INTRODUCTION
TO AN
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY
INTRODUCTION
TO AN
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY
OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE:
DAVID BOOTH.
II seroit a desirer qu'on ne considerat ies premieres editions des livres,
que comme des essais informes que ceux qui en sont auteurs proposent
aux personnes de lettres, pour en apprendre leurs sentiments.
L'ART DC PfiNSER.
EDINBURGH :
PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR,
AND SOLD BY W. & J. DEAS, EDINBURGH ; J. JOHNSON,
AND VERNOR & HOOD, LONDON.
1806.
G. CAW, Printer* L'tbberton Wynt,
i
in
PEl51i
ADVERTISEMENT.
IN the month of December last, the Author
published a " Prospectus of an Analytical
" Dictionary of the English Language."
Iu announcing his plan, it was proposed
to arrange the vocables into classes: be-
ginning with the explanation of the Root,
and proceeding with its compounds. The
composition of English words presents a
considerable degree of regularity. The
signification of a Primitive is varied, by
the addidon of an extensive list of Prefixes
and Terminations ; such as ad 9 con, sub}
ary 9 at ion 9 ment 9 &c. These are words as
susceptible of accurate definition as any
other ; but their explanation, or how they
modify the original idea, if given wherever
they occur, would serve only to swell the
\vork by useless tautology; and it was
therefore
088
ADVERTISEMENT.
therefore proposed to comprehend their
definitions, with a grammatical sketch of
the language, in an INTRODUCTION. Cir-
cumstances having hitherto retarded the
publication of the Dictionary, and rendered
the period of its appearance uncertain, the
Introduction is, now, offered to the public.
Having a separate title, it may be consi-
dered, either as an independent work, or
as an advanced part of that of which it is
the harbinger.
NEWBURGH, NOVEMBER 1, 1805.
ERRATA.
PAGE 29, to the first marginal Note, add, of Verbs.
33, line 3, for circumlocutary read circumlocutory.
47, 5, for Fiere read Fieri.
_ 71, 9, for a kin read akin.
88, 27, for that read " that."
89, Catchword, for sings, read signs.
- 104, line last, for &c. active, read active, &c.
108, 22, for groupe read group.
116, 2, for abase read a base.
1 !21> 5, for analogous read analogous.
-r - 138, 16 ; after, probably, insert, the.
INTRODUCTION
TO AN
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY.
THOUGH it is exceedingly probable that the art Probable
of communicating ideas, by articulated sounds, has Grammar,
existed among mankind, in their earliest stages of
society, yet it is not till a considerable progress is
made in civilization, that the examination of those
sounds, which form the language of a people, is
raised to the rank of a Science. The oral trans-
mission of thought must have been too fleeting to
command minute attention ; and written signs of
ideas must have been invented, before the combin-
ation of words and sentences could have attracted
sufficient notice, to become the subject of gram-
matical investigation. Indeed, the art of writing
must have been much advanced, before that of
grammar could have commenced ; and those sages,
who first formed the breathing page, were, proba-
bly, unacquainted with the formidable phalanx of
Nouns and Verbs, which now stand, in dread array,
to guard the avenues to the groves of academus.
B The
10 INTRODUCTION TO AN
its nature. The science of words differs, in kind, from those
which relate to the objects of nature. He who utters
a sound to express a thought, or writes a word
which may recall the idea, (in the same manner as
the painting on the canvas renews the impression of
the scene which it represents,) must completely
comprehend the articulations of his voice, or of
his pen,. No classification, or philological disquisi-
tion, can change, or render more accurate, the
meaning of the words which formed the dialect of
our untutored ancestors. The Naturalist, from
patience of research, becomes more intimately ac-
quainted with the properties of the plant, or mineral,
to which his attention is directed, and this addition
to his knowledge is a discovery in the science ;
but the study of grammar, like that of the Anti-
quarian, is rather productive of information than
invention. It is less the creation of what is new
than the search for those things which are for-
gotten.
Difference Language, being used for the communication
Languages, of thought, must necessarily be the same among
the different members of the same society ; and,
it will be cultivated, in proportion as the society is
extended in numbers, or in its relations with others.
We find nations separated from each other by seas
and rivers, by customs and by laws ; and we find
the same diversity in their tongues as in their situa-
tion, or their manners. With the origin of this
dirision of nations and of languages, we are but
imperfectly
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 11
imperfectly acquainted. Both have been subjects
of much disquisition, but much yet remains to be
explained. It is sufficient for our present purpose,
to mark those facts which are indubitable : That,
of some countries, the modes of speech are so simi-
lar as to bear evidence of their inhabitants having,
originally, been the same ; whereas, of others, the
utmost ingenuity would, in vain, attempt to find a
single trait of resemblance.
From the revolutions of nations, either in man- Causes of
, the com-
ners or in situation, have arisen the changes and piexhy of
corruptions of their languages. Originally simple
and uniform in their structure, the influx of fo-
reign customs and dialects are incorporated with
the early tongues, and generate a complication of
phraseology, which the half-instructed rustic can,
with difficulty, comprehend. Such, at present, are
most of the languages of Europe, and we, partially,
enter into the region of conjecture, when we en-
deavour to ascertain what they have been. We
may, however, form some opinion from general
analogy ; and, should what we gather from thence
prove useful, in our etymological researches, the
stability of its foundation may be the less regarded.
Ideas are the reflected images of nature. Words
are the pictures of ideas. Simplicity of thought Word*,
will produce simplicity of expression ; and hence
the individual impulses of the mind will be marked
by monosyllabic sounds. Two or more simple im-
pressions form what is termed a complex idea,
B 2 which
12 INTRODUCTION TO AN
which is expressed by as many primitive words,
If this complex idea be of general recurrence, the
syllables by which it is denoted will, by habit of
pronunciation, be joined together, so as to form a
compound word with different articulations. All
this is hypothesis, but we find it confirmed by an
analysis of the languages with which we are ac-
quainted.
Resting, therefore, upon this theory, all words
of one syllable are to be considered as primitives,
unless, from a complexity of signification and pro-
bable etymology, any of them shall appear to have
been originally polysyllables corrupted by time.
On the other hand, every word of more than one
syllable will be considered as a compound, formed
by the conjunction of two or more simple words :
Thus, Gold and Smith are primitives, forming to-
gether the complex term Goldsmith, the significa-
tion of -which maybe easily deduced from the parts
of its composition.
While we confine our attention to those poly-
syllables, which are made up of words in general
use, their composition appears evident ; but living
tongues are in a state of perpetual fluctuation j
foreign words are gradually adopted, while many
of the natives are suffered to slide into oblivion,
and hence, the compounds remain, though their
formatives may be no more. Another fruitful
source of such words may be traced to the ima-
gined necessity of literary men. They become en*
amoured
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 13
amoured of languages that have been acquired by
difficulty; and what they suppose too vulgar or
antiquated in their mother tongue, is supplanted by
another, known only in writings which have sur-
vived the wreck of ages. During some centuries
immediately previous to the invention of printing,
immured in the gloom of a monastery, Science
seemed an alien in the land of her residence. She
appeared in a garb which concealed her from the
knowledge of the vulgar \ or, if she deigned to
assume the dress of her country, it was so disfi-
gured by the trappings of antiquity, as to be known
only to a few.
It is when a language has arrived at this state of
complicacy and commixture, that men of genius
begin to turn their attention to the intricacies of its
composition, and the anomalies of its structure.
These arise from the conjunction of words indivi T
dually unknown, some of which are observed re-
gularly to recur ; and certain syllables termed 5
from their situation, prepositions and terminations ,
are found to vary the signification of the radical
word, in a determinate manner. For the junction
of these syllables, in some cases, rules are laid
down, while the marks themselves, which thus alter
the original idea of a word, are generally treated
as unmeaning, or, at least, as incapable of de-
finition. Verbs, (or words expressive of action,)
are, in many languages, subjected to a multiplied
variety of forms. In English they receive few
$ 3 changes
14 INTRODUCTION TO AN
changes, their different moods and tenses being
expressed by dther words, termed auxiliaries, which
are known and separately used, excepting two or
three affixes, afterwards to be explained. In the
Greek, Latin, French, ^&c. the auxiliaries and
agents, necessary to the change of situation, or
idea, are joined to the principal part of the verb,
and incorporated, or contracted, in such a manner
as to render it almost impossible to trace them to
their origin. Perhaps some future Grammarian
may explore those mazes of perplexity; and
Philology, guided by a more certain and steady
light, shall no longer wander among the inextri-
cable wilds of declensions and conjugations.
Thelr In treating of subjects that contain a multiplicity
grammati- o f particulars, the memory is apt to be bewil-
cal arrange- J
went. dered, in a chaos of similar objects, where none
has a claim to pre-eminence. To avoid this con-
fusion, a certain arrangement is necessary. The
Botanist must have his classes and orders- The
Chemist his bodies simple and compounded. In the
dawnings of knowledge, the mode of classifica-
tion must partake of the darkness of general infor-
mation ; and succeeding writers might have beeu
sensible of the faults of the systems of their prede-
cessors, without possessing the daring, or the abi-
lity, to propose, or to establish, an improvement.
It was reserved for a Linnaeus, a Lavoisier, and a
Tooke, to build anew the temple of Science, and
to replace the Gothic arches and gloomy vaults, by
the
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 15
the elegant and cheerful structures of modern
taste. It is sometime, however, before the rising
fane can attract the worship of the crowd. The
spirit of prejudice, like the ghosts of the departed,
loves to linger near to mouldering walls, under the
covert of the night.
In our observations on language, therefore, while
we mark what appears to be the most natural divi-
sion of the subject, we shall attend, particularly,
to that order and enunciation which have, hitherto^
most generally obtained j and, that we may not
trifle with the reader, we shall suppose him ac-
quainted with the common English Grammars of
the Schools.
Much useless discussion has .appeared concern-
ing the different kinds of words. They correspond
with the nature of our ideas, and must follow the
course of their operations. An investigation, into
the composition of language, is resolvable into an
inquiry, concerning the abstractions and classificaf
tions of the human mind, A loose collection of
materials is viewed with emotions of aversion. We
love to rear the ruined fabric ; to generalize and
to arrange the objects of our knowledge.
The first natural division of Words is NAMES,
or what are termed SUBSTANTIVES or NOUNS.
The sound, or syllable, which brings directly to
our recollection any object in nature, is its name :
such as Man 9 Bird, Beast L , Tree, which are general,
as being each applicable to a class of which there
may
16 INTRODUCTION TO AN
may be many individuals, as John, a Lark, an Oak.
Nouns of two or more syllables, are compound
words, formed from some relation, real or ima-
ginary, observed between them and the primitives,
first denominated, as, Woman, Eagle, Tyger, Cypress,
Others have their syllabic additions still unincor-
porated, as, Black-Smith, Wheel-Wright, Apple-
Tree, and, generally, all those whose divisions
form simple words, still used in the language.
Nouns, or Names, comprehend every thing that
exists, and, in a certain sense, include every other
division of words.
of ADJEC- Things that we perceive to exist, must possess
some qualities, which render their existence known
to the human mind. Something must act upon
the senses before objects can be perceptible, if wq
allow the operations of a material universe, which,
here, cannot be denied ; for, on the basis of this
belief, the who|e structure of language is erected.
Qualities, as a division of words, have been, in ge-
neral, known by tjie name of ADJECTIVES, though
part of them have been included under other deno-
minations. Objects are distinguished by their ex-
tension, figure, colour, &c, and, hence, big, round,
white, &c. are Adjectives. It is evident that these
words do not express things, but modes. They apply
not to the principle, but to the marks, or energies,
of existence -, and, for aught that language denotes
to the contrary, the ideal relations which they ex-
press may exist, either in the mind that perceives,
pr
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 17
er in the substance that originates the perception.
All Adjectives, however, may, in a certain respect,
be considered as Nouns. We may view a quality
as a thing of itself, independent on the substance
to which it is joined. Good may be considered as
varying in degree, and White may be clear or
muddy. Such cases may be explained by sup-
posing a Noun to be understood, not expressed,
in the sentence ; or, the words may be treated as
Nouns. This applies to all the kinds of Adjec-
tives to be afterwards considered. We have Per-
pendicular, Opponent, Learning, &c. all originally
Adjectives, but now, also used with the signification
of Nouns*
We are well aware that, philosophically consi-
dered, the separation of quality from substance in-
volves a contradiction. Yet, after all, it is with
qualities alone that we are acquainted ; and we
know nothing of the essence or substratum of a Be-
ing,different from the collection of appearances which
it is known to possess. To speak of a quality,
then, unconnected with a substance, is merely to
view that substance under one of its relations. The
Mathematician reasons on the properties of Num-
bers; but these must be joined with other relations ;
they must be applied to things with which the
senses are otherwise conversant, before they can
be useful, in the progress of life.
Hitherto we have only considered the Names
and Qualities of Things, but these things perform
certain
18 INTRODUCTION TO AN
certain functions in the world. Words, that ex-
press the state or action of things, are usually deno-
minated VERBS ; and this designation (though im-
proper etymologically considered,) has been so ge-?
nerally in use among writers on grammar, that it
might be inconvenient to substitute another. It is
evident that words expressing the relations of ae*
tion,if neither the agent nor the patient be mentioned,
must be, simply, the names of such actions; and,
therefore, Love, Hatred, Joy, and Grief, belong to
the class of Nouns. To specify that these passions
are put into play, the idea of action is joined, either
by a separate word, by a prefix, or, by a ter-
mination. Thus we have To Love, To Hate, T&
Enjoy, To Grieve, which are originally the same
with Do Love, Do Hate, Do Enjoy ^ Do Grieve ;
or, Act Love, Act Hate, Act Joy, Act Grief, as
will be more fully explained in an after part of this
Introduction, and, under the different articles, ACT
and Do, in the Dictionary. In other cases the mark
of action is affixed to the Verbal Noun, as, / Loved,
He Loves, or Loveth ; the terminations ed, es, and
eth, performing the same part as the separate par-
ticles did, does, and doth : but of this we shall treat
more fully hereafter. Sometimes, for the sake of
supposed elegance, the to and do are suppressed, as,
/ Love, in place of / Do Love ; and this mode of
writing, now, prevails, in many cases, where authors
of only half a century ago employed the auxiliary.
" He bade them to open their bundles," is a sen-
tence
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 19
tence written by Dr Smollet, though the to would,
at this time, be regarded as redundant.
In every expression of action there are an agent
and a patient. The action is to be endured as
well as exerted, and, therefore, the passive state, 7
Am, I Exist, I Sleep, &c, as well as the phrases, /
am Loved, I am Hated, &c. are included under
the head of Verbs ; though, in the latter examples,
the word am alone is a Verb, loved and hated being
Adjectives. The fact is, that as an Adjective is
nothing else but the name of a quality, so a Verb is
only the name of an action, or state of being ; and vide BE
its apparent variations of form are occasioned, solely,
by its connexion with other words which denote
that the action of the Verb is exerted. All the moods
and tenses, of the Greek and Latin, have arisen
from the difficulty of analysing the multiplied com-
binations of words, which are contained in the clas-
sic writers of antiquity; and the modern tongues,
whose involved and twisted chains might more
easily be unravelled, have had their Grammars
formed by minds, enthusiastically attached to the
systems of the ancient schools.
As things have various qualities, and produce
that class of words termed Adjectives, so there must
be different modes or manners of action, producing
a division of words that have been called ADVERBS.
These are generally Adjectives, with the addition
of ly or like, to shew their correspondence with
the Verb. Thus, 7 love WISELY, or WISE-LIKE, or
like
2O INTRODUCTION TO AN
X
like a WISE man. It is evident that this is no new .
class of words, but a comparison of qualities , where
one of the Substantives, or Nouns, is understood.
Adjectives and Adverbs are, therefore, the same
kind of words ; and, where it is unnecessary to
mark the comparison, the Adjective is used without
t any inflection, as, I loved him MUCH ; / did it
WELL.
of PARTI* PARTICIPLES are compound words, expressing
the quality of being the agent or the object of an
action ; and must, also, be considered as Adjectives
which owe their verbal signification to their affixes ;
as, loving and drowned are formed by the active ad-
ditions of ing and ed. Were we to adhere to the
classification of simple words alone, these, as a kind
of phrases, or junction of ideas, should be dis-
carded.
of Pup- When speaking of Adjectives, we should have
noticed a particular genus, respecting which, Gram-
marians have been at a loss to guess, whether they
were Nouns, or to wha,t other class they belonged.
They have therefore, as is the general practice in :
such cases of difficulty, assigned to them a sepa-
rate department, under the denomination of PRO-
NOUNS ; because they are used in the place of
Nouns. They are in fact, nothing but Adjectives,
or qualities, though now often used without the
Substantive, which is understood; and, in that
case, by an easy transition, are raised to the rank of
imaginary personages, and treated as if they were
Substantives
KOUKS.
CLES.
ANALYTIC ALJDICT10NARY. 21
Substantives themselves. This, however, was not
formerly so common ; and in legal instruments,
where language of three centuries old is employed,
their Substantives are generally conjoined. Instead
of the ordinary phrase, " He struck him" they say,
" He, the said A B, struck him, the said C D,"
marking the persons to whom the Pronouns refer.
This, or that, as particularly specify an object, -as
its colour, or its form ; and, / and you, as distinctly
discriminate between the speaker and the hearer.
The words a (or an^) and the, though they of ATI
have been considered as a part of speech, distinct
from every other, under the name of ARTICLES,
are of the species last mentioned. The first is the
numeral one ; and it is surprising, that the latter
should ever have been separated from the class of
Pronouns. In all languages, when speaking of
things, there is a necessity for limitation. A, or
an, expresses that we speak of one such thing as
the Noun describes ; while the is almost equivalent
to that, and denotes the person, or thing, of which,
from other circumstances, we have some acquaint-
ance. Those tongues which are supposed to want
Articles will, on examination, be found to possess
these definitives, either separately, in their prefixes,
or in their terminations *.
From
* " The Latin quit is evidently > o$ ; and the Latin ter-
minations us, a, itm, no other than the Greek article ?, u, y.' ?
DlTERSIONS OF PuRLEY.
22 INTRODUCTION TO
of PREPO- From fifty to sixty other words, which could not
and CON. easily be brought within the limits of any of the
JUNCTIONS ' . . . ;
preceding divisions, have been formed into two
separate classes, termed PREPOSITIONS and CON-
JUNCTIONS, as is said, from their being used before
Nouns, and for conjoining words, or sentences. All
these have been examined, by Mr Home Tooke^
in his Diversions of Purley, and shewn to be
merely Verbs, or Nouns, whose other parts, or
compounds, are, in general, not to be found in the
language; for which reason the task of fixing their
accurate signification becomes the more laborious.
Whether or not he has, in all cases, been equally
successful, it is not now our business to inquire.
An etymological discussion of these words would,
here, be out of place, since the opportunity will
again occur, under their different heads in the Dic-
tionary. It is sufficient, for our present purpose,
that and, but, yet ;from, to, with, and the like,
have a signification, of their own, independent on
their connection in the sentence where they are
found ; and this, Mr Tooke has clearly demon-
strated. If, then, each has a meaning, and is capa-
ble of raising an idea in the mind, that idea must
have its prototype in nature. It must either denote
an exertion, and is, therefore, a Verb / or a quality ?
and is, in that case, an Adjective ; or, it must ex-
press an assemblage of qualities, such as is observed
to belong to some Individual object, and is, on this
supposition, the name of such object, or a Noun.
The
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 23
The only class of words which remains to be
considered is INTERJECTIONS, and these must al-
ways belong to some of the divisions already men-
tioned. When the mind is overpowered by passion,
(or violence of feeling,) unconnected words and
broken sentences are uttered: But every such word,
or sentence, is an Interjection, and has its meaning
by completing the sentence, with those words which
are unexpressed. In English, a few sounds, as
Oh ! fa ! alas ! &c. which will be defined in their
order, are particularly used for the expression of
exclamation, arising from the impulse of astonish-
ment, aversion, pain, or other emotions. But, be-
side these, any other word, or phrase, such as,
" Wonderful!" " How wretched!" &c. may become
an Interjection, and, in this, it does not change its
nature, but, merely, from its disjointed and inter-
jected situation in the page, marks the powerful in-
fluence of some overwhelming passion, in the
speaker's mind.
We have, thus, given an account of the different
divisions of words, and have found that the whole
may be classed under the three heads of Names,
Qualities, and Actions; or, Nouns, Adjectives, and
Verbs. We might now proceed to the prosecution
of the plan of the Dictionary, which is to attempt
to explain the simple words ; (or those of a single
syllable, expressive of an individual thought,) and,
along with every such explanation, to note its va-
rious compounds, and mark the addition to the
original
24 INTRODUCTION itf AN
original idea which every PREFIX or TERMINA*
TION exhibits. Previously, however, in observing
these compounds, a system of regularity presents
itself, which, if properly attended to, may, in a
material degree, shorten our future labours. The
particles, which alter the form of the primitive
word, are not added to one root alone, but to
many ; and, if we can fix their meaning as appli-
cable to a single case, the explanation will be the
same in whatever combinations they may be found.
Should we discover that a particular Termination,
or Prefix, has a certain definitive signification; and,
if it be found attached to a variety of simple words,
that signification, once determined, may be referred
to in every case where it shall occur, and will
save the trouble of unnecessary repetition. We
shall, therefore, examine the different compositions
.of words, with each of the affixes, as far as they pos-
sess sufficient uniformity to render the examina-
tion useful to our design : And if, in our pro-
gress, we deviate from the proper direction, let it
be remembered that we have to wander over a
pathless plain, on which preceding travellers have,
seldom, reared a single stone, or planted a solitary
shrub, to mark where they have been,
of the piu- The most general addition, to the form and sig-
"' nification of a Noun, is the mark of the Plural,
which is usually formed by, the affix j, formerly
spek es 9 or is. The, power of this termination is
obvious, but its origin, being coeval with the lan-
guage,
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 25
guage, renders it impossible to trace, with certainty,
where, or when, it has been used in its uncon-
nected state. It is probably much corrupted ; and,
indeed, this may be the case in many compositions
of syllables : so much so, that, were one of our
ancestors, who existed in the earlier ages of our
tongue, to review the grammatical investigations
of our time, he might smile at the labours of the
Etymologist. If, however, the meanings of the
several adjuncts can be distinctly ascertained so
as to apply universally wherever they may be
found, the end of utility will be gained. If the pro-
blem can be solved, we may be pardoned the inac-
curacy of its demonstration,
TIME, or the measure of the duration of exist-
ence, was, originally, in most nations, calculated by
the flux and reflux of the ocean. This, which
with us is termed the tide, was formerly synony-
mous with time. The Saxon word tide signified
time only, and several of our compounds, expres-
sive of stated periods, have the affix tide : such
as Whitsuntide, Martinmastide, Noontide, &c. From
the same cause the Romans expressed by the word
Tempestas, either time, a sea-storm, or destruction.
The regular recurrence and similarity of the tides,
may have suggested the idea of using the word as
indicative of multitude of the same kind, and a word
denoting these changes of the sea may have ori-
ginated the plural terminations. The particle ce,
anciently spelt es, forms a termination in several
C words.
26 INTRODUCTION TO AN
words, and has this signification of time : Thus once,
twice, and thrice, are equivalent to one time, two
times, and three times ; and, when these numerals
are extended, we use the word times, as, four times,
foe limes, &c. The Germans express once, twice,
&c. by einmal, zweimal, &c. the word mal in their
language having the power of the French fois and
our IURN, or time, applied to the repetition of an*
event. The varied spelling of ce and es is of no
moment, for, as we formerly had ones, twies, and
thries, marking the addition of es to one, twie, and
thrie, so we now have some of our plurals, as dice,
mice, and pence, ending in ce. It is, therefore, not
improbable that ce, or es, is synonymous with time,
in its numeral signification ; and, as added to one,
two, or three, it expresses how many of these things,
or actions, are exhibited, so, if employed in simple
connection with the name of a thing, it may de*
note a number of such things, leaving the extent
indefinite.
Another regular mark of plurality is en, as in
oxen, brethren, children, &c. This termination was
formerly much more common than now, as housen
. for houses ; eyen for eyes; f oxen for foxes, &c. The
affix en, in the ordinary acceptation of time , is also
found in several words, For example : when and
then are evidently from the Saxon hwa. and theo,
joined to the syllable en, and signify what time and
that time. Besides, the French en, equivalent to
aur in, implies time, as will be explained when
treating
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 27
treating of in as a preposition. Thus the plural
affixes, es and en, are apparently derived from a si-
milar source ; but, whatever be their origin, their
meaning, in both cases, is the same, that is, Number
without any particular limitation.
There are some anomalies in English plurals. Plural affir-
es different
A few are literally adopted frpm other languages, from the
and preserve their original form, such as, errata p
and phenomena, from erratum and phenomenon, while
others form their plural in the middle of the word,
-adding a separate termination to both numbers, as
man and men ; tooth and teeth; foot and feet ; but
all these will be better explained as they occur in
the Dictionary, In the mean time, we may observe
of es+ that the e is now left out wherever the word Variation
* f
will admit of contracting the syllable. Thus we
have skins, bells, and chairs, as the plurals of skin,
bell, and chair ; but when the Nouns end in the
sound of /, or so as an s cannot easily be incorpo-
rated with its concluding syllable, the es is added,
and therefore box, kiss, sash, and church, become
boxes, kisses, sashes, and churches.
The syllable en has other applications than that other uses
above-mentioned,, It likewise expresses action, and
has the signification of make, or made, as in golden ,
or silken, which specifies that a thing is made of
gold, or of silL In this sense it is often applied to
form past participles, as proven, arisen, given, &c.
signifying that the action is finished or made, as is
also expressed by the termination ed. Ed is used,
C 2 mdiscri*
28 INTRODUCTION TO AN
Distinction indiscriminately to declare that the action was
doing or done ; but en has the latter sense only, and
forms the termination of done as compounded from
do. En or an terminates the infinitive of almost all
the Saxon and Teutonic Verbs, indicating action in
the same manner as our to. With us it is occa-
sionally prefixed, as, to encrease, to make bigger; to
encourage*) to make courageous ; and, notwith stand*
ing of its Verbal power, we have added the to and
other signs of exertion, in conformity with the ge-
neral analogy of our language. In adopting words
from another tongue such a redundancy is common.
To the connective syllable, contained in the Vo-
cable which we have chosen, we often join a simi-
lar particle of our own. This is in some degree
necessary, otherwise our Syntax would become a
patch-work, and we should multiply our idioms,
already too numerous. As examples of this adapt-
ation of foreign words, we might instance most of
the Latin derivatives that contain a preposition.
Thus, to abstain and to connect mean to hold from
and to join together , their former syllables abs and
con being equal to our from and with. ; yet, in
composition, we say to abstain FROM and to connect
WITH, which, critically examined, are apparent
pleonasms. It is hence that the inseparable prepo-
sitions have been,in some cases, supposed to encrease
the signification of Verbs, while, in others, they
have been regarded as expletives. The latter opi-
nion is general with regard to the prefix of which
we
a
termination
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY, 29
have been treating. It will always, however,
be found to signify make ; and to enjoy, to encoun-
ter, to endeavour, &c. will thus have evident
meanings.
Many also of our Verbs have en post-fixed, as of e
i
to lengthen, to make longer, to shorten, to make
shorter, to soften, to make soft, &c. and, in general,
those Verbs whose roots are Adjectives require
this mode of formation. When the word to which
en is affixed terminates with an r, it is usual to ne-
gleet the middle e, in consequence of the coa-
lescence of the liquids r and n. Thus leatheren
becomes leathern, southeren, southern, and to waren,
to make aware, becomes to warn. In a similar
manner wintery, fostering, wandering, &c. have
been barbarously mutilated by the poets.
After all, en as a plural termination, with our Connexion
definition of its being synonymous with time, does f er ent uses
not appear to differ materially from its meaning of of **
make or made, do or done. TIME as an abstract
being is a non-entity ; and, when we apply the
word in language, it must, like an Adjective, be
joined to something else, before it can convey an
image to the mind. Before the word can have any
meaning, we must connect it with other circum-
stances, and say what passed at the period to which
we allude. " The French Revolution happened
" in the time" - In the time of what ? " In the
" time of George the third," or, when he was
King of Great Britain. The occurrence of one
C 3 thing
36 INTRODUCTION TO AN
thing is the only mark by which we can fix the
period of the existence of another. One event
must always be before, in, or after, that portion of
' duration in which a different one was happening, or
had happened ; and all Participles, since they denote
that an action is doing, or done, may, in conse-
quence, express the relations of time.
fa and en as prefixes are often confounded.
The Greek and French preposition en corresponds
with our in, but in English the words ought to be
distinguished, which can be done with accuracy and
ease. In signifies situation, and originally must
have meant the particular spot where a thing was
situated. In this sense it may always be explained
by the word place, which, without injury to the
meaning of the sentence, may be substituted in its
stead. For instance, " I was in the house," and
<c I was place the house ;" " I went into the gar-
" den/" and " I went to place the garden," are,
respectively, synonymous. " I did it in conse-
cc quence of his advice." Here the situation, or
time, consequent with his advice, is personified, or
rather specified ; and it is stated that it was then, or
in that time, (viewing the extent of time figuratively
as a place'} that the action was done. All words ap-
plying to local connection may also be applied to the
measure of the succession of events. Space and
Duration, with equal power, preside over and in-
clude within their dominion all the actions of the
Universe. Place and Time 9 with delegated autho-
rity,
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 31
rity, are the corresponding Rulers of the World j
and, so similar is their sway, that they are perpetu-
ally mistaken for one another. In, therefore, is
also used to signify time, and when so used, the
word time will always be completely equivalent.
Thus we may say, " I went to London, in two
" hours," or, " I went to London, time two
" hours," with equal meaning and propriety.
From the foregoing definitions, the distinction ptinctfon
between tn.
between in and en will be evident. To inclose will and <.
signify to close in, or to close a place, and to enclose ',
will be simply to make close ; to inquire will be to
seek in or to search the place, and to enquire will
mean to make search. This distinction is ? however,not
attended to by the generality of writers, as they use
indifferently either the in or en prefixed to Verbs.
In, as a prefix, also marks negation ; and, in this Anotheruse
of in,
sense it has, by some, been supposed to come from
the Hebrew ain, signifying not ; but the pronunci-
ation, and even the power of the letters, of this
language being completely lost, must render its
imagined derivations extremely uncertain. In was
employed by the Romans, in this privative manner,
when joined to Nouns or Participles, and is equiva-
lent to the word not : as, indecent, is not decent*
intemperate is not temperate, and so of others. It is
from the constitution of the word to which it is
joined, and not from any transforming power of
the preposition in, that such compounds reverse the
idea of the primary. Though not decent, or /Vzde-
ceat,
S2 INTRODUCTION TO AN
cent, be merely the negation of decent, yet, as there
can be no medium in such a case, the one is directly
opposite to the other.
i Of un. Synonymous with the negative in is the prefix
un. It is of Saxon origin, and more generally join-
ed to words that flow from the Gothic source,
while in is oftener applied to such as are of Latin
derivation. The Dutch wan, evidently our word
want, has the same power in composition as un,
and most probably is its original. The Scotch
have also wan, using wanwordy for unworthy, and
the pendulum of a clock is by them termed the
wanrest. When in or un is annexed to Verbs, it
does not only signify that the action is not per-
formed, but that it is reversed. To ravel is to
twist and confuse ; to unravel is to separate what
has been ravelled. The reason is obvious : One
Verb cannot be the negative of another, because
the want of action would divest it of its verbal na-
ture, and the privative particle must therefore
mark opposition.
Mm for en, En is sometimes, in composition, spelt em, and in
aU? andli- i g 8 P e ^ '' il-> m , or ir, according to the various
f%r M. initials of the words to which the prefix is joined ;
and these irregularities depend on the supposed
ease in pronunciation, from a more pleasing coa-
lescence of sounds : Thus, embattle, ignoble, illegal,
improper, and irresolute, are used for enbattle, innc-
ble, inlegal, &c.
When
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. S3
When we wish to express that one person or
thing belongs to another, it may be done, either by or '
stating the fact, in a circumlocutary manner, or by
adding is (or s as a contraction,) to the name
of the owner: Thus, Alexander's house signi-
fies the house of, or belonging to Alexander ; and
God's grace, anciently Godis grace, is the grace
cf God. This termination has been the subject of
much discussion, and, on that account, deserves
particular attention.
A Noun or thing may be in different states or
situations. It may be the agent or the patient ; the
possessor or the receiver. In the Greek, Latin,
Saxon, and German tongues, some of these situa-
tions are termed CASES, and are expressed by addi-
tions to the Noun instead of by separate words and
phrases. Of these the English Noun has only the
mark of possession above-mentioned, which is, there-
fore, called the POSSESSIVE CASE, and sometimes
the GENITIVE, because of its resemblance to that
case in the Greek and Latin declensions. There is,
however, in modern English, a distinction in ex-
tent, if not in kind. The Latin Genitive marks
the connection, in general, of one Noun with ano-
ther. It denotes that the one is the origin, or Ge-
nitive of the other, from whatever circumstance it
may arise. Thus timor Dei, the fear of God, is a
fear originating from God. It is to God that we
are to look for its source, but the person who is
subject to the feeling is left to be discovered from
the
34 INTRODUCTION TO AN
the other parts of the sentence ; and it is only on
the ground of the attributes ascribed to the Divi-
nity that we recognize the impossibility of its being
applicable to Him. When we say " The fear of
" Caesar was great," we obviously assert that
Cassar was much under the influence of fear.
When we add, " among his enemies," we render
the patient doubtful, it being uncertain whether his
enemies or himself were subjected to the impression
of dread. But, when we say, " ThefearofCasar
" was so great that his enemies became an easy
" conquest," the passion is transferred, without
ambiguity, to the hearts of his opposers.
of and off. The signification of the particle 0f may elucidate
this account of the Genitive. It is the same with
the Adverb off, and denotes that what we speak of
is taken from, or is a part separated from something
else. It is the Saxon af, and does not differ from
the Latin ab. Its primary use is behind opposite to
before, and hence our after, as well as the phrase
fore and aft. By a figurative manner of speech,
vide for common to all languages, fore and after are em-
and/or/.
ployed to denote cause and consequence ; origin and
offspring. Thus from or f rum, (derived from fore,)
in the Saxon, signifies beginning, author, or source,
and, in this sense, is used by us as a preposition ;
while the Gothic afar expresses after, and also
posterity. Of, therefore, is sprung, risen, or made
FROM, and is easily assumed as synonymous with
belonging to or concerning..
Though
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 35
Though two words may have different and even
opposite significations, yet they may, in certain si-
tuations, be taken indiscriminately for one another.
Thus, " I received money of him/' and " I re-
" ceivedr money from him," have the same mean-
ing. In the former case the money is asserted to
come from the giver ; in the latter he is mentioned
as the origin of the gift. In the same manner, the
place of the genitive terminations may be supplied
by the word of, though this preposition may differ
in its literal meaning from such affixes. Genitives,
then, are compound words having the nature of
Adjectives, and express that a thing is connected in
some manner or other with the Noun to which the
termination is joined. The origin of the different
signs, though various, may nevertheless be expres-
sive of the same idea, and many of our Adjectives
are, evidently, the Genitives of an earlier structure
of our tongue. Those who wish to trace from pro-
bability, where certainty is denied, may compare the
is or 's with the syllable ous, to be explained in a
succeeding part of this Introduction. It will be
found that " righteous men/' " men of right,"
and " right's men," do not materially differ ; and
a similar contraction of s from ous may be observed
in the Adverbs afterwards, backwards, forwards,
&c.
The Saxon genitives were, for the most part,
terminated by es or an, and the latter is still added
to words to form Nouns and Adjectives of a pos-
sessive
36 INTRODUCTION TO Afc
sessive signification : as partizan, belonging to ft
party ; human, belonging to man ; Alexandrian^
belonging to Alexander ; Egyptian, belonging to
Egypt, &c- The French use en separately to ex-
press the same idea, always Englished by of (it,
him, her, or them,) and denoting that one thing is
of or belonging to another. In this sense it assimi-
lates with the affix en in golden , silken, &c. already
explained ; and on the whole, it appears that this
Genitive affix was the same with the active syllable
which constituted the Gothic Verbs ; and, when
connecting Nouns, it specified that the one proceed-
ed, or was formed, or made from the other. Words
in or int, in in or ine, as Matin, Alexandrine, and Serpentine,
and those fashionables in ana, as Johnsoniana, &c.
may be traced to a similar source. The latter is
the Adjective Johnsonian with a, the Latin plural,
affixed, and signifies Johnsonian things, or anecdotes
concerning, or belonging to Johnson. Ana is princi-
pally used in the titles of books that record the
memorable sayings of persons of wit and learning,
and is similar to what we term Table-talk.
junction In the English language the juxtaposition of
of jun" n Nouns is, of itself, a sufficient indication of the Ge-
nitive, or that one is connected with the other ;
and this has given rise to a variety of compounds.
A Shoemaker is a maker of shoes, and a C,ach?naker,
cf Coaches. A Shipmaster is the master of*. Ship,
and a Schoolmaster is the master of a School.
Such words have been united by degrees, and were
formerly
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 37
formerly connected with a hyphen, thus Shoe-maker,
Coach-maker, Ship-master, and School-master. A
great many words, however, are employed in the
same manner, without any mark of connection, as,
Morning Song, London Review, Edinburgh Maga-
zine, &c. which may all be resolved on the princi-
ples which we have adopted. The number of
such compositions is every day encreasing* and ap-
pear to be limited only by the pleasure or conve-
niency of the writer.
Every Verb or action must have its Nominative or of the AC.
agent. It must also have an object on which the
action falls. Thus, in " John hit the mark/' the
Noun John is the agent ; hit the Verb ; and mark
the object of the action. In Verbs of which the
agent and the object are the same, as, " He
<c moves," " He talks," " It thunders," &c. the
object needs not be expressed, though the French in
most cases, and the English in many, conjoin a
Pronoun in the Accusative form. " Elle se prome-
" n it" she walked, is, literally, " she walked
" herself;" and " He moves himself" is not un-
common for " He moves."
In languages which have several variations in
their Noun, a particular termination is added when
it denotes being subjected to the exertion of another.
Thus Petrus and Maria are Latin Nominatives or
Names for Peter and Mary, If we say " Peter
" loves Mary," it is only from the one being placed
Before and the other after the Verb loves 9 that we
can
38 INTRODUCTION TO AN
can distinguish the lover from the beloved : for were
we to say " Mary loves Peter," the two states
would be exchanged. In the Latin, " Petrus amat
" Mariam" the situation of the Nouns is of no
consequence : The relation of being the object of
the action is expressed by the change of the Noun
Maria to Mariam ; and the sentence would be
equally well understood though written " Mariam
" amat Petrus." The reciprocal phrase may be
either cc Maria amat Petrum" or " Petrum
" amat Maria" This change in the Noun is
termed the Accusative case, and sometimes, especi-
ally inEnglish Grammars, the Objective.
M, an AC- Though English Nouns have retained no <;ase,
cusativeter- r . . . .
except that part or the Genitive which marks pos-
session or property^ a similarity to the Accusative is
visible in Pronouns. He (or that person of whom
we were speaking,) may be the agent of certain
actions i but when He becomes the patient , the re*
suit, or object of these actions^ and in every case
where he is not the agent ^ we write him : as, cc He
" loved Mary," or " Mary loved him" which
latter sentence would be perfectly intelligible though
it were written u him Mary loved."
Pronouns have also the possessive form, but in
neither of the cases are the terminations 9 s and *m
completely regular. These, more than any other
part of speech, are subjected to the corruptions
produced by Custom, who, in a great degree, ex-
tends her dominion over every language. Most of
the
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 39
the irregularities, in the classifications of words
which might be expected to shew an equality of
form, may be explained on the principle, that the
words, now so intimately cennected, have sprung
from different sources ; and, the / and me of the
English might not have shewn such an opposition
of orthography, had we been sufficiently acquaint-
ed with the origin of the ego and ik of the Latin
and Teutonic tongues.
It may be further observed of Genitives, that
they have, from the shifted station of our prospect,
a two-fold signification. In either point of view,
one Noun is understood to belong to another ; but,
in the one case, we consider a Noun as the property
of its Genitive, while, in the other, we consider a
Noun as having a right to, or power over, that with
which it is so connected. In this we attend more
particularly to the proprietorship, and in that to the
state of subjection. These different modes of ex*
pression have often no distinguishing mark except-
ing that of Emphasis ; which points out the word,
on which we wish the meaning of the sentence
principally to depend, by a more forcible tone of
pronunciation. When we say, " This is Alex-
" ander's house" we mean that the house is a part
of the property, or one of the things belonging to
Alexander; but when we say, " Vhh is Alexander's
;c house," we state that the house belongs to Alex-
ander, and not to another.
It
4O INTRODUCTION TO AN
It is not, however, to the possessive case alone
that we are to refer the ambiguity which we have
noticed ; nor is it there that Emphasis is exclusively
requisite. There is, perhaps, no phrase that may
not thus have its various modifications of meaning :
which, beside punctuation and the other marks of
modern invention, require, for their resolution,
that we should enter into the views, and catch a
portion of the spirit of the writer. For example,
" John struck James" shews the same agent, action,
and object, in whatever manner it may be pro-*
nounced ; and yet it may, with the change of Em-
phasis, make different impressions on the mind of
the hearer, by fixing his attention on either of the
words more strongly than on the others. " John
" struck James" shews that John was the indivi-
dual who gave the stroke, when a different person
might have been suspected. " John struck James"
specifies the particular mode of attack : And,
" John struck James" denotes that James, not an*
9ther, was the person who suffered. In writing^
where the ear cannot judge, and at a period prior
to the use of a separate character to mark sounds
of superior impression, many cases of dubiety must
have occurred* had not words of a more discrimin-
ating kind been added to the phrases. It was on
this account that such words as own, self, and same,
became necessary : " Alexander's own house,"
contains a double possessive, and fixes the proprietor
in
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 41
in the mind of the reader ; and " John himself
" struck James," more particularly refers to John
as the striker.
The apparently superfluous addition of own, self, of Accent*.
&c. might, in vocal discourse, be, in general, su-
perseded by the accompaniments of tone and ges-
ture ; and it was, doubtless, to preserve, in some
degree, the effects of those fleeting emotions, that
the Accents of the Ancients were invented. Accent
is to words what Emphasis is to sentences. It
marks the Articulation on which the attention, in
imitation of the voice, is required peculiarly to rest.
If our principle be just, that every word of two or
more syllables is merely a combination of as many
separate words, Accent and Emphasis must be the
same ; and every compound with its accentuated
syllable will be, evidently, a minor sentence with
its emphatical word. There will then be a basis on
which pronunciation may be supported, separate
from what is formed by the tide of opinion : nor
is this conjecture completely novel, since it coin-
cides with the ideas of some of the most ap-
proved writers, on the Orthoepy of the English
tongue *."
" As emphasis evidently points out the most significant
word in a sentence, so, where other reasons do not forbid, the
accent always dwells with greatest force on that part of the
word, which, from its importance, the hearer has always the
greatest occasion to observe," &c. WALKER,
D Attention
42 INTRODUCTION TO AN
Attention to harmony, in the succession of Ac*
cents, forms the beauty and elegance of Prose ;
and their distances, preserved with measured regu-
larity, constitutes the essence of Verse. Poetry is
not exclusively allied to either. It consists in " em-
" bodying the forms of things unknown, and giving
" to airy nothing a local habitation and a name."
But we have wandered from our road : let us return.
Double I n the place of the word own* added to the POS-
POSHS- .
SIVES. sessive case or Nouns when precision is requisite,
some of the Pronouns have a double Genitive
Affix. Thus, her and my are the Possessives of
she and /; but hers and mine mark the owner,' in
a distinctive manner, as it might be done by her
own and my own. In Syntax the simple Possessive
is always placed before, and the double after, the
Noun to which it refers. We say " her house,'*
and " the house is hers ;" and it is proper to say
" my horse," and " the horse is mine." My and
mine, thy and thine ^ are, however, sometimes con-
founded, but their distinction is as evident as her
and hers, or your and yours ; and it is from their
representing each two different words that the con-
fusion has arisen. The Possessives my, your, thy,
&c. and indeed all Genitives, may, in a certain
^ point of view, be regarded as Adjectives. It is a
quality of a Noun that it belongs to another. The
possessive Pronouns, therefore, used as adjectives,
were, in the Gothic and Saxon languages, subject
to inflection \ and it is the Genitives of these Adjec-
tives
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 43
rives that we have retained, and to which we
have here given the name of DOUBLE POSSES*
SIVES.
In the masculine singular, mm and melna (my)
were the Saxon and Gothic Genitives of ic and
ik (I.) Again, min and meins were applied as Ad-
jectives, and had the secondary Genitives mines and
meines. Thy and thine have been formed in the
same manner, as also our and ours, her and hers,
&c. Had we had no other Genitive for / and
thou 9 our present declension would have been re-
gular, in all the Pronouns ; and instead of my and
mine 9 thy and thine 9 we should have had mine and
mines 9 thine and thine s. As the case stands it were
better, on all occasions, to leave to my and thy the
undisturbed possession of the simple Genitive.
We shall here give the arrangement of those Declension
simple Pronouns which have forms of declension ; pronoun*.
and, though the definitions of such words belong
more properly to the body of the work, we shall
serve ourselves with the facility of explanation
which their joint exhibition presents.
D 2 Nominative
INTRODUCTION TO AN
Nominative
Genitive
Otlique Cas
or
or
Double
or
Agent.
Possessive.
Poseiive.
Objective.
Singular C/
my
mine
me
Plural I We
our
ours
us
Singular cThou
thy
thine
thee
Plural \Teoryou
your
yours
you
Sing. masc.
'He
his
* # #
him
Sing. fern.
She
her
hers
her
Sing. neut.
It
its
***
it
Plural
^They
their
theirs
them
In these Pronouns we easily discover, that they
are each expressive of the quality of an object. /
is the speaker, thou the hearer, and he, she, or it 9
is the person or tiling spoken of. All denote qua-
lities of existence, but such qualities as make dif-
ferent impressions on the mind, / is the being of
consciousness, thou of perception, and he of memory.
He, She, and. // (formerly Hit) are equivalent to
Man, Woman, and Thing.
Variation* The plural we and its compounds, in place of 7 f
undid Per- &c. are employed by Kings in addressing their
subjects. The same language is also sometimes
held by Orators and Authors. In the former case,
a King may be supposed to represent the collective
power of the Nation ; and, in the latter, the Orator
and Author may be conjoined, in imagination, with
the
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 45
the hearer and the reader. In the second person,
a similar, but more general, variation occurs :
Neither the singular thou, nor any of its com-
pounds, is ever expressed in ordinary style. They
belong solely to the solemn, or to the burlesque
when it affects solemnity. It is the language of
adoration and of Poetry, while you, your, and
yours, are in common use. The idioms which we
have here described are also common to the French
and some other tongues.
When we speak of an object which is other- ofv and
wise, or particularly, known, we prefix the, and
say, the man, the woman, the thing, the men, &c.
the Article the being the same in every variation of
Gender or Number. The designates a thing or
action in general, as separately marked by he, she,
or it, while the Pronouns perform the same office
in most other languages. // and the, when Gen-
der is not attended to, are synonymous. Each is
expressive of Being in general, and when used Ver-
bally signifies to bring forth, or to add to what we
already see. The, it, and, add, at, to, and do, are
kindred words. They mark that an addition is
made to some collected mass of existence. To,
which literally signifies, add, (like at and the Latin
ad?) is merely a different pronunciation of do. It
expresses the junction of another thing, or circum-
stance, as appears more evidently from its varied
orthography of too. In tracing the connection of Tranwniita
words, through different languages, th, d, and /, t er.
D 3 may
INTRODUCTION TO AN
may be considered as a single letter. They are
more or less forcible utterances of the same sound.
This change, in the strength of the pronunciation
of letters, constitutes much of the distinction be-
tween what are termed the sister tongues. The
slightest attention to the powers of the organs of
speech, will convince us how easily the b, p, v, and
./; the c, k, g, and q ; or the c, s, and a, may be
interchanged. In the Greek, the labials, palatines^
and dentals, that is, the letters pronounced by the
lips, the palate, and the teeth, " were respectively
" related, and frequently exchanged for each
" other. 5 ' We shall have occasion to notice seve-,
ral similar transformations, in the different Gothic
dialects, which may be accounted for on the same
physical principles. For instance, many of our
words beginning with t are, in German, begun
with as; as zeit for time (tide) ; zehn for ten ;
ziveig for twig, &c.
The German Thun signifies io do, and our word
thing is simply a participle from a like Verb, and
used as a Noun, in the same manner that doing
and action are formed from act and do ; or the La-
tin factum fromfacere to make. Thing, expresses a
separate act, or an individual substance /whatever
can be distinguished from others, To do is to accur
fnulate things, otherwise expressed by the word
think, which is only applied, figuratively, to the
operations of the mind. A different orthography
for the literal and metaphorical meanings we shall
find
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY, 7
find to be pretty general. The imaginary produc-
tions are termed thoughts , a Noun formed from
the Participle of the Verb to think. The Saxon
Weordan signifies to be, to become, or to be produced
or made, being equivalent to the Latin Fieri.
Weorcan is to Work ; it is to bring forth things 9 or
cause them to be. The Latin id (our if) has been
compounded in the same manner as the; and
hence idea, which is synonymous with thought.
The forms a numerous class of compounds.
_ . from *fc
That is the it or the thing, and is so separated in
Saxon. Then is the time. Thence is from or off
the time or place. It is the Genitive of then, and
has the additional derivatives thenceforth and thence-
forward. There, or the place, was formerly spelt
their. It is primarily of the same import, being
the Genitive of the. Their is now confined to ex-
press the Possessive of the plural they, and there
to the situation of a single inanimate object. " I
" shall go there" place is here understood from
the verb go. I go to the place of the, that is, to
that of something before-mentioned. Thither is
the there, and hardly differs from there. Thitherto
and thitherward denote the end and the direction
of our journey. The other compounds of there 9
viz. thereabout, thereafter, thereat, thereby, there*
fore, therefrom, therein, thereinto, thereof, thereon,
thereout, thereto, thereupon, thereunto, thereunder,
therewith, and therewithal, require no explanation
farther than of the parts of their composition.
Referring
4$ INTRODUCTION TO AN
Referring to our explanation of en 9 then maybe
considered as equivalent to the word done. Like
Participles, it is expressive of time, because it states,
in conjunction with the other words in the sen^
tence, that such a thing happened then, or when
another action was done, or had existed. From
this idea of consequent connexion, then also signi-
fies after in point of order or of time, and it is in
this sense that it is used in comparison. The
spelling, in the latter case, \sthan, but the words
are the same, and were once written indifferently
for each other. The syllable of comparison er sig-
nifies before, and metaphorically superior. Then
or than is the follower, or after in the train of
events. cc Charles is taller than Thomas," pro-,
nounces that Charles is before or superior, and
Thomas then, or after, in tallness.
on-s/j ad i t seems to have been the practice of our Ances-
tors to express things at hand by the masculine
Pronoun, and those at a distance, (as being less in-
timately known,) by the neuter. That, and its
plural those, therefore, denote what are not imme-
diately present ; and this and these, formed from
the Gothic is, he, mark the objects that are near.
It is on this account that we have a sort of dupli-
cate of most of the Pronouns from the. When the
compounds objects are at hand, or when we advert to what was
from here. j ast S p O k en o we ma ^ e use o f compounds formed
of the masculine he. Here, hereabouts, hereafter,
hereat, hereby, herein, hereinto, hereof, hereon*
hereout*
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 49
hereout, hereto, (heretofore,} hereunto, herewith ;
hence, henceforth, and henceforward, differ from the
corresponding words there, thereat, thereby, &c.
only in consequence of the supposed distinction of
situation. Here is this place, there is that place.
Here is contiguity, there is distance.
The Greek *a/, kai, and the Latin and French que, Pronouns
have originated in a similar manner with our word
the, and its verbal relatives to and do. It is thence
that they are explained in the Dictionaries, of the
several languages, by and, as, then, that, than, &c.
The Romans used the prefix que, as we do the, to
limit pronouns ; and hence quis, qu<%, quod or quid,
equivalent to who and what, is compounded of is,
ca, id he, she, it. Who and what, the he, and
the it, were formerly written quha and quhat,
sounded like wh or hw, the Gothic and the
Greek aspirate J.
The distinction between the Pronouns in wh and Distinction
r 17. x .'ii- between
th, as what and /##/, is not in the original, but in -what and
the customary meaning. In very old English they
are indiscriminately used. The Anglo-Saxons had
the for our who, writing Ic the for I who, thu the
for thou who, and se the, or the the, for he who.
Se, seo, and that, was the Saxon Article, in the dif-
ferent genders, answering to our the, and the Greek
o, if, TO. The same words were also expressive of
he, she, and it, and likewise of the relatives who and
which.
50 INTRODUCTION TO AN
We have frequently occasion to observe that,
when two synonymous words are found in the lan-
guage, they generally fill different departments, one
assuming the natural and the other the figurative
power. Pronouns in wh are exclusively employed
when a question is asked ; and in this alone, among
our older writers, consists their distinction from
those in th. Who is, therefore, the he, with its
Genitive whose and accusative whom ; and what is
the it, or that, having the double Possessive where-
of. Where is equivalent to there, and was formerly
written wheir, whair, or quhair.
Though the ancient use of what and that , where
and there, &c. differed only in the Interrogative
Mood, yet in modern usage there is another distinc-
tion. Who, which, &c. are never applied as Arti-
cles. We say " that or this is the man ;" but we
never say, in the same sense, " what is the man.'*
This regulation is necessary with us to preserve the
individuality of demonstrative and interrogative
phrases, which might otherwise be confounded.
Pronouns in wh are always relatives ; those in th
may be either Relatives or Demonstratives- In
the former situation , however, they are gradually
growing into aisuse, being superseded by who,,
which, and such like,
of imerro- There is nothing in either of the relative Pro-
gallon. . .. . r .
nouns indicative of question. In no case do they
change their nature. 'Whether the sentence be
imperative, interrogative, or otherwise, is to be
learned
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 51
learned only from the tone of pronunciation ; from
other words added, as, " tell me," " I ask you,"
&c. ; or, from a customary arrangement, which
shews that the request is implied. In all questions,
it is the he or who, the it or ivhat, the him or whom,
and the like, of which we wish to be informed ;
and, it is hence that such words are so often pre-
fixed to clauses of Interrogation. Qul^ qua^ quod,
,c. hold the same place in the Latin language,
and gave birth to the Verb Quarere to ask, or en-
quire, from whence we have Question^ Inquisitive,
Require^ &c. " Is it he," is no more the wish
for information than " It is he." The usual form
of Syntax alone recalls the idea of request, in the
same manner as the hearer might judge from the
sound of the voice. In a question the Verb always
precedes its Nominative, contrary to the order of
Assertion; and it is in this mode of grouping the
words that we recognize the interrogation. " Tell
" me what I shall do," and " What shall I do,"
have the same import. The word what undergoes
no variation of meaning.
Different dialects of the same language are form- of th
ed by the variation of the labial, palatine, and den-
tal letters formerly mentioned. The sound or
letter h, is another mark of distinction : it adds a
breathing to the vowel or consonant to which it is
joined. This aspiration was common among the
Greeks, and is attached to some of the branches
of the Gothic, while others prefer the harder con-
sonants.
e
52 INTRODUCTION TO AN
sonants. It is on this account that we see such
combinations as ch, gh, ph, th, &c. the sounds of
which, when they become general in a Nation, are
sometimes denoted by single letters. The German
has commonly w or u for our wh, as, uatt or was
for what ; ueit for white, &c. In other cases the
u is dropped and the h remains, as hu for who j
hohl for whole ; hohr for whore, &c. The Ger-
man Orthography is extremely irregular and un-
certain. Their writers follow pronunciation rather
than Etymology, while the English retain letters
which have long been discarded from the sound of
and the word. It is on this principle that hew and why,
so similar in sound and meaning, vary in their ap-
pearance. These words are the same with who or
what, having a preposition understood. Why was
formerly written forwhy, being the Saxon Accusa-
tive forwhy or forwhon, and signifies wherefore, or
for what cause, reason, or thing. How is often
supplied by the phrases, " in what manner," or
" in what degree/* The Saxon is humeta, from
mete, manner, or measure. The corresponding
words in other languages have a similar formation.
Quare, quamobrem, and quapropter, are, in Latin,
equivalent to why, and literally signify for what
thing ; and quonwdo, how, is quo modo, in what
manner. Cur was once quur, that is quare.
of d let- The W was formed, as its name indicates, from
two Vs. It is not comprehended in either the
Latin, French, or Italian Alphabets \ and, when
the
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 53
the Roman character was introduced into this
country, it was printed VV. In different pronun-
ciations it is changed into u or v ; and, by an easy
transition, from *; into/. In some parts of Scot-
land all the Pronouns in wh are turned into/, the
inhabitants, in their broad accent, using fa, far,
fan, and fat, for who, where, when, and what ;
and/tf, indifferently for how and why. Attention
to this peculiarity may be useful in our future in-
vestigations.
From the structure of the organs of speech, it
might perhaps be conjectured that the sounds tb
and s should naturally fall into one another, as we
already observed of / and z. However this may be,
we find that such a transmutation actually occurs,
and particularly in the Pronouns, which are most
liable to corruption. The Latin has is, ea, id ; the
Gothic is, si, ita ; and the English he, she, it.
The Gothic Article is sa, so, tbata, in the different
genders, corresponding to our that. The German
er, sle, es, (he, she, it,) compounded into der, die,
das, becomes who, or what and that. As and so
are Pronouns which may, in every case, be ex-
plained by // or that ; and differ only in the man-
ner in which they are used. So, considered as an
Adjective, is written after the Noun, or phrase, to
which it alludes ; as is followed by the word, or
sentence to which it is the relative. " I will do so,' 9
and " I will do as," bojth mean " I will do that; 99
but as requires something to follow $ for instance,
" I will
54 INTRODUCTION TO AN
" I will do as he bids me." So is the succeeding
state. " He bids me do it, and I will do so." 89
is employed as a relative when as is demonstrative:
" As the tree falls, so it must lie." In comparative
sentences, as is both the relative and antecedent :
" John is as brave as James." These modes of
usage are better learned from reading than from
rules. They are completely arbitrary, for, in their
original import, the words are synonymous.
Pronouns When one thing has the appearance of another,
o?ST the first impression on the mind is, that the new
object is that) the it, or the same, which we for-
merly observed. Accordingly the Pronouns are
the origin of all words expressive of likeness or si-
militude. Same is from the Gothic sa or so, as, in
Latin, idem, the same, is from id, it. Identity,
from idem, is sameness ; similarity is likeness or
sameness, in a certain degree. This application of
the Pronouns to express relationship, equality, or
kind, is common to many, if not to all, languages.
Words which are often conjoined are readily incor-
porated with one another ; and therefore we find
that most of the terminations which denote nature
or kind are simple Relatives. These will afterwards
fall to be explained.
of self. In treating of the double Possessive, we noticed
the necessity of certain words of particularization,
such as self, same, &c. which are Pronouns, and
repeat the Noun. Repetition is naturally adopted,
when we wfeh the hearer to fix his attention on a
particular
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 55
particular object. So is, in general, used Ad-
verbially, and states that an action is done like or
in the manner described. Thus is the so. When
this manner is left to be guessed, we are at liberty
to suppose it to be improper, and suppressed from
the delicacy of the speaker, who marks the word
emphatically, and says, " He did it so, so," or f c but
" so, so." Self and same are synonymous, except-
ing that self is never used but in composition, or in
conjunction, with other Pronouns. Self repeats
that which we wish to dwell on with marked
attention; what we would name again were it
not for the harshness of tautology. The plural is
selves. It has always an elliptical form of con-
struction, never being joined to a Pronoun in the
Nominative case. The compounds are myself, thy-
self, himself ; ourselves, yourselves, themselves ; her-
self, and itself. The Saxon, however, was written
Ic self, thu self, he self, &c.
There are many words derived from the Pro-
nouns, as quality, quantity, equal, such, also, which, Pronouns,
&c. Some of these we shall afterwards have occa-
sion to discuss in the Introduction, the others will
be found in the Dictionary. We shall therefore
conclude this part of our investigation with a list of
such compound Pronouns, not already mentioned,
as require little farther illustration; but may be
understood by referring to the words with which
they are connected.
How
INTRODUCTION TO AN
How
Whereas
Wherewithal
However
Whereat
Whereupon
Howsoever
Whereby
Whither, or
WHAT
Wherever
what place
Whatever
Wherefore
Whether, or
Whatsoever
Wherein
what thing
WHEN
Whereinto
Whithersoever
Whence
Whereof
WHO
Whenever
Wheresoever
Whoever
Whensoever
Whereto
Whoso
WHERE
Whereunto
Whosoever
Whereabout
Wherewith
Whomsoever
oftheter-
mination**.
It may here be observed that what is sometimes
taken substantively for Thing, and spelt whit.
" Aught i or ought) is a whit,. or o whit, o standing
" for a or one. Naught, or Nought, is na whit or
" no whit *." In Saxon it was written noht, con-
tracted from no hit, equivalent to no it, or no thing.
From this comes our word naughty, worthless, or of
no value.
Me and thee appear to follow an order of ter-
m i na ti O n w hi c h is sometimes applied to other
words, to mark their being in the Objective state.
When ee is added to the name of the Verb, it
forms
* DIVERSIONS OF PWRLET.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 5?
forms a Noun which is the object, patient, or result
of that Verb. Thus Assignee is he to whom
any thing is assignedtrustee is he to whom it is
entrusted.
In opposition to the Objective terminations, f d '^ r '
Nouns have, often, an affix, expressive of their be-
ing the agent in an action. The Celtic er, signify-
ing man, originated the German Pronoun er, he,
which, added to a word denoting action, specifies
a reference to the Man, the he, who acts. Thus
lover is he who loves ; truster, the man who en-
trusts ; baker, the bakeman ; and weaver, he who
weaves. It is sometimes written or, as in author^
actor, and doctor, anciently authour, act our, &c. \
and it is occasionally used to signify the instru-
ment, or machine, by which any work is perform-
ed \ but, in this case, the lifeless actor is animated
by personification.
The distinction of sexes not being commonly of m and
marked in English Nouns, the same affix, er, is in '"
general employed, whether the. agent be male, fe-
male, or inanimated. This is not however univer-
sal, for there is one termination expressive of the
feminine gender. Ess (or ix, as it is sometimes
written,) is probably the same with the Pronoun
she, in like manner that er represents the mascu-
line be ; and, to those who attend to the facility
with which the vowels become either initial, or ter-
minal, or mute, in the progressive changes of
language, the supposition will, by no means, appear
E fanciful
58 INTRODUCTION TO AN
fanciful or extravagant. From this affix we have
the following association of masculine and feminine
Nouns :
Abbot Abbess Actor Actress
Administrator Administratrix Author Authoress
Chanter Chantress Count Countess
Emperor Empress Executor Executrix
Lion Lioness Prince Princess
with many others, and the list is gradually in-
creasing, as it is found, or believed, that women
are capable of those employments, which were for-
merly deemed beyond their powers. Ster is the
feminine affix in the Saxon and Dutch languages,
and appears in the word spinster, and a few others ;
but it is too seldom used to be regarded as a regular
termination. Besides, in English, it is at times
masculine, as in maltster, &c.
r, a?, and The personal affix er, (or* our,) is also applied
our, form
abstract to Qualities, which are thereby raised to the dig-
. ' . : . , j
nity or imaginary personages. Like words in head,
ness, ship, &c. they become abstract Nouns, that is,
general names for the passions, feelings, or actions,
which the words denote. Thus, we have murder y
from the Saxon worth, death ; and, from the Latin
ardens, burning, we have ardor, or ardour, signify-
ing warmness in a figurative sense, or the general
name for the ardent feeling. In the same manner
Eur. the French eur expresses the agent of an action,
and
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 59
and likewise denotes the general name of a Quality
considered abstractedly. Thus, autheur is an au-
thor, hauteur haughtiness, and douleur sorrow. We
have adopted several words with this termination,
as, grandeur -, greatness, from grand, great ; and
douceur, (from doux, sweet,) sweetness, used figura-
tively to signify any thing added to soften what
would be otherwise disagreeable. Besides, words Ure.
in ure are evidently from the same source, as verd-
ure, greenness, from the French ver d, green ; and
tenure, a right to a certain property held from, or
dependent on another, from tenlr, to hold. The
termination ure was formerly written our, as, tress-
our, messour, and plesour, for treasure, measure,
and pleasure. The Latin or was employed in a
similar manner, either to denote an agent, or to
form Nouns expressive of abstract ideas. Amor is
love, and amator a lover.
We have supposed the affix er to be the mas- of the A
culine Pronoun he, and we before asserted that the definitive,
Relatives he, she, it, and the Article the, are syno* &l "
nymous ; and equivalent to the auxiliary to or do.
It was formerly hit, and the Dutch neuter het
stands equally for our // and the. The Article
states the existence of that to which it is annexed,
\vhether it be quality, action, or substance. It must,
in some shape or other, be joined to every Adjec- *
tive, Verb, or Noun, before the idea can be corh-
pleted. It is a Definitive to the Noun, a Substan-
tive to the Adjective, and a Nominative to the Verb.
E 2 Green
&O .INTRODUCTION TO AN
Green is expressive of a particular colour, such as
appears on the growing herbage of the field. When
we wish to consider this quality, unconnected with
any other, we attempt to separate it from every
known substance, and apply to it a general name,
as the Neuter Pronoun it or the. We take green
ITSELF, or THE green, as denoted by the words
greenness and verdure. In the same manner every
Verb must have its agent. Something must per-
form what the Verb represents, before the idea of
energy can be conveyed. A Noun or Pronoun is
added to the Verb, in all cases where the agent is
known \ but when we wish to look upon an action
it self i without attending to the actor, we must fol-
low the same rule that we did in the case of th6
Adjective green. We must say TO love, TO hate,
'J o walk, TO run, which is love, hatred, .walking,
and running, viewed in the abstract, or unconnect-
ed with the individuals who might be so employed.
The fact is, the Infinitive of Verbs is merely a ge-
neral uame for the exertion which the word de-
notes * and has been treated as such by some of the
best writers on Grammar. // or the, as marking
existence, may be either being, or action. The
same word with varied orthography has different
departments. To is, by us, applied to Verbs ; but
it was the neuter Article (the} among the Greeks.
Do is not descriptive of any particular mode of ac-
tion. It is the production of a thing ; of &4he or
it, whatever that may be, and is hence applicable to
every
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 61
every Verb. If then the syllable er be a definitive
* atingVerbs.
pronoun, it may likewise mark the circumstance
of action, and, accordingly, as a termination, it
forms the Infinitive of most of the Verbs in the
French tongue, as Parler, to speak ; mcnager, to
manage, &c. The English have adopted this ver-
bal termination in the werds to stammer, to flatter,
to totter, and many others. The to, though redun-
dant, is nevertheless prefixed, conformably to ge-
neral analogy. The terminations age, ize, ish, &c.
are definitives under other forms.
Before proceeding farther, it is of consequence interchange
to observe the progress of the changes, or of what with one
is termed the corruption, of languages. The Ro- a
man c was taken from the Greek y, (5-,) and was
always pronounced hard like k ; as, Ktesar and
Kikero for Csesar and Cicero. In many cases,
especially when followed by /, the g was changed
into c, as actum for agtum and lectum for legtum,
from ago, I act, and lego, I read. In the Infinitive,
and many other parts of these and similar Verbs,
we have adopted the soft g, agreeably to the Eng-
lish rule, as in agere and legere. The Greek % (ch)
was the aspirated *, (k,) but pronounced hard, as
we now do in chord, chronology, and others of
Greek extraction. la general we sound c and g,
(the former exactly, and the latter nearly,) like k,
when they are placed before a, o, or u ; and like t
andj, whenever they are followed by e, i,ory; but to
this rule we have many exceptions, and hence much
E 3 confusion
63 INTRODUCTION TO AN
confusion has been created in the science of ety-
mology. The Italian c, before e and /, is pro*
nounced like our ch in the words chess and chill*
The French c is consonant with the English, ex^
cepting that, in some cases, it has the soft sound
even before o and u. The Saxon c and ch had the
sound of '.k. Circ or clrce, a church, was kirk, as
is still the case in Scotland. Ric 9 rice, or ricbe, was
pronounced -rik. It is synonymous with our rich,
and also signified a region or tract of land : .for, in
countries where commerce was unknown, land
constituted the only riches. Ricedom denoted a
kingdom, equivalent to the Latin regnum. Ricsiau
is to govern, like the Latin regere or regnare. We
have lost a letter altogether in our pronunciation of
** re * n ' * n Saxon, rlc was affixed to Nouns to
mark possession, or dominion, as Gynric, a king-
dom ; and it is yet seen in the word bishoprick^
which is the possessions of a bishop. The French
ch is like our sh. Chose, a thing, is pronounced
shoze, and, except in the mode of application, is
not different from their cas and cause. The Saxon
cildisc, (kildisk) originates our childish. The Go-
thic sa, the Saxon se, and the French ce, may all
be Englished by the or this ; and the gradation of
their departure from the Latin que is evident. The
soft c and g are easily converted into s and z ; and
we before observed the correspondence of these Iast 7
mentioned letters with th and d. Our Nouns ter-
minating in tion had formerly cion or cioun. Dis-
cretion
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 63
cretion was discredoun, and nation was nacloun.
Ancient is yet spelt both ways. The sound is that
of sb.
It may be further observed that Alphabets were Adoption of
1 . letters from
the productions of the more learned nations. 1 hey foreign AI-
were transferred to others where the art of writing p
was more recently known ; and, in many cases,
were but ill adapted to express the novel sounds
which they were made to represent. Our n, when
followed by c, g, k, q, or #, produces two different
sounds, according as the following letter is soften-
ed or separated. These are observable in the words
long and longitude ; angle, and angel, &c. The
Greeks expressed the sound of n by g, prefixed to
g, k, x, or ch ; as afyiAo? aggelos pronounced ange*
los, an angel ; yx*Au, agkale for ancalee, the bended
arm. The g, in such cases, may have assumed
the place of n, from a similar cause, that the n is
sometimes changed for a duplication of the subse-
quent letter in the particles in, con, &c. when used
in composition. The French have what is termed
their nasal sound, in almost every case where either
n or m is immediately followed by another conso-
nant. Thus dans, in, tant, so much, and champ, a
field, are pronounced as we should dang, tang, and
shang ; while, in some districts, the sound is so pe-
culiarly nasal that it is treated as a vowel. N and
m are interchangeable in different tongues. Their
sounds, though formed by separate organs, are
nearly alike. Greek Nouns in on are usually
terminated
64 INTRODUCTION TO AN
terminated in Latin by urn. In the latter language
the prepositions cum and con are the same j and so-
tennis 9 yearly, from solus, alone, and annus a year,
is likewise written solemnls^ the origin of the word
solemnity. Tantum is used for tarn turn, and quen-
dam for quemdam, &c. In the Galic or Erse ma-
nuscripts the sound of v is marked by bb 9 a sort of
aspirated b y as ph or f is of p. It is also written
mhy the utterance of the labials m, b, v, &cv being
similar. The aspiration or h appears to have been
added at will to every simple sound. Its addition
to c or g forms, in Scotland, a harsh gutteral, un-
known to the modern English. The Italians have
almost totally discarded h from their alphabet.
dfr,/, and The letter r, among the Greeks, was generally
aspirated, c *. but the Romans, on the contrary,
" gave it so soft and lisping a sound, that in writing
" they sometimes omitted it, calling the Etrusd
" Tbuscii or.Tusci ; and especially before j ; thus
" Ennius wrote prosus y rusus^ for prorsus, ryrsus ;"
" The sound of this lisped r was so near that of its
" neighbour .f, that they wrote as a, casmen^Papy/il
" for ara, car men ^ Papyrii ; and we find the ter-
" mination 'os 9 as well as or, in good writers still,
" particularly in the prince of poets, where arbos
" and honos frequently occur; and labos, vapos, &c.
" in others." " The liquids are often changed re-
66 ciprocally into one another, as from puer comes
" puerci) puella ; and as calulius was anciently writ^
* ^ ten for c^ruleus^ so on the contrary we find lati-
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. . 65
f c aris for latialis. In some words r and n are
<c written indifferently, as in areus or aneus V*
From this it is probable that the Gothic and Latin
is, the Latin ille 9 the French //, the German er 9 &c.
all equivalent to the masculine Pronoun be 9 are of
common origin.
The Vowels are mutually changed for one ano- of the
ther. The Greek al became the Latin ^ and the
terminations os 9 e, on, were transposed into us, a 9
um. In English o was formerly used where we
now have a; and vice versa. Hand and land
were written bond and lond. Band and bond are
both retained, Each of our Vowels have two or
more different sounds, which are reciprocally con-
founded in the several quarters of the Island ; and
so uncertain was our ancient Orthography in this
respect, that, in Etymological researches, the
changes of the Vowels are generally disregarded,
T has with us the power both of a Vowel and of a
Consonant. In either case it assimilates with /,
and in the latter with j. or the soft g ; while fhe
j 9 especially in French pronunciation, is merely an
aspirate of s or z. It is on this account that these
letters are interchangeable among various dialects.
The g 9 in the Saxon and Teutonic tongues, has, in
many cases, been superseded in English by / or y ;
and, on. the contrary, the y has been turned into
g. Caiman^ Gothic, to desire, has become yearn.
The Saxon da% signifies a day 9 and stager 9 a stair.
Went
* AlNSWORTH.
66 INTRODUCTION TO AN
Went (goed) was formerly y'ode, and yon is simply
the participle gone. The Scotch say yard for gar*
den^ yate for gate, with many other similar trans-
formations. T had formerly the place of tb, as ye
for the, ancl yem for them, and x was written for y,
as %?/> for year.
General There is, therefore, a sort of transmigration of
Connection
of Lan. the sounds which constitute the languages of man*
kind. For a little time, and in a contracted circle,
each has its peculiar utterance and tone. As they
are gradually transferred to the other quarters of
the world, the mode of their appearance is changed.
Their identity is continued, but the Linguist, like
the Pythagorean, may often toil himself in vain to
discover what they have been. Occasionally, howv
ever, we may recognize an old acquaintance, whose
information shall partially repay our otherwise
fruitless search. By persevering industry and phi*
losophical investigation, a comparison of languages
might be instituted, and a kind of polyglot Lexicon
inight possibly be formed; in which could be traced,
through many tongues, the identity or consangui-
nity of the; corresponding words. But such a
work would require an union of talents that fall to
the lot of few ; and, after all, would be particularly
exposed to that species of ridicule which, so often,
attaches to the labours of Etymology. Though it
i s npt, then, for us to attempt so difficult an under-
taking, yet, by keeping the principle in view, much
advantage may be gained. Though we cannot
trace
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 67
Jtrace the spirit through the varied forms which it
may assume, we may catch a glimpse of the flitting
shade before it vanish from our view.
We have already remarked that to, preceding the
r / / tionof
name or an action, represents its accomplishment, in Verb*
the same manner that the, before the Name of a
substance, denotes its existence : that the definitive
Article, the demonstrative Pronoun, and the Verbal
addition, are synonymous. These Particles, how-
ever, are not universally connected with the Verb,
or Noun. Both may be generally expressed, and ex-
erion, or existence, understood. We say, *' Man is
" born to trouble," without alluding to any indivi-
dual; and we say, " You love," supposing the impli-
cation to be evident, that the Noun love is a feeling of
the mind of him whom we address. The variation
introduced by custom, in this respect, has produced
some irregularities in the English Verb.
There is another cause for the irregular ortho*
graphy of Verbs- In several languages they have
a different termination, as the actor is in the first,
second, or third person ; and this mode of writing
partially prevails in the English tongue. In such
cases the Pronouns corresponding with /, thou, he,
&c. bear a particular sway, and, in the progress of
time, become incorporated with the Verb. Among
some Nations, the connection may be general,
while, in others, it may be adopted, or retained,
only in those parts where it is useful, for the sake
of preventing * ambiguity. The persons of English
Verbs *
68
INTRODUCTION TO AN
Verbs have only two changes of termination. The
Pronoun thou requires est, (contractedly j/,) to be
added to the Verb. In the present tense we say,
Thou buildest," or " Thou lovest," and in the
past, Thoubuildedst," or " Thou lovedst." The
third person singular, (/6^, she, or /V,) is followed
by a Verb having the termination es or s, as " He
" builds/' or " He loves ;" but this is only ap T
" plicable to the present tense, for, in the past, we
say He builded, or built,'* and He loved.' 5
These phrases may also be expressed by the auxi-
liary do, to which the est and es are added, and the
name of the Verb left unchanged ; as, " Thou
" dost love," " Thou didst love/' " He does
" love," &c. The es was formerly eth 9 as " He
buildeth," " He loveth," &c. but this spelling has
gradually grown i#to disuse,
of Tenses. When airy action is said to be performed, it is a
natural question, at what time it is done ; whether
before, or at the moment the account is given, or
whether the performance is merely announced, as
to happen at a future period. The learned lan-
guages have occasioned much abstruse discussion
relative to the tenses^ or times pf Verbs. Happily
ours is free from this embarrassment. When the
action is finished, or supposed to be so, from its be-
ing in execution previous to the time in which it is
mentioned, the mark of its existence is affixed by
vide EN. the terminations edor en. I love is present ; / loved
is past, and may be finished or not as the other parts
of
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 69
of the sentence express. In either case, the Verb
is rather indicative of the actions being doing, or
done, than the time when, but indeed the ideas are
undistinguishable. When doing it must be present,
when done it must be past , respecting some period
alluded to ; and hence time is, by implication, in-
cluded in the signification of the Verb. En and
ed are not to be distinguished, except, perhaps, in
the degree of modification in which they are ap-
plied. The past tense and the past Participle are
the same word, only in the former we attend to the
action, and in the latter to its effects upon the ob-
ject. In the first case it is most common to em-
ploy ed 9 and in the second en. Ed is applicable to
both, but en seldom appears except in the Parti-
ciple. We say, " He proved the fact," and u the
" fact was proved," or, u was proven" They
are perfect synonymes of to or do They mark the
end or completion of the action. Ed is sometimes
corrupted into/, as mixt for mixed, spilt for spilled,
&c. in which case it is usually applied to denote
the Participle, and the regular formation ed marks
the Preterite : " I mixed the ingredients," " The
" ingredients were mixt"
The termination ed, in the Participle, appears to JWandw
lose its active meaning, and designates a quality, or
Adjective, of the nature of the Verb. It expresses *
something that has been subjected to exertion, and
is the result of its power. A wounded man is he
who has suffered an wound. A proven fact is one
which
7O INTRODUCTION TO A3*
which has been determined by proof. It is a fact:
of a particular kind ; one that has been demon-
strated, Adjectives are formed in this manner
from Nouns not generally considered as Verbal ;
as, diseased from disease. In this case id is often
written for ed, as in putrid, morbid, and fervid.
These are usually denominated Adjectives, but
there is no distinction between them and the other
Participles. The classes of words run into one an-
other, and change their appearance as we shift our
station.
Termina- A number of Verbs have their Preterite and past
tion vbt.
Participle terminated in ght. To bring, to buy, to
think , to teach, &c. have brought, bought, thought,
taught, &c. when the action is finished, or when a
quality is derived from it. Such words are all of
Saxon origin, and were written brohte, bohte,
thohte, &c. having a gutteral sound like the an-
cient pronunciation of ght. We may here refer to
our account of ought and nought, when treating of
the Pronouns. The comparison between hit and
ft/ will be obvious. Many of our Nouns forming
monosyllables in ght are from the same source :
For instance, thought is a Verb in the Preter tense,
as well as a Noun expressive of the principle of
thinking.
Of Moods. In the Latin, and some other languages, there is
also a variation in the Verb, as the modes of action
differ ; as the speaker commands or entreats ; as
it is asserted with certainty or with l\esitaticn Moods
in
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 7 I
m English are indistinctly marked, and must, in
many cases, be gathered from the studied meaning
of the sentence. We already noticed a difference
of arrangement in the Interrogative, but other
moods, (as the Imperative) have a similar phraseo-
logy. In vocal discourse the tone and gesture are
sufficient indications, but, in writing, the reader is
often much indebted to punctuation. There is,
indeed, one form of orthography which is a kin to
the Subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue. This
consists in cutting off the est and es from the second
and third person whenever the action is conditional.
Thus we say tbou loves t, but in expressing a doubt-
ful case we say, if be love; and instead of he loves ,
we write if he love. The first, or undoubted, mode
of expression, has been termed the Indicative, and
the other the Subjunctive, or Conditional Mood.
This Subjunctive has created considerable difficulty
to teachers of English Grammar, while the practice
has been neglected and confounded with the Indi-
cative, by the greater part of our best writers. The
words to have, to be^ to will, &c. which are used to
express the modifications of other Verbs, have an
irregularity of structure and usage, in this respect
as well as in others, which preclude them from the
general rules of formation. These, along with
what are defective or anomalous, will be exhibited,
in their various states, in the order of their expla-
nation. For such as are regularly formed, (having
the termination ed to distinguish the past from the
present,}
72 INTRODUCf ION TO
present,) the following Rule is universal : In
expression which positively asserts an acti:n to be do*
ing, or done, without any supposition or reserve, and,
in all questions of an action's being so performed, EST
(when the pronoun THOU Is used,) is added to the
second person, both past and present, and ES, or ETH^
to the third, of the present tense, in the singular of
the Verb. In every other mood the Name of the
Verb is written without the slightest alteration.
Source of Adjectives express the quality of substances, but
atio^of 1 " 1 * these qualities must be denoted by terms of simili-
Adjectives. tU( j e Qr a g reemen t, The names of these qualities
are Nouns j and it is only when we apply them to
other Nouns^ so as to modify or determine their
kind, that they are properly termed Adjectives.
The Noun whose quality we mention, is then stat-
ed, in some way or other, to belong to, to be like, or
to be of the nature of something else from which the
Adjective is derived. In their formation different
modes have been followed. Names have been
conjoined, leaving the connection to be implied, as
in Goldsmith and Shipmaster ; or, the one has ac-
quired an affix expressive of power, or origin, as
exemplified in our remarks on the Genitive. One
may be the result of the action of another, like the
past (or the agent like the present,') Participle of
Verbs ; or, by the addition of an Article, or Pro-
noun, one thing may be stated to be the same, the
it, or, the like of that with which it is connected.
From what we have already remarked upon the
structure
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 78
structure of words, we shall more seldom have oo
casion, in our further account of the terminations,
to trace them minutely to their source. The origin
of many will be evident from the slightest observa-
tion.
In several languages Adjectives have regular de- Comparison
clensions, and agree with their Substantives in Adjectives.
Gender, in Number, and in Case. In English
they have only that change which is denominated
Comparison^ The word er, among the Saxons,
like our ere, signified before. From the respect
paid to precedency, it was also used to denote su-
perior in quality as well as prior in time ; and for
that purpose was added to words of quality, to
mark a superiority to what the word previously
expressed : Thus, wiser is a greater degree of
WISDOMi
When three objects are compared together, with
respect to any quality possessed in common, the
lowest is specified by the name of the quality, and
is said to be in the Positive degree ; the next is
termed the Comparative degree, denoted by the
addition of er, as above-mentioned ; and the high-
est, or most eminent in quality, is termed the Su-
perlative, which is marked by the syllable est : As,
Tom is tall, Bob is taller, and Will is tallest. The
Saxon Erst or Erest, which is still used in English,
signified the highest degree of priority. Like ab-
stract Nouns, it is probably formed from ere, by
the addition of a definitive. This is the French
F mode
74 INTRODUCTION TO AN
mode of comparison. Plus is more, and le plus,
the more, or greatest, which are placed before
other Adjectives, in the same manner as our more
and most. More and m&st are the Comparative and
Superlative of the Saxon ma, mo, or mowe, a heap.
Much is a large quantity, like a heap, as will ap-
pear from our account of the termination ch.
When Adjectives have more than one syllable they
are better compared by more and most ; more proper
and most proper, rather than proper -er and proper -est.
Termma- Most is sometimes a Superlative termination, as
tion most, . , .
topmvst, uppermost, southmost, &c. Adjectives are
often irregular in their comparison, as good, better,
best ; bad, worse, worst, &c. This may be on ac-
count of a synonymous word occupying the place
, of the Adjective in one of its degrees, and from the
elision of letters produced by contraction. We
shall notice these deviations as they occur in the
course of explanation. The comparison of Saxon
Adjectives presents a curious specimen of the un-
settled state of the orthography of former times.
The Comparative degree was formed by ar, <zr, er,
ere, ir, or, ur or yr ; and the Superlative by ast,
test', est, ist, cst, ust or yst.
of tat or The Latin ens (equivalent to the Greek v,) sig-
*4ani nifies being ; -the it, or thing, which exists. Hence
it was used to form the present Participle in that
language, as docens and amans, which express ex~
isting, or being, in the state of a teacher or a loven
Our words in ent, or ant, and ence, or ance,. are
from
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 7-5
From this source. Both denote being, or state ;
the former being applied to constitute Adjectives
and the latter Substantives. Thus abundant is the
quality of existing in abundance, which is the name
given to such a state of existence. The Romans
expressed the Noun by the addition of antia, as
abundantia, &c. which we shall again notice under
the termination ice. The present Participle, in
Saxon, was formed by ande, ende, or onde ; and, by
cutting off the final e, it acquired a Substantive
signification, and extended the idea to the agent :
as, alysende, freeing, and alysend, a redeemer ;
freonde, loving or friendly, zndfreond, a lover or a
friend. From this comes our affix en d, for many
of our Nouns with that termination were originally*
Saxon Participles. Friend zndfand literally denote
a lover and an enemy, fromfreon to love, and f eon
:o hate ; and thus, having synonymes in the lan-
guage, they are retained for th'e purpose of mark-
ing a peculiar variety in love, and in hatred.
Present Participles are formed by the addition of
. * O
ing in English, and ung in German, both equiva-
lent to the Latin ens and the Saxon ende. Words
with this affix are rather improperly said to be in "
the present tense. They may be either past or pre-
sent; for they express solely the existence of the qua-
lity or action. Loving, hating, destroying, &c. are
unfinished actions* They may be now, or they may
have been long ago. The name of the state itself,
when considered as a Noun and not as a quality,
F 2 is
76 INTRODUCTION TO A&
is expressed by io in Latin, by ung in Saxon and
German, by ing in Low Dutch, and by ion iti
English. The syllables ing and ion are therefore
the same, and indeed they are often used for one
another. Hearing and learning are Nouns as well
as Verbal Adjectives. " During the action" and
" during the acting" are synonymous phrases.
The termination ment has the same signification
with ion, and forms Nouns which are in the state
marked, by the connected Verb. Thus, actment,
were there such a word, would be synonymous
with action, and either would denote the name given
to any change which is produced in the universe ;
being equivalent, both in origin and power, to our
word doing. Act is the Verb It is the name of
the mode by which such a change is effected. The
words act and action have, however, been so com-
monly confounded, and the ideas themselves are of
so general a kind, that it is difficult to mark their
distinction in an accurate and obvious manner. An-
other Verb may tend to elucidate the subject. Joy is
that elevation of the mind which is the consequence
of pleasing sensations. To enjoy is to act so as to
procure that rapturous feeling ; and enjoyment is the
name of such a state or action. These termina-
tions sometimes signify the effect, or result, as well
as the exertion itself. Thus, portion is the division
apportioned, raiment is the clothes in which one is
arrayed, and judgment is the doom pronounced.
Such figures in language are exceedingly common.
Words
.
/* *'>-
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 77
Words in ent are often used to denominate the
agent as well as the quality of the action Opponent,
originally an Adjective, is now a Substantive, as
was formerly mentioned. Latin words in monla
are Englished by mony, of the same signification as
ment. Thus we have alimony, equivalent to ali-
ment, or nutriment ; and sanctimony might be
equally well expressed by the word sanctiment, de-
noting holiness, or the state of being holy.
It may be objected, that the explanations which
we give, in many cases, run into one another ; and
that, in several instance^ the distinctions are not
sufficiently apparent. The truth is, that, though'
the terminations were originally different in their
meaning, yet, like objects seen from a distance,
they would often appear to be similar. Words
otherwise distinct, from a particular point of view,
seem to be synonymous. To free and to redeem
may in general be used indiscriminately ; because,
when speaking of the deliverance, it will not be al-
ways necessary to advert to the price of the free-
dom. But, often, the affixes differ only in appear-
ance. They are words (generally Articles,) with
a varied orthography ; or, they have the same
power, but originate from a different stem. What
follows ^ will sufficiently illustrate these observa-
tions :
The Latin termination His originates our He, of &,*/,
which, added to a Noun, or Verb, forms an Adjec- asd * ; '
tive expressive of the quality, or disposition, de-
noted
78 INTRODUCTION TO AN
noted by the word to which it is joined. Thus>
we have servile and docile ', the former descriptive of
a slavish, and the latter of a teachable disposition,
from the Latin ser-vus, a servant, or slave, and do-
ceo, I teach ; and from hostes, an enemy, we have
hostile, possessing the disposition of a foe. Indeed 2
most of the words of this termination are Adjectives
derived from the Latin, with little or no varia-
tion. Some of them have discarded the /, as
noble i from nobilis, and probable from probabilis.
The Latin alls and His seem to be merely different
forms of orthography, but with us al is more gene-
rally affixed to Nouns, and is almost equivalent
to the Possessive case. Tfyus royal, from the
French roy, is belonging to a king. Regal is a
synonyme from the Latin rex. Martial, from
Mars, is belonging to war, and moral is from the
Latin mores, manners. When a Noun ends in /,
the addition al would form a disagreeable mono-
tony, and is accordingly changed into ar, as parti-
cular, regular, similar, &c. This is also sometimes
the case v/hen ending with other letters, as lunar,
polar, &c. When al terminates a Verb it has ex-
actly the same meaning with ing or ion, and, at
some past period, may have been a regular mark of
the Participle. Dismissal is the same with dismiss-
ing, or dismission, and retiisal is the action of
review,
of*;/,, or From the termination His, and habere, to have,
ibis.
is formed the Latin habilis and our habile, which
signify
^-^ . 6 J
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 79
signify having, or possessing any quality which
may be requisite. This, by contraction, has ori-
ginated the Adjective able, having the power, or
quality, necessary for any specific purpose. In the
same sense of power, or ability, it is used as a ter-
mination. Sufferable, is having the quality of en-
during or of being endured, itnd durable expresses
the power of continuing to exist. It is sometimes
spelt ible, as, risible, perfectible, &c.
In treating of Pronouns we noticed the gradation
of their changes among different Nations, as the St &.
Latin ille, the French /'/, and the German <?r, which
apply to the Adjective terminations last mentioned.
We particularly marked the Greek **< and the
Latin que, through their several gradations ; and
we find them again in the formation of Adjectives.
Almost all known languages have a similar affix,
added to Nouns, to express being of the like qua-
lity or kind. The Greek ichos, the Latin icus, the
French ique, the German and Saxon ig, isch, and
isc, and the English ic, ick, ich, and ish, have all the
same signification; and denote that the thing to
which such an Adjective is applied is of that kind,
tribe, or division of things, which the Noun deno-
minates. " Both the Tartars and Indians, when
" they mean to speak of a people as to their tribe,
or nation, compound their name with the word
ach, ack, acha, or aga, or such sounds varied by
European pronunciation, as Cossacks, Calmucks,
F 3 Crossaqui,
O INTRODUCTION TO AN
<c Crossaqui, Permiki, &c. Ach, in Welch and
" Irish, signifies tribe, race, or people V ,
ic, id, or The orthography of this termination is various in
and'/**/. ' the English language. Rustic, from the Latin rus,
the country, or fields without the city, denotes of
the country kind, or belonging to those who inha-
bit the country. Politic is belonging to polity, or
government, from the Greek *his, polls, a city,
which was the general extent of the governments
of Greece., The termination ic also forms Nouns,
and particularly the Names appropriated to Arts
and Sciences, as Arithmetic, Logic, &c. Formerly
a k was added, as, rustick, politick, Arithmetic!?,
&c. but this is now in disuse. The French spelling
ique was also common about a century ago, and we
still retain some words in ique and esque^ immedi-
ately derived from that language, such as antique,
picturesque, grotesque, &e. The addition ical, is
al and ic. When words in ic are used Substan-
tively, as Politics or Arithmetic, the Adjective is
Political, Arithmetical, &c.
ftH and ti>. The soft sound of this termination forms our ish
and ichy as, in Scottish, or Scotch, Irish, Welch,
boorish, &c. The ch is compounded with who and
so in the Pronouns which and such, which signify
who kind and so kind ; who it, and so it. So great,
is that great / such greatness, is that kind of great-
u ess. Which is who, or what, of the class, or
tribe.
* FOWNAL.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 81
Jtribe, and was anciently <whilk 9 or quhilk. Ilk in
Saxon signifies the same. It is the Latin idem, and
probably from illlc, an old synonyme of ille. There
is a verbal contradiction in our expressions of simi-
litude. A thing may be of the same kind with
another, but cannot be the it or the same ; in such
a case, only one thing could exist, there could be
no comparison. Our like is the Saxon ilk, with
more propriety of usage. The latter is same, and
the former similar. Which has the compounds
whichever and whichsoever.
By the common transposition of g into y, the
8axon myrig, dreorig, &c. have become merry,
dreary, &c. and express the quality belonging to
mirth, solitude, or any thing else to which the affix
may be applied. It is a different spelling of ic, ich,
or ish. Watery is synonymous with waterish, and
even was formerly everlch. Any is one of the vi <* e
number, from an, one, and, being limited, may be
whatever one we please. Each js one of the col-
lection -, but it is not any one, but every one. It is
equivalent to the Saxon elk, and the Scotch ilk, and -
does not differ from ilk, as above-explained, sig^
nifying the same or alike. Names of Sciences
are also, in some cases, terminated by y, as in
others by ic. The Romans had ia and the old
English ie. Geometria in Latin was formerly with
us Geometrie, and now Geometry. All words in ig
were written with ie before they assumed the y ;
and
, 82 INTRODUCTION TO AN
and it is hence that they form their plurals in ies,
as valley, vallies, worthy ', worthies, &c.
of / y , /^r, From the same change of consonants, the ancient
affix lig, Ilk, or lick, signifying like, has been soft-
ened into ly ; which, when added to Adjectives,
forms Adverbs expressive of something's being
done like what the Adjective denotes. Thus,
wisely is wise/ike ; foolishly is foolishlike, and so of
others. Ly added to Substantives forms Adjectives
of similarity, as Godly, lovely, and manly : This last
is also spelt with like, as manlike ; and we have
warlike and several others with the same termina-
tion. Ably is compounded of able and ly, and has
the power of able-like, in capably, creditably, prob-
ably, &c.
of ary, ery, The affix #ry ( sometimes ery and cry,) was once
and ory. J /
arig, and is formed by adding ig, expressive of
sort or kind, to Adjectives in ar, er, and or. Thus
lunar is belonging to the moon, from the Latin
luna ; and lunary is of the lunar kind. . These
Adjectives are also used as Nouns. When Adjec-
tives are "considered Substantively, they have often
a general, or collective signification, as righteous, is
having a right manner or conduct, but the righteous
includes the whole collection of righteous persons ;
because the Adjective is left indefinite, not being
followed by a Noun, This collective signification
is particularly obvious in Adjectives in y and ary,
from the import of ig or ic* The merry are all the
merry
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY, S3
merry people. The auditory is the audience or col-
lection of hearers. It is by an easy transition,
that, what expresses the whole aggregate of things
should also denominate the place where they are to
be found. It is hence that auditory is, likewise,
used for the house where the hearers are collected.
Granary is a magazine of grain ; dictionary a book
of words ; brewery , the houses where the trade of
brewing is carried on ; and coopery is the working
shops of a cooper. In thus denoting the place oc-
cupied by a manufacture, a collection of workmen is
always supposed ; and, accordingly, we do not find
that such designations are well applied to the house
of a solitary artizan.
To be of the nature or kind of another admits of of dlmiou
tivea in itk.
degree. Sweetish and waterish express, of the na-
ture of sweet and of water , but the extent of the
water , or sweetness ', is indefinite. It maybe of the
sweet kind, however slight the connection. Hence
many such terminations have the force of diminu-
tives, 'and thus sweetish and waterish denote the
possession of these qualities in a small degree. In
like manner y is a diminutive in the Scotch dialect*
Manny is a little man, and housey a little house.
Beside the partial use of ish above-mentioned, #& ******
,,- t&,andfW
we have some other diminutive terminations. The
Latin uhts and culus originate our u!e 9 ulous, and
cle^ forming words that have littleness m their na-
ture. Thus, we have particle, a small part ; article ,
3. tittle joint ; module ', schedule , potfule, and others.
Ulous
84 INTRODUCTION TO AN
Vide ous. U/ous is ous added to the diminutive ule, as in scro*
phulous, tremulous, ridiculous, &c. The Latin culus
in some words took the form of unculus, as homun-
culus, a little man ; and the Saxons had the dimi-
nutive incle, from which a few of our words are
derived.
Ki^ fad, From the German kind, a child, is formed the
lingy and ,. . . .. 7 77-
#/,j diminutive termination km, as lambkin, a young
lamb ; bodkin, a small body, &c. ; and those in ock 9
by corruption, as hillock from hitlikin. Kin, kind,
and kindred, are derived from the same source.
They signify, of the same family children of the
same parents. Kindlich, the German etymon of
our kindly, denotesji/ial affection. Kin, or kind, is
merely a northern pronunciation of the Greek yv>*$
and the Latin genus. The German klein, little, ,or
small, and the Saxon hl#ne 9 or Jane, lean, or slen-
der, allude to the sjate of a child. Ling as a ter-
mination is either a dimjnutive, as /////?, or descrip-
tive of family, as kind. Hence we have darling, or
dearling, frstling, foundling, gos'ing, &c, Some of
these have a caressive signification, by recalling to
our minds the simplicity of childhood. If, howe-
ver, we look at this state from another point of
view, it will present an object with no will of its
own, but completely under the power of another.
The affix ling is, therefore, often expressive of con-
tempt, as applied to slavish dispositions and situa-
tions, such as worldling, hireling, &c. This allur
sicn is common to every language, and worldling is
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. g.5
not a more peculiar idiom than " children of the
<c world." Let for little is also a diminutive ter-
mination in the words circlet, hamlet, streamlet, &c.
The Italians have ino, etto, elk, for diminutive */, *,
affixes of the masculine gender, and ma, etta, ella,
for the feminine, which include the ideas of kind-
ness and tenderness, associated with smallness
of size. A few of these have been transplanted
into this country ; for instance, from dama, a lady,
is formed damigella, a young or pretty lady ; the
French madamoiselle, and our damsel. The elk and
ella are evidently compounded from the Pronouns
k and la, he and she. The others appear to be
corrupted from ink, inla, etk, and etla, and con-
sequently in, et* and el, are the Italian diminutives.
Ine is adopted in bulletine and a few other words.
Et is more common, as, bullet from ball, -floweret
from flower, &c. The French have ette, which, as
in the word etiquette, is in some cases transferred
into our language without change.
Certain additions, indicative of bulk, or quantity,
have been termed augmentatives. The Italian ter- oortt
mination one, signifying large or great, is the origin
of our wn, which is found in words derived from
that language. Thus, from sola, a parlour, we
have saloon, a large parlour ; from ball, balloon ;
from font, (a bridge,) pontoon, &c.
The Latin Article us, applied to Adjectives, be-
comes a definitive of quality, expressing the kind, a
or manner, pf the root to which it is annexed. In
English
tatives m
S6 INTRODUCTION TO AN
English it is rendered ous 9 as hi captious, dextrous^
&c. The Article, like the Substantive Verb, ex-
presses existence ; and, when added to a word, de-
notes an existence such as that word describes.
From the Saxon wisan, to be, was formed wise,
signifying manner of being or acting, and mode, or
manner in general. W is interchangeable with
g, as war d with guard, guile with wile, &c. ; and
wise is equivalent to guise, which indicates manner
in general, and particularly in dress or appearance.
Wise now seldom appears, except in composi-
tion, but in old writings it was generally used.
" The birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise,"
states the manner of the birth of Christ. As an
affix we have otherwise, in another manner ; like-
wise in like manner, &c. Words now termin-
ating in ous were formerly written with wise, as
rightwise for righteous. Between eous. and wise
there is no distinction : So and ous are synony-
mous. The Noun ways is also an affix, and dif-
fers from wise as the plural from the singular.
Always was formerly allgates.
Adverts Until of late a distinction was made between cer-
tain Adjectives and Adverbs by the affix s. Thus
backward was the quality of a Noun, and backwards
the manner of an action. Afterward and after-
wards, forward and forwards, &c. were formed in
the same manner ; and the modern practice of
dropping the s seems to have been adopted without
a sufficient reason, from not attending to its signi-
fication 4
ai s.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 8?
fication, which is equivalent to ous, or wise, as
above explained. Such a corruption might natu-
rally have happened ; for, backwardous has a great
tendency, in the pronunciation, to contract its final
syllable ; and backward-wise, or in a backward
?nanner, is evidently its explanation. The place of
this, and some other Adjectives of the same class,
is supplied by the termination ly, as backwardly,
forwardly, &c. but in others, such as afterwards,
where the ly "cannot be so easily applied, we seem,
by discarding the s, to lose a vocable.
The Adjective some and the Noun sum have the $<>** and
same signification, and both were formerly written s
alike, sum. The meaning is quantity in opposition
to none, from the Article so 9 as quantity is from the
Latin. Sum is the amount of things added toge-
ther ; some is a quantity without adverting to any
specific number. Some is used as an affix, to de-
note that what is expressed by the conjoined word
exists in a certain degree, or to a certain extent :
Thus, wearisome implies a degree of weariness, in
opposition to unwearying; and burthensome is a
quantity of weight. That sum, or some, literally
signifies quantity, may be illustrated from a mode
of writing once very common. " He went some
" twenty miles." " He gave him some twelve
" pounds," &c. If, in these phrases, the word
quantity be substituted for some, or even if the
spelling be altered to sum, the meaning of either
will be apparent* When some is applied to magni-
tude,
SS INTRODUCTION TO
tude, it may be great or small ; when applied t&
number, it may be one or many. Nothing and
something are directly the reverse of fcne another,
and existence of any kind is sufficient to mark the
contrast. Like to this is the Latin Verb sum, I am,
or I exist, that is, I have a substance or standing.
Summum was the amount or quantity of existence ;
and, figuratively, the top, or height, of any thing,
like our word summit.
Full) the past Participle of the Verb to fill, signi-
fies that state of a vessel when it can contain no
more ; and it is figuratively applied to the mind, or
any mode of existence, to state that it is saturated,
or completely^Zfo/ with what we mention. When
affixed to Nouns it forms Adjectives, denoting/?//-
ness of what the Noun specifies ; and, in this use,
it is now spelt with only one /, though it formerly
. had two. Thus bountiful, is full of bounty, merciful
is full of mercy, and so of others.
Lett. From the Anglo-Saxon lesan, to dismiss, comes
our to lessen, to make less or diminish. Less is an
Adjective signifying that a part is dismissed, or put
away, from the original mass. Instead of com-
paring it with what it was in its original state, it is
sometimes appreciated with respect to things of a
similar kind. Thus we say, " This is /ess than
" that, figuratively asserting, that this must have
been lessened so as to prevent its being equal to
that. Less is therefore the same with want. It
has been applied to Nouns to form Adjectives
expressing
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY.
expressing the want or dismissal of what the Noun
signifies. Motionless is the want of motion, and
deathless is the dismissal, or the quality of not being
subject to death*
When speaking of an action's being performed,
in a general sense, whoever may be the agent, dif- termination
ferent nations have different phraseologies. The
English say " a person, or a man, may do this or
" that/' or " somebody has done it." The Ger-
mans use the word man, as the general agent, andt
the French on, which is a different spelling of un,
one. Of late we have adopted the Gallic idiom,
and instead of a person, or a man, we say " one
"may do so;" " one cannot help being angry
" when one is used ill," &c. One is here in place
of a Substantive, and may be resolved by supply-
ing the word man, or person, which is understood.
It is this substitution or suppression of the Noun,
that has led some French Etymologists to derive on
from rhomme, a man ; and it has cost them no little
pains to trace the progress of the supposed corrup-
tion. In old French rhomme was written where
the Pronoun, or numeral, on is now used. On is
also a termination, as in the words matron^ from
the Latin mater, a mother ; patron from pater, a
father, &c. It is here a Pronoun, or Article, and
is similar to er and an, in lover, partizan, &c. as
already explained.
Those definitive terminations which mark the of a S e as
Adjective when quality is attended to, are the
G
sings
9O INTRODUCTION 1-0 AN
signs of Verbs when we allude to action. From
the Latin agere to act, we have formed the termin-
ation age, as marriage, from the French man, a
husband, is the act of marrying ; carnage is the
act of carrying, &c. Our Verbs terminating in ish,
as, publish, punish, and others, are from the same
/source, ish being the softened pronunciation of age.
The signification of these affixes is, by metaphor,
extended to the collected effect^ or 'result, as well
as to the act itself. Verbage is the mass of words ;
foliage is the collection of leaves ; atid rubbish is
tile consequence of trituration.
a ' Ate, from expressing action, has also come to
period of , 5 '
time. denominate the space of time daring which any ac-
tion is performed. Thus, we say, " the -age of
" man," " the age of the world/' "the iron age, 9 ''
&c. to deriote certain periods of existence. " He
" is thirty years of age," states that he has lived,
existed, or acted through the course of -thirty years.
Act sind age are of like origin, -and are compared by
Shakespeare, in his " seven ages of human life,**
with singular propriety. In this sense we have age,
as a termination, in nonage, pupilage, &c.
%ignify. Labour is generally mercenary, and, on that ac-
'cdiint, the affix 'age (money, price, or some equiva-
lent word being understood,) expresses the value,
dr 'sum paid for the work. Thus we have pontage,
the toll on a bridge ; wharfage, wharf money, or
wharfage money ; porterage, porter's fees ; postage,
t'he price of post letters, &c. It is thus also that
many
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 91
many words in age have twofold significations.
Cooperage is either the work or the value ; and car-
nage is both the removal of the goods and the pay-
ment of the carrier.
Many of our monosyllables in ch, ge> k, and ke 9 Se *'
are varied and contracted from age. Thus to *
stretch is to act or make strait; breach is breakage;
to catch is to seize as a cat ; to match is to mate
together ; and range is rank, or rankage. German ,
Participles, of the past tense, begin with ge 9 where
ours end with ed 9 as lehreti, to teach, and gelehrt 9
taught ; while the Saxon ge was prefixed to all the
parts of Verbs with the power of con, together, or
the figurative meaning of witb 9 signifying be 9 as af-
terwards to be noticed. We had formerly the pre-
fix y in place of the German and Saxon ge 9 and a
few of its compounds have been retained, such as
ycleped from the old word clepe 9 to call, and yclad,
a form of the past Participle of the Verb to clothe.
Some of our double Consonants, as gl 9 gn, kn, &c.
are from this source. The elision of the Vowel is
natural, and the comparison of such words with
their primitives would illustrate the assertion. Knot
and nut are of similar import ; and know is akin
to the Latin nosco 9 which was anciently gnosce.
The g 9 y 9 and w 9 being interchangeable in the
northern tongues, we have the termination ow where
the Germans, Danes, &c. have ig or ige. r Jhese
languages have morgen 9 for morrow ; sorg, or sorg 9
for sorr&iv ; talg for tallow, &c. Their termina-
G 2 tion,
INTRODUCTION TO AN
tion ig, marking Adjectives of kind, is transformed
in English into ic, y, or ow. The Danish guld, is
gold, and guul, is yellow or gold-like ; hellig is
holy, and the Verb hellige, to hallow, or make
holy \ ploug is a plough ; nage to gnaw, &c.
of lie, or Verbs are also constituted by the termination ise
ize, ism, zst,
and He. or ize, as, to methodize, to put into method, or re-
gular form y to recognize, to know again, or ac-
knowledge ; to subsidize, to engage by a subsidy;
to tyrannize, to play the tyrant, &c. where either
ise or ize is written at pleasure. These Verbs, like
those in age, are supposed to produce collections
of effects, or to form classes of action, which are
expressed by ism ; as, methodism and mechanism,
which denote the sect, and the production, of the
jnethodist, and the mechanist, or mechanic. The af-
fix ism is analogous to y, as applied to the names of
the arts and sciences. Botany would be perfectly
signified by the word botanism. The Verb and
agent are botanize and botanist. The addition ite
is synonymous with ist. Both denote one belong-
ing to the class or collection which the word desig-
nates. Favorite is one of the favoured ; and Ja-
cobite was a name formerly given to the adherents
of James the seventh, or of the Stewart family in
general. The original and common use of ite was
to denominate a person of a particular tribe or na-
tion, many examples of which may be found in the
historical part of the translation of the Bible : as,
the Gibeonltes, the Hittites, the Jebmites, &c.
Though
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 93
Though ive, like the Latin ivus, is a termination of w and
ef an active nature, it is only used to form Adjec-
tives. These express the quality of producing
what the word implies, and may always be ex-
plained by the words causing or producing. Thus,
plaintive is producing plaints, or causing to be
mournful ; incentive, is a stimulus, or cause of ac-
tion ; destructive, is causing destruction, and so of
others. On the same principle are formed our
Substantives in iff, as plaintiff, he who causes, or
originates the .complaint.
The affix ate is a variation of act, and is com- of ate, at e j,
pounded with several other terminations, forming H^atery"'
ated, acted $ at ing, acting; ation, action; ator,
actor; and atory, actory. The meaning of these
additions is obvious : Multiplication, is the action of
multiplying ; insinuator, is he who acts in an insi-
nuating manner, and so of others. The Latin
atio, the synonyme of our ation, is sometimes Eng-
lished by ace ; and from thence we have solace, &c.
From the reciprocal transmutation of / and r, el of */, or /?.
or le, is expressive of the agent of an action, and
also forms a verbal termination, in the same manner
as er which we formerly explained. Its most ge-
neral use is to denote an instrument; an inanimate,
or secondary, agent. The arm, being the part of
the human frame by which any work is generally
performed, has, in many languages, been figura-
tively used to denote the instrument by which any
thing is done. Thus we speak of the arm of
G 3 power,
94f INTRODUCTION TO AN
power, and of the secular arm. El, in the Gothic
dialects, had most probably been once synonymous
with arm : We have preserved it in ell, a measure
of an arm's length , and in elbow , the bow of the
arm. This affix, as marking the instrument, is
very common, as in shovel, from to shove ; chissel,
from to chase, or enchase ; and needle , from the
Dutch naad, a seam. Many of our monosyllables,
as flail, nail, &c. will be found of similar forma-
tion. In comparing Nouns in er with those in el,
or the agent with the instrument, a striking resem-
blance is observed. Thus, poker is either the per-
son, or the thing which pokes. In the former case
it is an agent, and in the latter an instrument. It is
from our practice of personification that this par-
tial confusion arises. We are, perpetually, raising
qualities to the rank of substances, and instruments
to -that of agents, while they are qualities alone, and
not substances, with which we are conversant ; and,
while we are uncertain that an agent, in its literal
sense, as distinguished from an instrument, exists in
the world.
Words in el are, occasionally, changed into
*/, y er jj 8j ^ ut ^jg transposition, as we have elsewhere
observed, is common to all Nouns : for, the Verb
is merely to act what the Noun describes. This
termination, however, is itself indicative of action,
and, therefore, Verbs so formed have often a fre-
quentative signification. Thus to prate is to talk
, lightly and uselessly like a child ; and to prattle, is
fc
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 9J
to fratc much, as if we should say, to continue prat-
ing. To beat may be a single stroke -, to batter and
to battle, each suppose a succession of exertions,
The idea of continued, or successive action, resides
in the force of the Verb, rather than in the termin-
ation. All words with affixes of an active kind
have this frequentative meaning, when used as
Verbs, and when their nature admits of such a
Supposition. Thus to jactitate, is to toss about ;
and to agitate, is not only to put into motion, but
to do so often, or in a great degree* The Latin
amplificative osus, anciently usus, may, in like man- Q S e,
ner, be considered as a duplicate of the terminating
Article, and expresses the Adjective in a great de-
gree. It is the origin of the English ose, as in
operate, exceedingly laborious.
The Saxon ad, or ade, signifies a mass, or heap, of <*/,*
and hence our add, to increase by putting to the a
heap. The French ade and the Spanish ado are
terminations of similar import. Many words with
these affixes are adopted in our language, and ex
press a collection, or quantity, of what the word de-
notes. Thus arcade, is a range of arches ; and
colonnade, a collection of columns. When these
terminations are joined to Verbs, they, evidently y
cannot signify number, except by metaphor ; in
supposing a continuation, or successive renewal, of
action. Cannonade is the repeated firing of cannon;
bastinado is a repetition of basting or beating with a
stick }
6 INTRODUCTION TO AN
stick ; and blockade, is a continuation of blocking?
or shutting up, a city or port. Words of this kind
which have been long in use have dropped the final
e and o, and end in ad, as, myriad and triad. In
some cases we have adopted only the foreign com-
pounds, as, from the French a?nbassade, an em-
bassy, is formed ambassadeur, and our ambas-
sador.
of dde and From the Latin cadere, to kill, we have the ter-
mination cide which is added to a few words de-
rived from that language ; such as homicide, from
homo, a man, denoting manslaughter ; and fratri-
cide, fromfrater, a brother, the killing of brethren.
The Adjective is formed by adding al, as in homi-
cidal, parricidal, &c.
" Ward is from the Saxon wardian, to look at,
" or to direct the view, and is the same word as
" the French garder, which, in a figurative or se-
" condary sense only, means to protect, to keep, to
" watch, to ward, or to guard. It is the same in
" Latin : Tutus, guarded, looked after, safe, is the
" past Participle of Tueor, Tuitus, Tutus. So
" Tutor, he who looks after. So we say either,
" Guard him well, or, Look well after him. In
" different places in England, the same agent is very
" properly called either a Looker, a Warden, a
" Warder, an Overseer, a Keeper, a Guard, or a
*' Guardian. Accordingly this word ward may
" with equal propriety be joined to the name of any
^ person.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 97
' :c person, place, or thing, to or from which our
" view or sight may be directed *." It is hence
that we have such compounds as backward, home-
ward, and heavenward, which signify in the direc-
tion of, or looking towards the back, home, and
The German art signifies species, kind, or man- of ar&
ncr ; and the Dutch aar d is used, both singly and
in composition, for nature, temperament, or disposi-
tion. The former have arten, and the latter aar den,
to resemble, particularly applied to disposition or
temper of mind. From this source we have com-
pound Nouns with the termination ard, all signify-
ing of the nature or kind, expressed by the word to
which it is joined. We have drunkard, an habitual
drinker ; sluggard, one of a slow, or lazy nature ;
and coward, a person of a timid disposition.
The heart has been generally understood to be Hearted and
the seat of the passions and dispositions of mankind,
while the head has been left in possession of the
reasoning powers. Hence we say " a clear head,"
and " a feeling heart;" and it is thus that entete
in French, and wrong/beaded in English, are expres-
sive of obstinate prepossession and folly. Hearted,
like ard, is used to form compounds denoting tem-
per, or disposition of mind, as fainthearted, hard-
hearted, lighthearted, &c. ; and it has been assert-
ed, with some show of probability, that the words
were
* DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY.
98 INTRODUCTION TO AN
were originally the same. Headed forms a sort of
counterpart, as lightheaded, wrongheaded, &c.
* n tracm g tne origin of words we often arrive #
sources very distant from what might have been
expected. Speech is almost entirely composed of
figure and metaphor. There are but few objects,
or relations, in nature with which iflarikipd are ac-
quainted ; and yet it must be solely from these fey?
that our ideas can be formed. Abstract thoughts
are the shadows of reality ; but shadows cannot
e?:ist without the substances on which they depend
The structure of language, however aerial it may
appear, is not a palace of enchantment. The ma-
terials of which it is built are taken from the pal-
pable objects around us. They are rude and com-
mon in their appearance, while the beauty and
fairy elegance of die fabric is owing to the illusions
of imagination. Things and actions, the most or-
dinary and obvious, are, in the most eminent de-
gree, stretched in their signification ; and we conv
pare the primary and consequent inearu'ngs ,pf the
term, with a portion of incredulity, when we are
told that the distinction has been produced solely
by custom and usage. Examples may be easily
adduced : To sit and to stand are common actions
of the human body, but their figurative significa-
tions are uncommonly extensive. A seat is that pa
which we sit, but it also denotes a 'villa, or country
r&idence. Situation is literally the action of sitting,
but it expresses our manner of existence, whether in
body
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 99
body or mind. The Latin status, like our state state,
and the French estat, or etat, in its first sense, is
merely a standing, or the particular posture of the
body which to stand recalls to our mind. These
words, however, signify condition of whatever kind ;
as, also, a government, and the country so governed.
When we adopt the French spelling estate, it is
used for a quantity of land in the possession of a
proprietor. The word stand is, likewise, subject
to a similar figure, and we say of an advocate, who
has had long and extensive practice, that he is of
considerable standing at the bar. Station is the
place where any thing stands ; it is, also, the rank
held in society. The Anglo-Saxon stede, and the
English steady are akin to state, and signify place.
" In their stead," is in their place. In composi-
tion, stead is both a preposition and a termination,
as .steady, steadfast ; instead, bedstead, roadstead,
&c. The inseparable Preposition step in stepfather,
stepmother, &c. is a corruption of stead or stcd.
Sted, in Danish, is place ^ or stead ; and siedfader,
stedmoder, stedbroder, equivalent to our stepfather,
stepmother, stepbrother, signify, in the place of, or
instead of a father, a mother, &c.
Similar to the word state is the termination dom. D.
It denotes condition of existence, and, also, whatever
is under the dominion, or government, of another.
Thus kingdom, is a country under the government of
a king, zndfreedom, is the state, or condition, of be-
ing free. The termination in both cases is the
same,
100 INTRODUCTION TO AN
same, and the distinction arises from the words to
which it is joined : The state of being free does
not imply a figure very different from the original
meaning of the term ; but that of a king suggests a
separate idea ; it is necessarily connected with
grandeur and with power. From the Greek demo\
I build, was formed domes, the Latin domus, and
our dome, a house. Dominus, among the Romans,
was its master ; and, by an easy transition, the
name of the habitation of a family came to signify
that of a nation* Donius was a state, or country,
and dominus, its lord. From the same root is do-
mineer, tame, &c. ; but to dwell longer on this sub-
ject would be to anticipate our future explanations,
of head, or Among all nations the head has been considered
as the principal, or directing, part of the human
body. It is hence that head is used for a leader,
or governor ; and hence, also, it denotes the chief
feature in any thought or expression. Thus, we
say, " the head of the government," and, " the
" head of an army," referring to the monarch and
the general. The heads of a discourse, are the
principal, or leading, ideas from which it is formed.
In composition it is sometimes literal and at other
times figurative. As a prefix we have heady, head-
iness, headach, &c. As a termination it is generally
j^pelt hood, and forms abstract Nouns. It denotes
the principle from which the Noun derives its ex-
istence. It is that which constitutes its essence ;
and is a general name for the state which the word
describes.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 101
describes. It is thus that we shall have to explain,
brotherhood^ childhood, knighthood, manhood, &c.
There are other terminations of the same signifi-
cation with head, which are likewise expressive of
general qualities. Chief, from the French chef, the
head, denotes a leader. 'As an Adjective it signi-
fies principal, or that which is first, and conse-
quently of most importance ; and as an affix it has
exactly the same meaning. Mischief, is very great,
or chief, or head, wrong. Kerchief, is a cover for
the head.
We have before observed, in the comparison of
languages, that there is a regular gradation from k
to sh 9 and from this variation of orthography we
have several words, which are, respectively, of sy-
nonymous origin, and differ only in the circum-
stances in which they are now applied. It is thus
that we have shake and quake ; shiver and quiver ;
short and curt ; shrink and cringe ; shy and coy, &c.
The Latin caput, the German kopf, the French
chef, the German termination schaft, the Dutch
schap, the Danish skab, the Saxon scipe, and our
ship, all signify head. In landskip or landscape, it
is used with the harder sound ; and in Scotland
this mode of pronunciation is general, as, master-
skip for mastership, heirskip for heirship, &c.
Ness is said to come from the Latin nasus, the
nose, which is the most prominent part of the face,
as the head is of the body. This derivation is not
improbable ; for the ludicrous idea which it some-
times
102 INTRODUCTION TO AN
times conveys, in modern English, is merely an
idiom of the language. But, however this may be,
the word is now used by itself solely to signify a
promontory ', or headland ; and, as an affix is equi-
valent to head, or chief. Brotherliness is used in
place of brotherlihood ; and mischief \ when further
compounded, becomes remissness.
pfr,*y, The Romans marked their Nouns of generality
tty, t ude, and
'* by tia> tas, or tudo. The first of these is formed, in
English, by ce 9 or ty, as, abundantia, becomes abun-
dance ^ and dementia^ clemency ', both expressing the
abstract state, or principle, which might otherwise
be exactly noted by abundingness *xA justness. T&s
and tudo, like the 'French iete (another name for
the head,) is Englished by //, or tiy 9 and fade. Ho~
nestay, in Latin, and bonnet etc in French, are both
translated by the word honesty, which might be well
enough ex-pressed by, hvnesthead) or honestncss. Ty
is a substitute for tith, y and th being interchange-
able, as before-mentioned ; and many words in ty
-were formerly terminated with tith. Povrtitf} is
still used in Scotland for poverty ; and in old law
writings, -widuifie signified widowhood. Vrrginity
and maidenhead are synonymous. Titb and tude
have an evident fraternity, and consequently words
in tude. are of the same class with those above-men-
tioned. They generally come immediately from
the Latin ludo ; as, ampltiudo^ amplitude, ample-
ness 'or greatness ; and muhltudo* multitude, or
manyness. Occ'i^ionally the d in tude is sup-
pressed,
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 103
pressed, as in virtue, from vir, Latin, a mm, ori-
ginally signifying manhood, and figuratively cou-
rage, whkh was the first of virtues among the Ro-
mans. Tith, abbreviated into th, forms the con-
cluding letters of many of our monosyllables ; and
adds the principle of abstraction to the words to
which it is joined. Hence we have sloth, slowness ;
mirth, merriness ; length, longness, or longitude,
with many others : all of which may be explained
in the same manner as words in tude, ty, head,
ship, or ness. Words in t'h were formerly in many
cases terminated l m >the, and those in ch in che.
Birth, death ; such and which, were spelt blrthe,
defhe ; socbe and whiche : and on our principles
this orthography must have been more consonant
with etymology. The final e was once exceedingly
general, though now nearly discarded from the lan-
guage. It had originally been vocal ; and, in a
certain stage of our literature, the Poets seem to
have either suppressed its sound, or formed it into
an additional syllable, as best suited their ideas of
the harmony of verse. " Chaucer preserves or
" sinks the sound of his syllables arbitrarily, to
" suit his own convenience ; the reader is fre-
" quently unable at a glance to discover his scheme
" of harmony, and it is extremely difficult to <Jo
" justice to his versification in the act of reading
" his poetry aloud to an auditor V
The terms in which we would signify the rela- Arc*,.
tions
* GODWIN'S LIFE OF CHAUCER.
104 INTRODUCTION TO AN
tions of society must be borrowed from the situation^
either as to time or place, of the commoij objects
around us; and here priority is a distinguished
emblem of eminence. Arch, from the Greek
archon, a prince, or governor, was formerly used,
by English writers, for a chief, or leader, in which
sense it is to be found in Shakespeare. It is now
in use only as an Adjective and in composition.
We have arch rogue, a principal or great rogue ;
archangel, a chief angel ; and archbishop, the head,
or chief, bishop, who presides over a number of
others. This word originally denoted priority, in
point of time, the Greek arche signifying begin-
ning, and, figuratively, principal, or chief, following
the same rule with the Latin principium. It is in
this sense that it appears in archetype. As a ter-
, mination it signifies a governor, and compounded
with y it forms archy, government. From the
Greek monos, single, we have monarch, one who
governs alone, and, from a privative we have
anarchy, the absence of all government,
and The Latin facere, to make, originates several of
our terminations. Fy, is make, and faction, the ac-
tion ^of making. From thence we have to deify,
to make one a God ; to fructify, to make or
to produce fruit ; and to purify, to make pure.
From these again, are formed deification, fructifies*
tion and purification, expressing the action of the dif-
ferent Verbs. The termination fy is variously com-
pounded with others, as, ic, ntory, &c. active,
forming
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 10.7
forming fa, Jicatory, faative, &c. whose powers
may be easily ascertained by comparing their
different parts with the explanations already given.
Thus prolific, from proles, Latin, a race, or pro-
geny, indicates that what we mention possesses
the property of producing, or is of a generating
kind.
There are other terminations from facere, as,
>,.-,,. , r 11* tions which
feft, fit, ficient, &c. but these form the basis* or f6rm ^
principal part, of the compounds in which they are
found, and, therefore, the proper place for their ex-
amination will be the Dictionary. The same ob-
servation may be made with regard to many other
affixes, as ply, pie, or ble, a fold, in the words sim-
ple, double, comply, reply, -&c. ; tract, from the
Latin t rah ere, to draw, in contract, extract, retract,
&c. ; pose, sent, sign, spire, tain, tend, and many
others, which will be noticed as they occur. Pre-
suming, therefore, that we have sufficiently dis-
cussed all that are necessary for our present pur-
pose, we shall proceed to the investigation of those
syllables that are used as Prefixes or Prepositions.
A few of these have been already noticed, having
naturally presented themselves when treating of the
terminal affixes.
Every sentence, containing an agent and an ac-
tion, is complete ; but there are, always, accessory
circumstances which may or may not be attended
to : The result, or effect, may be specified, which
is either a Noun, or a Pronoun in the Accusative
H case
106 INTRODUCTION TO AN
case ; the manner of the performance may be stat-
ed, by an Adverb ; and the qualities of the Nouns
may be marked, by Adjectives. Besides, every
exertion, or ffang, must stand at a certain point, and
occupy a particular portion, of space, which can
only be defined by referring to the place occupied
by objects already known. Words that express
the situation of one Noun with respect to another
have been termed Prepositions ; and, though used
to denote general relations, must originally have
been the names of objects or of actions. The ex-
pression of situation is their distinguishing charac-
teristic ; and, as this is only observable from the
conjunction, or from the degree of the separation
of things, it is on comparison alone that their being
depends. We say that one thing is in or out ; be-
fore or after ; on or off ;. to or from; on this side or
on that, of another ; and such words and phrases
are what Grammarians have called Prepositions,
Their name suggests no idea of their nature. The
Latin derivation from pra, before-, and positus, set
or placed, might, in our language, be equally well
applied to Adjectives ; for they, too, are placed be~
fore Nouns. The order of arrangement is differ-
ent among different nations. The Adjectives in
French, and the Prepositions in Turkish and Hun-
garian, seldom precede, but generally follow, the
Substantives with \vhich they are connected in
construction.
Ii*
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 10?
In the Greek, Latin, and other languages which
have declensions from their Nouns, Prepositions p rep osi-
are said to govern, respectively, one or other of the
cases ; and, in English, when followed by a Pro-
noun, it is usually in the objective state. This go-
vernment which one word exercises over another is
not real but figurative ; and the misapprehensions of
certain Etymologists, in a similar case, is well
(though rather forcibly) illustrated by Mr Tooke.
" These Gentlemen," says he, " seem to think
" that translation is explanation. Nor have they
" ever yet ventured to ask themselves, what they
" mean ; when they say that any word comes from,
" is derived from, produced from, originates from,
" or gives birth to, any other word. Their igno-
u ranee and idleness make them contented with
" this vague and misapplied metaphorical lan-
guage." They do not " consider that words
have no loco-motive faculty, that they do not flow
like rivers, nor vegetate like plants, nor speculate
like salts, nor are generated like animals ;"
and yet, until they can get rid of these metaphors
" from their minds, they will not themselves be fit
" for etymology > nor furnish any etymology fit for
" reasonable men *." The Case of a Noun does
not depend upon the preceding Verb or Preposi-
. tion. The governing and the governed are collateral
and corresponding effects x)f the same cause the
II 2 state
* DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY,
tions,
"
"
108 INTRODUCTION TO AH
state of the different objects in the mind of the
tvriter. When a Substantive is the agent of an ac-
tion, it is announced by its name, or Nominative.
In every other state it must be attended by words
that express its situation. These when separate are
termed Prepositions, and when added to the Noun
they form Declensions. When we say, " John-
" went after him," it is not because it follows the
word after that the Pronoun is in the Accusative,
but because the person represented by the word
him is not considered as an actor in the sentence ;
otherwise we should say, cc John went after he
" went," making two assertions in place of one.
Verbs and Prepositions are the pictures, but not the
energies themselves ; and whatever authority they
may be supposed to acquire over the modifications
of Nouns, must be derived, by delegation, from
their prototypes in Nature. Words impressed upon
the page are like figures on the canvas. We see
mountains and plains, seas and rivers, woods and
lawns, diversified at the pleasure of the painter ;
but the individuals of the groupe exist independent
on one another. The waving foliage of the tree
may be reflected from the stream, but it contains
no dryad to hang, at will, its branches over the
brink ; it is passive in the hands of a superior
power.
It is repeated concurrence that leads to the com-
e e8f bination of the elementary syllables of words, and
constitutes in one vocable what had originally .been
two.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 109
two. Prepositions are so generally attendant on
Nouns that the separation is gradually disregarded ;
and, accordingly, they form the far greater part of
the Prefixes of the English tongue. It is hence
that we have income, ourgoings, EEfo^Ementioned,
AFTERmentioned, &c. besides a numerous class
adopted from the Prepositions of other nations. To
exhibit the force and effect of these various Pre-
fixes is our present object :
Motion proceeds by beginning at one point and
ending at another. " A stone falls," but there is
a place where it began to fall, and there is another
where it will stop. These places are denominated
by Nouns, but some qualification must necessarily
be adjected to denote the use to which they are ap-
plied : " the stone falls, beginning at the window
46 and ending at the ground." Words synonymous
with beginning and end, when speaking of the place,
or time, of action, must therefore be frequently
employed. They point out certain relations, or si-
tuations, of the agent, and consequently they come
under the class of Prepositions. In Eng\ish,fro?u
and to are, in the sense we have mentioned, equi-
valent to -beginning and end. " The stone falls from
" the window to the ground." The origin of these
Particles has already been investigated. FROM is
beginning, author, or source. To is the cnJ 9 or
completion, of an action. From and to may be used
where there has been no progression, as, " the
" lamp hangs FROM the cieiing," and " the grease
H 3 sticks
HO INTRODUCTION TO AN
" sticks TO the floor." In the former case, the
deling is the place where the attachment com-
mences ; and, in the latter, the floor is the place on
which the grease has fallen, and to which it adheres.
From is, in some cases, synonymous with cause, as,
" he loved from habit." This is merely a different
view of the word, as denoting origin, or source. His
love arose or began at habit, habit was the source,
or cause, of his love.
, at>, Alpha, the name of the first letter of the Greek
and abs. A
Alphabet, and answering to our A, was figuratively
used to express first or beginning. From hence,
most probably, is the Greek apo, forming the con-
tracted aspirate aph* and the Latin a, ah, or abs ;
all, whether single or in composition, exactly cor-
responding with our from. Compounds from these
Prepositions have, with slight variation, been trans-
ferred to the English language : Apostle, front
apo and the Greek steJlo, I send, signifies a messen*
ger, or one sent from another ; apocalypse, from
\/ kalypto, I hide, is hidden from ; and apostate is one
who stands away/r^^, or has left, a particular sect,
or opinion. A, ab, or abs, vary with the initials of
the words to which they are joined. Ab is written
before a vowel, abs before c or t, and a before
every other consonant. To abstain is to hold from;
to abstract is to draw from; to avert is to turn from;
and to absolve is to free from : compounded from
the Latin Verbs tenere, to hold ; trahere, to draw ;
vertere, to turn ; and sofoere, to free, or loosen.
It
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. Ill
It is evident that what have been termed insepa- A,
rable Prepositions modify the words to which they
are joined, only by a reference to other words in
the sentence. To abstract, to draw from, must
point by its Preposition to some object from whence
the thing drawn had its origin. If this source, or
FROM, be not expressed, the compound is left inde-
finite, and denotes the action in general. A, ab,
or abs, is usually prefixed to Verbs or their deriva-
tives, and in such situations will naturally suggest
the idea of separation, or distance, which the Pre-
position alone does by no means represent. In this
view it is, in some cases, united to Nouns and qua-
lities, marking the thing which proceeds, or is taken
away from something else. The Greek a had this
privative power. B^, bythos, signifies a bottojn.
The Ionic dialect changed the th into ss, and hence,
with a privative, was formed A/s^s-a,-, Abyssos, want-
ing a bottom, the origin of our Abyss. The Latin
synonyme is profundum, fromfundus, a bottom, or
foundation, and fro, before, metaphorically away
from, or distant. To avoid the hiatus the Greeks
interposed an n between succeeding vowels, and it
is therefore that a become.s an in anarchy, &c.
The Latin ad is allied to to as ab is to from. The
words are opposed to one another. Ab, and from,
are the origin or beginning. Ad, (at,} and to, are
the effect, result, or end. In composition the d in
ad is often exchanged for a duplicate of the follow-
ing letter, and the prefix becomes ac, of, ag, al,
an,
112 INTRODUCTION TO AN
an, apt ar, as, or at, as in accord? affront, aggres-
sion, &c. The explanation of words in ad will be
obvious from attending to our account of ab ; for
the remarks on the composition of the latter are, in
some degree, applicable to all the other Preposi-
tions. To adjoin is to join to ; to adhere is to stick
to; to adduce is to bring to, &c.
The Latin Preposition de is synonymous with
our ^already mentioned. Ab is beginning. De is
separation ; a part taken from a whole, making
that off, or separate, which was formerly on, or one
with the whole mass. On is complete junction,
forming a union between the primary substance
and that which is brought to it. Upon is a species
of on. It is on. the upper side. Ab and de, from
and of, may be often substituted respectively for
one another. " I lifted the stone from the ground/*
and " I lifted the stone off the ground," are equally
expressive of the action 5 but from states where the
stone was when I began to lift it, and ^'directs us
to the substance from which it was separated. " I
" lifted the stone fro?n the ground into }he wag-
" gon" " I lifted it off the ground on which it was
" laid." The Latins had " toilers de terra," or,
" t oiler e a terra" to raise off or from, the ground,
as the different views directed. De is in every case
synonymous with off. By figure it signifies about,
concerning, after, &c. and in French it is the sign of
the genitive of something belonging to, or sprung
from, another. It is in composition only that de
appears
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 113
appears in English, having been transferred with its
compounds from the Latin. From what we have
already said, its meaning will be obvious. It ex-
presses being off 9 or awayfrom 9 something to which
the word refers, or from what the word itself simply
denotes. The latter has been termed its privative
power ; and, as we illustrated in the cases of In and
un, it must sometimes undo what has been done :
To debar is to bar from^ or to separate ; to decamp
is to change one's camp or residence ; to decompose
(the opposite of compose) is to resolve into its consti-
tuent parts ; to decrease (the reverse of growth) is
to . uixgrow, or to grow less \- to despair , from
spero 9 I hope, is to want hope, and so of others.
The inseparable Preposition dls (di before certain
consonants) was probably derived by the Romans
from the Greek dis 9 twice. It denotes that a thing
once whole, or compounded^ is now divided^ or sepa~
rated ; and, in as far as its usage is extended, it is
equivalent to de 9 with which, perhaps, it has a com-
mon origin. The Etymologies of on from one and
of dis from two are completely analogous. Dis 9 or
di' 9 is a very general Englisji Prefix. To divide is
to separate so as the parts may be observed, from
the Latin videre^ to see ; to disconcert is to separate
those who had concerted together ; and to dismantle
is to take off' the mantle with which a thing is co-
vered. Dls sometimes drops the s and assumes
the initial consonant of the word to which it is
joined: as, different., literally set asunder, from
the
114 INTRODUCTION TO AN
the Latin fero, I carry; and to diffuse, to spread
abroad, fromfustts, poured out.
The Latin prefix se may be accurately Englished
by the words off] away from , aside, or apart. From
the Latin cedere, to yield, or give place to, we have
to secede, to depart, to go aside or away from any
thing with which we were formerly connected; to
seduce is to lead astray, from ducere, to lead ; and
to select, from legere, to gather, is to chuse out from
a number.
Compoundiug se with mi (the root of the Greek
mesos, the Latin medius, the French mi, and
our middle, all of the same signification) the La-
tins formed semi, the half; literally, one of the di-
visions of any thing divided in the middle. Semi
was much used in composition, and from thence
we have such words as semicircle, half of a circle,
and semi-metal, a half metal, that is ? imperfect, hav-
ing but half the qualities of a metal, Half is also
used in the latter sense ; and, when a thing is not
well or completely performed, we say it is done by
halves, or only half done. De and se being similar,
we have demi, equivalent to semi, a half. Hence
we have demigod, half huinan, half divine, with
some others. We have also a few words in hemi,
a Greek inseparable Preposition of the same force
as semi and demi. Hemisphere is half of a sphere,
and hemistich the half of a verse,
Numerals Numerals irom their general occurrence, often
m*rjc of become prefixes, and compounds from the Greek
quantity. an( J
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 115
and Latin languages are adopted with the original
expression of quantity. We shall notice the most
common, with an instance of the application of
each. Some of these are seldom used ; but they
may be deemed worthy of attention, because scien-
tific writers have assumed the liberty of encreasing
their compounds at pleasure :
Mono and uni are from the Greek pw and the
Latin unus, one : Monotony is sameness of tone, and
uniform is of one form. Bi, or bis, is from the La*
tin bis, twice ; as biped, one who has two feet. Tre,
or tri, is from the Greek rgi/$ and the Latin tres,
three ; as in triangle, a figure with three angles.
Tetra is the Greek Tsrteg*, four. Tetrachord is a
musical instrument with four strings. Quadri, or
quadru, is from the Latin quatuor, four ; as in qua-
druple, fourfold. Pent is the Greek **&, five :
Pentagon, from yw, gonla, an angle, denotes a
figure having five angles. Quinque and quintu are
the Latin qulnque, five, and quintus, the fifth.
Quinquennial is consisting of five years, and
quintuple is fivefold. Hex is the Greek f ef, six,
as in hexameter, the denomination for a verse
of six feet ; and sex is Latin for six, as in sextant,
containing a sixth part of a whole, as of a circle,
&c. Hepl and sept are from the Greek V7* and
the Latin septem, seven : Heptarchy is a name for
the seven Saxon Governments of England, and
September was the seventh month of the Roman
year. Octa or Octo, is from the Greek **> and the
Latin
116 INTRODUCTION TO AN
Latin octo, eight ; and hence we have octahedron,
(compounded from c s^*, abase or seat,) a solid hav-
ing eight sides. Deca and decem are from the Greek
&x* and the Latin decem, ten : Decade is a collection
of ten, as ten days, ten weeks, &c. and to decimate
is to take "the tenth part. Cent, from the Latin
centum, a hundred, forms centennial, belonging to a
hundred years ; and millennium comes from mille, a
thousand. Pan, from the Greek *, and omni
from the Latin omnis, all, or every, appear in pan-
demonium, the palace of all the demons, and omni-
potent, all-powerful. Poly is from the Greek AV?
and multi from the Latin mult us, many. Polygamy,
from y/"6, gameo, I marry, is many marriages, and
multiform is having many shapes or forms. Holo
is from '*<>;, whole, as in holocaust, (from *<, I
burn,) a sacrifice in which every part of the victim
was consumed. Soli is from the Latin solus, alone ;
and hence soliloquy (from loquor, I speak,) is a dis-
course which a person utters when alone. Magna
in Latin is great, and the Greek micro. (^<*g0 is
small. Magnanimous is haying a great mind, and
micrometer is a measurer of small spaces.
On the supposition of the motion of a body its
course may be marked by describing the medium,
or substance, through which it passes. Words
expressing this relation must state that one body
divides, cuts, or separates another ; or that it passes
through an opening already made. Through, thro',
or thorough, is the Saxon thruh and tburuh, the
same
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. II?
same with thure, thura^ or durd 9 at door ; or passage.
The Dutch use door equally for the Noun and the
Preposition. The Greek dia (probably from dis)
signifies passage from one end of a space or period
to the other. Words formed with this prefix are
directly from that language, and are generally con-
fined to scientific terms. Thus diameter is the mea-
sure across or through any thing : The diameter of
a circle is the measure of its breadth. The Latin
per is from the Greek $, peiro, to perforate or
pass through, the equivalent and origin of our Verb
to piene. As a prefix it marks, literally, passage
through any medium, and, figuratively, through
what means any action is accomplished. In the
latter sense it answers to our by. Per, being from
one end to the other, also denotes the completion of
an action, and to say that a thing is perfected is the
same as if we should say that it is thoroughly made.
This use is very general in composition From the
Latin suadere, to advise, we have to persuade, to
advise with effect, or to convince ; and in its primi-
tive sense we have to perish, from the Latin perire
($er, through, and ire 9 to go) to go through or to
disappear, and figuratively to die.
In the Preposition trans the Latins attended only <r rant
to the circumstance of passing away from, one place
or state to another. Though this passage might
have been made across a river, or over a mountain,
yet there was no necessary allusion to the medium
through which it was directed^ as is included in the
word
118 INTRODUCTION TO AN
word per. It is therefore Englished by over, be-
yond, on the other side, &c* Transmarine is over
the sea ; to transplant is to move a plant from one
place to another ; and to transpose is to put away to
another or opposite place. In many compounds
trans is equivalent to per and through, because the
body through which the other moves is brought
into view. Translucent and transparent are the re-
spective qualities of allowing the light and other ob-
jects to pass through. In composition before cer-
tain consonants it is contracted into tra, as tradition,
trajectfon, &c. When trans is applied to words
where removal refers to appearance, and not to dis-
tance, it induces the idea of change : Thus to trans-
form is to change the form, and transfiguration is
the change of figure. The same idea is expressed
by the Greek met a, in the composition of words.
Metamorphosis, from, ^?<r/ ff , morphosis, a form, is
the change of form, and metaphor, from f Eg*, phero,
I bring, is equivalent to the Latin translatio ; and
signifies that a v/ord is translated, or changed, from
its proper acceptation to another -which is figu-
rative.
jte ami red. Though we do not find the word used except in
composition, yet it is probable that the Latin re had
originally signified fhe back. From the same source
we have rear (and the French arriere, &c.), the back
or hinder part, generally applied to the last division
of a fleet or army. To rein is to keep back ; to rest
is to remain or stay behind; and restive is backward.
When
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 119
When back is applied to action, it may, by an easy
metaphor, signify again. To go back, or in the di-
rection of the back, is to go again over the same
course. To give back any thing is to return it, or
give it again. It is in this sense that the Preposition
re was generally used by the Latins, though its pri-
mary signification, back, was more attended to than
is commonly imagined. 4( Reponere, for example,
" (from ponere, to place) is either to put AGAIN
" with reference to time, or to put BACK in a retired
u part with reference to place. Recludere (from
" cludere, to shut), is to open, because it reverses by
" a traversing of the same place, or a repetition (or
" going back} of a similar process, the action of
" shutting *." Our word recluse presents another
figure of the particle re. It signifies shut up in a
retired place, as if back* or away from observation.
To repose, from the Latin pone re, has also the varied
senses which we have given to the Preposition re
It signifies to place again or to replace, and also to
keep back, or to lay up in reserve, in a private situa-
tion. These different significations of re are com-
mon in the composition of English words. We
have to repel, (from the Latin pel/ere, to drive,) to
beat back ; to return, to turn back ; and to recoil, to
fall back with rapidity and fear, shrinking into a
smaller space like the coil of a rope. Recondite, from
the Latin condere, to hide, is secre't, or hidden in a
place, back or remote from view. Remote is a form
of
* GILBERT WAKEFIELD.
120 INTRODUCTION TO AN
of the past Participle removed. To remove is literally
to move back or away : It has also the figurative
meaning, to move again. To rehear is to hear again ;
to remake is to make anevJ ; and to remount is to
mount another time. Re when placed before
vowels is often followed by a d to avoid the hiatus,
in the same manner that the French interpose a t
between Verbs ending in a vowel and the initial
vowel of the following word, and write aima-t-il for
alma /'/. From this mode of orthography we have
stich words as redundant^ flowing over or back
again, from the Latin unda, a w r ave ;. and to redeem,
to purchase back, from emere, to buy.
Retro. Re has been usually considered as an abbreviation
of retro. The latter however is more probably
a compound of the former with tram. Its power
in the Latin language^ both singly and in composi-
tion, is favourable to this etymology ; and it evi-
dently is analogous to contra and extra afterwards
to be explained. With respect to place it signifies
back from, and with regard to time it denotes a pe-
riod that is past. Including tram in its meaning^
it speaks of a place or time at a certain distance. It
is in the direction of back, but it is also beyond*
The few words which we have with this prefix will
be evident; for instance retrospection, from the La-*
tin spectare, to view, is the view .of our past actions ;
for it is seldom applied in its literal sense, as the
looking back upon the path which we have travelled
over.
The
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 121
The Greek ana, in composition, is equivalent to Ana -
re. An anachronism, (From # time,) is an error
in the computation of dates by which an event is
placed further back, or earlier than it happened ;
things analogous, (from Aoy<s ? , a speech or dis-
course,) are such as we may speak of or define in
the same manner, such as may be. explained by
using again the same words ; and to analyze (from
**, I loose,) like to resolve, from solver e to free, is
to separate a compound into its primitive prin-
ciples.
The Latin post is properly translated after, whe- /w.
ther alone or in composition : To postdate is to date
after the real time, and postexistence is an after or
future existence. Post differs from re in denoting
the situation of one thing with respect to another,
whereas re is expressive of the change of the direc-
tion of motion to its opposite. We already re-
marked that before and after can be ascertained
only from the comparison of events. One thing is
placed or moved, and then^ or that done, the other is
situated, or follows. Post is from ponere, to place ;
whence positus, placed, which is sometimes con-
tracted into postus, in the same manner that cur .
word posture is derived from positura : Pone,
though not so common, was also used by the Latin
writers for after or behind. ' Post hunc diem, after
this day, signifies this day being placed or set by.
Our word past has sometimes a like meaning. The
Latin pes is the fool- ; the French pat is a step ;
I and
122 INTRODUCTION TO AN
and passer is literally to walk. " He came past the
" appointed hour" denotes that the hour proposed
had passed or gone by. Post does not include the
idea of distance ; it may be at or upon. Post ter-
tium diem is on the third day ; and to postfix is
to fix to the after side. The fact is that post ex-
presses the order of place only, and proximity, or
distance, is either supposed, or marked by the other
parts of the sentence.
&>re and The appearance and qualities of the most com-
mon objects are transferred to others by imagined
similitude. Face and front (from the Latin from,
the forehead,) are supposed to be applicable to in-
animate substances, though the words were origin-
ally limited to the human frame. It is thus that
we speak of \hefront or face of a building, as that
portion of its surface which bears the greatest ana-
logy to the face of a man. This being once estab-
lished, we speak of the back of a house, and of its
right and left wings: The exposure to which the
word front is more strictly applicable is that in
which is situated the porch or entry. It is there
that we are to pass in order to examine its internal
structure, in the same manner that we face the per-
son with whom we wish to be acquainted : Hence,
the place of entry has constituted another name for
that side of the building. The Latin foris (from
the Greek $*$, thura, in 'the Doric <pi/ s , phura^
signifies a door ; and the Adverb for as or foris is
out of doors, equivalent to our word forth. The
English
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 123
English Adjective fore when applied to a building
expresses the door face, or front ; and of any other
object it is that side which is most exposed to view
or use. Fore is opposed to back ; before to behind;
md forward to backward. Before is by the fore side ;
and, from being originally a mark of prior situation,
has acquired an extended signification from nv ta-
phor and allusion. To stand before one is to usurp
his- situation. He was formerly jirst or fore most, but
is now last ; and hence fore came to signify in place
of. In this case it is spelt for, and " to fight for
" another" is to fight in the place of another. To
do any action in the place of or for another, especi-
ally if that action be accompanied with difficulty or
danger, suggests the idea of favour or advantage to
the individual in whose place we stand : On ac-
count of is therefore a very general use of the word
for, and is the meaning that it bears when termed a
Conjunction.
For as en account o/'is not an uncommon stretch
of figure. When we say " he did it for these rea-
"'sons/' we mean that these -^reasons went before
and determined his conduct. This is exactly the '
same as if we had said Ci he did it in consequtnce ofi
" these reasons ;" consequence^ from the Latin se-
quor, I follow, expressing" that the action followed
or was after its motive. It is thence that/or has
been considered as synonymous with cause. Some
Philosophers have asserted that we can have no
other idea of cause and effect than, that the one is
I 2 observed
124 INTRODUCTION TO AN
observed regularly to follow the other ; and, in-
deed, the general structure of language appears in
their favour. To produce is merely to bring for-
ward, from the Latin pro, before, and ducere, to
lead. Effect, from ex, out of, zndfactus, made, is
made out of, and therefore after another. Premises
(frdm/>r<# and missus, sent before) and consequences,
have not naturally a necessary connection : They
signify only things of which the one is before and
the other after in point of time.
For signify- A S standing before another may be supposed to
ing against J J
be an obstruction or hinder ance, for also signifies op-
position, which is a word from a similar source.
The French formerly had fors, in place of their
present hors, signifying without or out of doors,
like the Latin forts. In this sense they have yet
many compounds, some of which we have adopted,
as, to foreclose, to shut out, &c. The use of for as
against and out is confined to composition. For is
generally in possession of the derivative meanings,
while fore and before are more particularly indica-
tive of priority either in time or place. Both words
are the same, but, when two orthographies are
4 adopted, it, .is not uncommon to apply one to the
more obvipus and the other to the consequent
meaning. Of this we have an instance in the word
some or sum, already explained, and various exam-
pies might be given from other languages. The
Dutch voor answers equally to our for and fore,
except in composition where voor is used to ex-
press
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 125
press priority like OUT fore, and *ver to mark opposi-
tion \ikefor. Thus they have voorstaan (to stand
before,) to protect, or defend ; and verbieden to for-
bid. We have very few words beginning with/^r,
but in the Saxon this prefix was used in all its
senses ; as, before, opposed to, out, and because. We
might illustrate our definition of for and fore t>y
examples, but our present business with these
v/ords is only as prefixes. To forbid is to oppose
what has been bidden ; forward is in the direction
of before, and, metaphorically, impudent ; to for-
bear is to bear forward, or to cany to a future pe-
riod what we might now execute ; foreknowledge is
previous knowledge ; and forehead is the front o.r
forepart of the head.
In the learned tongues, the different senses in ^'
ante,
which fore is understood are also observed in their
Prepositions which express priority. The Greek
anti signifies instead of or on account of; and in
composition it denotes opposed to . or against ; as,
antichristian, against Christianity, and anticourtier,
one who opposes the court. The Latin derivative
ante denotes before in its ordinary application to
place and time. As a prefix it has the same mean-
ing. To antedate is to date before the time ; ante-
meridian is before meridian or mid-day ; and, in a
house, a room that leads to another is spelt both
ways, antechamber and antichamber. The i in
anti is occasionally suppressed when preceding a
I 3 vowel,
126 INTRODUCTION TO AN
vowel, as, antagonist (from yy, agon, Greek, a com-
bat,) one who oppose?, or fights against another.
Qt - , Ob is another Latin Preposition having the pow-
er of fore or for, both alone and in its compounds.
It begins several English words, and, like some
other prefixes, drops the b, and, assuming the ini-
tial of the word to which it is joined, becomes oc,
of, &c. Obligation, from the Latin ligare, to tie, is
the action of binding before hand, by a promise or
otherwise. Obstruction, from structus, built, is
something built before one, in the wy so as to be
a hinderance. Words often vary their significa-
tion according to the views in which they are pre-
sented : To officiate, from ob zndfacere, to do, or
perform, is to perform any act for another, while
officious is too much in the way ; troublesome by
obtruding services. Officer is literally one who acts
for. or in the service of another -, and, if an officer
sometimes imply a superior or commander, it is only
in alluding to those over whom his office is extend-
ed ; for, with respect to his employer, he is a ser-
vant :
s ,
" I should have been your officer and proud to serve
" you. The king makes me jour companion. This
" commission gives me a troop cf horse *."
fro and The Greek and Latin pro, and the Latin per and
have all a common origin, from %u to pierce
or pass through. We have already explained the
Preposition
* BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 12?
Preposition per. Pro and pr<z (in English pre) are
equivalent to for or fore , and differ from perns fore
from through. Both express an entry or passage y
but in the one we attend to the circumstance of #&-
tering or passing, and in the other to the place or
situation of the entry. From pro we have porch, a
gate j and /w/, an entry, from the Latin psrta.
The Greek fro is used to signify before in time or
place ; for, on account of, and in place of; and
forth or 0#f of. The Latin />r0 was more seldom ap-
plied as before, but usually as for, while pra had in
general an opposite usage. Pro and prte were the
/0r and/0r<? of the Romans. The compounds from
these Prepositions are numerous in our language,
and are, for the most part, derived from the Latin.
To proceed, from cedere, to depart, is to ^forward;
to procure, from curare, to take care of, is to ma-
nage or transact for another ; and to profane from
fanum, a temple, is to act against things that
are sacred. A pre-engagement is a fore engage-
ment ; to prejudge is to judge beforehand", and to
preside, from sedere, to sit, is to sit before or have
authority ever others. To pronounce from nuncio,
I tell, is to speak out ; to provoke from vocare to
call, is to call forth or forward ; and to preclude,
from cludere to close, is to shut out.
Prefer, (in Latin prater,} is pra tra, and has the p rettrf
conjoined meanings of pra and trans. It is there-
fore used to signify before, but separate from, beside %
or over and above that to which it is near. It also
denotes
128 INTRODUCTION TO AN
denotes opposed to, arising from the idea that it is
far before, or beyond another. It is found in preter-
natural, beyond, or opposite to what is natural, and
in a few other words.
Sui. The Latin sub signifies near, but under. It is
immediately or closely underneath. In its general
signification, both alone and in composition, it de-
notes under with respect to place, and, figuratively,
after with regard to time or station in life. When
applied to qualities it expresses their existence in
an inferior degree. As an English prefix it has
the same power as in Latin : Subaltern, from the
Latin alter, another, is one that has an office or si-
tuation under another ; to subdivide is to under di-
vide, or divide the parts of what has already been
divided ; subacid is acid in a small degree, or nearly
acid, and so of others. In expressing nearness,
sub is employed by a figure common to several of
the Prepositions, as con, by, &c. Sub is below, but
no distance is necessary. It may be at or on the
lower side, and therefore nearness follows by impli-
cation. Like ab, dis, &c. it sometimes drops the
b and reiterates the following consonant. To suc-
ceed, from the Latin cedere, is to follow after, or to
take the place of; and to supplant is to. plant under,
or to displace.
Suiter. The Latin subter, (probably from sub and trans}
like sub, signifies beneath, but not near. It is be-
low in opposition to above, not on but separate
frcm the lower side of the superior body. Subtez
begins
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 129
begins very few English words. A subterfuge from
fugere, to fly, is an evasion, some covering of
which we avail ourselves to escape under its shade.
Subter fluent is flowing beneath^ as a river below a
bridge.
The word under is also employed as a prefix, ud er and
and is equivalent to the Latin sub, immediately be-
neath. Heath, though not used except in compo-
sition, signifies the bottom^ as does the Dutch neden
and the German niedre. Under is contracted from
on-neder, and signifies on the bottom^ or lower side.
Like sub it also denotes near to but below, and
marks inferiority in degree. To understand is to
stand under or near^ and consequently to know
what would otherwise be hidden from view. The
Germans express the same idea by the help of the
Preposition ver, for, and stehen, to stand ; and have
verstehcn, to understand. 'To undertake is to take
something upon one 5 to stand below it. To un-
dervalue is to prize below the value ; and underplot
is a plot subordinate to another :- secondary and
contained within the principle scheme. Synony-
mous with sub and under is the Greek Preposition
I-?, hypQj which we have adopted with some words
from that language, as, hypothesis, the thesis laid
down^ or the basis over which any system is
erected.
Opposite to sub and under is the Latin super ^ Super,
above and upon. When applied to place^ it is more
exalted or higher in the same direction ; when to
quantity
ISO INTRODUCTION TO AN
quantity it is greater than, something more or
above that of which we were speaking. Like sub it
implies contiguity. It is up-on, that is, on the upper
side ; and, as subter implies distance, so, when the
, Latins supposed a space to intervene they generally
employed supra. This, however, was not univer-
sally attended to, because that such accuracy of
distinction was seldom necessary. The English
upon and above are respectively equivalent to super
and supra ; and these also are often used without
discrimination. Supra does not appear in compo-
sition, but we have many words with the prefix
super. Superabundance is an over abundance ; to
super add is to add still more ; and supercargo is one
who is placed over the cargo and manages the sale.
i. Epi 9 among the Greeks, had the same power as
the Latin super and the English upon, though, from
the words with which it is connected, it has been
variously translated, as, by at, with, among, &c.
Upon may also have those different significations,
according to the general scope of the sentences in
which it is found. " I was upon the spot" may be
also at the spot. " It is upon the hour" denotes
that the hour is near, or, as we say, at hand.
The different Prepositions, in all languages, may
often be used in place of each other, agreeably to
the manner in which they are applied ; but their
distinguishing characteristics remain invariably the
same. With epl we have several words, as epide-
mical, (from V" 5 " demos, the people,) among the
people,
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 131
people, general ; and epilogue, (from Aoyas, a dis-
course^) a speech upon or after something done, as
at the end of a theatrical representation. Sometimes
the / is suppressed, as in epact, epode, &c.
The Saxon ufa, ufera, and ufemast, are equiva- up.
lent to up, upper or over, and upmost or uppermost,
and these again to high, higher, and highest. Up is
in use as a prefix. To uphold is to hold up or
>, to keep from falling ; upon is on the up or
side of a thing ; and upright is straight p,
without any deviation from the perpendicular line,
and figuratively honest or virtuous.
Over, or more up, has the power of the Latin Over.
super. It differs from upon as being indefinite in
degree, whereas upon expresses immediate superi-
ority. To overrate is to rate above its value ; and
to overcome is to subdue or conquer. When over
is applied to quantity it signifies excess, as, to over-
balance is to place more in one scale than balances
the other. When applied to distance it denotes
extent beyond what we speak of; to overstep is to
step beyond. It is hence nearly synonymous with
trans, as, " over the river" is on the other side of
the river or beyond it. Over when connected with
motion is from one side to the other, but it traverses
by passing above, not through, the substance or
medium ; and it is hence that to overspread is to
spread so as to cover the upper surface.
Besides the above we have prefixes from other jj y p er zn
languages expressive of superiority in height. Hyper, tur *
the
>'
cata.
132 INTRODUCTION TO AN
the Greek vm^ over,- above , or beyond, is found in
hyper critic, a critic in excess, and in a few other
words. The French sur is found principally in
words derived from that tongue : A surcharge is an
overcharge, or a charge upon and above one formerly
made ; t surfeit, fromfaire, to make, is to overdo,
applied chieiiy to overloading the stomach ; and./0
surmount is to mount or rise above another.
-wn and Up and down are the reverse of one another.
Up is high and down is /ow ; but high and /o-zc; are
employed as Adjectives, while up and down are
Adverbs. The etymology of these words has been
variously considered. The Latins expressed low
by humilis, on the ground ; and the French bas,
low, is also the lower part ; the base, bottom, or
foundation. Mr Tooke supposes that the relations
of place are generally the names of parts of the
human body, as head, toe, side, back, &c. ; and as
in composition up, top, and head, are equivalent, in
til ward, totward, headward ; upmost, topmost, &c.
he derives head, heaven, and upon, (ufon) from
the Anglo-Saxon Verb<heofan, to heave, or lift up.
Down he^believes to be the past Participle, dufen,
of dujian, to sink, dip, or dive, varied into dofen,
doven, dovn, doun, and DOWN. However this may
be, we can be at no loss to fix the meaning of the
term. ' Downward is in the direction of down or
low ; downright is straight down, undeviating ; and
downcast is cast down. Down may be either per-
pendicular or inclined, and hence the direction is
pointed
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 133
pointed out by the word that follows, as, " down the
bill" " down stairs" &c. On this account it may
be often superseded by other Prepositions : " dwn
the river" is along the course of the stream. The .
direction of the motion is, the same, with, by, or
according to, that of the river ; and hence the va*
ried translation which is given to some foreign sy-
nonymes of up and down. Of these we may here
notice the Greek cata which is prefixed to a few of
our words, as, catalogue, from Aey#, I name, or
number, a collection of names put down in a list.
The Latin con (varied into co, col, $om, and cor, c *.
according to the initial consonants before which it
is prefixed) is an inseparable Preposition signifying
junction, and answers to our with and together.
Cum was used separately, and is also Englished by
with, the root of the Saxon Verb with an, to join.
As an Adverb, distinguished by its accentual mark,
(cu?ji) it is equivalent to when or what time, and
was formerly quum. With and when are perfectly
synonymous if applied to Verbs. Two actions
happen together, with, or at the same, time with one
another : One happens when, or at the time, that
the other was transacting. Con is a very general
.English prefix. A coheir is an heir along with an-
other, a joint heir ; to collapse is to lapse or fall
together ; to compress is to press together ; and to
correspond is to respond or answer to one another,
The Greek syn is equal to the Latin con, of which s y .
it is the direct origin, con being formerly written
cyn.
134 INTRODUCTION TO AM
cyn. As prefixes in our language they are in no
degree different, excepting that the compounds are
derived respectively from the separate tongues.
Before certain consonants syn is spelt syl or sym.
Symphony, from ?*, phone, a sound, is a concord of
musical sounds ; and synonymous , from woua, onoma 9
a name, is having the same name or signification.
Contra and Contra is compounded of con and trans, and
Counter.
partakes of the meaning of both Prepositions. It
implies that two things are together., but in such a
manner as to be placed opposite to, or over against
each other. The word has also the English form of
orthography, and is spelt counter, which is used
both singly and in composition. * Contradistinction
is the distinction of things particularly compared ;
and contradiction is opposition in diction or speech.
Counter is opposite ; to counteract 'is to act against
or contrary to ; and to counterbalance is to place an
equal weight in the opposite scale.
From circus a circle, or ring, was formed the
Latin Preposition circum, about or around. Bout is
a turn, and in Scotland a circuit of the wheel. Cir-
cumstances are things standing about or en every
side ; and circumspect, from spectare, to view, is
cautious, as if looking at every thing around us.
Circum, like around, whether alone or cornpound-
'ed, was generally confined to its literal significa-
tion, while circa was used in all the secondary
senses to which about is applied. Both are figura-
tively put for near to, either in tinte or in 'lace,
but
\ '
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 135
but it is that sort of nearness which cannot be ac-
curately defined ; of which we know not whether
it be greater or less, whether it precedes or follows :
which as it were hovers ROUND the center of attrac-
tion. All the other meanings which have been
given to these words may be easily resolved into
the primary one of turning in a circle.
Amphi is a Greek Preposition equivalent to circa, Am f> il and
about, but is seldom used as an English prefix.
Amphitheatre is a circular theatre ; and amphibious
from /3/ ? , bios, life, is the quality of being able to
live by turns in the different elements of land and
water. The Latin inseparable Preposition amb,
and the Saxon emb, are derivatives from amphi ;
and the Greek ampho and the Latin ambo, equiva-
lent to our both, are branches of the same stem. It
is thence that we have such words as ambition, from
ire, Latin, to go, which, in its primary sense, was
merely a going round to canvas for votes of office,
and ambidexter , from dextra, the right hand, one
who is capable of using his left hand equally well
as his right.
The Greek peri also signifies about, and figura- ?-<
tively for or concerning. Perimeter is the measure
round a geometrical figure ; and periphrasis is a
round about phrase, or mode of speaking, a cir- ^
{umlocution. It may here be mentioned that cibout,
from the French bout, an extremity, end, or boun-
dary, is the line that passes close to fhe limits of a
body. It is the bounding line whether that line
be
136 INTRODUCTION TO AN
be circular or not. The Greek m^ per as, is also a
bound or limit, and from hence may be the Preposi-
tion peri. In this view it differc from clrcum 01 ' circa.
We may say indifferently the circumference or the
periphery of a circle y which from ?g, and/m?, to
carry, signify the line drawn round the confines of
the //*/ / but in speaking of a square or triangle
it were proper to say its periphery rather than its
circumference. In this sort of translation from a fo-
reign language, attention must be paid to the ori-
ginal meaning of the term, independent of that by
which it is rendered. It seldom happens that we
can explain one vocable by another with sufficient
precision. A shade of distinction always arises
from their different derivations ; and though the
resemblance be in most cases correct, yet, oc-
casionally, an anomaly will be found to which our
supposed synonyme will be applied in vain.
The Preposition para signifies beside or near to ;
and as what is near may still be considered as sepa-
rate from or at some distance, it also denotes arvdy
from. .The words aside and beside have occasionally
a similar meaning. To step aside is to go away
fr'-m 9 though as it were still near to ; and of a man
whose intellects are deranged we say that " he is.
ieside himself.'* In boili cases we suppose a
neighbourhood between the one body and the other,,
(but in one case we attend to their separation and in
the other to their approach. Similar figures are
observable in other languages. The German nach %
near.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 137
near or at, also signifies after ; and apres, after, in
French is from a and pres, near to. We have
compounds of para in both its senses- Parable,
(Latin, parabola) from the Greek /SAA, balk, to
throw or put, signifies a bringing together or com-
parison of things, applied to an allegorical tale; and
paradox, from $*, # opinion, is a seemingly extra-
vagant assertion, what is beyond belief.
Para or near may be applied to quality or dp- -P**- and
pearance, in which case it will signify similarity*
From hence comes the Latin par, equal, even, or
alike. It marks likeness such as may be supposed
to subsist between a pair matched together. Par is
therefore in composition an equal, a mate, or a
partner. Paramour is a partner in love, from the
French amour. The relations of equality may be
differently formed. The Saxon prefix efen, even,
signified con, and also equal like our equi. Equi is
from the Latin <zquus, equal or #/;, formed from
the Pronouns ea and quis, that 'which or the same.
Hence we have equidistant, having the same dis-
tance, and equivalent, of the same value. Some-
times the / is dropt before a vowel, as in equa*
tion, the action of making equal, or the result of
such an action \ and equanimity^ from the Latin.
animus, the mind, evenness or equality of mind.
The position of a thing may also be represented of ; and
by stating that it occupies j or does not occupy, a
certain specified situation. In the one case it is in,
and in the other out of, the place mentioned. We
K already
tut.
138 INTRODUCTION TO AN
already stated that in and place are in a certain view
synonymous ; but this perhaps arises rather from
the affinity than the similarity of the original ideas.
Words from different sources have nevertheless their
occasional points of confluence. Place is that portion
of space which a body occupies. The Greek *8y, lego,
I lie down, forms A^O?, lechos, a bed, or place to lie in;
and hence the Latin lectus, of the same signification,
and locus, a place, in general. To lie is also spelt
to ly, and when used actively (that is to say when
the object is different from the agent, for all Verbs
are active?) it is written to lay. The Saxon legan is
both to lie and to lay, and lega is a place ; as are
also the French lieu, the Italian luoga, and our
word lodge. Words in pi, pr, &c. are often form-
ed by contraction from some Preposition (probably
Greek *') expressive of existence, like bl, si, &c. af-
terwards to be noticed. The Latin placare, to pacify,
is literally to allay, or put to rest. P lander e, to
applaud, differs nothing from laudare. To praise
is to 'beraise, to lift up, in the same manner that to
extol is from ex and toller e. To place, then, is to lay,
and is analogous to state, stead, and station, from the
Latin stare to stand ; and to situation, from situs, a
site. Stall and still ^ are akin to the German stellan,
to place; and hence to forestall, t r j install, Sec. The
various feelings of the mind are denominated from ob-
jects and actions around us. The spirits are sunk and
depressed; or they are raised and exhilarated; or
they flow in a smooth and equal stream. We are
inflamed
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 139
inflamed and burn with rage ; or we are cooled by
reason and philosophy. Our passions are aroused,
stirred up, and awakened; or they are settled,
stilled, and lulled to repose.
The etymologies of in and out have not yet been Etymoip-
satisfactorily investigated. The Saxon inn, besides
corresponding with the Preposition in, signifies a
house, and particularly a bedchamber, like the Latin
cubiculum. It also denotes any cell or cavern, and
is applied to the belly or interior of the body. The
same word was used, like our inn, to express a
house appropriated to the accommodation and lodg-
ing of travellers. Of out we have not been able to
discover a separate or original usage, but its power
may be completely ascertained from its synonymes,
the old French fors, the Latin for as, and our forth,
already explained. In and out are directly the re-
verse of one another. In is contained or housed ;
cut is forth or at the door. Out may be either near
or distant. What is without the pale may be either
at or away. It does not necessarily follow that
what is out has ever been in, though this is often
supposed by implication. In this case however out
of is generally applied. The Saxon is ut, and, with
a similar orthography, we have utter, farther out,
and utmost, farthest out, or at the greatest distance:
these words are also written outer, outmost, and outer-
most. In composition out may be sometimes explain-
ed figuratively by over or beyond. To outbid is to bid
ve or Icy ond another ; outside is that side of a
K 2 body
140 INTRODUCTION TO AN
body which is exposed to what surrounds it or i$
outwards ; and outstanding is what has not yet been
got in, what stands without from where it should be*
The Greek ^ ^ or 4 ^ and the Ladn e or
ex, signify out ; but they appear to originate from
a word expressing the exclusion under a different
form. Ex is more properly out of: the body out
is understood to have been once within, or to have
formed a part of the other. Ex bears the same re-
lation to off or of, that in does to on, and in many
eases the distinction is imperceptible. When ex is
applied to a body formed from the substance of an-
otherj it is in the same style of metaphor that sup-
poses the statue to have previously existed in the
block of marble. Most of the compounds from
this Preposition are of Latin origin* Excrescence,
from crescere, to grow, is any thing growing out of
another ; to exclude, from cludere, to close, is to
shut out ; exit, from ire, to go, is a going out, and
so of others. Extra is a compound of ex and
trans, and signifies out beyond. It is translated by
over, above, and such like words : lilms, extraordi-
nary is more than ordinary ; and extravagant, from
vagans, wandering, is going beyond bounds. .
A or an; in- In a former part of this Introduction we gave
examples of in as employed in composition; and
we have now to notice the same word varied in iti
appearance. The Saxon on means in, and from
thence we have the prefix an before vowels and a
before consonants* Words of this formation be-
long
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 141
long to' the class of Adverbs, as, aright, along, and
alive, which answer to the Saxon on righte, on
lenge, and m life. In is joined to trans, forming
inter, intra, and Intro. The place expressed by in
may be surrounded by other bodies ; and to get at
the situation it may be necessary to go over, through,
o-r trans, the encircling medium, which passage is
sometimes denoted in English by in through. When
two or more bodies are on different sides of it, the
inclosed object is said to be between or among these
bodies. When the place is supposed to be a cavity,
in the center of a continuous substance, we say
that the thing contained is 'within. The former of
these situations is generally indicated, in Latin, by
inter, and the latter by intra or Intro. From thence
intrare, to pierce, or go in, and our Verb to enter.
To interpose, is to place between; to introduce (from
ducere, to lead,) is to usher into a place ; and to
enterprise is to enter into a hazardous undertaking.
The significations of many of the Prepositions
are peculiarly modified when they refer to multi-
iude. They are applicable to each and to all of the
individuals of the group, and, hence, they have
both a distributive and a collective power. " Through
" life" is through every period, and to the conchi-
sion of existence. " To go through the city" may
be either to pass from one end to the other, or to
visit every street and square. The Prepositions in
such cases undergo no change of meaning; for the
ambiguity is occasioned by the collective Nouns.
K 3 When
142 INTRODUCTION TO AN
When this collection is composed of spaces of time,
as days, weeks, months, &c. the Prepositions are
equivalent to during : " per multqs annos," during
many years. " To live/or, out, or through, a long
" period," and " to live during a long period,"
are synonymous. It is only by the known measures
of space ajid time that magnitude and duration can
be expressed ; and, when the extent of either is un-
limited, the body which should serve as a compa-
rison (THAT, with, under, above, through, by, or
over, which the other stands or moves,) is left un-
described. Continual is from the Latin con and te-
nere, to hold together, and denotes an undivided,
unbroken succession in space or time, either for a
certain kngth or in general, as the other parts of
the sentence shall limit or leave indefinite. " It
u moved continually for a year" signifies that some-
thing moved during a year without stopping. " It
" moves continually, 99 or, " it shall move continu-
" ally," supposes no period to the motion. Per-
petual, from perpetuare, Latin, to GO through, has a
similar usage. " To move perpetually," is to move
ver. onwards to the end, without interruption. Ever is
equal to over in the sense of the Latin perpes, that
is, perpetual, entire, or going through the who'e.
Every is over, attending to each individual. Ever
is seldom confined in its signification, but, when it
is so, it refers to some whole which is expressed cr
understood. " If ever I meet him" is, if I meet
- |iim at any point over the general extent of time.
" Wherever
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY.
c * Wherever I meet him," is over what place he
may travel. In composition ever i$ usually syno-
nymous with perpetual or always : everlasting is
continual ; and ever during is always enduring.
To whatever depth we may push our metaphy-
sical abstractions ; and however much, from the
play of words, we may imagine ourselves to be wise
when we are only profound, a slight inquiry into
the origin of terms would easily point the path to
reason and nature. Those words in all languages
which have been supposed to convey the idea of
endless duration are derived from the expressions of
time. The Greek MV, aion, and the Latin <zvuw,
indicate, in their literal sense, an age or period of
action ; and are often employed to denote^ lie du-
ration. Mternitas^ from tevum (**<) and trans, is,
in its origin, a long period, or beyond an age. Al-
ways is in all ways. Ever, perpetual, and continual
have been already explained. Attention to this
unvaried application of language to what is cogni-
zable by the senses, may be highly useful in tracing
the extent of its figurative dominion j and these ob-
servations will not here be deemed impertinent,
when it is recollected that no words have given rise
to more unmeaning and useless discussions, than
those that refer to consciousness or life, which is
the subject of the succeeding article.
It is not to be presumed as probable that the
.formation of language was the result of speculative
investigation. The peasants of the rude ages of
.society,
144 INTRODUCTION TO AN
society, in stating that any particular parson r
thing lived or -lay in their neighbourhood, could
have none of those perplexing and half-meaning
ideas which constitute the jargon of the schools.
They must have contented themselves with simply
asserting an existence, leaving its substratum and its
modes to be explained by future philosophers. The
fact is, that being and life are generally denomin-
ated by words expressive of posture and situation.
Exist is a compound of the Latin ex and sisto or
sto, I stand. We have adopted our word state di-
rectly from stare i while the French estre, to be, and
estat^ state, are formed from esse and existere, both
signifying to be. The Latin vivere, and its English
io live, express the existence of animated objects ; or
of such as are supposed to be so, from the crite.
rions referred to by common observers, motion
and , the necessity of nourishment or food. It is
hence that the compounds, in both languages, are
indicative of activity and briskness, as well as of the
means by which existence is prolonged. Quick is
opposed to dead ; it also denotes agility of mo-
tion, and motion opposed to rest. Being, when op-
posed to nonentity, is not necessarily connected
with life. It marks only that the object to which it
refers is 1 to be found in nature, without asserting or
denying its' animation. To be and by were, in the
Saxon and in the earlier periods of our tongue, of
indiscriminate orthography ; and their meaning is the
same, excepting that the latter spelling is now used
to
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 145
to the literal signification* By is at the side of, and,
when applied as a Verb, (to be) it is to stand beside
one ; an idea scarcely in the least degree differing
from to exist. It was in a similar metaphor that
the Romans expressed death by a separation^ or
leaving the scene of our knowledge ; for exire, to
go out, from ex and ire, to go, also signified to die.
What are termed Substantive Verbs in all lan-
guages originate in a similar manner with the Verb
to be. Id erat in Latin, // etoit in French, and it
was in English, all assert that sojntfbing of which
we were speaking stood or lay, at some past time,
in some particular place ; but the expression is ge-
neral, for what the thing was, and when or where
it was to be found, is left to be explained by other
parts of the sentence,
It is with be as a prefix that we are here chiefly Be as a
concerned ; and, in this situation, it has both the pre x '
varieties of meaning which we have ascribed to be
or by. They are indeed but different views of the
same definition, and, on a close inspection, we are
unable to draw the line of distinctions, To beware
is to be aware ; beside is by the side of ; and to be-
friend is to be the friend of. In the Saxon almost
every Verb had its compound with this prefix ;
and, like our to as the mark of action, it served in
most cases merely to state the existence of what the
Verb expressed. To, too, be, and by, have an
evident fraternity. It is thus that we are to ac-
count for such Verbs as -to bedaub, to besprinkle -, to
Bespatter,
INTRODUC riON TO AN
bespatter , &c. which differ from their primitives, to
daub) to sprinkle i and to spatter ', only in referring di-
rectly to the object of the action, while the latter
point more immediately to the means. Thus, it
were better to besprinkle the floor with vinegar, and
to sprinkle vinegar on the floor : be, in this case
signifying upon, is equivalent to by.
BI and lr. When the prefix be is followed by / or r, there
are some instances in which the e is suppressed, and
the b is blended with the succeeding consonant.
Thus black) from its expressing the absence of co-
lour, may be compounded of be and lack^ or want-
ing ; and a derivation of night is almost obvious,
which would strengthen the supposition by analogy.
It may be thus that blczcan^ in Saxon, has two sig-
nifications apparently opposite. It is not only /?
blacken , but to bleach or whiten. If our observa-
tions be just it denotes neither, but merely to take
away ; and, when applied to colour, may be either
to make black or white according to circumstances*
Bleak mountains are such as bear no vegetation.
To block is the Saxon belucan^ to shut or lock up,
Brim and rim are synonymous
With is equivalent to the Latin cum and the
English join. In the Gothic it is the imperative of
the Verb withan, to join, and in the Saxon of
wyrthan 9 to be or become ; for in addition to its
meaning of beside, it was also, like by, used to sig-
nify existence. As prefixes the Saxons understood
qvith and -be in the same sense, and sometimes they
used
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 147
used them indiscriminately, as beforan and with*
for an, for before; beutan and wlthutan for without and
but) and so of others. Without is therefore be out
or out by, expressive of being in company with an-
other but by, at, or on the outside, and not /# the
the same place. With, like con, sometimes signi-
fies against, but this use is figurative and common
to some of the other Prepositions, as ob, anti, &c.
Such shades of meaning depend entirely on the
context. Thus, " to fight with one" may be to
fight against him, provided there be no other oppo-
nent in the field ; but it may also denote fighting
on the same side, as when we say u I fought with
" him against our enemies," It is thus that we are
to explain to withstand, to withhold, and the like.
The root es of the French estre, to be, performs E, and
the same part as a prefix to Verbs in that language J/1
as be and with in the Saxon and English : it is to
be, make, or become what the additional word de-
notes. Thus from changer, to change, they have
exchanger, to exchange, to change by or with ano-
ther. Clair is light, clear, or shining, and esclairer
is to enl'ghtcn. This prefix has so generally pre-
vailed among the French ; and when speaking of a
thing the addition of to, be, es, or any other mark
of its existence, causes, in many cases, so little al-
teration in the sense of the original vocable,, that the
compound often remains while its root is no more
to be found. This together with the elision of
vowels HI ay account for many of pur words in /,
'Sri
INTRODUCTION TO AN
br ; st 9 spy &c. being considered as primitives ;
while, could we investigate their origin, they might
be found to be compounded. Squadron, for in-
stance, is the French esquadron or escadron, and .
means a number of men, or other things, disposed
in the form of a square, or cadre, from quatre or
qtfadre, four. Square is from esquarrir to make
square or quarre ; that is, td form a figure with
four sides. Hence we speak of " a perfect square,"
denoting that the sides are equal ; though oftener
the equality is presumed, in the same manner that
cc to quarter a circle" supposes an equal division.
Strange with us signifies uncommon and unknown.
The French estrange is literally distant, from es and
the Latin trans, to be distant or beyond ; and hence
it is applied to what is foreign (without doors) or be-
longing to another nation. Estr anger, the Verb, is
to chase away.
ES and ex Comparing es with ex we find a considerable re^
semblance. Escbanger is Englished by to exchange,
and estrange is synonymous with extraneous. To
expend, from the Latin fenders, to weigh, is the
same with to spend, and expedition, from pes, the
foot, is equivalent to speed. May we not then con-
jecture that ex, out and esse, to be, are the same ?
To state that a thing exists, or is, we must serve
ourselves with the expressions of place ; and, in
^ making such an assertion, we merely say that the
thing exists, or is beside, with, out, or in any way
different from ourselves.
It
'
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 149
It is pleasing to observe the coincidence between of
language and philosophy. Negatives are incapable
of expressing any abstract idea of nonentity, because
no such power of abstraction belongs to the hu-
man mind. They either take away the substance
of which we speak, and then as to us nothing re*
mains ; or, by a process analogous to the infini-
tesimals of the Mathematician, they mark the zero
of existence, by the least of observable objects. The
Greek inseparable Preposition n, the Latin Adverb
me, and our no, denote the absence or want of that
to which they refer. They are the opposite of
present or possession, expressed by aye, yes, or be.
Aye, yea, and yes, are the French Imperatives aye
and ayez, have thou and have ye, of the Verb avoir,
to have. " Give or grant me this." " YES" -
" have it." - " No" - " away with it." It
is thus that we indicate assent or denial. That ab-
sence is the true meaning of the Latin ne may be
admitted from its correspondence with the Con-
junction lest, which arises from the Saxon lesan, to
dismiss or send away. In French, ne and non re-
quire some qualifying additions in order to express
complete negation. Pas, a step, is a single move-
ment and denotes the smallest motion ; ne pas, is
not a step. A point is the least mark, and figura-
tively little or nothing, like iota (and/;/) the name
of the Greek letter <, /'; ne point is none, not a iota.
This kind of double negative was formerly used in
English " He ne did not" is a common phrase in
Chaucer j
150 INTRODUCTION TO AN
. Chaucer ; and we have still similar modes of writ-
ing, as, " not at all;" " not in the least" &c. No
and not have different forms of usage. No is ap-
plied to express the negation of things ; and not to
express that of actions, No has the effect of an Ad-
jective ; and not of an Adverb. When we say,
'* he has not money," we assert that he is destitute
of money, in opposition to those who say or believe
that he has it : Here the not is applied to the Verb
has. But when we say " he has no money," we
allude to no opinion of others, but use no merely in
opposition to some : In this case no is an Adjective
to the word money.
M, nt g , no, We have privative Prefixes from some of the
Negatives above mentioned. Ne is connected with
a few words. Necessity from the Latin cedere to
yield or give place to, is what cannot be set aside ;
need is neth, no-ness or want ; and never is ne-ever.
The Latin ncc or neque is not that, and hence (trans-
forming the c into g) is negare, to deny. Negation
and negative are from this source ; and, from fegcre,
to gather, was formed the Latin Verb negligcre, to
neg'ect. The inseparable Preposition nan is equiva-
lent to not, as in ndnexistcnce, nonsense, nonresidence,
&c. the composition of which is obvious. No ap-
pears in nothing, nowhere, &c.
Mis. The Latin missus, thrown away, is probably the
origin of our Verb to miss, which signifies to throw
'wide of the mark to send the arrow a" v ay from the
point where it should hit. In a consequent sense,
when
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 151
when we do not find a thing where we expected it
to be, we say we miss it, A man misses his money
when he looks for it after it is gone, and misses his
friend when that friend cannot be found at the time
he has need of his services. Amis.* is away from
the right path, and figuratively criminal; a mean-
ing which is also given to other words that indicate
irregularity of course. To go astray is to wander
from our road ; it is also to do wrong or be vicious.
Error is from the Latin errare, to go out of the
way, and signifies a mistake in moral conduct. Hu-
man life has, in all ages and nations, been compared
to a journey which we may perform well or ill.
Conduct is the guidance of our travels, and morals
is synonymous with ways* It is in this sense that
we use mis as a prefix. Misconduct is wrong con-
duct, and to misapply is to apply improperly.
Right is the Latin rectus, the past Participle of j?/; and
regere, to govern. The Saxon is reht, and rehtan
is regere, to direct or rule ; to order and guide the
course, or to point out the path that ought to be
followed. A ruler or regulator, is the person or
thing that marks the road which we should tread.
Right or rectus is therefore undeviating. It is also
straight and regular, opposed to crooked and per-
verse. Wrong is an old past Participle of the Verb
to wring, and'forl, its equivalent in French, is from
the Latin tortus, crooked or twisted. Rcct and
recti are prefixes. Rectilinear is straight lined, and
rectitude is the same with righteousness. Qrtba,
from
INTRODUCTION TO AN
from the Greek ^, straight, has a similar mean-
ing. Orthography, from y^> I write, \$ accurate
writing ; and orthodoxy, from <M;*, doxa^^. dogma,
denotes true belief.
?, *tra> By an easy transition, right and wrong are also
expressive of <?&/ and evil. The latter^ however,
are often denoted by other metaphors. " Among
" most nations black, the colour of darkness, has
" been associated with the ideas of crime or misfor-
" tune, and whi:e with innocence and happiness. The
" modern Greeks indifferently use the word mav-
" /or to signify a /#<: or an unhappy man. An
u East Indian who has committed a fault says, with
" shame, that he is black. The Black Sea has ac-
" quired its name only because of the frequent
" shipwrecks on its coasts. The Turks attribute
<c ill omens to the colour of black, and view it with
" repugnance. The Europeans mourn, and array
" the Ministers of Religion and Justice, who are
" equally supposed to have renounced pleasure, in
66 black *." Noxious, hurtful, is an Adjective
from the Latin nox, night. The Prefix male sig-
nifies evil. Malecontcnts are these who are /// con-
\
tented, and male administration is a bad or w, -ong.
administration. The word is Latin from tha
Greek p&as, me/us, black, a compound of f*v, mtj
and SAJI, the light of the Sun. In a figurative sense
it was evil or deprived. The Latin ater, black y
* CHENIER'S ACCOUNT OP MOROCCO.
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 153
) gloomy , &c. has an origin similar to our word
if lack; it is the Greek Adverb ^, ater, without or
wanting. It is thence that we have atrocious, cruel,
and atrabilarious, having a gloomy mind. Atrabi-
larious is literally black bile, and melancholy, from
the Greek, has exactly the same signification.
Black bile was supposed by the ancients to form a
peculiar temperament.
The prefix bene is the Latin Adverb bene, well Seat and
or rightly, from bonus, good, as male is from mains,
evil. Benediction, from dlcere, to speak, is speak-
ing m77, or blessing ; and benefactor, from y#/0, I
do, is a friend, or one who does 00<f offices. The
Latin termination ignus expresses quality like me
in canine, &c. formerly explained. It is sometimes-
Englished by Ign, as in malign or benign, having an
evil or a 00rf disposition. # is a Latin Interjec-
tion and a Greek Adverb, both equivalent to bene,
and is prefixed to a few English words. Eulogy is
a speaking #// of, or in praise of another, and eu-
phony is an agreeable sound.
The residence of mankind in society has also fur-
nished names for virtue and vice. The metropolis
of an empire, being the seat of its rulers, has al-
ways either possessed, or pretended to possess^ a re-
finement of manners, superior to the fustic inha-
bitants around it. The Greek *<>*<?, polls ^ a town, is
from TT^vg, many ; and the Latin civis, a citizen, is
derived from coire to assemble. Urbs (perhaps
from orlis, a circle) is a city surrounded with walls.
L All
INTRODUCTION TO AN
All these have their derivatives expressive of ele-
gance and the mutual chanties of life. We have
politeness^ urbanity, civility, civilization, &c. Cour-
teous is possessing the manners of a court^ and to
polish is likewise applied to the smoothing^ or re-
moving of the rugged inequalities, of material ob-
jects. On the contrary, the inhabitants of the
country have been stigmatized as rudt, ignorant , and
brutal ; and, among the Greeks and Romans,
fa*pi, (barbaros} and barbaru^ a barbarian^ which
literally meant a foreigner , was charged, by implica-
tion., with all the Ignorance and vice of which they
were accustomed to accuse their enemies. He was
foolish and stupid ; savage and cruel.
The Latin vicus, from vincire, to join together,
denoted a collection of houses in the country. Its
diminutive -villa was applicable to a single house,
the habitation of the farmer. From this we have
formed village, a junction of rural habitations, equi-
valent to vicus. In their general style of contempt
for every thing \yithout the walls of the city, the
Romans had vitium, virtus, vilis, and others, which
we have adopted in vice, vitious, vilf, &c. A vil-
lain in our law books is simply an inhabitant of a
village, one who is the vassal of his Lord. In
its ordinary acceptation it includes every vice. The
derivatives of v'mcire are numerous. In one view
* D ' it becomes vincere, to vanquish ; and hence victory >
conquest, and 'victim, the prisoner, who was bound
in chains. A vice is an instrument for holding or
pressing
ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 155
pressing things together. Vicinity is neighbourhood,
and vicissitude is interchange of place or situation.
The latter Is from the Latin Adverb vicissim, by
turns. The original idea expressed by vicissim is
together, jointly, or conjoined; but separate acts thus
performed, or two events, of an opposite nature,
thus recorded, must necessarily suppose alterna-
tion. The vicissitudes of heat and cold are their
conjunction ; but the conjunction of such impressions
must be of that kind which tread on the heels
of one another. Vicus, village, and place, are si-
milar. The Latin vice is, therefore, in place or
instead of, and is prefixed to several words, as,
viceroy, from the French roy, a. king, one who
rules in place of a king.
Our account of the prefixes now draws to a close. Nonas ^d
. 1 r i - Adjectives
In addition to what we nave mentioned, many used
words are employed for that purpose, which will
fall to be explained in the body of the work ; for
they do not differ, in composition, from their pri-
mitive power. Of these are life, hand, foot, high,
low, land, house, and a multitude of others, as ex-
emplified in lifer ent, handsome, football, highway,
lowbred, landholder, housewife, &c. They present
a conjunction of roots, and the definition may be
referred to either class. We have likewise a num-
ber of words, adopted from foreign languages,
which are formed in a similar manner ; but the
meaning of each part is so well ascertained, and
they are, besides, applied in so few cases, that a
L 2 simple
1,56 INTRODUCTION TO AN
simple translation will be sufficient for our pur-
pose. The following are all which at present we
think it necessary to notice, giving an example
of each. The others will be found under some
\
of their roots, in the order of the Dictionary :
similar From the Greek w^ew, anthropos, a man, and
?*v?' phagos, a dev ourer, we have anthropophagi, man-
eaters. From /Ing, aster i a star, arid a?*?**, onoma, a
name, is formed astronomy , the science of the stars.
Geography, the description of the earth, is from y*,
ge, the earth, and w$*> I write. From V 5 , -homos,
alike, and ygas, <?0;r, kind, we have homogeneous, of
the j#;/tf kind ; and from '*%;, hetercs, another, \ve
have heterogeneous, of a different kind. Hierarchy, a
government of the priesthood, is derived from l sf,
hiereus, a priest or sacred person. Hydrophobia,
the canine madness, in which the dread of water is
said to constitute the chief symptom, is compound-
ed of \la^ hydor, water, and $6/20?, p ho bos, fear.
From ptsu, miseo, I hate, and ?**, philec, I love, are
formed misanthrope, a hater, and philanthropist, a
lover- of mankind. Zoology, the description of
animals, is from *>$, sow, living, or *, an animal.
Compounds From the Latin aqua, water, we have aqueous,
watery ; aqueduct a water course, and some others.
From manus, the han,d, we have manuscript, hand-
writing. From cerium, the heavens, and terra, the
earth, are formed the Adjectives celestial and /?r-?
restrial, heavenly and earthly. The Arabic Par-
tide al signifies the. It is prefixed to several word?
brought
i ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY. 157
brought from the East ; as, alcoran, the koran, or
bible of the Mahometans, from karaa, to read.
Al koran, is the Reading, a title of eminence, cor-
responding to the Scripture (the Writing of the
Jews and Christians. The prefix pur is the French ****>
four. It is synonymous with for, and ought to
have been noticed when treating of that Preposition.
To purpose is to place for or on account of, that is
to intend for ; pursuit, from the French sui-vrc, to
follow, is following for, or in chase of; and pur-
lieus, from Iieu 9 a place, is the fore places, environs,
or outskirts of any inclosure or other specified situ-
ation.
'At the conclusion of our introductory labours, Conclusion.
we may be allowed to anticipate, and to apologise
for, some of the faults of which they will be ac-
cused. Didactic works are, in general, either too
laconic for the ignorant, or too garrulous for the
learned ; and it is, probably, impossible to satisfy
both classes in the same production. The sin that
most easily besets a writer is prolixity, but here it
was, in many places, unavoidable. In treating of
subjects hitherto but little attended to, it was neces-
sary to dwell on the proofs of what might other-
wise be rejected as fanciful ; and yet, after all,
much illustration has been suppressed, lest the
more instructed Reader should yawn over a twice-
told tale. It were, perhaps, better for an Author
who hopes for the approbation of the Public, to
limit
INTRODUCTION, &C.
limit his excursions into unfrequented ground ; but
Etymology is one of the tractiess wilds of Nature ;
while we stray we are allured by the charms of
novelty : we wander from shrub to shrub, and
from tree to tree, till we can no longer recover the
beaten path which surrounds without entering the
forest.
PJNIS,
INDEX.
A
A P ^
A, a privative Prefix, explained T 111
, or AN, a Prefix forming Adverbs HO
, AB or ABS, a Prefix -~ 110, 112
ABLE, a Termination 78
ABLY, , 82
ABSTRACTION, nature of 17
ACCENTS, of .41
ACCUSATIVE Case 37, 107
ACE, a Termination 93
AD, a Prefix 111
- , ADE, or ADO, a Termination 95
ADJECTIVES, of 16,72,155
ADVERBS, of -^ 19, 35, 86, 140
AFTER, definition of *- 34
AGE, a Termination , 89
A L, a Prefix , 156
, a Termination 77
AMB and AMP HI, Prefixes , 185
AN, a Prefix _ HI, 140
a Termination -^3,5
ANA, a Prefix . 121
, a Termination ., . 36
ANCE and ANT, Terminations 74
ANTE and ANTI, Prefixes 125
ANTHROPO, a Prefix L- 156
APO, __ _ HO
AQUA, * _ ]56
AR, a Termination , . 77
ARCH, a Prefix and Termination 103
ARD, a Termination _, - , 97
ARTICLES,
11 INDEX.
Page
ARTICLES, of 21, 59
ARY, a Termination
As, distinguished from So 53
ASTER, a Prefix . 156
ATE, ATION, ATOR, &c. Terminations 93
ATRA, a Prefix ~ 152
B
B, tlie letter 46, 64
BE, a Verb and Prefix 143
contracted into BL and BR 14-6
BENE, a Prefix 153
Bi or Bis, a Prefix 115
BLACK, its etymology, &c. * 14-6, 152
C
C, the letter -- 46,61
and CH, Terminations in 79, 91
CeeLUM, a Prefix - 15 6
CASES, account of - 33, 107
CATA, a Prefix 132
CAUSE, expressions of 123
CE, a Termination 25, 102
CENT, a Prefix H6
CHIEF, a Termination
CIDE and CIDAL, Terminations 96
CIRCUM, a Prefix 1 34-, 136
CLE, a Termination
CON, a Prefix 133
CONJUNCTIONS, of 22
CONTRA and COUNTER, Prefixes - 134?
D
B, the Letter *- 45
E, a Prefix 112
INDEX. HI
Page
DECA and DECEM, Prefixes 116
DEMI, a Prefix 114
Di, or DIS, a Prefix 113
DIA, _ 116
DIMINUTIVES, of -83
Do, explanation of 18, 45, 46, 60
DOM, a Termination 99
DOWN, etymology of, 132
E or EX, a Prefix ^ 140,148
ED, a Termination . 28 ? 68, 69
EE, 56
EL, _ 85,93
EMPHASIS, of 39
EN, a Prefix and Termination 26, 32, 68
ENCE, END, and ENT, Terminations 74
ENTER, a Prefix 140
EPI, ' 130
EQUI, 137
ER, a Termination 57, 58, 61, 73
ERM, 29
ERY, , ^- 82
E S , , 24, 27, 68
-, a Prefix 147
, contracted, forming SP, ST, &c. 148
ESQUE, a Termination 80
Ess, - 57
EST, 68, 73
ET or ETTE, a Termination 85
ETH, 68
Eu, a Prefix 153
EUR, a Termination _ 58
EVER, and other marks of indefinite Duration 142
Ex and EXTRA, Prefixes 140
M F
IV INDEX.
Page
F
F, the Letter _ _ 4,6, 53, 64
FOR, and FORE, definition of, 122
FREQUENTATIVES in LE, &c. 94
FROM, definition of 34, 109, 112
FUL, or FULL, a Termination - 88
FY and its compounds, Terminations * r- 104
G
G, the Letter . . 46,61,65
, terminations in, . * -. 79
GE, a Prefix and Termination --91
GENDER, of, . 57
GENITIVE CASE, of the 33
GEO, a Prefix . 156
GHT, a Termination 70
GRAMMAR, in general ' - - 9
H
H, the Letter . 51
HEAD and HEADED, Terminations r 97, 100
HEARTED, a Termination 97
HEMI, a Prefix 114
HEPTA, rr 115
HERE and its compounds explained 48
HETERO, a Prefix 156
HEX, '-, -. . 115
HIER, , 156
HOLD, : - 116
HOMO, ^ < . r 156
HOOD, a Termination - 100
How, definition of, -
HYDRO, a Prefix *-. r- 156
HYPER,
INDEX. V
Page
HYPER, a Prefix 131
HYPO, - 129
I
IBLE, a Termination **- 78
Ic, ICK, IQUE, and ICAL, Terminations 80
ID, a Prefix *7
, a Termination * 69
I FF , - _ _ -93
I GN , -- - - 153
I LE , . -- - - - -77
IN, a Prefix 30,130
, a Termination - 36
I NE , -- - - - - 36,85
-- - ^. 75
INTER and INTRO, Prefixes 14-0
INTERJECTIONS, of -
INTERROGATION, of 50
Is, a Termination * 24, 33
ISE, or IZE, ISM, and IST, Terminations 92
ISH, a Termination v 80, 83, 90
IT, definition of 45
ITE, a Termination 92
ITY, -- - 102
I VE , -- 93
Ix, . -- 57
K
K, the Letter 46,61
, Terminations in " - 79
KB, a Prefix and Termination 91
KIN, a Termination 84<
M 2
VI IKDLX,
Page
L
L, the Letter 64
LANGUAGE, of, in general 10, 66, 98
LE, a Termination 93
LESS, 88
LET, 84?
LETTERS, of, in general 45, 61, 63
LIKE, a Termination 82
LING, ._____ 34,
LY, 82
M
M, the Letter 63
, a Termination 38
MAGNA, a Prefix 116
MALE, 152
MANU, 156
ME NT, a Termination / 76
META, a Prefix 117
MICRO, 116
MILLE, 116
Mis, 150
MISEO, 156
MONO,- 115
MONY, a Termination 76
MOODS, of - - 70
MOST, a Termination - - 74*
MULTI, a Prefix 116
N
N, the Letter 63
NE, a Prefix 150
NEG, 150
NEGATIVES, of 14-9
Page
NESS, a Termination
No, distinguished from NOT 150
, a Prefix 150
Now, 150
NOUNS, of 15,36,155
NUMERAL Prefixes 114
O
OB, a Prefix 126
OBJECTIVE Case 37
OCTA or OCTO, a Prefix 115
OF and OFT, explained 34, 112
OMNI, a Prefix H6
On, a Termination
OON, 85
OR and OUR, Terminations 57
ORTHO, a Prefix 151
ORY, a Termination
X) SE , - 95
Ous, 85
OUT, a Prefix 137,139
OVER, 131
Ow, a Termination - 91
P, the Letter 46, 64
PAN, a Prefix 116
PAR, 137
PARTICIPLES, of 20, 75
PENTA, a Prefix 115
PER, , 116
PERI, 135
PHILO, 156
Pt, PR, &c. Prefixes 138
PLURAL
vm INDEX.
PagC
PLURAL Terminations 24
POLY, a Prefix 116
POSSESSIVE Case 33, 42
POST, a Prefix 121
P RE , _ 126
PREFIXES, of 23,108
PREPOSITIONS, of 22, 105, 14-1
PRETER, a Prefix 127
PRO, _ _ _ . 126
PRONOUNS, of 20, 43
PUR, a Prefix 157
Q
Q, the Letter t 46
QUADRI or QUADRU, a Prefix 115
QUINQUE and QUINTU, Prefixes - 115
R
R, the Letter 64
RE, a Prefix 118, 121
RECTI, a Prefix 151
RETRO, . 120
RICK, a Termination 62
S
S, the Letter , 46, 61, 64
, a Termination 24, 35, 68, 86
'S, the sign of the Genitive 33
SCAPE, a Termination 101
SE, a Prefix - 114
SELF, a Termination -*- -> 54
SEMI, a Prefix , 114
SEPT, _ ' 115
SHIP, a Termination 101
SKIP,
IDDEX. 1*
Page
SKIP, a Termination 101
So, definition of <- 53
SOLI, a Prefix 116
SOME, a Termination 87
STALL, ~ 138
STBAD, 99
STEP, a Prefix , 99
STER, a Termination * 58
SUB, a Prefix 128
SUBTER, a Prefix 128
SUPER, - 129
SUR, 131
SYN, -~ J3S
T
T, the Letter -_ -^-45
TENSES, of -~ - 68
TERMINATIONS, of 23, 105
TERRA, a Prefix 156
TETRA, 115
TH, Pronouns in explained 45
, a Termination 102
TIDE, ~ 25
TIME, of 25, 29
To, definition of 18, 45, 60, 109
TRANS, a Prefix 117
TRE or TRI, a Prefix 115
TUDE, a Termination ^ 102
Ty, 102
U
ULE and ULOUS, Terminations 83
UN, a Prefix 32
UNDER, a Prefix 129
UNI, 115
UP,
INDEX.
UP, a Prefix 131
URE, a Termination 59
V, the Letter - - - 46,53,64
VERBS, of 17, 67
VICE, a Prefix 154
VOWELS, of 65,103
W
W, the Letter 52
WARD, a Termination 96
WAYS, 85
WH. Pronouns in, explained 49
WHEN and Wi T H , connection between 1 S3
WISE, a Termination 85
WITH, a Prefix 146
, its connection with WHEN < 133
WORDS, of, in general ~- 11,14
Y, the Letter -r -, 5
~, a Prefix 91
, a Termination 81
Z, the Letter v 46,61,66
Zoo, a Prefix 156
6. CAW, Printer,
14 DAY USE
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.
This book is due on the last date stamped below,
or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only:
Tel. No. 642-3405
Renewals may be made 4 days priod to date due.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. .^
~*
LD21A-eOm-8,'70
(N8837slO)476 A-32
General Library
University of California
Berkeley