of the Government had sunk to its lowest figure : — £E. /;e 1887 63,000 1896 151,000 1888 .. 70,000 1897 158,000 1889 91,000 1898 160,000 1890 .. 104,000 1899 .. 154,000 1891 119,000 1900 156,000 1892 125,000 I90I 173,000 1893 •• 138,000 1902 185,000 1894 .. 142,000 1903 197,000 1895 ... 139,000 1904 (estimate) 204,000 The expenditure of the Department of Public Instruction is defrayed from three sources : — (i) The Government Grant, which has risen from ;£'E.63,oop in 1887 to ;£"E.i2i,ooo in 1904; NOTES' FOR T^A^ELLF.RS IN EGYPT. A.D. (2) School fees, which in 1904 will probably 1903. amount to ;^E.6o,ooo; (3) Revenue from endow- ments, &c., which it is estimated will produce ;^E.2 3,ooo in 1904. Writing early in 1904, Lord Cromer concludes his Report ("Egypt," No. I, 1904) with the following noteworthy sentences : — " As regards moral progress, all that can be said is that it must necessarily be slower than advance in a material direction. I hope and believe, however, that some progress is being made. In any case, the machinery which will admit of progress has been created. The school- master is abroad. A reign of law has taken the place of arbitrary personal power. Institutions, as liberal as possible under the circumstances, have been established. In fact, every possible facility is given and every encouragem'ent afforded for the Egyptians to advance along the path of moral improvement. More than this no Govern- ment can do. It remains for the Egyptians themselves to take advantage of the opportunities of moral progress which are offered to them." 1904. — In the middle of August Sir WiUiam Garstin's Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile (Cd. 2165, "Egypt," No. 2, 1904), appeared. He suggested the expenditure of ;^E. 2 1,000,000, of which ^E. 1 3,000,000 would be in the Sudan, and ;^E. 8,000,000 in Egypt. The proposed expenditure in the Sfidan will not benefit only that country. The main item of ;^E. 5,500,000 is for works in the Bahr al-Gebel, and this expenditure would be almost entirely on Egypt's account. Broadly speaking, the whole plan is based on the principle of utilizing the waters of the White Nile for the benefit of Egypt, and iiisTORiCAi. F;^^^^fAR^'. T03 A.D. those of the Blue Nile for the benefit of the 1904. Sildan. It is proposed to spend on : — ;^E. Middle Egypt canals 1,000,000 Railways 3,000,000 Raising the Aswan Dam 500,000 Remodelling Rosetta and Damielta l^ranches 900,000 Works on the Bahr al-Gebel 5,500,000 Making a new channel between Bohr and the Sawbat River 3,400,000 Regulation of the lakes 2,000,000 Barrages between Asyut and Kena ... 2,000,000 Conversion of the Upper Egypt basins 5,ooo,coo Reservoir at Rosaires 2,000,000 Barrage on the Blue Nile 1,000,000 Gezireh Canal system 2,000,000 Sir William Garstin estimates that when the whole of his Egyptian project is carried out, 750,000 acres of land will be converted from basin into perennial irrigation; 100,000 acres will be made capable of being irrigated by pumps ; 800,000 additional acres will be brought under cultivation ; and that, at very moderate rates, the increased revenue derived from taxation will be ;^i,205,ooo a year. The Suakim-Berber Railway is to be completed at a cost of ^E. 1,750,000, and it will probably be finished in the spring of 1906. An expenditure of ^E. 500,000 will carry out the Gash scheme of irrigation in the SCldan, and bring under cultivation 100,000 acres; assess- ing the land tax at 50 piastres an acre, the increased revenue would amount to ^E. 5 0,000. The whole or at least the greater part of this money would, of course, be utilized to diminish the contribution now paid annually by Egypt to the I04 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A.D. Sudan Government. In fact, the only hope of 1904, rendering the Stadan ultimately self-supporting lies in the judicious expenditure of capital on railways and irrigation. An attempt will certainly be made in the near future to carry out an Egyptian railway and irrigation programme, involving a capital expenditure of ;^E.5,4oo,ooo, and it will involve raising the Aswan Dam and remodelling the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile. On August 17th the Greek Orthodox Convent of Old Cairo was destroyed by fire. The convent was a very old foundation and had been standing for centuries. It was one of the oldest monuments of the Eastern Church in Egypt, and was associated with many important historical events. At a session of the Ministers, held in Cairo in October, it was resolved to ask the Khedive to order the raising of the Dam at Asw^n, and the construction of a Barrage at Esnah. I05 Dates assigned to the Egyptian Dynasties by Egyptologists. )ynasty. Champollion- Lepsius Brugsch Mariettf Figeac. (in 1858). (in 1877). I. B.C. 5,867 3,892 4,400 5,004 II. 5.615 3/639 4,133 4,751 III. 5,318 3,338 3,966 4,449 IV. 5,I2T 3,124 3,733 4,235 V. 4,673 2,840 3,566 3,951 VI. 4,425 2,744 3,300 3,703 VII. 4,222 2,592 3,100 3,500 VIII. 4,147 2,522 3,500 IX. 4,047 2,674 3,358 X. 3,947 2,565 3,249 XL 3,762 2,423 3,064 XII. 3,703 2,380 2,466 2,851 XIIL 3,417 2,136 2,235 XIV. 3,004 2,167 2,398 XV. 2,520 2,101 2,214 XVI. 2,270 1,842 XVII. 2,082 1,684 XVIII. 1,822 1,591 1,700 1,703 XIX. 1,473 1,443 1,400 1,462 XX. 1,279 1,269 1,200 1,288 XXI. 1,101 1,091 1,100 1,110 XXII. 971 961 966 980 XXIII. 851 787 766 810 XXIV. 762 729 733 721 XXV, 718 716 700 715 XXVI. 674 685 666 665 XXVII. 524 525 527 527 XXVIII. 404 525 406 XXIX. 39S 399 399 399 XXX. ^77 373 378 378 XXXI 339 349 340 340 io6 PROSPERITY IN EGYPT UNDER BRITISH RULE. The progress made in Egypt since the country passed under the rule of the British is astonishing, even to those who knew its wonderfully recuperative powers. Its material prosperity is so great and advances with such rapid strides that it is difficult to understand its miserable and bankrupt condition at the time of Arabi Pasha's rebellion. A journey through the country reveals the fact that for one beast seen in the fields at that time, ten may now be counted, for the peasant farmer need not now fear the sudden descent of arbitrary tax-gatherers who would carry off the occupants of his fields and byres. In the towns and villages the houses are better built and kept in better repair, for their owners need not fear that the laying on of a coat of paint or whitewash will be taken as evidence that they possess superfluous cash, and so bring down upon themselves a visit from the local revenue officer and increased taxation. The water supply is regulated with justice, and the peasant obtains his due as surely and as regularly as the Pasha, and it is now impossible for any large landowner to irrigate his garden at the expense of the parched plots of his poor neighbours. One of the greatest boons which Britain has conferred upon the Egyptian is the abolition of the Corvde. The work to be done by the corvee was of two kinds, viz., (i) to make and upkeep earthworks, />., to cut and clean canals, etc., (2) to protect the river banks during the inun- dation. The liability of the Egyptian male to be called upon to do work of the former class was abolished in 1889, and although it costs Egypt ;^42o,ooo per annum to do without forced labour, it is admitted on all hands that the expenditure is justified. Under the old system the most shameful abuses crept in, and hundreds of the official classes had their houses built, canals cut and cleaned, and PROSPERITY IN EGYPT UNDER P.RITISH RUT,E. 07 estates watered entirely by the corvee. The iniquity of the system was that it pressed hardest upon the poorest classes. Sir William Willcocks, of the Egyptian Irrigation Depart- ment, first showed that by adopting improved methods the necessity for much of the labour was done away with, and its abolition is one of the Earl of Cromer's most brilliant achievements. It must not be forgotten that men have to be called out each year to protect the river banks in time of flood, and that all the inhabitants may be called out in any sudden emergency ; the following figures give the numbers for the last thirteen years of those called out : — 1S91 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 I9(X) 1901 1902 1903 44,962 men for 100 days. 84,391 32,752 49,448 36,982 25,794 11,069 10,079 7,893 14,180 8,763 4,970 11,244 The official returns show the increase in the revenue during the last fourteen years : — 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 10,237,000 10,539,000 10,297,000 10,242,000 10,161,000 10,431,000 10,694,000 11,093,000 11,132,000 11,200,000 11,663,000 12,160,000 12,148,000 12,404,000 Thus in 1903 the excess of revenue over expenditure was jCE.2,1 23,000. Io8 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. This has been the case notwithstanding that a consider- able diminution in taxation has been effected ; the taxation per head of the population was in 1881 £^i 2s. 2d., and that of the debt ;^i 4 8^. 9^.; in 1897 the corresponding figures were i^s. 9^. and ;^io oi-. 2d. (Mr. Dawkins, in Milner, E?tgla?id i?t Egypt, p. 384). Between 1890 and 1 90 1 taxes to the extent of ;^E 1,408, 000 per annum have been remitted. The following, taken from the Parlia- mentary Papers (1896, No. i, p. 3, etc.), will show the amounts of surplus and deficit between 1883 and 1903 — ■ Surplus. Deficit. Surplus. Deficit, ;^E. ;^E. ;^E. ;^E. 1883 — 920,000 1894 785,000 -- 1884 — 460,000 1895 1,088,000 1885 — 697,000 1896 690,000 — 1886 — 684,000 1897 630,000 — 1887 111,000 — 1898 11,376,000 — 1888 — 1,000 1899 1,848,000 — 1889 160,000 — 1900 559,coo — 1890 591,000 — 1901 764,000 — I89I 951,000 — 1902 716,000 — 1892 769,000 — 1903 719,000 — 1893 720,000 — The financial situation on December 30, 1901, may be thus summarised : — The National Debt was ;^E. 102, 187,000, but ;^E.8,8o4,ooo of this sum was held by the Commissioners ofthe Public Debt. There is no floating debt. The General Reserve Fund amounted to ;^E.2,76i,ooo; the Special Reserve Fund to ^E. 2, 128,000 ; and the accumulated Con- version Economies amounted to ;^E. 5, 507,000. The Economies Fund " is invested in Egyptian bonds, and Egypt is therefore becoming pro tanto the holder of her own debt. But to buy up your debts at a premium of 3 per cent., instead of paying them off at par, a premiuip. t'ROSPERtTY IN EGYPT UNDER BRITISH RULE. I09 continually forced up by further obligatory purchases on your own part, is extravagant finance. It is an extravagance forced en Egypt by international conventions, for which, in the present case, the word 'France' might be used" (Dawkins, op. cit.^ p. 302). The value of the investments made by this Fund was ^E.5, 507,000. The sum of ^E.2, 500,000 which was spent on the Sudan Expedition in 1896-98 may be regarded as a good investment, for as assets Egypt has 760 miles of railway, with an adequate number of engines, rolling-stock, etc. ; 2,000 miles of telegraph line, six new gun-boats, barges, etc., a?id the whole Sudan (Kitchener's speech in London, Nov. 4, 1898). Railways in 1899 brought in ^E.2, 260,000. The cost of the repairs to the Embabeh Bridge has been very large. The bridge was built by a French firm for ;^E.8o,ooo, but ;^E.43,ooo (!) more has had to be spent upon it before it was safe for traffic. Telegraphs brought in ;^E. 7 6, 000; salt, under the new regulations, brought in ;^E. 189,000. The value ■of the Imports in 1903 was ^E.i6, 146,900 ; and the value of the Exports was ;£"E.i9,ii8,5oo. In 1902 the Imports were ^E.14,21 1,000 ; and the Exports ^E. 1 7,6 1 7,000. The Post Office yields a net revenue to the Government of ;^E.46,ooo. The total number of persons confined in prisons in 1903 was 10,317 ; only one case of prosecution for slave dealing was necessary in 1903 j in 1903 about 25,162 cases were treated in the Government hospitals; 357,000 successful vaccinations were made in 1900; 80,011 legal cases were brought before Native Tribunals; the system of Village Justice evolved by Lord Cromer and his legal advisers has proved to be a great success ; the powers of the Mixed Tribunals have been modified, and considerable alterations have been made in the application of Muhammadan Law. The decisions of the Law Courts are now generally recognised as equitable, and appeals against them are uncommon. IIO NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGVPT. In Education great strides have been made. The sums spent on education in i8 years are : — £^ £^ 1887 63,000 1897 1 58,000 1888 70,000 1898 160,000 1889 91,000 1S99 ... 154,000 IS90 104,000 1900 156,000 1 89 1 119,000 1901 173,000 1892 125,000 1 902 185,000 i:^93 1 38,000 1903 197,000 1894 ... 142,090 1904 204,000 1895 ... 139,000 1S96 151,000 In 1887 only 1,919 pupils were under the direct management of the Department of Public Instruction ; in 1898 the number had grown to 19,684, in 1899 to 23)39°- '^h^ school fees in 1887 were ^E. 9,000, in 1899 ^E.36,000, andin 1903 to^E.76,228, and in 1904 they will am.ount to ^E.60,000. It is a remarkable fact that the per- centage of Muhammadan pupils in schools and colleges under the Department is less than the percentage of the Muhammadans in the total population, while the percentage of Coptic pupils in the same schools is almost treble the percentage of Copts throughout Egy|3t. Thus Muham- madans form 93 per cent, of the total population, and the number of their children in the schools forms 78 per cent, of the pupils ; the Copts form 6 per cent, of the total j)opulation, but the number of their children in the schools forms 17 per cent, of the pupils. At the beginning of the British occupation of Egypt the principal European lan- guage taught in the Government schools was French ; English was either altogether neglected or was very badly taught. The schools of the American Missionaries were the only places where English was taught, and the splendid services rendered by these institutions in this respect must not be forgotten. Until the last few years nearly every railway, postal, or telegraph official in Kgy[jt who [)ossessed English. French. 1,063 2,994 1,747 •• 3,199 2,032 2,852 2,237 .. 2,864 2,434 .. 2,585 2,669 3,748 2,66s 3,417 2,800 3.363 3,058 . 3,150 3,859 1,881 4,401 1,210 PROSPERITY' IN EGYPT UNDER BRriTSH RULE. 1 I I any competent knowledge of the English language owed liis instruction to the American missionaries. The follow- ing figures illustrate the growth of the study of English in Government schools : — 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 Thus in 1899 about 78 per cent, of the pupils were studying English and 22 per cent. French; in 1889 the figures were 26 per cent, and 74 per cent, respectively. In 1884 about 360,000 tons of coal were imported at Alexandria, and 726,000 at Port Said; in 1901 these numbers had risen to 867,150 and 228,865 tons re- spectively. In January, 1882, " Egyptian Unifieds " were cjuoted at 61^, and in January, 1901, at 106 J. Worthy of mention too is the success of the societies which have been established in Cairo, Alexandria, and Port Said for the prevention of cruelty to animals. In Cairo 1,178 animals were treated in the infirmary in 1900, in Alex- andria 2,384, and in Port Said 159; it is good to learn that Lord Cromer thinks the action of these societies is causing a steady improvement in the condition of the animals employed in the towns where the societies exist. The productive and recuperative powers of Egypt have been proverbial from time out of mind, but the most sanguine reformer of Egypt in 1883 could never have expected that the last year of the century would have witnessed such a state of prosperity in the country as now exists. This is due entirely to the fidelity with 112 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN tGYJPT; which the civil and military officials have performed their duties, and to the carrying out of the consistent and wise policy which was inaugurated by Lord Cromer, whose strong hand has ceaselessly guided and supported every work which tended to the welfare and prosperity of Egypt. ( 0'}))))>m ^[<<, © Ta~res or ^^sFf -=4-^ © Ta-gemd, ' ' the southern land " ; and II. Lower Egypt ^'^n'^' '^^'''^^^^•^ "the northern land." The kings of Egypt styled themselves suten hat^ " king of the South and North," and neb taui, "lord of two earths.""^ The country was divided into nomes, the number of which is variously given ; the list given by some of the classical authorities contains thirty-six, but judging by the monuments the number was nearer forty. The nome {Jiesp) was divided into four parts ; i, the capital town {nui) ; 2, the cultivated land ; 3, the marshes, which could only at times be used for purposes of cultivation ; and 4, the canals, which had to be kept clear and provided with sluices, etc., * As ruler of the two countries, each king wore the crown ^ which was made up of V, the teslier, or red crown, representing the A northern part of Eg}'pt, and [^ , the lietch, or while crown, represent- ing the southern part 'of Egypt. THE NORIES OF EGYPT. tiy for irrigation purposes. During the rule of the Greeks Egypt was divided into three parts : Upper, Central, and Lower Egypt ; Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, and was called Heptanomis. List of Nomes of Egypt — Upper Egypt, Nome. Capital. Divinity. I. 'fa-Kens. Abu (Elephantine), in later times Nubt (Ombos). Khnemu. 2. Tes-Heru. Teb (Apollinopolis magna. Heru - Behu * Arab. Utfu or Edfii). tet. 3- Ten. Nekheb (Eileithyia),in later times Sene (Latopolis), Esneh. Nekheb. 4- Uast. Uast (Thebes), in later times Hermonthis. Amen-Ra. 5- Herui. Kebti (Coptos). Amsu (or, Min). 6. Aa-ti. Taenterer (Denderah). Hathor (Het Hert). 7- Sekhem. Ha (Diospolis parva). Hathor. 8. Abt. Abtu (Abydos), in earlier times Teni (This). Anher. 9- Amsu (or, Apu (Panopolis). Amsu (or, Min). Min). lO. Uatchet. Tebu (Aphroditopolis). Hathor. II. Set. Shashetep (Hypsele). Khnemu. 12. Tuf. Nen-ent-bak (Antaeopolis). Horus. 13- Atefkhent. Saiut (Lycopolis, Arab. Siut). Ap-uat. 14. Atef-peh. Kesi (Cusae). Hathor 15- Un. Khemennu (Hermopolis). Thoth. ii8 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Nome. Capita L Divinity. i6. Meh-mahet. Hebennu (Hipponon;. Horus. 17- Kasa (Cynonpohs). Anubis. i8. Sapet. Ha-suten(Alabastronpohs). Anubis. 19. Uab. Pa-matchet (Oxyrhynchos). Set. 20. Am-khent. Khenensu (HerakleopoHs magna). Heru-shefi. 21. Am-peh. Se-men Heru. Khnemu. 22. Maten. Tep-ahet (AphroditopoHs). Lower Egypt. Hathor. I. Aneb-hetch. Men-nefer (Memphis). Ptah. 2. Aa Sekhem (Letopohs). Heru-ur. 3- Anient. Nenten-Hapi (Apis). Hathor-nub 4. Sepi-res. Tcheka (Canopus). Amen-Ra. 5- Sepi-emhct. Sa (Sais). Neith. 6. Kaset Khesun (Xois). Amen-Ra. 7- . . . Anient. Sent-Nefer (Metehs). Hii. 8. . . . Abtet. Thukut (Sethroe). Atmu. 9- Atchi. Per-Asar (Busiris). Osiris. 10. Kakem. Tahetherab (Athribis). Heru-khenti khati. II. Kahebes. Kahebes (Kabasos). Isis. 12. Katcheb. Tcheb-neter (Sebennythos). , Anher. 13- Hakat. Annu (Hehopohs). Ra. 14. Khent-abet. Tchan (Tanis). Horus. 15- Tehuti. Pa-Tehuti (Hermopohs). Thoth. 16. Khar. Pabaneb-tet (Mendes). Ba-neb-tet 17- Sma-behutet. Pa-khen-en-Amen (Dios- pohs). Amen-Ra. 18. Amkhent. Pa-Bast (Bubastis). Bast. 19. Am-peh . Pa-Uatchet (Bute). Uatchet. 20. Sept. Keseni (Phakussa). Sept THE PROVINCES OF EGVFl'. tig Lower Egypt is divided into six provinces : — 1. Balt^erah, with seven districts ; capital, Damanhur. Population (including the Oasis of Siwa, 7,200), 631,225. 2. Kalyubiyah, with three districts ; capital, Benha. Population, 371,465. 3. Sharkiyahi with six districts ; capital, Zakazik. Population, 749,130. 4. Dakhaliyah, with six districts; capital, Mansurah- Population, 736,708. 5. Menufiyah, with five districts ; capital, Mentit. Population, 864,206. 6. Gharbiyah, with eleven districts; capital, Tanta. Population, 1,297,656. Upper Egypt is divided into seven districts : — 1. Gizah, with four districts; capital, Gi/cah. Popula- tion, 401,634. 2. Beni-Suwef, with three districts ; capital, Beni-Suwef. Population, 314,454. 3. Minyah, with eight districts; capital, Minyah. Popu- lation (including the Oasis of Bahriyah (6,082), and the Oasis of Farafra (542)), 54^,632. 4. Asyut, with nine districts ; capital, Asyut. Popula- tion (including the Oasis of Dakhlah (17,090), and the Oasis of Khargah (7,220)), 782,720. 5. Girgah, with five districts ; capital, Suhag. Popula- tion, 668,011. 6. ^ena, with seven districts : capital, Kenah. Popu- lation, 711,457- 7. Fayyum, with three districts ; capital, Wasta. Popu- lation, 371,006. I20 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Large towns like Alexandria, Port Said, Suez, Cairo, Damietta, and El'arish are governed by native rulers. In ancient days the population of Egypt proper is said to have been from seven and a half to nine millions ; at the present time (1904) it is probably well over ten milHons. The population of the provinces south of Egypt, which originally belonged to her, has never been accurately ascer- tained. The country on each side of the Bahr el-Abyad is very thickly peopled: it is generally thought that the dopulation of this and the other provinces which belonged to Egypt in the time of Isma'il amounts to about ten millions 0)))))»]^ §ij; /.j((j THE ANCIENT EGVPTIANS, 1 27 Close by this tomb was another, which had been wrecked and spoiled in modern times. Among the objects found in the chambers of the larger monument were fragments of vases and vessels made of various kinds of hard stone, alabaster, etc., flint knives, ivory vases and plaques, terra-cotta vases and vessels, etc., many of which were inscribed. The large mud sealings of the wine jars bore impressions of inscribed seals, and these proved beyond a doubt that the building wherein they were found was a royal one. An examination of the tombs of less importance close by led to conclusions of a far-reaching and important character. M. de Morgan was accom- panied in his work by the eminent German Egyptologist, Prof. A. Wiedemann, and by M. Jequier, and he thus had the benefit of trained, expert opinion on philological problems, which his own profession of mathematician and civil engineer had left him no time to study exhaustively. Briefly, the conclusions arrived at after an examination of a large number of tombs of the same class as those excavated by Prof. Petrie were as follows : — (i) The people to whom the tombs belong occupied not a small portion of, but the whole valley of the Nile. (2) Their manners, customs, industries, and abilities were different from those of the Egyptians, and physically the two peoples had nothing in common. (3) The people called the " new race" by Prof. Petrie were the inhabitants of Egypt loiig before those whom we call Egyptians ; and it was from them that the Egyptians of dynastic times learned many of their industries, etc. ; in other words, the Egyptians borrowed a great deal from these their predecessors in the valley of the Nile. "La new race de M. Flinders Petrie devient done une veritable old race^ celle des aborigenes, que les Egyptiens pharaoniques rencontrerent quand ils envahirent I'Egypte " ;* in fact, the '* new race " were of * De Morgan, Recherches sur les Origiites de PEgyple, Paris, 1897. 128 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. the highest antiquity in Egypt, which they had occupied some thousands of years before the time of Menes. The graves excavated by M. de Morgan show that the dead were buried in three ways, i.e.^ with the members separated one from another, or with the complete body bent up in a position similar to that of a child before birth, or the whole body was partially burnt and then buried. Each method is different from that employed by the Egyptians, among whom every effort was made to bury the dead in as perfect a form as possible, for they believed that the con- tinuance of the future life of the dead depended upon it. In the religious texts of the Egyptians there are frequent allusions to the customs of dismemberment, and decapita- tion, and burning of the dead, which prove, if proof be needed, that such things were customary long before their time, and that the Egyptians on their arrival in Egypt adopted gradually certain of the funeral customs and beliefs of the autochthones, but considerably modified others. It has not yet been definitely decided to what race the people who were buried in such graves were related, but there are many grounds for thinking that they were either members of a tribe of the Tahennu, or Thahennu, who are often mentioned in the texts of historical kings, or were akin to them. Pictures of them show that they were people with light skins, blue eyes, and fair hair, and although in historic times the tribes certainly lived to the north-west of Lower Egypt, we know that in the Vlth dynasty they possessed settlements as far to the south as Nubia. The name commonly given to the Tahennu is " Libyans," and the known facts point to the conclusion that some tribe, or group of tribes, of the Libyans formed the autochthones of Egypt. The Libyans seem to have been conquered by a race that invaded and reduced Egypt to slavery, and when the foreign kings began to reign over Egypt the conquered people formed the inferior NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 1 29 portion of the population. It is still a subject open to debate where the invaders came from ; some think they were of Asiatic origin and entered Egypt by way of the Isthmus of Suez ; others think (with Diodorus) that they came from the south, that is to say, from Ethiopia (compare Ezekiel xxix. 14, where the home of the Egyptians is said to be Pathros, i.e., the Egyptian Pa-ta-reset cb ^ I ; ^nd others believe they made their way up or across the Red Sea to ?-"?^'^ ( -x^n, ^ P^^^ f^^ ^^ ships coming from Yaman, and across the Eastern Desert to Coptos on the Nile. But by which road they entered Egypt is, relatively, of little importance; that they came primarily from the East is beyond dispute. All the known evidence contradicts the theory that Arabia was the home of the invaders of Egypt,, and although there are many striking resemblances between the art of the statues and other objects which have been excavated at Tell Lo and other ancient sites in Southern Babylonia in recent years, and predynastic and early dynastic objects found by Messrs. de Morgan, Amelineau, and Petrie at Abydos and Nakadah, they do not in the writer's opinion prove conclusively that the invaders of Egypt and the Babylonians were of the samerace. Theculture and civilization of the Babylonians between B.C. 6000 and B.C. 2300 were derived from their Sumerian conquerors, whose method of writing, and much of their learning and literature the Babylonians adopted, modified, and then assimilated. There is no evidence to show that the invaders of Egypt were kinsfolk of the Babylonians, but there are very strong pro- babilities that the civilizations of both peoples sprang from a common stock ; what that stock was, or where the race lived, or when its cognate peoples took possession of Southern Babylonia and of Egypt, no one can at present say with certainty. I30 THE NILE. THE Hill FROM LAME VICTORIA TO THE SEA ALEXANDRIA The source of the Nile was dis covered by Captains Grant and Speke and Sir Samuel Baker, who made out that its sources are the Albert Nyanza and Victoria Ny- anza;* into the latter the Kagera River, which rises a few degrees to the south of the Equator, empties itself. Lake Victoria is situated on the Equator in the region of per- petual rains, and it is also fed by several springs and tributaries like the Kagera River. It has been asserted that the Kagera River is the true source of the Nile, but having discussed the matter with his characteristic acumen, Sir William Garstin has proved, in his last J^e- port, that the true source of the Nile is Victoria Nyanza, that the Kagera represents the united waters of three rivers, and that it can only be considered as an item, an im- portant one it is true, in the great system of streams which pour into the lake, and not as in any way influencing the discharge at the Nile outlet. Strictly speaking, the Nile is lit* • t O \ «LDLTVm formed by the junction, at 15 34 "ward * Nyanza means " Lake." IstCorofottfASWAN ZndCctQrotL/wADYHALFA tbuHamed ^ hCataract BAHRAl-CHAZ ^FUWERA THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. T3I N. lat., and 30° 30' 58" E. long., of two great tributaries called respectively the Bahr al-Azrak, i.e., the "lurid" or Blue Nile, and the Bahr al-Abyad, i.e., the "clear," or White Nile. From Lake Victoria to Khartum the distance by river is about 2,185 miles; from Khartum to Aswan is 1,130 miles ; and from Aswan to the sea about 750 miles more, so that if we include the length of any of the larger tributaries of Lake Victoria in the length of the Nile, we may say that this wonderful river is about 4,100 miles long. The White Nile is so called because of the fine, whitish clay which colours its waters. It is broader and deeper than the eastern arm, and it brings down a much larger volume of water ; the ancients appear to have regarded it as the true Nile. There can, however, be no doubt that either the Blue Nile or the Atbara is the true maker of Egypt, for during their rapid courses from the Abyssinian mountains they carry down with them all the rich mud which, during the lapse of ages, has been spread over the land. on each side of its course, and which has formed the land of Egypt. In truth, Egypt is the gift of the Blue Nile and the Atbara. Lake Victoria lies between the parallels of latitude 2' N. and 3° S., and the meridians of 31° 40' and 35° E. of Greenwich, about 3,669 feet above the sea, and is 1,459 feet higher than Lake Albert; it is 250 miles long, 200 miles wide, and its area is 68,000 squire kilometres. Wnen the river leaves the lake it is about 1,300 feet wide -^ at the Ripon Falls it drops about 13 feet. Between the Victoria andJ^Albert Lakes, a distance of 255 miles, the White Nile, known here as the "Somerset," passes through a number of swamps, and then flows into I * I am indebted for a number of the facts here givjn to Mr. Willcocks' 1 eKhau5tive work, ''^ Egyptiati Irrigation y"' London, 1899, p. 27 ft". I K 2 I 132 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYP'l. the N.E. corner of Lake^Albert; from Lake Albert it flows in a braad, deep, and almost level stream for a distance of 125 miles to the Fola Falls, a little to the north of Dufile, at which point the river is nearly 300 feet wide, and becomes almost a torrent. Flowing on to Lado, about 125 miles from Dufile, the river becomes only 6^ feet deep in the winter at low water, and 15 feet in flood. From Lado to Bohr, a distance of about 75 miles, the river has a rapid fall and keeps to one channel, but from Bohr, to the mouth of the Bahr al-Ghazal (a^^distance of about 235 miles), the stream passes through many channels. From Victoria Nyanza'to this point the river is called by the natives " Bahr al-Gebel," and from Lake No, where it joins the BahE al-Ghazal to Kharttjm, it is known as "Bahr al-Abyad." Here are the large masses of living vegetation which are commonly called " Sudd," and which form ahiiost insuperable barriers 'to navigation. The Bahr al-Ghazal flows into the Nile on its west bank, and 60 miles further on the Sobat (or Sawbat) River flows into it from the east or right bank. From the latter river to Khartiim, a distance of about 560 miles, the White Nile flows slowly in a stream about 6j feet deep, and considerably more than a mile wide. At Kharttim, where the Blue Nile from Abyssinia joins the White Nile, the river is about 1,270 feet above sea-level. The Blue Nile, whi'ch is about 840 miles long, is almost clear in winter, but from June to October its water is of a reddish-brown colour, and is highly charged with alluvium. The greenish colour which is sometimes observed in the Nile far to the north is due to the decaying vegetation which is brought down by the White Nile. About 56 miles below Khartum is the Sixth Cataract, and 145 miles lower down the river Atbara t^ows into the Nile on the east or right bank. The Atbara rises in the Abyssinian mountains, and its w^aters bring down with THE CATARACTS ON THE NILE. 133 Sketch showing the height of the Nile above meaa sea-level at diflferent pjints of its course. ROSETTA CAIRO ASYUT LUXOR them a large quantity of volcanic dust, which is an excellent fertilizing element ; after the Atbara the Nile on its journey north re- ceives no other tributary. About 32 miles below the Atbara is the Fifth Cata- ract, which is over too miles in length ; between the southern and the northern end the Nile drops about 205 feet. About 60 miles lower down begins the Fourth Cata- ract, which is 66 miles long ; between the southern and the northern end the . Nile drops 1 60 feet. About 195 miles lower down be- gins the Third Cataract, which is 45 miles long ; between the southern and the northern end the river ■drops ^6 feet. The Second Cataract begins about 70 miles lower down; it is 125 miles long, and between its two ends the river drops about 213 feet. At Semnah, which is rather more than 35 miles south of Wadi Haifa, are the rocks where the late Dr. Lepsius discovered the gauges which were "cut by orJer of the kings of the Xllth dynasty, about b.c. 2300, and these show that the Nile lASWAN- FIRST CATARACTAbout 600 miles from . CAIRO and about JoS feet above mean sea level ,mQ\ HAIFA About 930 miles from the sea VSSECOND CATARACT and about 416 feet ^ ^ above meonsea leva t>THIRD CATARACT . OONCOLA x\>FOURTH CATARACT ^ V"> FIFTH CATARACT 1 ATBARA RIVER >SIXTH XATARApT ,, ^.^ I KHARTUM Junction of White andBlufc . Niles about 1800 miles from tl the sea and about 1270 feet above mean sea level P^FASHOOA Sobat Bivtr (east bank) GAZELLE RIVER (west bank) ' IBOR or b6hR About rjoomiles from the sea FOLA FALLS DUFFILE •lAI^ ALBERT, about s35omilesfromthe sea and 2250 feet above mean sea level. ■RIPON FALLS LAKEVICTORlA.obout aiOOmilo from the 8«a,and3675f(Ct dbovt mean tea Uvct 134 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. flood recorded there was 26 feet higher than any flood of to-day. The eminent irrigation authority, Sir W. Willcocks, thinks that the Nile could very easily be barred by a dam at Semnah, and it is possible that Amen-em-hat III. tried to build one there in the hope of forming a reservoir. The distance between the Second and First Cataract is about 210 miles, and the stream is usually about 1,630 feet wide. The First Cataract is about three miles long, and be- tween Philae at the southern end, and Aswan at the northern end the river drops over 16 feet. From Aswan to the Barrage, a little to the north of Cairo, the length of the river is about 600 miles, and its mean width is 3,000 feet. The ancient Egyptians kept careful record of the height of the Nile in flood, and numbers of ancient Nilometers have been found, e.g., at Philae, Elephantine, Edfu, Esna, Karnak, etc., from the readings of which it is possible to determine the rate of the rise of the bed of the Nile. According to a calculation quoted by Sir W. Willcocks, tetween a.d. 200 and a.d. 1800 the banks and bed of the Nile have risen 2*11 metres, or 0*132 metre per 100 years. When the famous Nilometer on the Island of Roda was constructed, a reading of t6 cubits meant the lowest level at which flood irrigation could be ensured everywhere. The level of to-day is 20^ cubits on the Nilometer, and the difference between them is 1*22 metre; according to these data the rise is 12 centimetres per ICO years (Willcocks, op. cit., p. 32). A little to the north of Cairo the Nile splits up into the Rosetta and Damietta branches, each of which is about 140 miles long; the mean width of the former branch is 1,630 feet, and that of the latter, 870 feet. In ancient days the Nile emptied its waters into the sea by seven mouths, viz., the Pelusiac, Tanitic, Mendesian, Phatnitic, Seben- nytic Bolbitic, and the Canopic. In flood time the waters of the Nile take 50 days to flow from Lake Victoria to the THE INUNDATION OF THE NILE. I35 sea, and at low water 90 days : — From Lake Victoria to Lake Albert 8 days, Lake Albert to Lado 5 days, Lado to Khartum 20 days, Khartum to Aswan 10 days, Aswan to Cairo 5 days, Cairo to the sea 2 days ; at low water the times are 8, 5, 36, 26, 12 and 3 days respectively. The width of the Nile valley varies from 4 to 10 miles in Nubia, and from 15 to 30 in Egypt. The width of the strip of cultivated land on each bank in Nubia is sometimes only a few feet, and even in Egypt proper, when taken together, it is never more than 8 or 9 miles. The Delta is, in its widest part, about 90 miles across from east to west, and the distance of the apex from the sea is also 90 miles. The Nile drains an area of 3,110,000 square kilometres. The inundation is caused by the rains which fall in the country round about Lake Victoria and in the Abyssinian mountains; in the former the rainy season- lasts from February to November, with one maximum in April and another in October, and in the latter there are light rains in January and February, and heavy rains from the middle of April to September, with a maximum in August. In April the heavy rains near Lado force down the green water of the swamps, and about April 15 the Nile has begun to rise at this place ; this rise is felt at Khartum about May 20, and at Aswan about June 10, and the green water announcing this rise is seen at Cairo about June 20. About June 5 the Blue Nile begins to rise quickly, and it reaches its ordinary maximum by August 25 ; its red, muddy water reaches Aswan about July 15, and Cairo 10 days later. When once the red water has appeared the rise of the Nile is rapid, for the Atbara is in flood shortly after the Blue Nile ; the Atbara flood begins early in July and is at its highest about August 20. The Nile continues to rise until the middle of September, when it remains stationary for a period of about three weeks, sometimes a little less. In October it rises again, and attains its highest 136 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. level. From this period it begins to subside, and, though it rises yet once more, and reaches occasionally its former highest point, it sinks steadily until the month of June, when it is again at its lowest level. Thus it is clear that the Sobat, Blue Nile, and Atbara rivers supply the waters of the inundation, and that the White Nile supplies Egypt for the rest of the year. The ordinary maximum discharge of the Nile at Aswan is 10,000 cubic metres per second, and the ordinary minimum discharge 410 cubic metres per second; the ordinary maximum discharge at Cairo is 7,600 cubic metres per second, and the ordinary minimum dis- charge 380 cubic metres per second. "V The irrigation of Egypt is gauged by the height of the river at Aswan. When the maximum rise of the river is only 21 feet there will be famine in parts of Upper Egypt ; when the rise is between 21 and 23 feet much of the land of Upper Egypt will be imperfectly watered ; when the rise is between 23 feet 6 inches and 25 feet certain lands will only be watered with difficulty ; when the rise is between 25 feet and 26 feet 6 inches the whole country can be watered; when the rise is between 26 feet 6 inches and 28 feet the country will be flooded ; and any rise beyond the last figure will spell misety and the ruin of many. The 5lope of water surface of the Nile is in summer tt^o oj ^^^ in flood y-jj lo^ ; the cubic contents of the trough of the Nile between Aswan and Cairo are 7,000,000,000 cubic metres; direct irrigation between these places takes 50 cubic metres per second, evaporation 130, and absorption 400. The amount of water discharged by the Nile into the sea is 65,000,000,000 cubic metres per annum, and in an average year the amount of solid matter carried by the Nile to the sea is 36,600,000 tons. The above facts and figures will probably need some modification as the result of the con- struction of the Aswan Dam, and also in the light of Sir William Garstin's Report^ pubHshed in August, 1904. FORCED LABOUR ON THE NILE. I37 The dykes, or embankments, which kept the waters of the Nile in check, and regulated their distribution over the lands, were in Pharaonic days maintained in a state of efificiency by public funds, and, in the time of the Romans, any person found destroying a dyke was either condemned to hard labour in the public works or mines, or to be branded and sent to one of the Oases. If we accept the statements of Strabo, we may believe that the ancient system of irriga- tion was so perfect that the varying height of the inundation caused but little inconvenience to the inhabitants of Egypt, as far as the results of agricultural labours were concerned, though an unusually high Nile would of course wash away whole villages and drown much cattle. If the statements made by ancient writers be compared with facts ascertained in modern times, it will be seen that the actual height of the inun- dation is the same now as it always was, and that it miintains the same proportion to the land it irrigates. From what has been said above it will be evident that the Nile is the chief physical characteristic of Egypt, and as such it has excited the surprise, wonder, admiration, and reverence of countless generations of men. Without it Egypt would have been a desert, and uninhabitable to any but nomad tribes ; it has always formed the water supply of the whole country, and the existence of men and animals has depended entirely upon the existence of the river in all ages. The Nile was and is the highway of Egypt, and to it the Egyptians have always owed their wealth and prosperity, and their importance as owners of a great corn producing country among the peoples of the ancient world. In the earliest times the rulers of Egypt gave their deepest attention to the irrigation of the country, and no efforts were spared to obtain the best agricultural results by means of canals and embankments. It seems that each village or city or district was responsible for the maintenance of its river banks in good order, but details as to the way in which the work was carried out are wanting. 138 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS I>7 EGYPT. Under despotic rulers the banks must always have been maintained by forced labour, and the cutting and cleaning of the canals and reservoirs were, of course, carried out by the same means. So long as everyone was made to take a share in such labour the hardship was not great, for all were interested in the irrigation of the country, but it will be readily seen that under a despotic government or a corrupt administration certain individuals would be exempted from the performance of such labour at the expense of the other members of the community. Also, forced labour gangs would, by bribing the officials, be made to do work which ought to be done at the expense of private individuals, and members of such gangs who had no friends or influence among the official classes would be kept at forced labour practically the whole year round. Whatever may have happened in early times, this was certainly the case in Egypt until the British began to gain power, and all the work done in connexion with the cleaning of canals, and the protecting of the banks during the inundation, and the strengthening of the dykes, was done by forced labour or corvee. Said Pasha used the corvee in making the Suez Canal, and Isma'il Pasha boldly used it in digging a canal in Upper Egypt, the chief object of which was to water his own private estates. The high officials exempted their own tenants and co-religionists from the corvee, and made the wretched fellaJnn do the work for them. The corvee had to work for nine months of the year, and they had to provide spades, and baskets, and food ; their place of abode was changed almost daily, and they had to sleep on the ground. During the inundation they had to live on the river bank, and to provide the materials for the protection of the bank on each side of the Nile. Every male between 15 and 50 years of age was liable to serve in the corvee, and each quarter of the male population was expected to serve for 45 days during the FORCED LABOUR ON THE NILE. I39 summer. In 1881 nearly one-half of the men who were liable had succeeded in freeing themselves from their duty. In a decree dated January 25, 188 1 (see the text in Will- cocks, op, cit., p. 402), the terms on which certain privileged classes could redeem their tenants from the corvee are set forth, but as no penalties were laid down for those who neither sent men nor paid the redemption tax, every man of any position freed himself from the liability, and the whole of the forced labour fell on the poorer classes. In 1885 Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) approved of an advance of ^30,000, with the view of trying to substitute hand labour by contract for the corvee, and the experiment was a success. A year later, a quarter of a million was granted towards the relief of the corvee, ard for the first time in Egyptian history, the State paid towards the upkeep of the canals and river banks of the country. The total relief of the earthwork maintenance corvee costs the State ;£420,ooo a year. In December, 1889, the corvee was abolished as far as the clearance of canals and repairs of banks was concerned, and the Public Works Department undertook to do all the repairs ; but the corvee for the pro- tection of the Nile banks during the inundation could not be abolished, and a certain number of men have to be called out each year. In 1899 the Nile was abnormally low, and it in many respects resembled that of 1888; in 1899, however, only 10,079 were called out per 100 days, (which is the lowest number on record), while in 1888 the number was 58,788 men per 100 days (Cromer, Report^ Egypt No. I (1900), p. 19). The abolition of the earthworks corvee is due entirely to the exertions of Lord Cromer and the officials of the Irrigation Department, who have toiled unceasingly for years to remove an infamous burden from the shoulders of the men who were the least able to bear it. Sir Samuel Baker {Albert Nyanza, vol. ii. p. 331) and 140 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. many other travellers have described the masses of vegeta- tion, both living and dead, which in parts of the White Nile, e.g., Bahr al-Ghazal, completely obstruct the fairway of the river. These masses, or blocks of sudd"^ as they are called, are often of very considerable length, and where they exist the river becomes practically a mere swamp. Sir Samuel describes one which was three-quarters of a mile wide ; it was perfectly firm, and was already overgrown with high reeds and grass. The graves of the people who had died of the plague were actually upon it. When the Nile stream approached this vegetable, dam it plunged beneath it by a subterranean channel with a rush like a cataract. From time to time these dams are added to by small islands of vegetation, which drift down upon them, and trees and dead crocodiles, and hippopotami, help to make the mass more dense. Sudd is met with between Shambe (lat. 7° 5' 53" north) and the Sobat River (lat. 9° 22' 8" north), or a distance of 250 miles, and on the White Nile between Lake No and the Sobat. River. See " Report on the Soudan," by Sir W. Garstin, K.C.M.G., London, 1899. With the view of opening the White Nile to navigation, the Egyptian Government, in 1899, voted the sum of ^E. 10,000 for cutting the sudd between Lake No and Shambe, and a party of 700 men, 4 officers, with 4 steamers, left Omdurman in December, 1899, to carry out the work. The blocks of sudd were nine in number. The grass and dry vegetation upon them were set fire to, and when they were burnt, the blocks were cut gradually into sections, each of which had to be towed away by a steamer, by means of a steel hawser. The sudd cutting party was under the command of Major Peake, who, according to a telegram of May 17th, from Cairo, stated that the White Nile was then clear as far as Bedden, and that Sir W. * Arab. Juc sadd, or S*^ sudd; plural JiJ^*-:^. THE BARRAGES ON THE NILE. I4I Garstin's orders had been effectively carried out. When the sudd was removed, a vast amount of stagnant water was set free, and as a result the fish died in large numbers in the lower reaches of the river. In 1901, Lieut. Drury freed the sudd north of Shaba Shambe, and further operations connected with the clearance of the river were carried out by Major Matthews in 1902, and Lieut. Drury and Mr. Poole in 1903. The Barrage or Barrages. From time immemorial the Nile has been allowed to water the land of Egypt according to its own will and pleasure, and there are no records to show that any ruler of Egypt seriously undertook to regulate the supply of water to the cultivable lands by means of dams or reservoirs. The river has been allowed to waste itself for thousands of years, and it w^as not until the present century that any attempt was made to keep the Nile and its branches within bounds. It is recorded by Clot Bey (Willcocks, op. cit.^ p. 257 ; R. H. Brown, History of the Barrage^ p. i ; Milner, England in Egypt, p. 239) that Napoleon 1. saw the necessity of some means of regulating the supply of water to the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile, with the view of letting the -whole of it flow- first down one branch and then down the other, thus doubling the effect of the inundation in flood. In 1833 Muhammad 'Ali blocked the head of the Rosetta branch with a stone dam, which made the Nile stream flow into the Damietta branch, wherefrom all the large canals in the Delta drew their supply. Linant' Pasha, seeing the serious effect which would be produced upon Alexandria and the Eastern Delta if this action were continued, remonstiated with his master, and proposed as an alternative the construction of a Barrage acioss the head of each branch, about six miles below the bifurcation of the river. This proposal was approved by Muhammad 'Ali, and when informed by Linant Pasha of the amount of stone, etc.. 142 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. which would be required, promptly ordered it to be taken from the Pyramids, and only reUnquished this plan when it was proved to him that stone could be got at a cheaper rate from the quarries at Cairo. The work was begun in 1833, ^^^ was continued until 1835, but towards the end of this year it was carried on with less vigour, and soon after it was entirely stopped. For seven years the old system of clearing out the canals by the corvee was revived, and nothing more was done. In 1842 Mougel, a French engineer, proposed a system of Barrages, to which was united a series of fortifications which were to be built at the bifurcation of the river, and the idea pleased Muhammad 'Ali, who ordered the work to be undertaken at once. The Damietta Barrage was begun in 1843, and the Rosetta Barrage in 1847. The work was hurried on so fast that it was badly done, and the disrepute into which Mougel's magnificent scheme fell in later years was due to his master's impatience and interference with his plans. Muhammed *Ali insisted that so many tons of con- crete should be poured each day into the foundations, whether the river was flowing over them or not ; as a result the water washed out the lime and cement, and the stones were thus left without proper binding material. In 1853, the new Viceroy, 'Abbas Pasha, dismissed Mougel, being dissatisfied with the rate of progress made, and Mazhar Bey was ordered to finish the Barrages on Mougel's plans. Commissions sat on the matter, and although the defects of the work already done were well known, no attempt was made to remedy them, and the Barrages were finished in 186 1. They had cost ^1,800,000, exclusive of the corvee, and the fortifications, etc., cost ;£"2, 000,000 more. These works form the famous " Barrage," which lies about fourteen miles to the north of Cairo; the Rosetta Barrage has 61 arches and two locks, and is about 1,512 feet long ; the Damietta Barrage la^ 61 arches (originally FAILURE OF THE BARRAGE. I43 71) and two locks, and is about 1,730 feet long. In 1863 the gates of the Rosetta Barrage were closed, so that more water might be turned into the Damietta branch, and cracks promptly appeared in the structure. In 1867 ten openings or arches of the Rosetta Barrage separated themselves from the rest of the work, and moved out of their places. In 1876, Mr. (the late Sir) John Fowler reported on the Bar- rage, and he proved that the floor and foundations were cracked, that the latter were too shallow, and that ;^i, 200,000 would have to be spent to make the work fit for any useful purpose; General Rundall, R.E., also reported on the Barrage, and estimated that it could be made serviceable for ;^5oo,ooo, and described how the repairs were to be carried out."*^ Finally, in 1883, Rousseau Pasha, Director General of Public Works, declared that the Barrage could only be used as a distributor of the river discharge between the two branches, and that to make it fit for this purpose it would be necessary to spend about ;2^4oo,ooo upon it. With the failure of the Barrage to do its work, the supply of water in the canals naturally failed, and the Egyptian Govern- ment had to pay a Company ;j^2 6,ooo per annum to pump water into one canal only ; and when Sir Colin Scott-Mon- crieff, in 1883, came to Egypt, ministers were solemnly thinking of adopting a scheme for pumping water into all the canals in the Delta. The engines were to cost ^""E.700,000, and the annual cost was to be about ;^25o,ooo ; and "the Egyptian Government was actually on the verge of trying to //// the whole river" (Milner, op, cit., p. 242). The English ministers set aside this scheme at once, and directed Mr. (now Sir) W. Willcocks to test the capacity of the Barrage and its power to hold up water. These instruc- * Major IT. Brown {oJ>. cit., p. 94) says "the manner of restoring the Barrage as recommended by General Rundall is very nearly that which was actually adopted, and further, the cost of the restoration was corrjctly estimated." 144 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. tions were carried out, and it was found that pans of the structure had not been finished, and that the Damietta section had never been provided wnth gates. At the cost of about ^26,000 he effected such important repairs, that he was able to hold up water to the depth of nearly four feet more than had ever been possible before, and the cotton crop in 1884 amounted to 3,630,000 kantars (i kantar = ioi;|^ lbs.), as against that of 1879, at that time the highest known, which amounted to 3,186,600 kantars. The work was a great triumph, and Mr, Willcocks continued his experiments in 1885 with even greater success. It now became possible to consider the systematic repair of the Barrage, and the complete restoration of this fine work was begun in 1886, and finished at a cost of about ;^47 2,000 in 1891, at which time itw^as able to hold up a head of about 13 feet of water. Thus Mougel's Barrage was made a success, and it would be difficult to describe the greatness of the benefit which the English officials conferred upon Egypt by making it perform the work intended. Now during the years while the Barrage was an object of ridicule, the position of Mougel Bey went from bad to worse, and at length he became extremely poor and was forgotten ; the Egyptian Government visited upon him the sins of Muhammad 'Ali, who had made the Barrage a failure by his haste and impatience, and had left him unprovided for, and the French Government had done nothing for him. At the moment when Sir Colin Moncrieff was planning the restoration of the Barrage, the poor old man, broken down by grief and semi-starvation, was brought to his notice, and he left no stone unturned until the Egyptian Government bestowed an adequate pension upon him, and lifted him out of the reach of want. But although the Barrage is doing splendid work, it does not even now store all the water which is required for the cotton and other crops in the summer throughout REPAIR OF THE BARRAGE. T45 Egypt, not to mention the water which is necessary for new plantations. This fact has been borne in mind for many years past, and Sir WiUiam Garstin and Sir W. Willcocks have been giving their most earnest attention to the finding of some means whereby the lands which are at present waste may be brought under cultivation. Speaking broadly, the cultivated land in Egypt is now producing nearly all it is capable of, and as the revenue of the country depends upon agricultural prosperity, little more revenue is to be expected until more land is brought under irrigation. As Lord Milner says, "In Egypt prosperity and water go hand in hand." After much thought the English engineers of the Irrigation Department decided that the only way to provide more water, and so increase the revenue, was- to build a huge reservoir, preferably at Aswan. Statistics pre- pared by Sir W. Willcocks {pp. cit.^ p. 428), show that about one-third of the land in Egypt is undeveloped, that nearly the whole of this undeveloped land lies in the perennially irrigated tracts, and that the summer supply of water is not sufficient for perennial irrigation. There are about 2,000,000 acres of waste land in Egypt, and to redeem these and water all the cultivable land, 6,000,000,000 cubic metres of water will be required. The proposal to build the Aswan Reservoir was opposed violently by certain irresponsible archceologists, because, they declared, according to the original plans, the beautiful temple at Philse would be submerged annually, and finally would be destroyed by the water. Instead of holding up the water at a level of 114 metres above mean sea level, Sir W. Garstin reduced the level to 106 metres, which satisfied most people ; but Sir W. Willcocks thinks (p. 437) that " this action of the archaeologists has hurt the reservoir and will not in the end save the temple." After some difii- culties as to ways and means, Messrs. Aird and Co. signed a contract with the Egyptian Government, undertaking to L 146 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. build the Aswan Dam and supplementary works for the sum of ^2,000,000; the works were to be completed in 1903, and Messrs. Aird were to receive no payment until that date, when the debt was to be paid off in 30 half-yearly annuities of ;£^78,6i3. The canals and drains, which form an important part of the scheme, were to be made within the five years in which Messrs. Aird were building the dam, and were to cost about ;^ 2, 000, 000 sterling more. It was calcu- lated that the revenues of the country would be increased by about ;£^2, 750,000 when the works were completed, and while they were in progress Egypt paid nothing. The actual cost of the Aswan Dam and the Asyut Barrage was ^E.3,439,864. The Aswan Dam stands in the First Cataract, a few miles south of x\swan. It is designed to hold up water to a level of 106 metres above mean sea level, or rather more than 20 metres above the low- water level of the Nile at site. Its total length is 2,185 yards, with a width at crest of 2 6 "4 feet. The width of the base at the deepest portion is 90 feet, and the height of the work at the deepest spot is 100 feet. The dam is pierced by 180 openings, or under-sluices, of which 140 are 23 'i feet by 6*6 feet, and 40 are 18*2 feet by 6'6 feet, provided with gates. Four locks have been built, and a navigation channel made on the west of the river. It has been decided to raise the Aswan Dam, and when this has been done the water will be held up to a height of 1 1 2 metres, instead of 106 metres as at present. The Asyut Dam is what is called an open Barrage, and consists of III bays or openings, each 16 feet 5 ins. wide, and each bay is provided with regulating gates. The total length of the work is 2,691 feet, and a lock has been built on the west bank, large enough to pass the largest tourist boat plying on the river. Both works were begun by Messrs. Aird in 1898. THE NILES OF ANCIEN' EGYPT. 147 The ancient Egyptians called the Nile Hap, or Hapi and the Arabs call it " Bahr," which is D \\ applied to any large mass of natural water, whether sea, lake, or river. As the Egyp- tians divided their country into north and south, even so they conceived the existence of two Niles, which they called " Hap reset LJ /vsr^A/VA /»^> ® the "South Nile,"and"Hap mehet " /VWVVA —. A^AAAA , LJ /VWVNA 'r the ''North Nile." Both Niles were represented by men bearing upon their heads, the plant which was characteristic of the region through which that Nile flowed ; thus W, the papy- rus plant, represented the country of the south where the papyrus grew, and mT, the lotus plant, typified the country of the north, i.e.^ the Delta, where the lotus grew. The god of one Nile was coloured red and the god of the other a greenish-blue; it has been thought that these colours of the waters of the Nile after and The Source of the Nile at Philce. (From Rosellini.) have reference to the colour in- before the L 2 148 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. undation. The ancient Egyptians seem to have had no knowledge .of the source of the Nile, and in late times it was thought that the river sprang out of the ground between two mountains which lay between the Island of Elephantine and Philae. Herodotus tells us that these mountains were called K/>w0< and Maj0/, in which some have sought to identify the Egyptian words Qer-Hapi A "i]-Q J]E /\AAAAy\ _, \ > AA/W\A ' LJ \\ N\N^f^ and Mu-Hapi A U \\ r^f\N^/^ In the temple at Philce is a veiy interesting relief in which an attempt is made to depict the source of the Nile of the South. Here we see a huge mass of rocks piled one upon the other, and standing on the top of them arc a vulture and a hawk ; beneath the mass of rocks is a serpent, within the coil of which kneels the Nile god of the South with a cluster of papyrus plants upon his head. In his hand he holds two vases, out of which he is pouring water. The reverence paid to the Nile was very great from the earliest period, for the Egyptians recognized that their health, happiness, and The Nile god pouring water over the soul of Osiris. (From Rosellini.) THE NILRS OF ANCIENT ECVPT, 1 49 wealth depended upon its waters. The god of the Nile was addressed as the " Father of the gods," and we are told in a hymn that if he were to fail, ''the gods would fall down headlong, and men would perish " ; his majesty was considered to be so great that it is said of him, " he cannot be sculptured in stone ; he is not to be seen in the statues on which are set the crowns of the South and of the North ; neither service nor oblations can be offered unto him in person ; and he cannot be brought forth from his secret habitations ; the place where he dwelleth is unknown ; he is not to be found in the shrines whereon are inscriptions ; no habitation is large enough to hold him ; and he cannot be imagined by thee in thy heart." This extract is sufficient to show that the Egyptians ascribed to the god of the Nile many of the attributes of God. Among the festivals of the ancient Egyptians that which was celebrated in honour of the Nile was of prime import- ance. It was beheved that unless the prescribed ceremonies were performed at the right season, in the proper manner, by a duly qualified person or persons, the Nile would refuse to rise and water their lands. The festival was celebrated by all classes with the greatest honour and magnificence when the river began to rise at the summer solstice, and the rejoicings were proportionate to the height of the rise. Statues of the Nile-god were carried about through the towns and villages, so that all men might honour him and pray to him. The ancient Egyptian festival finds its equiva- lent among the Muhammadans in that which was formerly celebrated with great care by them on the nth day of the Coptic month Paoni, />., June 17, and is called Letet al-Nukta, or the " Night of the Drop," because it is believed that a miraculous drop then falls into the Nile and causes its rise. The astrologers and soothsayers pretend to be able to state the exact moment when the drop is to 150 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. fall. Many of the Egyptians spent this night in the open air, usually on the banks of the Nile, and Mr. Lane says {Modern Eg}'pfta?iSy vol. II., p. 224) that the women observe a curious custom. After sunset they place as many lumps of dough on the terrace as there are persons in the house, and each person puts his or her mark upon one of them ; on the following morning each looks at the \\xm]) of dough upon which he set his mark the evening before, and if any lump be found to be cracked, it is held to be a sign that the life of the person whom it represents will soon come to an end. About a fortnight later, criers begin to go about in the streets and proclaim the height of the daily rise of the river, each being usually accom- panied by a boy; they are listened to with respect, but no one believes the statements they make about the height of the rise. The criers converse with the boys that are with them, and invoke blessings upon the houses of the people before which they stand, the object being, of course, that alms may be given to them. A little before the middle of August, the criers, accompanied by little boys carrying coloured flags, announce the "Completion of the Nile," i.e., that the water reaches to the mark of the i6th cubit on the Nilometer. According to an old law the land tax cannot be exacted until the Nile rises to this height, and it is said that in old days the Government officials used to deceive the people regularly as to the height of the Nile, and demanded the tax when it was not due. The day after this announcement is made, the Cutting of the Dam at Fum al-Khalig, in Cairo, takes place. This dam was made yearly near the mouth of the Khalig Canal, and the top of it rose to the height of about 22 or 23 feet above the level of the Nile at its lowest ; a short distance in front of the dam was heaped up a conical mound of earth called the arma or "bride," in allusion to the young virgin who, in ancient days, was cast into the nver as a sacrifice, in order TOWNS AND VITXAGES ON THE NILE. 51 to obtain a plentiful inundation. This mound was always washed away before the dam was cut. At sunrise, on the day following the " completion " of the Nile, the thickness of the dam was thinned by workmen, and at length a boat was rowed against it, and breaking the dam passed through with the current. The ceremony attracted large crowds, and w^as usually accompanied by singing, dancing and fireworks. The Khalig Canal has been filled up, and the festival has lost most of its picturesqueness. Between Wadi Haifa and Cairo there are, on the right bank of the Nile, 312 towns and villages, and the cultivated land amounts to 381,000 feddans ;* between the same limits, on the left bank, are 1,058 towns and villages with 1,638,000 feddans of cultivated land. The province of the Fayyilm contains 85 towns and villages, with 328,000 feddans of cultivated land ; the whole Delta contains 847 towns and villages, with 1,430,000 feddans; east of the Delta are 1,017 towns and villages, with 1,271,000 feddans; west of the Delta are 367 towns and villages, with 601,000 feddans ; the Isthmus of Suez contains 6 towns and villages, with 1,000 feddans. Egypt contains an amount of land suitable for cultivation which is equal to about 8,000,000 feddans, or 33,607 square kilometres, or 12,976 square miles. The cultivated area of Egypt is about 5,650,000 feddans, or 23,735 square kilometres, the proportion for Lower and Upper Egypt being 3,303,000 feddans, with a population of 5,675,109 inhabitants, and 2,347,000 feddans, with a population of 4,058,296 inhabitants. That is to say, for every 127 inhabitants there are 100 feddans of cultivated land. According to Sir W. Willcocks {Egyptian * Thefadddn ox fedddn, Arab, j^l Jo is the amount of land which a 'pair of oxen can plough in a day. The feddan contains 4,200 square metres, or about 5,082 square yards, and = rather less than one and one-fortieth part of an acre. 152 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Irrigation, p. 17) the summer crops for the whole of Egypt cover 2,046,500 acres, and yield ^15,177,500; the flood crops cover 1,510,000 acres, and yield ;^6,87o, 000; and the winter crops cover 4,260,000 acres, and yield ;£"i 7,01 3,000 ; the whole area of 5,750,000 acres has a gross yield of y^39,o6o,5oo, or £-] per acre. (g ^ >>>>)>)] ^ - ^r<<<<<<<:^ 153 THE OASES. In connection with the Nile may be fittingly mentioned the Oases, for it is probable that, in addition to the springs which are found in these natural depressions in the desert, a quantity of water finds its way to them by underground channels from the Nile. The Egyptian for an oasis was "1 ut, or perhaps uahet ; from this was derived the Coptic OT^.^e, and the Arabic J\j (plur. lzj\^\j). In Ptolemaic times seven oases were enumerated,"'^ and their hieroglyphic names are as follows : — - Kenemet ^/ws "^ '^ , or 1 A^ U^-res " Osisis of the South." 2. TCHESTCHESET ]) )) ^''==>>- ^ ^ -?. Ta-ahet =^^^ 4. Ut-Meht ^^^^ ""^ " Oasis of the North." i:^ I ^ © ^ ^ 5. SEKHET-AMIT|14^f (jl]"!)!) 6. Ut 7. Sekhet-hemam J[ j .\ L 000 I. The Oasis of Kenemet is called to-day Al- Kharga, and lies almost due west of the town of Esna, at a distance of about four days' journey ; it is best known by the name of the *' Great Oasis." Population in 1897, 7,200. The name "Oasis of the South" was given to it to distinguish it from the " Oasis of the North." The ancient name of the chief town was Hebt, [^ y , and the principal object of interest in the * The texts are given by Dumichen in Die Oasen der Libyschen Wiiste ; Strasshurg, 1877. T54 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Oasis is the ruined ancient Egyptian temple, wherein the god Amen-Ra was worshipped. The temple was founded by Darius I. Hystaspes (b.c. 521-486), and finished by Darius II. Nothus (b.c. 425-405), and restored by Nectanebus I. (b.c. 378-360), the first king of the XXXth dynasty. The scenes on the walls represent these kings making offerings and adoring a number of the great gods and goddesses of Egypt, e.g., Amen-Ra, Mut, Temu, Uatchit, Menthu, Ra- Harmachis, Khensu, Khnemu, Isis, Osiris, Anher-Shu, Nephthys, etc. Among the inscriptions worthy of special interest are the famous Hymn to the Sun-god which was inscribed on the walls of a small chamber in the temple, and a text written in the so-called enigmatical writing. It is interesting to note too the rare prenomen [ O g p ] Settu-Ra, which is here applied to one of the Darius kings (Brugsch, Reise, pi, VIII.). In other parts of the Oasis are a number of ruins of Roman and Christian buildings, and, as political offenders were banished there by the various rulers of Egypt, and Christians fled there for refuge, this is not to be wondered at ; the ruins of a Roman fort suggest that the Oasis was used for garrison purposes at one period. 2. The Oasis of Tchestcheset is called to-day Dakhel, and lies to the west of Al-Kharga, at a distance of about four days' journey ; it is best known by the name of Oasis Minor. Population in 1897, 17,090. The chief town oftl;iis Oasis was called r ^ Auset Aahet, " the seat of the Moon- god," and the principal object of worship was the god Amen- Ra, [] fQ I ^:37 ^^=^ °^^^ " Amen-Ra, lord of the country of the Moon.'' The ruins prove that the temple was founded and restored by Titus and other Roman Emperors. 3. The Oasis of Farafra lies to the north-west of the Great Oasis, and there seems to be little doubt that it THE OASES. 155 represents the Ta-ahet of the Egyptian texts ; it hes about half-way between the Oasis of Bahriyah and Dakhel. Population, 1897, 542. The god worshipped there was 1 1 n 1 1 I called "^^ (I Amsu-Amen. /\A/NAAA 4. The Oasis of Bahriyah lies to the north-east of the Oases of Farafra and Dakhel, at a distance of about four days' journey from the Fayyilm. The ruins there belong chiefly to the Roman period. The Arabic name " Northern Oasis" seems to be a translation of its old Egyptian name, "Oasis of the North." Population in 1897, 6,082. 5. The Oasis of Siwa, better known by the name of the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon,is the most northerly of all the Oases, and lies west of Cairo at a distance of about sixteen days' journey. Population in 1897, 5,200. The god worshipped there was Amen-Ra. The name given to it by the Egyptians, Sekhet-Amit, means the "field of the palm trees," and the many thousands of loads of dates which are exported annually justify the selection of this name. In very early times a temple dedicated to the god Ammon or Amen stood here, and the reputation of its priests was so wide-spread that it tempted Alexander the Great to visit it in order that he might consult the famous oracle. Christianity is said to have been preached in this oasis by one of the Apostles. 6. The Oasis. This oasis has not been identified, but it lay most probably at no great distance from the Oasis of Siwa, and it may have formed part of the Sekhet-Amit. Diimichen suggests {op. cit., p. 33) that it may be the Oasis of Araj, which is a journey of two days from Siwa. 7. Sekhet-hemam, or the " Salt-field," is no doubt to be identified with the Wadi Nairiln or Natron Valley. The determinative of the word for oasis in Egyptian (rjv)) indicates that the inhabitants of the oases were not Egyp- tians, but it is quite certain that as early as the time of Thothmes III. the inhabitants paid tribute to the kings of Egypt. Rameses the Great kept a numljer of troops 156 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Stationed in the largest of the oases, and it is probably from the officers and soldiers who went there from Egypt, that the inhabitants learned to know and worship Egyptian gods. Between, the oases and Egypt there must have been a very considerable trade, for the wine of Kenem, and the dates of Sekhet-Amit, and the salt of Sekhet-hemam, were famous throughout the Nile Valley of Egypt. 157 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDING SCULPTURE, PAINTING, ETC. The oldest buildings in Egypt are Tombs, and whether large or small they reflect in every age the religious ideas of those who built them. The excavations made in recent years show that the Egyptian tomb in the first instance was an oval hollow, either dug in the sand, or roughly cut in the hmestone, and when the body had been laid therein, it was covered over with sand. It was, however, soon found that the wild animals scratched away the sand, and dragged out the bodies and devoured them ; to prevent this the friends of the dead laid slabs of stone loosely over the hollow in the ground. As time went on these slabs of stone were better fitted and plaster was used to keep them together, and finally the sides and bottom of the grave were lined with mud bricks or stone slabs. Thus the stone (or brick) lined grave is the oldest building in Egypt, and the Egyptians made it as a result of their belief in the resurrec- tion of the body. But even at this early period there must have been numbers of the dead who were laid to their rest in the sand. After a further lapse of time and as a result of the development of religious ideas, men began to raise stone structures over the graves, whereon they might lay their offerings to the dead, and hold some kind of inter- course with them. What the earliest structures were like we do not know, but in the earlier part of the historic period the kings, and nobles, and high officials, were buried in chambers cut in the solid rock several yards below the surface of the ground, and rectangular chambers made of stones were built over them. The tops of such structures were perfectly flat, and the sides sloped outwards very slightly ; a building of this kind is commonly called Mastaba, because it resembles a bench. They did not 158 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. ^ resemble portions of pyramids, but, as Mariette said, a mastaba somewhat resembles a section cut horizontally out of an obelisk, supposing the obelisk to have a rectangular base. The walls are of varying thickness, and few are built in exactly the same way ; it is a common characteristic of them all that the cores are made of very poor materials. It is hard to understand why the builders, who gave so much time and attention and labour to such buildings, did not go a step further and build their walls solidly throughout. _ Mastaba tombs were oriented towards the north. They vary in length and breadth, but all consist of a hall for prayer and sacrifice, of a shaft or pit leading to the chamber where the mummy lies, and of the mummy chamber. The entrance to the mastaba is through an opening on the eastern side, and this opening is often quite plain. Above the opening is a lintel, a por- tion of which is rounded, and here is found the name of the deceased ; occasionally the open- ing is sunk in the wall to a considerable depth, and a kind of small portico, with square pillars, appears in front. The interior of the mastaba may be divided into chambers, the number of these varying according to the size of the monument and the fancy of the builder ; usually, however, a mastaba contains only one. On the ground inside a stele, or tombstone, which always faces the east, is found ; at its foot stands an altar or table intended for offerings, and near it is a chamber in which a statue of the deceased was placed. The pit leading to the mummy chamber was square or Door from a mastaba tomb at Memphis. {After Priise d^Avennes.) Oa o □ a cDainaoin o c^ o «:'t o ii^ oo' * ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 1 59 rectangular, and, when the dead body had been laid away in its coffin or sarcophagus, was filled up once and for all. The mastabas were built in rows and stood close together, having narrow passages between them. Contemporary with the mastabas are the tombs which were built in the form of pyramids, Kfr ^—^ but which preserved all the main features of the mastaba as far as religious ideas were concerned. P'or various reasons it was found impossible to build a hall inside a great pyramid sufficiently large to accommodate all those who would bring offerings and pray for the deceased buried below; therefore a hall was built outside in the form of a chapel. Instead of descending perpendicularly, the shaft which led to the mummy chamber beneath the pyramid is sometimes diagonal, in which case heavy sarcophagi were more easily lowered down it. It is probable that Step-pyramids, which are after all only modifications of mastabas,are older than the true pyra- mid, and it is also probable that they fell into disuse be- cause they could be more easily wrecked. Well built stone pyra- •j -^1^1- . The Great Pyramid, showing passages and mids with the steps mummy chambers. Royal pyramid with rows of mastaba tombs behind it. i6o NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. filled up by stones that fitted closely have proved to be almost indestructible, especially if built on a grand scale. Examples of the step-pyramid are found at Sakkara and Medum, in Egypt, and at Gebel Barkal, Nuri, and to the east of the Tlie Step i'yramid at Sakkara. (From a photograph by A. Beato of Luxor.) site of the ancient city of Meroe, where Candace ruled ; the so-called Blunted Pyramid at Dahshur is the unique example of a most unusual type of pyramid, for about half way up the side of each face the inclination changes, and while the lower portion of the face forms an angle of 54° ii' with the horizon, the angle which the upper portion makes with the horizon is only 42" 59'. The pyramids of the Sudan form a class by themselves. The outsides are built of well cut stones, carefully laid The Blunted Pyramid at Dahshur. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. l6l in their places, but the insides are filled with masons' rubbish and sand. In the upper part of the east face is an opening, and the door faces the east nearly. Each has a chapel, or hall for offerings, in front of it. The stone pyramid was, in the Early Empire, usually the tomb of a king or royal personage, but in later times both kings and priestly or military officials, while adopting the form, built their tombs of brick; this class formed the next development in the architecture of the tomb, and is characteristic of the Xllth and following dynasties. The pyramidal tombs of this period are usually from fifteen to twenty feet high, and the bricks are made of unbaked mud ; when they stood anywhere on ground which was tolerably level they were surrounded by a wall. On one side of the pyramid is a sepulchral stele or a small rectangular building which served the purpose of the chapel to a large pyramid, for here the funeral ceremonies were per- formed, and offerings made, and prayers said on behalf of the dead. The oldest examples of this class Pyramid and chapel at of tomb are at Abydos ; they date Gebel Barkal. from the Vlth to the Xllth dynasty. ^^^^^' ^''''' d^Avenms.) The next step in the development of the tomb was the building it in the mountains on one side or the other of the Nile, where the hall, shaft, and mummy chamber were hewn out of the living rock. A small portico is often formed by means of two or more square or rectangular pillars cut out of the rock, also an entablature which consists of an architrave and a kind of cornice. When space per- mitted a portion of the hill or mountain immediately in front of the tomb was levelled, and served to accommodate the visitors who went to the tomb. Passing between the M 1 62 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. pillars we enter the rock-hewn chamber, usually with square pillars, where, in a niche, was a statue of the deceased ; as the double {ka) was supposed to dwell in the statue of a man, this arrangement was excellent for enabhng the deceased to see the offerings that were made in his chapel, and to hear the prayers said. This niche is the equiva- lent of the serdah in the mastaba tomb. In a corner of the hall or chapel, or, if there be more than one hall, in the hall most remote, is the entrance to the square pit which leads to the mummy chamber. The best examples of tombs of this period are at Beni-Hasan and Aswan, and at each place there are many really fine tombs. At Aswan is a very interesting flight of steps, up which coffins and sarcophagi were dragged from the level of the river into the tombs, and it is probable that a similar arrangement was provided wherever rock-hewn tombs were made in the side of a steep, high hill. The rock-hewn tomb was very popular in Egypt among high military and priestly officials, and this is hardly to be wondered at, for a body carefully buried therein would be extremely difficult to find when once the opening of the tomb had been blocked up. Coming to the period of the XVIIIth and four following dynasties, we find that it became the fashion among kings and royal personages to have magnificent tombs with long corridors and numerous chambers hewn out of the solid rock ; and as the kings of this period reigned at Thebes, the Theban mountains were literally turned into a cemetery. In various parts of the rocky ground on the western bank the priests and high officials caused magnificent tombs to be hewn, and, although the fundamental ideas which guided the builders of the pyra- mid and mastaba tombs were still all-powerful, the shape, the disposition of the chambers, the ornamentation, and texts inscribed upon the walls show that many new religious ideas had sprung into being in the mind of the Egyptian. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN I'.UILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 1 63 The tombs of the kings at Thebes are the best examples of the royal tombs of the period, and in them all we have the equivalents of the hall, the stele, the serddb^ the statue, the shaft or pit, and the mummy-chamber ; there is, however, one great difference. In the Theban mountains it was found to be impossible to build chapels of a size proportionate to the tombs hewn within them, therefore the kings decided to have their funeral chapels built on the level ground near the river, where they were easy of access, and where there was abundant room for crowds of people to make their offerings to their kings, and to pray for them. In them also the religious were free to worship the gods they loved, as well as perform commemoration services, and in this way temples like the Ramesseum acquired a double character. As every man seems to have had his tomb prepared according to his own plans, it follows as a matter of course that in details hardly any two tombs are alike ; nevertheless the central ideas of providing for the hiding of the body and for the supply of suitable offerings at regular intervals for the ka of the deceased were never lost sight of. The tombs constructed under the rule of the priests of Amen are inferior to those made in the time of the great Theban kings. In the XXV Ith dynasty an attempt was made to revive the funeral ceremonies of the Early Empire, and, in consequence, a number of modifications were made in the internal arrangement of the subterranean rooms, etc. ; but very soon the old ideas reasserted themselves, and the Egyptians who could afford to hew sepulchres out of the rocks adopted the class of tomb in general use at the time. It has been said above that the oldest buildings in Egypt are tombs, and although the necessary evidence, in the shape of ruins, which would prove the great antiquity of the use of temples in Egypt, is not forth- coming, we are fully justified in assuming that, after M 2 164 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. tombs, the building of temples for the safe-keeping of the statues of the gods, and for their worship, would form the next subject of earnest consideration in the minds of the people of that country. In fact, as soon as the Egyptian arrived at any comparatively advanced stage of civilization, he would set to work to build " a house of God" J ^ I ^?|' 0^ temple, suitable to the rank and position of this god in the land. That the pre-dynastic and early dynastic Egyptians believed m numbers of gods goes without saying ; unfortunately, however, their houses, or temples, were built of such fragile materials that even the sites of them are unknown. It has been thought that the earliest temples of the Egyptians were built of wood, that bricks formed the next material employed, and that stone was employed last of all. The earliest stone temples were probably contemporary with the earliest of the mastaba tombs, but what such temples were like we shall never know, for they were at a very remote period restored, or enlarged, or reconstructed out of existence. One thing about them, however, is certain : the sites of the principal temples have remained unchanged. The sanctuaries of Heliopolis, Memphis, Abydos, Thebes, and other cities were the abodes of gods probably ten thousand years ago. The names and characteristics of the gods worshipped in them have changed, no doubt, and dozens of buildings have, successively, oeen erected upon them, but the sites must always have enjoyed a solid reputation for holiness, even though the histories or legends which gave them their reputations have been forgotten. The earliest known temple in Egypt is the granite and limestone Temple of the Sphinx, which was discovered by Mariette in 1853, ^"^^ which lies about 130 feet to the south-east of the right foot of the Sphinx at Gizeh. The following plan (after Perrot and ANCIENT EGYPTfAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 1 65 Chipiez) will illustrate its arrangement : — The room or hall (a), with six square granite pillars, measures about 32 feet by 23 feet, and the pillars are about i6 feet 6 inches high, and 4 feet square. The room or hall (b), which opens out of this, runs from east to west, and measures about 56 feet by 30 feet ; the granite pillars here are ten in number. To the east of the smaller hall is a cor- ridor (c), having a room at each end, and near the opening into it is a well, wherein a num- ber of statues of king Chephren were found by Mariette. In the room (d), which is entered from the small hall, mummies were probably kept, and when we bear in mind the well, or pit, in the hall (c), it seems not unlikely that this massive little temple was originally nothing more than a royal funeral chapel. The pillars are without any ornament or decoration, and the walls have neither bas-reliefs nor paintings on them ; the outsides of the walls are, however, ornamented with vertical and horizontal channels only, and resemble the outside of a sarcophagus of the early mastaba period. Strictly speaking, the idea of the temple, such as we see at Karnak and elsewhere, was not imagined in the Early Empire, and the Temple of the Sphinx is the most complete example known of those that were built between b.c. 4500 and b.c. 2500. Of the temples which were built in Egypt between b.c. 2500 and B.C. 1700, we have very few remains, but it is certain that the great kings of the ENTRANCE The Temple of the Sphinx. 1 66 NOTES FOR '1RAVELI,ERS IN EGYPT. Xllth dynasty restored the temples which had been erected on historic sites by their predecessors, and it is probable that they built new ones. There are many reasons for believing that the temples of the Xllth dynasty were large, beautiful, and richly decorated, among the chief of these being the fact that beautifully painted rock-hewn tombs were executed at this period. Now the public temples, especially if they had been originally funeral chapels, must have been as grand and beautiful as the chapels of private individuals. We know, too, that the Xllth dynasty temples must have been of very considerable size, otherwise the huge granite obelisks which were set up before them would have looked absurdly out of proportion, and the pylons would have dwarfed the rest of the buildings on the site. Belonging to this period, and worthy of special note, are the ruins of the little temple which the Amen-em-hat and Usertsen kings built at Karnak in honour of the god Amen ; this temple formed the nucleus of all the buildings which the succeeding kings of Egypt vied with each other in raising upon that site. From about B.C. 1700 to d.c. 1400, a favourite form of temple was a rectangular "building with a colonnade running round all four sides ; a parapet, which rested upon the severely plain square pillars that supported the roof, was one of its prominent features. The temple was entered through a door at the east end, which was usually approached by steps. At the top of the steps on each side was a pillar with a decorated capital, and between these pillars the two leaves of a door were hung ; immediately opposite to them was the door of the temple building leading to the shrine, and it also was provided with swinging leaves that were probably plated with smu metal or copper. The shrine was, of course, at the other end of the building. At a later time, when all the chief characteristics of such a temple were changed, the interior was divided into three parts, a portico, a pronaos, and a shrine. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 167 Under the kings of the XlXth dynasty the temple buildings consisted of: — (i) Pylons; (2) an open court- yard ; (3) a hypostyle hall ; and (4) a shrine, which could be completely cut off from the rest of the temple,, and a number of chambers intended to hold statues or emblems of the gods. The first pylon was approached by a broad path, or dromos, on each side of which were arranged, at regular intervals, stone figures of ram-headed or human-headed sphinxes, mounted on pedestals, and having their heads turned towards the axis of the path. The length of the path varies, but the longest known is that which leads from Luxor to Karnak, and which is more than a mile and a quarter long. It is probable that the sphinxes were intended either to contain or to represent guardian spirits. The temple buildings were enclosed within a wall of unbaked mud bricks, but the avenue of sphinxes was outside this wall. The pylon consists of a large rectangular doorway and two high massive towers, built with sides which slope towards a common centre, and it forms, probably, one of the most prominent characteristics of the Egyptian temple build- ings. On festal occasions the towers were ornamented by a number of painted poles, from which flew coloured streamers or flags. At each side of the doorway of the pylon stood a colossal figure of the king in granite, limestone, or sandstone, and a granite obelisk, mounted on a pedestal of suitable dimensions, and colossal statues were sometimes also placed in front of the towers of the pylon. The open court was furnished with a colonnade on three sides,and it is probable that those who sold objects used by the worshippers had their stalls situated in it ; both this court and the hypostyle hall beyond it, which was entered through the doorway of another pylon, were thronged on festal occasions, and in one or both the animals intended for slaughter were offered up. All that part of the temple which lay beyond the hypostyle hall was probably reserved for the use of the priests and 1 68 isroTES for travjellers in ecypt. the performance of the sacred ceremonies in connection with the worship of the god. In the most holy part of the shrine, and jealously guarded, was the statue, or boat, or emblem of the god, which was only looked upon by the high priest, or by some extremely privileged visitor, about once a year. It was kept inside a sacred ark or tabernacle, made of precious wood or metal, elaborately painted and gilded and worked, and provided with doors and bolts. In the ground outside the temple-walls, but within the surrounding mud-brick wail, lay the sacred lake or lakes, wherein the devout bathed, and in the waters of which the processions of the sacred boats took place. Speaking generally, the above is a brief description of the principal characteristics of Egyptian temples, and it applies to those that were built or restored between B.C. 1370 and B.C. 200. About the latter date many of the small temples built by the Ptolemies are only modified copies of the small temples of the latter part of the XVIIIth dynasty. An examination of a number of temples will show the visitor to Egypt that in comparatively minor matters each temple possesses character- istics which are peculiar to itself. Thus in the temple at Luxor the open court and the rest of the temple are connected by means of a long, narrow courtyard, which is wanting in many temples ; and at Abydos, because there was no room to build all the various parts of the temple in a straight line as usual, the portion which contains the sanctuary has been built to the side of one end of it. Before passing on to other matters, mention must be made of temples which were hewn out of the rock, and of this class, which is a very small one, those of Bet el-Wali and Abu Simbel in Nubia are the finest specimens. The other temples in Nubia, and those in the Eastern Stidan, form a class by themselves, and although of those the sites are of a venerable antiquity, the greater number of the build- ings belong to the Ptolemaic period. At Gebel Barkal, parts ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 1 69 of the largest temple there are probably as old as the XVIIIth dynasty, and the general teaching of Egyptian history would lead us not to expect to find any ruins older than the time of Amenophis I. In outlying districts the Egyptian temple served both as a place of worship and a place of refuge, and in many respects the building became half temple, half fortress. The ornamentation of tombs and temples varied at different periods. The earliest tombs are almost bare in every part, and contain nothing but a few brief inscriptions. Later the inscriptions were multi- plied, and human and animal fig- Scene from the Wall of a Tomb. Deceased fowling. ^^' either cut in low relief or painted in tempera, began to fill the walls and to cover the sides of the rectangular pillars which supported the roof. Still later, every avail- able space in the tomb was filled with scenes most elaborately drawn and painted in vivid colours, and the ceilings were orna- mented with geomet- rical patterns and designs, edged with floral and other bor- W9SSSS9§Sil^S9SS9S9Si Portion of a Ceiling Ornament. lyo Notes for travellers in eciypt. ders. As time went on it seemed to be the aim of the funeral artist to make the walls of the tomb to reproduce scenes of all the principal events which had occurred in the life of the deceased, and to describe his wealth and power. But under the rule of the Theban kings of the XVIIIth dynasty, it became the fashion with many to make such painted scenes and the accompanying descriptive texts subordinate to religious inscriptions, and many tombs are almost entirely covered with extracts from the Book of the Dead, or from works of a similar character, and with scenes illustrative of them. The earliest temples were, probably, without orna- mentation of any kind, but when it became the fashion to decorate the tombs with bas-reliefs, or painted scenes, the walls and pillars of the temples were treated in the same manner. In the XVIIIth and following dynasties the out- sides of the walls of temples were covered with inscriptions and scenes which recorded the victories of the king or kings w^ho built them, and the insides were decorated with figures of the gods and of the king performing religious ceremonies; later, both the insides and outsides of the walls were devoted to representations of colossal figures of the king slaughtering rebels in masses, and to religious scenes. The Palace and the House. The palace of an Egyptian king was enclosed within a wall like a temple, and was often built of stone ; unfortunately, however, the ruins of the royal residences known to us, with but one or two exceptions, do not permit the laying down of any general rule about their construction. It is probable that kings often lived in buildings attached to the temples, and in this case the style of the palace would resemble that of the temple. The entrance into the outside grounds was made through a pylon, and the building which formed the palace consisted of large numbers of rooms, lighted by means of grating-work windows, grouped round open courts, .which were separated from each other by pylons. Some rooms ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCUEPTURE, ETC. 17I were set apart for state receptions and ceremonies, others for the sleeping apartments of the male members of the household, and others for the royal ladies. The servants, and others who were not in close attendance on the family, lived and slept outside the palace proper, but within the grounds, in small chambers built against the surrounding wall. In some part of the grounds spice, incense, and fruit trees grew, and one or two ponds, or small lakes, with reedy margins, afforded excellent cover for water fowl. The private house was a rectangular building of two storeys with a fiat roof, the whole being made of unbaked mud bricks, with the exception of the lintels of the doors. A man of means enclosed his house and a piece of ground within a wall, and then he had space enough to build a portico, or colonnade, before his house, where he could find shelter from the sun, and lay out a courtyard. A portion of the enclosed space was laid out as gardens or planted with trees, a lake or fountain of water was made near the house, and the servants or slaves, and others, lived in small build- ings, or booths, not very far from the house. In fact, the house and garden of a Theban gentleman or high official must have resembled closely the house and courtyard, and garden, with its fountain of running water and scented trees, of a Muhammadan gentleman of Damascus, or Cairo, or any other flourishing city in the beginning of the Middle Ages. The courtyard was then, as now, probably tiled, and the outside walls of the house painted in one or two bright colours ; the internal decorations of the walls and ceilings consisted of some intricate geometrical design, elaborately painted in several bright colours. The Egyptian house must always have been a com- paratively simple building, for its owner really only needed shelter from the cold by night, and a shady place wherein to sit or sleep in the afternoons. The peasant farmer's house was a small, strong building, with a courtyard large 172 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. enough to hold his cattle and granaries wherein to stock his grain. His living and sleeping rooms were usually low and small, but, judging by the models of houses which are to be seen in our museums, he often sat on the roof in a sort of small summerhouse, where he could catch the breeze ; the roof was approached by means of a flight of steps. The cooking for his house was done in the courtyard by his wives and female slaves. Among miscellaneous Egyptian buildings must be mentioned the fortified or fenced cities, which were very numerous, and were surrounded by thick walls and guarded by gates ; in fact, any place where many men of means had assembled and accumulated wealth had to be fortified in order that their possessions might be defended against the attacks of marauding tribes. The fortresses at Semnah, in Nubia, and Al-kab, in Upper Egypt, are excel- lent examples of such buildings, and the ruins of them prove that the Egyptians were skilful military architects, and that they not only knew how to choose a site for a fort, but how to erect on it a strong building. In places where they had the choice of more than one site they invariably selected the best, and they seem instinc- tively to have availed themselves of every advantage which the natural position of that site gave them. The space here available will not permit of any attempt being made to describe methods of construction and cognate matters, but attention must be called to the fact that the Egyptian architects did not pay sufficient attention either to the making of foundations, or to the roofing of their temples. The expert researches made by Mr. Somers Clarke at Al-kab, Karnak, Der al-bahari, and other sites, have re- vealed some very curious facts about the scantiness and insecurity of the foundations of columns, etc., and the wonder is that the temples have stood so long in the con- dition in wliich we now find them. The whole civilized ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 1 73 world laments the falling of eleven pillars at Karnak in 1899, but an examination of the foundations shows that in the first place they were too small, and in the second that the materials of which they were made had been thrown into them in a reckless fashion. The question that now arises is, "Are the foundations of all the columns of Egyptian temples as badly made?" and none but an expert can answer it satisfactorily. It is clear that we owe the preservation of most of the temples to the heaps of rubbish which had covered them up, and it is equally clear that no one should be allowed to remove such heaps from precious ruins except under the advice of some competent architect or engineer. The field of Egyptology is so large in these days, that the archaeologist cannot expect to become a skilled engineer, still less ought he to take upon himself the risk of destroying the ruins of buildings which form part of the scientific heritage not of the Egyptians only, but of the present and future civilized nations of the world. The Pillar* and the Column,* after the walls, are perhaps the most proihinent features of the Egyptian build- ing. The oldest pillars were square, and generally mono- lithic, and the sides were either parallel or slightly tapering upwards ; frequently they had neither base nor capital. In the Early Empire they were not decorated in any way, but in the Middle Empire the sides were ornamented with scenes and inscriptions, or with bas-reliefs, or with figures of gods in very high rehef. and the capitals with Hathor heads and sistra. The " Osirian Pillar," i.e., a pillar with an upright colossal figure of Osiris in high relief on one side of it, is seen to advantage both in the second court in the temple of Medinet Habu, and in the rock-hewn temple at * For fuller information on these subjects the reader is referred to Perrot and Chipiez, V^gypte, p. 346, ff., and for examples to Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de PAri, to which excellent work I am indebted for the illustrations here given. 174 NOTES FOR TRAVET.LERS IN EGYPT. Abu Simbelj in the Siidan the god chosen to decorate rectangular pillars was Bes, as may be seen from the ruins of the temples at Gebel Barkal and Ben-Naga. A variety of the rectangular pillar is the pillar stele, of which ex- amples are to be found at Karnak, but it seems never to have been used as an actual support. Out of the rectan- gular pillar a new variety was made by cutting off the four angles ; thus the pil- lar had eight sides instead of four ; when it was desired to make the appear- ance of the new variety of pillar lighter still, the eight angles were cut off, and the pillar now had sixteefi sides. Examples of both kinds of pillar will be found in the same tomb at Beni Hasan. To these new forms, which are called polygonal, polyhe- dral or prismatic, bases and capitals were added, and thus they came to be compared with certain Greek pillars and so called Proto-Doric. Another interesting variety of the rectangular pillar is found at Beni Hasan, Pillar stelae inscribed with the names of Thothmes III., XVIIIth dynasty. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. I 75 and is called cruciform. The column has many varieties, but all have the same characteristics; it has a base, and a capital, which is surmounted by a rectangular slab of stone, whereon the framework of the Entrance to the loml) of Khncmu-hetep II. al Beni Hasan, with Proto-Doric pillars. (From a photograph by A. Beato of Luxor.) roof rests. The capitals are of several kinds : the bud capital, the cup capital, the palm capital. A curious variety of the cup capital occurs at Karnak, where in a part of the building of Thothmes III, the capitals are in the form of inverted cups. In the time of the Ptolemies the architect or master -mason made many variations in the details of the capitals, and frequently with very pleasing results ; the authorities, however, do not seem to be agreed as to the canon of proportion employed. It is at present impossible to gauge by years the antiquity of the period when the Egyptians began to be skilled in the art of sculpture and the making of bas-reliefs, but it is 176 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. certain that in pre-dynastic times they possessed marvellous skill in working the hardest kinds of stone, and in the early dynasties they were masters in the art of painting statues to resemble their living originals. In estimating the character of Egyptian sculpture, it must be re- membered that many statues and bas-reliefs were exe- cuted al- most me- chanically, and prob- ably at a fixed rate, to satisfy convention - al require- ments ; in such work the highest skill is not to be looked for. Speak- ing general- ly, the sculp- tor's art seemed to Pillar with figures of Amenophis III. and the goddess Halhor. Column with lotus capital. culminate between the middle of the IVth and the end of the Vth dynasty. At this period statues and bas-reliefs, and the hieroglyphics of inscriptions, both raised and incuse, possessed a fidelity to life, an attention to detdl:, and a ANCIENT EOYPTIAN P.UILDINOS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 177 Palm-leaf capital. the IVth and Vth dynasties as their models. The men who made them were no mere hirehngs, and their work shows that they tried to represent men and things as they saw them ; the unbiassed will probably admit that they succeeded admirably in doing this. In the Cairo Museum are fine series of examples of statues, etc., of this period, which testify to the great skill of the Egyptian artists, both as sculptors and Hathor-headed capital. spirit of repose and dignity which are lacking in the work of later periods. The Egyptians them- selves thought this, for in the XXVIth dynasty, when the Saite kings at- tempted to revive the dying arts of sculpture and painting, they took the works of the great artists of Ornate capital (Philse). ,7S NOTES FOR TRAVFJ.LERS IN EGYPT. painters. It seems that the earliest statues were made of wood, Hke the earliest temples and other build- ings, and as rare specimens of art- istic work in wood the reader should note the panels from the tomb of Hesi at Sakkara, which were made about B.C. 3,600; these panels are now in the Cairo Museum, and they are undoubtedly the finest known examples of that particular class of work. It is, as a rule, to the private tombs that we must look for the best examples of artistic work of all kinds, for the individual was more free to follow his own dic- tates in the selec- tion of both sub- ject and artist than the royal personage, who was practically obliged to employ court draughtsmen, court artists, and court sculptors. Canon ot proportion. Sarcophagus of King Ai, XVIIIth dynasty. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS, SCULPTURE, ETC. 1 79 In bas-reliefs and painted scenes, much of the artistic effect is lost because perspective was either not under- stood, or was little practised, and as a result where rows of men, and groups of animals or objectSj etc., have to be depicted, they are represented in such a way that they seem to be standing one above the other or upon the other. The artist's skill in drawing which is exhibited by the paintings in all periods is marvellous, but the greatest skill is certainly displayed in the fishing and hunting scenes, and in those which are commonly found in tombs. Even in these, however, the artist often breaks away from his fetters of conventionality, and depicts some ludicrous or amusing incident quite out of keeping with the general character of the subject. The sense of fun which the Egyptian possessed in all periods of his history must have found an outlet in many comic sketches on papyri, but unfortunately besides the so-called satirical papyri very few examples of such have come down to us ; touches of realism which western artists would not have included in their compositions occur every here and there, but these are due rather to an attempt to be true to nature than to depraved ideas. The Lion and the Unicorn playing draughts. From a " Satirical" papyrus in the British Musevim. N 2 l8o NOTES FOR TRAVETJ^ERS IN EGYPT. EGYPTIAN WRITING. The system of writing employed by the earHest inhabi- tants of the Valley of the Nile known to us was entirely pictorial, and had much in common with the pictorial writing of the Chinese and the ancient people who migrated into Babylonia from the East. There appears to be no dynastic inscription in which pictures are used entirely, for the earliest inscriptions now known to us contain alphabetic characters. Inscriptions upon statues, coffins, tombs, temples, etc., in which figures or representations of objects are employed, are usually termed 'Hieroglyphic ' (from the Greek lepo^/Xu^iKo^f) ; for writing on papyri a cursive form of hieroglyphic called 'Hieratic' (from the Greek leianiKo^) was employed by the priests, who, at times, also used hieroglyphic; a third kind of writing, consisting of purely conventional modifications of hieratic characters, which preserve little of the original form, was employed for social and business purposes ; it is called demotic (from the Greek S/j/nonico^). The following will show the different forms of the characters in the three styles of writing — I. Hieratic. EGYPTIAN WRITING. l8l 11. Hieroglyphic Transcript of No. I. j^u^xxu, ll-o-^Z^dl'li^'A [:^3bU''Uimil'^-i^ HI. Demotic. IV. Hieroglyphic Transcript of No. III. AAAAA^ AA/WvA No. I is copied from the Prisse "* papyrus (Maxims of Ptah-hetep, p. V. 1. i), and is transcribed and translated as follows : — dl? teinu an sekha - nef sef .... the heart fails, not remembers he yesterday. qes men -f en duii hii nefer kheper eni- The body suffers it in [its] entirety, happiness becomes bit \l}dn'\ wretchedness, t No. III. is copied from the demotic version inscribed on the stele of Canopus (see p. 50), and No. IV. is the corresponding passage in the hieroglyphic version of the * This papyrus is probably the oldest in the world, and was written about B.C. 25CX) ; it was presented to the Bibliotheque Nationale by Prisse, who acquired it at Thebes. t Ptah-hetep is lamenting the troubles of old age, and the complete passage runs : " The understanding perishcth, an old man rememljereth not yesterday. The body Ijccomcth altogciher pain ; happiness turneth into wretchedness : and taste vanisheth away." I 82 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Decree. The iransliteration of the Demotic, according to Hess {Roman von Sine Ha-ui-us^ p. 80), \?>\—p-hon nuter ua n-n-iieb' ent satp er-p-ma ueb er-ube p-gi-n-er mnh n-n-nuter\ "a prophet, or one of the priests who are selected for the sanctuary to perform the dressing of the gods." The transliteration of the hieroglyphic text is: hen neter erpu ud amd dbu setep er db-ur du smd er mdret neteru em satis en. The earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions are the names of the kings of the first dynasty which have been found at Nakada and Abydos. The oldest hieratic inscription is that contained in the famous Prisse papyrus which records the advice of Ptah-hetep to his son. It dates from the Xlth or Xllth dynasty. The demotic writing appears to have come into use about B.C. 900. Hieroglyphics were used until the third century after Christ, and hieratic and demotic for at least a century later. The inscriptions on the Rosetta and Canopus stelae are written in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek characters. The Egyptians inscribed, wrote, or painted inscriptions upon almost every kind of substance, but the material most used by them for their histories, and religious and other works was papyrus. Sections from the stem of the papyrus plant were carefully cut, and the layers were taken off, pressed flat, and several of them gummed one over the other transversely ; thus almost any length of papyrus for writing upon could be made. The longest known is the great Harris papyrus, No. i; it measures 135 feet by 17 inches. The scribe wrote upon the papyrus with reeds, and the inks were principally made of vegetable colours. Black and red are the commonest colours used, but some papyri are painted with as many as eleven or thirteen. The scribe's palette was a rectangular piece of wood varying from six to thirteen inches long by two, or two and a half, inches wide. In the middle was a hollow for holding the reeds, and at one end EGVPtlAN WRITING. 1 83 were the circular or oval cavities in which the colours were placed. At the beginning of the Greek rule over Egypt, the knowledge of the ancient Egyptian language began to decline, and the language of Greece began to modify and eventually to supersede that of Egypt. When we consider that Ptolemy I., Soter, succeeded in attracting to Alexandria a large number of the greatest Greek scholars of the day, such as Euclid the mathematician, Stilpo of Megara, Theodorus of Cyrene and Diodorus Cronus the philosophers, Zenodotus the grammarian, Philetas the poet from Cos, and many others, this is not to be wondered at. The founding of the great ^Alexandrian Library and Museum, and the endowment of these institutions for the support of a number of the most eminent Greek philo- sophers and scholars, was an act of far-sighted policy on the part of Ptolemy I., whose aim was to make the learning and language of the Greeks to become dominant in Egypt. Little by little the principal posts in the Government were monopolised by the Greeks, and little by little the Egyptians became servants and slaves to their intellectually superior masters. In respect to their language, " the Egyptians were not prohibited from making use, so far as it seemed requisite according to ritual or otherwise appropriate, of the native language and of its time-hallowed written signs ; in this old home, moreover, of the use of writing in ordinary inter- course the native language, alone familiar to the great public, and the usual writing must necessarily have been allowed not merely in the case of private contracts, but even as regards tax-receipts and similar documents. But this was a conces- sion, and the ruling Hellenism strove to enlarge its domain." Mommsen, The Provinces of the Roman Empire^ Vol. II., p. 243. It is true that Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, employed the famous Manetho {i.e.^ . j^ , Mer-en-Tehuti, 'beloved of Thoth ') to draw up a history of Egypt, and an account 184 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. of the ancient Egyptian religion from the papyri and other native records ; but it is also true that during the reigns of these two Ptolemies the Egyptians were firmly kept in obscurity, and that the ancient priest-college of Heliopolis was suppressed. A century or two after the Christian era, Greek had obtained such a hold upon the inhabitants of Egypt that the Egyptian Christians, the followers and disciples ot St. Mark, were obliged to use the Greek alphabet to write down the Egyptian, that is to say, Coptic translation of the books of the Old and New Testaments. The letters cy , sh, ^> / jbj Xj &) l^i ^ ^5 ^) i") were added from the de- motic forms of hieratic characters to represent sounds which were unknown in the Greek language. During the Greek rule over Egypt many of the hieroglyphic characters had new phonetic values given to them ; by this time the know- ledge of hieroglyphic writing had practically died out. The history of the decipherment of hieroglyphics is of great interest, but lack of space prevents a complete account of it from being given here ; only the most important facts connected with it can be mentioned. During the XVIth- XVIIIth centuries many attempts were made by scholars to interpret the hieroglyphic inscriptions then known to the world, but they resulted in nothing useful. The fact is that they did not understand the nature of the problem to be solved, and they failed to perceive that hieroglyphic characters were used both as phonetics and determinatives in the same inscription. In 1799, a French officer called Boussard discovered at Bolbitine or Rosetta a basalt slab in- scribed in the hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek characters ; it was shortly after taken possession of by the English army, and sent to London, where it was carefully examined by Dr. Thomas Young.* This basalt slab is commonly known * Thomas Young was l)orn at Milverlon, in Somersetshire, on the 13th of June, 1773; both his parents were Quakers. At the age of fourteen he is said to have been versed in Greek, Latin, French, EGYPTIAN WRITING. 1 85 as the '' Rosetta Stone," and as it supplied the clue to the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and its contents are of considerable importance, a rendering of the hieroglyphic text cut upon it is given on p. 199. The Society of Antiquaries published a fac-simile of the inscription, which was distributed among scholars, and Silvestre de Sacy and Akerblad made some useful dis- coveries about certain parts of the demotic version of the inscription. Dr. Young was enabled, ten years after, to make translations of the three inscriptions, and the results of his studies were published in 1818. In 1822 M. Champollion* (Le Jeune) published a translation of the same inscriptions, and was enabled to make out something like an alphabet. There appears to be no doubt that he was greatly helped by the publications and labours of Young, who had succeeded in grouping certain words in demotic, and in assigning ac- curate values to some of the hieroglyphic characters used in writing the names of the Greek rulers of Egypt. Young made many mistakes, but some of his work was of value. Champollion, to whom the credit of definitely settling the phonetic values of several signs really belongs, had been carefully grounded in the Coptic language, and was there- fore enabled with little difficulty to recognize the hiero- glyphic forms of the words which were familiar to him in Italian, Hebrew, Persian and Arabic. He took his degree of M.D. in July, 1796, in 1802 he., was appointed professor of natural philosophy at the Royal Institution, and in 18 10 he was elected physician to St. George's Hospital. He was not, however, a popular physician. He died on the loth of May, 1829. * Jean Fran9ois Champollion le Jeune was born at Figeac, depart- ment du Lot, in 1796. He was educated at Grenoble, and afterwards at Paris, where he devoted himself to the study of Coptic. In the year 1824 he was ordered by Charles X, to visit all the important collections of Egyptian antiquities in Europe. On his return he was appointed Director of the Louvre. In 1828 he was sent on a scientific mission to Egypt, and was afterwards made professor of I-lgyptian antiquities at the College de France. He died in 1831. I 86 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYFT. Coptic ; Young had no such advantage. ChampoIHon's system was subjected to many attacks, but Httle by httle it gained ground, and the labours of other scholars have proved that he was right. The other early workers in the field of hieroglyphics were Dr. Samuel Birch in England ; Dr. Lepsius in Germany, and MM. Rosellini and Salvolini in Italy. The study of hieroglyphics has become compara- tively general, and each year sees books of texts published, learned papers on Egyptian grammar written, and transla- tions made into the various European languages. In hieroglyphic inscriptions the signs are used in two ways : I, Ideographic, II, Phonetic. In the ideographic system a word is expressed by a picture or ideograph thus : AAwvA mu^ 'water : in the phonetic system the same word is written ^^v ; the sign T nefer can be written The scribes took pains to represent the exact value of these syllabic signs in order that no mistake might be made. The ideographic signs are also used as determinatives, and are placed after words written phonetically to de- EGYPTIAN WRITING. 187 teniiine their meaning. For example, neui means * to sleep,' ' to walk,' 'to go back,' ' to become infirm,' 'tongue,' and ' again ' ; without a determinative the meaning of this word in a sentence would be easily mistaken. DetermiNx\tives are of two kinds : I, ideographic^ and II, generic. Thus after 1(0 y!^ mau^ 'cat,' a cat, IV was written ; this is an ideographic determinative. After S ^erh^ 'darkness,' the night sky with a star in it, "^^^j was written ; this is a generic determinative. A word has fre- quently more than one determinative ; for example, in the J- word AAAAAA I A^AAAA bah^ ' to overflow. is a determinative of the sound bah N^Nsf^ IS a determinative of water, t==\ of a lake or collection of water, and ^ of ground. The list of hieroglyphic signs with their phonetic values given on pp. 192-198, will be of use in reading kings' names, etc.; for convenience, however, the hieroglyphic alphabet is added here. The system of transliteration of Egyptian characters used in this book is that most generally adopted. J , W i , I er sekhet in the fields, seka the ploughing, efnentuf duuait du emenluf d he it was who laboured. he It was who dritu nef dput performed the duties I neb enti em all which were [connected] with II3CZI n III sekhei fields. 192 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A List of some of the Principal Hieroglyphic Signs AND their Phonetic Values. :^- I 7 an ha ur ser a^i ciaii ^ tep, t'at'a ^ lira, her ^ anem ^ ut'a K^ taa ^^ an -C2>- ari ^ ar, sa <=> r or 1 Men and Women. ax Sa am V^ seher tut f J beq Limbs, &c., of Men. hu ^ ^\x sept \=^ t'eser U ka ^J^* an, at la A_J3ma L=/l next ta ^^ xen t t'eba ka, met '^^bah sem ~ysr seb seps amen sa n^^ fa ^ xer heh ^ henen heh Jj maat ^^>b sem L-^ ses'em i ^^ ^ ses §— ) tet or s -« J ' ^^3, aa, au EGYPTIAN WRITING. 193 Animals. .^^ 1, r m-b fel ""^"' ^ ab ..S:^ neb -^ sab 5^ ka ^ ba h ''' 'y- S^ au M ^^"^ Limbs, &c., of Animals. % peh ^ sef ^ xent, fent \ ab _J? ha ^1 us ^ setem tf'^^ xepes ^ at ^3: ^^ \/ ap «peh ^ ses ^ xen j aau 1 nem or 1 uhem Heru, bak ba aq sera Birds. &. ur ba mut sa mer m /^ qem ti u pa ten 5^ rex ^5^ sent ^^ nieh <0!) sem tes tern nemmat ^ seq tep -,J32_ ua >=»^ pet "^^^^ semer 0^ aha qel 9" ■' egyptian writing. Building. seh heb aiieb 195 an Arms, etc. (1 '><=K meh c)<=^ set A XU I heq 1 f au uas sexem xerp amen ab ^ am, t'a, I qem 1 T ] 1 set'eb xen ut met t'a men Tj 6^es, res ab, qes, ken 14 tet U as, or ast f net' ab or hem menx xa sa sma J} — s setp mer seh ) O 2 196 nefer hes notes for travellers in egypt. Musical Instruments. sexem r^^^ men V net, bat Crowns. ^^ meh su Cords. '^ qes, ses Q sen ■^ ret i ^^" menx iBl ut, heseb — ^ set j^=nN setchaut ^ ^ sexet ^ mer 1 nes XDC at -^czy^ net o^fo sa aper hm Mathematical Figures. hu ©, ©, © sep ■ A sept G paut [ ^ t ^ q ta 1 P A hap X uu, ur, ses ra h LTI mer i-'=^ teben (ZZ> ren -^ tena, J pex maat sa sexet atf teb f^SS^ nub ^ xaker Q sen g sah anx ■n- ^^^^ t'et qen, t'at'a amsu (2 ap nu Q xnem o ab f hes 1*1 xent >lfc xent \^^ am ua, beha hep EGYPTIAN VVRITINrx. Vases, etc. 197 qebh hen O au, ab ^ ha '- D ta .— ^^-. hetep «^^ aa S k /n xer .^ k ^ neb v<^ heb na, an Ships, etc. 'S. hem X^ nef Y aha fUll xent M:^ ses'ep /^ au ±5:^ her, maten >=n: 1 tem ^ amax -J- am ■ ^Yi xesef I to call to pray to rejoice to dance to plough foes of men of gods Determinatives. of women of birth to see wJ of strength Ik J\ to walk, stand (^ of flesh v^ to breathe, smell QQQ r^-^ © sext of birds of goddesses of trees of grain of heaven of light of country of towns 98 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Determinatives — co?iti?m€d. J) of iron /^'wwv of water /^AAAA^ of houses o^ of writing n of ground o o of metals MLx' of festival ^ of unguents writing, I computation, :^;±J[ knowledge, j ^=^ of roads and abstract! ideas , .^ 1v^ of ships li of fire XZI3 of wi nds 199 TRANSLATION OF THE HIEROGLYPHIC TEXT OF THE DECREE OF THE PRIESTS OF MEMPHIS, AS FOUND ON THE ROSETTA STONE^ AND ON THE STELE OF DAMANHUR. THE DECREE WAS PROMULGATED IN THE 9TH YEAR OF THE REIGN OF PTOLEMY V. EPIPHANES. 1. On the twenty-fourth day of the month Gorpiaios^. which correspondeth to the twenty-fourth day of the fourth month of the season Pert^ of the inhabitants of Ta-Mert (Egypt), in the twenty-third year of the reign of Horus-Ra the child, who hath risen as King upon the throne of his father, the lord of the shrines of Nekhebet^ and Uatchet,^ the mighty one of two-fold strength, the stablisher of the Two Lands, the beautifier of 2. Egypt, whose heart is perfect (or benevolent) towards the gods, the Horus of Gold, who maketh perfect -the life of the hamemet beings, the lord of the thirty- year festivals like Ptah, the sovereign prince like Ra, the King of the South and North, f Neterui- merui-aiui-aua-setep-en-Ptah-usr-ka-Ra-ankh-sekhem- Amen ] ^, the Son of the Sun f Ptolemy, the ever- ^ The words in brackets are added either from the Stele of Damanhur or for the purpose of making sense. - A part of March and April. ^ Part of our Spring. ■• The shrine of the vulture goddess Nekhebet was in Upper Egypt. '" More fully, Per-Uatchet ; the shrine of the snake goddess was in the Delta. " A name meaning "The two Father-loving Gods, the heir, chosen of Ptah, strength of the double of Ka, living power of Amt-n." 200 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. living, the beloved of Ptah J , the god who maketh himself manifest. 3. the son of ( Ptolemy J and ( Arsinoe ] , the Father-loving gods ; when Ptolemy, the son of Pyrrhides, was priest of Alexander, and of the Saviour-Gods, and of the Brother-loving Gods, and of the Beneficent Gods, 4. and of the Father-loving Gods, and of the God who maketh himself manifest ; when Demetria, the daughter of Telemachus, was bearer of the 5. prize of victory of Berenice, the Beneficent Goddess ; and when Arsinoj:, the daughter of Cadmus, was the Basket Bearer of ARSiNOi^;, the Brother-loving Goddess ; 6. when Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, was the Priestess of Arsinoi:, the Father-loving Goddess ; on this day the superintendents of the temples, and the servants of the god, and those who are over the secret things of the god, and the libationers [who] go into the most holy place to array the gods in theii apparel, 7. and the scribes of the holy writings, and the sages of the Double House of Life, and the other libationers [who] had come from the sanctuaries of the South and the North to Memphis, on the day of the festival, whereon 8. His Majesty, the King of the South and North f Ptolemy, the ever-living, the beloved of Ptah J , the god who maketh himself manifest, the lord of beauties, received the sovereignty from his father, ever- THE ROSETTA STONE. 201 entered into the Sehetch-Chamber, wherein they were wont to assemble, in Makha-Taui^, and behold they declared thus : — 9. " Inasmuch as the King who is beloved by the gods, " the King of the South and North [ Neterui-merui- " atui aua-en-Ptah-setep-en-usr-ka Ra ankh-sekhem- " Amen J , the Son of the Sun ( Ptolemy, the " living, beloved of Ptah J, the Gods who have " made themselves manifest, the lord of beauties, " hath given things of all kinds in very large quantities " unto the lands of Horus and unto all 10. " those who dwell in them, and unto each and every " one who holdeth any dignity whatsoever in them, — " now behold, he is like unto a God, being the son " of a God [and] he was given by a Goddess, for " he is the counterpart of Horus, the son of Isis " [and] the son of Osiris, the avenger of his father " Osiris — and behold. His Majesty. 11. "possessed a divine heart which was beneficent " towards the gods ; and he hath given gold in *' large quantities, and grain in large quantities to the " temples and he hath given very many lavish gifts " in order to make Ta-Mert [Egypt] prosperous, and " to make stable [her] advancement ; 12. " and he hath given unto the soldiers who are in his " august service according to their rank 0:\ * Makha-taui ^^^ 1 V\ A ,',A _ ^ '•^•' "^^^ balance or the two lands," was the name of the place where Lower Egypt ended, and Upper Egypt began, when travelling to the South. >2 NOTRS FOR TRAVELI-KRS IN ECIVPT. " [and of the taxes] some of them he hath cut off, " and some of them [he hath lightened], thus " causing the soldiers and those who live in the " country to be prosperous 13. " under his reign [and as regards the sums which " were due to the royal house] from the people of " Egypt, and likewise those [which were due] from- " every one who was in his august service, His " Majesty remitted them altogether, howsoever great " they were ; 14. *' and he hath forgiven the prisoners who were in " prison, and ordered that every one among them " should be released from [the punishment] which " he had to undergo. And His Majesty made an " order saying : — In respect of the things [which are " to be given to] the gods, and the money and the 15. " grain which are to be given to the temples each year, " and all the things [which are to be given to] the " gods from the vineyards and from the corn-lands " of the nome, all the things which were then due " under the Majesty of his holy father 16. *' shall be allowed to remain [in their amounts] to " them as they were then ; and he hath ordered : — " Behold, the treasury (?) shall not be made more " full of contributions by the hands of the priests " than it was up to the first year of the reign of His " Majesty, his holy father; and His Majesty hath " remitted 17. "To the priests who minister in the temples in "courses the journey which they had been " accustomed to make by river in boats to the city "of Alexandria at the beginning of each year; "and His Majesty commanded :— Behold, those who "are boatmen [by trade] shall not be seized [and THE ROSETTA STONE. 203 * made to serve in the Navy] ; and in respect of " the cloths of byssus [which are] made in the temples " for the royal house, 18. "he hath commanded that two-thirds of them shall "be returned [to the priests] ; similarly, His Majesty "hath [re]-established all the things, the performance " of which had been set aside, and hath restored them "to their former condition, and he hath taken the "greatest care to cause everything which ought to be "done in the service of the gods to be done in the " same way in which it was done 19. " in former [days] ; similarly, he hath done [all things] "in a right and proper manner; and he hath taken "care to administer justice ^to the people^ eve?i like " Thoth^ the gfrat, great [God] ; and he hath, more- " 071 er, 07'dered ifi respect of those of the troops who " come back^ afid the other people also, who during the 20. " strife of the revolution ivhich took place had been ill- " disposed \towards the Governme?it\ that ivhen they " return to their homes and lands they shall have the ''''power to remain i7t possession of their property, and '"''he hath taken great care to send infantry, and " cavalry, and ships to repulse those who were coming "against 21. "Egypt by land as well as by sea ; and he hath in "consequence expended a very large amount of " money and of grain on them in order to make " prosperous the lands of Horus and Egypt. 22. "And His Majesty marched against the town of " Shekam, which is in front of (?) the town of Uiset, " which was in the possession of the enemy, and was '"''provided with catapults, atid was made 7'eady for " war 7vith weap07is of eve^y kind by ^ The lines in italics are taken from the Demotic version. 204 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 23. " the rebels who were in it — now they had committed "great acts of sacrilege in the land of Horus, and "had done injury to those who dwelt in Egypt — His " Majesty attacked them by making a road [to their " town], 24. " and he raised mounds (or walls) against them, and "he dug trenches, and whatsoever would lead [him] "against them that he made; and he caused the ^''canals which supplied the town with watei- to be ^''blocked up^ a thi?ig which none of the kings who pre- ^^ ceded him had ever been able to do before, and he " expended a large amount of mo?iey on carrying out ^^ the work ; 25. "and His Majesty stationed infantry at the mouths "of the canals in order to watch and to guard them ^^ against the extraordinary rise of the waters [of the " N'ik\ which took place in the eighth year [of his ^^ reign], in the aforesaid canals which watei'ed the ^''fields, and were unusually deep 26. "in this spot; and His Majesty captured the town " by assault in a very short time, and he cut to "pieces the rebels who were therein, and he made an " exceedingly great slaughter among them, even like " unto that which Thoth^ and Horus, the son of " Isis and [the son of Osiris], made among those who " rebelled against them 27. " when they rebelled in this very place ; and behold, " those who had led on the soldiers and were at their "head, and who had disturbed the borders [in the " time of his father, and who had committed sacrilege "in the temples, when His Majesty came to " Memphis to avenge his father * The Demotic Version has Ra. THE ROSETTA STONE. 205 28. "and his own sovereignty he punished, according to " their deserts, when he came there to celebrate] the " festival of the receiving of the sovereignty from his ''father; and [besides this], he hath set aside [his " claim to 29. " the things which were due to His Majesty, and "which were [then] in the temples, up to the eighth " year [of his reign, which amounted to no small sum " of] money and grain ; and His Majesty hath also " set aside [his claim] to the cloths of byssus which " ought to have been given to the royal house and " were [then] in the temples, 30. " and also the tax w^hich they {i.e. the priests) ought " to have contributed for dividing the cloths into " pieces, which was due up to this day ; and he hath " also remitted to the temples the grain which was " usually levied as a tax on the corn-lands of the " gods, and likewise the measure of wine which was " due as a tax on vineyards [of the gods] ; 31. "and he hath done great things for Apis, and " Mnevis, and for every shrine which contained a " sacred animal, and he expended upon them more " than did his ancestors ; and his heart hath entered " into [the consideration of everything] which was " right and proper for them 32. "at every moment; and he hath given everything " which was necessary for the embalming of their " bodies, lavishly, and in magnificent abundance ; " and he hath undertaken the cost of their mainten- " ance in their temples, and the cost of their great " festivals, and of their burnt offerings, and sacrifices, " and libations ; 33. " [and he hath respected the privileges of the temples, " and of Egypt, and hath maintained them in a suit- 2o6 NOTES FOR TRAVEIJ.ERS IN EGYPT. " able manner according to what is customary and " right ; and he hath spent] both money and grain to " no small amount; 34. "and [hath provided] everything in great abundance "for the house wherein dwelleth the Living Apis ; "and His Majesty hath decorated it with perfect and " new ornamentations of the most beautiful character "always; and he hath made the Living Apis to rise " [like the sun], and hath founded temples, and " shrines, and chapels [in his honour] ; [and he hath "repaired the shrines, which needed repairs, and in " all matters appertaining to the service of the gods 35. "he hath manifested the spirit of a beneficent god; " and during his reign, having made careful inquiry, *' he hath restored the temples which were held in " the greatest honour, as was right] ; and in return " for these things the gods and goddesses have given " him victory, and power, and life, and strength, and " health, and every beautiful thing of every kind "whatsoever, and 36. " in respect of his exalted rank, it shall be established " to him and to his children for ever and ever, with " happy results (or life)." And it has entered into the heart(s) of the priests of the temples of the South and of the North, and of each and every temple [that all the honours which 37. are paid] to the King of the South and North ( Ptolemy, the ever-living, the beloved of Ptah 1, the [God who maketh himself manifest, whose deeds are [beautiful, and those which are paid to the Father- [loving Gods who begot him, and to the Beneficent [Gods who begot those who begot him, and to the [Brother-Gods who begot the begetters of his [begetters,] THE ROSETTA STONE. 207 38. and to the Saviour-Gods, shall be [greatly increased] ; and a statue of the King of the South and North, [Ptolemy, ever-living, beloved of PtahJ , the God who maketh himself manifest, the Lord of beauties, shall be set up [in every temple, in the most prominent place], and it shall be 39. called by his name " fpTOLEMYj , the Saviour of Egypt,-' the interpretation (?) of which is "(Ptolemy], The Victorious One." [And it [shall stand side by side with a statue of the Lord of [the gods (?), who giveth him the weapon of victory, [and it shall be fashioned after the manner of the [Egyptians, and a statue of this kind shall [be set [up in] 40. all the temples which are called by his name. And adoration shall be paid unto these statues three times each day, and every rite and ceremony which it is proper to perform before them shall be performed, and whatsoever is prescribed, and is fitting for their Doubles, shall be performed, even as it is performed for the gods of the Nomes during the festivals and on every sacred day (?), on the day of [his] corona- tion, and on his name-day. And there shall likewise [be set up] a 41. magnificent (?) statue of the King of the South and North f Ptolemy, ever-living beloved of Ptah 1 , the God who maketh himself manifest, whose deeds are beautiful, the son of f Ptolemy Land f Arsinoe 1, the Father-loving gods, and with the statue there shall be a magnificent shrine [made] of the finest copper and inlaid with real stones of every kind, 2o8 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 42. in every temple which is called by his name ; and this statue shall rest in the most holy place [in the temples] side by side with the shrines of the gods of the Nomes. And on the days of the great festivals, when the god [of the temple] cometh forth from his holy habitation, according to his day, the holy shrine of the God who maketh himself manifest, the lord of beauties, shall likewise be made to rise [like the Sun] 43. with them. And in order to make this new shrine to be easily distinguishable [both at the present day, and in future times, they shall set] upon this shrine [ten royal double crowns, made of gold and upon [each of the double crowns there shall be placed the [serpent which it is right and proper to make for the [double crown of gold], instead of the two Uraei 44. which are [placed] upon the tops of the shrines, and the Sekhent Crown shall be in the middle of them, because it was in the Sekhent Crown in which His Majesty shone in the house of the Ka of Ptah {i.e.^ Memphis) 45. at the time when the king entered into the temple, and performed the ceremonies which it was meet and right for him to perform on receiving the exalted rank [of King]. And on the upper surface of the square pedestal which is round these crowns, and in the middle part thereof [which is immediately] beneath] the double Crown \they shall engrave a bapyrus plant and a plant of the south ; and they shall set them in such a way that a vulture^ upon neb^ \ /, beneath wJiich a plant of the south shall be founds shall be affixed to the right-hand upper corner of the golden shrine^ and a serpent^ f/-. , under THE ROSETTA STONE. 209 which is ^37 , placed upon] a papyrus plant, [shall be affixed] to the left hand side [at the upper corner] ; and 46. the interpretation [of these signs is] : — " Lord of the " shrine of Nekhebet, and Lord of the shrine of " Uatchet, who illumineth the land of the White " Crown, and the land of the Red Crown." And inasmuch as the last day of the fourth month of the season Shemu^ {i.e., Mesore), which is the birthday of the beautiful ever-living god, is already established as a feast day, and it hath been observed as a day of festival in the lands of Horus {i.e., the temple lands) from the olden time; and moreover, the seventeenth day of the second month of the season Shat2 {i.e., Paopi), 47. whereon [His Majesty] performed the ceremonies of royal accession, when he received the sovereignty from his father, [is also observed as a day of festival], and behold [these days] have been the source of all [good] things wherein all men have participated; these days, that is to say, the seventeenth and the last day of each month, shall be kept as festivals in the temples 48. of Egypt, in each and every one of them ; and on these days burnt offerings shall be offered up, and meat offerings, and everything which it is right and customary to perform at the celebration of festivals shall be performed on these days every month, and on these festivals every man shall do {i.e., offer up) what he is accustomed to do on [other] fes- 49. tivals in the temples. [And the priests also decreed] that the things which [are brought to the teinples\ as ^ The season of the Inundation, or, our summer. - Our autumn and early winter. P 210 NOTES FOR TRAVET-LKRS IN EGYPT. offerings shall be given unto the persons who \fninister in the temples ; and festivals and processions shall be established in the temples^ and in all Egypt, in honour of] the King of the South and North, ( Ptolemy, ever-living, beloved of Ptah | , the god who maketh himself manifest, whose deeds are beautiful, each year, 50. beginning with the first day of the first month of the season Shat {i.e., Thoth) up to the fifth day thereof • [and on these days the people shall wear] garlands on their heads, and they shall make festal the altars, and shall offer up meat and drink offerings, and shall perform everything which it is right and proper to perform. And the priests of all the temples which are called after his name 51. shall have, in addition to all the other priestly titles which they may possess, the title of " Servant of the "god who m.aketh himself manifest, whose deeds are " beautiful " ; [a?td this title shall be endorsed on all deeds a?id documents which are laid up in the temples^ ; and they shall cause to be engraved on the rings which they wear on their hands, the title of "Libationer of the god who maketh himself " manifest, whose deeds are beautiful." 52. And behold, it shall be in the hands of those who live in the country, and those who desire [it], to estabhsh a copy of the shrine of the god who maketh himself manifest, whose deeds are beautiful, and set it up in their houses, and they shall be at liberty to keep festivals and make rejoicings [before it] each month 53. and each year ; and in order to make those who are "n Egypt to know \ivhy it is that the Egyptians pay honour — as it is most right and proper to do — to the THE ROSKTTA STONE. god wJio maketh himself beautiful^ whose deeds are beautiful^ the priests have decreed^ that this Decree shall \be inscribed^ upon a stele of hard stone in the writing of the words of the gods, and the writing of the books, and in the writing of Haui-Nebui {j.e.^ Greeks), and it shall be set up in the sanctuaries in the temples which [are called] by his name, of the first, second, and third [class], near the statue of the HoRUS, the King of the South and North f Ptolemy, ever-living, beloved of Ptah j , the god who maketh himself manifest, whose deeds are beautiful. V 2 notp:s for travellers in egypt. THE ARABIC ALPHABET. Elif \ Ba <— > Ta Cl? Tha if'S Gim TT Ha r Kha t Dal <-> Zal 3 Ra J Zay j Sin u^ Shin J^ Sad J" a b t th — e g (like g in gin)* h (a smooth gut- tural aspirate) ch (like ch in loch) d dh (like M in that) sh (like J^ in shut) s (like f J in hiss) Zad ^^ ^ Lam J / Mim ^ m Niin j^ ;? Ha i /? Waw , «/ Ya ^' y * Pronounced hard in Egypt. t Usually unpronounceable by Europeans. X Accompanied by a rattling sound. T HE COPTIC ALPHABET. «i3 THE COPTIC ALPHABET. (31 Letters).* A. a SJl m * fis Sl b n n tlJ d V g S X or As a sh 2^ d q f e e n P ^ X ^^ ^^ ^ z P r & h H e c s X k e th X t i, XI, *i, -5-'^, aei, qei, ^ei, ^,opi, z^.rlXI^., 214 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. NAMES OF THE COPTIC MONTHS. OCOCrT August 29^ nA.OTlI September 28 A.etJOp October 28 lyrpi/^K November 27 Xajfi.! December 27 JJLeX}? January 26 c{) I III fl xdd-em-Men-nefer un dn tu her aha Khaa-em-Men-nefer. Being One (/>., the king) fighting (/. """^ PSSn ^ dn tu her ertdt - nd nub en gent One giving to me the gold of bravery. («.«., prize) THE LIFE OF AAHMES. ft 9^ - i dhd en nemu aha Was a second time war em in duset place 221 te7i un this, and Hi T I I^S Ik l-\ an-a I was her nem X^f^ ^^ d?i-nd again capturing [booty] there. I brought ^ un o o o nub a hand, was a« /2/ -^^z* ^r/a/ - «^ /?z/^ en One giving to me the gold of A/VV./VA qent bravery nem-a again. /www un Was One fighting in Ta-qemet r^j^/ e?i Ta-qemet to the south of I /WW\A /(?;;wa: pen city this, aha rising up ^« «« - «« seqera dnx brought I captive a living 1^ sa ha - nd person. I went down er into /WWVS A/VWV^ pa fhu the water mdk verily dn-tu-f em seset her ta bringing him by force along the ^ I uat road pa of the NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. n. tenia town, t a - fid I set out X^r - f with him her mu on the water. PSflM-1- I f en sutenet uhem aha en tu viak Reported it the royal herald, rose up One, verily ^\'^ o o o nub T P w aua - a em ?iuO her - s se?i I was rewarded with gold for it a second time. -4= an tu One ^ Q /WW I capturing un Was Het-udrt Avaris, was I ^ -^«^(?/ a;?;/ sa ud set hemt x^^^ bringing in captives there, man one, women three, t^ ® nil -4= temt tepu ftu in all heads four. u?i was an I hen-/ her ertdt - set his Majesty giving them ^ !^i =!»'-- 1:5 T 4-i T to me W- er for servants. f^^^^ U7l Was I ^ ^72 /// -^^r hemset her One sitting before {i.e.^ besieging) \.>'\ iarehan Sharehan em renpit tua in year five, un was an his THE LIFE OF AAHMES. 223 hen-f her haq - s dhd eu. an - nd Majesty capturing it. Rising up brought in I ^''^ dli. '"^"^J) II ""^ I ^- ^ I I I 1 .B^ Ci ^ ^ ^ ? AAAAAA hagef dm set hemt sen tet ud iin captives there, women two, hand one. Was ^vvwv\ ^ yj p>iw?^ n \J< 1 I A/vA/N/VV /NAAA/V^ an til her ertdt - nd nub en qetit mdk One giving to me the gold of bravery, verily 37 f^ii =■ Mi ^ ertat - nd haqet er hefiii x^^' [were] given to me the captives for servants. Now emxet snia en hen-f menu after had slaughtered his Majesty the doomed foes Satet un dn-f her ^^tW^t of Asia was he sailing up the Nile to X<£nt-he?i-nefer er seksek dntt Khent-hen-nefer to chastise the Anti r\n I AAAA^ 1 A' I ^ Kenseta un dn hen-f her drit of Nubia. Was his Majesty making 2 24 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. X«^ <3;a/ «:;« - sen aha en a slaughter great among them. Rising up ^;'/! - nd haqet dm sa an^ sen brought in I captives there, men living two, / neteru qemau her the gods of the south by am - f his grip. ^ qemt - f Found him \M an hen-f em his Majesty in Z/ 000 X AAAAAA A^AAAA - ta - d Thent - ta - a. Oeni 2^n an Was his P^l> f ^«y her antu - f Majesty bringing him em in A seqer dn^ captive alive [and] reO - / his men aha en Rising up nebu all -TT mas were led in f hag captive. I AAAAAA *v8v an - nd I brought in =V^11r II maka enemies sen two em by seset force in pa the I uda boat of aata the "Scourge. Was One giving to me Q 226 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. ^\,l \ -^ w ^ III I (ep tua her (endu aht heads five for [my] share [and] of land measures statet III ^ I 1 tua em ?mt - a five in my city. dru en ta -xenit W as done [this] to the sailors, 1=^ er au - sen all of them, pef tu that and came, nef nef to himself eju mdtet likewise. dhd en x^^ Rose up degraded one Tetd-an ren f sehiu- Teta-an [was] his name, he collected X(iku - dbu the vile-hearted (/.^., rebels). un was dn !^ T P3 I hen-f her ^^>^ his Majesty sma - f hent - f smiting him [and] his servants temt -fl ertd - nd so that never again [ '^^V^^ ^^^ j- He gave to me tepu x^^^^ ^h^ heads three and of land measures live in my city. Was © statet III tua em 1 /vvy,^/vv nut-d un THE LIFE OF AAHMES. 227 an-a her x^^^^ stiten bat T eser-ka-Ra ^ c^rxv\x\vy ^ the king of the \ Tcheser-ka-Ra ^ ^ \ Norih and South, / (Amenophis I.) /WNAAA maas^eru du - / em x^^^^^ ^^ triumphant, [when] he was sailing up the river to I jl #^^7 I v\ I Jl un Kes er seusexi f(^^'^ Qemt Nubia to widen the boundaries of Egypt. Was an henf- her seqer Anti Kenset pef his Majesty taking captive Anti of Nubia that em her db menfitu - f cintu em kua among his soldiers, being led into an ambush an nehup - sen utexu em not could escape they, being scattered and tai her kes md entu dn x^P^^ yielding on [their] ground so that never again | ^^^^^ ^^^ \ ^fl = s ~ di rr, \\ dst - ud em tep en menfitu - n du Behold I was at the head of our soldiers Q 2 /wwvs 228 Q^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT, aha - nci er I fought in very truth, saw {ix.^ to the utmost of my power) un en hen-f his Majesty A Q A qent - ii cut - na fet . sen mas my valour. I brought in hands two, carrying [them] fet A *T-c:^-_ /WAAAA 1 to his Majesty. I un Was iifi tu One r^6> - / his people and 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 f 11 1 AAAAAA menme?tt ^ / his cattle, Ci K^ f I -^r hehi seeking out rising 4ip I Ji A an-na seqer anx mas hen-f brought in I a captive living bringing [him] to his Majesty. ' ra \o II an-na hen-f hru sen er Qemt em I brought his Majesty in days two to Egypt from Q ■xnemet the pool hem ipper. aha en tu her dud-a rose up One, rewarding me em with o o o nub gold. I aha en Rising up an-na hent I brought in female slaves THE LIFE OF AAHMES. sen two em in io -4= TT 229 / "n A ,n A ^ heru addition to enen mas na those whom I carried en hen-f to his Majesty. un Was an tu One I ertdt - a making me ^:\ I /www ^ I ^ /VV\A/\A ahatiu e7i heq the "Warrior of the Prince.'' (/.^., " Crown-warrior ") I ?/;^ - ;?a he}' %^«^ Was I conveying up the river \ suten bat fu] Aa-^eper-ka-Rd L-kheper-ka-E (Thothmes I.) maax^ru JNw^th'Lnd'south,} Aa-kheper-ka-Ra, triumphant, au-f was he X^nti saiHng up er to X^nt-ken-nefer Khent-hen-nefer er to -¥ sesun ^ /^«/ ^ III ter punish the disaffected ones of Khetet, and to destroy jp 01 J\ + fiT I ^ I ^^i- ^;2 A (?) 2/;^ a;z «; her gent the roads (?) of the district of A (?). Was I fighting ^^ /. , ^ /WVVAA J4"- / /^ fA -/ll ^>T^ emma - / em pa mu ban e7n pa with him on the water foul in the 230 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. «_. l?^ I \ . 1. 1 I J?a ahau her ta , and the fighting barges [were] on the u r\ /vw\A/v I ^ pendit un an tu her ertat-a er her shallow beach, was One making me the chief V--, /www Q j 4- /WWVA IV !^ f i- xenit U?l «// hen-f anx uta of the sailors. Was his Majesty, life, strength, senb health 231 THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. The religion of the ancient Egyptians is one of the most difficult problems of Egyptology, and though a great deal has been written about it during the last few years, and many difficulties have been satisfactorily explained, there still remain unanswered a large number of questions connected with it. In all religious texts the reader is always assumed to have a knowledge of the subject treated of by the writer, and no definite statement is made on the subject concerning which very little, comparatively, is known by students to- day. For example, in the texts inscribed inside the pyramids of Unas, Teta, and Pepi (b.c. 3300-3233), we are brought face to face with religious compositions which mention the acts and relationships of the gods, and refer to beliefs, and give instructions for the performance of certain acts of ritual which are nowhere explained. It will be remembered that Ptolemy II. Philadelphus instructed Manetho to draw up a history of the religion of the ancient Egyptians. If such a work was needed by the cultured Greek who lived when the religion of ancient Egypt, though much modified, was still in existence, how much more is it needed now ? The main beliefs of the Egyptian religion were always the same. The attributes of one god were applied to another, or one god was confused with another; the cult of one god declined in favour of another, or new gods arose and became popular, but the fundamentals of the religion of Egypt remained unchanged. Still, it is asserted by some that the religion of the Early 232 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Empire was simpler than that of the Middle and New Empires, in which the nature and mutual relationships of the gods were discussed and theogonies formulated. Many of the gods of Egypt were the everlasting and unal- terable powers of nature. The oldest god of Egypt is Heru, and his symbol was a hawk. The great Sun-god Ra, or Amen-Ra, as he was called in the Middle Empire, was said to be the maker of all things ; the various gods Horus, Atmu, etc., were merely forms of him. Ra was self-begotten, and hymns to him never cease to proclaim his absolute and perfect unity in terms which resemble those of the Hebrew Scriptures. It will be seen from the translation of a hymn given in the following pages that he is made to possess every attribute, natural and spiritual, which Christian peoples ascribe to God Almighty, and there is no doubt that long before this hymn was written, the Egyptians had formulated a belief in One God, who was almighty and was self-existent. The material symbol of God was the sun, who was personified under the form of Ra, or later Amen-Ra ; and although Osiris, who was probably an indigenous Libyan god, is far older than Ra in Egypt, Ra was declared to have been the father of Osiris, and Osiris was his only son. Osiris was of divine origin, and he reigned wisely and well on earth, but at length he was slain and mutilated by Set, the personification of the powers of darkness. But he rose from the dead, and became the god of the underworld and of the beings who were therein. Because he suffered, died, and rose from the dead, he became the type of the Resurrection to the Egyptians, who based all their hopes of everlasting life upon the belief that Osiris was immortal and eternal. When, where, or how this belief arose cannot be said, but, however far back we go in dynastic, and even pre-dynastic, times in Egypt, we find evidences that the belief in the THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 233 resurrection and eternal life was universal. Under the earliest dynasties tombs* were built, because the care- ful preservation of mummies was believed to be necessary for the well-being of the souls which had inhabited them, and at one period the Egyptians seem to have believed that the material bodies would be raised up and enjoy a new life. It is clear from the papyri that man was supposed to possess a body, ^T]' khat^ a soul, ^^^ ha, a " double," LJ kn, an intelligence. ^^ khu, a shadow T khaibit, a form, y sekhem, a heart, db, a name, ren, and a spiritual body, I flQ ^r:~y sdk. The body, freed from all its most corruptible portions, was preserved by being filled with bitu- men, spices, and aromatic drugs, and having been swathed with many a fold of linen, and protected by amulets and religious texts, awaited in its tomb the visit of its soul. Of the funeral procession we are able to gain some idea from the vignettes which are given in hieroglyphic copies of the Book of the Dead. In the scene on p. 235 the dead man is seen lying on a bier in a chest mounted on a boat with runners, which is drawn by oxen. In the rear is a sepulchral ark or chest surmounted by a figure of Anubis, the god of the dead. In front of the boat are a group of * " Les belles tombes que Ton admire dans les plaines de Thebes et de Sakkarah ne sont done pas dues a I'orgueil de ceux qui les ont erigees. Une pensee plus large a preside a leur construction. Plus les materiaux sont enormes, plus on est sur que les promesses faites par la religion recevront leur execution. En ces sens, les Pyramides ne sont pas des monuments ' de la vaine ostentation des rois ' ; elles sont des obstacles impossibles k renverser, et les preuves gigantesques d'un dogme consolant." (Mariette, Notices des Principaux Monuments^ p. 44.) 234 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. women (p. 236) beating their faces and wailing, and a youth carrying the staff, chair, and box of the deceased. At the head of the procession is the kher heb or master of funereal ceremonies, who reads from an open roll of papyrus the funereal service. The scene on page 236 represents the ceremony of "opening the mouth," which takes place at the door of the tomb. Before the tomb stands the mummy of Hu-nefer to receive the final honours ; behind him, and embracing him, stands Anubis, the god of the dead, and at his feet in front kneel his wife Nasha and her daughter to take a last farewell of the body. By the side of a table of offerings stand three priests : the sevi priest, who wears a panther's skin, holding in his right hand a libation vase, and in the left a censer ; a priest who offers vases of unguents to the deceased ; and a priest who holds in one hand the instrument ur-heka -^^ y [ j with which he is about to touch the eyes and mouth of the mummy, and in the other the instrument i'^ — x for "opening the mouth." On the rounded stele [ ] , at the door of the tomb, is inscribed : — " Hail, Osiris, chief of Amenta, the lord of eternity, spreading out in everlastingness, lord of adorations, chief of the cycle of his gods; and hail, Anubis [dweller] in the tomb, great god, chief of the divine dwelling. May they grant that I may go in and come out from the under- world ; that I may follow Osiris in all his festivals at the beginning of the year ; that I may receive cakes, and that I may come forth in the presence of [Osiris], I the ka of Osiris, the greatly favoured of his god, Hu-nefer." In the lower register are a cow and calf, a priest holding a vase ^ , a priest carrying a haunch of a bull Qy^ , a table of offerings, a sepulchral box \^^ and a table upon which are arranged the instruments employed in the ceremony of -J BQOOD paooD boooo iODOO jODODO 8SSS >^^^ .-V 5Ki::j\!iii;^^iii:^'^i'i.-r4]^rji;5 ?^?^iii2i;icj^KUor:^im^?o^niir:ic iW^HlJjSQr.QjS0t;^nijllo5t'i:::^|; ^^'^ctSiWi^tT^^^G^gyri^^t^^' i^i^5^i;^«^M^i!)<^i:?^i!iw^i^4v ^i*+1^5*y5llGf^lMtH^ l-iJIUJ^^SIellOli^^typ^i]]!^- SLMic-^ll^u^^Ete^R'S'-ftJ^'i^I iy+^ie^^coc fe^iw^s^5»^Ha; i^ii5!H;^o^.Mii^n'^<^^:iiS^^4 .i-*a^.«iitwi^^jW^M^«^ti^iiv- i®m^HJ}fl¥j^il^u^^B«^^:rl !a^ydN^^H)fei^^i^jg^a '^^^'^^ ei^^i!y©is^i^M^^^^ 'siM^^yssf H^^-J'^MilEMl^itMS ?n-+Q ittiJ-^O-.^CJi^GC 3^.iiil^-:t|ji|^ic«:iB5^=^3l-G0«i2 ffiM^MMWMili^ilii -M^i^MMM^Ml^ «^g^iMiMii3ira^3l!fl'^i lliM*^2l3i=^l^'s^Si^r.i«);v]1l^ nii:i"^^'.^^H;^j'W;i^i^ciii THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 237 opening the month, viz.^ the Pes/i-en-kef ^, the haunch C?^, the libation vases \70^\J , the feather p , the instruments f^" — ,,^^ — .(j-v — ^,r\ — ^. the ur-keka, the boxes of purification ^^^^, the bandlel (L eU. After the death of a man it was thought that he was taken into the hall of the god Osiris, judge of the dead, and that his conscience, symbolized by the heart, was weighed in the balance before him. An excellent idea of what the Egyp- tians believed in this matter may be gathered from the two following scenes in the Papyrus of Ani. Ani and his wife Thuthu are entering the Hall of Double Truth, wherein the heart ^ is to be weighed against the feather p, emblematic of Right and Truth, or Law. This ceremony is being per- formed in the presence of the gods "Heru-khuti (Har- machis) the great god within his boat" ^T' |M r^'O' ^^jTemu ^^\i; Shu fo^^^^Tef nut, lady of heaven," ^ ^ IRSt -^37 ^ ; Seb "^ J J ; "Nut, lady of heaven," ^ ^^z::7 \F==i ; Isis flrv Drj ; Neph- thys TT^; "Horus, the great god," ^11; "Hathor, lady of Amenta," [^^|c-:-3; ^''l^'^S^' and Sa ,^m Ji. Upon the beam of the scales is the dog- headed ape 2^ , the companion or attendant of Thoth, "the scribe of the gods." The god Anubis, jackal-headed, is kneeling to examine the indicator of the balance, which is suspended from a projection made in the form of y. The inscription above the head of Anubis reads : — " Saith he HH^iMII oisHiiiiTiMSilS G O o « o ^ o >. z SllIISiHBSN!: ^n^^iJif^ i^i'ttiic spgiiiSij^ '^^^ 24© NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. who is in the abode of the dead, ' Turn thy face, O just and righteous weigher [who weighest] the heart in the balance, to stabHsh it'" Facing Anubis, a god of the dead, stands Ani's "Luck" or "Destiny," Shai T»W^ QQ J|, and above is a human-headed object resting upon a pylon which is supposed to be connected with the place where he *vvas born. Behind these stand the goddesses Meskhenet (Tl 1 <=& and Renenet .wwva ^ ^ Pn ' ^^° ^^''^ ^^ deities who presided over the birth and education of chil- dren. Near these is the soul of Ani in the form of a human- headed bird 'Sx , standing upon a pylon (1. On the right of the balance, behind Anubis, stands Thoth, the scribe of the gods, with his reed-pen and palette containing black and red ink, with which to record the result of the trial. Behind Thoth is the female monster Amam the "Devourer," called also Am-mit ^■. T W| , the " Eater of the Dead." She has the fore-part of a crocodile, the hind-quarters of a hippopotamus, and the middle part of a lion. Ani says : — " My heart my mother, my heart my mother, my heart my coming into being. May there be no resistance to me m [my] judgment ; may there be no opposition to me from the divine chiefs ; may there be no parting of thee from me in the presence of him who keepeth the scales ! Thou art my ka (double) within my body which knitteth and strengtheneth my hmbs. Mayest thou come forth to the place of happiness to which we advance. May the divine chiefs {Shentt) not make my name to stink, and may no lies be spoken against me in the presence of the god. It is good for thee to hear glad tidings of joy at the weighing of THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 24 1 words. May no false accusation be made against me in the presence of the great god. Verily, exceedingly mighty shalt thou be when thou risest]." Thoth, the righteous judge of the great cycle of the gods who are in the presence of the god Osiris, saith, " Hear ye this judgment. The heart of Osiris hath in very truth been weighed and his soul hath stood as a witness for him ; his trial in the Great Balance is true. There hath not been found any wickedness in him ; he hath not wasted the offerings in the temples ; he hath not harmed any by his works ; and he uttered not evil reports while he was upon earth." Then the great cycle of the gods reply to Thoth dwelling in Khemennu (Hermopolis) : " That which cometh forth from thy mouth cannot be gainsaid. Osiris, the scribe Ani, the victorious one in judgment, is just and righteous. He hath not committed sin, neither hath he done evil against us. The Devourer shall not be allowed to prevail over him ; he shall be allowed to enter into the presence of the god Osiris, and offerings of meat and drink shall be given unto him, together with an abiding habitation in. Sekhet-hetepu, as unto the followers of Horus." In the second part of this scene we have Ani being led into the presence of the god Osiris. On the left the hawk- headed god Horus \%, the son of Isis, wearing the crowns of the South and North Yf , holding Ani by the hand, leads him into the presence of " Osiris, the lord of eternity," rl J) '^^^^ ^1 ^5^r ned tchetta. This god is seated within a shrine in the form of a funereal chest, and he wears the atefcro-^n jCfy with plumes ; at the back of his neck hangs a memt ((^, the emblem of joy and R o < .^^ 0) o aj "So "^ t/J OJ ^ p a; 5 (U S ,5-1 ^- O • -- r; TO ^^ S (]) *^ ^. ^' ^. J- y. % % |. g'. ffi -^. m^ «- <^. ^- 1^• 256 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Ptah I 1 , the 'Blacksmith,' one of the oldest of the gods, was honoured with a temple and worshipped at Memphis from the time of the 1st dynasty. He is said to be the father of the gods, who came forth from his eye, and of men, who came forth from his mouth. He is repre- sented in the form of a mummy, and he holds a sceptre composed of 1 usr^ 'strength,' -r- dnkh^ 'life,' and H tet^ 'stability.' In connection with the resurrection and the nether-world, he is called PTAH-SEKER- ASAR, and is then represented as a little squat boy, at times wearing a beetle on his head. He is sometimes represented with Isis and Nephthys, and then appears to be a form of Osiris. Temu :^|^V^. <"• Atmu I]<:.S^^|, a form of the Sun-god, was the ' Closer ' of the day or night. PTAH. TEMU. THE REI^IGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 257 Mut ^^\^ J) > the ' Mother,' was one of the divinities of the Theban triad ; she was supposed to represent Nature, the mother of all things. Khepera H (] c^5 the 'Creator,' was associated with Ptah, and was supposed to be the god who caused himself to come into existence. He is represented with a beetle for his head. He was supposed to be the father of the gods and creator of the universe, and his attributes were ascribed to Ra under the Middle Empire ; he was the father of Shu and Tefnut. Bast )( rv, j) was principally worshipped in Lower Egypt at Bubastis (Pa-Bast), where a magnificent temple was built in her honour ; she is represented with the head of a cat, and was associated with Ptah. Her sister goddess was Sekhet, who had the head of a lion, and typified the scorching heat of the sun. fe« BAST. J\ was in late times made to be a counterpart She was the goddess of hunting, and is represented holding bows and arrows ; her cult is older than the 1st dynasty. Nit of Mut and Hathor. 258 Ra NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Y r^, the Sun-god, was the creator of gods and men ; his emblem was the sun's disk. His worship was very ancient, and he was said to be the offspring of Nut, or the sky. He assumed the forms of several other gods, and is at times represented by the lion, cat, and hawk. In papyri and on bas-reliefs he is represented with the head of a hawk and wearing a disk, in front of which is an uraeus ^. He was particularly adored at Thebes. When he rose in the morning he was called Heru-khuti or Harmachis ; and at night, when he set, he w^as called Atmu, or 'the closer.' During the night he was supposed to be engaged in fighting Apep, the serpent, who, at the head of a large army of fiends, personifications of mist, darkness, and cloud, tried to overthrow him. The battle was fought daily, but Ra always conquered, and appeared day after day in the sky. Horus, ^vrTJ' ?^^^j ^s t^^ morning sun, and is also represented as having the head of a hawk ; he was said to be the son of Isis and Osiris, and is usually called the " avenger of his father," in reference to his defeat of Set. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 2^9 Amen-Ra [j'^-— 'O^, Mut, and Khonsu formed the great triad of Thebes. Amen-Ra was said to be the son of Ptah, and he seems to have usurped the attributes of many of the gods. The word Amen means ' hidden.' His chief titles were " lord of the thrones of the two lands," and " king of the gods." He is represented as wearing horns and feathers, and holding ^\ 'rule,' I 'dominion,' | 'power,' and 'stability.' The god Amsu |v was a form of Amen-Ra. The exalted position which Amen-Ra, originally a mere local deity, occupied at Thebes, will be best understood from the translation of a hymn to him written in hieratic during the XVHIth or XlXth dynasty :— Amen-ra. " Hymn * to Amen-Ra, the bull in Heliopolis, president of all the gods, beautiful god, beloved one, the giver of the life of all warmth to all beautiful cattle ! " Hail to thee, Amen-Ra, lord of the thrones of the two lands, at the head of the Apts.t The bull of his mother, at the head of his fields, the extender of footsteps, at the head of the " land of the South," | lord of the Matchau, § prince of Araby, lord of the sky, eldest son of earth, lord * A P'rench version of this hymn is given by Grebaut in his Hynine a A?nmon-Rd^ Paris, 1875. The hieratic text is published by Mariette, Les Papyrus Egyptiens du Musee de Boulaq, pi. 11-13. t The great temple at Karnak. X Ethiopia and Asia. A country in Asia. S 2 26o Notes fOU travellers in eGVpT. of things which exist, estabhsher of things, establisher of all things. "One in his times, as among the gods. Beautiful bull of the cycle of the gods, president of all the gods, lord of Law, father of the gods, maker of men, creator of beasts, lord of things which exist, creator of the staff of life, maker of the green food which makes cattle to live. Form made by Ptah, beautiful child, beloved one. The gods make adorations to him, the maker of things which are below, and of things which are above. He shines on the two lands sailing through the sky in peace. King of the South and North, the Sun (Ra), whose word is law, prince of the world ! The mighty of valour, the lord of terror, the chief who makes the earth like unto himself. How very many more; are his forms than those of any (other) god ! The gods; rejoice in his beauties, and they make praises to him in the' two great horizons, at (his) risings in the double horizon of flame. The gods love the smell of him when he, the eldest born of the dew,* comes from Araby, when he traverses; the land of the Matchau, the beautiful face coming fromi Neter-ta.t The gods cast themselves down before his feet when they recognize their lord in his majesty, the lord of fear, the mighty one of victory, the mighty of Will, the master of diadems, the verdifier of offerings (?), the maker of" tchefau food. " Adorations to thee, O thou maker of the gods, who hast stretched out the heavens and founded the earth ! The; untiring watcher, Amsu-Amen, lord of eternity, maker of everlasting, to whom adorations are made (literally, lord of" adorations), at the head of the Apts, established with two horns, beautiful of aspects ; the lord of the uraeus crown, * Compare Psalm ex. 3. t I.e.y '* Divine land," a name frequently given on the monuments to indicate the lands which lie to the south of Egypt between the Nile and the Red Sea. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 26 1 exalted of plumes, beautiful of tiara, exalted of the white crown ; the serpent mehen and the two ursei are the (ornaments) of his face ; the double crown, helmet and cap are his decorations in (his) temple. Beautiful of face he receives the atefcxovfn J^ ; beloved of the south and north is he, he is master of the sekhti crown )u . He receives the amsu sceptre '^, (and is) lord of the and of the whip. Beautiful prince, rising with the white crown /I, lord of rays, creator of light ! The gods give acclamations to him, and he stretches out his hands to him that loves him. The flame makes his enemies fall, his eye overthrows the rebels, it thrusts its copper lance into the sky and makes the serpent Nak* vomit what it has swallowed. * Nak is one of the names of Apep, the demon of mist, cloud, and night, who was supposed to swallow up the sun daily; he was the enemy, par excellence, whom the Sun-god Ra was supposed to fight against and overcome. Apep was represented under the form of a serpent with knives stuck in his back ^^^hhh- Compare the following extract from the service for his destruction which was recited daily in the temple of Amen-Ra, at Thebes : " Fall down upon thy face, Apep, enemy of Ra ! The flame coming forth from the eye of Horus comes against thee, a mighty flame which comes forth from the eye ot Horus comes against thee. Thou art thrust down into the flame of fire which rushes out against thee, a flame which is fatal to thy soul, thy intelli- gence, thy words of power, thy body and thy shade. The flame prevails over thee, it drives darts into thy soul, it makes an end of whatever thou hast, and sends goads into thy form. Thou hast fallen by the eye of Horus, which is mighty over its enemy, which devours thee, and which leads on the mighty flame against thee ; the eye of Ra prevails over thee, the flame devours thee, and nothing of thee remains. Get thee back, thou art hacked in pieces, thy soul is parched, thy name is buried in oblivion, silence covers it, it is overthrown; thou art put an end to and buried under threefold oblivion. Get thee back, retreat thou, thou art cut in pieces and removed from him that is in his shrine. O Apep, thou doubly crushed one, an end to thee, an end to thee ! Mayest thou never rise up again ! The eye of Horus prevails over thee 262 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT, "Hail to thee, Ra, lord of Law, whose shrine is hidden, master of the gods, the god Khepera in his boat ; by the sending forth of (his) word the gods sprang into existence. Hail god Atmu, maker of mortals. However many are their forms he causes them to live, he makes different the colour of one man from another. He hears the prayer of him that is oppressed, he is kind of heart to him that calls unto him, he delivers him that is afraid from him that is strong of heart, he judges between the mighty and the weak. '. "The lord of intelligence, knowledge (?) is the utterance of his mouth. The Nile cometh by his will, the greatly beloved lord of the palm tree comes to make mortals live. Making advance every work, acting in the sky, he makes to come into existence the sweet things of the daylight ; the gods rejoice in his beauties, and their hearts Uve when they see him. O Ra, adored in the Apts, mighty one of risings in the shrine; O Ani,*" lord of the festival of the new moon, who makest the six days' festival and the festival of the last quarter of the moon ; O prince, life, health, and strength ! lord of all the gods, whose appearances are in the horizon, president of the ancestors of Auker;f his name is hidden from his children in his name 'Amen.' " Hail to thee, O thou who art in peace, lord of dilation of heart (/.^., joy), crowned form, lord of the ureret crown, exalted of the plumes, beautiful of tiara, exalted of the white crown, the gods love to look upon thee ; the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt is established upon thy brow. Beloved art thou in passing through the two lands. and devours thee daily, according to that which Ra decreed should be done to thee. Thou art thrown down into the flame of fire which feeds upon thee ; thou art condemned to the fire of the eye of Horus which devours thee, thy soul, thy body, thy intelligence and thy shade." — British Museum Papyrus, 10,188, col. xxiv. * |[j[j^, a form of Ra. t A common name for a necropolis. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 263 Thou sendest forth rays in rising from thy two beautiful eyes. The pat (ancestors, i.e.^ the dead) are in raptures of dehght when thou shinest, the cattle become languid when thou shinest in full strength ; thou art loved when thou art in the sky of the south, thou art esteemed pleasant in the sky of the north. Thy beauties seize and carry away all hearts, the love of thee makes the arms drop; thy beautiful creation makes the hands tremble, and (all) hearts to melt at the sight of thee. "O Form, one, creator of all things, O one, only, maker of existences ! Men came forth from his two eyes, the gods sprang into existence at the utterance of his mouth. He maketh the green herb to make cattle live, and the staff of life for the (use of) man. He maketh the fishes to live in the rivers, the winged fowl in the sky; he giveth the breath of life to (the germ) in the egg, he maketh birds of all kinds to live, and likewise the reptiles that creep and fly; he causeth the rats to live in their holes, and the birds that are on every green twig. Hail to thee, O maker of all these things, thou only one. " He is of many forms in his might ! He watches all people who sleep, he seeks the good for his brute creation. O Amen, estabhsher of all things, Atmu and Harmachis,* all people adore thee, saying, ' Praise to thee because of thy resting among us ; homage to thee because thou hast created us.' All creatures say ' Hail to thee,' and all lands praise thee ; from the height of the sky, to the breadth of the earth, and to the depths of the sea art thou praised. The gods bow down before thy majesty to exalt the Will of their creator ; they rejoice when they meet their begetter, and say to thee, Come in peace, O father of the fathers of all the gods, who hast spread out the sky and hast founded the earth, maker of things which are, * These three names are the names of the Sun-god at mid-day evening and morning respectively. 264 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. creator of things which exist, prince, Hfe, health, strength president of the gods. We adore thy will, inasmuch as thou hast made us, thou hast made (us) and given us birth, and we give praises to thee by reason of thy resting with us. " Hail to thee, maker of all things, lord of Law, father of the gods, maker of men, creator of animals, lord of grain, making to live the cattle of the hills ! Hail Amen, bull, beautiful of face, beloved in the Apts, mighty of risings in the shrine, doubly crowned in Heliopolis, thou judge of Horus and Set in the great hall. President of the great cycle of the gods, only one,* without his second, at the head of the Apts, Ani at the head of the cycle of his gods, living in Law every day, the double-horizoned Horus of the East ! He has created the mountain (or earth), the silver, the gold, and genuine lapis-lazuli at his Will .... Incense and fresh dnti^ are prepared for thy nostrils, O beautiful face, coming from the land of the Matchau, Amen-Ra, lord of the thrones of the two lands, at the head of the Apts, Ani at the head of his shrine. King, one among the gods, myriad are his names, how many are they is not known ; shining in the eastern horizon and setting in the western horizon, overthrowing his enemies by his birth at dawn every day. Thoth exalts his two eyes, and makes him to set in his splendours ; the gods rejoice in his beauties which those who are in his exalt. Lord of the sekti% boat, and of the dfet% boat, which travel over the sky for thee in peace, thy sailors rejoice when they see Nak overthrown, his limbs stabbed with the knife, the fire devouring him, his foul soul beaten out of his foul body, and his feet carried away. The gods rejoice, Ra is satisfied, Heliopolis is glad, the enemies of Atmu are overthrown, * Compare " The Lord our God is ONE," Deut. vi. 4. t A perfume brought into Egypt from the East. X The boat in which Ra sailed to his place of setting in the West. § The boat in which Ra sailed from his place of rising in the East. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 265 and the heart of Nebt-ankh * is happy because the enemies of her lord are overthrown. The gods of Kher-aha are rejoicing, those who dwell in the shrines are making obeisance when they see him mighty in his strength (?) Form (?) of the gods of law, lord of the Apts in thy name of ' maker of Law.' Lord of tchefau food, bull in thy name of 'Amen bull of his mother.' Maker of mortals, making become, maker of all things that are in thy name of Atmu Khepera. Mighty Law making the body festal, beautiful of face, making festal the breast. Form of attributes (?), lofty of diadem ; the two ursei fly by his forehead. The hearts of the pdtu go forth to him, and unborn generations turn to him ; by his coming he maketh festal the two lands. Hail to thee, Amen-Ra, lord of the thrones of the two lands ! his town loves his shining." Another hymn to Amen-Ra reads as follows : — 1. Hail, prince coming forth from the womb ! 2. Hail, eldest son of primeval matter ! 3. Hail, lord of multitudes of aspects and evolutions ! 4. Hail, golden circle in the temples ! 5. Hail, lord of time and bestower of years ! 6. Hail, lord of life for all eternity ! 7. Hail, lord of myriads and millions ! 8. Hail, thou who shinest in rising and setting ! 9. Hail, thou who makest beings joyful ! 10. Hail, thou lord of terror, thou fearful one ! 11. Hail, lord of multitudes of aspects and divinities ! 12. Hail, thou who art crowned with the white crown; thou master of the urerer crown ! 13. Hail, thou sacred baby of Horus, praise ! 14. Hail, son of Ra who sittest in the boat of milHons of years ! 15. Hail, restful leader, come to thy hidden places ! */.^., " the lady of life," a name of Isis. 266 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 1 6. Hail, lord of terror, self-produced ! 17. Hail, thou restful of heart, come to thy town ! 18. Hail, thou that causest cries of joy, come to thy town ! 19. Hail, thou darling of the gods and goddesses ! 20. Hail, thou dipper in the sea, come to thy temple ! 21. Hail, thou who art in the Nether-world, come to thy offerings ! 22. Hail, thou that protectest them, come to tliy temple ! 23. Hail, Moon-god, growing from a crescent into an illuminated disk ! 24. Hail, sacred flower of the mighty house ! 25. Hail, thou that bringest the sacred cordage of the Sekti* boat ! 26. Hail, thou lord of the Hennuf boat who becomest young again in the hidden place ! 27. Hail, thou perfect soul in the Nether-world ! 28. Hail, thou sacred visitor of the north and south ! 29. Hail, thou hidden one, unknown to mankind ! 30. Hail, thou illuminator of him that is in the Nether world, that causest him to see the disk ! * The Sektet p ^— ^ ^n\$, was the boat of the sun in the morning, just as the Mdti _ n v.._i(C vvas the boat of the sun in the evening. A hymn to the sun-god says : — khd - k em tuati em sekti Risest thou in the morning in the sekti\i02X ; ,. ■ , — w__, ^^ ^'^::i:-^^T^o o D "v^^^ _B% c^ w ^ _£i^ J^f^a <==> I hetep-k em mdti em masher Settest thou in the vidti boat in the evening. t The henmi Q v^. ■^$^/W was the boat which was drawn around the sanctuaries of the temples at dawn. Drawings of it are given by Lanzone, Di:Aonario, plates cclxv-cclxvii. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYP'J 267 .31. Hail, lord of the afef crown ^f^ thou mighty one in Het-suten-henen ! * 32. Hail, mighty one of terror ! 2,:^. Hail, thou that risest in Thebes, flourishing for ever ! 34. Hail, Amen-Ra, king of the gods, who makest thy limbs to grow in rising and setting ! 35. Hail, offerings and oblations in Ru-stau {i.e., the passages of the tomb) ! 2,6. Hail, thou that placest the uraeus upon the head of its lord ! 37. Hail, stablisher of the earth upon its foundations ! 38. Hail, opener of the mouth of the four mighty gods who are in the Nether-world ! 39. Hail, thou living soul of Osiris, who art diademed with the moon ! 40. Hail, thou that hidest thy body in the great coffin at Heliopolis ! 41. Hail, hidden one, mighty one, Osiris in the Netherworld ! 42. Hail, thou that unitest his soul to heaven, thine enemy is fallen ! Isis, n^, Aset, the mother of Horus and wife of Osiris, A ^ , Asar, was the daughter of Nut, or the sky ; she married her brother Osiris. Her sister Nephthys |] ^ J) ^"^^ her brother Set likewise married one another. This last couple conspired against Isis and Osiris, and Set, having induced his brother Osiris to enter a box, closed the lid down and threw the box into the Nile; it was carried down by the river and finally cast up on the sea shore. Set, having found the box once more, cut the body of Osiris into fourteen pieces, which he cast over the length and breadth of the land. As soon as Herakleopolis, the metropolis of the 20th nome of Upper Egypt, 268 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Isis heard what had happened, she went about seeking for the pieces, and built a temple over each one ; she found all save one. Osiris, however, had become king of the nether- world, and vengeance was taken by his son Horus upon his brother Set. Osiris is usually represented in the form of a mummy, holding in his hands [ 'dominion,' •?■ 'life,' ^\ 'rule,' and ] 'power.' He is called 'the lord of Abydos,' ' lord of the holy land, lord of eternity and prince of everlasting,' 'the president of the gods,' 'the head of the corridor of the tomb,' ' bull of the west,' ' judge of the dead,' etc., etc. The writers of Egyptian mythological texts always assume their readers to possess a knowledge of the history of the murder of Osiris by Set, and of the wanderings and troubles of his disconsolate wife Isis. The following extracts from Plutarch's work on the subject will supply certain informa- tion not given in the Egyptian texts. " Osiris, being now become king of Egypt, applied him- self towards civilizing his countrymen by turning them from their former indigent and barbarous course of life ; he moreover taught them how to cultivate and improve the fruits of the earth ; he gave them a body of laws to regulate their conduct by, and instructed them in that reverence and worship which they were to pay to the gods ; with the same good disposition he afterwards tra- velled over the rest of the world, inducing the people everywhere to submit to his discipline ; not indeed compelling them by force of arms, but persuading them to yield to the strength of his reasons, which were conveyed to them in the most agree- able manner, in hymns and songs accom- panied with instruments of music ; from osiris. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 269 which last circumstance the Greeks conclude him to have been the same person with their Dionysus or Bacchus. During the absence of Osiris from his kingdom, Typhon had no opportunity of making any innovations in the State, Isis being extremely vigilant in the government, and always upon her guard. After his return, however, having first persuaded seventy-two other persons to join with him in the conspiracy, together with a certain queen of Ethiopia named Aso, who chanced to be in Egypt at that time, he contrived a proper stratagem to execute his base designs. For having privily taken the measure of Osiris's body, he caused a chest to be made exactly of the same size with it, as beautiful as might be, and set off with all the ornaments of art. This chest he brought into his banqueting room ; where after it had been much admired by all who were present, Typhon, as it were in jest, promised to give it to any one of them whose body upon trial it might be found to fit. Upon this the whole company, one after another, go into it. But as it did not fit any of them, last of all Osiris lays himself down in it ; upon which the conspirators immediately ran together, clapped the cover upon it, then fastened it down on the outside with nails, pouring likewise melted lead over it. After this they carried it away to the river-side, and con- veyed it to the sea by the Tanaitic mouth of the Nile ; which, for this reason, is still held in the utmost abomina- tion by the Egyptians, and never named by them but with proper marks of detestation. These things, say they, were thus executed upon the 17 th day of the month Athor, when the sun was in Scorpio, in the 28th year of Osiris's reign ; though there are others who tell us that he was no more than twenty-eight years old at this time. " The first who knew of the accident which had befallen their king, were the Pans and Satyrs who inhabited the •country round Khemmis (Panopolis or Ahmim), and they 270 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. immediately acquainting the people with the news, gave the first occasion to the name of Panic Terrors, which has ever since been made use of to signify any sudden affright or amazement of a multitude. As to Isis, as soon as the report reached her, she immediately cut off one of the locks of her hair, and put on mourning apparel upon the very spot where she then happened to be, which accordingly from this accident has ever since been called Coptos, or the Ciiy of Afourning, though some are of opinion that this word rather signifies Deprivation. After this she wandered everywhere about the country full of disquietude and per- plexity in search of the chest, enquiring of every person she met with, even of some children whom she chanced to see, whether they knew what was become of it. Now it so happened that these children had seen what Typhon's accomplices had done with the body, and accordingly acquainted her by what mouth of the Nile it had been con- veyed into the sea "At length she received more particular news of the chest, that it had been carried by the waves of the sea to the coast of Byblos, and there gently lodged in the branches of a bush of Tamarisk, which in a short time had shot up into a large and beautiful tree, growing round the chest and enclosing it on every side, so that it was not to be seen ; and further, that the king of the country, amazed at its unusual size, had cut the tree down, and made that part of the trunk wherein the chest was concealed a pillar to support the roof of his house. These things, say they, being made known to Isis in an extraordinary manner, by the report of demons, she immediately went to Byblos ; * where, setting herself down by the side of a fountain, she refused to speak to anybody excepting only to the queen's women who chanced to be there : these she saluted and caressed in the kindest manner possible, plaiting their hair for them, and transmitting * I.e., the papyrus swamps. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 27 1 into them part of that wonderfully grateful odour which issued from her own body The queen therefore sent for her to court, and after a further acquaintance with her, made her nurse to one of her sons The goddess, discovering herself, requested tliat the pillar which supported the roof of the king's house might be given to her ; which she accordingly took down, and then easily cutting it open, after she had taken out what she wanted, she wrapt up the remainder of the trunk in fine linen, and pouring perfumed oil upon it, delivered it into the hands of the king and queen When this was done, she threw herself upon the chest, making at the same time such a loud and terrible lamentation over it as frighted the younger of the king's sons who heard her out of his life. But the elder of them she took with her, and set sail with the chest for Egypt " No sooner was she arrived in a desert place, where she imagined herself to be alone, but she presently opened the chest, and laying her face upon her dead husband's, embraced his corpse, and wept bitterly. " Isis intending a visit to her son Horus, who was brought up at Butus, deposited the chest in the meanwhile in a remote and unfrequented place ; Typhon, however, as he was one night hunting by the light of the moon accidentally met with it ; and knowing the body which was enclosed in it, tore it into several pieces, fourteen in all, dispersing them up and down in different parts of the country. Upon being made acquainted with this event, Isis once more sets out in search of the scattered fragments of her husband's body, making use of a boat made of the reed papyrus in order the more easily to pass through the lower and fenny parts of the country. For which reason, say they, the crocodile never touches any persons who sail in this sort of vessel, as either fearing the anger of the goddess, or else respecting it on account of its having once carried her. To this occasion, 272 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. therefore, it is to be imputed that there are so many different sepulchres of Osiris shewn in Egypt ; for we are told that wherever Isis met with any of the scattered limbs of her husband, she there buried it. There are others, how- ever, who contradict this relation, and tell us that this variety of sepulchres was owing rather to the' policy of the queen, who, instead of the real body, as was pretended, presented these several cities with the image only of her husband ; and that she did this not only to render the honours which would by this means be paid to his memory more extensive, but likewise that she might hereby elude the malicious search of Typhon ; who, if he got the better of Horus in the war wherein they were going to be engaged, distracted by this multiplicity of sepulchres, might despair of being able to find the true one "After these things Osiris, returning from the other world, appeared to his son Horus, encouraged him to the battle, and at the same time instructed him in the exercise of arms. He then asked him, ' what he thought the most glorious action a man could perform ? ' to which Horus replied, ' to revenge the injuries offered to his father and mother.' This reply much rejoiced Osiris We are moreover told that amongst the great numbers who were continually deserting from Typhon's party was the goddess Thoueris, and that a serpent pursuing her as she was coming over to Horus, was slain by his soldiers. Afterwards it came to a battle between them, which lasted many days ; but victory at length inclined to Horus, Typhon himself being taken prisoner. Isis, however, to whose custody he was committed, was so far from putting him to death, that she even loosed his bonds and set him at liberty. This action of his mother so extremely incensed Horus, that he laid hands upon her and pulled off the ensign of royalty which she wore on her head ; and instead thereof Hermes clapt on an helmet made in the shape of an ox's head. THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 273 After this there were two other battles fought be- tween them, in both of which Typhon had the worst "Such, then, are the principal circumstances of this famous story, the more harsh and shocking parts of it, such as the cutting in pieces of Horus and the beheading of Isis, being omitted." (Plutarch, De Iside et Ostride, xii-xx. Squire's translation.) The following is an extract from a hymn addressed to Osiris by Isis and Nephthys (Brit. Mus. Papyrus No. io,i88): — "O beloved of his father, lord of rejoicings, thou delightest the hearts of the cycle of the gods, and thou illuminatest thy house with thy beauties ; the cycle of the gods fear thy power, the earth trembleth through fear of thee. I am thy wife who maketh thy protection, the sister who pro- tecteth her brother; come, let me see thee, O lord of my love. O twice exalted one, mighty of attributes, come, let me see thee ; O baby who advancest, child, come, let me see thee. Countries and regions weep for thee, the zones weep for thee as if thou wert Sesheta, heaven and earth weep for thee, inasmuch as thou art greater than the gods ; may there be no cessation of the glorifying of thy Ka. Come to thy temple, be not afraid, thy son Horus em- braces the circuit of heaven. O thou sovereign, who makest afraid, be not afraid. Thy son Horus avenges thee and overthrows for thee the fiends and the devils. Hail, lord, follow after me with thy radiance, let me see thee daily; the smell of thy flesh is like that of Punt {i.e., the spice land of Arabia). Thou art adored by the venerable women, in peace ; the entire cycle of the gods rejoice. Come thou to thy wife in peace, her heart flutters through her love for thee, she will embrace thee and not let thee depart from her ; her heart is oppressed because of her anxiety to see thee and thy beauties. She has made an end T 2 74 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. of preparations for thee in the secret house ; she has des- troyed the pain which is in thy Hmbs and the sickness as if it never existed. Life is given to thee by the most excellent wife. Hail, thou protectest the inundation in the fields of Aphroditopolis this day. The cow (/>., Isis) weeps aloud for thee with her voice, thy love is the limit of her desire. Her heart flutters because thou art shut up from her. She would embrace thy body with both arms and would come to thee quickly. She avenges thee on account of what was done to thee, she makes sound for thee thy flesh on thy bones, she attaches thy nose to thy face for thee, she gathers together for thee all thy bones." In the calendar of the lucky and unlucky days of the Egyptian year, the directions concerning the 26th day of the month of Thoth, which is marked Q -/^ Q-/ ^ Q -/^ , or " thrice unlucky," say, " Do nothing at all on this day, for it is the day on which Horus fought against Set. Standing on the soles of their feet they aimed blows at each other like men, and they became like two bears of hell, lords of Kher-aha. They passed three days and three nights in this manner, after which Isis made their weapons fall. Horus fell down, crying out, ' I am thy son Horus,' and Isis cried to the weapons, saying, ' Away, away, from my son Horus ' Her brother Set fell down and cried out, saying, ' Help, help !' Isis cried out to the weapons, *Fall down.' Set cried out several times, ' Do I not wish to honour my mother's brother? ' and Isis cried out to the weapons, ' Fall down — set my elder brother free ' ; then the weapons fell away from him. And Horus and Set stood up like two men, and each paid no attention to what they had said. And the majesty of Horus was enraged against his mother Isis like a panther of the south, and she fled before him. On that day a terrible struggle took place, and Horus cut off the head of Isis ; and Thoth transformed this head by THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 275 his incantations, and put it on her again in the form of a head of a cow." (Chabas, Le Calendrier^ p. 29.) Nephthys, Tl cn J)j Nebt-het, sister of Osiris and Isis, is generally represented standing at the bier of Osiris lamenting him. One myth relates that Osiris mistook her for Isis, and that Anubis, the god of the dead, was the result of the union. Set, pvl) the god of evil, appears to have been wor- shipped in the earliest times. He was the opponent of Horus in a three days' battle, at the end of which he was defeated. He was worshipped by the Hyksos, and also by the Kheta ; but in the later days of the Egyptian empire he was supposed to be the god of evil, and was considered to be the chief fiend and rebel against the sun-god Ra. Anubis, (I -J, Anpu, the god of the dead, is usually represented with the head of a jackal Seb, ^^ J ^, or Keb, was the husband of Nut, and father of Osiris and the other gods of that cycle. NEBT-HET 276 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Thoth, n, 7^ , Tehuti, 'the measurer,' was the scribe of the gods, and the measurer of time and inventor of numbers. In the judgment hall of Osiris he stands by the side of the balance holding a palette and reed ready to record the result of the weighing as announced by the dog-headed ape which sits on the middle of the beam of the scales. In one aspect he is the god of the moon, and is represented with the head of an ibis. TEHUTI. KHONSU. Khonsu, I ^ 3 , was associated with Amen-Ra and Mut in the Theban triad. He was the god of the moon, and is represented as hawk-headed and wearing the lunar disk and crescent. His second name was Nefer-hetep, and he was worshipped with great honour at Thebes. Sebek, ^§^5 the crocodile-headed god, was worshipped at Kom-Ombos and in the Fayyum. I-em-hetep (Imouthis), U ^v Jj, was the son of Ptah. ^ THE RELIGION AND GODS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 277 Shu, R (5>. J|, and Tefnut, ^ ^ Jjj were the parents of Seb and Nut, and were the personifications of sunh'ght and moisture respectively. Athor, or Hathor, ^ , Het-Heru, 'the house of Horus,' is identified with Nut, the sky, or place in which she brought forth and suckled Horus. She was the wife of Atmu, a form of Ra. She is represented as a woman wearing a headdress in the shape of a vulture, and above it a disk and horns. She is called 'mistress of the gods,' 'lady of the sycamore,' 'lady of the west,' and ' Hathor of Thebes.' She is the female power of nature, and has some of the attributes of Isis, Nut, and Mut. She is often represented under the form of a cow coming out of the Theban hills. HATHOR. Maat, ^^ £^ J), the goddess of ' Law,' was the eye of the Sun-god Ra; she is represented as wearing the feather Ij, emblematic of law %jj. 278 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Hapi, X Jfj the god of the Nile, is represented wear- ing a cluster of flowers on his head fiM ; he is coloured red and green, probably to represent the colours of the water of the Nile immediately before and just after the beginning of the inundation. Serapis, i.e.^ Osiris- Apis, jl'io > was a god intro- duced into Egypt during the reign of tlie Ptolemies;* 'he is represented with the head of a bull wearing a disk and uraeus. He is said to be the second son of Ptah. By both Egyptians and Greeks he was regarded as the personi- fication of Hades. The worship of Apis at Memphis goes back to the earliest times ; the Serapeum, discovered there by M. Mariette, contained the tombs of Apis bulls from the time of Amenophis HI. (about B.C. 1550) down to the time of the Roman Empire. * " the Lagids, as well as the Seleucids, were careful of dis- turbing the foundations of the old religion of the country ; they introduced the Greek god of the lower world, Pluto, into the native worship, under the hitherto little mentioned name of the Egyptian god Serapis, and then gradually transferred to this the old Osiris worship," (Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire^ Vol. II., p. 265.) 279 THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. The total population of Egypt proper was on June i, 1897, 9,734,405, of whom 112,526 were foreigners. In a country where an increase in population always means an increase in taxation, it is quite impossible to obtain an accurate census. As far back as the time of David* the idea of "numbering the people" has been unpopular in the East. It is exceedingly difficult to obtain an exact idea of what the population of Egypt actually was in Pharaonic times, for the inscriptions tell us nothing. Herodotus gives us no information on this matter, but Diodorus tells us that it amounted to 7,000,000 in ancient times. The priests at Thebes informed Germanicus, a.d. 19, that in the times of Rameses 11. the country contained 700,000 1 fighting men ; it will also be remembered that the Bible states that the " children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand on foot that were men, beside children. And a mixed multitude went up also with them." Exodus xii. 37, 38. In the time of Vespasian 7,500,000 persons paid poll-tax ; we may assume that about 500,000 were exempt, and therefore there must have been at least 8,000,000 of people in Egypt, without reckoning slaves. (Mommsen, Provinces of Ronie^ Vol. II. p. 258.) It is probable, however, that the population of Egypt under the rule of the Pharaohs has been greatly exaggerated, chiefly because no accurate data were at hand whereby errors might be corrected. During the occupation of the country by the French in 1798-180T it was said to be 2,460,200; Sir * "And Satan stood up against Israel, and moved David to number Israel." i Chronicles xxi. i. t " Septigenta milia aetate militari." Tacitus, Annals ^ Bk. ii., 60. 28o NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Gardner Wilkinson, however, set it down at as low a figure as 1,500,000. In 1821 the population numbered 2,536,400, and in 1846 it had risen to 4,476,440. Another census was ordered by Khedivial decree on December 2, 1881, and it was completed on May 3, 1882. According to the official statement published in the Recensement General de V Egypte, at Cairo, in 1884, it amounted in 1882 to 6,806,381 persons, of whom 3,216,847 were men, and 3,252,869 were women. Of the 6,806,381 persons, 6,708,185 were inhabitants of the country, and 98,196 were nomads. It showed that there were in the total 245,779 Bedawin and 90,886 foreigners. According to the census of 1897 the population in Lower Egypt was 5,676,109, and in Upper Egypt, 4,058,296. The distribution of the population in the cities having governors and in the provinces is as follows : — Cairo, 570,062; Alexandria, 319,766; Port Sa'id and Canal, 50,179; Suez, 24,970; Damietta, 43,751 ; APArish, 16,991; Baherah, 631,225; Sharkiyah, 749,130; Dakha- liyah, 736,708; Gharbiyah, 1,297,656; Kalyub, 371,465; Menuf, 864,206; Asyut, 782,720; Beni-Suwef, 314,454; Fayyftm, 371,006; Gizah, 401,634; Minyah, 548,632; Girgah, 688,oit; Kena, 711,457; Nubia, 240,382. In the Oasis of Siwa, 5,000 ; Oasis of Bal;riyah, 6,082 ; Oasis of Farafra, 542 ; Oasis of Dakhlah, 17,090 ; Oasis of Khargah, 7,200; Donkola, 56,426; Sawwakin, 15,713. The males numbered 4,947,850, and the females, 4,786,555. The number of houses occupied was 1,422,302. The in- crease in the population since 1882 is 43 per cent. The MusHms number 8,978,775; Jews, 25,200; Christians (of all sects), 730,162. Males and females able to read and write were 467,886; and 9,266,519 were illiterate. The population of Egypt to-day comprises the Fellahin, Copts, Bedawin, Jews, Turks, Negroes, Nubians and people from Abyssinia, Armenians and Europeans. The Fellahin amount to about four-fifths of the entire THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. 28 1 population of Egypt, and are chiefly employed in agricultural pursuits. In physical type they greatly resemble the ancient Egyptians as depicted on the monuments. Their com- plexion is dark ; they have straight eyebrows, high cheek bones, flat noses with low bridges, slightly protruding jaws, broad shoulders, large mouths and full lips. The colour of their skin becomes darker as the south is approached. The whole of the cultivation of Egypt is in the hands of the fellahin. The Copts * are also direct descendants from the ancient Egyptians, and inhabit chiefly the cities of Upper Egypt, such as Asyut and Ahmim. The name Copt is derived from kjjj Kubt^ the Arabic form of the Coptic form of the Greek name for Egyptian, ki^ivir-nos ; it may be mentioned, in passing, that Ai'^ivTno's^ Egypt, is thought by some to be derived from an ancient Egyptian name for Memphis, Het-ka-Ptah, "The house of the genius of Ptah." The number of Copts in Egypt to-day is estimated at about 608,000, and the greater number of them are engaged in the trades of goldsmiths, clothworkers, etc. ; a respectable body of clerks and accountants in the postal, telegraph and government offices in Egypt, is drawn from their community. They are clever with their fingers, and are capable of rapid education up to a certain point; beyond this they rarely go. Physically, they are of a finer type than the fellahin ; their heads are longer and their features are more European. The Copts are famous in ecclesiastical history for having embraced with extraordinary zeal and rapidity the doctrines of Christianity as preached by St. Mark at Alexandria. Before the end of the third century a.d. Egypt was filled with hundreds of thousands of ascetics, monks, recluses, and solitaries who had thrown over their own weird and * A sketch of their history is given elsewhere in this work (see p. 288 ff). 262 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. confused religious beliefs and embraced Christianity ; they then retired to the mountains and deserts of their country to dedicate their lives to the service of the Christians' God. The Egyptians, their ancestors, who lived sixteen hundred years before Christ, had already arrived at the conception of a god who was one in his person, but who manifested himself in the world under many forms and many names. The Greeks and the Romans, who successively held Egypt, caused many changes to come over the native religion of the country which they governed ; and since the conflicting myths and theories taught to the people of Egypt under their rule had bewildered their minds and confused their beliefs, they gladly accepted the simple teaching of Christ's Apostle as a veritable gift of God. Their religious belief took the form of that of Eutyches (died after 451), who sacrificed the "distinction of the two natures in Christ to the unity of the person to such an extent as to make the incarnation an absorption of the human nature by the divine, or a deification of human nature, even of the body." In other words, they believed that Christ had but one composite nature, and for this reason they were called Monophysites ; in their lituigies they stated that God had been crucified. They formed a part of the Alexandrian Church until the Council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, when it was laid down that Christ had a double nature — human and divine — but after this date they separated themselves from it, and were accounted heretics by it, because they obsti- nately refused to give up their belief in the one divine nature of Christ which embraced and included the human. To the sect of Monophysites or Eutychians the Copts still belong. The orthodox church of Alexandria and its hereti- cal offshoot continued to discuss with anger and tumult the subtle points of their different opinions, until the fifth (Ecumenical Council, held at Constantinople a.d. $53, made some concessions to the Monophysite party. Shortly THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. 283 after, however, new dissensions arose which so weakened the orthodox church that the Monophysite party hailed with gladness the arrival of the army of the Khalifa 'Omar, and joined its forces with his that they might destroy the power of their theological opponents. After 'Amr had made himself master of Egypt (a.d. 640), he appointed the Copts to positions of dignity and wealth ; finding, how- ever, that they were unworthy of his confidence, they were degraded, and finally persecuted with vigour. From the time of Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, a.d. 1235 and onwards, but little is known of the history of the Coptic Church. The Copt of to-day usually troubles himself little about theological matters; in certain cases, however, he affirms with considerable firmness the doctrine of the " one nature." The knowledge of the Coptic language is, generally speak- ing, extinct; it is exceedingly doubtful if three Coptic scholars, in the Western sense of the word, exist even among the priests. The language spoken by them is Arabic, and though copies of parts of the Bible are found in churches and private houses, they are usually accompanied by an Arabic version of the Coptic text, which is more usually read than the Coptic. The Bible, in all or part, was trans- lated from Greek into Coptic in the third century of our era ; some, however, think that the translation was not made until the eighth century. The versions of the princi- pal books of the Old and the whole of the New Testament, together with lives of saints, monks, and martyrs, form the greater part of Coptic literature. The Coptic language is, at base, a dialect of ancient Egyptian ; many of the nouns and verbs found in the hieroglyphic texts remain unchanged in Coptic, and a large number of others can, by making proper allowance for phonetic decay and dialectic differences, be identified without difficulty. The Copts used the Greek alphabet to write down their language, but found it neces- 284 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. sary to borrow six * signs from the demotic forms of ancient Egyptian characters to express the sounds which they found unrepresented in Greek. The dialect of Upper Egypt is called "Sahidic"! or Theban, and that of Lower Egypt " Memphitic." j During the last few years the study of Coptic has revived among European scholars, but this is partly owing to the fact that the importance of a knowledge of the language, as a preliminary to the study of hieroglyphics, has been at length recognized. The Roman Propagandist Tuki published during the XVIIIth century some valuable works; in spite, however, of the activity of scholars and the enterprise of publishers, it still costs nearly ;£$ to purchase a copy of as much of the Memphitic Coptic version of the Bible as has come down to us. The Bedawin are represented by the various Arabic- speaking and Muhammadan tribes who live in the deserts which lie on each side of the Nile ; they amount in number to about 250,000. The Bisharin, Hadendoa, and Ababdeh tribes, who speak a language (called 'to bedhawiyyeh') which is like ancient Egyptian in some respects, and who live in the most southern part of Upper Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia, are included among this number. Among these * These signs are : ttj = J^TtT sh ; q =1 a ;^ /; ^=1 /V^; ^= \ h; t This is the older and richer dialect of Coptic, which was spoken from Minyah to Aswan. ;|; More correctly called Boheiric, from the province of Boheira in the Delta ; the name Bashmuric has been wrongly applied to this dialect, but as it appears to have been exclusively the language of Memphis, it may be styled "Middle Egyptian." The dialect of Bashmfir on the Lake of Menzalah appears to have become extinct about a.d. 900, and to have left no traces of itself behind. See Stern, A'/. Gram.y p. i. THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. 285 three tribes the institutions of Muhammad are not observed with any great strictness. When the Bedawin settle down to village or town life, they appear to lose all the bravery and fine quahties of independent manhood which characterize them when they live in their home, the desert. The inhabitants of Cairo, Alexandria, and other large towns form a class of people quite distinct from the other inhabitants of Egypt ; in Alexandria there is a very large Greek element, and in Cairo the number of Turks is very great. In the bazaars of Cairo one may see the offspring of marriages between members of nearly every European nation and Egyptian or Nubian women, the colour of their skins varying from a dark brick-red to nearly white. The shopkeepers are fully alive to their opportunities of making money, and would, beyond doubt, become rich but for their natural indolence and belief in fate. Whatever they appear or however much they may mask their belief in the Muham- madan religion, it must never be forgotten that they have the greatest dislike to every religion but their own. The love of gain alone causes them to submit to the remarks made upon them by Europeans, and to suffer their entrance and sojourning among them. The Nubians or Berbers, as they are sometimes called, inhabit the tract of land which extends from Aswan or Syene to the fourth cataract. The word Nubia appears to be derived from nub^ 'gold,' because Nubia was a gold- producing country. The word Berber is considered to mean 'barbarian' by some, and to be also of Egyptian origin. They speak a language which is allied to some of the North African tongues, and rarely speak Arabic well. The Nubians found in Egypt are generally doorkeepers and domestic servants, who can usually be depended upon for their honesty and obedience. The Negroes form a large part of the non-native population of Egypt, and are employed by natives to 286 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. perform hard work, or are held by them as slaves. They are Muhammadans by religion, and come from the countries known by the name of Sudan. Negro women make good and faithful servants. The Syrian Christians who have settled down in Egypt are generally known by the name of Levantines. They are shrewd business men, and the facility and rapidity with which they learn European languages place them in positions of trust and emolument. The Turks form a comparatively small portion of the population of Egypt, but many civil and military appoint- ments are, or were, in their hands. Many of them are the children of Circassian slaves. The merchants are famous for their civility to foreigners and their keen eye to business. The Armenians and Jews form a small but important part of the inhabitants in the large towns of Egypt. The former are famous for their linguistic attainments and wealth ; the latter have blue eyes, fair hair and skin, and busy themselves in mercantile pursuits and the business of bankers and money-changing. The European population in Egypt consists of Greeks, 38,175 ; Itahans, 24,467 ; English, 19,557 ; French, 14,155; Austrians, 7,117; Russians, 3,193; Germans, 1,277; Spaniards, 765; Swiss, 472; Americans, 291; Belgians, 256; Dutch, 247; Portuguese, 151; Swedes, 107; Danes, 72 ; Persians, 1,301 ; Miscellaneous, 923. The greater part of the business of Alexandria is in the hands of the Greek merchants, many of whom are famous for their wealth. It is said that the Greek community contributes most largely to the crime in the country, but if the size of that c6m- munity be taken into account, it will be found that this state- ment is not strictly true. The enterprise and good business habits of the Greeks in Alexandria have made it the great city that it is. The French, Austrian, German, and English THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. 287 nations are likewise represented there, and in Cairo, by several first-rate business houses. The destructive fanaticism peculiar to the Muhammadan mind, so common in the far east parts of Mesopotamia, seems to be non-existent in Egypt ; such fanaticism as exists is, no doubt, kept in check by the presence of Europeans, and all the different peoples live side by side in a most peaceable manner. The great benefit derived by Egypt from the immigration of Europeans during the last few years is evident from the increased material prosperity of the country, and the administration of equitable laws which has obtained. The European element in Egypt now contributes to the revenue in taxation a considerable sum annually. ^^^SB -4 [ <(( . ( . «<^ 288 SKETCH OF COPTIC HISTORY. About A.D. 64 St. Mark made Ananius patriarch of Alexandria, and he also appointed to the church there twelve presbyters, from whom a successor to Ananius was to be elected ; the patriarch was at that time called Baba or Papa. Ananius was succeeded by Minius or Philetius (a.d. 87), who was succeeded by Cerdo (a.d. 99), during whose rule a fierce persecution of the Christians took place by the order of Hadrian ; his successor was Primus (a.d. no), during whose rule the persecution of Hadrian was continued. This emperor caused the Christians to be massacred in large numbers, and well nigh exterminated them in Egypt ; he destroyed also the Christian churches in Jerusalem. After Primus came Justus (a.d. 118), Eumenius (a.d. 133), Marcianus (a.d. 143), Claudianus (a.d. 153), Agrippinus (a.d. 167), Julianus (a.d. 179), Demetrius (a.d. 190), during whose rule Severianus slaughtered large numbers of the Christians in Egypt, and overthrew their churches. This persecution was con- tinued in the time of Theoclas (a.d. 231), but was relaxed in that of Caesar Philippus. During the rule of Dionysius (a.d. 244) the Christians in Egypt suffered much at the hands of Decius ; about this time St. Anthony the Great recired to the desert and taught men to lead there an ascetic life. After Maximus (a.d. 266) Theonas became patriarch (a.d. 282) ; under his rule a church in honour of the Virgin Mary was built at Alexandria, and the Christians worshipped therein openly ; his successor Peter (a.d. 289) was slain in Alexandria, and his disciple Achillas (a.d. 295) who was elected patriarch after him, only sat for six months. The persecution of the Christians by Diocletian was very severe, SKETCH OF COPTIC HISTORY. 289 and the Copts commemorate it by dating their documents according to the "Era of the Martyrs," which was made to begin with the day of the Emperor's accession to the throne, i.e., August 29, 284. Under the patriarch Alexander (a.d. 295) the great Arian controversy took place. Arius was born in the north of Libya about a.d. 256, and was ordained deacon and presbyter by the patriarchs Peter and Achillas respectively ; with Achillas he was a candidate for the patriarchate. He taught that God is eternal, un- changeable, good, wise, and unbegotten ; that He created the world not directly, but by means of the Logos, who was created for this express purpose ; that the Son of God was created before all time, and before the world, and before all created things in it, and was in every respect the perfect image of the Father ; and that He created the world and became in this sense God and the Logos. Christ, however, Arius declared to be a creature, and not eternal, and not unchangeable, and further declared that there was a time when He did not exist, and that He was not made of the essence of His Father, but out of nothing. Arius ascribed to Christ a human body with an animal soul, and not a rational soul. The controversy between Arius and the patriarch Alexander began in 318, and lasted between their followers for one hundred years. Arius was excommunicated in 321 by one hundred bishops, and again at the (Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325, and was banished by Constantine. In 331 Constantine ordered that he be restored to the com- munion of the Church, but Athanasius refused to receive him. Five years later Constantine repeated his order, but Arius died on the Saturday preceding the Sunday on which it was arranged that he should be received into the com- munion of the Church. His death was attributed by some to poison, but, judging by the account given by Socrates and Sozomen, he seems to have perished by a violent attack of cholera. u 290 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Alexander was followed in the patriarchate by Athanasius (a.d. 326), who succeeded in making many thousands of Jews profess Christianity ; during his rule Julian began to persecute the Christians severely, but under Jovianus the banished bishops were restored to their sees. A little before his death Athanasius fell into great disfavour with the Alexandrians, and they tried to kill him ; the aged patriarch fled, and Lucius, an Arian, was made to occupy the patriarchal throne. A few months later Lucius was excommunicated, and Athanasius was brought back, and continued to be patriarch until his death. Athanasius was succeeded by Peter (a.d. 372), Timothy (a.d. 380), Theo- philus (a.d. 385), and Cyril (a.d. 412); under the rule of Cyril the Nestorian heresy broke out. Nestorius was patriarch of Constantinople a.d. 428-431, and he held the view that Mary the Virgin should not be called " God- bearer," because she was but a woman, and it was impossible that God should be born of a woman. Nestorius was excommunicated and banished, and is said to have died at Akhmim in Upper Egypt. The next patriarch of Alex- andria was Dioscorus (a.d. 444), who was appointed by Theodosius, and he taught that Christ was one substance out of two substances, one person out of two persons, one nature out of two natures, and one will out of two wills, but Marcianus held the view that the Messiah was two sub- stances, two natures, and two wills in one person. To discuss this question a new Council was called together at Chalcedon on the 8th of October, 45 1 ; it was attended by 634 bishops, who advised Dioscorus to agree with the views of the king. As a result of this Council the Christians were divided into Melkites, i.e. Royalists, or those who accepted the views of Marcianus, and Jacobites, i.e., those who held the opinion of Dioscorus and his party. Dioscorus was succeeded by Proterius (Melkite), Timothy (Jacobite), Severus, Peter (a.d. 477), Athanasius (a.d. 486), John SKETCH OF COPTIC HISTORY. 29I (a.d. 498), John (a.d. 505), Dioscorus (a.d. 526), Theodo- sius (a.d. 545), Peter (a.d. 548), Damianus (a.d. 555), Anastasius (a.d. 604), Andronicus (a.d. 609), and Benjamin (a.d. 615). About this time, Makrizi declares, the land of Egypt was full of Christians, but they were divided both as regards race and religion. On the one side there were about 300,000 men who were attached to the service of the Government, their religious views being Melkite, and on the other were the rest of the inhabitants of Egypt, who were Jacobites. Each side hated the other, and the religious views of each prevented inter-marriage, and often led to murders and massacres. This state of affairs facilitated the task of 'Amr ibn al-'Asi, who set out from Syria to conquer Egypt in 638 ; he captured Pelusium with- out difficulty and marched on Memphis, which he besieged for seven months. The famous Fortress of Babylon was bravely defended by the Greeks or royalist soldiers, and although their efforts were apparently well supported by the soldiers generally, there is no doubt that the Jacobites were tired of the Byzantine rule, and that they were anxious to make terms with 'Amr and his Muhammadan troops. One of the chief officers of state at that time was Makawkas, " the prince of the Copts," a Jacobite, whose sympathies had been alienated from his royalist masters. Mr. Butler has shown that he was no other than Cyrus, the Patriarch and Governor of Alexandria, who had been appointed to this important position by Heraclius, after the recovery of Egypt from the Persians. He had great influence in the country, and all the evidence goes to show that he used it against his employers ; be this as it may, he used his position as governor of Babylon to negotiate terms of peace with 'Amr, and just as the city was on the point of being overrun by the Arabs, he bought off the disaster by agreeing to pay a tax of two dinars on every u 2 292 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. male, and to submit to the other impositions which 'Amr had laid upon vanquished peoples. In return for the help of the Jacobites, the Arabs supported them against the Melkites or Royalists, and for nearly one hundred years a Jacobite sat on the patriarchal throne at Alexandria. Benjamin, who was patriarch at the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, died a.d. 663, and he was succeeded by Agathon, Isaac (a.d. 680), Simon the Syrian (a.d. 693) and Alexander (a.d. 704). During the rule of this patriarch the Coptic Church suffered greatly at the hands of the Arab governors, for the patriarch himself was twice made to pay 6,000 dinars, and a census of the monks having been taken, a tax of one dinar was levied on each monk. ' The Copts were next stripped of their possessions, and every monk had his name branded on his hand, and the name of his convent and his number; any monk who had not this brand upon him had his hand cut off. In the monasteries those who were without the brand were either beaten to death or beheaded, and the crosses and pic- tures were destroyed, the images were broken and the churches pulled down. Every Christian and every animal possessed by him were branded with a number. The next patriarch was Cosmas (a.d. 722), and he was followed by Theodore (a.d. 727), and by Michael (a.d. 735), in whose days fighting went on continually between the Copts and Arabs ; Mirwan burnt Old Cairo and the growing crops round about. During the patriarchate of Amba Mina (a.d. 766), the churches in Cairo were wrecked or burnt, and the Christians were obliged to eat the bodies of their dead. Amba Mina was followed by John (a.d. 775), Mark (a.d. 795), James (a.d. 826), Simon (a.d. 844), and Joseph (a.d. 849). About this period it was ordered that the Christians should only ride mules and asses ; that the men should wear a girdle, use saddles with wooden stirrups, and wear SKETCH OF COPTIC HISTORY. 293 patches of different colours on their garments ; that the women should wear veils of yellow coloured stuff, and abstain from putting on girdles. Their graves were to be made level with the earth, they were to light no fire on the road on a journey, the cross was not to be exhibited in their public services, figures of devils were to be placed over the doors of their houses, etc. From the time of Joseph to that of Zacharias (a.d. 1002) ihe condition of the Christians became steadily worse, but in many cases they were themselves the cause of their misfortunes. The Muhammadans employed them in official positions, sometimes of a very important character, and the Copts used every opportunity to harm their masters and to plot against them. The Muhammadans retaliated, and not content with robbing and murdering the wretched Christians, they sacked, pillaged and burnt their churches and convents, and made such harassing regulations that life for the Copts became well-nigh unendurable. Each man had to wear, hanging from his neck, a wooden cross, weighing at least ten pounds ; his head shawl and turban were to be black ; his goods were to be sold at auction and the proceeds handed to the Arabs ; and every man was obliged to wear a cross when he went to the bath. After Zacharias the patriarchal throne was occupied by Sanutius(io29), who was followed by Christodoulos (1049), Cyril (1078), Michael (1093), Macarius (1103), Gabriel (1131), Michael (1146), John (1147), Mark (1163), John (1180), David (1235), and Athanasius (1251). In the days of this last the tax upon the Christians was doubled, and every man was ordered to make way for a Muhammadan on horseback ; besides this, owing to a quarrel which took place between a Christian official and a Muhammadan, a fierce onslaught was made upon the Copts, large numbers of them were slain, and their houses were sacked and burnt. An order was issued that all the Copts should either embrace 294 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Islam or suffer death, and many of them did become Muhammadans ; many Christian churches were either pulled down or turned into mosques at this time. Soon afterwards an order was promulgated that the Christians should wear blue and the Jews yellow turbans ; disobedience was to be followed by the confiscation of their property and death. A few years later, according to a prearranged plan, all the Christian churches were destroyed in one day, the excuse given being the arrogance and luxury of the Copts. The mob attacked the Copts in the streets, and beat them and robbed them, and lit fires to burn them in ; the house of any Christian which happened to stand a little higher than those of his neighbours was promptly pulled down. In Upper Egypt all the churches were destroyed, and in one town more than 450 Christians embraced Muhammadanism in one day ; intermarriage between the Copts and Arabs became the order of the day, and though the persecutions became fewer and less violent, the Copts lost gradually whatever riches and power they once possessed. After Athanasius, Gabriel became patriarch (1260), and he was followed by John (1262), Theodosius (1294), and John (1300), during whose patriarchate another severe persecution of the Copts broke out, and two of their churches were closed for nearly two years. From about 1350 to the middle of the 19th century the position of the Coptic Church has been one of weakness and poverty, but this is not to be wondered at if the peculiar characteristics of Coptic ecclesi- astical officials be taken into account. In recent years, however, thanks to the labours of the American Missionaries, their children have become educated, and now the parents are beginning to see that the foolish and obstinate policy of their clergy which was in vogue in olden times can no longer be pei severed in with personal success or benefit to the community. In personal ^appearance the Copts resemble the SKETCH OF COPTIC HISTORY. 295 ancient Egyptians as Icnown to us by the monuments, but there are some remarkable differences in their features, which are due to intermarriage with Arabs and Ethiopians, and Other tribes of the Eastern Sudan. In Lower Egypt the Copts closely resemble the Arabs, to whom their best families are nearly related. The hair is black and often curly, the eyes are large, black, and elongated ; the nose is straight, but flat at the end ; the lips are often thick, and the complexion varies from a pale yellow colour to a dark brown. The women blacken their eyelids with stibium, and stain their nails with henna^ and tattoo their faces with the cross and other devices. The Copts usually wear garments made of dark coloured stuffs, and their turbans, in the cities, are generally black or blue in colour ; in this respect they seem to have adopted the colours for their dress which were prescribed by the sumptuary laws of their Arab conquerors in days of old. The Coptic women veil their faces in public and in the presence of men, but in recent years this custom has been considerably relaxed ; unmarried women generally wear white veils, and married women black. The head of the Coptic Church is the Patriarch of Alexandria, but he now lives in Cairo. He is usually chosen from the monks of the Monastery of Saint Anthony in the desert near the Red Sea; he must be unmarried, and he ought to live a life of great austerity. The bishops are twelve in number, and although they need not of necessity be monks, they must lead very strict lives, The priests are ordained either by the patriarch or by a bishop, and they must not be under thirty-three years of age at the time of ordination. A priest must either be unmarried, or a man who has married one wife, a virgin, and he must have married her before he was ordained ; he may not marry a second time. The deacon is either an unmarried man, or one who has only once married, the woman being a virgin ; a second marriage costs him his office. The 296 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Copts baptize their children, believing that the Holy Ghost descends upon them during the ceremony, and they attach the greatest importance to baptism, for it is thought that unbaptized children will be bhnd in the world to come. Boys are baptized when forty days old, and girls at the age of eighty days, but in the event of serious illness or impend- ing death, the ceremony of baptism may be performed at any time. At baptism the sign of the cross is made on the forehead of the child, who is immersed three times in con- secrated water, into which three kinds of holy oil have been poured. The Copts, like the ancient Egyptians, circumcise their children, but they do not seem to attach any special reli- gious importance to the ceremony, which may be performed at any time between the ages of two and twenty ; it is, no doubt, a survival of the blood offering which every male had to make to the tribal god, but to the Copts, as to many other peoples, it has lost its true significance. The Copts have always maintained schools for their boys, but until recent years very few girls or women could read. The boys were taught the Psalms, Gospels, and Epistles in Arabic, and then the Gospels and Epistles in Coptic ; but although prayers are said publicly and privately in Coptic, it is very doubtful if three per cent, of those who say them have any exact knowledge of their meaning. Coptic children are exceedingly intelligent, and the boys and young men make excellent clerks in Government offices, being especially quick and skilful at figures ; indeed they have inherited many of the qualities of their ancestors, the scribes of the Pharaohs. At the present time they owe their ability to perform the duties of their appointments entirely to the American Missionaries, who have taught them English, and educated them on modern lines, and helped them to lead lives based upon a high standard of public and private morality. All classes of Egyptian society are deeply SKETCH OF COPTIC HISTORY. 297 anxious to have their children well educated, but no com- munity in Egypt is so largely represented in the Govern- ment schools, in proportion to population, as the Copts. The proportion of Muhammadans in the entire population is 92 per cent., and of the Copts 6 per cent. ; yet the pro- portion of Coptic pupils in the Government schools is 17 per cent., and that of the Muhammadans 78 per cent. (Lord Cromer, Egypt, No. i, 1900, p. 35.) Like Jews and MusHms, the Copts say prayers several times daily, i.e., at daybreak, and at the third, sixth, ninth, eleventh, and twelfth hours, and at midnight ; whilst praying they face the east, and many people wash before praying. The service in church usually begins at daybreak and lasts three hours ; the clergy, choir, and prominent members of the congregation occupy the part of the church next to that containing the altar, the ordinary members of the congregation occupy a second compartment, and the women, who sit by themselves, a third ; and each compart- ment is separated from the other by a screen with one or more doors. The churches contain no images, but pictures of the saints are common. The men remove their shoes from their feet at the door, and each uses a crutch to lean upon, as he stands during the greater part of the service. The Copts make use of confession, which is obligatory before the receiving of the Eucharist, and they observe the following fasts : — (i) The Fast of Nineveh, which is observed a week before Lent, three days and three nights. (2) The Great Fast {i.e., Lent), fifty-five days. (3) The Fast of the Nativity, twenty-eight days. (4) The Fast of the Apostles, the length of which varies. (5) The Fast of the Virgin, fifteen days. The festivals are seven in number, and at the celebration of the Festival of the Baptism of Christ the boys and men dip themselves in a stream or in the river, and as each does this, one of his friends says, " Plunge, as thy father and grandfather plunged, and 298 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. remove Al-Islam from thy heart." The Copts may con- tract marriages with members of their own community only ; he who would marry a woman belonging to another sect must either adopt her religion or marry her by a civil rite, which the Church does not acknowledge. The betrothal is brought about by an agent, or go-between, who arranges the details of the wedding contract in the presence of a priest; two-thirds of the dowry are paid at this time, and when the business part of the ceremony is concluded all present say the Lord's Prayer three times. As with the Muhammadans, the bridegroom rarely sees his bride's face until marriage ; the marriage rejoicings usually occupy about eight days, and nearly all Coptic marriages take place on a Saturday night.* The service in the church is a lengthy one, and the priest, or Patriarch,^ administers the Eucharist to the bridegroom and bride. After marriage the bride does not leave her house until after the birth of her first child, but it is said that in recent years the observance of this, and of many another marriage custom, is not so strict as formerly. Divorce can be readily obtained for adultery on the part of the wife, but it is also granted for much less grave causes. In burying their dead the Copts follow, in many respects, the custom of the country, and women wail in the house of the dead for three days; the friends and relatives of the dead visit the graves three times a year, i.e.^ on the festivals of the Nativity and Baptism and Resurrection of our Lord. After each visit the well-to-do give alms to the poor in the shape of food, and in this matter they seem to follow unconsciously the customs of their ancestors, the ancient Egyptians. * The marriage ceremonies are fully described in Lane, Modern Egyptians^ vol. II., p. 2.()\ Jf.^ to which work I am indebted for many of the facts given above. 299 THE ARABS, MUHAMMAD, AND MUHAMMADANISM. The home of the Arabs is the peninsula of Arabia, which is about 1,450 miles long and 700 wide ; the greater part of the country is desert and mountain, and only in the south-west portion of it are perennial streams found. The Arabs are Semites, and the modern descendants of them trace their origin to the Hebrews through Kahtan, who is identified with Joktan, the son of Eber, and to Adnan, the direct descendant of Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. The kingdoms of Yaman and Hijaz were founded by Yarab and Yorhom, sons of Kahtan. The provinces of Saba and Hadhramaut were ruled by princes of the tribe of Himyar, whose kingdoms lasted two or three thousand years. In the third century before Christ a terrible calamity befell the Arabs, for the great dam which Saba, the builder of Saba and Mareb, built to hold up the rain water and mountain springs, suddenly burst, and the widespread ruin brought by the flood which was thus let loose on the plains caused eight great Arab tribes to leave their country. The water is said to have been held up to a height of about 180 feet, and the people felt so sure of the security of the dam that they built their houses upon it. In the second century after Christ the Arabs migrated northwards and established petty kingdoms at Palmyra"^ and al-Hira,t and came at times into conflict with the Roman authorities in Syria and with the Persian powers in Eastern Mesopotamia. The Arabs of Palmyra em- braced Christianity in the time of Constantine, but those of al-Hira did not accept it until after a.d. 550; * The Arabs of Palmyra were descended from the tribe of Azd. t The Arabs of al-Hira were descended from Kahtan. 300 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. the Arabs of the desert, however, continued to be for the most part idolaters. The rule of the Himyar princes came to an end in the first half of the Vlth century of our era, when the king of Ethiopia overthrew a base usurper called Dhu-Nuwas, who inflicted tortures of the worst -description on the Christians, and who is said to have destroyed 20,000 of them ;, the Ethiopian rule was of short duration, for before the end of the century the Persians were masters of the country. Strictly speaking, the Arabs, as a nation, have never been conquered, and no ruler has ever been able to make his authority effective in all parts of their dominions. In pre-Muhammadan times, which the Arabs call " Jahiliyah," a^Alfelrs^, i.e ^ the "epoch of ignorance," their religion was the grossest idolatry, and the dominant phase of it was the rehgion of Sabaism. They believed in One God, but worshipped the stars, planets, and angels. They prayed three times a day, and fasted three times a year, they offered up sacrifices, they went on a pilgrimage to a place near Harran, and they held in great honour the temple at Mecca, and the Pyramids of Egypt, believing these last to be the tombs of Seth and of his sons Enoch and Sabi. Three great powers worshipped by the whol6 nation were Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat ; the Kur an (Koran) mentions five very ancient idols, viz., Wadd, Sawaa, Yaghtath, Ya'tlk, and Nasra. The first of these had the form of a man, the second that of a woman, the third that of a lion, the fourth that of a horse, and the fifth that of an eagle. Sabaism taught that the souls of the wicked will be punished for 9,000 ages, but that after that period they will obtain meicy. Many x\rabs, however, believed neither in the creation nor in the resurrection, and attributed all things to the operations of nature. Magianism, of Persian origin, found many followers in Arabia, but Judaism and Christianity exerted a profound influence upon the religion MUHAMMAD THE PROPHET. 30I of the Arabs. The Arabs prided themselves upon their skill in oratory and in making poetry, and in the arts ot war, and they made a boast of their hospitality ; but they always had the character of being fierce, cruel, and vindic- tive, generous to friends, but implacable to foes, and addicted to robbery and rapine. Muhammad, commonly known as the *' Prophet," was born at Mecca on August 20, a.d. 570; his mother was called Amina, and his father 'Abd-Allah, and his ancestors were men of high rank in the city of Mecca, many of them holding offices in connection with the temple there. His parents were poor, and Muhammad's inheritance consisted of five camels, a flock of goats, and a slave girl. He was suckled by Thueba and Halima, and reared by his grand- father 'Abd al-Muttalib, and was instructed in the trade of merchant by his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of six his mother took him to Medina, but on the way home she died ; at the age of twelve (a.d. 582), Abu Talib took him to Syria. At the age of twenty he visited the Fair at Okas, three days to the east of Mecca, where he heard the great Arab poets declaim their compositions, and met numbers of Christians and Jews. In 595 he began to do business as a merchant on behalf of Khadijah, a wealthy lady of the Koresh tribe, and his trafficking was successful ; soon after his return from Syria, this lady, who was about forty years of age, determined to marry him, and the ceremony was performed by Khadijah's father, whom she had made drunk for the purpose. By this marriage he had two sons and four daughters. In 605 the great Ka'aba was built, and the lot fell upon Muhammad to build the famous Black Stone into its eastern corner, where it may be kissed by all who visit it. When he arrived at the age of 40 he began to formulate a system for the reform of the religion of the Arabs, and he became convinced that he was destined by 302 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. God to carry out that reform ; at times, however, he was very despondent, and he often meditated suicide, from which Khadijah dissuaded him. About this time he declared that Gabriel appeared to him and entrusted to him the divine mission of reforming the religion of the Arabs. When Muhammad was 45 years old he had collected a sufficiently large number of influential converts about him to provoke great opposition and persecution in and about Mecca, and in 615 the first Hijra, or "flight," to Abyssinia took place. At this time Muhammad relaxed his exertions somewhat, for he became doubtful about the value of his mission, and seemed to be willing to tolerate the worship of idols. In December, 619, his beloved wife Khadijah died, aged 70, and about a month later Abu Talib, his uncle, also died, and in the midst of these afflictions Muhammad had the vexation of seeing that his converts were not increasing in number. In 620 he set out to call Taif to repentance, but he was expelled from the city ; a few weeks later he married a widow called Sawda, and betrothed himself to 'Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, a child of six or seven years of age. In the same year Muhammad made converts at Medina, a city which lies about 250 miles to the north of Mecca, and on June 20, A.D. 622, the year on which the Arabs base their chronology, the Second Hijra, or "Flight," to Medina took place. He arrived in that city on June 28, and at once began to build a mosque on the spot where his camel Al-Kaswa had knelt down. At the age of 53 he married 'Aisha, aged 10, and it is said that the bride carried her toys to her husband's house, and that at times he joined in her games. In 623 he ceased to pray towards Jerusalem, and ordered his followers to pray towards the Ka'aba at Mecca ; in this year the battle of Badr was fought, in which he vanquished his opponents in Mecca. In 624 his power and influence con- tinued to grow, and he married Hafsa, the daughter of 'Omar. THE ARABS, MUHAMMAD, AND MUHAMMADANISM. 303 In 625 was fought the battle of Uhud, in which Muhammad was wounded, and a number of powerful Jews were expelled from Medina. In January, 626, he married Zenab, the daughter of Khuzema, and a month later Umm-Salma, the widow of Abu-Salma ; in June he married Zenab bint-Jahsh, who was divorced by her husband Zed, the adopted son of Muhammad, and later in the year he married a seventh wife, called Juwerya. In 627 Medina was besieged, and the Beni-Kureba were massacred, and Muhammad's power and influence continued to increase ; the people of Mecca then began to come to terms with him. In 628 he despatched letters to Heraclius, and to the king of Persia, and to the governors of Yaman, Egypt, and Abyssinia, calling upon them to acknowledge the divine mission of Muhammad. In the same year he betrothed himself to Umm-HabAba, and conquered Khebar, where he married Safia, the bride of Kinana; and the Jews bribed a sorcerer to bewitch Muhummad by tying knots of his hairs upon a palm branch, which was sunk in a well, and he is said to have begun to waste away. But the archangel Gabriel revealed the matter to him, and when the branch had been taken out of the well and the hairs untied he recovered his health. Soon after this he went to Mecca and married Memuna, and his power increased in the city ; in 630 he conquered the city and destroyed the idols, and was successful in many raids which he made upon the tribes who had not acknowledged his divine mission. At this time George the Makawkas sent to him from Egypt two sisters called Shirin and Maryam (Mary) ; the latter Muhammad married, and she bore him a son called Ibrahim, who, however, died in June or July, 631. In this year many tribes sent envoys to Muhammad tendering their submission, and among them were men who represented the Christian Arabs; the answer given to the latter proves 304 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. that Muhammad only tolerated the Christian religion, and that he expected the children of Christians to be brought up in the faith of Al-Islam. In 632 Muhammad ordered an expedition against Syria, but he died early in the month of June. In personal appearance he was of medium height, and he had an upright carriage until his later years, when he began to stoop, and he walked fast. He laughed often and had a ready wit and a good memory ; his manners were pleasing, and he was exceedingly gracious to inferiors. Of learning he had none, and he could neither read nor write. He was slow and dignified of speech, and prudent in judg- ment. He was not ashamed to mend his own clothes and shoes, and his humility was so great that he would ride upon an ass. He ate with his thumb and the first and second fingers, and he greatly liked bread cooked with meat, dates dressed with milk and butter, pumpkins, cucumbers, and undried dates ; onions and garlic he abhorred. His garments were of different colours, but he loved white, although he was very fond of striped stuffs ; it is said that he once gave seventeen camels for a single garment. His hair was long, like his beard, but he clipped his moustache ; he painted his eyelids with antimony, and greatly loved musk, ambergris, and camphor burnt on sweet-smelling woods. His life was simple, but his dispo- sition was sensual, and his polygamous inchnations sorely tried the convictions of his followers. He was a staunch friend to his friends, and a bitter foe to his enemies, whom he often treated with great cruelty ; he had the reputation for sincerity, but at times he behaved with cunning and meanness ; his urbanity hid a determination which few realized, and the sword was the real cause of the conver- sion of the nations to his views. The religion which he preached was, and is, intolerant and fanatical, and, although it has made millions of men believe in one God, and re- THE ARABS, MUHAMMAD, AND MUHAMMADAXISM. 305 nounce the worship of idols, and abhor wine and strong drink, it has set the seal of his approval upon the unbridled gratification of sensual appetites, and has given polygamy and divorce a religious status and wide-spread popularity. Al-Kur'an"^ (the Koran, or Coran) is the name given to the revelations or instructions which Muhammad declared had been sent to him from God by the archangel Gabriel. During the lifetime of Muhammad these revelations were written upon skins, shoulder-bones of camels and goats, palm leaves, slices of stone, or anything which was con- venient for writing upon, and then committed to memory by every true believer; they thus took the place of the poetical compositions which the Arabs had, from time immemorial, been accustomed to learn by heart. It is tolerably certain that copies of the revelations were multi- plied as soon as they were uttered by the Prophet, and their number must have been considerable. On the death of the Prophet, the Arabs of the south revolted, and Abu-Bakr was obliged to suppress the rebellion with a strong hand, but the false prophet Musailima had many adherents, and the fight was fierce and bloody, and many of those who best knew the Kur'an were slain. At this time the various sections of the book were not arranged in any order, and 'Omar, fearing that certain sections might be lost, advised Abu-Bakr to have all the revelations gathered together into one book. This was a.d. 6^^. By Abu- Bakr's orders, a young man called Zed ibn-Thabit, who had been Muhammad's secretary and had learned Syriac and Hebrew, was entrusted with the task, and he collected the sections from every conceivable source, and made a fair copy of them in the order in which they have come down * The word means " the reading," or " what ought to be read." X 3o6 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. to US. This copy was given by 'Omar, the successor of Abu-Bakr, to his daughter Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet. Before long, however, variations sprang up in the copies which were made from that of Hafsa, and these variations became so numerous, and caused such serious disputes, that the Khahf 'Othman ordered Zed ibn-Thabit and three men of the Koresh tribe to prepare a new recen- sion of the Kur'an. At length the new recension was finished, and copies were sent to Kufa, Basra, Damascus, Mecca and Medina, and all the pre-existing versions were ruthlessly burnt. Hafsa's copy was restored to her, but it was afterwards destroyed by Merwan, the governor of Medina. The Arabs regard the language of the Kur'an as extremely pure, and incomparable for beauty and eloquence; it is also thought to be under God's special protection, and therefore to be incorruptible. To explain the existence of slight variations, it was declared that the book was revealed in seven distinct dialects. The Kur'an contains 114 sec- tions, each of which is called a sura ; some were revealed at Mecca, and others at Medina, and others were revealed partly at Mecca and partly at Medina. The number of verses in the whole book is given as 6,000, or 6,214, or 6,219, or 6,225, OJ" 6,226, or 6,236, according to the authority followed ; the number of words is said to be 77>639, or 99,464; and the number of letters 323,015, or 33o>ii3j for, like the Jews,"*^ the Arabs counted the letters of their Scriptures. At the head of each section, after the title, come the words, " In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate," which formula. Sale thinks, was bor- rowed from the Magians. That Muhammad, assisted by his friends, composed * The number of times which each letter occurs in the Hebrew Bible will be found in the Massoreth ha-Massoreik of Elias Levita (fid. Ginsburg), p. 271 ff". THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 307 the Kuran is certain, yet his followers declare that the first transcript of it existed in heaven, written upon the " Preserved Table " or Tablet from all eternity, and that it subsists in the very essence of God. A copy on paper was sent down to the lowest heaven by Gabriel, who revealed it to the Prophet piecemeal, but showed him the whole book, bound in silk and set with the gold and precious stones of Paradise, once a year. Hence the Kur'an is held in the greatest reverence by the Muham- madans, who are said never to touch it unless they are ceremonially pure. The Muhammadans divide their religion, which they call "Islam," into two parts, i.e., Imdn, faith, or theory, and Diriy religion, or practice; it is built on five fundamental points, one belonging to faith and four to practice. The confession of faith is, ''There is no god but God," and " Muhammad is the Apostle of God." Under this point the Arabs comprehend: — i. Belief in God; 2. In His Angels; 3. In His Scriptures; 4. In His Prophets; 5. In the Resurrection and Day of Judgment ; 6. In God's abso- lute decree and predetermination both of good and evil. The four points of practice are : — i. Prayer and ablutions ; 2. Alms; 3. Fasting; 4. Pilgrimage to Mecca. 1. The belief in God is thus expressed : — "Say, God is one God ; the eternal God ; he begetteth not, neither is he begotten ; and there is not any one like unto him " {Sura cxii). 2. The Angels are beings of light who neither eat nor drink, and who are without sex ; they are without sin, and perform God's behests in heaven and upon earth, and adore Him. There are four Archangels, Gabriel, Michael, Azrael, the angel of death, and Israfel, the angel who will sound the trumpet at the end of the world. Every behever is attended by two angels, one writing down his good actions, and the other his evil actions ; the guardian angels are X 2 3o8 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. variously said to be five, sixty, or a hundred and sixty. The angels Munkar and Nakir examine the dead, and torture the wicked in their graves. The Jinn were created before Adam, and are beings of fire, who eat and drink and marry ; they include Jann, Satans, 'Afrits, and Marids. The head of them is 'Azazel or Iblis, who was cast out of heaven because he refused to worship Adam. 3. The Scriptures are the uncreated word of God which He revealed to His Prophets ; of these alone remain, but in a corrupt state, the Pentateuch of Moses, the Psalms of David, the Gospels of Christ, and the Kur'an, which surpasses in excellence all other revelations. Ten books were given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty to Enoch, and ten to Abraham, but all these are lost. 4. The Prophets are in number 124,000 or 224,000, of whom 313 were Apostles ; among the Apostles of special importance are Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus Christ, and Muhammad, who is declared to be the last, and greatest, and most excellent of them all. It is admitted that Christ is the Word of God, and the Messiah, but the Muhammadans deny that He is the Son of God. 5. Resurrection and day of judgment. When the body is laid in the grave two angels, called Munkar and Nakir, appear there, and make the dead man sit upright, and question him as to his faith ; if the answers are satisfactory he is allowed to rest in peace, but if not the angels beat him en the temples with iron maces, and having heaped earth upon the body, it is gnawed by ninety-nine dragons, each having seven heads. All good Muham- madans have their graves made hollow and two stones placed in a suitable position for the two angels to sit upon. The souls of the just when taken from their bodies by the angel of death may be borne to heaven, but various opinions exist on this point. Some think that the souls remain near the graves either for seven days or for a longer THE RESURRECTION. 309 period ; others think they exist with Adam in the lowest heaven ; others that they Hve in the trumpet which is to wake the dead ; and others that they dwell in the forms of white birds under the throne of God. The souls of the wicked having been rejected by heaven and by this earth are taken down to the seventh earth, and thrown into a dungeon under a green rock, or under the Devil's jaw, where they will be tortured until called upon to rejoin their bodies. Muhammadans generally believe in the resurrec- tion both of the body and of the soul. All parts of the bodies of the dead will decay except the cuckoo bone (coccyx), wherefrom the whole body shall be renewed, and this renewal shall take place through a rain of forty days, which shall cover the earth to a depth of twelve cubits, and cause the bodies to sprout like plants. The time when the resurrection is to take place is known only to God. The first blast of the trumpet will shake heaven and earth ; the second will cause all living crea- tures to die, the last being the angel of deadi ; and the third, which is to take place forty years after the second, will raise the dead, Muhammad being the first to rise. The general resurrection will include animals. Some say the day of judgment will last i,ooo years, and others 50,000 ; the place of judgment will be the earth, and Muhammad is to be the intercessor with God on behalf of man. A book wherein is written an account of his actions will be given to each man, and all things will be weighed in a balance ; the judgment over, the souls of the gcod will turn to a road on the right, and those of the bad to a road on the left. All will, however, have to pass over the bridge Al-Sirat, which is laid over the midst of hell, and is finer than a hair, and sharper than the edge of a sword ; the good will have no difficulty in passing over this, but the wicked will fall from it c nd meet their doom in Gehenna, which'is di'/ided into seven ^stories, one balow the other. 3IO NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Between hell and paradise is a partition or gulf, which is not, however, so wide that the blessed and the damned cannot discourse together. The blessed will drink out of a lake, the water of which comes from paradise, and is whiter than milk, and sweeter in smell than musk. Para- dise was created before the world, and is situated above the seven heavens, near the throne of God ; its earth is made of fine wheat flour, or musk, or saffron ; its stones are pearls ; its walls are inlaid with gold and silver ; and the trunks of all its trees are of gold. Therein is the Tuba tree, laden with every kind of fruit, and it will supply the true believer with everything he needs, /. ' The cover of the key is of red, black and green silk, embroidered with inscriptions in gold ; it is made, like the Kiswah, in the manu- factory of Al-Khurunflsh in Cairo, by the family of Bet as-Sadi. THE KA*ABA AND BLACK STONE. 319 The famous Black Stone, * Hajaral-Aswad, is built into the south-east corner of the Ka'aba, near the door, and forms a part of the sharp angle of the building; it is four or five feet above the ground. It is an irregular oval, about seven inches in diameter, with an undulating surface, composed of about a dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, well joined together with a small quantity of cement, and per- fectly well smoothed; it looks as if the whole had been broken into many pieces by a violent blow and then united again. It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone, which has been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received- Its colour is now a deep reddish brown, approaching to black. It has a border of a brownish colour, which is made, apparently, of pitch and gravel, and is two or three inches broad ; both the border and the stone itself are encircled by a silver band. It is said to have fallen from Paradise to earth with Adam, and to have been miraculously preserved during the deluge, and given to Abraham by Gabriel when he built the Ka aba. When a pilgrim has arrived near Mecca, he removes his ordinary clothes and puts on a woollen tunic about his loins, and a woollen shawl about his shoulders, and very loose slippers. He then goes round the Ka'aba seven times, and each time he passes he must either kiss the Black Stone or touch it ; he must next pass seven times between the low hills Safa and Merwa, partly running and partly walking, in memory of Hagar's hurried steps as she wandered up and down seeking water for Ishmael ; he must next go to Mount 'Arafat,! near Mecca, and pray * A view of this stone is given in Sir William Muir's Life of Mahoviet^ p. 27. t Or the " Holy Hill," or the " Hill of recognition." The legend about it runs thus : — When our first parents forfeited heaven by eating of wheat, which deprived them of their primeval purity, they were 320 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. there and listen to a discourse until sunset ; arid the day following he must go to the valley of Muna and cast seven stones at each of certain marks. This last act is the " stoning of the Devil,"* and is done in imitation of Abraham, who cast stones at the great Enemy because he tempted or disturbed him in his prayer when preparing to offer up his son Isaac. When the stoning is done the pilgrims slay animals in the valley of Miina, and make a great feast, and give gifts to the poor, and when they have shaved their heads and pared their nails the pilgrimage is considered to have been performed. The various ceremonies of the pilgrimage described above are extremely ancient, and are admitted by the Muhammadans to be the product of the " time of ignorance " ; at one epoch each had a special signification, which may or may not have been understood by the Prophet. He, though wishing to do so, had no power to abolish them, but he certainly succeeded in depriving them of meaning, and now these rites have no signification whatever. The Kuran prohibits the drinking of wine and all intoxicating liquors in these words : — " O true believers, surely wine, and lots, and images, and divining arrows are an abomination of the work of Satan ; therefore avoid ye them, that ye may prosper " ; and again, " They will ask thee concerning wnne and lots : Answer, in both there is great sin, and also some things of use unto men ; but their sinfulness is greater than their use." Strict Muhammadans cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahan, the peacock at Kabid, Satan at Bilbes, Eve upon 'Arafat, and Adam in Ceylon. Adam wandered about for many years seeking for a wife, and when he arrived at 'Arafat, Eve, who was continually crying out for him by- name, recognized him, and their "recognition " gave the place the name of 'Arafat. * The Shetan al-Kabir is a block of rude masonry measuring about 8 feet high by 2 feet broad ; the seven pebbL^s thrown must first be washed in sev3n waters. MUHAMMAD AN POLYGAMY AND DIVORCE 15 1 abjure the use of opium and hashish, or Indian hemp {cannabis Indica), which when taken in excess practically makes a man mad,"^ and they are bidden to avoid all gaming and gambling, and divination and magic. Tobacco is used freely everywhere, and of course coffee, but many learned Muhammadans have doubted the legality of the use of either of these. When not corrupted by intercourse with Western peoples, the Muhammadans are probably the most abstemious people in the East. The duties of a man to his neighbour are laid down at length by Muhammadan teachers, and in great detail, and we may see from the Kur'an that the observance of most of the virtues beloved by Western nations is also strictly inculcated by them. In the matter of Polygamy and Divorce, however, their morality is exceedingly lax, and there is no doubt that the domestic habits of the Arab nations have seriously hampered their progress among the peoples of the earth. Muhammad said, *' If ye fear that ye shall not act with equity towards orphans [of the female sex], take in marriage of such [other] women as please you, two, or three, or four," (Siira IV); but the example which he himself set was an unfortunate one, and has been the cause of much misery to the Arabs. Among poor folk want of means is the great deterrent to polygamy, and many men, therefore, marry only one wife ; but the laws relating to divorce are so loose, that a man with money can generally find or buy an excuse for getting rid of his wife and for taking a new one. The children of concubines or slaves are held to be legitimate, and the Prophet did a good deed when he put a stoj) to the inhuman custom among the pagan Arabs of burying their daughters alive. It is said that the girl who was intended to die w^as allowed to live until she was six years * In 1898 over ten tons were seized by the coast-guard at or near Alexandria, and in 1899 about 900 persons were fined for selling the drug, and the dens kept by 310 persons were closed. Y 522 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. old, when she was perfumed and dressed in fine raiment, and taken to a pit dug for that purpose ; the father then stood behind her, and pushed her in, and had the pit filled up at once. The punishment for Murder is death, but it may, if all parties concerned agree, be compounded by the pay- ment of money, and by the freeing of a Muhammadan from captivity; Manslaughter may be compounded by a fine and by the freeing of a Muhammadan from captivity. Theft, if the object stolen be worth more than ;^2, is punished by the loss of a member : — for the first offence, the right hand ; for the second, the left foot ; for the third, the left hand ; for the fourth, the right foot. In recent years beating and hard labour have taken the place of the punishment of mutilation. Adultery is punished by death by stoning if the charge against the woman be established by four eye-witnesses ; the extreme penalty of the law is, naturally, carried out but rarely. Drunkenness is pun- ished by flogging. Blasphemy of God, or Christ, or Muhammad, is ordered to be punished by death ; the same punishment has been inflicted upon women for ApOStasy. The Festivals of the Muhammadans are thus classified by Mr. Lane {pp. cit., vol. II, p. 145, ff.) : — I. To the first ten days of the month Muharram, which is the first month of the Muhammadan year, special impor- tance is attached, and great rejoicing takes place in them ; but of all days the tenth is the most honoured. Water which has been blessed is sold freely as a charm against the evil eye, and the Jinn are supposed to visit men and women by night during this period of ten days. On the tenth day of Muharram the meeting between Adam and Eve took place after they had been cast out of Paradise ; on this day Noah left the ark, and the Prophet's grandson, Al-Husen, was slain at the battle of Kerbela. The pagan Arabs fasted on this day, and many Muhammadans follow MUHAMMADAN FESTIVALS. 323 their example, and it is unlucky to make a marriage con- tract in this month. 2. About the end of the second month (Safar), the return of the Mecca Caravan is celebrated. When the main body of the Caravan is yet some days' journey dis- tant, two Arabs, mounted on swift dromedaries, hurry on to the Citadel at Cairo to announce the day of its arrival. Many pious people go as nuich as a three days' journey to meet the Caravan, and carry with them gifts of raiment and food for the pilgrims, and donkeys on which certain of them may ride. When the Caravan arrives it is greeted with shouts of joy and music in honour of those who have returned, and weeping and wailing for those who have left their bones on the way. It is considered a most meritorious thing for a man or woman to die when making the " Hagg "* or Pilgrimage to Mecca, and many sick folk make arrange- ments to set out on the road to Mecca, full well knowing that they will die on the road. Some years ago, when the Indian Pilgrims, who sailed from Bombay, were not so- well looked after as they are now, the number of those whO' died on the ships and were buried at sea was considerable. The pilgrims bring back, as gifts for their friends, holy water from the Sacred Well of Zamzam, from which Hagar gave Ishmael water to drink, pieces of the covering of the Ka'ba, which is renewed yearly, cakes of dust from the Prophet's tomb, frankincense, palm fibres for washing the body, combs and rosaries of the wood of aloes, tooth sticks and eye paint. A prominent object in the Caravan is the Mahmil, to which great reverence is paid. It is a square framework of wood with a pyramidal top ; on the top, and at each corner, is a silver-gilt ball with a crescent. The framework is covered with black brocade, richly marked in gold, and ornamented with tassels ; there is nothing inside the Mahmil, but two copies of the Kur'an, one on a scroll * Thus pronounced in Egypt. y 2 324 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. and one in book form, are attached to the outside of it. When the Mahmil reaches the Citadel it is saluted with twelve guns. 3. At the beginning of Rabi' al-awwal (the third month), the Miilid an-Nebi, or Birthday of the Prophet, is com- memorated. The rejoicings begin on the third day of the month, and for nine days and nine nights the people indulge in singing and dancing and festivities of every kind, the streets are illuminated by night, and processions of Der- vishes go about through the streets by day and by night. Mr Lane once heard the sweetmeat sellers crying out when this festival was being celebrated, "A grain of salt in the eye of him who doth not bless the Prophet," probably a warning to Jews and Christians to keep away. He was also for- tunate enough to see the Shekh of the Sa'diyeh Dervishes ride over the bodies of a large number of them. Some sixty of these lay down upon the ground side by side as closely as possible, their backs being upwards, their legs extended, and their arms placed beneath their foreheads. None of the men were hurt, a fact which they attributed to the prayers which they had said the day before. This ceremony is called Doseh, and during its performance those trodden upon continued to utter the name " Allah," or God. 4. In the fourth month, Rabi' at-tani, fifteen days and fourteen nights are spent in celebrating the festival of the Mulid al-Hasanen, in which is celebrated the birthday of Al-Husen, whose head is buried in the Mosque of the Hasanen. 5. In the middle of the seventh month, Regeb, the birthday of Zenab, the granddaughter of the Prophet, is celebrated ; and on the 27th of the month the festival of the ascension of the Prophet is celebrated. He is said to have been carried from Mecca to Jerusalam, and from Jerusalem THE FAST OF RAMADAN. 325 to heaven, and having held converse with God, to have returned to Mecca in one night ! 6. On the first or second Wednesday of the eighth month, Sha'bin, the birthday of Imam Shafei is celebrated, and the cemetery called the Karafah becomes the scene of great festivities. Above the dome of the mosque of the Imam a metal boat is placed, and it is said to turn about even in the absence of wind, and according to the direction in which it turns, good or evil is foretold. The eve of the fifteenth day of this month is held in great reverence, because the fate of every man during the year ensuing is decided. The lote tree of Paradise contains as many leaves as there are human beings in the world, and on each leaf is written the name of a man or woman ; shortly after sunset this tree is shaken, when numbers of its leaves fall, and those whose names are written on the fallen leaves will die in the ensuing year. Pious Muhammadans pass this night in solemn prayer. The ninth month, Ramadan, is observed as a month of fasting ; when this month falls in the summer time the Muhammadans suffer greatly from both hunger and thirst. Mr. Lane calculates that the time during which the daily fast is kept varies from 12 h. 5 m. to i6 h. 14 m. The effect of the fast upon the coimtry is, practically, to turn night into day, for nearly all the shops are kept open at night, and the streets are thronged, and the stranger sometimes finds it difficult to believe that the fasting is as rigorous as it undoubtedly is. The 27th night of the month is called the Lelet al-Kadr, or " Night of Power," and is held to be " better than a thousand months," for in it the Kur'in is said to have been sent down to Muhammad. On this night the angels bring blessings to the faithful, and as the gates of heaven are then open, it is believed that prayer will certainly find admission. Salt water is said to become sweet during that night, and some people keep a vessel of 326 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. salt water before them and taste it evening after evening, that when it becomes sweet they may be certain that they are observing the Night of Power. On the first three days of the tenth month, Shawwal, the Lesser Festival, or Ramadan Bairam is kept with great rejoicing ; it marks the end of the fast of Ramadan. When friends meet in the street they embrace and kiss each other, and the womeh visit the graves of their relatives and lay broken palm branches and sweet basil upon them ; during this festival many put on new clothes, and presents of every kind are given and received by members of all classes. A few days later the Kiswah, or Covering of the Ka'aba, followed by the Mahmil, is conveyed from the manufactory of Al-Khurunfish in Cairo, where it is made at the Sultan's expense, to the Mosque of the Hasanen, and the occasion is looked upon by everyone as a festival. The Kiswah is of black brocade covered with inscriptions, and having a broad band at the edge of each side ornamented with inscriptions worked in gold ; the covering and its band are each woven in four pieces, which are afterwards sewn to- gether. The Veil which covers the door of the Ka'aba is made of richly worked black brocade and is lined with green silk, while the Kiswah is only lined with cotton. A Covering and a Veil are taken to the Ka'aba yearly by the great Mecca Caravan, and the old ones, which have become spoiled by rain and dust, are cut up in pieces and sold to the pilgrims. On the 23rd of the month Shawwal the pro- cession of the officers and the escort of the Mecca Caravan pass from the Citadel through the streets of the metropolis to a plain to the north of the city called Haswa {i.e., pebbly) ; on the 25th it proceeds to the Birket al-Hagg, or Pilgrim Lake, about eleven miles from the city, and on the 27th the caravan starts for Mecca. The journey to Mecca occupies usually about 37 days, but those who like to travel MUHAMMADAN SECTS. 327 leisurely take longer ; this city is about 45 miles, and is almost due east, from Jiddah on the Red Sea. On the tenth of the month Dhul-higgah, i.e.^ the month of the Pilgrimage and the last of the Muhammadan year, the Great Festival begins ; it is observed in much the same way as the Little Festival, and lasts three or four days. Muhammadan sects. The Muhammadans of Egypt, and of many other parts of the Turkish Empire may be described as orthodox, for they base their public and private life upon the teaching of Muhammad, and upon the traditions handed down by his early disciples, and upon the decisions which they promulgated. Among these, however, there are four chief sects, the Hanafites, the Shafe'ites, the Malekites, and the Hambalites, which, though agreeing as regards fundamentals of faith, differ in matters of detail. Speaking generally, the Hanafites may be said to follow their own opinions in many matters of faith instead of those of the Prophet, while the other three sects follow the traditions of Muhammad. The founders of the sects were Abu Hanifa, born at Kufa, a.h. 80 ; Shafe'i, born at Gaza or Askelon, a.h. 150 ; Malek, born at Medina about a.h. 94 ; and Hambal, born either at Merv or Baghdad. The heterodox among the Arabs are called Shi'ites,"^ and are regarded with detestation by the Sunnites or traditionalists, who declare that they may just as well not be Muhammadans at all, because they are doomed to eternal punishment. Among the heterodox some rejected all eternal attributes of God ; others disputed about the essence of God; others declared that God could not have made unbelievers ; others held that there were two Gods, the one, the most high God, being eternal, and the other, Christ, being non-eternal ; others denied everlasting punish- ment ; others said that God could be a liar ; others denied the absoluteness of predestination, and endowed men with * Most Persians are Shi'ites. 328 notp:s for travellers in egypt. free-will ; others distinguished the attributes of God from His essence ; others taught anthropomorphism pure and simple, and ascribed to God a material body ; and within a comparatively short time after the death of the Prophet, Sufism, or the doctrine of Divine love, with which were mingled mysticism and asceticism, attained great influence over the minds of the Persian Muhammadans, and its fol- lowers became a very large sect. The Mahdi. P>om what has been said above it will be evident to the reader that the Arabs were always divided into sects which disputed among themselves about questions of religion, especially about those which savoured of mysticism and dogma. When the Arabs embraced the doctrines of Muhammad the Prophet, they carried into their new religion many ideas, and beUefs, and customs, which even that masterful man was unable to set aside. Muhammad the " illiterate," as his followers love to call him, permitted them to believe whatever did not interfere with the supremacy of his own views, and he himself borrowed most of his doctrines and mythology from the Jews and Christians and Persians. In Judaism and Zoroastrianism there was a common idea that the world had fallen into an evil condition, that religion had been corrupted, that all men were exceedingly wicked, and that only a supernatural being, who was to come at the end of time, could put all things right ; this being the Jews called the Messiah, and the Persians Sooshyant ; the Jews said he was to be the son of David, and the Persians said he was to be the son of Zoroaster. Muhammad the Prophet admitted that Jesus Christ was a prophet, and declared him to be the greatest of the prophets of the old dispensation ; but he regarded Him as inferior to the line of prophets of which he himself »vas the first, and said He would only be the servant, or vicar, of the supernatural personage who was to come in HISTORY OF THE BELIEF IN THE MAHDI. 329 the last days, and who was to right all things, namely, the Mahdi. The word Mahdi means he who is directed (or led) [by God], x\ccording to Muhammad, the Mahdi was to destroy Antichrist and convert Christians to the religion of Islam ! The Mahdi was to be a descendant of the Prophet through 'Ah, the cousin of Muhammad, who had given him his daughter Fatima to wife. When the Persians were conquered by the Muhamma- dans, they accepted the religion and doctrines of the Prophet, but they adopted the view that his legitimate successor (Khalifa) was his son-in-law 'Ali, and that the first three khahfas, Abu-Bakr, 'Omar, and 'Othman were impostors, who had seized the Khalifate by intrigue. Thus the Muhammadan world was split up into two parties, the Sunnites, or "traditionalists," who acknowledge the first three Khahfs, and the Shi'ites, or Imamians, who reject them. 'Ali was declared to be divine by his adherents even during his lifetime, and after he and his sons Hasan and Husen had been murdered by the 'Omeyyad usurpers, his life and deeds appealed in a remarkable manner to the imagination of the Persians, and, remembering that the Prophet had declared that the Mahdi should spring from his own family, they accepted and promulgated the view that he was to be among the descendants of 'AH. There have been many who assumed the title " Mahdi," but the first of these was " Muhammad, the son of ^the Hanafite," />., the son of 'Ali by another wife, and he was practically made to adopt it by a cunning man called Mukhtar. Mahdi after Mahdi appeared in the Muhammadan world, but when the eleventh Imam had come to an end, that is to say, had been murdered — the true Mahdi was to be the twelfth — and left no successor, men began to fall into despair. At the end of the Vlllth century a schism among the Shi'ites took place, and a large, wealthy body of men, who called themselves Ismaelites (from Isma il, the 33'^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. son of Ja'far), left them ; the leader of the new sect was a Persian dentist called 'Obedallah, who sent messengers to Arabia and the north of Africa to announce the advent of the Mahdi, i.e., himself. 'Obedallah, moreover, declared himself to be a descendant of 'Ali, and with this prestige in 908 he succeeded in founding a dynasty in North Africa, having overthrown the reigning Aghlabite king there. He also founded the city of Mahdiya. In 925 'Obedallah attempted to overrun Egypt, but he was defeated, and it was not until 969 that the Fatimids succeeded in conquer ing Egypt, which they did under Johar, the general of Mu'izz, the great grandson of 'Obedallah, who founded the city of Cairo and assumed the title of Khalifa. Thus a Mahdi made himself master of nearly all North Africa and of Egypt, and his dynasty ruled the last named country for well nigh 200 years.* The next great Mahdi was Muham- mad ibn-Tumurt, of the tribe of Masmiada, and a native of Morocco, whose followers, known by the name of " Almo- hades," conquered Spain and ruled it during the Xllrh century. The idea of the Mahdi still lives in Northern Africa, and without taking into account the Mahdi of the Sentjsi (see Wingate, MaMismj p. 2 ff.), who always calls himself "Muhammad al-Mahdi," it is said that at the pre- sent time another Mahdi is waiting at Massa in Morocco to declare himself to the world. In 1666 a Mahdi called Sabbatai Zevi made his appearance in Turkey, but he dis- graced himself by submitting to become a servant of the Sultan Muhammad IV. Another appeared at Adrianople in 1694, but he was eventually exiled to Lemnos. In 1799 a Mahdi from Tripoli appeared in Egypt, but he was killed in a fight with the French at Damanhilr. * A.D. 972-1172. t On Mahdism generally, see Querry, Rccueildeslois Chyites^ vol. I. ; Gobineau, Reliojons^ p. 340 ff.; De Slane, Ilm-Khaldun^vcA. III., p. 496 ; Darmesteter, The Mahdi, London, 1885. THF. MAHDI OF THE SUDAN. 33 1 Muhammad Ahmad, the Mahdi who in recent years set the Sudan in a blaze, was born near Donkola either in 1843 or 1848; his father's name was 'Abd-allahi, and that of his mother Amina. Thus Ahmad's parents bore the same names as those of the Prophet. His family were boat builders on the White Nile, and he worked at the same trade when a boy. When twelve years of age he knew the Kur an by heart, and when twenty-two years old he settled down in the Island of Abba in the W^hite Nile, and meditated there for fifteen years. He lived in a hole in the ground, and fasted and prayed, and his reputation for sanctity spread over the whole country ; his followers and disciples increased so fast and in such numbers that at length he declared himself to be the Mahdi. Like his predecessors, he sent forth envoys to all parts to declare his divine mission. In 1881 he and his dervishes cut to pieces 200 soldiers who had been sent to seize him ; and a few months later, at the head of 50,000 rebels, he defeated and slew at Gebel Gaddir nearly 7,000 Egyptian troops. These victories gave him a reputation for invincibility, and thousands of men in all parts of the Sudan could not help believing in his pretensions when they saw city after city fall into his hands. Few now doubted that he was the twelfth and last Imam, and his adoption of the Shi'ite views, and his calling his followers by the Persian name " Darwish,""^ made men to assume the heavenly character of his work. On November 5, 1883, he annihilated Hicks Pasha's army, and Al-'Obed and the neighbouring country fell into the Mahdi's hands. On December 16 Slatin Pasha surrendered to him, and on January 15, 1884, the valuable province of Darfur became a part of the rebel's kingdom. In February General Gordon arrived in Khartum on his fatal mission, having on his way thither, unfortunately, told the Mudir of Berber and ^^J • ,., the haml, which is a wooden case, with four short legs, orna- mented with pieces of looking glass, and embossed brass), and a few musicians walk in front of the house. In purely Muhammadan schools the education of boys is very simple ; they learn to declare the unity of God and their belief in Muhammad as His Prophet, to hate Christians, to read parts or the whole of the Kur'an, the ninety-nine Beautiful Names of God, and sometimes they learn writing and arithmetic. In learning the Kur'an, the beautiful intro- ductory chapter (Fatihah) is first committed to memory, then the last chapter, then the last hut one, and so on backwards until the second is reached ; the reason of this being that the chapters successively decrease in length from the second to the last. Girls used to learn to read and write but rarely, and very few even learnt to say their prayers. Certain fanatical Muhammadans will hardly allow girls or women to touch the Kur'an, and on the borders of Persia the writer has bought manuscripts of the book from widows who had wrapped them in cloth and buried them under their houses, because they regarded them as too sacred for them to handle. Marriage. Among the Muhammadans it is thought to be the duty of every man possessing sufficient means to marry. Girls are betrothed at the age of seven or eight years, a few are married at ten, but many not until twelve or thirteen ; few remain unmarried after the age of sixteen. Marriages are arranged by a go-between, the deputy of the * Strabo remarks, rh. yivvmix^va iraiSia Kai to TTtpiTtfiviiv Kai to. OilKta tKTkfxvtiv ; Bk. xvii., 2, § 4, Didot's edition, p. 699. 336 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. bride, and by the relatives of the parties, and as long as the girl is quite a child, her parents may betroth her to whom they please. The amount of the dowry varies from ;£'io to ;^5o, according to the position of the parties, and the dowry of a widow, or divorced woman, is less than that of a maiden. Two-thirds of the dowry are paid immediately before the marriage contract is made, and the remaining third is held in reserve by the bridegroom to be paid to the wife in the event of his divorcing her against her consent, or of his own death. The marriage takes place in the evening about eight or ten days after the contract has been made, and the day usually chosen is I'hursday or Sunday. On the Wednesday or Saturday the bride is conducted to the bath, and is accompanied by her friends and relatives, and musicians ; she walks under a canopy of silk, which is open in front, but she herself is covered with a Kashmir shawl of some bright colour. After the bath she returns to her house, and that evening the nails of her hands and feet are stained yellow with henna. The same evening the bridegroom entertains his friends lavishly, and the next day the bride goes in state to his house, and partakes of a meal. At sunset the bridegroom goes to the bath, and a few hours later to the mosque, after which he is escorted to his house by friends and relatives, bearing lamps, and by musicians. Marriage ceremonies may be elaborate or simple, according to the taste or position of the bride or bridegroom, and if a woman merely says to a man who wishes to marry her, " I give myself to thee," even without the presence of witnesses, she becomes his legal wife. Usually a man in Egypt prefers to marry a girl who has neither mother nor any female relative. A part of the house is specially reserved (harim) for women, i.e.^ wife or wives, daughters, and female slaves, so that these may not be seen by the male servants and strange men unless properly veiled. A Muhammadan MUHAMMADAN DEATH CUSTOMS. 337 may possess four wives and a number of female slaves, and he may rid himself of a wife by merely saying, " Thou art divorced." He may divorce a wife twice, and each tme receive her back without further ceremony, but he cannot legally take her back again after a third divorce until she has been married to and divorced by another man ; a triple divorce may be conveyed in a single sentence. Mr. Lane {Modern Egyptians^ vol. I., p. 231), com- menting on the depraving effects of divorce upon the sexes, says that many men, in a period* of ten years, have married twenty or thirty wives, and that women not far advanced in age have been known to be wives to a dozen or more men successively. The abuse of divorce among the lower classes in Egypt is perhaps the greatest curse of the country, ana its mental, moral, and physical effects are terrible. Death. As soon as a man dies, the women begin to lament loudly, and often professional wailing women are sent for to beat their tambourines and utter cries of grief; the relatives join them in their cries, and with dishevelled hair beat their faces and rend their garments. If a man dies in the morning he is buried before night, but if he dies in the afternoon or later he is not buried until the next day. The body is carefully washed and sprinkled with rose water, etc., the eyes are closed, the jaw is bound up, the ankles are tied together, the hands are placed on the breast, and the ears and nostrils are stopped with cotton. The styk and quality of the cere-cloths vary with the position and means of the deceased ; when dressed, the body is laid upon a bier and covered with a Kashmir shawl. The funeral procession is composed of six poor men, mostly blind, who walk slowly and chant,'" There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God. God bless and save him ! " Next come the male friends and relatives of the deceased ; then two or more dervishes, with the flags of the sect to which they belong ; then three or four school- z ^^S NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. boys, one of whom carries upon a palm-stick desk a copy of the Kur'an covered with a cloth, singing a poem on the events of the Last Day, the Judgment, etc. Next comes the bier, borne head-foremost, and then the female mourners; the bier is carried by friends in relays of four into a mosque, and is set down in the place of prayer, with the right side towards Mecca ; both men and women from the procession enter the mosque, and prayers are then said ascribing majesty to God, and beseeching mercy for the dead. In the longest prayer the leader of prayer says, " O God, verily this is thy servant, and the son of thy servant : he hath departed from the repose of the world, and from its ampli- tude, and from whatever he loved, and from those by whom he was loved in it, to the darkness of the grave, and to what he experienceth. He did testify that there is no deity but Thou alone ; that Thou hast no companion ; and that Muhammad is Thy servant and Thine Apostle ; and that Thou art all-knowing respecting him. O God, he hath gone to abide with I'hee, and Thou art the best with whom to abide. lie hath become in need of Thy mercy, and Thou hast no need of his punishment. We have come to Thee supplicatmg that we may intercede for him. O God, if he were a doer of good, over-reckon his good deeds ; and if he were an evil-doer, pass over his evil-doings ; and of Thy mercy grant that he may experience Thine acceptance ; and spare him the trial of the grave and its torment ; and make his grave wide to him ; and keep back the earth from his sides ; and of Thy mercy grant that he may experience security from Thy torment, until Thou send him safely to Thy Paradise, O Thou most merciful of those who show mercy " (Lane's translation). After the other prayers have been said, the leader in prayer, addressing those present, says, " Give your testimony respecting him," and they reply, " He was of the virtuous." The bier is then taken up, and the procession re-forms in the same order as before, and the MUHAMMADAN BURIAL. 339 body is taken to the grave. In the case of well-to-do people the grave is an oblong brick vault, which is sufficiently high to allow the deceased to sit upright when being examined by the two angels Munkar and Nakir ; over the vault a low, oblong monument is built, having an upright stone at the head and foot. On the stone at the head are inscribed the name of the deceased, the date of death, and a verse from the Kur'an. The body is taken from the bier, its bandages are untied, and it is then laid in the vault on its right side with the face towards Mecca ; a little earth is gently laid upon the body, and the vault is closed. Now the pious Muhammadans have imagined it to be possible for the deceased to forget what he ought to say when the angels Munkar and Nakir come to examine him, there- fore, in many cases, an instructor of the dead takes his seat near the tomb after the body has been laid therein, and tells the deceased what questions he will be asked and what answers he is to make. After the burial, food and drink are distributed among the poor, who come in large numbers to the burial of a man of means and position. The soul is thought to remain with the body on the night of burial, and afterwards to depart to its appointed place to await the day of doom. Men do not wear mourning in any case, but women dye their garments blue with indigo as a sign of grief, for everyone except an old man ; they also leave their hair unplaited, and omit to put on certain of their ornaments. The Fatihah. — As mention has been made above of the Fatihah, the opening chapter of the Kur'an, a version of it is here given : — " In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Gracious. Praise be unto God, the Lord of the worlds, the Merciful, the Gracious, the Ruler of the day of judg- ment. Thee do we worship, and of Thee do we beg assistance. Direct us in the right way, in the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious, upon whom there is no z 2 34° NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. vvrath, and who have not erred." It is to the Muhammadans what the Lord's Prayer is to Christians. The Call to Prayer, which is usually sung from the gallery of the minaret (Arab, mandrah) by the mueddin of the mosque, is as follows : — " God is great. God is great. God is great. God is great. I bear witness that there is no god but God. I bear witness that there is no god but God. I bear witness that Muhammad is the Apostle of God. I bear witness that Muhammad is the Apostle of God. Come to prayer. Come to prayer. Come to service. Come to service. God is great. God is great. There is no god but God." At certain large mosques two other calls to prayer are cried during the night, the first a little after midnight, and the second about an hour before daybreak. Mr. Lane's renderings of these *' calls " are as follows : — L "There is no deity but God, there is no deity but God, there is no deity but God alone. He hath no companion; to Him belongeth the dominion; and to Him belongeth praise. He giveth life, and causeth death ; and He is living, and shall never die. In His hand is blessing [or, good] ; and He is almighty. There is no deity but ■ God, there is no deity but God, there is no deity but God, and we will not worship any beside Him, serving Him with sincerity of religion, though the infidels be averse [thereto]. There is no deity but God. Mohammad is the most noble of the creation in the sight of God. Mohammad is the best prophet that hath been sent, and a lord by whom his companions became lords; comely; liberal of gifts ; per- fect; pleasant to the taste; sweet; soft to the throat [or, to be drunk]. Pardon, O Lord, Thy servant and Thy poor dependant, the endower of this place, and him who watcheth it with goodness and beneficence, and its neigh- bours, and those who frequent it at the times of prayers and good acts, O Thou Bountiful : — O Lord, O Lord, O THE CALLS TO PRAYER. 34 1 Lord. Thou art He Who ceaseth not to be distinguished by mercy ; Thou art Hberal of Thy clemency towards the rebelhous ; and protectest him ; and concealest what is foul ', and makest manifest every virtuous action ; and Thou bestowest Thy beneficence upon the servant, and comfortest Him, O Thou Bountiful :- -O Lord, O Lord, O Lord. My sins, when I think upon them, [I see to be] many ; but the mercy of my Lord is more abundant than are my sins ; 1 am not solicitous on account of good that I have done ; but for the mercy of God I am most solicitous. Extolled be the Everlasting. He hath no companion in His great dominion. His perfection [I extol] : exalted be His name : [I extol] the perfection of God." n. "[I extol] the perfection of God, the Existing for ever and ever. [I extol] the perfection of God, the Existing for ever and ever. [I extol] the perfection of God, the Existing for ever and ever, the perfection of God, the Desired, the Existing, the Single, the Supreme : the per- fection of God, the One, the Sole : the perfection of Him Who taketh to Himself, in His great dominion, neither female companion, nor male partner, nor any like unto Him, nor any that is disobedient, nor any deputy, nor any equal, nor any offspring. His perfection [be extolled] : and exalted be His name. He is a Deity Who knew what hath been before it was, and called into existence what hath been ; and He is now existing as He was [at the first]. His perfection [be extolled] : and exalted be His name. He is a Deity unto Whom there is none like existing. There is none like unto God, the Bountiful, existing. There is none like unto God, the Clement, existing. There is none like unto God, the Great, existing. There is none like unto God, the Great, existing. And there is no deity but Thou, O our Lord, to be worshipped, and to be praised, and to be desired, and to be glorified. [I extol] the per- fection of Him Who created all creatures, and numbered 342 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. them, and distributed their sustenance, and decreed the terms of the lives of His servants ; and our Lord, the Bountiful, the Clement, the Great, forgetteth not one of them. [I extol] the perfection of Him, Who, of His power and greatness, caused the pure water to flow from the solid stone, the mass of rock : the perfection of Him Who spake with our Lord Moosa [or, Moses] upon the mountain ; whereupon the mountain was reduced to dust, through dread of God, Whose name be exalted, the One, the Sole. There is no deity but God. He is a just Judge. [I extol] the perfection of the First. Blessing and peace be on thee, O comely of countenance : O Apostle of God. Blessing and peace be on thee, O first of the creatures of God, and seal of the apostles of God. Blessing and peace be on thee, O thou Prophet ; on thee and on thy Family, and all thy Companions. God is most Great, God is most Great, God is most Great, God is most Great. I testify that there is no deity but God. I testify that there is no deity but God. I testify that Mohammad is God's Apostle. I testify that Mohammed is God's Apostle. Come to prayer. Come to prayer. Come to security. Come to security. God is^ most Great. God is most Great. There is no deity but God. O God, bless and save and still beatify the beatified Prophet, our lord Mohammad. And may God, Whose name be blessed and exalted, be well pleased with thee, O our lord Rl-Hasan, and with thee, O our lord El-Hoseyn, and with thee, O Aboo Farrag, O Sheykh of the Arabs, and with all the favourites of God. Amen." Muhammadan Calendar. — The Muhammadans reckon their era from the i6th of July, 622, i.e., the day following the Flight {al-Hijra) of the Prophet from Mecca. to Medina. Their year is lunar, and always consists of twelve lunar months, beginning with the approximate new moon, without any intercalation to keep them in the same season with respect to the sun, so that they retrograde through all the THE ARABS, MUHAMMAD, AND MUHAMMADANISM. 343 seasons in about 32^ years. Their years are divided into cycles of 30 years, 19 of which contain 354 days, and the other 1 1 are intercalary years, having an extra day added to the last month. The mean length of the year is 354 days 8 hours 48 minutes ; a mean lunation = 29 days 1 2 hours 44 minutes ; the ditference between a mean lunation and an astronomical lunation will amount to a day in about 2,400 years. The names of the months are : — Muharram (30 days), Safar (29 days), Rabia al-awwal (30 days), Rabi'a al-akhir (29 days), Gumada al-awwal (30 days), Gumada al-akhir (29 days), Ragab (30 days), Sha'ban (29 days), Ramadan (30 days), Shawwal (29 days), Dhu'il-ka dah (30 days), and Dhu'l-higgah (29 days). Muhammadan Weights and Measures : — Pik or Dira' (of the country) = 24 kirrat (plur. kararft) = 23"oi inch ='585 metre. Pik (Turkish and Indian) = 26^^ inches =-66 metre. Pik (used in building), 29'53 inches =75 metre. Kasabah =11 feet 8 inches = 3*55 metre. Square Pik (used in building) — 6'43 square feet = 562 square metres. Cubic Pik (used in building) = 14*90 cubic feet = '42 cubic metre. Square kasabah = 13*04 square yards = 12*60 square metres. Sa a {literally, hour), like malaka, a march, any distance between 2^ and 4J miles. Very old measures of length are : — Fitr, the space between the thumb and first finger when extended ; Shibr, the space between the thumb and little finger when extended, i.e., a span ; the Kabdah, the measure of a man's fist with the thumb erect. Kamhah, grain of wheat = | grain. Habbah, grain of barley = i grain. Kirrat, i.e., carat = 3 grains (Troy). 344 • NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Dirham =16 kirrats = 48-15 grains (Troy) = * 1 1 ounce = 312 grammes. Mithkal = i^ dirhams = 24 kirrats = 72*22 grains (Troy) = 4-68 grammes Ukiya =12 dirhams =- 1-32 ounces = '066 pint = = 37*44 grammes. Rotl =12 ukiya = 144 dirhams = '99 pound = 450 grammes = 79 pint. Ukka = 400 dirhams = 277 rotls = 2- 19 pints = 2*75 pounds— I '25 kilogrammes. Kantar = 100 rotls = 36 okka ~ 99*05 pounds = 44 93 kilogrammes. Ardeb = 3 kantars = 43'95 gallons = 5*49 bushels = 198 litres = 300 pounds =108 okka. The ardeb = 6 weba =12 kfa = 24 rub'a = 48 mahva = 96 kada. 345 LOWER EGYPT. ALEXANDRIA. Alexandria was founded B.C. 332 by Alexander the Great, who began to build his city on the little town of Rakoti, just opposite to the island of Pharos. King Ptolemy I. Soter made this city his capital : and having founded the famous library and museum, he tried to induce the most learned men of his day to live there. His son and successor Ptolemy [I. Philadelphus continued the wise policy of his father, and Alexandria became famous as a seat of learning. The keeper of the museum during the reign of Ptolemy III. Euergetes I. was Aristophanes of Byzantium. During the siege of the city by the Romans in the time of Caesar, B.C. 48, the library of the museum was burnt ; but Antony after- wards gave Cleopatra a large collection of manuscripts which formed the nucleus of a second library.* In the early centuries of our era the people of Alexandria quarrelled perpetually among themselves,! the subjects of dispute * This collection numbered 200,000 MSS., and formed the famous Pergamenian library founded by Eumenes II., king of Pergamus, P..C. 197. t "..... the Alexandrian rabble took on the slightest pretext to stones and to cudgels. In street uproar, says an authority, himseil Alexandrian, the Egj^ptians are before all others ; the smallest spark suffices here to kindle a tumult. On account of neglected visits, on account of the confiscation of spoiled provisions, on account of ex- clusion from a bathing establishment, on account of a dispute between the slave of an Alexandrian of rank and a Roman foot-soldier as to the value or non-value of their respective slippers, the legions were under the necessity of charging among the citizens of Alexandria In these riots the Greeks acted as instigators but in the further course of the matter the spite and savageness of the Egyptian proper came into the conflict. The Syrians were cowardly, and as soldiers the Egyptians were so too ; but in a street tumult they were able to levelope a courage worthy of a better cause. Mommsen. Provinces of the Roman Empire^ Vol. II., p. 205. 34^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. being matters connected with Jews and religious questions. St. Mark is said to have preached the Gospel here. Meanwhile the prosperity of the town declined and the treasury became. empty. Alexandria was captured by Chosroes (a.d. 619), and by 'Amr ibn el-'Asi, a general of 'Omar, a.d. 641. The decline of Alexandria went on steadily, until it became in the Middle Ages little more, comparatively, than a moderate sized sea- port town, with a population of some thousands of people. In the last century a little of its prosperity was restored by Muhammad 'Ali, who in 181 9 built the Mahmudiyeh canal to bring fresh water to the town from the Rosetta arm of the Nile. Its population to-day is about 300,000, and includes large and wealthy colonies of Jews and Greeks. The Christians were persecuted at Alexandria with great severity by Decius (a.d. 250), by Valerianus (a.d. 257), and by Diocletian (a.d. 304). For a large number of years the city was disturbed by the fierce discussions on religious dogmas between Arius and Athanasius, George of Cappa- docia and Athanasius, the Anthropomorphists and their opponents, and Cyril and Nestorius. The Christian sects supported their views by violence, and the ordinary heathen population of the town rebelled whenever they could find a favourable opportunity. The Lighthouse or Pharos, one of the seven wonders of the world, was built by Sostratus of Cnidus, for Ptolemy Philadelphus, and is said to have been about 600 feet high. All traces of this wonderful building have now disappeared. The embankment or causeway called the Heptastadium"* (from its length of seven stades) was made either by Ptolemy Philadelphus or his father Ptolemy Soter ; it divided the harbour into two parts. The eastern port is only used by * The Heptastadium joined the ancient town and the Island o( Pharos : a large part of the modern town is built upon it. ALEXANDRIA. 347 native craft, on account of its sandy shoals ; the western port is the Eunostos Harbour, which at present is protected by a breakwater about one mile and three-quarters long. The Museum and Library of Alexandria were founded by Ptolemy I., and greatly enlarged by his son Ptolemy Phila- delphus. When this latter king died the library was said to contain 100,000 manuscripts. These were classified, arranged, and labelled by Callimachus ; when it was burnt down in the time of Julius Caesar, it is thought that more than 750,000 works were lost. Copies of works of importance were made at the expense of the State, and it is stated that every book which came into the city was seized and kept, and that a copy only of it was returned to the owner. Antony handed over to Cleopatra about 200,000 manu- scripts (the Pergamenian Library), and these were made the foundation of a second library. Among the famous men who lived and studied in this library were Eratosthenes, Strabo, Hipparchus, Archimedes, and Euclid. The Sera- peum was built by Ptolemy Soter, and was intended to hold the statue of a god from Sinope, which was called by the Egyptians 'Asar Hapi,' or Serapis. It stood close by Rakoti to the east of Alexandria near 'Pompey's Pillar,' and is said to have been one of the most beautiful buildings in the world ; it was filled with remarkable statues and other works of art. It was destroyed by the Christian fanatic Theophilus,* Patriarch of Alexandria, during the reign of Theodosius II. The Library of the Serapeum is said to have contained about 300,000 manuscripts, and to have been burnt by *Amr ibn el-'Asi at the command of the Khalif 'Omar, a.d. 641 ; these were declared to be sufficiently numerous to heat the public baths of Alexandria for six * " . . . the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue : a bold, bad man, whose hands were alternately polluted with gold and with blood." (Gibbon, Decline^ Chap, xxvii.) 348 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. months.* The Soma formed a part of the Csesareum, and contained the bodies of /Vlexander the Great and the Ptolemies, his successors. The Theatre, which faced the island of Antirhodus, the Soma, and the Museum and Library, all stood in the royal buildings in the Bruchium quarter of the town, between Lochias and the Heptastadium. The stone sarcophagus (now in the British Museum, No. lo), which was thought to have belonged to Alexander the Great, was made for Nectanebus L, the first king of the XXXth * "The spirit of Amrou ('Anir ibn el-'Asi) was more curious and liberal than that of his brethren, and in his leisure hours the Arabian chief was pleased with the conversation of John, the last disciple of Ammonius, who derived the surname of Philoponus from his laborious studies of grammar and philosophy. Emboldened by this familiar intercourse, Philoponus presumed to solicit a gift, inestimable in his opinion, contemptible in that of the Barbarians : the royal library, which alone, among the spoils of Alexandria, had not been appropriated by the visit and the seal of the conqueror. Amrou was inclined to gratify the wish of the grammarian, but his rigid integrity refused to alienate the minutest object without the consent of the caliph ; and the well-known answer of Omar was inspired by the ignorance of a fanatic. ' If these writings of the Greeks agree with the book of God, they are useless and need not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious and ought to be destroyed.' The sentence was executed with blind obedience : the volumes of paper or parch- ment were distributed to the 4,000 baths of the city ; and such was their incredible multitude that six months were barely sufficient for the consumption of this precious fuel." (Gibbon, Decline and Fall^ chap, li.) The chief authority for this statement is Bar-Hebraeus (born A.D. 1226, died at Maraghah in Adh6rbaijan, July 30th, 1286), and it has been repeated by several Arabic writers ; it must, however, have been current in an unwritten form for centuries. Both Gibbon and Renaudot thought the story incrediljle, and their opinion is shared by some modern scholars. Gibbon appears to have thought, and rightly, that the second Alexandrian library was pillaged or destroyed when Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria, destroyed the image of Serapis. On the other hand, it seems difficult to believe that there is not some foundation for the tradition of the burning of the Serapeum Libraiy as reported by Bar-Hebraeus. See the additional notes in Gibbon, ed. Smith, Vol. III., p. 419, and Vol. VI., p. 338. ALEXANDRIA. 349 dynasty, B.C. 378. The Paneum, or temple of Pan, is probably represented by the modern Kom al-Dikk. The Jews' Quarter lay between the sea and the street, to the east of Lochias. The Necropolis was situated at the west of the city. The Gymnasium stood a little to the east of the Paneum, on the south side of the street which ends, on the east, in the Canopic Gate. Pompey's Pillar was erected by Pompey, a Roman prefect, in honour of Diocletian, about the year 302.'*^ It is made of granite brought from Aswan ; the shaft is about 70 feet, and the whole monument, including its pedestal, is rather less than 100 feet high. The fragments of the columns which lie around the base of this pillar are thought to have belonged to the Serapeum. Some years ago there were to be seen in Alexandria the two famous granite obelisks called Cleopatra's Needles. They were brought from Heliopolis during the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus, and set up before the Temple of Caesar. Until quite lately ^ne of them remained up- right ; the other had fallen. They are both made of Aswan granite ; one measures 67 feet in height, the other 68^ feet ; the diameter of each is about 7 J feet. The larger obelisk was given by Muhammad 'Ali to the English early in this century, but it was not removed until 1877, when it was transported to England at the expense of Sir Erasmus Wilson, and it now stands on the Thames Embankment. The smaller obelisk was taken to New York a few years later. The inscriptions show that both were made during the reign of Thothmes Til., about B.C. i6oo,and that Rameses II., who lived about 250 years later, added lines of inscriptions recording his titles of honour and greatness. * The Greek inscription recording this fact is published in Boeckh, Corpus Inscriptionum Grcecaruviy t. iii., p. 399, where it is also thus restored : Tbv [^trjiwrorov Kv-roKQaTopa^ rov 'Trokiovy(ov 'AXt^avipiioi, Atoic\r)Tiav6v tqv dviKijTov jrojjuri^ijoc tirapx°^ AiyvirToV' •' • ^ •• . ■ 35° NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. A Circular staircase (entrance). B ^ Corridor with semi-circular recesses. C Rotunda. d Circular gallery. f Staircase to second stage. q Entrance to third stage. H Ante-chamber. I Funeral chamber. j Sarcophagus' chamber. K Funeral chambers with cavities for dead bodies. ALEXANDRIAN CATACOMBS. 35 I The Catacombs, which were built early in the fourth century of our era, are on the coast near the harbour and on the coast near the new port. THE RECENTLY DISCOVERED CATA COMB AT ALEXANDRIA. In the year 1900 a magnificent tomb of the Roman period was discovered at K6m ash-Shukafa, near Pompey's Pillar, in the quarry at this place, by some workmen, and thanks to the exertions of Dr. Botti, the Director of the Museum at Alexandria, this extremely interesting monu- ment has been preserved in the state in which it was found. The tomb is divided into three stages, which descend into the living rock. It is entered by means of a circular stair- case (a), which has been more or less restored, and when the visitor has passed through a narrow way with a semi-circular recess (b) on each side, he arrives at a large rotunda (c) with a circular gallery (dddd), out of which open a series of chambers (eeee) which appear to have been dedicated to the worship of the dead. On the right the two chambers contain niches and sarcophagi ; on the left is a large rect- angular chamber, the roof of which is supported by four pil- 'lars, and it contains three tables hewn out of the solid rock, which were used for festival purposes by the relatives and friends of the dead who assembled there at certain times during the year. From the circular gallery a staircase leads to the second stage of the tomb, which contains the chief sarcophagus chamber ; but a httle way down it forks, and passes round the entrance (g) to the third or lowest stage of the tomb. The ante-chamber (h) of the tomb, or pronaos, contains two Egyptian columns which support a cornice ornamented with the winged solar disk, hawks, etc., in relief. In each of the side wdlls of the chamber is a 352 NOTES P^OR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. THE PRONAOS ANp ENTRANCE TO THE FUNERAL CHAMBER. RECENTLY DISCOVERED CATACOMB AT ALEXANDRIA. 353 niche, in the form of an Egyptian pylon; that on the right contains the statue of a man, that on the left the statue of a woman. It has been thought that these niches are ancient openings in the walls which were closed up for the purpose of receiving the statues. The door of the actual funeral chamber (i) is ornamented with the winged solar disk, and a cornice of ursei ; on each side of the door, on a pylon-shaped pedestal, is a large serpent wearing the double crown v/, and with each are the caduceus of Hermes, and the thyrsus of Dionysos. These serpents are probably intended to represent the goddesses Uatchet and Nekhebet. Above each serpent is a circular shield with a Gorgon's head. The roof of the funeral chamber is vaulted, and the stone is of the colour of old gold ; at each corner is a pilaster w^th a composite capital. In each of the three sides is a niche containing a sarcophagus, which is hewn out of the solid rock ; the fronts of the three sarcophagi are ornamented with festoons of vine leaves and bunches of grapes, the heads of bulls, heads of Medusa, etc. Curiously enough no one seems to have been laid in them. In the principal relief of the right niche we see the figure of a king, or prince, wearing the crowns of the South and North, making an offering of a deep collar or breastplate to the Apis Bull, which stands on a pylon-shaped pedestal, and has a disk between its horns; behind Apis stands Isis with a solar disk encircled by a uraeus upon her head, and holding in her right hand the feather of Maat. The walls of the niches are ornamented with figures of Egyptian gods, and in the central niche is a scene in which the mummy of the deceased is represented lying upon its bier. The bier has the usual form "J^, but above the lion's head is the Atef crown of Osiris, and at the feet is the feather of Maat. By the side of the bier stands Anubis, with the solar disk and uraei ^X^ o^ his head ; at the head of the 354 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. bier stands Thoth, and at the feet is Horus, and under the bier are vases containing the intestines of the deceased dedicated to Qebhsennuf (hawk-headed), Mestha (human- headed), and Hapi (ape-headed). To the right and left of the door are figures of : — i. Anubis, standing upright, in human form, jackal-headed, with a solar disk on his head ; his right hand rests upon the edge of a shield which stands on the ground by his side, and in his left he clasps a spear. Round his neck and shoulder hangs a belt from which is suspended a short sword. 2. Set (?), in the form of a human body with arms and hands of a man, and the head and tail of a crocodile ; in his right hand he clasps a spear, and in the left the end of a cloak. Round the funeral chamber in which these reliefs occur, on three sides, is a comparatively spacious gallery, in the walls of which are hollowed-out cavities, each large enough to hold three dead bodies ; there are traces of names of those who were buried in them. At the north-west corner of this gallery is a corridor which leads into four other chambers, two of which have in them niches for sarcophagi, and two are provided with cavities wherein bodies might be laid on stone slabs at intervals, one above the other. We have already mentioned a third stage of the tomb, which was approached by an entrance situated just below the place where the staircase leading from the first to the second stage forked; this is now filled with water, and cannot be mvestigated. The tomb is the most interesting of all the tombs of the Roman period which have been found in Alexandria, and is very instructive. It is, unfortunately, impossible to assign an exact date to it, but it was probably built in the first century B.C. or the first century a.d. The name of the man for whom it was built is unknown, but it is clear that he was of high rank, and there is no doubt that his religion wsls au fond ¥.gyptia,n. The artistic treat- ment of the figures of the gods, and of the walls, pillars. RECENTLY DISCOVERED CATACOMB AT ALEXANDRIA. 355 etc., exhibits strong Roman influence, and the mixture of the two styles of funereal art is better illustrated in this tomb than in any other of the period to which it belongs. It is hard to explain why the sarcophagi in the niches of the main funeral chamber have not been occupied by the people for whom they were intended, and it is difficult to understand why others were made in other chambers of the tomb whilst these remained empty. It would appear that the tomb was made for the head of a large and powerful family, the members of which respected the places that had been left for certain members of it, and judging from the amount of space for burial which was actually occupied, we are justified in thinking that the tomb was used as a private mausoleum for about 150 or 200 years. The Walls of the city were built by Muhammad 'Ali, and appear to have been laid upon the foundation of ancient walls. On the south side of Alexandria lies Lake Mareotis, which in ancient days was fed by canals running from the Nile. During the Middle Ages the lake nearly dried up, and the land which became available for building purposes in consequence was speedily covered with villages. In the year 1801, the English dug a canal across the neck of land between the lake and the sea, and flooded the whole district thus occupied. During the last few years an attempt has been made to pump the water out ; it would seem with con- siderable success. Among archaeologists of all nationalities for some years past the conviction has been growing that systematic exca- vations should be undertaken at Alexandria : it was felt that but little of a serious nature had been done, and that unless work were begun soon the few sites available for excavation would be built over, and that the chance of the discovery either of new information or " finds " would be lost for ever. As it is, building operations have 2 A 2 356 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. advanced with extraordinary rapidity, and what the builder leaves the sea claims. There seems little chance of discovering any portions of the great libraries which flourished at Alexandria in its palmy days, and there is equally little chance that any of its famous buildings remain to be discovered ; the utmost that may be hoped for is tlie recovery of monuments and inscriptions of the late Graeco-Roman period. The cuttings of the Alexandria- Ramleh railway, and private diggings made for laying foundations of houses and drains, have yielded a number of interesting objects, but they have added comparatively little to our knowledge. To preserve these remains in a systematic manner, the municipality of Alexandria founded a museum, the direction of which has been placed under the able care of M. Botti ; here are exhibited a most interesting series of monuments typical of Egypto-Grseco art during the period of the rule of the Ptolemies and during the early centuries of the Christian era. The collection has been added to steadily, and learned bodies in Europe have enriched it by gifts of casts of important objects preserved in their museums and by donations of books with the view of founding a suitable library. A few years ago Mr D. G, Hogarth, under the auspices of the Egypt Exploration Fund, assisted by Messrs. E. F. Benson and E. R. Bevan of the British School of Archae- ology at Athens, during two months' work at Alexandria made a series of experimental borings about the central quarter of the ancient city, including the region of Fort Kom- al-Dikk, the reputed site of the Soma, and in the eastern cemeteries. Mr. Hogarth's conclusions are, he says, definite, though negative. The results of his work show that an uninteresting deposit, from 15 to 20 feet thick, of the Arab period, lies over all the central part of the Roman town ; that the remains of the Roman town are in bad condition, and that their appearance indicates that ALEXANDRIA 357 they have been ruined systematically ; that immediately below, and even above the Roman level, water is tapped, and that the stratum earlier than the Roman must be submerged, the soil having subsided. Such definite facts do away, once and for all, with any hope of the discovery of papyri. ALEXANDRIA TO CAIRO BY THE RAILWAY. Between Alexandria and Cairo are the following important towns : — I. Damanhur *(Eg.,c=^>y [j[l aaaaaa '^^Temaien-Heru ' Town of Horus '), the capital of the Mudiriyah of Baherab. This was the Hermopolis Parva of the Romans. II. Kafr az-zayyat, on the east side of the river, situated among beautiful and fertile fields. III. Tanta, the capital of Cxharbiyah, situated between the Rosetta and Damietta arms of the Nile. This town is celebrated for three Fairs, which are held here in January, April, and August, in honour of the Muhammadan saint Sayyid Ahmad al-Bedawi, who was born at Fez about a.d. 1 200, and who lived and died at Tanta. Each fair lasts eight days, and the greatest day in each fair is the Friday ; the most important fair is that held in August. IV. Benha el-'Asal, ' Benha of the Honey,' the capital of Kalyilb. It obtained this name because a Copt surnamed * It is cnlled '^JULin^COp by the Copts. 35^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. the Makawkas * sent, among other gifts, a jar of honey to Muhammad the Prophet. I'he Arabic geographers state that the best honey in Egypt comes from Benha. Quite close to this town are the ruins of the ancient city of Athribis. About forty miles to the east of Alexandria lies the town of Rosetta, not far from the ancient Bolbitine. It was founded towards the end of the ninth century, and was once a flourishing seaport ; it has become famous in modern times on account of the trilingual inscription, called the ^Rosetta Stone,' which was found here in 1799 by a French officer called Boussard. This inscription is inscribed on a block of basalt, and contains a decree by the Egyptian priests in honour of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, dated in the ninth year of his reign (b.c. 196). The hiero- glyphic, demotic, and Greek texts enabled Young and Champollion to work out the phonetic values of a number of the hieroglyphic characters employed to write the names of the Greek rulers. The stone is preserved in the British Museum (No. 32). *' The Makawkas was * Prince of the Copts,' and " Governor of Alexandria and Egypt " ; he was a Jacobite, and a strong hater of the Melkites or ' Royalists.' He was invited to become a follower of Muhammad the Prophet, but he declined. When Egypt was captured by 'Amr ibn el-'Asi he betrayed the Copts, but by means of paying tribute he secured to himself the liberty of professing the Christian religion, and he asked that, after his death, his body might be buried in the church of St, John at Alexandria, He sent, as gifts to the Prophet, two Coptic young women, sisters, called Maryam and Shirin ; two girls, one eunuch, a horse, a mule, an ass, a jar of honey, an alabaster jar, a jar of oil, an ingot of gold, and some Egyptian linen. (Gagnier, La vie de Mahomet^ pp. 38, 73,) Makawkas, /wuJJL*, appears to be the Arabic transcription of the Greek fxeyavxm 'famous,' a title which was bestowed upon Cyrus, the Patriarch and Governor of Alexandria. 359 SUEZ AND THE SUEZ CANAL. The town of Suez practically sprang into existence during the building of the Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869; before that time it was an insignificant village with a few hundred inhabitants. Ancient history is almost silent about it, even if it be identified with Clysma* Praesidium. It is situated at the north end of the Gulf of Suez, and is now important from its position at the south end of the Suez Canal. A fresh-water canal from Cairo to Suez was built in 1863, but before the cutting of this canal the inhabitants obtained their water either from the Wells of Moses (about eight miles from Suez) or Cairo. It was at one time considered to be near the spot where the Israelites crossed the ' Sea of Sedge ' ; there is little doubt, however, that the passage was made much nearer the Mediterranean. The neck of land which joins Asia to Africa, or the Isthmus of Suez, is nearly one hundred miles wide ; on the south side is the Gulf of Suez, on the north the Medi- terranean. The Red Sea and the Mediterranean appear to have been united in ancient days, and it seems that so far back as the time of Rameses II. or earlier a canal was cut between Pelusium and Lake Timsah, and it is almost certain that it was well fortified. * Clysma, in Arabic Kulzum, is said by the Arab geographers to have been situated on the coast of the sea of Yaman, on the Egyptian side, at the far end, three days from Cairo and four days from Pelusium. (Juynboll, Lex. Geog. Arab., t. ii., p. f'f'.) 360 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. The Asiatics who wished to invade Egypt were com- pelled to cross the Isthmus of Suez, and a canal would not only serve as a water barrier against them, but be useful as a means of transport for troops from one point to another. The name of the place Kantara, ' a bridge,' a little to the north of Isma'iliya, seems to point to the fact of a ford existing here from very early times. Nekau (b.c. 610) began to make a canal at Bubastis, between the Nile and the Red Sea, but never finished it ; it was continued in later times by Darius, and Ptolemy Philadelphus made a lock for it ; still later we know that the Nile and the Red Sea were joined by a canal. The emperor Trajan cleared out the canal from Cairo to the Red Sea, which, having become impassable, was re-opened by 'Omar's general, 'Amr ibn el- 'A si, after his conquest of Egypt. In the Middle Ages various attempts were made in a half-hearted manner to cut a new canal across the Isthmus, but although several royal personages in and out of Egypt were anxious to see the proposed work begun, nothing was seriously attempted until 1798, when Napoleon Bonaparte directed M. Lepbre to survey the route of a canal across the Isthmus. M. Lepbre reported that the difference between the levels of the Red Sea and Mediterranean was thirty-three feet, and, that, therefore, the canal was impossible.* Although several scientific men doubted the accuracy of M. Lepere's conclusion, the fact that the level of the two seas is practically the same was not proved until M. Linant Bey, Stephenson, and others examined the matter in 1846. It was then at once evident that a canal was possible. M. de Lesseps * This was the opinion of some classical writers : compare Aristotle, Meteorologica, i. 14, 27 ; Diodorus, i. 23 ; and Strabo, xvii. i, 25. The Arab writer Mas'udi relates that a certain king tried to cut a canal across this isthmus, but that on finding that the waters of the Red Sea stood at a higher level than those of the Mediterranean, he abandoned his project. {Les Prairies if Or, t. iv. p. 97.) SUEZ AND THE SUEZ CANAL. 36 1 laid the plans for a canal before Said Pasha in 1854 ; two years afterwards they were sanctioned, and two years later the works began. The original plan proposed to make a canal from Suez to Pelusium, but it was afterwards modified, and by bringing the northern end into the Mediterranean at Port Sa'id, it was found possible to do away with the lock at each end, which would have been necessary had it embouched at Pelusium. The fresh-water canal from Bulak to Suez, with an aqueduct to Port Sa'id, included in the original plan, was completed in 1863. The filling of the Bitter Lakes with sea-water from the Mediterranean was begun on the i8th March, 1869, and the whole canal was opened for traffic on November i6th of the same year. The cost of the canal was about ;^ 19,000,000. The buoyed channel which leads into the canal at the Suez end is 300 yards across in the widest part. The average width of the dredged channel is about 90 feet, and the average depth about 28 feet. At Shaluf at-Terribeh the excavation was very difficult, for the ground rises about twenty feet above the sea-level, and the elevation is five or six miles long. A thick layer of hard rock ' cropped ' up in the line of the canal, and the work of removing it was of no slight nature. On a mound not quite half-way between Suez and Shaluf are some granite blocks bearing traces of cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions recording the name of Darius. They appear to be the remains of one of a series of buildings erected along the line of the old canal which was restored and probably completed by Darius. At Shaluf the width of the canal is about 90 feet, and shortly after leaving this place the canal enters the Small Bitter Lake, which is about seven miles long. Before reaching the end of it is, on the left, another mound on which were found the ruins of a building which was exca- vated by M. de Lesseps. Granite slabs were found there inscribed with the name of Darius in Persian cuneiform 362 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGVPT. characters and in hieroglyphics. The canal next passes through the Great Bitter Lake (about fifteen miles long), and a few kilometres farther along it passes by the rock, upon which was built by Darius another monument to tell passers-by that he it was who made the canal. The track of the canal through the Bitter Lakes is marked by a double row of buoys ; the distance between each buoy is 330 yards, and the space between the two rows is about thirty yards. At a little distance to the north of the Bitter Lake is Tusan, which may be easily identified by means of the tomb of the Muhammadan saint Ennedek. Shortly after Lake Timsah, or the ' Crocodile Lake,' is reached, on the north side of which is the town of Isma'iliya, formerly the head-quarters of the staff in charge of the various works connected with the construction of the canal. The canal channel through the lake is marked by buoys as in the Bitter Lakes. Soon after re-entering the canal the plain of El-Gisr, or the ' bridge,' is entered ; it is about fifty-five feet above the level of the sea. Through this a channel about eighty feet deep had to be cut. Passing through Lake Balah, al-Kantara, 'the bridge,' a place situated on a height between the Balah and Menzalah Lakes, is reached. It is by this natural bridge that every invading army must have entered Egypt, and its appellation, the ' Bridge of Nations,' is most appropriate. On the east side of the canal, not far from al-Kantara, are some ruins of a building which appears to have been built by Rameses IL, and a little beyond Kantara begins Lake Menzalah. About twenty miles to the east are the ruins of Pelusium. The canal is carried through Lake Menzalah in a perfectly straight line until it reaches Port Sa'id. The town of Port Sa'id is the product of the Suez Canal, and has a population of about (2,000. It stands on the island which forms part of the narrow tract of land which separates Lake Menzalah from the Mediterranean. The SUEZ AND THE SUEZ CANAL. 363 first body of workmen landed at the spot which afterwards became Port Sa'id in 1859, and for many years the place was nothing but a factory and a living-place for workmen. The harbour and the two [breakwaters which protect it are remarkable pieces of work ; the breakwater on the west is lengthened yearly to protect the harbour from the mud- carrying current which always flows from the west, and which would block up the canal but for the breakwater. Near the western breakwater is the lighthouse, about 165 feet high ; the electric light is used in it, and can be seen for a distance of twenty miles. The port is called Sa'id in honour of Sa'id Pasha. The fresh water used is brought in iron pipes laid along the western side of the canal from Isma'iliya. The choice fell upon this spot for the Mediterranean end of the canal because water sufficiently deep for ocean-going ships was found within two miles of the shore. The total length of the canal, including the buoyed channel at the Suez end, is about one hundred miles. In 1902 the number of vessels which passed through the Suez Canal was 3,708, of these 2,165 ships were British, 480 German, 274 French, 218 Dutch, 139 Austrian, 61 Japanese, no Russian, 30 Spanish, 85 Italian, 41 Norwegian, 38 Turkish, 14 Danish, 6 Egyptian, 21 American, 14 Greek, 7 Swedish, 3 Portuguese, and 2 Siamese. In 1893 ^^e number of ships which passed through it was 3,341, and the receipts ;^2, 826,694 ; in 1894, 3,352 ships, and the receipts were ;£2,95i,o73; in 1895, 3,434 ships, and the receipts were ;£3,i24, 149 ; in 1896, 3,409 ships, and the receipts were ^^3,182,800; in 1897, 2,986 ships, and the receipts were ;^2,9i3,222; in 190T, 3,699 ships, and the receipts over ;£4,ooo,ooo. The number of passengers in 1902 was 223,775. The state of the capital account (see Statesman's Year Book, 1900, p. 1138) was as follows, on December 31, 1898 :— 3^4 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Francs. Capital 400,000, at 500 francs ... 200,000,000 Consolidation of unpaid coupons ... 34,000,000 Loan 1867-68 ... ... ... 99.999,900 Loan 187 1 ... ... ... . . 12,000,000 Loan 1880 ... ... ... .. 26,999,962 Loan 1887 91,100,965 464,100,827 Revenue applied to improvement of canal 151,174,307 615,275.134 There were, in addition, 100,000 founders' shares, with the right to participate in the surplus profits under certain conditions. In 1898 the net profits amounted to 48,789,8 1 8 francs, and the total amount distributed among the share- holders was 46,618,028 francs. In 1875 Ismail Pasha sold 176,602 Suez Canal Shares to the British Government 'or ;£3,976,582 sterling ; these shares are now worth ^25,000.000 sterhng. The Suez Canal Company's Steam framway, which ran from Port Sa'id to Isma'iiiya, was 80 kilometres long ; stations were passed at Ras al-'Esh ((>wxl^ (J\,9 kilometre 15), at kilometre 24, at kilometre 34, at Al-Kantarah, (y kV>1^ kilometre 45, with 579 inhabi- tants), at kilometre 55, and at Al-Ferdan (^L^^U kilo- metre 65). This steam tramway has been converted into a railway. SUEZ TO CAIRO. The town of Suez (Arabic As-Suwes ^u^j^^\) contained 17,173 inhabitants in 1897, but it is probable that the number is now fewer. It stands near the site of the SUEZ TO CAIRO. 365 ancient city of Clysma, which was of considerable import- ance as the largest Egyptian port on the Red Sea. There is nothing of special interest in the modern town. On an artificial island is a statue of Thomas Waghorn, the pioneer of the Overland Route, which was set up by M. de Lesseps. Waghorn was born in 1800. He proved that the Overland Route was no figment of the imagination by bringing the Bombay mail of October ist, 1845, ^^ London two days quicker than the ordinary express mail, and he prepared plans for bringing letters from Bombay to London in twenty-one days. He died in want and misery in London in January, 1850. The Well of Moses may be visited by travellers who have a day to spare; it lies on the eastern side of the Gulf of Suez, seven or eight miles from Suez. Early tradition connects the neighbourhood with some of the miracles wrought by Moses the Lawgiver, and Antoninus Martyr declared that near Suez, when the tide was out, it was possible to see the remains of the wheels of Pharaoh's chariots which had, however, been turned into marble. On the line between Suez and Cairo the following places are passed : — Ganaffa, dJu^p^ , a small station twenty-two miles from Suez, which takes its name from a neighbouring mountain. F^'id, A.>li , a small station thirty-five miles from Suez. Nefisha, (L^ksu, fifty-five miles from Suez and three miles from Isma'iliya. It is important only as a station belonging to the triangle by which trains to and from Cairo, and trains to and from Suez arrive at and depart from Isma'iliya. At this point the Fresh Water Canal divides, one branch running into Isma'iliya, and the other into Suez. Isma^iliya was founded by Isma'il Pasha in 1862, and in 1897 contained 7,200 inhabitants. It is a pretty little 366 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. town, with numerous villas and gardens, and the roads, which are planted with the shady lebbek tree, are extremely well kept. The little town owes its existence to the Suez Canal, and is important as a pilot station ; passengers by steamer to Europe and India formerly disembarked and embarked here, and hotels, etc., sprang into being to meet their wants. Between 1887 and 1902 many of the inhabi- tants suffered from fever, but now, thanks to Major Ross's system of dealing with the anopheles mosquito, the cases of fever have dropped from 2,209 i^ 1902 to 213 in 1903. On leaving Nefisha the traveller enters the Wadi Ttlmilat, which is thirty miles long ; its western end opens into the tract of country now commonly identified with the Goshen of the Bible. The first station is Abu Suw6r « .^ »j ^ about seven miles from Nefisha, and the next is Al Mahsamah cU-uxcsy*JU about eighteen miles from Nefisha. Between these two places are the ruins known as Tell al-Maskhuta, i.e., the ' Hill of the Statue,' which marks the site of the ' store- city ' of Pithom, built by the Israelites for Rameses II. At Al-Kass^in ,jw;l^ii!\, twenty-four miles from Isma'iliya the British defeated Arabi Pasha's troops on August 28th, 1882. Here was made the famous charge of the Household Cavalry, which is commonly known as the ' Moonlight Charge.' At-Tell al-Kabir, or At-Tall al-Kabir, i.e., the ' Great Hill,' thirty-four miles from Isma'iliya, is the chief strategic point of defence in the Eastern Delta. Here the British defeated Arabi Pasha's force on September 13th, 1882. The British cemetery is to the south of the railway line and a little distance from the station. The next two stations are Abu Hammed, jUj^ ^1? where the Arabian desert begins, and Abu al-Akhdar, SUEZ TO CAIRO. 367 --irs-lM 4jl, and about forty-eight miles from Isma'iliya, Zak^zik or Az-Zak^zik, jl> \\j\^\ , is reached. Za- kazik, the capital of the Sherktyah province, is a town of about 40,000 inhabitants ; the population in 1897 was 35,715 inhabitants. The railway station stands about one mile from the mounds which mark the site of the famous old city of Bubastis,"^ or Tell Basta. The chief article of commerce here is cotton. Not far from Zakazik flows the Fresh-water Canal from Cairo to Suez, which in many places exactly follows the route of the old canal which was dug during the XlXth dynasty. Bubastis, Bubastus, or Tell Basta (the Pibeseth=' House of Bast ' of Ezekiel xxx. 17), was the capital of the Bubastites nome in the Delta, and was situated on the eastern side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile. The city was dedicated to the goddess Bast, the animal sacred to whom was the cat, and was famous for having given a dynasty of kings (the XXIInd) to Egypt. To the south of the city were the lands which Psammetichus I. gave to his Ionian and Carian mercenaries, and on the north side was the canal which Nekau (Necho) dug between the Nile and the Red ^'ea. I'he city was captured by the Persians b.c. 352, and the walls, the entire circuit of which was three miles, were dismantled. Recent excavations, by M. Naville, have shown beyond doubt that the place was inhabited during the earliest dynasties, and that many great kings of Egypt delighted to build temples there. The following description by Herodotus of the town and the festival celebrated there will be found of interest : — " Although other cities in Egypt were carried to a great height, in my opinion, the greatest mounds were thrown up * From the hieroglyphic ^ ^ ^ ]]f^Fer-Bast, CopticTlOT^ A-Cf" ; it was the metropolis of the i8th nome of Lower Egypt, " where the soul of Isis lived in [the form of] Bast." 36S NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. about the city of Bubastis, in which is a temple of Bubastis well worthy of mention : for though other temples may be larger and more costly, yet none is more pleasing to look at than this. Bubastis, in the Grecian language, answers to Diana. Her sacred precinct is thus situated : all except the entrance is an island ; for two canals from the Nile extend to it, not mingling with each other, but each reaches as far as the entrance of the precinct, one flowing round it on one side, the other on the other. Each is a hundred feet broad, and shaded with trees. The portico is sixty feet in height, and is adorned with figures six cubits high, that are deserving of notice. This precinct, being in the middle of the city, is visible on every side to a person going round it : for as the city has been mounded up to a con- siderable height, but the temple has not been moved, it is conspicuous as it was originally built. A wall sculptured with figures runs round it ; and within is a grove of lofty trees, planted round a large temple in which the image is placed. The width and length of the precinct is each way a stade [600 feet]. Along the entrance is a road paved with stone, about three stades in length [1800 feet], leading through the square eastward; and in width it is about four plethra [400 feet] : on each side of the road grow trees of enormous height : it leads to the temple of Mercury."* The goddess Bast who was worshipped there is represented as having the head of a cat. She wore a disk, with an urseus, and carried the sceptre j or I. She was, at times, identified with Sekhet, female counterpart of Ptah, a member of the triad of Memphis. Sekhet y 3 is called 'Lady of Heaven,' and ' The great lady, beloved * Herodotus, ii. 137, 138 (Gary's translation). SUEZ TO CAIRO. 369 of Ptah.'* The nature of the ceremony on the way to Bubastis, says Herodotus, f is this: — " Now, when they are being conveyed to the city Bubastis, they act as follows : for men and women embark together, and great numbers of both sexes in every barge : some of the women have castanets on which they play, and the men play on the flute during the whole voyage ; the rest of the . women and men sing and clap their hands together at the same time. When in the course of their passage they come to any town, they lay their barge near to land, and do as follows : some of the women do as I have described ; others shout and scoff at the women of the place ; some dance, and others stand up and behave in an unseemly manner ; this they do at every town by the river-side. When they arrive at Bubastis, they celebrate the feast, offering up great sacrifices ; and more wine is consumed at this festival than in all the rest of the year. What with men and women, besides children, they congregate, as the inhabitants say, to the number of seven hundred thousand." The fertile country round about Zakazik is probably a part of the Goshen of the Bible. To the north of the line between Zakazik and Isma'iliya, and at no great distance from the sea, are numbers of mounds and ruins, which mark the sites of ancient Egyptian cities. Among these may be mentioned those of Khata'ana, which prove that a flourishing city existed there in the XII Ith dynasty. About thirty miles north of Tell Fakus are ttie ruins called San al-Hagar, ^<^csjl ^U, i.e., the famous city of Tanis. The town which the Greeks called Tanis, and the Copts T>>>>> ) i g miJJJJiLS ^ 374 CAIRO. Cairo (from the x\rabic Kahira, ' the Victorious,' because the planet Kahir or Mars was visible on the night of the foundation of the city) is situated on the right or eastern bank of the Nile, about ten miles south of the division of the Nile into the Rosetta and Damietta branches. Cairo was founded by Gawhar, the commander-in-chief of the Khalifa Mu'izz, on August 5th, 969. It is called in Arabic Masr * : it is the largest city in Africa, and its population was in 1897 570,062 souls. Josephus says that the fortress of the Babylon of Egypt, which stood on the spot occupied by old Cairo or Fustat, was founded by the Babylonian mercenary soldiers of Cam- byses, b.c. 525 ; Diodorus says that it was founded by Assyrian captives in the time of Rameses 11. , and Ctesias is inclined to think that it was built in the time of Semiramis. The opinions of the two last mentioned writers are valuable in one respect, for they show that it was believed in their time that Babylon of Egypt was of very ancient foundation. During the reign of Augustus it was the headquarters of one of the legions that garrisoned Egypt, and remains of the town and fortress which these legionaries occupied are still to be seen a little to the north of Al-Fustat. The word Fustat f means a ' tent,' and * Masr is a form of the old name Misrl (Hebrew Misraim), by which it is called in the cuneiform tablets, B.c. 1450. \ Arab. i^UauAxi, another form of )y^,^ , = Byzantine Greek ^o(T(Ta.Tov. The meanings given to this word by Dozy are : — camp, campement, pavilion. CAIRO. 375 the ])lace is so called from the tent of 'Amr ibn el-'Asi, which was pitched there when he invaded Egypt, a.d. 640, and to which he returned after his capture of Alexandria, Around his tent lived a large number of his followers, and these being joined by new comers, the city of Al-Fustat at length arose. It was enlarged by Ahmed ibn Tuldn, who built the suburb Al-Kata'i, and a mosque ; by Khamaruyeh, who built a palace there ; but when the Fatimite Khalif Mu'izz conquered Egypt (a.d. 969), he removed the seat of his government from there, and founded Masr el-Kahira, 'Masr the Victorious/ near Fustat. Fustat, which was also known by the name of Masr, was henceforth called Masr el-'Atika. During the reign of Salah-ad-din the walls of the new city were thoroughly repaired and the Citadel was built. Sultan after Sultan added handsome buildings to the town, and though it suffered from plagues and fires, it gained the reputation of being one of the most beautiful capitals in the Muham- madan empire. In 15 17 it was captured by Selim I., and Egypt became a pashalik of the Turkish empire, and remained so until its conquest by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. Cairo was occupied by Muhammad 'Ali in 1805 and the massacre of the Mamhiks took place March i, 181 1 ; the city was surrendered to the British on Septem- ber 14, 1882. Coptic Churches in Cairo.* The Church of Mar Mina lies between Fustat and Cairo ; it was built in honour of St. Menas, an early martyr, who is said to have been born at Mareotis, and * 'j"he authorities for the facts relating to Coptic Churches are Butler's Coptic Churches of Egypt, 2 vols., 1884 ; and Curzon, Visits to Monasteries in the Levant. 376 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. martyred during the persecution of Galerius Maximinus at Alexandria. The name Mina, or Mena, probably represents the Coptic form of Mena, (I , the name of the first historical king of Egypt. The church was probably founded during the fourth century, and it seems to have been restored in the eighth century ; the first church built to Mar Mina was near Alexandria. The church measures 6o feet X 50 feet ; it contains some interesting pictures, and a very ancient bronze candelabrum in the shape of two winged dragons, with seventeen sockets for lighted tapers. On the roof of the church is a small bell in a cupola. About half-a-mile l^eyond the Der * containing the church of St. Menas, lies the Der of Abu's Sefen, in which are situated the churches of al-'Adhra (the Virgin), Anba Shenuti, and Abu's Sefen. The last-named church was built in the tenth century, and is dedicated to St. Mercurius, who is called ' Father of two swords,' or Abu's Sefen. The church measures 90 feet x 50 feet, and is built chiefly of brick ; there are no pillars in it. It contains a fine ebony partition dating from a.d. 927, some interesting pictures, an altar casket dating from a.d. 1280, and a marble pulpit. In this church are chapels dedicated to Saints Gabriel, John the Baptist, James, Mar Buktor, Antony, Abba Nub, Michael, and George. Within the Der of Abu's Sefen is the 'Convent of the Maidens ' ; the account of Mr. Butler's discovery of this place is told by him in his Coptic Churches of Egypt^ Vol. I., p. 128. The church of the Virgin was founded probably in the eighth century. The church of Abu Sarg'ah, or Abu Sergius, stands well towards the middle of the Roman fortress of Babylon in Egypt. Though nothing is known of the saint after whom it was named, it is certain that in a.d. 859 Shenuti was elected patriarch of Abu Sargah ; the church was most * Arabic y J ' convent, monastery.' CAIRO. 377 probably built much earlier, and some go so far as to state that the crypt (20 feet x 15 feet) was occupied by the Virgin and her Son when they fled to Egypt to avoid the wrath of Herod. " The general shape of the church is, or was, a nearly regular oblong, and its general structure is basilican. It consists of narthex, nave, north and south aisle, choir, and three altars eastward each in its own chapel : of these the central and southern chapels are apsidal, the northern is square ended Over the aisles and narthex runs a continuous gallery or triforium, which originally served as the place for women at the service. On the north side it stops short at the choir, forming a kind of transept, which, however, does not project beyond the north aisle On the south side of the church the triforium is prolonged over the choir and over the south side-chapel. The gallery is flat-roofed while the nave is covered with a pointed roof with framed princi- pals like that at Abu's Sefen ■ Outside, the roof of Abu Sargah is plastered over with cement showing the ring-posts projecting above the ridge-piece. Over the central part of the choir and over the haikal the roof changes to a wagon-vaulting ; it is flat over the north transept, and a lofty dome overshadows the north aisle chapel The twelve monolithic columns round the nave are all, with one exception, of white marble streaked with dusky lines The exceptional column is of red Assuan granite, 22 inches in diameter The wooden pulpit is of rosewood inlaid with designs in ebony set with ivory edgings The haikal-screen projects forward into the choir as at Al 'Adra and is of very ancient and beautiful workman- ship ; pentagons and other shapes of solid ivory, carved in relief with arabesques, being inlaid and set round with rich mouldings The upper part of the screen contains square panels of ebony set with large crosses of 37^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. solid ivory, most exquisitely chiselled with scrollwork, and panels of ebony carved through in work of the most delicate and skilful finish." (Butler, Coptic Churches, Vol. I., pp. 183- 190, ff.) The early carvings representing St. Demetrius, Mar George, Abu's Sefen, the Nativity, and the Last Supper are worthy of careful examination. The Jewish synagogue near Abu Sargah was originally a Coptic church dedicated to St. Michael, which was sold to the Jews by a patriarch called Michael towards the end of the ninth century ; it measures 65 feet x 35 feet, and is said to contain a copy of the Law written by Ezra. A little to the south-east of Abu Sargah is the church dedicated to the Virgin, more commonly called El- Mu'allakah, or the ' hanging,' from the fact that it is sus- pended between two bastions, and must be entered b) a staircase. The church is triapsal, and is of the basilican order. It originally contained some very beautiful screens, which have been removed from their original positions and made into a sort of wall, and, unfortunately, modern stained glass has been made to replace the old. The cedar doors, sculptured in panels, are now in the British Museum. The cedar and ivory screens are thought to belong to the eleventh century. The church is remarkable in having no choir, and Mr. Butler says it is "a double-aisled church, and as such is remarkable in" having no transepts." The pulpit is one of the most valuable things left in the church, and probably dates from the twelfth century ; in the wooden coffer near it are the bones of four saints. Authorities differ as to the date to be assigned to the founding of this church, but all the available evidence now known would seem to point to the sixth century as the most probable period ; at any rate, it must have been l)efore the betrayal of the fortress of Babylon to 'Amr by the Monophysite Copts in the seventh century. A little to the north-east of Abu Sargah is the church of CAIRO. 379 St. Barbara, the daughter of a man of position in the East, who was martyred during the persecution of Maximinus ; it was built probably during the eighth century. In the church is a picture of the saint, and a chapel in honour of St. George. At the west end of the triforium are some mural paintings of great interest. Within the walls of the fortress of Babylon, lying due north of Abu Sargah, are the two churches of Mar Girgis and the Virgin. To the south of the fortress of Babylon, beyond the Muhammadan village on the rising ground, lie the Der of Bablun and the Der of Tadrus. In the Der el-Bablun is a church to the Virgin, which is very difficult to see. It contains some fine mural paintings, and an unusual candle- stick and lectern ; in it also are chapels dedicated to Saints Michael and George. This little building is about fifty-three feet square. Der el-Tadrus contains two churches dedicated to Saints Cyrus and John of Damanhur in the Delta ; there are some fine specimens of vestments to be seen there. A short distance from the Muski is a Der containing the churches of the Virgin, St. George, and the chapel of Abu's Sefen. The church of the Virgin occupies the lower half of the building, and is the oldest in Cairo. The chapel of Abu's Sefen is reached through a door in the north-west corner of the building, and contains a wooden pulpit inlaid with ivory. The church of St. George occupies the upper part of the building, and is over the church of the Virgin. In the Greek (Byzantine) quarter of Cairo is the Der el-Tad- rus, which contains the churches of St. George and the Virgin. The Coptic churches of Cairo contain a great deal that is interesting, and are well worth many visits. Though the fabrics of many of them are not older than the sixth, seventh, or eighth century of our era, it may well be assumed that the sites were occupied by Coptic churches long before this period. 380 notes for travellers in egypt. The Mosques of Cairo. Speaking generally, there are three types of mosque * in Cairo : i, the court-yard surrounded by colonnades, as in the Mosques of 'Amr and ibn-Tulun ; 2, the court-yard sur- rounded by four gigantic transepts, as in the Mosque of Sultan Hasan, etc. ; and 3, the covered yard beneath a dome, as in the Mosque of Muhammad 'Ali. The Mosque of *Amr in Fustat, or Old Cairo, is the oldest mosque in Egypt, its foundation having been laid a.h. 21 = A.D. 643. The land upon which it was built was given by 'Amr ibn el-'Asi and his friends after they had become masters of the fortress of Babylon. Of 'Amr's edifice very little remains, for nearly all the building was burnt down at the beginning of the ninth century. Towards the end of the third quarter of the tenth century the mosque was enlarged and rebuilt, and it was subsequently decorated with paintings, etc.; the splendour of the mosque is much dwelt upon by Makrizi. The court measures 350 feet x 400 feet. The building contains 366 pillars — one row on the west side, three rows on the north and south sides, and six rows on the east side; one of the pillars bears the name of Muhammad. In the north-east corner is the tomb of 'Abdallah, the son of 'Amr. The Mosque of Ahmad ibn Tulun (died a.d. 884) is the oldest in Masr el-Kahira or New Cairo, having been finished a.d. 879, under the rule of Khalifa Mu'atamid (a.d. 870-892). It is said to be a copy of the Ka'abaat Mecca, and to have taken two or three years to build. The open court is square, and measures about 300 feet from side to side ; in the centre is the Hanafiyyah (tUiJk^) or fountain for the * The word 'mosque' is derived from the Arabic ^y^^ ^ ^,^ a ' place of prayer. ' CAIRO. 381 Turks. On the north, west, and south sides is an arcade with walls pierced with arches ; on the east side are five arcades divided by walls pierced with arches. The wooden pulpit is a famous specimen of wood carving, and dales from the thirteenth century. Around the outside of the minaret of this mosque is a spiral staircase, which is said to have been suggested by its founder. The mosque is called the ' Fortress of the Goat,' because it is said to mark the spot where Abraham offered up the ram ; others say that the ark rested here. The Mosque of Hakim (a.d. 996-1020), the third Fatimite Khalifa, was built on the plan of the mosque of ibn Ttilun (see above) ; the date over one of the gates isA.H. 393 =A.D. 1003. The Mosque Al-Azhar was founded by Gawhar, the general of Mu'izz, April 3rd, 970, and was finished on June 24th, 972. The plan of the principal part was the same as that of the mosque of 'Amr, but very little of the original building remains. It was made a university by the Khalifa 'Aziz (a.d. 975-996), and great alterations were made in the building by different Sultans in the twelfth, thirteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, and eighteenth centuries; Sa'id Pasha made the last, a.d. 1848. The minarets belong to different periods ; the mosque has six gates, and at the principal of these, the ' Gate of the Barbers,' is the entrance. On three of the sides of the open court are compartments, each of which is reserved for the worshippers who belong to a certain country. Thef Liwan of the mosque is huge, and its ceiling is supported upon 380 pillars of various kinds of stone; it is here that the greater part of the students of the university carry on their studies. The number of students varies from 7,000 to 9,000, and the education, from the Muhammadan point of view, is perhaps the most thorough in the whole world. 382 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. In the Citadel are:— i. The Mosque of An-nasir, built in 1 31 7-1 8, also known as the Muristan Kalaun ; 2. The Mosque of Suleman Pasha or Sultan Sehm, built in 1526 ; 3. The Mosque of Muhammad 'Ali, which was finished by Sa'id Pasha in 1 857. As with nearly all mosques built by the Turks, the church of the Hagia Sophia at Constantinople served as the model for the last-named, but the building is not considered of remarkable beauty. The mosque is a square covered by a large dome and four small ones. In the south- east corner is the tomb of Muhammad 'Ali, and close by is the minbar ( -iul< ) or pulpit ; in the recess on the east side is the Kiblah (aljj), or spot to which the Muhammadan turns his face during his prayers. The court is square, with one row of pillars on each of its four sides, and in the centre is the fountain for the Turks ; the clock in the tower on the western side was presented to Muhammad 'Ali by Louis Philippe. The Mosque of Sultan Hasan, built of stone taken from the pyramids of Gizah, is close to the Citadel, and is generally considered to be the grandest in Cairo. It was built by Hasan, one of the younger sons of Sultan Nasir, and its construction occupied three years, a.d. 1356-1358. It is said that when the building was finished the architect's hands were cut off to prevent his executing a similar work again. This story, though probably false, shows that the mosque was considered of great beauty, and the judgment of competent critics of to-day endorses the opinion of it which was prevalent in Hasan's time. Hasan's tomb is situated on the east side of the building. The remaining minaret* is about 280 feet high, the greatest length of the mosque is about 320 feet, and the width about 200 feet, i'he walls are 113 feet high. In the open court are two * From the Arabic '^ \^ ' place of light.' CAIRO. 3S3 fountains which were formerly used, one by the Egyptians, and one by the Turks. On the eastern side are still to. be seen a few of the balls which were fired at the mosque by the army of Napoleon. The Mosque of Barkul? (a.d. i 382-1 399) contains the tomb of the daughter of Barkuk. The Mosque of Mu'ayyad, one of the Circassian Mamltiks, was founded about 141 2; it is also known as the " Red Mosque," from the colour of the walls outside. Externally it measures about 300 feet by 250 feet, and possesses an internal court, surrounded by double colonnades on three sides, and a triple range of arches on the side looking towards Mecca, where also are situated — as in that of Barkuk — the tombs of the founder and his family. A considerable number of ancient columns have been used in the erection of the building, but the superstructure is so light and elegant that the effect is agreeable. The bronze gate in front belonged originally to the mosque of Sultan Hasan. The Mosque of Ka'it Bey (a.d. i 468-1 496), one of the last independent Mamluk sultans of Egypt, is about eighty feet long and seventy feet wide ; it has some fine mosaics, and is usually considered the finest piece of architecture in Cairo. The Mosque al-Ghuri was built by the Sultan Kansuweh al-Ghuri about 1602 ; it is one of the most beautiful mosques in Cairo. The Mosque of Sittah Zenab was begun late in the XV^IIIth century ; it contains the tomb of Zenab, the grand daughter of the Prophet. The Mosque of Al-Hasanen, i.e., the mosque of Hasan and Husen, the sons of 'Ali the son-in-law of the Prophet, is said to contain the head of Husen, who was slain at Kerbela a.d. 680 ; the head was first sent to Damascus and afterwards brought to Cairo. 384 notes for travellers in egypt. The Tombs of the Khalifas.* These beautiful buildings are situated on the eastern side of the city, and contain the tombs of the members of the families of the Circassian Mamluk Sultans who reigned from A.D. 1382-15 17. The tomb-mosques of Yusuf, al- Ashraf, and the tomb of al-Ghuri (a.d. 1501-15 16) are to the north-east of the Bab en-Nasr; the tomb-mosques of Yusuf and al-Ashraf are only to be seen by special per- mission. In the tomb-mosque of Barkuk are buried that sultan, his son the Sultan Farag (a.d. 1399-1412), and various other members of the family. The limestone pulpit and the two minarets are very beautiful specimens of stone work. To the west of this tomb-mosque is the tomb of Sultan Suleman, and near that are the tombs of the Seven Women, the tomb-mosque of Barsbey (a.d. 142 2-1438), the Ma'abed er-Rifa'i, and the tomb of the mother of Barsbey. The most beautiful of all these tombs is the tomb-mosque of Ka'it Bey (a.d. 1468-1496), which is well worthy of more than one visit. The Tombs of the Mamli^ks.! These interesting buildings formed the resting places of a number of the Bahrite MamKiks, who ruled over Egypt from 1250 to 1380. They have fallen into a terrible state of neglect and decay, and of many of these tombs only the minarets remain. * The word ' Khalifa, ' Arabic, dJuS^ > means ' successor ' (of Muhammad) or ' vicar ' (of God upon earth), and was a title applied to the head of the Muslim world. The last Khalifa died in Egypt about A.D. 1 5 17. t The word ' MamlAk ' means a 'slave,' Arabic ^Oj,^*^ plur. cXjJU.-c. THE CITADEL. 385 The Citadel. The Citadel was built by Salah ad- Din, who began it in II 7 6-7 and finished it in 1207-8 ; the architect's name was Karakush. The stones used were taken from the pyramids of Gizah ; it formed a part of the large system of the fortifications of Cairo with which this Sultan protected the city. Though admirably situated for commanding the whole city, and as a fortress in the days before long range cannon were invented, the site was shown in 1805 to be ill chosen for the purposes of defence in modern times by Muhammad 'Ali, who, by means of a battery placed on the Mukattam heights, com- pelled Khurshid Pasha to surrender the citadel. In the narrow way, with a high wall, through the Bab al-'Azab, which was formerly the most direct and most used means of access to it, the massacre of the MamMks took place by the orders of Muhammad *Ali, on March ist, 181 1. The single MamlClk who escaped is said to have made his horse leap down from one of the walls of the Citadel ; he refused to enter the narrow way. Joseph's Well. This well is not called after Joseph the Patriarch, as is usually supposed, but after the famous Salah ad-Din (Saladin), whose first name was Yusuf or Joseph. The shaft of this well, in two parts, is about 289 feet deep, and was found to be choked up with sand when the Citadel was built; Saladin caused it to be cleared out, and from his time until 1865 its water was regularly drawn up and used. This well was probably sunk by the ancient Egyptians. The Khedivial Library. This valuable collection was founded by Isma'il in 1870, and contains the Hbrary of Mustafa Pasha ; the number 2 c 386 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. of MSS., Persian, Turkish, Arabic, etc., is said to be about 24,000. Some of the copies of the Kur an preserved there are among the oldest known. The library is now housed in the Museum of Arab Art, which was built in 1902-3 at a cost of ^E.66,coo. EzBEKivAH Garden. This garden or "place," named after the Amir Ezbeki, the general of Ka'it Bey (a.d. 1468 — 1496), was made in 1870 by M. Barillet, and has an area of about twenty acres. The Nilometer in the Island of R6da. The Nilometer here is a pillar, which is divided into seventeen parts, each representing a cubit, /.«?., 21^ inches, and each cubit is divided into twenty-four parts. This pillar is placed in the centre of a well about sixteen feet square ; the lower end is embedded in the foundations, and the upper end is held in position by a beam built into the side walls. The well is connected with the Nile by a channel. The first Nilometer at Roda is said to have been built by the order of the Khalifa Suleman (a.d. 715 — 717). The second was built in 861, and 12 years later TCllfin repaired it and built a fort on the island. At the end of the eleventh century a dome resting upon columns was built over it. When the Nile is at its lowest level it stands at the height of seven cubits in the Nilometer well, and when it reaches the height of 15! cubits, the shekh of the Nile proclaims that sufficient water has come into the river to admit of the cutting of the dam which prevents the water from flowing over the country. The difference between the highest rise and the lowest fall of the Nile at Cairo is about twenty-five feet. The cutting of the dam takes place some time during the second or third week in August, at which time there are MUSEUM OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 387 general rejoicings. When there happens to be an exceptionally high Nile, the whole island of Roda is submerged, and the waters flow over the Nilometer to a depth of two cubits, a fact which proves that the bed of the Nile is steadily rising, and one which shows how difficult it is to harmonize all the statements made by Egyptian, Greek, and Arab writers on the subject. As the amount of taxation to be borne by the people has always depended upon the height of the inun- dation, attempts were formerly made by the governments of Egypt to prove to the people that there never was a low Nile. I. The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. The nucleus of the great Khedivial collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities of all periods, from about B.C. 6500 to the end of the Roman rule in Egypt, was formed by the eminent Frenchman, F. Auguste Ferdinand Mariette, a dis- tinguished scholar and archaeologist, and an unselfish and indefatigable worker in the cause of Egyptological science. In the course of his excavations at Sakkara, where he discovered the Serapeum, he brought together a large number of miscellaneous antiquities, which were stored wherever a place could be found to hold them. In the teeth of opposition made by the notables of Cairo and Ministers of Government, he forced the claims of archaeology under the notice of the Khedive Sa'id Peisha, who, soon after his succession in 1854, ordered that a Museum of Egyptian Antiquities should be founded, and appointed Mariette as its first Keeper. With the important work of the Suez Canal in hand it was unlikely that the Egyptian Government would vote money for the building of a museum to hold the monumental remains of a nation of "ignorant unbelievers,' whom every Egyptian 2 c 2 388 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. believed God had wiped off the face of the earth because of their " unclean wickedness," and Mariette had therefore to take any empty rooms in any Government building which could be found in which lo house his collection. After much difficulty Mariette induced the authorities to transfer to him portions of the old post-office at Bulak, the port of Cairo, and in these the first Khedivial collection of Egyptian antiquities was placed. It goes without saying that the building was unsuitable in t-very way, for the floors were bad, the walls were too thin, the rooms were small, an«l the most inexperienced thief could easily break in and help him- self to the small objects which were placed in the wretched receptacles which served as exhibition cases. It was found in a very short time that the collection was growing too rapidly for the ^ace which Mariette had at his disposal, and, when all the rooms were filled, he was obliged to store the cases of antiquities in an outhouse or shed near, and to leave them packed up. Whilst the work of collecting was thus going on, Mariette devoted himself to the excavation and clearing out of temples and other buildings in all parts of the country. In 1881 the great collection of royal mummies from Der al-Bahari arrived, and the interest of these was so great that the cultured opinion of the civilized world demanded that some systematic arrangement of the contents of the Biilak Museum should be made, and that steps should be taken for their better preservation, for it was found that the damp in the old post-office was doing harm to the more fragile of the antiquities. The situation of the museum itself was alarming. On the one side flowed the Nile, which more than once threatened to sweep the whole building away, and the waters of which, on one occasion, actually entered the courtyard, and on the other were a number of warehouses of the flimsiest construction, filled with inflammable stores, which might at any moment catch fire and burn down the museum. Early in winter morningB MUSEUM OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 389 the building was often full of the white, clinging, drenching mist, which is common along tiie banks of the river, and it was no rare thing to see water trickling down inside the glass cases which held the mummies of the great kings of Egypt. At length the Egyptian Government was compelled to consider seriously the problem of housing the monuments of the Pharaohs, but the authorities were hampered by want of funds; finally, after much discu-sion, it was decided to transfer the whole collection to the Palace of Gizah, which stands on the left bank of the Nile, just opposite the Island of Roda. This palace was built by Isma'il Pasha to ac- commodate his hartm, and cost between 4J and 5 millions of pounds sterling ! The fabric itself was not strong enough for a building of the kind, and the V:^alls of hundreds of its rooms were made of lath and plaster gi'ded and painted ; the outcry usually raised by irresponsible persons against any proposal connected with antiquities was made, but, under the circumstances, the Government did the right thing. It fell to the duty of Sir Francis Grenfell, K.C.B., to make arrangements for the prevention of fire, and with the precautions taken by him, and the rules which he enforced in person, the collection became comparatively safe. The removal of the antiquities from Biilak to Gizeh was carried out in 1889. In 1895 ^^^ Public Debt Commissioners voted the sum of ;^E. 110,000 for the building of a new fire- proof museum, and the design of M. Dourgnon, a Parisian architect, was selected by the jury, which consisted of an Englishman, a Frenchman, and an Italian. The building was offered for tender in 1896, the foundations were laid in 1897, and the museum was finished towards the close of 1901 ; up to the end of 1900 the total cost had been jQ^. 169,000. The transfer of the antiquities from Gizah to the new museum began on December 3rd, 1901, and was completed on July 13th, 1902. The inauguration 39° NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. ceremonies were performed in the presence of Lord Cromer, Lord Kitchener, and about loo of the nobles and notables of Cairo on November 15th following. As already said, the first Keeper of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo was F. A. F. Mariette, who was born at Boulogne-sur-Mer on February nth, 182 1, and who died at Cairo in 1881. He was appointed on the staff of the Louvre in 1848; he set out on a mission to Egypt in search of Coptic and Syriac MSS. in 1850 ; he discovered and excavated the Serapeum in 1852, with a grant of 50,000 francs which had been voted by the French National Assembly ; he carried on excavations for the Due de Luynes at Gizah in 1853 ; and in 1854 he was appointed Assistant Curator at the Louvre. In the same year he was appointed Keeper of the BAlak Museum, and the Khedive Sa'id Pasha made him a Bey. From 1855 to 1 87 1 he worked indefatigably, and the excavations which he carried out comprise some of the greatest works of the kind ever done in Egypt. Tanis, Abydos, Edftl, Karnak, Denderah, Medinet Habti, Der al-Bahari, and many other sites were more or less thoroughly explored by him ; he explored hundreds of mastabas in the cemeteries of Gizah, Sakkara, and Medtim, and he opened the "Mastabat al-Fir'adn." VVhilst engaged in such works he found time to write a Guide to the Museum, entitled " Notice des principaux monuments exposes dans les galeries provisoires du Musee d'Antiquites de S. A. le Khedive a Boulaq," which went through several editions ; he edited facsimiles of papyri, and published several volumes of valuable Egyptian texts. The zeal and enthusiasm of Mariette contributed largely to the advance of Egyptological science, and, as a worker on broad, general lines of study, his equal will not quickly be found. His body was entombed in a marble sarcophagus which first stood in the courtyard at BCllak, then was removed MUSEUM OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 39 1 to Gizah in 1889, and to the new Museum in Cairo in 1902. Marietta was succeeded by Professor Gaston Maspero, who was born at Paris on June 23rd, 1846. He took the degree of Docteur en Lettres in 1873 at I'Ecole Normale, was made Professor of the College de France, in the room of de Rouge, and Member of L'Academie des Inscriptions in 1883, and Oxford con- ferred upon him the degree of D.C.L. in 1886. As soon as he was appointed he began to arrange and catalogue the antiquities at B61ak, and for the first time it btcame possible to obtain an idea of the value and sequence of the objects exhibited. The " Guide du Visiteur au Musee de Boulaq" was a most useful work, for in it Professor Maspero not only described his objects, but exp'amed their use and signification, and his " Guide " was in reality a manual of archaeology. In addition to his work in con- nection with the Museum at B^ilak, Professor Maspero carried out the excavation of Luxor temple in 1884, 1885, and 1886, at the expense of a fund which was raised by the Journal des Dibats ; it has been customary to ascribe this work to M. Grebaut, but this savant only removed from Luxor to Cairo the antiquities which Professor Maspero had found. In 1884 Professor Maspero discovered the necropolis of Akhmim, from which such excellent results were obtained ; he repaired Karnak, and the eastern part of the Hypostyle Hall ; he cleared the Ramesseum at Thebes, and repaired the temples at Abydos ; he rebuilt the west part of the girdle wall at Edfti, covered over the sanctuary, and repaired the little temple ; and he carried on works of repair and excavation and clearing at Kom Ombo, Al-Kab, Aswan, Shekh 'Abd al-Ktirna, Asydt, Barsha, Beni Hasan, Tell al-'Amarna, Sakkara, etc. Professor Maspero is the author of a large number of Egyptological works, many of them con- 392 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. taining editions of most valuable texts, and his Histoire Ancienne in three volumes is a monumental work. One of his greatest works undoubtedly is the edition of the texts that were found in the pyramid tombs of Unas, Teta, and other early kings, which he pubhshed with translations in French. These documents are of priceless value for the study of the religion of ancient Egypt, and their decipherment and publication are the greatest triumph of Egyptology. They reveal a phase of civilization in Egypt of which there are no other records than these in writing, and certain portions of them must be coeval with the historic culture of Egypt. In t886, for private reasons, Professor Maspero resigned his appointment as Keeper of the Billak Museum, and was succeeded by M. Grdbaut, the author of an excellent edition of a famous Hymn to Amen-Ra; he increased the collection under his charge considerably, and brought many valuable monuments from all parts of Egypt to the Museum at Gizah ; he discovered a large number of the mummies of priests of Amen, with their coffins, etc., at Der al-Bahari. Under his rule the Egyptian collection was removed from Biilak to the Palace of Gizah. M. Grebaut was, in turn, succeeded in 1892 by M. J. Marie de Morgan, who was born on June 3rd, 1857, at the Chateau de Bion, Loir-et-Cher ; though he studied archaeology for more than 20 years, he is a trained mathematician, engineer, and geologist, and he has turned his training to good account, for he has conducted excavations according to scientific methods, with unusually successful results. Since 1897, when he resigned his appointment, he has been engaged in carrying out excavations at Susa and other places in the country which was called Elam by ancient nations ; fortune has favoured his labours, and made him the discoverer of the basalt stele which is inscribed in Babylonian characters MUSEUM OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 393 with the text of the " Code of Laws " of Khammurabi, king of Babylon, about B.C. 2200. M. de Morgan has travelled over all Persia, Luristan, Kurdistan, Armenia, and Mesopo- tamia, and is the author of numerous learned works. In connection with Egyptology it may be mentioned that he was the discoverer of the predynastic and early archaic tombs at Nakada in Upper Egypt, and it was he who first showed the correct position in the history of Egypt of the people who were erroneously called the New Race. M. de Morgan was succeeded in 1897 by M. Victor Loret, who is the author of Mamiel de la Langue Egyptienne^ Paris, 1891 ; of La Flore pharaonique, Paris, 1892 ; and of several articles in various publications. In 1898 he discovered in the tomb of Amen-hetep II. at Thebes the mummies of several kings of the XVIIIth and later dynasties, and among them was the mummy of Menephthah, the " Pharaoh of the Oppression," whom many behaved to have been drowned in the " Red Sea," when the Egyptians were overwhelmed in the days of Moses. In 1899 M. Loret resigned, and M. Maspero returned to his former position of Keeper of the Egyptian Museum, and during the second period of his rule he has renewed the wise and liberal policy with which all are familiar. Under his guidance the Egyptian collection has been removed from the Palace of Gizah to the new Museum in the European quarter of Cairo, and the interests of Egyptology, both archaeological and philological, are well guarded. The various Keepers of the Egyptian Museum have for 30 years or more been ably seconded in all their endeavours by Emil Brugsch Bey, the brother of Dr. H. Brugsch, the eminent Egyptologist, and Conservator of the Museum, to whom the arrangement and classification of the antiquities therein are chiefly due. He holds the traditions of the great Mariette, having been his fellow- 394 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. worker, and possesses an unrivalled knowledge of sites and of all matters relating to excavations ; his learning and courtesy are too well known to need further mention. The Assistant-Conservators are M. G. Daressy and Ahmad Kamal Bey. The Museum is open every day except Friday, from 9 A.M. to 4.30 P.M. ; the entrance fee is 5 piastres. Tickets for inspecting the temples, price 120 piastres, may be pur- chased here. In former days Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son printed in their " Guide to Egypt " and in " The Nile " a summary of the contents of the rooms of the Egyptian Museum, but, as M. Maspero has issued a " Guide to the Cairo Museum," they have decided to omit such summary here. The Egyptian Collection in Cairo is the richest in the world in monuments of the first six dynasties, but in some classes of the later antiquities its collections are poor. No visitor should omit to see : — 1. The painted mastaba doors and statues of dynasties IV. -VI. 2. The Shekh al-Balad. 3. The Inscriptions of Una and Her-Khuf. 4. The Statues of Mycerinus and Khephren. 5. The Tomb of Heru-hetep. 6. The Sphinxes and monuments from Tanis. 7. The stelae of Piankhi and his successors from Gebel Barkal. 8. The statue of Amenartas. 9. The Tablet of Sakkara. 10. The Stele of Pithom. 11. The Stele of Canopus. 12. The Tell al-Amarna Tablets. 13. The Royal Mummies from Der al-Baljari. MUSEUM OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 395 14. The papyrus containing the Maxims of Ani. 15. The Fa5ryum Papyrus. 16. The Dahshur jewellery. 17. The jewellery of Aah-hetep. 18. The green slate object of Narmer. 19. The leather body of the chariot of Thothmes IV. 20. Typical examples of all the painted coffins. In a room attached to the Museum visitors may purchase Egyptian antiquities, and as many travellers wish to take away with them a scarab or a ushabti figure, or some small object which was buried with the mummy, the following notes, which explain the commonest of them, are added : — Ushabtiu figures are made of stone, alabaster, wood, and glazed faience^ and are in the form of the god Osiris, who is here represented in the form of a mummy. They were placed in the tomb to do certain agricultural works for the deceased, who was supposed to be condemned to sow the fields, to fill the canals with water, and to carry sand from the East to the West. They are usually inscribed with the Vlth Chapter of the Book of the Dead. As many travellers buy ushabtiu figures in Egypt, the following version of the chapter may be of interest to them : — a ushabiiu dpen ar dptu Asdr O ushabtiu figures these, if is decreed Osiris er drit kat nebt drit dm to do labours any [which] are to be done there 396 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 'Ui ^ I U=/l em neter khert astu hu - fief in the underworld, behold, be there smitten down for him i:^ \ I I I setchebu df?i em sa er obstructions there for a person khert - f beneath him. \i,'\ I I I Here am I > . ka - ten [when] call ye. ap tu - ten Watch ye o er ennu neb arit dfn er at moment every to work there, to plough serutet I I I 1\ sekhet the fields. er to semehi utebu er fill with water the canals, to khen carry o III shd en sand of y M Abtet the east er Amentet to the west. thes rer maku - a Again here am I 1 I I I ka - ten [when] call ye. EGYPTIAN AMULETS. 397 That is to say, the deceased addresses each figure and says, " O ushabtiu figures, if the Osiris," that is, the deceased, " is decreed to do any work whatsoever in the underworld, may all obstacles be cast down in front of him ! " The figure answers and says, " Here am I ready when ye call." The deceased next says, ''O ye figures, be ye ever watchful to work, to plough and sow the fields, to water the canals, and to carry sand from the east to the west." The figure replies, " Here am I when ye call." Amulets.— 1. The Buckle or Tie, ||, usually made of some red stone, the colour of which was intended to represent the blood of Isis ; it was placed on the neck of the mummy which it was supposed to protect. It was often inscribed with the CLVIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead. 2. The Tet, n, which had sometimes plumes, disk, and horns, (JU , attached to it, was also placed on the neck of the mummy, and was often inscribed with the CLVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, 3. The Vulture, ^^, was placed upon the neck of the mummy on the day of the funeral, and brought with it the protection of the " mother " Isis. 4. The Collar, ^^?, was placed upon the neck of the mummy on ihe day of the funeral. 5. The Papyrus Sceptre, |, was placed upon the neck of the mummy, and typified the green youth which it was hoped the deceased would enjoy in the nether world. 6. The Pillow, '^, usually made of haematite, was ^enerally inscribed with the CLXVIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead. 398 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 7. The Heart, O, represented the " soul of Khepera." 8. The Ankh, ^, represented "Life." 9. The Utchat, or symbolic Eye, ^^, typified " good health and happiness," and was a very popular form of amulet in Egypt. 10. The Nefer, T, represented "good-luck." 11. The Sma, 1, represented " union." 12. The Menat, (w, represented "virihty." 13. The Neha, [j—', represented " protection." 14. The Serpent's Head, f) , was placed in mummies to prevent their being devoured by worms. 15. The Frog, ^^ , represented "fertility" and " abundance." 16. The Stairs, £|_J , were the symbol of ascending to heaven. 17. The Fingers, index and medius, found inside mum- mies, represented the two fingers which the god Horus stretched out to help the deceased up the ladder to heaven. Scarabs. — Scarab or Scarabseus (from the Greek oKapa^o'i) is the name given by Egyptologists to the myriads of models of a certain beetle, which are found in mummies and tombs and in the ruins of temples and other buildings in Egypt, and in other countries the inhabitants of which, from a remote period, had intercourse with the Egyptians. M. Latreille considered the species which he named Ateuchus Aegyptiorum^ or r)\ioKaueapo9, and which is of a fine greenish colour, as that which especially engaged the attention of the early Egyptians, and Dr. Clarke affirmed that it was eaten by the women of Egypt because it was considered to be an emblem of fertility. In these insects a remarkable SCARABS. 399 peculiarity exists in the structure and situation of the hind legs, which are placed so near the extremity of the body, and so far from each other, as to give them a most extra- ordinary appearance when walking. This peculiar formation is, nevertheless, particularly serviceable to its possessors in rolling the balls of excrementitious matter in which they enclose their eggs. These balls are at first irregularly shaped and soft, butby degrees, and during the process of rolling along, become rounded and harder ; ihey are propelled by means of the hind legs. Sometimes these balls are an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, and in rolling them along the beetles stand almost upon their heads, with the heads turned from the balls. They do this in order to bury their balls in holes which they have already dug for them, and it is upon the dung just deposited that the larvae when hatched feed. Horapollo thought that the beetle was self-produced, but he made this mistake on account of the females being exceedingly like the males, and because both sexes appear to divide the care of the preservation of their offspring equally between them. The Egyptians called both the scarabaeus Khepera O (I ^^ , and the god represented by this insect also Khepera M <=> Vl I* ^^^ ^^^ Khepera was supposed to be the "father of the gods," and the creator of all things in heaven and earth ; he made himself out of matter which he himself had made. He was identified with the rising sun and thus typified resurrection. D . which is usually translated The verb Kheper " to exist, to become," also means " to roll," and "roller," or "revolver," was a fitting name for the sun. In a hieratic papyrus in the British Museum (No. 1018S), the god Khepera is identified with the god Neb-er-tcher, (( 400 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. who, in describing the creation of gods, men, animals, and things, says : — " I am he who evolved himself under the form " of the god Khepera. I, the evolver of evolutions, evolved myself, the evolver of all evolutions, after a multitude of " evolutions and developments"*^ which came forth from my " mouth (or at my command). There was no heaven, there " was no earth, animals which move upon the earth and " reptiles existed not at all in that place. I constructed their " forms out of the inert mass of watery matter, I found no " place there where I could stand. By the strength which was " in my will I laid the foundation [of things] in the form of " the god Shu and I created for them every attribute which " they have. I alone existed, for I had not as yet made Shu " to emanate from me, and I had not ejected the spittle which " became the god Tefnut; there existed none other to work " with me. By my own will I laid the foundations of all " things, and the evolutions of the things, and the evolutions " which took place from the evolutions of their births which " took place through the evolutions of their offspring, " became multiplied. My shadow was united with me, and " I produced Shu and Tefnut from the emanations of my " body, thus from being one god I became three " gods I gathered together my members and " wept over them, and men and women sprang into " existence from the tenrs which fell from my eye." * The duplicate copy of this chapter reads, "I developed myself " from the primeval matter which I made. My name is Osiris, the " germ of primeval matter. I have worked my will to its full extent in " this earth, I have spread abroad and filled ii I uttered my " name as a word of power, from my own mouth, and I straightway " developed myself by evolutions. I evolved myself under the form of " the evolutions of the god Khepera. and I developed myself out of the " primeval matter which has evolved multitudes of evolutions from the " beginning of time. Nothing existed on this earth [before me], I made " all things. There was none other who worked w ith me at that time. " I made all evolutions by means of that soul which I raised up there " from inertness out of the watery matter." SCARABS. 401 Scarabs may be divided into three classes : — r. Funereal scarabs ; 2. Scarabs worn for ornament ; 3. Historical scarabs. Of funereal scarabs the greater number found measure from half an inch to two inches, and are made of steatite glazed green, or blue, or brown ; granite, basalt, jasper, amethyst, lapis-lazuli, carnelian, and glass. The flat base of the scarabs was used by the Egyptians for en- graving with names of gods, kings, priests, officials, private persons, and monograms and devices. Scarabs were set in rings and worn on the fingers by the dead and living, and were wrapped up in the linen bandages with which the mummy was swathed, and placed over the heart. The best class of funereal scarabs was made of a fine, hard, green basalt, which, when the instructions of the rubic concerning them in the Book of the Dead were carried out, was set in a gold border, and hung from the neck by a fine gold wire. Such scarabs are sometimes joined to a heart on which is inscribed the legend "life, stabihty, and protection" "T )( il' Funereal scarabs were also set in pectorals, and were in this case ornamented with figures of the deceased adoring Osiris. Scarabs of all kinds were kept in stock by the Egyptian undertaker, and spaces were left blank in the in- scriptions* to add the names of the persons for whofn they were bought. Scarabs worn for ornament exist in many thousands. By an easy transition, the custom of placing scarabs on the bodies of the dead passed to the living, and men and women wore the scarab probably as a silent act of homage to the creator of the world, who was not only the god of the dead, but of the living also. Historical scarabs appear to be limited to a series of four, which were made during the reign of Amenophis III to commemorate certain historical events, viz. : i. The slaughter of 102 lions by Amenophis during the first ten * The chapter usually inscribed upon these scarabs is No. 30 B. 2 D 402 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. years of his reign ; 2. A description of the boundaries of the Egyptian Empire, and the names of the parents of Queen Thi ; 3. The arrival of Thi and Gilukhipa in Egypt, together with 317 women ; 4. The construction of a lake in honour of Queen Thi. Mummy. — Whether the art of mummifying was known to the aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt, or whether it was intro- duced by the newcomers from Asia, is a question which is very difficult to answer. We know for a certainty that the stele of a dignitary preserved at Oxford was made during the reign of Sent, the fifth king of the Ilnd dynasty, about B.C. 4000. The existence of this stele, with its figures and inscriptions, points to the lact that the art of elaborate sepulture had reached a high pitch in those early times. The man for whom it was made was called (1 Shera, and he held the dignity of | y neten heti^ or ' prophet ' ; the stele also tells us that he was I suten rekht^ or 'royal kinsman.' The inscriptions contain prayers asking for the deceased in the nether-world " thousands of oxen, linen bandages, cakes, vessels of wine, incense, &c." which fact shows that religious belief, funereal ceremonies, and a hope for a life after death had already become a part of the life of the people of Egypt. During the reign of King Sent the redaction of a medical papyrus was carried out. As this work presupposes many years of experiment and experience, it is clear that the Egyptians possessed ample anatomical knowledge for mummifying a human body. Again, if we consider that the existence of this king is proved by papyri and contemporaneous monuments, and that we know the names of some of the priests who took part in funereal ceremonies during his reign, there is no difficulty in acknowledging that the antiquity is great of such ceremonies, and that they presuppose a religious belief in the revivification of the body, for which hoped-for event MUMMIFICATION. 403 the Egyptian took the greatest possible care to hide and preserve his body. ' Mummy ' is the term which is generally applied to the body of a human being, or animal, bird, fish, or reptile, which has been preserved from decay by means of bitumen, spices, gums, and natron. As far as can be discovered, the word is neither a corruption of the ancient Egyptian word for a preserved body, nor of the more modern Coptic form of the hieroglyphic name. The word " mummy " is found in Byzantine Greek and in Latin, and indeed in almost all European languages. It is derived from the Arabic lx.<»,>; milmm, 'bitumen'; the Arabic word for mummy is ijLc*^ mumtyyet, and means a "bitumenized thing," or a body preserved by bitumen. We obtain our knowledge of the way in which the ancient Egyptians mummified their dead from Greek historians, and from an examination of mummies. x\ccording to Herodotus (ii, 86), the art of mummifying was carried on by a special guild of men who received their appointment by law. These men mummified bodies in three different ways, and the price to be paid for preserving a body varied according to the manner in which the work was done. In the first and most expensive method the brain was extracted through the nose by means of an iron probe, and the intestines were removed entirely from the body through an incision made in the side with a sharp Ethiopian stone. The intestines were cleaned and washed in palm wine, and, having been covered with powdered aromatic gums, were placed in jars. The cavity in the body was filled up with myrrh and cassia and other fragrant and astringent substances, and was sewn up again. The body was next laid in natron for 70 days,* and when these were over, it was carefully washed, and afterwards wrapped up in strips of fine linen smeared * In Genesis 1. 3, the number given is 40. 2 D 2 404 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. on their sides with gum. The cost of mummifying a body in this fashion was a talent of silver, i.e.^ about £,2\o^ according to Diodorus (i, 91, 92). In the second method of mummifying the brain was not removed at all, and the intestines were simply dissolved and removed in a fluid state. The body was also laid in salt or natron which, it is said, dissolved everything except the skin and bones. The cost of mummifying in this manner was 20 minae, or about ^£^20. The third method of embalming was employed for the poor only. It consisted simply of cleaning the body by injecting some strong astringent, and then salting the body for 70 days. The cost in this case was very little. The account given by Diodorus agrees generally with that of Herodotus. He adds, however, that the incision was made on the left side of the body, and that the " dissector " having made the incision fled away, pursued and stoned by those who had witnessed the ceremony. It would seem that the dissector merely fulfilled a religious obligation in fleeing away, and that he had not much to fear. Diodorus goes on to say that the Egyptians kept the bodies of their ancestors in splendid chambers, and that they had the opportunity of contemplating the faces of those who died before their time. In some particulars he is right, and in others wrong. He lived too late (about B.C. 40) to know what the well-made Theban mummies were like, and his experience therefore would only have familiarized him with the Egypto-Roman mummies, in which the limbs were bandaged separately, and the contour of their faces, much blunted, was to be seen through the thin and tightly-drawn bandages which covered the face. In such examples the features of the face can be clearly distinguished underneath the bandages. An examination of Egyptian mummies will show that the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus are generally correct, for mummies with or without ventral incisions are MUMMIFICATION. 40$ found, and some are preserved by means of balsams and gums, and others by bitumen and natron. The skulls of mummies, which may be seen by hundreds in caves and pits at Ihebes, contain absolutely nothing, a fact which proves that the embalmers were able not only to remove the brain, but also to take out the membranes without injuring or breaking the nose in any way. The heads of mummies are found, at times, to be filled with bitumen, linen rags, or resin. The bodies, which have been filled with resin or some such substance, are of a greenish colour, and the skin has the appearance of being tanned. Such mummies, when unrolled, perish rapidly and break easily. Usually, how- ever, the resin and aromatic gum process is favourable to the preservation of the teeth and hair. Bodies from which the intestines have been removed, and which have been preserved by being filled with bitumen, are quite black and hard. The features are preserved intact, but the body is heavy and unfair to look upon. The bitumen penetrates ihe bones so completely that it is sometimes difficult to dis- tinguish what is bone and what is bitumen. The arms, legs, hands, and feet of such mummies break with a sound like the cracking of chemical glass tubing ; they burn freely. Speaking generally, they will last for ever. When a mummy has been preserved by natron, that is, a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, the skin is found to be very hard, and it hangs loosely from the bones in much the same way as it hangs from the skeletons of the monks preserved in the crypt beneath the Capuchin convent at Floriana in Malta. The hair of such mummies usually falls off when touched. When the friends of a dead Egyptian were too poor to pay for a good, expensive method of embalmment, the body could be preserved by two very cheap methods ; one method was to soak it in salt and hot bitumen, and the other in salt only. In the salt and bitumen process every cavity of the body was filled with bitumen, and the hair disappeared. 4o6 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Clearly it is to the bodies which were preserved in this way that the name "mummy," or bitumen, was first applied. The salted and dried body is easily distinguishable. The skin is like paper, the features and hair have disappeared, and the bones are very brittle and white. The art of mummifying arrivtd at the highest pitch of perfection at Thebes. The mummies of the first six dynasties drop to pieces on exposure to the air, and smell slightly of bitumen ; those of the Xlth dynasty are of a yellowish colour and very brittle ; those of the Xllth dynasty are black. The method of enibalming varied at different periods and places. P>om the XVIIIth to the XXIst dynasties the Memphis mummies are black, while those made at Thebes during the same period are yellowish in colour, and have the nails of the hands and feet dyed yellow with the juice of the hernia plant. After the XXV Ith dynasty the mummies made at both places are quite black and shapeless ; they are also very heavy and tough, and can only be broken with difficulty. What the mummies which were made three or four hundred years after Christ are like, the writer, never having seen one unrolled, is unable to say. About B.C. loo the Greeks began to paint the portrait of the dead upon the wrappings which covered the face. The art of mummifying was carried on in Egypt for nearly 500 years after the birth of Christ, for the Greeks and Romans adopted the custom freely. We may therefore say that we know for a certainty that the art of embalming was known and practised for about 5,000 years. In the account of embalming given us by Herodotus, we are told that the internal organs of the body were removed, but he does not say what was done with them. We now know that they also were mummified and were preserved in four jars, the covers of which were made in the shape of the heads of the four children of Horus. the genii of CANOPIC JARS. 407 the dead, whose names were Mestha, Hapi, Tuamutef, aAd Qebhsennuf. These genii have been compared with the four beasts in the Book of Revelation (chap, iv, 7). The jars and the genii to whom they were dedicated were undei the protection of Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Serq re- spectively. They are called ' Canopic ' jars, because they resemble the vase shape of Osiris called Canopus, and they are made of Egyptian porcelain, marble, calcareous stone, terra-cotta, wood, etc. The jar of Mestha received the large intestines, that of Hapi the smaller intestines, that of Tuamutef the heart, and that of Qebhsennuf the liver. Each jar was inscribed with a legend stating that the genius to whom it was dedicated protected and preserved the part of the dead body that was in it. In the case of poor people who could not afford a set of canopic jars, it was usual to have a set of wax figures made in the shape of the four genii o^ the dead, and to place them in the dead body with the intestines, which were put back. In the time of the XXVIth dynasty, and later, poverty or laziness made people consider the interior parts of the body to be sufficiently well guarded if figures of these genii were roughly drawn on the linen bandages. It was customary at one time to lay a set of these figures, made of porcelain or bead-work, upon the chest of the mummy. It was the fashion some years ago to state in books of history that the ancient Egyptian was a negro, and some distinguished historians still make this statement, notwith- standing Professor Owen's distinct utterance, " taking the " sum of the correspondence notable in collections of skulls " from Egyptian graveyards as a probable indication of the " hypothetical primitive race originating the civilised con- " ditions of cranial departure from the skull-character of such " race, that race was certainly not of the Australoid type, " is more suggestive of a northern Nubian or Berber basis. •* But such suggestive characters may be due to intercourse 4o8 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. " or 'admixture ' at periods later than [the] Xlllth dynasty ; " they are not present, or in a much less degree, in the " skulls, features, and physiognomies of individuals of from " the Ilird to the Xllth dynasties/' The character of the ancient Egyptian, and of the race to which he belonged, has been vindicated by examinations of the skulls of Egyptian mummies. If the pure ancient Egyptian, as found in mummies and represented in paintings upon the tombs, be compared with the negro, we shall find that they are absolutely unlike in every important particular. The negro is prognathous, but the Egyptian is orthognathous ; the bony structure of the negro is heavier and stronger than that of the Egyptian ; the hair of the negro is crisp and woolly, while that of the Egyptian is smooth and fine. It miay be pointed out that the Egyptians originally took trouble to preserve the bodies of the dead because they believed that after a series of terrible combats in the under- world, the soul, triumphant and pure, would once more return to the clay in which it had formerly lived. It was necessary, then, to preserve the body that it might be ready for the return of the soul. It was also necessary to build large and beautiful tombs, in order that the triumphant soul, having revivified its ancient house of clay, might have a fit and proper abode in which to dwell. The pyramid tombs built by the kings of the earlier dynasties, and the vast many-chambered sepulchres hewn in the sides of the Theban hills during the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, were not built to gratify the pride of their owners. The belief concerning mummification seems to have been considerably modified at a later period, for the evidence now available indicates that the later Egyptians preserved the material body in order that the spiritual body might spring from it, which result was partly due to the ceremonies performed and the words recited at the tomb by the priests and pious persons. 409 HELIOPOLIS.* About five miles to the north-east of Cairo stands the little village of Matariyahf, built upon part of the site of Heliopolis, where may be seen the sycamore tree, usually called the ' Virgin's Tree,' under which tradition says that the Virgin Mary sat and rested during her flight to Egypt ; it was planted some time towards the end of the XVI Ith century, and was given to the Empress Eugenie by Isma'il on the occasion of the opening of the Suez Canal. Beyond the 'Virgin's Tree' is the fine Aswan granite obelisk which marks the site of the ancient town of Heliopolis, called ' On ' in Gen. xli. 45, ' House of the Sun ' in Jeremiah * Called in Egyptian [n W , Annie meht, ' Annu of the North,' to distinguish it from [li -- I ^ \^®i Annu Qeindu, 'Annu of the South,' i.e., Hermonthis. t '^ Ij^^ Juynboll, £>/. cit., t iii., p. 1 10. At this place the balsam trees, about which so many traditions are extant, were said to grow. The balsam tree was about a cubit high, and had two barks ; the outer red and fine, and the inner green and thick. When the latter was macerated in the mouth, it left an oily taste and an aromatic odour. Incisions were made in the barks, and the liquid which flowed from them was carefully collected and treated ; the amount of balsam oil obtained formed a tenth part of all the liquid collected. The last balsam tree cultivated in Egypt died in 161 5, but two were seen alive in 1612 ; it is said that they would grow nowhere out of Egypt. They were watered with the water from the well at Matariyah in which the Virgin Mary washed the clothes of our Lord when she was in Egypt. The oil was much sought after by the Christians of Abyssinia and other places, who thought it absolutely necessary that one drop of it should be poured into the water in which they were baptized. See Wansleben, V Histoire de P^glise (fAlexandrie, pp. 88-93; Abd-al-Lattf {^^. de Sacy), p. 88. 41 O NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. xliii. 13, and "Eye or Fountain of the Sun" by the Arabs. HeliopoHs was about twelve miles from the fortress of Babylon, and stood on the eastern side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, near the right bank of the great canal which passed through the Bitter Lakes and connected the Nile with the sea. Its ruins cover an area three miles square. The greatest and oldest Egyptian College or University for the education of the priesthood and the laity stood here, and it was here that Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, sent for Egyptian manuscripts when he wished to augment the library which his father had founded. The obelisk is sixty-six feet high, and was set up by Usertsen I. f O ^ U] about B.C. 2433 ; a companion obelisk remained standing in its place until the seventh century of our era, and both were covered with caps of smu (probably copper) metal. During the XXth dynasty the temple of Heliopohswas one of the largest and wealthiest in all Egypt, and its staff was numbered by thousands. When Cambyses visited Egypt the glory of Heliopolis was well on the wane, and after the removal of the priesthood and sages of the temple to Alexandria by Ptolemy II. its downfall was well assured. When Strabo visited it (b.c. 24), the greater part of it was in ruins ; but we know from Arab writers that many of the statues remained in situ at the end of the twelfth century. Heliopolis had a large population of Jews, and it will be remembered that Joseph married the daughter of Pa-ta-pa-Ra (Potipherah) a priest of On (Annu), or Heliopolis. It lay either in or very near the Goshen of the Bible. The Mnevis bull, sacred to Ra, was worshipped at Heliopolis, and it was here that the phccnix or palm-bird brought its ashes after having raised itself to life at the end of each period of five hundred years. Alexander the Great halted here on his way from Pelusium to Memphis. Macrobius says that the HeUopolis of Syria, or Baalbek, was founded by a body of priests who left the ancient city of HeHopolis of Egypt. 4IT THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZAH. On the western bank of the Nile, from Abu Roash on the north to Medum on the south, is a slightly elevated tract of land, about twenty-five miles long, on the edge of the Libyan desert, on which stand the pyramids of AbCl Roash, Gizah, Zawyet al-'Aryan, Abusir, Sakkara, Lisht, and Dahshur. Other places in Egypt where pyramids are found are Al-lahun* in the Fayyum, Hawara, and Kullah near Esna. The pyramids built by the Nubians or Ethiopians at !^urr1 "^ n ^^ ' Usr-en-Rd, son of the Sun, An.' This king, like Sahu-Ra, also made war in Sinai. The largest of these pyramids was built by Kakaaf U U Q ] and is now about 165 feet high and 330 feet square. Abusir is the Busiris of Pliny. 427 bedrashen, memphis, and sakkAra. The ruins of Memphis and the antiquities at Sakkara are usually reached by steamer or train from Cairo to Bed- rashen. Leaving the river or station the village of Bedrashen is soon reached, and a short ride next brings the traveller to the village of Mit-Rahineh. On the ground lying for some distance round about these two villages once stood the city of Memphis, though there is comparatively little left to show its Hmits. According to Herodotus (ii., 99), " Menes, who first ruled over Egypt, in the first place protected Memphis by a mound ; for the whole river formerly ran close to the sandy mountain on the side of Libya ; but Menes, beginning about a hundred stades above Memphis, filled in the elbow towards the south, dried up the old channel, and conducted the river into a canal, so as to make it flow between the mountains : this bend of the Nile, which flows excluded from its ancient course^ is still carefully upheld by the Persians, being made secure every year ; for if the river should break through and overflow in this part, there would be danger lest all Memphis should be flooded. When the part cut ofl" had been made firm land by this Menes, who was first king, he in the first place built on it the city that is now called Memphis ; for Memphis is situate in the narrow part of Egypt ; and outside of it he excavated a lake from the river towards the north and the west ; for the Nile itself bounds it towards the east. In the next place, t/iey relate that he built in it the temple of Vulcan, which is vast and well worthy of mention." (Gary's translation.) Whether Menes built the town or not, it is quite certain that the city of Memphis was of most ancient foundation; 428 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. The reason why the kings of Egypt established their capital there is obvious. From the peoples that lived on the western bank of the river they had little to fear, but on . the eastern side they were always subject to invasions of the peoples who lived in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia ; with their capital on the western bank, and the broad Nile as a barrier on the east of it, they were comparatively safe. Added to this, its situation at the beginning of the Delta enabled it to participate easily of the good things of that rich country. The tract of land upon which Memphis stood was also fertile and well wooded. Diodorus speaks of its green meadows, intersected with canals, and of their pavement of lotus flowers ; Pliny talks of trees there of such girth that three men with extended arms could not span them ; Martial praises the roses brought from thence to Rome; and its wine was celebrated in lands remote from it. The site chosen was excellent, for in addition to its natural advantages it was not far from the sea-.coast of the Delta, and holding as it were a middle position in Egypt, its kings were able to hold and rule the country from Philae on the south to the Mediterranean on the north. In the inscriptions it is called ^^^^ l ^^r- /\ ® Men-nefer,'' ' the beautiful dwelling,' [][^°|y ^^^-^^^Z^- ka^ ' the temple of the double of Ptah,' and 1 U Aneb-hetch^ ' the white-walled city.' The last name calls to mind the ' White Castle ' spoken of by classical writers . Teta, son of Menes, built his palace there, and Ka-Kau [ | j j^^ J , the second king of the Ilnd dynasty, B.C. 4100, established the worship of Apis there. * The name Memphis is a corruption of Men-nefer ; the city is called by the Arabs MenHf, and by the Copts Memfi, Menfi (jULGJULCjI, jutenqi). BEDRASHEN, MEMPHIS, AND SAKKARA. 429 During the rule of the Ilird, IVth, and Vlth dynasties, the kings of which sprang from Memphis, that city reached a height of splendour which was probably never excelled. The most celebrated building there was the temple of Ptah, which was beautified and adorned by a number of kings, the last of whom reigned during the XXVIth dynasty. The Hyksos ravaged, but did not destroy, the city ; under the rule of the Theban kings, who expelled the Hyksos, the city flourished for a time, although Thebes became the new capital. When Rameses II. returned from his wars in the east, he set up a statue of himself in front of the temple of Ptah there ; Piankhi the Ethiopian besieged it ; the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal captured it ; Cambyses the Persian, having wrought great damage there, killed the magistrates of the city and the priests of the temple of Apis, and smote the Apis bull so that he died ;"* he established a Persian garrison there. After the founding of Alexandria, Memphis lost what- * "When Cambyses arrived at Memphis, Apis, whom the Greeks call Epaphus, appeared to the Egyptians ; and when this manifestation took place, the Egyptians immediately put on their richest apparel, and kept festive holiday. Cambyses seeing them thus occupied, and con- cluding that they made their rejoicings on account of his ill success, summoned the magistrates to Memphis ; antl when they came into his presence, he asked, ' why the Egyptians had done nothing of the kind when he was at Memphis before, but did so now, when he had returned with the loss of a great part of his army.' They answered, that their god appeared to them, who was accustomed to manifest himself at distant intervals, and that when he did appear, then all the Egyptians were used to rejoice and keep a feast. Cambyses, having heard this, said they lied, and as liars he put them to death. Having slain them, he next summoned the priests into his presence ; and when the priests gave the same account, he said, that he would find out whether a god so tractable had come among the Egyptians ; and having said this, he commanded the priests 10 bring Apis to him ; they therefore went away to fetch him. This Apis, or Epaphus, is the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving another offspring ; and the Egyptians say, that lightning descends upon; the cow from heaven, and that from thence it brings 430 NOTES FOR TRAVP^LLERS IN EGYPT. ever glory it then possessed, and became merely the chief provincial city of Egypt. During the reign of Theodosius, a savage attack, the result of his edict, was made upon its temples and buildings by the Christians, and a few hundred years later the Muhammadans carried the stones, which once formed them, across the river to serve as build- ing materials for their houses and mosques, The circuit of the ancient city, according to Diodorus, was 150 stadia, or about thirteen miles. The Colossal Statue of Rameses II. This magnificent statue was discovered by Messrs. Caviglia and Sloane in 1820, and was presented by them to the British Museum. On account of its weight and the lack of public interest in such matters j it lay near the road leading from Bedrashen to Mit-Rahineh, and little by little became nearly covered with the annual deposit of Nile mud ; during the inundation the greater part of it was covered by the waters of the Nile. During the winter of 1886-87 Sir Frederick Stephenson collected a sum of money in Cairo for the purpose of lifting it out of the hollow in which it forth Apis. This calf, which is called Apis, has the following marks : it is black, and has a square spot of white on the forehead ; and on the back the figure of an eagle ; and in the tail double hairs ; and on the tongue a beetle. When the priests brought Apis, Cambyses, like one almost out of his senses, drew his dagger, meaning to strike the belly of Apis, but hit the thigh ; then falling into a fit of laughter, he said to the priests, ' Ve Ijlockheads, are there such gods as these, consisting of blood and flesh, and sensible to steel ? This, truly, is a god worthy of the Egyptians. But you shall not mock me with impunity.' Having spoken thus, he commanded those whose business it was, to scourge the priests, and to kill all the Egyptians whom they should find feasting. . . . But Apis, being wounded in the thigh, lay and languished in the temple ; and at length, when he had died of the wound, the priests buried him without the knowledge of Cambyses." — Herodotus, III, 27-29. (Gary's translation.) BEDRASH^N, MEMPHIS, AND SAKKARA. 43 1 lay, and the difficult engineering part of the task was ably accomplished by Colonel Arthur Bagnold, R.E. This statue is made of a fine hard limestone, and measures about forty- two feet in height ; it is probably one of the statues which stood in front of the temple of Ptah, mentioned by Herodotus and Diodorus. The prenomen of Rameses II. ( O ^ g -^^^^^ '^wvA^ J Ra-usr-maat-setep-en-Ra, is inscribed on the belt of the statue, and on the end of the roll which the king carries in his hand are the words " Rameses, beloved of Amen." By the side of the king are figures of a daughter and son of Rameses. The famous temple of Ptah founded by Menes was situated to the south of the statue. Sakkara. The name Sakkara is probably a form of the name of the Egyptian god Seker ^—^ J| , who was connected with the resurrection of the dead. The tract of land at Sakkara which formed the great burial ground of the ancient Egyptians of all periods, is about four and a half miles long and one mile wide ; the most important antiquities there are : I. the Step Pyramid ; II. the Pyramids of Unas, Teta, and Pepi I., kings of the Vth and Vlth dynasties ; III. the Serapeum ; and IV. the Tomb of Thi. Admirers of M. Mariette will be interested to see the house in which this distinguished savant lived. I. The Step Pyramid is generally thought to have been built by the fifth king of the IlIrd dynasty (called f "^^ J , Tcheser in the Tablet of Abydos), who is said to have built a pyramid at Kochome {i.e., Ka-Kam) near Sakkara. Though the date of this pyramid is not known accurately, it is probably right to assume that it is older than the pyramids of Gizah. The door which led 432 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. into the pyramid was inscribed with the name of a king called Ra-nub, and M. Mariette found the same name on one of the stelae in the Serapeum. The steps of the pyramid are six in number, and are about 38, 36, 34^, 32, 31 and 29-^ feet in height : the width of each step is from six to seven feet. The lengths of the sides at the base are : north and south 352 feet, east and west 396 feet, and the actual height is 197 feet. In shape this pyramid is oblong, and its sides do not exactly face the cardinal points. The arrangement of the chambers inside this pyramid is quite peculiar to itself. II. The Pyramid of Unasf .^^ (] P j, called in Egyptian Nefer-as-u, lies to the south-east of the Step Pyramid, and was reopened and cleared out in 1881 by M. Maspero, at the expense of Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son. Its original height was about 62 feet, and the length of its sides at the base 220 feet. Owing to the broken blocks and sand which lie round about it, Vyse was unable to give exact measurements. Several attempts had been made to break into it, and one of the Arabs who took part in one of these attempts, "Ahmed the Carpenter," seems to have left his name inside one of the chambers in red ink. It is probable that he is the same man who opened the Great Pyramid at Gizah, a.d. 820. A black basalt sarcophagus, from which the cover had been dragged off, and an arm, a shin bone, some ribs and fragments of the skull from the mummy of Unas, were found in the sarcophagus chamber. The walls of the two largest cham- bers and two of the corridors are inscribed with ritual texts and prayers of a very interesting character. Unas, the last king of the Vth dynasty, reigned about thirty years. The Mastabat al-Fir'aun was thought by Mariette to be the tomb of Unas, but other scholars thought that the 'blunted pyramid ' at Dahshur was his tomb, because his name was written upon the top of it. HEDRASHEN, MEMPHIS, AND SAKKARA. 433 The Pyramid of Teta (^^^ called in Egyptian Tet-asu, lies to the north-east of the Step Pyramid, and was opened in 1881. The Arabs call it the 'Prison Pyramid,' because local tradition says that it is built near the ruins of the prison where Joseph the patriarch was confined. Its actual height is about 59 feet; the length of each side at the base is 210 feet, and the platform at the top is about 50 feet. The arrangement of the chambers and passages and the plan of construction followed is almost identical with that of the pyramid of Unas. This pyramid was broken into in ancient days, and two of the walls of the sarcophagus chamber have literally been smashed to pieces by the hammer blows of those who expected to find treasure inside them. The inscriptions, painted in green upon the walls, have the same subject matter as those inscribed upon the walls of the chambers of the pyramid of Unas. According to Manetho, Teta, the first king of the Vlth dynasty, reigned about fifty years, and was murdered by one of his guards. The Pyramids of Tcheser, Unas, and Teta belong to the Northern Group at Sakkara. The Pyramid of Pepi I. or [^^Tl] "^ [B11] ' Ra- meri, son of the Sun, Pepi,' lies to the south-west of the Step Pyramid, and forms one of the central group of pyramids at Sakkara, where it is called the Pyramid of Shekh Ab(\ Mansur; it was opened in 1880. Its actual height is about 40 feet, and the length of the sides at the base is about 250 feet ; the arrangement of the chambers, etc., inside is the same as in the pyramids of Unas and Teta, but the ornamentation is slightly different. It is the worst preserved of these pyramids, and has suffered most at the hands of the spoilers, probably because having been constructed with stones which were taken from tombs ancient already in those days, instead of stones fresh from the quarry, it was more easily injured. The granite 2 F 434 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. sarcophagus was broken to take out the mummy, fragments of which were found lying about on the ground ; the cover toOj smashed in pieces, lay on the ground close by. A small rose granite box, containing alabaster jars, was also found in the sarcophagus chamber. . The inscriptions are, like those inscribed on the walls of the pyramids of Unas and Teta, of a religious nature ; some scholars see in them evidence that the pyramid was usurped by another Pepi, who lived at a much later period than the Vlth dynasty. The pyramid of Pepi L, the third king of the Vlth dynasty, who reigned, according to Manetho, fifty-three years, was called in Egyptian by the same name as Memphis, />., Men-nefer, and numerous priests were attached to its service. Pepi's kingdom embraced all Egypt, and he waged war against the inhabitants of the peninsula of Sinai. He is said to have set up an obehsk at Heliopohs, and to have laid the foundation of the temple at Denderah. His success as a conqueror was due in a great measure to the splendid abilities of one of his chief officers called Una, who warred successfully against the various hereditary foes of Egypt on its southern and eastern borders. in. The Serapeum or Apis Mausoleum contained the vaults in which all the Apis bulls that lived at Memphis were buried. According to Herodotus, Apis " is the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving another offspring ; and the Egyptians say that lightning descends upon the cow from heaven, and that from thence it brings forth Apis. This calf, which is called Apis, has the following marks : it is black, and has a square spot of white on the forehead, and on the back the figure of an eagle ; and in the tail double hairs ; and on the tongue a beetle." Above each tomb of an Apis bull was built a chapel, and it was the series of chapels which formed the Serapeum properly so called ; it was surrounded by walls like the other Egyptian temples, and it had pylons to which an avenue of sphinxes led. This remarkable BEDRASHfeN, MEMPHIS, AND SAKKArA. 435 place was excavated in 1850 by M. Mariette, who having seen in various parts of Egypt sphinxes upon which were written the names of Asar-Hap, or Serapis, concluded that they must have come from the Serapeum or temple of Serapis spoken of by Sirabo. Happening, by chance, to discover one day at Sakkara a sphinx having the same characteristics, he made up his mind that he had lighted upon the remains ot the long sought-for building. The excavations which he immediately undertook brought to light the Avenue of Sphinxes, eleven statues of Greek philosophers, and the vaults in which the Apis bulls were buried. These vaults are of three kinds, and show that the Apis bulls were buried in different ways at different periods: the oldest Apis sarcophagus laid here belongs to the reign of Amenophis III., about b.c. 1500. The parts of the Apis Mausoleum in which the Apis bulls were buried from the XVIIIth to the XXVIth dynasty are not shewn ; but the new gallery, which contains sixty-four vaults, the oldest of which dates from the reign of Psammetichus I., and the most modern from the time of the Ptolemies, can be seen on application to the guardian of the tombs. The vaults are excavated on each side of the gallery, and each was intended to receive a granite sarcophagus. The names of Amasis II., Cambyses, and Khabbesha are found upon three of the sarcophagi, but most of them are unin- scribed. Twenty-four granite sarcophagi still remain in posi- tion, and they each measure about 1 3 x 8 x 11 feet. The discovery of these tombs was of the greatest importance historically, for on the walls were found thousands of dated stelae which gave accurate chronological data for the history of Egypt. These votive tablets mention the years, months, and days of the reign of the king in which the Apis bulls, in whose honour the tablets were set up, were born and buried. The Apis tombs had been rifled in ancient times, 2 F 2 43^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. and only two of them contained any relics when M. Mariette opened them out. IV. The Tomb of Thi lies to the north-east of the Apis Mausoleum, and was built during the Vth dynasty, about B.C. 3500. Thi s=3 ijl], was a man. who held the dignities of smer^ royal councillor, superintendent of works, scribe of the court, confidant of the king, etc. ; he held also priestly rank as prophet, and was attached to the service of the pyramids of Abusir. He had sprung from a family of humble origin, but his abilities were so esteemed by one ot the kings, whose faithful servant he was, that a princess called Nefer-hetep-s was given him to wife, and his children Thi and Tamut ranked as princes. Thi held several high offices under Kakaa fULjO and User-en-Ra (^iP' kings of the Vth dynasty. The tomb or mastaba of Thi is now nearly covered with sand, but in ancient days the whole building was above the level of the ground. The chambers of the tomb having been carefully cleared, it is possible to enter them and examine the very beautiful sculptures and paintings with which the walls are decorated. To describe these wonderful works of art adequately would require more space than can be given here ; it must be sufficient to say that the scenes represent Thi superintending all the various operations connected with the management of his large agricultural estates and farmyard, together with illustrations of his hunting and fishing expeditions. The Necropolis of Sakkara contains chiefly tombs of the Ancient Empire, that is to say, tombs that were built during the first eleven dynasties ; many tombs of a later period are found there, but they are of less interest and importance, and in many cases small, but fine, ancient tombs have been destroyed to make them. x\s our knowledge of Egyptian architecture is derived principally from tombs and temples, a brief description of the most ancient tombs now known BEDRASHEN, MEMPHIS, AND SAKKARA. 437 will not be out of place here ; the following observations on them are based upon the excellent articles of M. Mariette in the Revue Archeologique, S. 2'^*'"«, t. xix. p. 8 ff. The tombs of the Ancient Empire found at Sakkara belong to two classes, in the commoner of which the naked body was buried about three feet deep in the sand. When the yellowish-white skeletons of such bodies are found to-day, neither fragments of linen nor pieces of coffins are visible ; occasionally one is found laid within four walls roughly built of yellow bricks made of sand, lime, and small stones. A vaulted brick roof covers the space between the walls ; it is hardly necessary to say that such tombs represent the last resting places of the poor, and that nothing of any value is ever found inside them. The tombs of the better sort are carefully built, and were made for the wealthy and the great; such a tomb is usually called by the Arabs mastaba* (the Arabic word for ' bench '), because its length in proportion to its height is great, and reminded them of the long, low seat common in Oriental houses, and familiar to them. The mastaba is a heavy, massive building, of rectangular shape, the four sides of which are four walls symmetrically inclined towards their common centre. Each course of stones, formed by blocks laid upon each other, is carried a little behind the other. The largest mastaba measures about 170 feet long x 86 feet wide, and the smallest about 26 feet X 20 feet: they vary in height from 13 to 30 feet. The ground on which the mastabas at Sakkara are built is composed of rock covered with sand to the depth of a few feet ; their foundations are always on the rock. Near the pyramids of Gizah they are arranged in a symmetrical manner ; they are oriented astronomically to the true north, and their larger axes are always towards the north. Though they have, at first sight, the appearance of unfinished * Pronounced mastaba^ Arabic ^ ra *^-< , compare Gr. anfidc. 43^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. pyramids, still they have nothing in common with pyramids except their orientation towards the true north. Mastabas are built of two kinds : of stone and of bricks, and they are usually entered on the eastern side ; their tops are quite flat. The interior of a mastaba may be divided into three parts ; the chamber, the sirddb* or place of retreat, and the pit. The entrance is made through a door in the middle of the eastern or northern side, and though the interior may be divided into many chambers, it is usual only to find one. The walls of the interior are sometimes sculptured, and in the lower part of the chamber, usually facing the east, is a stele ; the stele alone may be inscribed and the walls un- sculptured, but no case is known where the walls are sculptured and the stele blank. A table of offerings is often found on the ground at the foot of the stele. A little distance from the chamber, built into the thickness of the walls, more often to the south than the north, is a high, narrow place of retreat or habitation, called by the Arabs a sirdab. This place was walled up, and the only communi- cation between it and the chamber was by means of a narrow hole sufficiently large to admit of the entrance of the hand. One or more statues of the dead man buried in the mastaba were shut in here, and the small passage is said to have been made for the escape of the fumes of incense which was burnt in the chamber. The pit was a square shaft varying in depth from 40 to 80 feet, sunk usually in the middle of the larger axis of the mastaba, rather nearer the north than the south. There was neither ladder nor staircase, either outside or inside, leading to the funereal chamber at the bottom of the pit, hence the coffin and the mummy when once there were inaccessible. This pit was sunk through the mastaba into the rock beneath. '■ A t, it,> s is, strictly speaking, a lofty, vaulted, subterranean cham- ber, with a large opening in the north side to admit air in the hot season. BEDRASHEN, MEMPHIS, AND SAKKARA. 439 At the bottom of the pit, on the south side, is an opening into a passage, about four feet high, which leads obhquely to the south-east ; soon after the passage increases in size in all directions, and becomes the sarcophagus chamber, which is thus exactly under the upper chamber. The sarcophagus, rectangular in shape, is usually made of limestone, and rests in a corner of the chamber ; at Sakkara they are found uninscribed. When the mummy had been laid in the sarcophagus, and the other arrangements completed, the end of the passage near the shaft leading to the sarcophagus chamber was walled up, the shaft was filled with stones, earth, and sand, and the friends of the deceased might reasonably hope that he would rest there for ever. When M. Mariette found a mastaba without inscriptions he rarely excavated it entirely. He found three belonging to one of the first three dynasties ; forty- three of the IVth dynasty ; sixty-one of the Vth dynasty ; twenty-three of the Vlth dynasty; and nine of doubtful date. The Egyptians called the tomb ' the house of eternity,' | ^^^ per tchetta. Mariette's House. — This house was the headquarters of M. Mariette and his staff when employed in making excavations in the Necropolis of Sakkara in 1850 and 1851. It is not easy to estimate properly the value to science of the work of this distinguished man. It is true that fortune gave him the opportunity of excavating some of the most magnificent of the buildings of the Pharaohs of all periods, and of scores of ancient towns ; never- theless it is equally true that his energy and marvellous power of work enabled him to use to the fullest extent the means for advancing the science of Egyptology which had been put in his hands. It is to be hoped that his house will be preserved on its present site as a remembrance of a great man who did a great work. 440 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. The Tomb of Ptah-hetep, a priest who hved during the Vth dynasty, is a short distance from Mariette's house, and well worthy of more than one visit. Other important tombs in the immediate neighbourhood are those of Kaqemna and Mereruka, and the streets of tombs which were cleared out by M. Loret in 1899. The Pyramids of Dahshur. These pyramids, four of stone and two of brick, are 3I miles from the Mastabat al-Fir'aun, once thought to be the Pyramid of Unas. The largest stone pyramid is about 326 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 700 feet; beneath it are three subterranean chambers. The second stone pyramid is about 321 feet high, and the The Necropolis at Dahshur. A The Northern Pyramid, built of bricks. B The Southern Pyramid, built of bricks. length of its sides at the base is 620 feet ; it is usually called the * Blunted Pyramid,' because the lowest parts of its sides are built at one angle, and the completing parts at another. The larger of the two brick pyramids is about 90 THE PYRAMIDS OF DAHSHUR. 44 1 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 350 feet; the smaller is about 156 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 343 feet. The brick pyramids have recently been excavated by M. de Morgan. The northern pyramid is built of bricks laid without mortar, in place of which sand is used, and an examination of it shows that it belongs to the period of the XI 1th dynasty. Soon after the work of clearing had been begun, a stone bearing the cartouche of Usertsen III •C '^^uul was found, and thus a tolerably exact date was ascertained ; on the 26th of February, 1894, the entrance to a pit was found, and in the east corner there appeared an opening which led through a gallery and sepulchral chamber to several tombs. In one chamber were the fragments of a sarcophagus and statue of Menthu-nesu, and in another was the sarcophagus of Nefert-hent ; it was quite clear that these tombs had been wrecked in ancient days, and there- fore to the pit by which they were reached M. de Morgan gave the name, ' Pit of the spoilers.' Along the principal gallery were four tombs, and in the second of these a queen had been buried ; on the lower stage eight sarcophagi were found, but only two were inscribed. Subsequently it was discovered that the burial place of a series of princesses had been found, and in consequence M. de Morgan called the place ' Gallery of Princesses.' In one of the tombs (No. 3) a granite chest con- taining four uninscribed alabaster Canopic jars was found, and in another similar chest a worm-eaten wooden box, containing four Canopic jars, was also dis- covered. The four sides of the box were inscribed, but the jars were plain. While the ground of the galleries was being carefully examined, a hollow in the rock was found, and a few blows of the pick revealed a magnificent find of 442 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. gold and silver jewellery lying in a heap among the fragments of the worm-eaten wooden box which had held it. The box was about eleven inches long, and had been inlaid with silver hieroglyphics which formed the name of the princess Hathor-Sat, for whom the ornaments had been made. In the same tomb was found a box full of the jewellery of the lady Merit, It would seem that special care had been taken by the friends of the deceased to conceal her jewellery, and thus the ancient spoilers of the tomb had overlooked it. Among the objects found of special interest are the following :— 1. A gold pectoral, in the form of a shrine Lj , inlaid with carnelian, emeralds, and lapis-lazuli. In the centre is the cartouche of Usertsen II. 11 |c=:^( O Q M | tieterii hetep Khd-kheper-Ra^ and on each side is the hawk of Horus, wearing the double crown, and a disk with pendent uraeus and '■ life ' ^ 4/ . The inlaying and carving are magnificent specimens of the gold- smith's work. 2. Two gold clasps of bracelets, each containing a tet u inlaid with carnelian, emeralds, and lapis-lazuli ; the bracelets were set with pearls. 3. Gold collar-clasp, inlaid with carnelian, emeralds, and lapis-lazuli, formed of two lotus flowers, the stems of which intertwine and form a knot, and a head of Hathor. 4. Gold clasp, inlaid as before, formed of the hieroglyphics fii 5. Gold shells to form necklaces. 6. Six lions _2a& • THE PYRAMIDS OF DAHSHUR. 443 7. Gold and lapis-lazuli cylindrical pendant, with ring. 8. Amethyst scarab inscribed with the prenomen of Usertsen III. ( Q « V » | Khd-kau-Rd, and line C^' ^iiu l ornaments. 9. White glazed faience scarab inscribed, ' Hathor-Sat, royal daughter, lady of reverence ' 1 10. Amethyst scarab inscribed with a double scene of the two Niles tying a cord around the emblem of ' unity ' All the above objects belonged to the princess Hathor- Sat ; the following belonged to the princess Merit, and they were placed in a box and hidden in the same manner as those of Hathor-Sat : I. A gold pectoral in the form of a shrine, inlaid with carneHan, emeralds, and lapis-lazuli ; the roof is supported by lotus columns, from each of which springs a lotus flower. In the centre is the prenomen of Usertsen HI., supported upon the right fore-paws of two G hawk-headed sphinxes which have on their heads crowns of feathers and horns /Al . Each right "U' fore-paw rests upon the head of a prostrate foe V^ J of red coloured skin, and each right hind-paw rests upon the stomach of a negro, thus typifying the sovereignty of the king over the light and dark races. Above the cartouche and sphinxes is a hawk with outstretched wings, holding Q, the emblem of the sun's orbit and eternity, in each claw. It would be impossible to overpraise the beauty of this wonder- ful piece of work and the harmonious blending of the colours. 444 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYP1 2. Gold pectoral, in the form of a shrine, inlaid as before. In the centre is the inscription o ^-^ I T ^ — ^ i.e., ' Beautiful god, the '^ '^ - ^ lord of the North and South, the smiter of all eastern countries, Maat-en- Ra (Amen-em-hat III.).' v_y Immediately above this inscription is a vulture with outstretched wings, holding the emblems of ' life ' and 'stabihty' c>| — itttt^CI in each claw; she is called ^37 F=^ ' ' " lady of heaven, and mistress of the North and South." On each side of the inscription is a figure of the king, who stands about to smite with a club a kneeling foe, whose hair he grasps with his right hand. The hieroglyphics read y ?=^ 'the smiter of the Sati (Asiatics) and of the Menti (Africans).' Behind the king is -t- 'life ' with human arms and hands moving a fan to waft the breath of ' life ' to the king. The Menti are armed with daggers and boomerangs. 3. Golden hawk, inlaid, with outstretched wings ; in each claw he holds Q. 4. Necklace formed of ten large gold shells. 5. Necklace formed of eight large gold ornaments, each of which is composed of four lions' heads. 6. Necklace of ninety-eight round and forty-three long pearls. 7. Necklace of amethyst, with spherical gold pendants inlaid with carnelian, emeralds, and lapis-lazuli. THE PYRAMIDS OF DAHSHUR. 445 8. Necklace of 252 beautiful amethyst beads. 9. Gold clasp of a bracelet, inlaid as before ; the hiero- glyphics read ITS f ® ^1 1 A "¥" 'Beautiful god, the lord of the North and South, Maat-en-Ra (Amenemhat lll.)j giver of life/ ID. Four gold lions, and two pendants in the form of a Hon's claws. [I. Two silver mirrors. 12. Gold clasps, inlaid as before, made in the form of the hieroglyphics ^ i.e., * peace and gladness of heart.' 13. Scarab of gold, carnelian, emerald, and lapis-lazuli, forming the bezel of a ring, 14. Scarab inscribed 1 ^V^ set in gold. 15. Lapis-lazuli scarab inscribed ' Royal daughter, Merret,' 16. Lapis-lazuli scarab, set in gold, inscribed with the pre- nomen and titles of Amenemhat IIL | T "^^37 - ^ ^ ^A"?'®i'^ 'Beautiful god, the lord, creator of things, Maat-en-Ra, giver of life like the Sun for ever.' 17. Yellow glsized fa'zence scarab inscribed with the name of the queen Khnem-nefer-hetch I \^ u I 4/ T" ^ 1 ' 18. Gold cylindrical stibium tube. The wooden boats and sledge which were discovered outside the wall enclosing the pyramid are worthy of note, and are of considerable interest. The southern brick pyramid of Dahshiir is on a lower level than the northern, and much of its upper portion has 44^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT been removed by the fellahm, who treated it as a quarry for the bricks with which they built their houses. It is, how- ever, in a better state of preservation than its fellow, and is still an imposing object in the Egyptian landscape. M. de Morgan's estimate of the length of each side is 125 feet; this pyramid is, hke the northern, built of unbaked bricks, and it was surrounded by a wall of unbaked bricks, which enclosed the ground wherein the members of the royal family were buried. While excavating in this spot, M. de Morgan found some fragments of a base of a statue inscribed with the prenomen of Amen-em-hat III. and judging from this fact and from the general appearance of the site, he would ascribe this necropoHs to the period of the Xllth dynasty. About 20 feet from the enclosing wall, at the north-east corner of the pyramid, two pits were found, and the second of these proved to be the entrance to a tomb. An inclined brick wall led to a small vaulted door, and in the ruins here the workmen found a small, beautifully worked, gilded wooden statue, on the base of which was inscribed, ' Horus, the son of the Sun, of his body, giver of life/ ^ ^ •^ ^ {^\3\ A t- ^^^^ *^ Statue were two Canopic jars of alabaster, inscribed with the prenomen of a new king f O j'^^ '0' J Au-ab-Ra, who it seems was co-regent with Amenemhat IV.; the nomen of this king was f Ik ] or ( "^ 2^ | Heru. In the tomb of this king were found : — I. A magnificent wooden shrine for the statue of the ka \ \ of king Au-ab-Ra or Heru. THE PYRAMIDS OF DAHSHUR. 447 2. Statue in wood of the ka [_] of king Au-ab-Ra, a unique object of the highest interest ; the execution is simply wonderful. It is worthy of note that there was nothing on this figure to indicate the royal rank of him for whom it was made. 3. Rectangular alabaster stele with an inscription of king Au-ab-Ra in fourteen lines ; the hieroglyphics are painted blue. 4. Rectangular alabaster stele inscribed with a prayer for funeral offerings for the same king. 5. Alabaster altar inscribed with four lines of hieroglyphics. 6. Two alabaster libation vases inscribed. 7. Small wooden statue of the ka of the king, covered with gold leaf; the eyes are of quartz set in silver. 8. Box for holding the sceptres and weapons of the king. In the coffin the wrecked mummy of the king was found. On the 15th and i6th February, 1895, M. de Morgan succeeded in bringing to light, in the necropolis of Dahshtir,a further ' find ' of jewellery. These beautiful and interesting objects were found in the tombs of the princesses Ita and Khnemit, which are situated to the west of the ruined pyramid of Amenemhat II. By good fortune they had been overlooked by the plunderers of tombs in ancient days, and so both the tombs and the coffins inside them re- mained in the state in which they had been left by the friends of the deceased more than four thousand years ago. Among the objects found were the following : — 1. Bronze dagger, set in a gold handle inlaid with car- nelian, lapis-lazuli, and emerald. 2. Pieces of gold and lapis-lazuli from the sheath of the above. 3. Two golden bracelets. 44^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. 4. Two silver plaques from a necklace. 5. Two gold clasps in the form of n , inlaid with carnelian, lapis-lazuli, and emerald. 6. A carnelian hawk. 7. Two golden heads of hawks, inlaid with carnelian, etc. 8. One hundred and three gold objects in the form of •Y" ^ I , inlaid with carnelian, etc. 9. One hundred and fourteen gold objects in the form of Q and (I , inlaid with carnelian, etc. 10. A large number of gold, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, and emerald beads. 11. Two golden crowns inlaid with carnelian, etc. 12. Twenty-four gold amulets, inlaid with carnelian, etc. in the form of the hieroglyphics ^ , 'V\ , ^ , \^ , The Quarries of Ma*sara and Turra. These quarries have suppUed excellent stone for building purposes for six thousand years at least. During the Ancient Empire the architects of the pyramids made their quarrymen tunnel into the mountains for hundreds of yards until they found a bed of stone suitable for their work, and traces of their excavations are plainly visible to-day. The Egyptians called the Turra quarry "^-y-^ /(^^ V ^^^'^^ Re-au, or Ta-re-au, from which the Arabic name Turra is probably derived. An inscription in one of the chambers tells us that during the reign of Amenophis III. a new part of the quarry was opened. Una, an officer who lived in the reign of Pepi I., was sent to Turra by this king to bring back a white limestone sarcophagus with its cover, libation 449 UPPER EGYPT. Cairo to Aswan by the Upper Egypt Railway. The journey from Cairo to Luxor by train occupies a few minutes over 14 hours, the distance being about 420 miles ; the journey from Luxor to Aswan occupies from 7 to 8 hours, the distance being about 130 miles. The Nile is crossed at Nag' Hamadi by an iron bridge 1,362 feet long. The ordinary gauge is used from Cairo to Luxor, and a narrower gauge from Luxor to Aswan ; this necessitates a change of carriage at Luxor. The following are the stations passed : — Distance in kilos, and metres from Cairo. Name of Station. Province. Population in 1897. 13-331* Gizah .^^n Gizah 16,820 27-513 Hawamdiyah ^;Jw«l^l M 1,995 32-180 Bedrashen c^j^^ >' 5,884 44-330 Maz'una ^^j^ »J 1,542 58-813 Al-'Ayat LUxll »> 94 64-546 Mataniyah dJulJU!^ )) 1,975 72-814 Kafr 'Ammar ,u.>^ JJ 1,669 83-134 Rikka ^)\ »> 3,128 91 -844 Al-Wastat ^-^^ Beni-Suwef 1,644 101-440 Beni Huder ^."^ ^ >> 1,131 * The formula for converting kilometres into miles is ( 1- -r-). t The passenger for the Fayyum changes carriages here. 2 G 450 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Distance in kilos, and metres from Cairo. Name of Station. Province. Population in 1897. 107-696 Ashmant ^j:^^j<^^\ Beni-Siiwef 4,375 115-018 Bixsh LT^' >> 9,724 123-668 Beni-Suwef ^.r- ^. " 15,297 1 35 '504 Beni Malu Tansa LuoL ^U ^jJ<: M 2,096 145-354 Biba ^. " Moi,340 I (district) 159-436 Fashn ^\ Minyah 8,935 168-408 Fant LI^Jull >» 3.281 179-874 Maghagha 3,542 187-840 Aba al-Wakf U^^\ \j\ )) 140 197-596 Beni-Mazar jV l5^: >> 5,180 207-855 Matat ^lk< >> 3,803 216-384 Kuliisnah d^^^Xs >» 4,263 221-916 Samalut 1.^1^ >» 6,786 232-014 Etsa \Jt\ >» 1,680 247-826 Minya (Minyah) UlJl M 20,404 258-850 Mansafis ^^^juJ^Luul^ >» 2,770 267-802 AbfiKerkis u^^y ^'^ »> 6,212 274-078 Atlidam ^^^3\ Asyut 4,954 287-134 Fiwrtka Al-k6da 6^^y\ > 15,47' 305-124 ' Der Mawis (^'_J-<^.<^ " 6,204 316-182 Denit "^i/.^ »> 1,624 330-042 Nazal! Ganfib -->'^ . ^^y >> 2,450 UPPER EGYPT RAILWAY. 451 Distance in r^ifr^i Nam.ofSu,io„. Cairo. Province. Population in 1897. 338-290 Beni Kurra V ^• Asyiit 1.493 349*575 Manfalut !bjJiJu< a 15.215 362-671 Beni Husen c;^-- ^' » 2,434 378-080 Asyut t-^i >» 42,012 391-305 Muti'ah ^)juJaJ\ >» 7,219 401 -644 Abu Tig tf^'^^ r» 183 412-419 Sadfi lijutf J J 3,841 421-079 Tema UL Girgah 9,784 427-644 Mashta . IkA^ >> 4,801 438-226 Tahta ^ )> 16,223 451*405 Maragha U^! j> 2,999 460-930 Shandawil J.^AA^ » 4,352 469-981 Suhag ^u^ >> 13,930 485-194 Menshah A.Lk^\ >j 10,451 494-884 Al-'Assirat (JL^\.J^^\ >> 583 504-782 Girga (Girgeh) v^ ,, 17,271 513*793 Bardts u^,-y. )) 6,156 521-096 Balyana llxbJl »> 7,232 529*172 Abu Shusha 4^ y ) »> 374 538*254 Abu Tisht CI^uJ- ^\ >> 2,434 547*986 Farshut \.^J Kana 9,839 556*284 Nag' IJamidt t^jU=- ^-sT >» 4,365 563-616 Dab'ih (Lyjij^W »> 3,? 22 2 G 2 452 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Distance in kilos, and metres from Cairo. Name of Station, Province. Population in 1897. 575 '097 Faw Kibli oM^^ Kanah 5,056 580-966 Dashna llij " 1,217 588-255 As-Samata Ik^ 1^ " 652 595-529 Awlad 'Amiu ^.J^ ^V " 1,713 611-634 Kana (Keueh) Ui " 24,364 632-215 Kuft kii J5 4,187 642-332 Kits u^y >> 12,646 658-315 Khizam rli^ J> 2,689 673*305 Al-Uksur (Luxor) ^'i\ . „ 7,018 From Luxor. 20-798 Armant J >5 10,222 46-142 Asfun al-Mata'na dJuilk^^ ^s^\ " 5,600 57 '534 Asna (Esneh) \jj\ >) 13,564 85-096 Mahamid AJ^Uy^^ " 3,609 105-389 Adfu (Edfu) ■• " ^.\ iSubia 4,760 136-463 Salvvah .^ >> 7,030 172-944 Daraw >v >» 9,233 197-396 Al-Khattara i(_,lki» >> 986 208-896 Al-Gazira !^>!1 >> 448 213-134 Aswan J^yc\ j> 13,005 220-309 Shallal jui 5,049 453 CAIRO TO LUXOR. The Pyramids of Lisht. These pyramids lie near the village of Mataniyah, and were built by Amenemhat I., the first king of the Xllth dynasty, and his son Usertsen I. ; they are about 35 miles to the south of Cairo. The Pyramid of Medum. This pyramid, which is about 40 miles south of Cairo, is called by the Arabs Al-Haram al-Kaddab, or ' the False Pyramid ' ; it is probably so named because it is unhke any of the other pyramids known to them. It appears to have been built by Seneferu fp J ^^ J^ J , the first king of the IVth dynasty, for the name of this king is found at various places in and about it. The pyramid is about 115 feet high, and consists of three stages: the first is 70, the second 20, and the third about 25 feet high. The stone for this building was brought from the Mukattam hills, but it was never finished ; as in all other pyramids,, the entrance is on the north side. It was opened by Prof. Maspero in 1881, and was examined ten years later by Prof. Petrie. The sarcophagus chamber was found empty, and it would seem that this pyramid had been entered and rifled in ancient days. On the north of this pyramid are a number of mastabas in which ' royal relatives ' of wSeneferu are buried ; the most interesting of these are those of Nefermat, one of his feudal chiefs / n '*=^ erpa ha), and of Atet his widow. The sculptures and general 454 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Style of the work are similar to those found in the mastabas of Sakkara, Atfih, 51 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile, marks the site of the Greek city of Aphrodito- polis, the Per-nebt-tepu-ah ^^ ® of the ancient Egyptians, where the goddess Hathor was worshipped. At Wasta, a town 55 miles from Cairo, is the railway junction for the Fayyum. The line from Wasta runs west- wards, and its terminus is at Medinet al-Fayyum, a lar^e Egyptian town situated a little distance from the site of Arsinoe in the Heptanomis,* called Crocodilopolisf by the Greeks, because the crocodile was here worshipped. The Egyptians called the Fayyum Ta-she -^^sFf x® ' ^^^ ^^^^ district,' and the name Fayyum is the Arabic form of the Coptic IOJUL, J ' the water.' The Fayyum district has an area of about 850 square miles, and is watered by a branch of the Nile called the Bahr-Yusuf, which flows into it through the Libyan mountains. On the west of it lies the Birket al-Kurun. This now fertile land is thought to have been reclaimed from the desert by Amenemhat III., a king of the Xllth dynasty. The Birket al-KurCm is formed by a deep depression in the desert scooped out of the Parisian limestone, which has become covered in great part by thick belts of salted loams and marls. On these Nile mud has been deposited. The Birket al-Kurun is all that is left of * Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, was the district which separated the Thebaid from the Delta ; the names of the seven nomes were : Memphites, Heracleopolites, Crocodilopolites or Arsinoites, Aphroditopolites, Oxyrhynchites, Cynopolites, and Hermopolites. The greater and lesser Oases were always reckoned parts of the Heptanomis. t In Egyptian | jj '^^ , Meter T),et Sebek. % From the Egyptian "i^ Q Q "^ -^^ ^^ ' ^«-"''''«- WASTA AND THE FAYYiyM. 455 the ancient Lake Moeris,* and its water surface is about 130 feet below sea level. Its cubic contents are estimated at 1,500,000,000 of cubic metres. According to Pliny (v. 9), Lake Moeris was 250 miles (Mucianus says 450 miles) in circumference, and 50 paces deep ; and its functions are thus described by Strabo (xvii. I. §37): "The Lake Moeris, by its magnitude and depth, is able to sustain the superabundance of water which flows into it at the time of the rise of the river, without overflowing the inhabited and cultivated parts of the country. On the decrease of the water of the river, it distributes the excess by the same canal at each of the mouths ; and both the lake and the canal preserve a remainder, which is used for irrigation. These are the natural and independent properties of the lake, but in addition, on both mouths of the canal are placed locks, by which the engineers store up and distribute the water which enters or issues from the canal." The Bahr-Yusuf is said by some to have been ex- cavated under the direction of the patriarch Joseph, but there is no satisfactory evidence for this theory; strictly speaking, it is an arm of the Nile, which has always needed cleaning out from time to time, and the Yusuf, or Joseph, after whom it is named, was probably one of the Muham- madan rulers of Egypt. Herodotus saysf of Lake Moeris, •*The water in this lake does not spring from the soil, for these parts are excessively dry, but it is conveyed through a channel from the Nile, and for six months it flows into the lake, and six months out again into the Nile. And during the six months that it flows out it yields a talent of silver (;^24o) every day to the king's treasury from the fish ; A/WAAA /VVVWA * From the Egyptian /wwv\ -^^ mu-ur, or 1 — i -^*^~^ /wwna mer-ur. t Bk. II., 149. 45 6 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. but when the water is flowing into it, twenty minae (;^8o)." That Lake Moeris was artificially constructed is attesttd by many ancient writers, and Herodotus says, " That it is made by hand and dry, this circumstance proves, for about the middle of the lake stand two pyramids, each rising 50 orgyae above the surface of the water, and the part built under water extends to an equal depth : on each of these is placed a stone statue, seated on a throne." The pyramids here referred to can be no other than the pedestals of two large sandstone statues of Amen-em-hat III., which were set up either close by or in Lake Moeris ; remains of these were found at Bihamta by Dr. Lepsius, and later by Prof. Petrie. The Pyramid of Hawara was the tomb of Amen-em-hat III. ; it is built of sun-dried bricks, and even now is of considerable size. It was entered in 1890 on the south side by Prof. Petrie, who discovered the mummy chamber ; the remains of what must have been the funerary temple were also found near the entrance. The Pyramid of Al-lahun was entered by Mr. W. Eraser, who found it to be the tomb of Usertsen II. ; like the Pyramid of Hawara it is built of sun-dried bricks. The Labyrinth stood on the banks of Lake Moeris, and some have identified the ruins of the funerary temple of Amen-em-hat with it. Strabo (xvii. i. § 37) declared that the tomb of the king who built the Labyrinth was near it, and describes it thus: "After proceeding beyond the first entrance of the canal about 30 or 40 stadia, there is a table-shaped plain, with a village and a large palace composed of as many palaces as there were formerly nomes. There are an equal number of aulae, surrounded by pillars, and contiguous to one another, all in one line, and forming one building, like a long wall having the aulse in front of it. The entrances into the aulae are opposite to the wall. In front of the entrances there are long and numerous covered ways, with winding THE PYRAMID OF HAWARA. 457 passages communicating with each other, so that no stranger could find his way into the aulae or out of them without a guide. The surprising circumstance is that the roofs of these dwelHngs consist of a single stone each, and that the covered ways through their whole range were roofed in the same manner with single slabs of stone of extra- ordinary size, without the intermixture of timber or of any other material. On ascending the roof — which is not of great height, for it consists only of a single story — there may be seen a stone-field, thus composed of stones. Descending again and looking into the aulse, these may be seen in a line supported by 27 pillars, each consisting of a single stone. The walls also are constructed of stones not inferior in size to them. At the end of this building, which occupies more than a stadium, is the tomb, which is a quadrangular pyramid, each side of which is about four plethra (/>., about 404 feet) in length, and of equal height. The name of the person buried there is Imandes [Diodorus gives Mendes or Marrus]. They built, it is said, this number of aulae, because it was the custom for all the nomes to assemble there according to their rank, with their own priests and priestesses, for the purpose of performing sacrifices and making offerings to the gods, and of administering justice in matters of great importance. Each of the nomes was conducted to the aula appointed for it." The account given by Herodotus (II., 148, Gary's translation) is as follows : — " Yet the labyrinth surpasses even the pyramids. For it has twelve courts enclosed with walls, with doors opposite each other, six facing the north, and six the south, con- tiguous to one another ; and the same exterior wall encloses them. It contains two kinds of rooms, some under ground and some above ground over them, to the number of three thousand, fifteen hundred of each. The rooms 458 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. above ground I myself went through, and saw, and relate from personal inspection. But the underground rooms I only know from report ; for the Egyptians who have charge of the building would, on no account, show me them, saying, that there were the sepulchres of the kings who originally built this labyrinth, and of the sacred crocodiles. I can therefore only relate what I have learnt by hearsay concerning the lower rooms ; but the upper ones, which surpass all human works, I myself saw ; for the passages through the corridors, and the windings through the courts, from their great variety, presented a thousand occa- sions of wonder, as I passed from a court to the rooms, and from the rooms to halls, and to other corridors from the halls, and to other courts from the rooms. The roofs of all these are of stone, as also are the walls ; but the walls are full of sculptured figures. Each court is surrounded with a colonnade of white stone, closely fitted. And adjoining the extremity of the labyrinth is a pyramid, forty orgyae (about 240 feet) in height, on which large figures are carved, and a way to it has been made under ground." The whole district of the Fayydm is one of considerable interest, and a careful examination of it would certainly result in the discovery of ruins now unknown. In recent years Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt have carried on excavations here with success, and they have recovered portions of the works of Greek authors of great value. Beni Suwef, 73 miles from Cairo, is the capital of the province bearing the same name, and is governed by a Mudir. In ancient days it was famous for its textile fabrics, and supplied Ahmim and other weaving cities of Upper Egypt with flax. A main road led from this town to the Fayyiim. About twelve miles to the north of Beni Suwef the Bahr Yusuf bends towards the east, and runs by the side of large mounds of ruins of houses, broken pottery, etc. ; these BENI SUWiF. 459 mounds cover an area of 360 acres, and are commonly called Umm al-Kuman, or ' Mother of Heaps/ though the official name is Henassiyeh al- Medina or Ahnas. They mark the site of the great city which was called by the Egyptians G ^ 1 "^ ^ '>^^ Het-Suten-henen, or Henen-suten simply, from which the Copts made their nime ^FtKC ; the Greeks made the city the capital of the nome Herakleopolites, and called it Herakleopolis. No date can be assigned for the founding of the city, but it was certainly a famous place in the early empire, and in mytho- logical texts great importance is ascribed to it. According to Manetho the kings of the IXth and Xth dynasties were Herakleopolitans, but in the excavations which Prof. Naville and Prof. Petrie (1904) carried on at Henassiyeh, or Ahnas, they found nothing there older than the XHth dynasty. It has been maintained that Ahnas represents the city of Hanes mentioned in Isaiah xxx. 4, but the city referred to by the prophet being coupled with Zoan was probably situated in the Delta. The gods worshipped by the Egyptians at Herakleopolis were Heru-shef, or Heru-shefit, who dwelt in the shrine of An-rut-f, Shu, Beb, Osiris, and Sekhet ; at this place Osiris was first crowned, and Horus assumed the rank and dignity of his father, and the sky was separated from the earth, and from here Sekhet set out on her journey to destroy mankind because they had rebelled against Ra, the Sun- god, who, they declared, had become old and incapable of ruling them rightly. The people of Herakleopolis used to worship the ichneumon, a valuable animal which destroyed the eggs of crocodiles and asps, and even the asps themselves. Strabo declares that the ichneumons used to drop into the jaws of the crocodiles as they lay basking with their mouths open and, having eaten through their intestines, issue out of the dead body. 460 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Magha^hah, 106 miles from Cairo, is now celebrated for its large sugar manufactory, which is lighted by gas, and is well worth a visit ; the manufacturing of sugar begins here early in January. About twenty-four miles farther south, lying inland, on the western side of the Nile, between the river and the Bahr Yusuf, is the site of the town of Oxyrrhynchus, so called by the Greeks on account of the fish which they believed was worshipped there. The Egyptian name of the town was ^^^ 3A,, Per-matchet, from which came the Coptic Pemge, HeJULXe, and the corrupt Arabic form Behnesa. The Oxyrrhynchus fish was esteemed so sacred that the people of the city were afraid to eat any fish which had been caught with a hook, lest the hook should have injured one of the sacred fish ; the Oxyrrhynchus fish was thought to have been produced from the blood of the wounded Osiris (Aelian, De Nat. Animalium^ x. 46). The Oasis of Bahriyah (Oasis Parva), which is called by Abu Salih ' the Oasis of Behnesa,' is usually visited by the desert road which runs there from the city. The Arabic writtr Al-Makrizi says that there were once 360 churches in Behnesa, but that the only one remaining in his time was that dedicated to the Virgin Mary. In recent years the excavations which have been carried on by Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt at Oxyrrhynchus have resulted in the discovery of numerous papyri of a late period. A little above Abu Girgah, on the west bank of the Nile, is the town of Al-Kais, which marks the site of the ancient Cynopolis or 'Dog-city'; it was the seat of a Coptic bishop, and is called Kais, Ka.IC, in Coptic. Thirteen miles from Abli Girgah, also on the west bank of the Nile, is the town of Kulusna, 134 miles from Cairo, and a few miles south, lying inland, is Samallut. Farther south, on the east bank of the Nile, is Gebel at- GEBEL AT-TER. 46 I T^r, or the ' Bird mountain,' so called because tradition says that all the birds of Egypt assemble here once a year, and that they leave behind them when departing one solitary bird, that remains there until they return the following year to relieve him of his watch, and to set another in his place. As there are mountains called Gebel at-Ter in all parts of Arabic-speaking countries, because of the number of birds which frequent them, the story is only one which springs from the fertile Arab imagination. Gebel at-Ter rises above the river to a height of six or seven hundred feet, and upon its summit stands a Coptic convent dedicated to Mary the Virgin, Der al-'Adhra, but more commonly called Der al-Bakrah, or the ^.LvJ^ .jc> 'Convent of the Pulley,' ^ • J" because the ascent to the convent is generally made by a rope and pulley. Leaving the river and entering a fissure in the rocks, the traveller finds himself at the bottom of a natural shaft about 120 feet long. When Robert Curzon visited this convent, he had to cHmb up much in the same way as boys used to climb up inside chimneys. The convent stands about 400 feet from the top of the shaft, and is built of small square stones of Roman workmanship ; the neces- sary repairs have, however, been made with mud or sun- dried brick. The outer walls of the enclosure form a square which measures about 200 feet each way; they are 20 feet high, and are perfectly unadorned. Tradition says that it was founded by the Empress Helena,"^ and there is in this case no reason to doubt it. The church " is partly subter- ranean, being built in the recesses of an ancient stone quarry ; the other parts of it are of stone plastered 'over. The roof is flat and is formed of horizontal beams of palm trees, upon which a terrace of reeds and earth is laid. The height of the interior is about 25 feet. On entering the " Died about A-D, 328, aged 80, (Sozomen, Eccles. Hist.y II., 2.) 462 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. door we had to descend a flight of narrow steps, which led into a side aisle about ten feet wide, which is divided from the nave by octagon columns of great thickness supporting the walls of a sort of clerestory. The columns were sur- mounted by heavy square plinths almost in the Egyptian style. I consider this church to be interesting from its being half a catacomb, or cave, and one of the earliest Christian buildings which has preserved its originality it will be seen that it is constructed on the principle of a Latin basilica, as the buildings of the Empress Helena usually were." (Curzon, Monasteries of the Levant^ p. 109.) In Curzon's time the convent possessed fifteen Coptic books with Arabic translations, and eight Arabic MSS. As the monks were, and are, extremely poor, they used to descend the rock and swim out to any passing boat to beg for charity ; the Patriarch has forbidden this practice, but it is not entirely discontinued. Abft Salih identifies Gebel al-Kaff, i.e., the 'Mountain of the Palm of the Hand,' with Gebel at-Ter, and records an interesting tradition concerning our Lord. According to this writer there is at this place the mark of the palm of His hand (hence the name) on the rock in the mountain out of which the church is hewn. The mountain is said to have bowed down in worship before Him, and He grasped the mountain as it worshipped, and set it back in its place, and the mark of His palm remains impressed upon it until this day. In the impression of the hand there is a small hole, large enough to admit a stibium needle, and if the needle be inserted and drawn out, it brings with it a black powder, the mark of which cannot be effaced. Two or three miles from the convent are some ancient quarries having rock bas-reliefs representing Rameses III. making an offering to the crocodile god Sebek ^^ before Amen-Ra. Minyah, 153 miles from Cairo, on the west bank of the MINYAH AND BENI-HASAN. 463 Nile, is the capital of the province of the same name ; its Arabic name is derived from the Coptic Mone, JULorte, which in turn represents the Egyptian ^wwsa Ment in its old c^ name Khufu-menat r-i^f®^*' — ^1 ' ^'^'' the * Nurse of Khufu.' There is a large sugar factory here, in which about 2,000 men are employed. A few miles south, on the eastern side of the river, is the village of Zawiyet al-Metin, near which are the remains of some tombs of the Vlth dynasty. They appear to be the tombs of the nobles of the city of Hebenu ^ J ©' ^^ capital of the XVIth nome of Upper Egypt. Beni-Hasan, 167 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile, is remarkable for the large collection of fine historical tombs which are situated at a short distance from the site of the villages known by this name. The villages of the 'Children of Hasan' were destroyed by order of Muhammad 'Ali, on account of the thievish propensities of their inhabitants. The Speos Artemidos is the first rock excavation visited here. It was built by Queen Hatshepset and her nephew Thothmes III. ; about 250 years later Seti I. added his name to several of the half obliterated cartouches of Queen Hatshepset, but it seems never to have been finished. The cavern was dedicated to the lioness-headed goddess Pakheth ^ _g5e, , who was called Artemis by the Greeks ; hence the name ' cavern of Artemis.' The Arabs call the cavern the ' Stable of 'Antar,' a famous Muhammadan hero. The portico had originally two rows of columns, four in each ; the cavern is about 21 feet square, and the niche in the wall at the end was probably intended to hold a statue of Pakheth. The famous Tombs of Beni-Has^n are hewn out of the living rock, and are situated high up in the mountain ; 464 NOTES P'OR TRAVELLERS IN EfiYPT. they are about thirty-nine in number, and all open on a terrace, somewhat similar to the terrace outside the tombs at Aswan. Each tomb preserves the chief characteristics of the mastabas of Sakkara, that is to say, it consists of a hall for offerings and a shaft leading down to a corridor, which ends in the chamber containing the sarcophagus and the mummy. The tombs were hewn out of a thick layer of fine, white limestone, and the walls were partly smoothed, and then covered with a thin layer of plaster, upon which the scenes in the lives of the wealthy men who ordered them to be made might be painted. Lower down the hill are some scores of mummy pits, with small chambers attached, wherein, probably, the poorer class of people who lived near were buried. Of the 39 tombs at Beni-Hasan only twelve contain inscriptions, but it is clear from these that the men who made the necropolis there were well-born, independent, and almost feudal proprietors of the land in the neighbourhood, who filled various high offices in the city of Menat-Khufu, which was situated not far off, and that they flourished during the Xlth and Xllth dynasties. Of the twelve inscribed tombs, eight are of governors of the nome Meh, two are of princes of Menat-Khufu, one is of the son of a prince, and one is of a royal scribe. The 39 tombs were divided by Lepsius into two groups, northern and southern; in the former are 13 and in the latter 26 tombs. Six of the inscribed tombs belong to the reigns of Amenemhat I., Usertsen I., and Usertsen II., and the other six were probably made during the rule of the kings of the Xlth dynasty. No. 2. Tomb of Ameni l^^^l or Amenemhat ^^SW"^^' ^meni was the governor of the XVIth nome of Upper Egypt, called Meh by the Egyptians and Antinoe by the Greeks, and he flourished in the reign of Usertsen I. He was by birth the hereditary prince of the THE TOMBS OF BENI-HASAN. 465 district, and he held the rank of " ha" or " duke," and the office of priest to various gods and goddesses ; he seems to have combined in his own person the offices of almost every high state official in the nome. Architecturally his tomb is of great interest, and it is instructive to find examples of the use of octagonal and polyhedral pillars in the same tomb ; the shrine is at the east end of the hall, and two shafts, which lead to mummy chambers below, are on one side of it. The inscription shows that Ameni was buried in the 43rd year of the reign of Usertsen I., on the 15th day of the second month of the inundation, />., about the end of May ; the feudal lords of the nome seem to have had an epoch of their own by which to reckon, for we are told that the 43rd year of Usertsen I. was he equivalent of "year 25 of the nome of Meh." Ameni makes an appeal to those who visit his tomb to pray that abundant funeral offerings may be made to his ka {i.e.y double), in these words : — " O ye who love life, and who hate death, say ye, 'Thousands of [cakes of] bread and [vessels of] beer, and thousands of oxen and feathered fowl be to the ka of the prince and duke* Ameni, triumphant.' " He then goes on to say that he went with his lord to Ethiopia on an expedition against the peoples of that land, that he set the bounds of Egyptian territory further to the south, that he brought back tribute from the conquered peoples, and that there was no loss among his soldiers. His success was so great that his praise "ascended even into the heavens," and soon afterwards he sailed up the river with 400 chosen men on a second expedition to bring back gold for his lord ; his mission was successful, and he was sent up once more, but this time with 600 men, and he returned in peace, having done all that he had been ordered to do. * Here follow other titles. 2 n 466 NOTES FOR TRAVP:LLERS IN EGYPT. It is a great pity that we are not told how far south he went. In the rest of the inscription Ameni tells of the excellent way in which he ruled the nome under his charge. He says, "I was a gracious and a compassionate man, and a ruler who loved his city. I have passed [my] years as ruler of the nome of Meh, and all the works of the palace came under my hand. The cattle owners of the nome gave me 3,000 of their cattle, and I received praise therefor in the palace ; at the appointed seasons I brought the proceeds of their toil to the palace, and nought remained due to him. I journeyed through the nome from one end to the other, making inspections frequently. I have never made the daughter of a poor man to grieve, I have never defrauded the widow, I have never oppressed the labourer, and I have never defrauded the owner of cattle. I have never impressed for forced labour the labourers of him who only employed five men ; there was never a person in want in my time, and no one went hungry during my rule, for if years of leanness came, I [made them] to plough up all the arable land in the nome of Meh up to its very frontiers on the north and south [at my expense]. Thus I kept its people aUve and obtained for them provisions, and so there was not a hungry person among them. To the widow I gave the same amount as I gave to her that had. a husband, and I made no distinction between the great and the little in all that I gave. And afterwards, when the Nile floods were high, and wheat, and barley, and all things were abundant, I made no addition to the amounts due from them." The pictures on the walls represent the working of flint weapons, the making of bows, the making of a bier, working in metal, the making of pottery and stone vessels, the weaving of rope, ploughing, reaping, the treading of corn, the making of wine, the netting of birds and fish, musicians THE TOMBS OF BENI-HASAN. 467 playing the harp and rattHng the sistrum, the hunting of wild animals, games of wrestling, the attack of a fortress, the sailing of boats laden with men and women, the slaughter of the sacrificial bull, the bringing of offerings, etc. The name of Ameni's father is unknown ; his mother was called Hennu Q vl 3, his wife Hetepet, "^ m' ^"^ ^^^ ^*^" Khnemu-hetep p: Q No. 3. Tomb of Khnemu-Hetep II. Q ^ I ^ Khnemu-hetep was the governor of the Eastern Mountains, I'.e.y of the land on the eastern side of the nome of Meh as far as the Arabian mountains; and he flourished in the reign of Usertsen II. He was by birth the hereditary prince of the district, and he held the rank of "ha "or " duke," and the office of priest to various gods and goddesses. On the door-posts and lintel of his tomb is an inscription which records his name and titles, and gives a list of the days on which funeral services are to be performed at the tomb, and offerings made. On the jambs of the doorway are two short inscriptions in which " those who love their life and who hate death," and " those who love a long life, and would be brought to a state of fitness for heaven," are entreated to pray that thousands of meat and drink offerings may be made to the ka of Khnemu-hetep II. From the inscriptions it is clear that Khnemu-hetep II. was the son of Nehera aaaaaa Jf (I ^ the son of Sebek- Ankh ^^ ■¥- ; his father was a feudal prince, er/>d n and he held the rank of " ha " or " duke." The mother of Khnemu-hetep was Baqet <<^^ m, the daughter of a prince called Khnemu-hetep I., and of his wife Satap, each of whom was of princely rank. His wives were called 2 H 2 468 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. Khati^^Q (] and Tchat, ^"^ ; by the first he had four sons and three daughters, and by the second two sons and one daughter. In the great inscription of 222 lines Khnemu-hetep II. records his biography. After stating that he built his tomb in such wise that his name, and those of his officers, might endure in the land for ever, he goes on to tell how in the 19th year of f ^UUU ] ^ (lSk-#1 "Nub-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat [II.]," he was made prince of the city of Menat-Khufu, and governor of the eastern desert, and generally raised to the rank of his maternal grandfather. Following this up, Khnemu-hetep II. tells the story of how his maternal grandfather, who seems to have been called Khnemu-hetep I., was made lord of Menat- Khufu in the half-nome of Tut-Heru, and of the nome of Meh by (514] ^ 0°S^-^1 ^"-^"^^P-'^'^-^'' son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat [I.]. The maternal grandfather was succeeded by his eldest son Nekht I., the uncle of the builder of this tomb. The next section of the text tells how greatly Khnemu-hetep II. was honoured by his king, and how his sons Nekht II., and Khnemu-hetep III. were made governor of a nome, and governor of the foreign lands respectively. In the rest of the inscription Khnemu-hetep says that he restored the inscriptions on the tombs of his ancestors which had become defaced ; that he built a funeral chapel for himself, even as his father had done in the city of Mernefert, and made doors both for it and for the shrine within it ; and that he made near it a tank of water, and made arrangements for a supply of flowers for the festivals which were celebrated in the tomb. It is 4^0 I NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN £GVPT. interesting to note that the name of the official who super- intended these works is given — Baqet. The scenes painted on the walls of this tomb are of great interest, and represent : — ( Wesf Wall, over the doonvay) a shrine with a statue of the deceased being drawn to the tomb; {south side) carpenters, washers of clothes, boat-builders, potters, weavers, bakers, and others at work, and {middle ro7v) the wives and family of Khnemu-hetep sailing in boats to Abydos ; {north side) the storage and registration of grain, reaping, treading of corn, ploughing, gathering of grapes and other fruit, watering the garden, oxen fording a river, a fishing scene, and {middle roiv) the passage of the mummy of the deceased to Abydos. {North Wall) Khnemu-hetep, armed with bow and arrows, and his sons hunting in the desert ; with him went the scribe Menthu-hetep, who kept an account of the bag made. On the right is a large figure of Khnemu-hetep, who is accompanied by one of his sons, and by an attendant, and by three dogs, and the four lines of text above him state that he is inspecting his cattle and the produce of his lands. Of the four rows of figures before him, the first is perhaps the most important, for it illustrates a procession of foreign people who visited him in his capacity of governor of the nome. The procession consists of 37 persons of the Aamu, a Semitic people or tribe, and they are introduced by Nefer- lietep, a royal scribe, who holds in his hand a papyrus roll, on which is inscribed, "Year 6, under the majesty of Horus, the leader of the world, the king of the South and North, Ra-Kha-Kheper {i.e., Usertsen II.). List of the Aamu, brought by the son of the Duke Khnemu-hetep, on account of the eye-paint, Aamu of Shu; a list of 37 [persons]." Behind the scribe stands the official Khati, and behind him the Aamu chief, or desert shekh ; these are followed by the other members of the foreign tribe. The men of the Aamu wear beards, and carry bows and arrows, and both men and THE TOMBS OF BENI-HASAN. 47 1 women are dressed in garments of many colours. The .home of the Aamu was situated to the east of Palestine. In this picture some have seen a representation of the arrival of Jacob's sons in Egypt to buy corn, but there is no evidence for the support of this theory ; others have identified the Aamu with the Hyksos. The company here seen are probably merchants who brought eye-paint, spices and the like from their own country, and sold their wares to the rich officials of Egypt. On the East and South Walls is a series of scenes in which Khnemu-hetep is depicted hunting the hippopotamus, and snaring birds, and spearing fish, and receiving offerings. No. 13, Tomb of Khnemu-hetep III., a royal scribe, the son of Neteru-hetep. This tomb consists of one small, rectangular chamber with one mummy pit. The inscriptions record the name and titles of the deceased, and petitions to those who visit the tomb to pray that abundant offerings may be made to him. This is one of the oldest tombs at Beni-Hasan, and was probably made long before the site became a general burial ground for the nobles of Menat- Khufu. No. 14. Tomb of Khnemu-hetep I., the governor of the nome of Meh, and prince of the town of Menat- Khufu. His father's name and titles are unknown, and the rank of his mother Baqet is also unknown ; his wife was called Satap, and his son Nekht succeeded to his rank, title, and dignities. He flourished during the reign of Amen-em-hat I. On the south-west wall of the main chamber of this tomb is an inscription which contains the cartouches of Amen-em-hat L, and which states that Khnemu-hetep I. went on an expedition with his king in boats to some country, probably to the south. The paintings in the tomb are much faded, but the remains of the figures of the foreigners represented are of considerable interest. 472 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. No.. 15. Tomb of Baqet III., governor of the nome of Meh. Baqet held the rank of "ha" or " duke," and flourished before the rule of the kings of the Xllth dynasty. This tomb contains seven shafts leading to mummy chambers. The North Wall is ornamented with some interesting scenes in which men and women are seen engaged in various handicrafts and occupations, and the deceased is seen enjoying himself hunting in the desert, and fishing in the Nile. On the East Wall wrestling scenes are painted, and over two hundred positions are illustrated ; below these are illustrations of the events of a pitched battle. On the South Wall are scenes connected with the work on Baqet's estates, and pictures of men engaged in their work or amusements. No. 17. Tomb of Khati, governor of the nome of Meh, and commandant of the Eastern Desert ; the main chamber is crossed by two rows of three quatrefoil columns, of the lotus bud type, and of these two remain perfect. Each column represents four lotus stems, with unopened buds, tied together below the buds, and is brillianily painted in red, blue, and yellow. This tomb contains two shafts leading to mummy chambers, and is decorated with a large number of scenes which have, however, much in common with those in the other tombs already described. Other inscribed tombs are: — No. 21, Tomb of Nekhta, uncle of Khnemu-hetep II., and governor of Meh ; No. 23, Tomb of Neter-nekht, governor of the Eastern Desert, and son of the priestess Arit-hetep, and husband of Her-ab ; No. 27, Tomb of Re-mu-shenta, chief of the nome of Mehi ; No. 29, Tomb of Baqet I., chief of the nome of Meh ; and No. 33, Tomb of Baqet II., who held the same office.* Roda, 176 miles from Cairo, and the seat of a large sugar manufactory, lies on the west bank of the river, just opposite * See the Egypt Exploration Fund's Memoirs entitled Beiii Hasan, 4 parts, London, 1 893-1 899. HERMOPOLIS AND ASHMUNEN. 473 Shekh *Abadah, or Antinoe, a town built by Hadrian, and named by him after Antinous,* who was drowned here in the Nile. To the south of Antinoe Hes the convent of Abu Honnes (Father John), and in the districts in the immediate neighbourhood are the remains of several Coptic buildings which date back to the fifth century of our era. A little to the south-west of Roda, lying inland, are the remains of the — — AAAA/V\ city of Hermopolis Magna, called in Egyptian Z Z , or I I Khemennu^ in Coptic Shmtin, OjJULOTrt, and in Arabic Ashmftnen; the tradition which attributes the building of this city to Ashmun, son of Misr, is worth- less. The Greeks called it Hermopolis, because the Egyptians there worshipped Thoth, ^ >^ , the scribe of the gods, who was named by the Greeks Hermes. A little distance from the town is the spot where large numbers of the ibis, a bird sacred to Thoth, were buried. Ashmunen is sometimes called an " Island " by Arabic writers ; this is because it has the Nile on the east, the Bahr Ytlsuf or Al-Manhi on the west and south, and a connecting canal on the north. An old legend says that on the highest point of this town there was a cock, and beneath it a row of dromedaries, and that when a stranger approached, the cock crew, and the dromedaries went forth to destroy the stranger. When our Lord entered this town by the eastern gate these creatures worshipped Him and were straightway turned into stone. It is said that there were three hundred villages in the district, and many Christian churches. The most famous was the church dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which contained several altars and marble pillars, on one of which was the mark of the hand of our Lord. Outside it stood a tree bearing * A Bithynian youth, a favourite of the Emperor Hadrian. 474 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. fruit of a dark purple colour which resembled a plum, and is called sebestan ; when our Lord passed by it, this tree is said to have bowed its head in adoration before Him. About five miles south of Antinoe, and seven miles from Eshmunen in a direct line across the Nile, on the north side of the rocky valley behind the modern Der Al-Nakhlah, is a very important group of ancient Egyptian tombs at the place called Al-Barsha. The most impor- tant of these is the Tomb of Tehuti-hetep ^ '~^ , the chief of ^^, the XVth nome of Upper Egypt, who flourished during the reigns of Amen-em-hat II., Usertsen II., and Usertsen III., in the Xllth dynasty. The fagade consists of two fine columns with palm leaf capitals, supporting a massive architrave, all coloured pink, and marbled with pale green to represent rose granite ; the ceiling, is painted blue and studded with quatrefoils, and the walls were sculptured with hunting and other scenes. The main chamber measures 25 x 20 x 13^ feet, and on the upper part of the left hand wall is the famous painting of the " Colossus on a sledge," in which we see a huge alabaster statue of the deceased being dragged along by nearly two hundred men. This statue, we are told in the inscriptions, was 13 cubits in height, t.e.y nearly 21 feet, and it must have weighed about 60 tons; the work of transporting this mass from the mountain many miles distant, where it was quarried, must have been enormous. Of Tehuti-hetep's career little is known, but the wealth and position of the man are sufficiently indicated by the fact that he was able to undertake such a work. The tomb was discovered by Messrs. Mangles and Irby about August 26, 18 17.* * Full descriptions of the tombs at Al-Barsha, with plans, etc. , have been published by the Egypt Exploration Fund in their Memoir, in El-Bersheh, 2 parts, London (no date). MELAWI AND TELL AL-'aMARNA. 475 Melawi, 185 miles from Cairo, is situated on the west bank of the river ; it is the AX^LItX^LT of Coptic writers, and there were many Christian churches in the town, among others one dedicated to Abatir, one to Mercurius, one to Saint George, one to Gabriel the Archangel, one to Raphael the Archangel, and two to the Virgin and to Michael the x\rchangel. Haggi Kandil, or Tall (Tell) al-'Amarna, 195 miles from Cairo, lies on the east bank of the river, about five miles from the ruins of the city built by Khut-en-aten, ( ^^ S ''^^^^ ^ '^©^ J ' ^^ Amenophis IV., the famous "heretic" king of the XVIIIth dynasty, whose pre- nomen was ( I ^ j O ^^^^ O ]> Nefer-kheperu-Ra ua-en-Ra. Amenophis IV. was the son of Amenophis III., by a Meso- potamian princess called Thi, who came from the land of Mitani. When the young prince Amenophis IV. grew up, it was found that he had conceived a rooted dislike to the worship of Amen-Ra, the king of the gods and great lord of Thebes, and that he preferred the worship of the disk of the sun to that of Amen-Ra ; as a sign of his opinions he called himself "beloved of the sun's disk," instead of the usual and time-honoured "beloved of Amen." The native Egyptian priesthood disliked the foreign queen, and the sight of her son with his protruding chin, thick lips, and other characteristic features of a foreign race, found no favour in their sight ; that such a man should openly despise the worship of Amen-Ra was a thing intolerable to the priesthood, and angry words and acts were, on their part, the result. In answer to their objections the king ordered the name of Amen-Ra to be chiselled out of all the monuments, even from his father's names. Rebellion then broke out, and Khut-en-aten thought it best to leave Thebes, and to found a new city for himself at a place between Memphis and Thebes, now 47^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. called Tell al-'Amarna. The famous architect Bek, whose father Men served under Amenophis III., designed the temple buildings, and in a very short time a splendid town with beautiful granite sculptures sprang out of the desert. As an insult to the priests and people of Thebes, he built a sandstone and granite temple at Thebes in honour of the god Harmachis. When Khut-en-aten's new town, Khut-aten, " the splendour of the sun's disk," was finished, his mother Thi came to live there ; and here the king passed his life quietly with his mother, wife, and seven daughters. He died leaving no male issue, and each of the husbands of his daughters became king. As long as the " heretic king " lived the city prospered and grew, and many wealthy people took up their abode in it ; sculptors and artists and skilled workmen of every kind found abundant employment, therefore their patrons were determined to be buried in the mountains close by. Beautifully decorated houses and tombs became the order of the day, and the sculpture, and painting, and indeed art generally prove that artists of all kinds who settled there at that time threw off many of the old trammels and con- ventionalities of their professions, and indulged themselves in new designs, and new forms, and new treatment of their subjects. Indeed it is to the buildings of the city of Khut-aten and their decorations that we owe many ideas of the possibihties of Egyptian art. The new styles of sculpture and artistic decoration, however, only flourished as long as the king was alive, and as soon as he died the inhabitants of all classes drifted back to Thebes, and by degrees the city of Khut-aten became deserted ; tradition and obedience to custom proved to be too strong for the would-be followers of the heretic king. The length of the reign of Amen-hetep IV. does not seem to have been more than twelve or fifteen years, and certainly long before a century ha J passed the beautiful city which he TELL AL-'AMARNA. 477 built had fallen into ruins. Fortunately, however, the ruins are very instructive, and they allow visitors to follow its plan with success. In 1887 a number of important cuneiform tablets were found by a native woman near the palace, and most of these may be seen in the Museums of London, Berlin, and Cairo. They are inscribed with letters and despatches from kings of countries in and about Mesopotamia and from governors of cities in Palestine and Syria, and those from the last named countries show that, whilst the heretic king was occupying himself with theological problems and artistic developments, his Empire was falling to pieces. In 1892 Prof. Petrie carried on excavations at Tell al-'Amarna, and uncovered several painted plaster pavements of an unusual character. In the neighbourhood of the town are a number of inscribed tombs of considerable interest, by reason of the religious texts that are found in them. In form and arrangement they have much in common with the tombs of the Xllth dynasty, but their decoration is characteristic of the period of Khut-en-Aten. Among them of special interest are : — {Northern Group) No. i. Tomb of Pa-nehsi, which seems to have been used as a church by the Copts ; No. 2. Tomb of Pentu, inscribed with a hymn to Aten; No. 3. Tomb of Meri-Ra, which is probably the most characteristic of the period, with sacrificial scenes, hymns to Aten, plans of houses, and scenes of the crowning of officials ; No. 4. Tomb of Aahmes, with a hymn to Aten ; No. 5. Tomb of an unknown official which was being built when King Ra-seaa-ka came to the throne ; and No. 7, a tomb which mentions the receipt of tribute from vassal nations. The scenes and portraits in this tomb are of great interest. {Southern Group)^ the Tomb of Tutu, with hymns to Aten ; and the Tomb of Ai, the successor of King Khut-en-Aten. The Tomb of Khut-en-Aten lies at a considerable distance from the river, and it is chiefly 47^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. interesting on account of the scenes of sun-worship which are depicted in it. Gebel Abu Fedah. — Seventeen miles south of Haggi Kandil, 209 miles from Cairo, on the east side of the river, is the range of low mountains about twelve miles long known by this name. Lying a little distance inland is the village of Al-Kusiyeh, which marks the site of the Greek City of Cusae, the Qes (TJ ^ of the hieroglyphic texts, and the capital of the XlV'th nome of Upper Egypt. The name seems to mean, " the town of the mummy bandages." According to ^han (H.A. x. 27), the goddess of the city was worshipped under the form of a white cow. Towards the southern end of this range there are some crocodile mummy pits. Manfalut, 220 miles from Cairo on the west bank of the Nile, occupies the site of an ancient Egyptian town. Leo Africanus says that the town was destroyed by the Romans, and adds that it was rebuilt under Muhammadan rule. In his time he says that huge columns and buildings inscribed with hieroglyphs were still visible. The Coptic name Manbalot, jul^L ft KlJXoT "place of the sack," is the original of its Arabic name to-day. Asyut, 249^ miles from Cairo, is the capital of the province of the same name, and the seat of the Inspector- General of Upper Egypt; it stands on the site of the ancient Egyptian city called — *♦— 5^ p q Saut^ whence the Arabic name Siut or Asyftt, and the Coptic CKJOOTT. The Greeks called the city Lycopolis, or "wolf city," probably because the jackal-headed Anubis was worshipped there. In ancient Egyptian times the sacred name of the city was Per-Anpu [I V\© and it formed the capital of the XYIIth or Anubis nome, t-^?\, of Upper asyOt, or thp: wolf city. 479 Egypt. Asyut is a large city, with spacious bazaars and fine mosques ; it is famous for its red pottery and for its market, held every Sunday, to which wares from Arabia and Upper Egypt are brought. The American Missionaries have a large establish- ment, and the practical, useful education of the natives by these devoted men is carried on here, as well as at Cairo, on a large scale. The Asy{lt Training College was specially established to provide and prepare workers to carry on the educational and evangelistic ^operations of the Evangelical community in Egypt, and nearly all the male teachers, in number 215, have been trained in it. At the end of 1898 there were 604 boarders and day scholars in the institution, who represented 112 towns and villages, and came from all parts of Egypt. In the same year the American Mission had in all Egypt 180 schools with 11,872 pupils, and 295 teachers, and of its Protestant community 365 per 1,000 knew how to read, as against 48 per 1,000 of the entire population in Egypt. If the evangelical 'com- munity is deducted from the entire population, the latter figure would become smaller still. Of the males of the evangelical community in Egypt, 521 per 1,000 know how to read, and of the females, 200 per 1,000. The number of stations belonging to the Mission, including churches, is 207, and in 1898 the pupils paid 26,741 dollars in tuition fees. The Arabic geographers described xA.sytit as a town of considerable size, beauty, and importance, and before the abandonment of the Sudan by the Khedive all cara- vans from that region stopped there. In the hills to the west of the town are a number of ancient Egyptian tombs, which date back as far as the Xllth dynasty. A large number have been destroyed during the present century for the sake of the limestone which forms the walls. When M. Denon stayed here he said that the 480 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. number of hieroglyphic inscriptions which cover the tombs was so great that many months would be required to read, and many years to copy them. The disfigurement of the tombs dates from the time when the Christians took up their abode in them. The Barrage at Asyut has already been described (see p. 146). Fifteen miles farther south is the Coptic town of Abu Tig", the name of which appears to be derived from AnoeHKH, a "granary" ; and 14^ miles beyond, 279 miles from Cairo, is Kau al-Kebir (the TKCJOOT of the Copts), which marks the site of Antaeopolis, the capital of the Antaeopolite nome in Upper Egypt. The temple which formerly existed here was dedicated to Antaeus,* the Libyan wrestler, who fought with Hercules. In the plain close by it is said by Diodorus that the battle between Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, and Set or Typhon, the murderer of Osiris, took place ; Typhon was overcome, and fled away in the form of a crocodile. In Christian times Antaeopolis was the seat of a bishop. Tahtah, 291 J miles from Cairo, contains some interest- ing mosques, and is the home of a large number of Copts, in consequence of which, probably, the town is kept clean. Suhag, 317^ miles from Cairo, is the capital of the province of Girgah; near it are the White and Red Monasteries. The Der al-Abyad or "White Monastery," so called because of the colour of the stone of which it is built, but better known by the name of Amba Shenudah, is situated on the west bank of the river near Suhag, 317^ miles from Cairo. " The peculiarity of this monastery is that the in- terior was once a magnificent basilica, while the exterior was built by the Empress Helena, in the ancient Egyptian * He was the son of Poseidon and Ge, and was invincible as long as he remained in contact with his mother earth. TAHTAH AND THE WHITE MONASTERY. 48 1 Style. The walls slope inwards towards the summit, where they are crowned with a deep overhanging cornice. The building is of an oblong shape, about 200 feet in length by 90 wide, very well built of fine blocks of stone ; it has no windows outside larger than loopholes, and these are at a great height from the ground. Of these there are twenty on the south side and nine at the east end. The monas- tery stands at the foot of the hill, on the edge of the Libyan desert, where the sand encroaches on the plain. . . .... The ancient doorway of red granite has been partially closed up." (Curzon, Monasteries of the Levant^ p. 131.) There were formerly six gates; the single en- trance now remaining is called the "mule gate," because when a certain heathen princess came riding on a mule to desecrate the church, the earth opened and swallowed her up. The walls enclose a space measuring about 240 feet by 133 feet. The convent was dedicated to Shenuti,* a celebrated Coptic saint who lived in the fourth century of our era. Curzon says {op.cit., p. 132) "The tall granite columns of the ancient church reared themselves like an avenue on either side of the desecrated nave, which is now open to the sky, and is used as a promenade for a host of chickens The principal entrance was formerly at the west end, where there is a small vestibule, immediately within the door of which, on the left hand, is a small chapel, perhaps the baptistery, about twenty-five feet long, and still in tolerable preservation. It is a splendid specimen of the richest Roman architecture of the latter empire, and is truly an imperial little room. The arched ceiling is of stone ; and there are three beautifully ornamented niches on each side. The upper end is semi- circular, and has been entirely covered with a profusion of * ShenCidah, Coptic CljertOT"}"' Sheniiti, was born a.d. 333; he died at midday on July 2, a.d. 451, aged, it is said, 118 years ! 2 1 482 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. sculpture in panels, cornices, and every kind of archi- tectural enrichment. When it was entire, and covered with gilding, painting, or mosaic, it must have been most gorgeous. The altar on such a chapel as this was probably of gold, set full of gems ; or if it was the baptistery, as I suppose, it most likely contained a bath of the most precious jasper, or of some of the more rare kinds of marble, for the immersion of the converted heathen, whose entrance into the church was not permitted until they had been purified with the waters of baptism in a building without the door of the house of God" (p. 135). The Hbrary once contained over a hundred parchment books, but these were destroyed by the Mamltlks when they last sacked the convent. In this monastery the bodies of Saint Bartholomew and Simon the Canaanite are said to be buried, but the body of its founder was laid in the monastery which stood on the Mountain of Athribis, a name derived from the Egyptian The Der al-Ahmar or "Red Monastery," so called be- cause of the red colour of the bricks of which it is built, was also built by the Empress Helena; it is smaller and better preserved than the White Monastery, and was dedicated to the Abba Besa, the disciple and friend of Shenuti. The pillars of both churches were taken from Athribis, which lay close by; the orientation of neither church is exact, for their axes point between N.E. and N.E. by E. The ruined church of Armant near Thebes is built on the same model. A few miles south of S{ihag, on the east bank of the river, lies the town of Akhmim, called Shmin or Chmim, ajJULIIt, ^JULIJUL, (hence Khemmis) by the Copts, and Panopolis by the Greeks ; Strabo and Leo Africanus say that It was one of the most ancient cities of Egypt. The ithyphallic Het-erpat, U AKHMiM PANOPOLIS. 483 god Amsu, identified by the Greeks with Pan, was worshipped here, and the town was famous for its Hnen weavers and stone cutters. Its Egyptian name was I] n _p © Apu. Of this city Herodotus (ii, 91) says: "There is a large city called Chemmis {i.e., Panopolis), situate in the Thebaic district, near Neapolis, in which is a quadrangular temple dedicated to Perseus, the son of Danae ; palm-trees grow around it, and the portico is of stone, very spacious, and over it are placed two stone statues. In this enclosure is a temple, and in it is placed a statue of Perseus. The Chemmites affirm, that Perseus has frequently appeared to them on earth, and frequently within the temple, and that a sandal worn by him is sometimes found, which is two cubits in length; and that after its appearance, all Egypt flourishes. They adopt the following Grecian customs in honour of Perseus : they celebrate gymnastic games, embracing every kind of contest ; and they give as prizes, cattle, cloaks, and skins. When I enquired why Perseus appeared only to them, and why they differed from the rest of the Egyptians, in holding gymnastic games ; they answered, ' that Perseus derived his origin from their city; for that Danaus and Lynceus, who were both natives of Chemmis, sailed from them into Greece ' ; and tracing the descent down from them they came to Perseus ; and that he coming to Egypt, for the same reason as the Greeks allege, in order to bring away the Gorgon's head from Libya, they affirmed that he came to them also and acknowledged all his kindred ; and that when he came to Egypt he was well acquainted with the name of Chemmis, having heard it from his mother : they add, that by his order they instituted gymnastic games in honour of him." Akhmim is still famous for its linen weavers, who seem to have inherited the skill of their predecessors in making many-coloured woven fabrics. The city is also famous as the birth-place of Nonnus, the poet, A.D. 410, and as the burial-place of Nestorius, a.d. 450. 2 I 2 484 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. This wretched man was banished first to Petra, in Arabia, and then to the Oasis of Kharga in 435 ; he was seized by the Blemmyes and carried off, but eventually found his way to Panopolis. He was again banished and tortured by sufferings and privations, and at length died of a disease in the course of which his tongue was eaten by worms ; his religious opponents declared that rain never fell on his tomb. In ancient days Akhmim had a large population of Copts, and large Coptic monasteries stood close by. Al-Menshah, on the west bank of the river, 328J miles from Cairo, stands on the site of a city which is said to have been the capital of the Panopolite nome ; its Coptic name was Psoi, '^0^1. In the time of Shenuti the Blemmyes, a nomad warlike Ethiopian tribe, invaded Upper Egypt, and having acquired much booty, they returned to Psoi or Menshah, and settled down there. Girgah, on the west bank of the river, 341 J miles from Cairo, has a large Christian population, and is said to occupy the site of the ancient This, whence sprang the first dynasty of historical Egyptian kings. A few miles further south is Al-Balyana ILxIaI^ commonly, but erroneously pronounced Baliana, where travellers usually start for Abydos. ,r ^ 1^ m CnSlfS iKirs ABYDOS. 485 ABYDOS.* f -^ D 1^ m>,.^% c \ E The Ruins of Abydos. {After Marietle). • A Ancient town. b Temple of Set i I. c Temple of Rameses II. D Temple of Osiris. E Coptic convent. Abydos, t in Egyptian 1^ J ^ Abtu, Coptic G^COT, Arabic 'Arabat al-Madfunah, on the west bank of the Nile, was one of the most renowned cities of ancient Egypt ; it was famous as the chief seat of the worship of Osiris in Upper Egypt, because the head of this god was supposed to be buried here. The town itself was dedicated to Osiris, and the temple in it, wherein the most solemn ceremonies connected with the worship of this god were celebrated, was more revered than any other in the land. The town and its necropolis were built side by side, and the custom Qsuaily followed by the Egyptians in burying their dead away from the town in the mountains was not followed * The Temples at Abydos are visited by Messrs. Cook's travellers on the return journey to Cairo. t Greek 'A/3i;5oj;; see Pape, Worterbuch^ p. 4. That the name was oronounced Abydos, and not Abydos, is clear from : — Koi ^r\6£fi[?>sal»U'*-^l q[5I^B ^!^Sil^S aE§gS^^S^BwE '«:Ci£2tr!>lilHS4i'?l^'T^tj- msSJiXkf**>\\WJ^)^} Til ^S»i1>lJUK<>l)iJ 71 • fv/)M>C^r7>U IvQl'ilt p ^eg^^HKmB^g^ii^MEis t-iA^'(^m^z}:\\ yj^* i!iWJi'^W I y usePiiiniisa^ 1 . ^ - id!t(^ii*j:^\i\' -^^ BCBS^illJ^BIgCe^SDMJHlE HCig^^igM^as:Bsr=T^.mM^iM^ Vi >-s<^®liiiM:/Ti'rii' «»^^^sil!H?;iiKiiit -s^ ^(^Jilll)!<^ "S^ iH -£3 ^ I) .^ ^ ^ a; J3 ..» ,■/! !/3 c tu Si t; -^ W-i .•/3 k5 rt oi OJ A G T3 aj (1. t/j „ T3 *> , m rC tJ >-, (-I-I E^ M S-c •^ OJ w )— 1 ^ H -' c^ a') ^ hf Cl r*> c rt i4 C s X i2 ^ S ■§ ffi ® = Ta-en-ta-rert \ the name is also written ^ [llE^ 494 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. carries on with the Arabian peninsula, and for its manu- factories of the drinking bottle called " KuUah," commonly pronounced " gullah." A short distance from the river, on the west bank, a little to the north of the village of Denderah, stands the Temple of Denderah, which marks the site of the classical Tentyra or Tentyris, called TTenXCOpe by the Copts, where the goddess Hathor was worshipped. During the Middle Empire quantities of flax and linen fabrics were produced at Tentyra, and it gained some reputation thereby. In very ancient times Khufu, or Cheops, a king of the IVth dynasty, founded a temple here, but it seems never to have become of much importance, "''■ probably because it lay so close to the famous shrines of Abydos and Thebes. The wonderfully preserved Temple now- standing there is probably not older than the beginning of our era; indeed, it cannot, in any case, be older than the time of the later Ptolemies : hence it must be considered as the architectural product of a time when the ancient Egyptian traditions of sculpture were already dead and nearly forgotten. It is, however, a majestic monument, and worthy of careful examination. f Strabo says (Bk. xvii., ch. i. 44) of this town and its inhabitants : " Next to Abydos is the city Tentyra, where the crocodile is held in peculiar abhorrence, and is regarded as the most odious of all animals. For the other Egyptians, although acquainted with its mischievous disposition, and * M. Mariette thought that a temple to Hathor existed at Denderah during the Xllth, XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties. t "Accessible comme il Test aujourd'hui j usque dans la derniere de ses chanibres, il semble se presenter au visiteur comme un livre qu'il n'a qu'a ouvrir et a consulter. Mais le temple de Denderah est, en somme, un monument terriblement complexe. ... II faudrait plusieurs annees pour copier tout ce vaste ensemble, et il faudrait vingt volumes du format (folio !) de nos quatre volumes de planches pour le publier." — Mariette, Denderah^ Description Gen^rale, p. 10. TEMPLE OF DENDERAH. 495 hostility towards tiie human race, yet worship it, and abstain from doing it harm. But the people of Tentyra track and destroy it in every way. Some, however, as they say of the Psyllians of Cyrensea, possess a certain natural anti- pathy to snakes, and the people of Tentyra have the same dislike to crocodiles, yet they suffer no injury from them, but dive and cross the river when no other person ventures to do so. When crocodiles were brought to Rome to be exhibited, they were attended by some of the Tentyritae. A reservoir was made for them with a sort of stage on one of the sides, to form a basking place for them on coming out of the water, and these persons went into the water, drew them in a net to the place, where they might sun themselves and be exhibited, and then dragged them back again to the reservoir. The people of Tentyra worship Venus. At the back of the fane of Venus is a temple of Isis ; then follow what are called Typhoneia, and the canal leading to Coptos, a city common both to the Egyptians and Arabians." (Falconer's translation.) On the walls and on various other parts of the temples are the names of several of the Roman Emperors ; the famous portraits of Cleopatra and Caesarion her son are on the end wall of the exterior. Passing along a dromos for about 250 feet, the portico. A, open at the top, and supported by twenty-four Hathor-headed columns, arranged in six rows, is reached. Leaving this hall by the doorway facing the entrance, the visitor arrives in a second hall, B, having six columns and three small chambers on each side. The two chambers C and D have smaller chambers on the right and left, E was the so-called sanctuary, and in F the emblem of the god worshipped in the temple was placed. From a room on each side of C a staircase led up to the roof. The purposes for which the chambers were used are stated by M. Mariette in his Denderah, Descrip. Gen. du Grand Temple de cette ville. On the ceiling of the portico is the 496 NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. famous " Zodiac," which was thought to have been made in ancient Egyptian times; the Greek inscription =a.d. 35, v/ritten in the twenty-first year of Tiberius, and the names of the Roman Emperors, have clearly proved that, like that at Esna, it belongs to the Roman time. The Zodiac from Dende- rah, now at Paris, was cut out, with the permission of M u h a m- mad 'All, in 1 82 1, from the small temple of Osiris, gene- rally called the "Tem- ple on the Roof." The Ise- ium is sit- uated to the south of the temple of Hathor, and consists of three chambers and a corridor ; near by is a pylon which was dedicated to Isis in the 31st year of Caesar Augustus. Plan of the Temple at Denderah. TEMPLE OF DENDERAH. 497 CD pfk The Mammisi, nr), Per-mestu, or " house of giving birth," also built by Augustus, is the name given to the celestial dwelling where the goddess was supposed to have brought forth the third person of the triad which was adored in the temple close by. The Typhonium stands to the north of the Temple of Hathor, and was so named because the god Bes ^, figures of whom occur on its walls, was confused with Typhon ; it measures about 120 feet x 60 feet, and is sur- rounded by a peristyle of twenty-two columns The Temple of Denderah was nearly buried among the rubbish which centuries had accumulated round about it, and a whole village of wretched mud-huts actually stood upon the roof ! The excavation of this fine monument was undertaken and completed by M. Mariette, who published many of the texts and scenes inscribed upon its walls in his work mentioned above. The crocodile was worshipped at Kom Ombo, and Juvenal gives an account of a fight which took place between the people of this place and those of Denderah, in which one of the former stumbled, while running along, and was caught by his foes, cut up, and eaten. A few miles beyond Denderah, on the east bank of the river, lies the town of Kuft, the ^d J @ Q^^^ of the hiero- glyphics, and KeCjT of the Copts ; it was the principal city in the Coptites nome, and was the Thebais Secunda of the Itineraries. From Koft the road which crossed the desert to Berenice on the Red Sea started, and the merchandise which passed through the town from the east, and the stone from the famous porphyry quarries in the Arabian desert must have made it wealthy and important. It held the position of a port on the Nile for merchandise from a very early period ; and there is no doubt that every Egyptian 2 K 49^ NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT. king who sent expeditions to Punt, and the countries round about, found Kuft most usefully situated for this purpose. A temple dedicated to the ithyphallic god Amsu, Isis and Osiris, stood here. It was nearly destroyed by Diocle- tian A.D. 292. A copy of a medical papyrus in the British Museum states that the work was originally dis- covered at Coptos during the time of Cheops, a king of the IVth dynasty ; it is certain then that the Egyptians considered this city to be of very old foundation. Kus, 425 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the Nile, marks the site of the city called Apollinopolis Parva by the Greeks, and Qeset ^ by the Egyptians. To the west of the city stood the monastery of Saini Pisentius, who flourished in the Vllth century, and the well of water which is said to have been visited by our Lord and the Virgin Mary and Joseph ; the Copts built numbers of churches in the neighbourhood. Nakada, 428 miles from Cairo, on the west bank of the river, nearly opposite the island of Matarah, was the home of a large number of Copts in early Christian times, and several monasteries were situated there. The four which now remain are dedicated to the Cross, St. Michael, St. Victor, and St. George respectively, and tradition says that they were founded by the Empress Helena ; the most important of them is that of St. Michael. The church in this monastery "is one of the most remarkable Christian structures in Egypt, possessing as it does some unique peculiarities. There are four churches, of which three stand side by side in such a manner that they have a single continuous western wall. Two of the four have an apsidal haikal with rectangular side chapels, while the other two are entirely rectangular ; but the two apses differ from all other apses in Egyptian churches by projecting . , . beyond the NAKADA. 499 eastern wall and by showing an outward curvature. They form a solitary exception to the rule that the Coptic apse is merely internal, and so far belong rather to Syrian archi tecture than to Coptic. The principal church shows two other features which do not occur elsewhere in the Christian buildings of Egypt, namely, an external atrium surrounded with a cloister, and a central tower with a clerestory Possibly the same remark may apply to the structure of the iconostasis, which has two side-doors and no central entrance, though this arrangement is not quite unparalleled in the churches of Upper Egypt, and may be a later altera- tion. It will be noticed that the church has a triple western entrance from the cloisters." (Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt ^ Vol. I., p. 361.) In 1897 M. de Morgan carried on some important excavations here, and discovered a large number of prehistoric tombs, and the tomb of a king called Aha, who has, by some, been identified with Mena, the first king of the 1st dynasty. 2 K 2 500 LUXOR (AL-UKSUR) AND THEBES. Luxor, 450 miles from Cairo, on the east bank of the river, is a small town with a few thousand inhabitants, and owes its importance to the fact that it is situated close to the ruins of the temples of the ancient city of Thebes. The name Luxor is a corruption of the Arabic name of the place, Al-Uksur, which means "the palaces." Ancient Thebes stood on both sides of the Nile, and was generally called in hieroglyphics T ^, Uast ; that part of the city which was' situated on the east bank of the river, and included the temples of Karnak and Luxor, appears to have been called (I C2 U^ Apet,* whence the Coptic X