uni inr 
 
 Correspondence College 
 of Agriculture 
 
 DAIRYING PART ONE 
 
OF THE 
 COLLEGE OF 
 
 THE 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE 
 OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 DAIRYING, PART I 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAIRY 
 
 ... BY ... 
 
 EDWARD H. FARRINGTON, M. S. 
 
 Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the 
 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 This is the first of a series of six books giving a complete course of instructions in 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1910 
 THE CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 

 <y- 
 
 s>' 
 
 
 
 NOTE TO STUDENTS 
 
 In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from this paper, you 
 must thoroughly master the text. While it is not intended that you 
 commit the exact words of the text to memory, still there is nothing 
 contained in the text which is not absolutely essential for the in- 
 telligent dairyman to know. For your own good never refer to the 
 examination questions until you have finished your study of the tex t 
 By following this plan, the examination paper will show what 
 have learned from the text. 
 
Part I. 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 I. Development of the Dairy Industry. 
 
 1. Dairying is one of the oldest industries known to man. 
 Ancient inscriptions and documents seem to indicate that butter 
 was made one or two centuries B. C., and that contributions of 
 cheese for the support of monasteries were common in about 
 the year 500. Early literature also shows that for many years 
 no great attention was given to the development of the dairy 
 cow as a large milk producer, or that the processes of butter- 
 making and cheese making were changed much from year to 
 year. The cows in existence were milked and the butter and 
 cheese made in about the same routine way for many years. 
 
 2. Milk production and dairy manufacturing remained nearly 
 stationary until about 1875, when the centrifugal cream separator 
 began to show some promise of becoming useful. This invention 
 called attention to the large losses of butter fat in skimming 
 milk by the old gravity methods, and led to the establishment 
 of creameries where the milk of many farmers was skimmed and 
 butter made in a much more economical way than formerly. 
 
 3. A second stage in the development of dairying dates from 
 the invention of the Babcock and other milk tests in about 1890. 
 
 oo 
 
4 : DAIRYING. 
 
 The Babcock test furnished a means of detecting the losses of 
 butter fat in skim milk, and thus showed the need of perfecting 
 cream separators until such losses were reduced to a 'minimum. 
 Previous to the invention of the Babcock test, skim milk contained 
 at least three-tenths per cent fat, (0.3%) but this loss has now been 
 reduced to less than one-tenth per cent, (0.1%) thus making a 
 saving of two-tenths per cent, fat, (0.2%) due to the common use 
 of this test. By these means creamery buttermakers have learned 
 the necessity of controling the conditions that give a uniformly 
 efficient skimming of milk by centrifugal separators. This saving 
 of two-tenths per cent fat (0.2%) over the losses of former years 
 is five per cent (5.0%) of the fat in average whole milk, and it 
 represents a saving of $50,000 for every $1,000,000 worth of butter 
 manufactured from milk testing 4.0 per cent fat. 
 
 4. After the value of these two machines the separator and 
 the milk tester was thoroughly understood, the dairy industry 
 began to grow rapidly along three lines. 1. The improvement of 
 dairy manufacturing processes; 2. The study of economical milk 
 production; 3. The marketing of dairy products. 
 
 5. The study of these questions was first taken up by European 
 farmers who understood the benefits to be derived from co-opera- 
 tion; and in about 1880, farmers' co-operative associations began to 
 be organized for the purpose of carrying on co-operative feeding 
 experiments, factory inspection, and the sale of dairy products in- 
 the best markets. Such co-operation has not been extensively suc- 
 cessful among dairymen in the United States, but our dairy develop- 
 ment has been helped by state dairymens' associations, farmers' 
 institutes, state and county fairs, the farm and daily press, long 
 and short courses in agricultural colleges, and experiment station 
 bulletins. 
 
 A Dairying Compared With Other Lines of Farming. 
 
 6. The statement is often made at farmers' institutes and 
 similar gatherings that a change from grain farming to dairying 
 has lifted the mortgage from many a farm. The truth of this asser- 
 tion has been proved over and over again ; and numerous illustra- 
 tions might be cited to show that there are farms, counties, and 
 even states which owe their present prosperity largely to this 
 
DAIRYING. 
 
 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW. 
 
 
 HoLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL. 
 
6 DAIRYING. 
 
 change. In many grain-growing sections of the country where for- 
 merly the uncertainty of the crop each year made the farmer's 
 income somewhat precarious, the fertility of the land has been im- 
 proved, and the general prosperity of the farmer has been increased 
 by the introduction of dairying. 
 
 7. Soil exhaustion from constant cropping of the land is an 
 important matter in- all lines of farming ; and the advantages which 
 dairying has over other lines of farming in this respect are worthy 
 of consideration. "When only butter is sold from the farm there is 
 very little fertility removed from the soil. The carbon, oxygen, and 
 hydrogen of which butter fat is composed are taken from the air 
 and from water by the aid of sunlight, and so these elements are 
 maxle to contribute to the food of man without exhausting the soil 
 to the extent that grasses and grains extract its fertility. 
 
 a. Fertilizing Materials in Dairy Products and in Farm Crops. 
 
 8. One ton of butter contains about 1,688 pounds of fat, 272 
 pounds of water, and 20 pounds of milk sugar, and lactic acid, and 
 20 pounds of casein and mineral matter.* The first two sub- 
 stances, fat and water, comprise 1,960 pounds of the ton ; and their 
 formation does not impoverish the soil to any great extent. This 
 leaves only the 20 pounds of casein and mineral matter as the 
 fertilizing ingredients taken from the soil. This is a comparatively 
 small part of the ton, and no other farm crop removes so little 
 fertility from the land. 
 
 9. In a ton of mixed hay there are about 220 pounds of ash 
 (mineral matter) and protein; in a ton of corn 240 pounds; and of 
 wheat 275 pounds. These constituents are similar to the ash and 
 casein of butter, and a comparison of the figures shows that the 
 hay, the corn, and the wheat are 11 to 15 times more exhaustive 
 to the soil than is butter, when one ton or about $400 worth of 
 butter is compared with one ton of hay. 
 
 10. The case is somewhat different with milk. A ton of whole 
 milk removes from the soil about 88 pounds, or over four times as 
 much fertility as does butter. This difference between milk and 
 butter is largely due to the casein in milk, but the fertility which it 
 
 *Exclusive of salt added. 
 
DAIPtYINGL 7 
 
 contains is saved to the farm if the skimmed milk is kept at home 
 or returned from the creamery in a condition suitable for feeding 
 calves and pigs. 
 
 11. In the foregoing comparisons between butter and farm 
 crops it has been assumed that the casein, protein, and ash are of 
 equal fertilizing value, in all the products mentioned. An analysis 
 of these products, however, shows the exact amount of plant food 
 in each one of them. An average of some results of such analysis 
 is given in the following table. It includes not only the fertilizing 
 constituents but their value per ton. 
 
 Fertilizing Constituents in Crops and in Dairy Products.* 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 per cent. 
 
 Phos. Acid 
 per cent. 
 
 Potash 
 per cent. 
 
 Valut 
 per ton. 
 
 Hav 
 
 141 
 
 27 
 
 1 55 
 
 $ 4 91 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn 
 
 1 82 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 5 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat 
 
 236 
 
 89 
 
 .61 
 
 6 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Milk 
 
 53 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skim Milk . . . 
 
 .56 
 
 .20 
 
 .18 
 
 2.31 
 
 Butter 
 
 .12 
 
 .04 
 
 04 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Whey . 
 
 .15 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cheese 
 
 393 
 
 60 
 
 .uu 
 
 12 
 .j.^ 
 
 1419 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 These figures show the advantages which butter selling has 
 over the disposal of other farm products, when the matter of soil 
 exhaustion is taken into consideration. 
 
 12. According to the 12th Census, the value of the dairy 
 products of the United States amounted to $472,369,255. This is 
 more than the value of any one grain crop excepting corn (maiz), 
 which was $828,000,000, while wheat was $369,000,000, vegetables 
 $242,000,000, cotton $370,000,000, fruits $131,000,000, eggs $144,- 
 000,000. There was not much difference between our exports and 
 our imports of dairy products. These nearly balance each other; 
 the value of the imports being $3,500,000, "and the exports $4,888,000. 
 We import considerable cheese, and export condensed milk, as well 
 as small quantities of low grades of butter. Our exports of corn 
 
 pun 
 
 jj aoj ^ooqpuTJjj s 
 
DAIRYING. 
 
DAIRYING. 9 
 
 (maize), however, amount to $47,000,000, and of wheat, meal and 
 flour $46,000,000. When we remember that two pounds of butter is 
 often worth as much in the market as one bushel of corn, the 
 American farmer needs to consider seriously the economy of keep- 
 ing his corn at home and feeding it to his dairy cows, rather than 
 sending it across the ocean for feeding the cows of the more 
 intensive farmers of Europe. 
 
 13. It is claimed by Lane, that the gain In fertilizing constit- 
 uents to a farm of 76 acres in seven years with thirty or forty 
 cows amounted to an equivalent of 27.6 tons of nitrate of soda, 
 29.6 tons of acid phosphate, and 2.47 tons of muriate of potash. 
 
 HORTHORN BULL. 
 
 These results are found by subtracting the pounds of fertilizing 
 materials in the milk produced, from the weight of these fertilizing 
 materials in the concentrated feed bought and fed to theso COAVS 
 during this period of time. Or in other words, there was a gain 
 to the farm for a year of 1,230 pounds of nitrogen, 1,010 pounds of 
 phosphoric acid, and 353 pounds of potash from the grain fed to 
 the COAVS. 
 
 b. Feeding Value of Skimmed Milk. 
 
 14. Another important item in farm dairying is the feeding 
 value of skimmed milk for young stock and poultry. Many prac- 
 
10 DAIRYING. 
 
 tical and scientific experiments have demonstrated that calves and 
 pigs will thrive on warm, sweet, and undiluted skimmed milk 
 nearly as well as on whole milk, especially when a small quantity 
 of ground flax seed is fed with the milk. It is also claimed that 
 for feeding pigs, 100 pounds of skimmed milk is worth nearly as 
 much as the price of a pound of butter, or one-half as much as the 
 price of a bushel of corn. One pound of butter is sometimes worth 
 more than a bushel of oats, and in some places more than two 
 bushels of potatoes. 
 
 c. Dairy Products Not Bulky to Market. 
 
 15. Besides these advantages of fertility and feed which milk 
 producing gives to the farmer, he can by dairying convert his 
 farm crops into concentrative products like butter and cheese, which 
 are not so bulky to market as grain, hay, roots, etc. This makes a 
 great saving in the cost of transportation and handling of such 
 crops. 
 
 d. Utilizing Waste Land. 
 
 16. Another thing in favor of dairying is the fact that on some 
 farms there are waste places which cannot be cultivated and made 
 to yield crops by the bushel, but which may be utilized as pasture 
 and thus produce .an income, which although it may not be so great 
 as that from tillable land is far better than nothing. 
 
 e. Dairyman a Manufacturer. 
 
 16. An intelligent dairyman is not only a producer of such raw 
 material as grain and forage, but he is also a manufacturer of 
 this raw material into milk, which is a high priced food product. In 
 some instances the income from milking a few cows may seem to be 
 small, but while the cows are busy all day converting their food 
 into milk, their owner is able to do a fair day's work in addition to 
 the milking. 
 
 f. Employment Throughout the Year. 
 
 17. Dairying gives constant employment to farm labor in all 
 
DAIRYING. 11 
 
 kinds of weather and during every season of the year. While the 
 cows are working in the pasture in the summer, the dairyman is 
 planting, cultivating and harvesting their winter feed. During the 
 winter the laborers who were employed in producing the feed are 
 kept busy in caring for the cows, which convert this summer feed 
 into winter milk. There is no time for idleness on a dairy farm, and 
 hired help can be profitably employed during the entire year. 
 
 g. Profitable Returns for Study. 
 
 18. No branch of farming gives a greater opportunity for 
 profitable thought and study as well as skill and expertness in 
 management, than does dairying, and no line of work gives better 
 returns for intelligent thought than the dairy. Problems in breed- 
 ing and feeding, and in economical production are constantly before 
 the dairyman, and on the proper solution of these depends his pros- 
 perity. The dairyman of all men learns to be kind, gentle, and 
 progressive, as his experience with cows will so'on show the necessity 
 of developing these traits of character to become successful. The 
 favorable statements already made in regard to dairying in general 
 might be still further added to without exaggeration, but those 
 given will apply to any community. It often happens that a certain 
 locality has special advantages for this line of farming, and these 
 should be utilized in every case. There is always room at the top 
 in dairying and success is attained by reading and thinking, and 
 by attending dairy conventions, visiting other dairy farms, and by 
 putting into practice the ideas accumulated in this way. 
 
 B Peculiar Characteristics of a Dairyman. 
 
 19. Certain traits of character seem to be particularly adapted 
 to dairying; and w r hen we consider the reward a man may receive 
 for his labor in this line of w r ork, it seems worth while to cultivate 
 the disposition most needed for success. A dairy farmer must give 
 constant attention to his business. The cows give milk every day 
 in the year, they have no holidays, and since the milk as well as 
 other dairy products are perishable, they must be properly and 
 constantly cared for ; any neglect of either the cows or the products 
 means a loss to the owner. 
 
 20. The dairyman must possess a gentle disposition, as harsh 
 
1.2 DAIRYING. 
 
 treatment will reduce the flow of milk as well as lack of feed; and 
 when the stock shows a tendency to run from rather than towards a 
 farmer, it shows that he does not possess the disposition necessary 
 for a successful dairyman. 
 
 21. He should also possess good judgment, as this is especially 
 needed in the buying of concentrated feeds and in determining 
 whether it is profitable for him to grow certain crops on his farm 
 and sell them, using the money to buy feed particularly adapted for 
 milk -production. He must also consider whether in his particular 
 locality it is more profitable for him to turn his attention to winter 
 or summer dairying. As a rule, winter dairying is more profitable 
 because the prices of dairy products are higher in the winter than 
 in the summer. But in some cases, cows require less care during 
 the summer time than in the winter, and many farmers prefer to 
 have their cows produce the largest quantities of milk during the 
 summer time, even though the prices of dairy products are lower 
 at this season of the year. 
 
 C Winter Dairying. 
 
 22. The season of the year in which the largest quantity of 
 milk is produced varies with different dairymen. Those who wish 
 to supply a trade that calls for approximately the same amount of 
 milk each month, arrange to have some cows in the herd come in 
 fresh every month. In some localities, especially where the winter 
 seasons are not extremely severe, there is a tendency to have the 
 cows freshen in the spring, allowing them to browse in scant pasture, 
 timber lots, or swamp through the summer, giving what milk they 
 will for several months, and then allowing them to dry up and run 
 in the corn fields or around straw stacks during the winter. 
 
 24. Milk produced in this way is usually very expensive, even 
 though it does not cost much to feed the cows, as the amount of 
 milk given per cow does not sell for enough to pay for the new 
 cows that must be bought to keep up the herd. No herd will 
 endure such treatment many years; and the loss of cows as well as 
 the cost of the feed that may be given them is enough to discourage 
 anyone from keeping cows on such a system as this. 
 
 25. A farmer's attitude toward dairying will change entirely 
 when he begins to make preparations for winter dairying. This 
 
DAIRYING. 13 
 
 necessitates protection for the cows in a comfortable stable, and 
 usually a silo well filled with corn silage for feeding the cows dur- 
 ing the winter. Neither the cow nor the farmer needs rest in the 
 winter; and a herd of good cows in a warm, well ventilated stable 
 gives profitable employment for both farm help and cows through 
 this season of the year. 
 
 26. Feed does not cost more in winter than in summer, and 
 labor is cheaper during the winter months; therefore, the cost of 
 producing the milk may be less in the winter season, and the prices 
 paid for it are much higher in winter than in summer. 
 
 27. In 1909 the Elgin market price of butter was in May, 27 
 cents; June, 26% cents; July, 26% cents, and in November, 
 32% cents, December, 36 cents and January, 32 cents. 
 
 The market price of cheese was in May, 15 cents; June, 13% 
 cents ; July, 15% cents, and in November, 16% cents ; December, 
 16% cents, and March, 16% cents. 
 
 The quotations for milk for city supply were: 'May, $1.35; 
 June, $1.35, January, $1.79, and February, $1.64 per 100 Ibs. 
 
 28. These figures show the difference between summer and 
 winter prices, and if the cows are fresh in the fall they will be 
 producing the most milk when prices are the highest. They will 
 also give more milk during one milking season as the flow of milk 
 will be kept up during the winter and turning them out to pasture 
 in the spring stimulates the milk producing organs so that there is 
 an increased flow of milk at this time. It is sometimes stated that 
 "cows fresh in the fall are fresh twice in the year." 
 
 29. The fall calf grows through the winter when there is time 
 to look after it and when turned out in the spring it grows better 
 and is better able to fight the annoying flies than a spring calf. It 
 is claimed that a fall calf will grow as much in twelve weeks as, 
 a spring calf in eighteen weeks and a fall calf makes a stronger 
 heifer and cow than a spring calf. 
 
 30. It is also claimed that cows calving in the fall are less 
 likely to have milk fever than in spring. 
 
 31. By winter dairying a more economical use of the land is 
 made than by summer pasture, which is too expensive, especially 
 on high-priced land. 
 
14 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 
DAIRYING. 
 D Location in Its Relation to Kind of Dairying. 
 
 15 
 
 32. The distance from market is an important factor in deter- 
 mining the kind of dairying best adapted to a given location. 
 
 33. On high-priced land near a city the selling of milk directly 
 to the consumer or to a city milk dealer is a common practice. A 
 high price is usually paid for such milk, as it can be delivered 
 quickly and in good condition with little cost for transportation; 
 but under such conditions a large amount of the feed must be 
 
 BROWN SWISS BULL. 
 
 bought, and if crops are raised the land must be kept up to a high 
 state of fertility with manure and fertilizers bought from the city. 
 
 34. Cities are constantly reaching out farther into the country 
 for their milk supply, and the lower value of the land as well as 
 the decreased cost of producing feed as the distance increases, 
 makes it possible on these remote farms to pay greater transporta- 
 tion charges. 
 
1G DAIRYING. 
 
 35. Butter making or cheese making is not often undertaken 
 within the limits of a city demand for whole milk. The sale cf 
 sweet cream to ice cream dealers in cities is a very profitable line 
 of dairying when the farm is so situated that the cans of cream 
 can be conveniently shipped by steam or electric railroad. 
 
 36. Cream selling does not impoverish the soil of the farm on 
 which it is produced, and good prices are paid for a uniformly 
 sweet and rich cream. 
 
 37. Farms located beyond the reach of a city demand for milk, 
 find the local creamery, cheese factory, or condensary a profitable 
 enterprise to patronize. The creamery takes the cream, leaving the 
 skim milk at the farm, and this is worth about twice as much per 
 100 pounds- for feeding purposes as the whey returned from a 
 cheese factory. The condensary uses all the milk, returning noth- 
 ing to the farm, and on this account pays more for milk than 
 the creamery or cheese factory. 
 
 38. Farm butter making and the shipping of a can of sour 
 cream once a week to a distant point for butter making gives the 
 isolated farmer a market for the products of his cows. 
 
 39. The difference in receipts for milk sold to a city milk dealer, 
 a creamery, or a cheese factory will depend upon the market prices 
 of these products at any given time, -and the cost of making the 
 butter or cheese. This may vary in different localities, and it is also 
 influenced by the amount of patronage at each factory, the cost 
 of manufacture being less per pound at a large factory than at a 
 small factory. 
 
 40. Taking 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent, fat as a 
 basis for illustration, the amount that may be received for it when 
 sold to each of three places may be calculated as follows : 
 
 41. 1st. Selling milk at 3 cents per quart to a city dealer is the 
 same as $1.50 for 100 pounds of 4 per cent. milk. 
 
 42. 2nd. If taken to a creamery this 100 pounds of milk should 
 make 4.64 pounds of butter, which at 30 cents per pound amounts 
 to $1.39. To this should be added the value of 80 pounds of skim 
 milk and 15 pounds of buttermilk, which at 25 cents per 100 pounds 
 amounts to 24 cents, making a total of $1.39+24=$!. 63. From 
 this should be subtracted the cost of making the butter, which at 
 
DAIRYING. 17 
 
 3 cents per pound gives 4.64X3=14 cents, leaving the net receipts 
 for the 100 pounds of milk from the creamery $1.63 .14=$1.49. 
 
 43. 3rd. If this 100 pounds of milk is taken to a cheese fac- 
 tory, it will make about 10 pounds of cheese, which at 15 cents 
 amounts to $1.50.; to which should be added the value of 90 pounds 
 of whey, which is one-half that of skim milk or 12 cents, making 
 the total receipts for cheese and whey $1.50+12=$1.62, from this 
 must be subtracted the cost of making the cheese, which at V/ 2 i^nts 
 per pound gives 10X^2=15 cents, and $1.6215 cents=$1.47 as 
 the net receipts for the milk if taken to the cheese factory. 
 
 44. A summary of these figures the receipts for 100 pounds 
 of milk, testing 4 per cent, fat when sold at 3 cents per quart as 
 $1.50; when sold to the creamery, $1.49; -and when sold to the 
 cheese factory, $1.47. A comparison similar to this can be made by 
 substituting other prices for milk, butter and cheese as the mar- 
 kets change. 
 
 II, Selecting Cows for the Dairy. 
 
 45. According to the Twelfth Census, taken in the year 1900, 
 there were 18,112,707 cows in the United States. The total amount 
 of milk produced per year is reported as 7,728,583,350 gallons. A 
 calculation made from these figures shows that the average milk 
 production per cow per year is 3,600 pounds. A somewhat more 
 recent estimate of the number of cows was reported by the United 
 States Department of Agriculture in 1906. This gives the total num- 
 ber of cows in the United States at that time as 19,793,866. This is an 
 nicrease of over one and one-half millions in six years, so that it is 
 evidently safe to assume that at the present time, 1910, there are 
 at least 21,000,000 cows in the United States, and that the average 
 production per cow per year is not far from 4,000 pounds of milk. 
 
 46. This average production seems like an extremely small 
 figure, especially to farmers living in localities where milk produc- 
 tion has been carried on for several generations; but it shows what 
 a great opportunity there is for increasing the amount of milk pro- 
 duced per cow per year when this figure is compared with some of 
 the records that are published of herds in which the average pro- 
 duction per cow is from 6,000 to 8,000 pounds of milk per year, and 
 
18 DAIRYING. 
 
 of single cows whose record has reached 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of 
 milk per year. 
 
 47. Persons somewhat familiar with the keeping of cows would 
 consider that an increase of 100 pounds of milk per cow per year 
 would not require any great effort on their part. Many of them 
 would think it comparatively easy to do this by giving a trifle more 
 attention to the care and to the feed of their cows. But if this were 
 done and milk is worh $1.00 per 100 pounds, such an increase wo aid 
 add $21,000,000 to the value of the dairy production of the United 
 States each year. 
 
 48. One of the best ways to add this 100 pounds, more or less ,to 
 the annual production of each cow is to weigh the rnilk at milking 
 time and find out how many pounds each cow is producing in a 
 year. If the average per cow per year is 4,000 pounds of milk, 
 there must be a great many that produce less than this amount, and 
 the number of cows below the average must be many more than 
 the number above the average, as one 10,000 pound cow will take 
 the. place of five 2,000 pound cows. 
 
 49. Statistics show that there is a great need of "weeding 
 out the unprofitable cows." Farmers will discharge a hired man 
 who does not earn his wages, and a great deal of the farmer's time 
 is occupied in killing weeds in his crops; but the weighing of each 
 cow's milk is generally considered "too much bother." It is a fact, 
 however, that many farmers can increase their income by keeping 
 records of their cows, and disposing of those that give less than 
 4,000 pounds of milk, or 200 pounds of butter in a year. 
 
 50. Nearly every farmer would eagerly accept an offer of $20 
 for 15 minutes ' work once in two weeks for a year, but he can easily 
 earn more than this by weighing and testing the milk of his cows. 
 The following illustration shows how such work was valuable to the 
 owner of the two cows in plate 3. These belonged to a herd of 12 that 
 were all fed and cared for in the same way. These two cows were of 
 the same age, color, and general appearance, except that No. 1 was 
 thin and No. 2 fat. The owner was induced to weigh and sample the 
 milk of each cow in his herd once in two weeks for a year. The 
 samples were sent to the creamery and tested. From these weights 
 and tests the total production of each cow was calculated. 
 
 51. The records at the end of the year showed that cow No. 1 
 
DAIRYING. If) 
 
 gave 7,600 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent. fat. This is equal to 
 360 pounds of butter, which at 25 cents is worth $90.00. Cow No. 2 
 gave 5,400 pounds of milk testing 4.1 per cent, fat, amounting to 
 260 pounds of butter, which at 25 cents is worth $65.00. Cow No. 1 
 produced 2,200 pounds more milk than No. 2, and 100 pounds more 
 butter, which at 25 cents per pound amounts to $25.00 to which 
 should be added the value of the 2,000 additional pounds of skim 
 milk. 
 
 52. A feed record kept by the farmer for the year showed that 
 the cost of feed per cow in the herd was about $30.00. Both cows 
 required the same amount of care and whether or not the farmer 
 wants "to bother with" the weighing of the milk as a means of se- 
 lecting the profitable cows in his herd, depends on the purpose for 
 which he is keeping cows. Does he wish the cows to support him, 
 or is he working day after day to support his cows? 
 
 53. The low average production of milk per cow per year shows 
 that many farmers are either so much attached to their cows that 
 they do not care to part with any of them even if it is proved that 
 some do not produce milk enough to pay for their feed, or they 
 think that they know enough about their cows without weighing and 
 testing the milk of each one. This indifference to an exact know- 
 ledge of the profit and loss from, cows is common among* farmers, 
 and on account of it they suffer annually large financial losses. 
 
 54. Many observations have been made in recent years to show 
 the actual production of milk by cows throughout the country. In 
 Illinois, records were obtained of 556 cows owned by farmers sup- 
 plying milk to either a city, a creamery, or a condensary. The 
 results obtained were classified by dividing the total number into 
 four lots of 139 cows each. The average production of the poorest 
 lot was 133 pounds of butter per cow, and of the best 301 pounds of 
 butter. The profit from the poorest lot of 139 cows was $100, and 
 from the best lot of the same number of cows $4,000. A further 
 study of the records showed that it would require 1,021 cows of the 
 producing capacity of some to equal that of 25 other cows. 
 
 55. The records obtained by weighing and testing the milk of 
 each cow in a herd are valuable not only to the owner as an aid in 
 selecting those he wishes to keep; but such records if good ones, 
 help to sell the calves of the cows, and they raise the value of the 
 
20 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
DAIRYING. 
 
 21 
 
22 DAIRYING. 
 
 cows themselves. "Weighing the milk of each cow and testing a 
 sample with the Babcock test as described later is now taking the 
 place of farmer churn tests. 
 
 56. Churn tests are now out-of-date, as it has been shown that 
 butter can be made to contain an abnormal amount of water by 
 artful manipulation. The fraudulent compounds thus obtained are 
 no longer accepted as butter. Legal butter according to recently 
 adopted United States standards, must contain at least 82.5 per cent, 
 fat, and since the amount of fat in butter is necessarily a variable 
 quantity on account of the method of manufacture, the butter record 
 of a cow is now based on, the weight of butter fat in her milk instead 
 of the butter that is reported to have been made from it. 
 
 57. The Babcock test and a pair of scales are the means now 
 employed for making permanent and valuable records of dairy 
 cows. They measure the milk by an absolute standard which is not 
 subject to variations when honestly used. The test takes the place 
 of the churn, because the same accuracy cannot be obtained with 
 scales and churn as with the scales and test. The most expert dairy- 
 man is not able to divide 100 pounds of cream into four or more 
 equal parts and make exactly the same weight of butter from each 
 part, but the Babcock test will show the same percentage of butter 
 fat in the different lots. 
 
 a. Average Milk Producers. 
 
 58. The statistics already quoted indicate that the average cow 
 in the United States produces about 4,000 pounds of milk ; and if this 
 tests 3.5 per cent, fat, and an overrun of 16 per cent, is assumed, the 
 average butter production per cow is 162 pounds. The average 
 farm value of the 21,801,000 cows is reported as $35.79 per cow in 
 the 1909 year book of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 59. Taking these figures as a basis, the value of cows producing 
 more or less than this amount can be estimated. If a cow producing 
 162 pounds of butter is valued at $35, a cow producing 200 pounds is 
 worth more than the value of the increase in butter. Assuming both 
 cows to be an equal expense to the owner, then the one producing 38 
 
 *The increase of the churn over the test or the difference be- 
 tween butter and butter fat. 
 
DAIRYING. 
 
 pounds more butter than the other brings at 25 cents per pound, 
 38X25=$9.50 more income. This $9.50 is a little more than 6 per 
 cent, of $150.00, and since many people consider money at 6 per cent, 
 interest as a good investment, the cow producing 200 pounds of but- 
 ter may be assumed to be worth $150 more than the cow producing 
 162 pounds of butter. 
 
 60. The difference in value of cows may in this way be based 
 on the amount of money on which the excess of production over the 
 cost of keeping will pay a fair rate of interest. There may or may 
 not be a difference in the amount of feed consumed by the two cows. 
 This will depend on the individuality of the two animals, but the 
 cost of stabling and caring for them is the same, and the owner's 
 profit comes from the margin obtained over the cost of keeping. 
 
 61. The average production of milk per cow shows a great need 
 of improvement in our dairy cows ; and while it may be difficult to 
 buy better cows, they may be raised by the use of a pure bred dairy 
 sire. The figures given show that it will be a good investment to 
 pay what may seem to be excessive prices for both cows and bulls of 
 the dairy type. 
 
 b. Exceptionally Large Milk Producers. 
 
 62. The development of dairy cows by careful feeding and 
 handling, so that they will produce a maximum of milk on a mini- 
 mum of feed is a business in which many people are enthusiastically 
 engaged. Formerly a great deal of attention was paid to the pedi- 
 gree of a cow, and this is still of considerable importance, but it is 
 far from being the only record that is in demand at the present time. 
 The opinion is fast gaining ground that an official test of a dairy 
 cow's performance as a milk and butter producer is of th'e first im- 
 portance. 
 
 63. These tests are best made at home, where the cows are 
 undisturbed by strange surroundings. There may be educational 
 advantage in having exceptionally good cows exhibited at fairs and 
 places where many people see them, but cows nearly always produce 
 more milk at home than at a fair where they are more or less 
 excited. This is well understood by dairymen ; and when an excep- 
 tionally large milker is to be tested, the owner usually sends to an 
 agricultural college for a man to come to the farm and watch the 1 
 
24 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 milking, then sample and test the milk of such cows as he wishes to 
 be tested. The cow is thus given every advantage possible to do her 
 best, and the record she makes is an official one, since it is certified 
 to by a disinterested party who is usually a representative from an 
 agricultural college. There is nothing spectacular about these home 
 tests of dairy cows, but they are being quietly made in many of the 
 states and the interest in them is rapidly spreading. 
 
 64. The best one-year records of cows belonging to four of the 
 dairy breeds up to 1910 are the following: 
 
 Ayrshire cow, Rena Rose, milk 15,072 pounds, test 4.26 per cent, 
 fat, butter fat 643 pounds. 
 
 Guernsey cow, Dolly Dimple, milk 18,459 pounds, test 4.96 per 
 cent, fat, butter fat 907 pounds. 
 
 Holstein cow, Colantha 4ths Johanna, milk 27,432 pounds, test 
 3.64 per cent, fat, butter fat 998 pounds. 
 
 Jersey cow, Jacoba Irene, milk 17,253 pounds, test, 5.53 per cent, 
 fat, butter fat 953 pounds. 
 
 65. These figures certainly must inspire respect for the dairy 
 cow as a producer of human food. A circular issued concerning the 
 record of Jacoba Irene states that her milk for one year contained 
 2,527 pounds of solids, and that this is equal to the edible solids of 
 25 steers. 
 
 66. The Missouri Agricultural College compares the solids in 
 milk of a cow giving 18,405 pounds of milk in a year with the carcass 
 of a 1,250 pound steer, and gives the following figures. 
 
 Dry Matter or Solids. 
 
 
 Milk of 1 cow 
 18,405 pounds. 
 
 Steer 
 1,250 pounds. 
 
 Protein 
 
 552 pounds 
 
 172 pounds 
 
 
 
 
 Fat 
 
 618 pounds 
 
 172 pounds 
 
 
 
 
 Milk Sugar 
 
 920 pounds 
 
 . . . pounds 
 
 
 
 
 Ash : 
 
 128 pounds 
 
 43 pounds 
 
 Total 
 
 2,218 pounds 
 
 548 pounds 
 
 The dry matter from the milk is all edible solids, while that of 
 the steer includes hide, bones, tallow, etc. This shows that cows and 
 not steers must be kept on high priced land. 
 
DAIRYING. 25 
 
 67. A good daily grain in live weight of a steer is two or three 
 pounds, and this is nearly half water, while a cow giving 50 poiinds 
 of milk per day is manufacturing six pounds of solid food for man, 
 which is more digestible than even 12 pounds, gain in live weight 
 per day in the steer. 
 
 68. The milk of the Holstein cow (27,432 pounds), would sup- 
 ply 94 people with milk for one year, provided the estimate of 290 
 pounds of milk per capita is a correct one. 
 
 69. It is claimed that the dairy cow produces human food more 
 cheaply than any other animal, and to equal the production of a cow 
 giving 50 pounds of milk per day, a steer would have to allow 10 
 pounds of steak to be cut from his carcass every day. 
 
 c. Choice of a Dairy Breed. 
 
 70. There is no best dairy breed of cows. This is the conclusion 
 of many broad-minded dairymen. There are four so-called dairy 
 breeds of cows which arranged alphabetically may be named Ayr- 
 shire, Guernsey, Holstein and Jersey. In addition to these there are 
 many cows producing large quantities of milk in the following 
 breeds: Brown Swiss, Short Horn, Dutch Belted, Devon and Red 
 Polled. The selection of a breed by each dairyman is about the 
 same sort of task as choosing a cream separator or a sewing machine. 
 
 71. There are good cows and poor cows in all breeds as well as 
 excellent ma'chines in all makes. Each breed of dairy cows possesses 
 certain characteristics which are more or less well known, but it is 
 hard to prove that any one breed contains a higher percentage of 
 economical milk producers than another. 
 
 72. Two cows of the same breed, fed, cared for, and milked in 
 the same stable may vary as much in milk production as two cows 
 of different breeds. The individuality of the animal is of as much 
 importance as her breed. 
 
 73. The selection of a breed should be based on a person's likes 
 and dislikes, and the disposition to be made of the milk. In sec- 
 tions of the country which supply cities with milk there are often 
 found large numbers of cows of the breeds which have the char- 
 acteristic of producing large quantities of milk, and a heavy flow is 
 nearly always accompanied by a lower per cent, of fat in the milk 
 than when the amount of milk produced per cow is smaller. 
 
26 DAIRYING. 
 
 *Yield and Test of Milk from Cows of Several Breeds. 
 
 BREED 
 
 No. of 
 
 Cows 
 
 Fat 
 
 % 
 
 No. of 
 Cows 
 
 Milk per 
 day Ibs. 
 
 Calc. Butter 
 per day 
 Ibs. 
 
 Jersey 
 
 491 
 
 4.98 
 
 425 
 
 27.3 
 
 1.36 
 
 Guernsey 
 
 191 
 
 4.77 
 
 151 
 
 29.7 
 
 1.42 
 
 Holstein-Friesian 
 
 679 
 
 3.28 
 
 503 
 
 48.8 
 
 1.60 
 
 Shorthorn 
 
 370 
 
 3.73 
 
 275 
 
 43.5 
 
 1.62 
 
 Ayrshire 
 
 108 
 
 3.84 
 
 50 
 
 37.0 
 
 1.42 
 
 Red Polled 
 
 50 
 
 3.73 
 
 50 
 
 37.3 
 
 1.39 
 
 Brown Swiss .... 
 
 20 
 
 3.78 
 
 14 
 
 37.3 
 
 1.41 
 
 Devon 
 
 50 
 
 4.57 
 
 27 
 
 13.2 
 
 .60 
 
 Dutch Belted 
 
 5 
 
 3.40 
 
 5 
 
 27.2 
 
 .92 
 
 Polled Jersey . . . 
 
 5 
 
 4.66 
 
 5_ 
 
 22.0 
 
 1.07 
 
 French Canadian 
 
 5 
 
 3.99 
 
 5 
 
 27.0 
 
 1.08 
 
 74. It is also claimed that the grade or conformation of the 
 farm should be considered in selecting a breed as light, active cows 
 can climb hilly pastures better than heavy cows which are more 
 appropriate for level land. 
 
 75. When a dairyman has a definite purpose in view, .and he 
 wishes to place cows in a certain locality with which he is well 
 acquainted, the problem of selecting a dairy breed is cmnparatively 
 easy. Some are influenced by the characteristic color and form or 
 style of a certain breed, while others want a rich milk or a large 
 quantity of milk from each cow. 
 
 76. Certain breed fanciers find all the good qualities in one 
 breed, while others see good qualities in all dairy breeds. Each 
 person must therefore, make his own selection after consulting his 
 fancy, his location, and his market, make a choice and stick to it, then 
 develop by breeding and selection exceptionally fine representatives 
 of that breed. 
 
 77. The cows of any one breed need as much study to determine 
 which ones are. the economical milk producers as do the different 
 breeds. It should not be claimed that the cows and calves of one 
 breed are stronger than another, or that they can stand more hard- 
 
 *WoU's Handbook. 
 
DAIRYING. 27 
 
 ship than another, because the profitable milk producer has i'ot 
 been developed for the purpose of enduring hardship. Kough treat- 
 ment, cold stables, and scant feed will destroy the dairy qualities of 
 any breed, and unless cows can be well fed and cared for during the 
 entire year, the choice of a breed is not of much consequence. But 
 when once made, there is no particular advantage in changing to 
 another; stick to your choice in the same way that you would to a 
 certain line of work in which you have invested money. There will 
 be no profit in changing after a decision has been made. 
 
 78. The "special purpose" cow or breed is better for a dairy- 
 man than the "dual purpose" cow. It is fair to assume that dairy 
 COW T S are kept to produce milk, and as a converter of feed into a large 
 quantity of milk, the "special purpose" cows are more profitable 
 than the "dual purpose" cows, which give a fair quantity of milk, 
 and raise a good, veal calf each year or that have a tendency to 
 make more milk when given an abundance of feed. Cows of the 
 latter type are not strictly dairy cows-. 
 
 79. It can no longer be claimed that cows of a certain breed 
 are cheese cows, while others are butter cows. The dairy test at the 
 Chicago World's Pair showed that there was not much difference in 
 the * ' cheese value ' ' of the Jersey and the Holstein cows, and although 
 it is a well known fact that there is proportionately more casein in 
 normal milk containing a low per cent, of fat than in milk of a 
 higher fat content, it has also been demonstrated that the per cent, 
 of casein varies as much as one per cent, in the milk of cows which 
 contain the same per cent, of butter fat. 
 
 80. It is also true that the richer the milk the better the quality 
 .of the cheese made from it, and that the slightly lower yield of cheese 
 per pound of rich milk than per pound of thinner milk is balanced 
 by the increased value per pound of cheese made from the richer 
 milk. 
 
 81. In actual cheese factory practice, however, where the mixed 
 milk from different herds is received, the purity or cleanliness o 
 the milk received has more influence than the richness of the milk 
 on the quality of the cheese as it is now sold in the market. 
 
 d. Cost of Keeping a Cow. 
 
 82. Although it is a very complex problem, there is no subject of 
 
28 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
DAIRYING. 29 
 
 greater importance to the owner of cows than the cost of producing 
 the milk. This question will give better returns for time and. study 
 devoted to its consideration than nearly any other part of the dairy- 
 man's work. It is difficult to determine just what should be 
 included in the cost of producing milk, as this will vary from nearly 
 nothing on farms where cows are kept and allowed to wander over 
 waste, rocky land, timber land, swampy land, etc., for nearly six 
 months in the year, and then given little or no shelter during the 
 winter, to the expensive farms where cows are kept on high priced 
 land in expensive stables and where the feed as well as the labor 
 must all be obtained at the highest market price. 
 
 83. In considering the question of the cost of producing milk, 
 the cow owners of the country can be divided into three classes: 
 First, those engaged in what is termed general farming, where 
 the cows are kept as a part of the farm stock only ; and in addition 
 to milking the cows and selling either milk or cream from them, 'die 
 farmer produces and sells hay, grain, potatoes, pork, poultry, mutton, 
 and some vegetables and fruit. Such farmers buy very little feed for 
 their cows; they keep no record of the milk production, and give 
 the cows no special attention. This class includes by far the great 
 majority of cow owners in the country. 
 
 84. The second class of so-called dairy farmers make the dairy 
 cows the important part of their farm operations,. The cows 
 are selected by keeping careful records of their milk production, 
 feeds for milk production, and the entire attention of the owner 
 is given to the production of milk in the most economical way> 
 
 85. The third class of farmers, which is an exceedingly small 
 one, devote their time to intensive milk production; and their work 
 may be compared with that of the owner of trotting horses, as 
 they are interested in developing some one or a few of the cows in 
 their herd so that they may have the honor of owning a cow which 
 has broken all previous records in the total amount of milk and 
 butter fat produced in a given time. This line of intensive milk pro- 
 duction has also been carried on in the dairy tests conducted at the 
 Chicago Columbian Exposition and the Louisiana Purchase Exposi- 
 tion held at St. Louis in 1904. 
 
 86. Attention has been directed to the cows kept on the farm 
 
30 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
DAIRYING. 31 
 
 where milk is only one of the products sold each year in many 
 different ways. The results of one of these lines of investigation 
 have been reported under the heading of "Cow Census Record" 
 in Hoard's Dairyman. These records are usually obtained by a 
 representative of this paper visiting the farms in given localities 
 and- by talking with the owner of the cows, and obtaining an esti- 
 mate of the amount of the feed given the cows on each 1'urm. 
 87. The figures concerning the amount of milk produced by each 
 herd is gnerally obtained by consulting the creamery, cheese fac- 
 tory, or other buyer of the milk sold from the farm. This work 
 has been very valuable as it directs the attention of the owner 
 of the cows at each place, to the opportunties he has for finding 
 'out what the milk approximately costs that he is selling from the 
 farm. The figures reported may lack some exactness, but they 
 give a general idea of the approximate cost of the feed per cow 
 per year on the farms where the cows are only one part of the 
 general farming operations. In obtaining these figures no attempt 
 was made to determine the cost of any other part of the cows' 
 expenses. The data refers entirely to the feed cost in each locality. 
 A summary of some of these figures is as follows : 
 
 Average of Results Obtained from Cow Census. 
 
 STATE 
 Illinois 
 
 No. of 
 Herds 
 
 100 
 
 No. of 
 Cows 
 
 1,400 
 
 Average 
 Cost 
 Fexi per 
 Cow 
 
 $32.76 
 
 Iowa 
 
 100 
 
 1,062 
 
 28.23 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 . . 50 
 
 453 
 
 36.27 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 100 
 
 872 
 
 35.67 
 
 New York 
 
 100 
 
 1,724 
 
 46.78 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 450 5,511 $35.94 
 
 88. The figures in this table do not give information con- 
 cerning the expense of keeping a cow excepting the estimated 
 cost of the feed, There are, however, other things which enter into 
 the cost of producing milk besides the feed and among these may 
 be considered the following: 
 
 89. First, the cow stable. This, of course, must be large enough 
 
3 DAIRYING. 
 
 to house the necessary feed the cows will consume as well as the 
 cows themselves. The cost of the cow stable may be variously 
 estimated, but under average conditions it seems safe to place this 
 at $50 per cow. This estimate will allow $1,000 for a building to 
 house 20 cows or $1,500 to house 30. The proportion of this expense 
 which the cost of maintaining a cow should bear is represented by 
 such items as taxes, insurance, interest, depreciation in value of 
 the stable each year, etc. These items will certainly amount to 
 so. much as 10 per cent, of the money invested which in this case 
 is $50 per cow and will amount to $5. 
 
 90. Second, the value of the cow. There is a great variation in 
 the value of cows. This is a figure which may vary to wide extremes, 
 as in some localities it is difficult at the present time to buy cows 
 for $75, while in others they can be obtained for about $30. Plac- 
 ing the average value per cow at $50, we can use this as a basis 
 on which to estimate the amount that should be charged to each 
 year's milk production for the money invested in the cow. It has 
 been estimated that a cow remains a producer of milk about four 
 years. The milking period of some cows is much longer than this, 
 but on account of the losses from accidents, sickness, poor milkers, 
 and other causes, a cow's usefulness in a herd does not extend 
 much over a period of four years. Assuming, then, that at the end 
 of four years, a cow must be sold for beef, or for about $30, there 
 is a depreciation of $20 in four years, which amounts to about 10 
 per cent, of the original value of the cow, which was $50; making 
 the annual expense of the cow $5.00, expressed as depreciation in 
 value. 
 
 91. Third, the cost of feed. This will naturally vary with dif- 
 ferent cows and in different localities. An experiment made by the 
 Illinois Station illustrated this point in the following way: Two 
 grade cows, six and nine years old, both fresh in the spring, were 
 given the same kind and proportion of feed for one year. They 
 were also milked and cared for in the same way. Careful records 
 were kept both of the feed consumed and the weight of the milk 
 and butter produced. The results of this experiment for the year 
 show that cow No. 1 consumed during the year 20,196 pounds of 
 feed. She produced 11,329 pounds of milk, which according to its 
 test was equal to 658 pounds of butter. Cow No. 2, consumed 
 
DAIRYING. 33 
 
 19,598 pounds of feed. She produced 8,121 pounds of milk, which 
 according to its test was equal to 364 pounds of butter. There was 
 a difference in the records of the two cows for the year of 598 
 pounds of feed and 3,207 pounds of milk and 294 pounds of butter; 
 expressed in percentage, the difference between the two cows was 
 2.9 per cent, in feed, 28 per cent, in milk and 45 per cent, in butter. 
 
 92. Calculating the pounds of butter produced by each cow 
 at 16 cents per pound gives the total pounds of butter produced by 
 cow No. 1 as worth $105 and of cow No. 2 as worth $58, there being 
 a difference of $47. In this case one cow produced $47 worth more 
 of butter than the other and the difference in feed consumption was 
 about 600 pounds. This illustrates the influence of the cow's indi- 
 viduality or dairy temperament on the economy of milk and butter 
 production, showing that not all cows produce the same amount of 
 milk on the same quantity of feed. In a previous statement we 
 have estimated the average cost of the feed per cow per year as $35. 
 
 93. Fourth, the cost of caring for a cow. There is a great 
 difference in the expense of the labor necessary to feed, care for 
 and milk the cows. This work is done in some places entirely by 
 hired help. In others the members of a farmer's family are doing 
 some kind of farm work each day and while their labor is just as 
 valuable and should be charged up to the expense of keeping a cow 
 in the same manner as the labor of hired help this is not the case, 
 and the cost of milking and caring for the cows in some localities 
 is not placed at a very large figure. It has been variously esti- 
 mated that one man can milk, feed and care for 15 to 25 cows. 
 Assuming 20 cows to be an average number, and the wages of a 
 man is $40 per month, then the cost of the labor per cow per year 
 is $24. The time required for milking a cow on an average during 
 the year has been estimated at the Missouri Experiment Station as 
 60 hours. The value of this time per hour can be variously placed 
 at 15 cents, the total cost of labor for milking a cow on this basis 
 is therefore $9. From, the statements given, it seems fair to assume 
 that the expense of caring for a cow per year may be safely placed 
 at $15. 
 
 94. Fifth, miscellaneous expenses. There are certain tools and 
 implements needed in caring for cows. The expense of these, while 
 not very great, amounts to something, and it should be included 
 
34 DAIRYING. 
 
 in the annual expense of keeping cows. Among these various items 
 are included the milk pails and other tinware, hay forks, shovels, 
 brushes, medicine, etc. A fair figure for these expenses, per cow 
 is $5. In addition to the value of the milk there are two items of 
 the cow's production which should be taken into consideration. 
 
 95. First, the value of the calf. This varies all the way from $1 
 to $100, or more. In some cases the calves are considered of very, 
 little or no value, while in others, especially the calves from pure 
 bred stock, may be sold for high prices. An average value of a 
 calf, however, may be placed at $5. 
 
 96. The second items with which the cow should be credited is 
 the value of her manure. It has been estimated that an average 
 cow produces 75 pounds of solid and liquid manure per day. From 
 the composition of this manure the fertilizing value of its various 
 constituents can be calculated. Such an estimate places the value of 
 this manure at about 8 cents per day which amounts to $30 per 
 year. 
 
 97. The importance of saving the solid and liquid manure of 
 cows is not appreciated in this country to the extent that it is in 
 the older dairy sections of Europe, where in some places, it would 
 be impossible for the owners of cows to make a living if they were 
 so wasteful of the manure as we are in this country. This unneces- 
 sary waste is avoided by building cement vaults just outside of the 
 cow stable for the purpose of storing the liquid manure which runs 
 from the cement gutters behind the cows into this vault. A large 
 proportion of the solid manure is also stored in these vaults. The 
 mixture is pumped into wagons and sprinkled over the fields, 
 mostly where grass used for feeding the cows has recently been 
 cut. This makes it possible to retain on the farm a large share of 
 the fertilizing constituents of the feed the cows consume. The only 
 part of it that is lost is that contained in the milk or cream sold 
 from the farm. It is only under such conditions as this that the 
 manure of the cow can be considered as worth $30 a year. Under 
 our wasteful methods of farming in this country, fully two-thirds 
 of this value of the manure is lost, and it is assumed that the 
 value of the manure per cow is $10. It is doubtful if even this much 
 is realized from the manure per cow in many cases. But a good 
 opportunity is here offered for the dairy farmer to increase his 
 
DAIRYING. 35 
 
 profits by giving more attention to the saving of his stable manures. 
 The nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash which make plants grow, 
 and which are also contained in human food, such as milk, may 
 by this method be used over and over again, and the only loss of 
 these valuable elements is in the milk, cream, butter and cheese 
 that are sold from the farm. This small loss is made up in some 
 sections by the corn, the oil meal, and other grains which may be 
 bought and fed to the cows. 
 
 98. A summary statement of the expenses and receipts from 
 a cow per year may, therefore, be given as follows : 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Cow stable, $50, per head, int., taxes, etc $ 5.00 
 
 Value of the cow, $50, depreciation 10 per cent 5.00 
 
 Cost of feed 35.00 
 
 Care and labor . , 15.00 
 
 Total expenses $65.00 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Calf $ 5.00 
 
 Value of the manure . 10.00 
 
 Total $15.00 
 
 The difference between the expenses and receipts is $50, which 
 must be covered by the milk produced. 
 
 99. Assuming that the total cost of keeping a COW T per year 
 is $50, a calculation may be made to show the cost of milk per 100 
 pounds and per quart when the total production per cow varies 
 from 3,000 to 10,000 pounds per year. If a cow gives only 3,000 
 pounds of milk per year, and it costs $50 to pay her annual expenses, 
 then this milk costs $1.70 per 100 pounds, or 3.3 cents per quart. If 
 the cost of keeping a cow remains the same, $50, and the amount of 
 milk she produces per year increases, the cost of this milk per 100 
 pounds and per quart is shown in the following: 
 
36 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
DAIRYING. 
 
 37 
 
 Milks pounds per 
 cow par year 
 
 3,00.0 
 4000 
 
 Cost of milk per 
 100 pounds 
 $1.70 
 125 
 
 Cost of Milk 
 Per quart 
 .. .3.3 cents 
 
 2 5 cents 
 
 5000 
 
 . 1.00. . . 
 
 . . .2. cents 
 
 6000 
 
 83 
 
 1 7 cents 
 
 7000 
 
 71. . 
 
 ... 1 3 cents 
 
 8 000 
 
 "62 
 
 1 2 cents 
 
 9000 
 
 ..... .55 
 
 1 1 cents 
 
 10.000.. 
 
 .50. . 
 
 . 1. cents 
 
 100. It cannot be expected that the cost of keeping a cow 
 giving 10,000 pounds of milk per year will be the same as that of a 
 cow giving 3,000 pounds of milk. The difference, however, will be 
 mostly covered by the feed consumed, as the other expenses of 
 stable, labor, etc., are approximately uniform, excepting that the 
 annual interest and depreciation in the value of the cow may be 
 somewhat different. The figures are of importance, however, as 
 they show the approximate cost of the milk to the owner of cows 
 producing different amounts of milk per year. According to these 
 figures, with a cow giving 5,000 pounds of milk the cost of the milk 
 is $1.00 per 100, or 2 cents per quart, and unless it is sold for a 
 higher price or the expenses of keeping the cow are reduced, the 
 owner will receive no profit for his labor and his money invested 
 in such a cow. 
 
 The Creamery or Buttermaking Value of the Milk. 
 
 101. A calculation similar t othe one given above may be made 
 for estimating the value of different amounts of milk produced 
 per cow per year when the milk or cream is either sold to a cream- 
 ery or is used for making butter at the farm. Under such circum- 
 stances, the value of the milk is found by adding the value of the 
 skim milk to that of the pounds of butter made from the cream. 
 Assuming the average test or per cent, of fat in all the milk to be 
 3.5 also that the skim milk is 80 per cent, of the whole milk, and 
 this skim milk is worth 30 cents per 100 pounds, and the overrun 
 is 16 per cent, the value of the different amounts of milk on a 
 butter basis may be calculated for one year. Taking for example, 
 
38 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
DAIRYING. 39 
 
 three cows giving 4,000, 6,000, and 8,000 pounds of milk, each 
 testing 3.5 per cent, fat, the value of this milk on a butter basis 
 may be calculated as follows: 
 
 4,000X3.5:= 140XU6=162 
 
 6,000X3.5=210X1-16=243 
 
 8,000X3.5=280X1.16=325 
 
 Value of the Skim milk : 
 
 4,000X80 per cent, equals 3,200X30 cents, equals $ 9.60 
 6,000X80 per cent, equals 4,800X30 cents, equals 14.40 
 
 8,000X80 per cent, equals 6,400X30 cents, equals 19.20 
 
 102. Subtracting the value of the skim milk in each case from 
 the $50 which represents the cosj; of keeping each cow a year, 
 leaves $40.00, $35.58, and $30.80. Dividing these figures so obtained 
 by the pounds of butter produced in each case gives the cost of the 
 butter per pound as 24.9 cents, 14.6 cents, and 9.4 cents. On this 
 basis the cost to the owner of the butter sold from the cow produc- 
 ing 4,000 pounds of milk is nearly 25 cents per pound, the one pro- 
 ducing 6,000 pounds of milk, 15 cents per pcfund, and the one pro- 
 ducing 9,000 pounds of milk, 10 cents per pound. 
 
 103. The difference in the values of the three cows on a butter 
 basis may be shown- in another way. If the butter sells at 25 cents 
 per pound, in each case, then the cow producing 4,000 pounds of 
 milk and 162 pounds of butter pays for her keeping and nothing 
 more. On this basis, all cows giving less than 4,000 pounds of milk 
 per year are kept at a loss to the owner. The cow giving 6,000 
 pounds of milk from which 243 pounds of butter may be made is 
 considerably better than the cow giving 4,000 pounds of milk. 
 Subtracting 162 pounds of butter contained in the milk of the latter, 
 from the 243 pounds of butter of the cow producing 6,000 pounds of 
 milk leaves 81 pounds of butter. If this can be sold at 25 cents per 
 pound it amounts to $20.25. Adding to this, the value of the skim 
 milk in excess of the skim milk contained in the 4,000 pounds of 
 milk produced by the first cow, it would be $14.42 minus $9.60 or 
 about $5, giving a total of about $25.00 as the value of the cow 
 producing 6,000 pounds of milk over that of the cow producing 4,000 
 pounds of milk. A similar calculation of the cow giving 8,000 
 pounds of milk and 324 pounds of butter shows 324 niinus 162 
 pounds of butter equals 162, which at 25 cents per pound amounts 
 
40 DAIRYING. 
 
 to .$40. Adding to this $10 as the value of her skim milk over that 
 of the 4,000 pound cow, makes a total of $50. 
 
 104. According to these estimates, a cow giving 4,000 pounds 
 of milk allows her owner no return, while the cow giving 6,000 
 pounds of milk makes a profit of $50 which is 10 per cent, on 
 $500. These figures show that dairying is especially well adapted 
 to the farming of high priced land, as it not only keeps up the fer- 
 tility of the soil, but allows a fair interest on the money invested 
 provided the farming and feeding are intelligently done, and most 
 important of all, provided the cows are carefully selected and only 
 those giving milk enough to pay for their feed and a margin besides, 
 are kept on the farm. According to these figures it may safely be 
 calculated that while a cow giving 4,000 pounds of milk is worth 
 nothing, a cow giving 6,000 pounds of milk may be worth $250, and 
 one giving 8,000 pounds of milk may be worth $500 to her owner. 
 
 E Estimating the Value of a Cow. 
 
 105. Certain items in the cost of keeping a cow are nearly the 
 same for all the cows in one herd. These are the cost of stabling, 
 of attendance, of labor, the general care of the cows, and of the 
 utensils such as milk pails, shovels, forks, etc. A uniform charge 
 against each cow, good, bad and indifferent, can be made for these 
 items of expense. 
 
 106. The variation in the expense of keeping the cows will fall 
 almost entirely on the feed consumed; and although it has been 
 demonstrated that two cows will often give different amounts of 
 milk on the same amount and kind of feed, still the amount of feed 
 consumed is a large item in the cost of keeping a cow. 
 
 107. The relation between the cost of feed and the milk and 
 butter fat produced by different cows may be seen from the follow- 
 ing, taken from records of 25 cows at the Wisconsin Agricultural 
 College for the year 1908-09. 
 
 Cost of Milk Butter 
 
 feed Ibs. fat Ibs. 
 
 Highest $64.33 14,484 689 
 
 Lowest 26.44 4,516 243 
 
 Average . : 41.05 8,493 363 
 
 Average for six years j- 37.70 7,454 315 
 
DAIRYING. 41 
 
 These figures show a difference of about 10,000 pounds of milk 
 and $38.00 worth of feed between the extreme cows or nearly $4.00 
 worth of feed for every 1,000 pounds of milk when the milk pro- 
 duction is above 4,500 pounds. If then, the cow giving this amount 
 of milk, (4,500 pounds), is worth a given sum, and milk is worth 
 $1.00 per 100 pounds, each increase of 1,000 pounds of milk adds 
 $6.00 to the value of the cow, as this represents the difference 
 between the $10.00 for the 1,000 pounds of milk and tjie $4.00 worth 
 of feed required to produce this milk. 
 
 108. Fraser places the value of a cow producing 2,000 pounds of 
 milk and 80 pounds of butter fat at $30.00, and adds $5.00 to the 
 value of the cow for each increase of 1,000 pounds of milk up to 
 7,000 pounds. Where a cow produces 7,000 pounds of milk and 
 above he adds $10.00 for each 1,000 pounds of milk produced per 
 year. 
 
 109. The cost of feed and other expenses of keeping cows has 
 been variously estimated in different sections of the country. Wing 
 of New York gives the following figures : 
 
 Cost Per Cow Per Year. 
 
 20 Ibs. hay for 180 days at $10 per ton $18.00 
 
 8 Ibs. grain for 180 days at $30 per ton 21.60 
 
 26 weeks pasture at 30 cents 7.80 
 
 1 man to 20 cows at $40 per month 24.00 
 
 Interest on $50 at 5 per cent 2.50 
 
 Depreciation 5.00 
 
 $78.90 
 
 110. Connecticut, Storrs Station ** average of five years record 
 with herd of about 20 cows : 
 
 Cost of Cow Per Year, 
 
 Feed $53.46 
 
 Labor, stable, etc 33.00 
 
 Interest and depreciation 4.16 
 
 $90.62 
 
 ^Hoard's Dairyman. 
 **Bul. 29. 
 
42 DAIRYING. 
 
 111. The New Jersey Experiment Station 7 years' record of a 
 herd of about 40 cows with an average production of 6,500 pounds 
 of milk, cost of feed per day 12.3 cents, makes the feed cost of 
 milk per quart 1.5 cents. 
 
 112. The amount of feed that may be obtained for $35, which 
 has been assumed to be the average cost of feed per cow per year, 
 is very different in different sections of the country, as is showji 
 by the following figures reported as the feed consumed by one cow at 
 the Nebraska and at the "Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment 
 Station : 
 
 Feed Consumed Per Cow Per Year. 
 
 Nebraska "Wisconsin Price Per Ton 
 
 1905-06 1908-09 Nebraska Wisconsin 
 
 Corn 1,017 Ibs. 702 Ibs. $12.50 $16.00 
 
 Bran 585 Ibs. 762 Ibs. 15.00 17.50 
 
 Oats 317 Ibs. 22 Ibs. 18.75 18.00 
 
 Linseed Meal ... 209 Ibs. 32.00 
 
 Silage 3,498 Ibs. 6,696 Ibs. 1.75 2.50 
 
 Alfalfa hay 2,828 Ibs. .... 6.00 
 
 Clover hay 1,166 Ibs. 10.00 
 
 Pasture . $6.50 .... 1.00 per mo. . . . 
 
 Soiling crops 196 1.50 
 
 Distillers' Grain ...... 546 26.00 
 
 Milk, Ibs 10,773 5,362 
 
 Fat per cent 3.64 5.66 
 
 Butter fat 392 503 
 
 Cost of feed $35.26 $35.17 
 
 This shows the variation in prices of feeds in different sections 
 
 of the country, and the. need of determining the facts on each farm 
 rather than measuring one's herd by the standard of some other 
 locality. 
 
 F Cost of Equipment for Testing Cows by the Babcock Test. 
 
 113. Several types of Babcock milk testers have been designed 
 by various manufacturers of these machines, but the process of test- 
 ing milk is the same in all of them. The hand tester is most com- 
 
DAIRYING. 43 
 
 monly used for testing cows at the farm unless high pressure steam 
 is available, in which case a turbine tester may be used, or if elec- 
 tric current is handy the tester may be run by an electric motor. 
 All hand testers at the present time are made with cut gear instead 
 of belts or friction pulleys for transmitting the power of the crank 
 to the whirling bottle frame. Hand testers vary in size from tw^o to 
 twenty-four bottles. 
 
 114. The two-bottle tester can be clamped to a table or bench. 
 They sell for $4.00. This price includes the necessary apparatus for 
 making tests complete. A four-bottle tester of this type sells for 
 $5.00. The bottles in these small testers, however, are enclosed in 
 separate pockets which whirl around in front of the person turning 
 the crank. 
 
 115. Many users of testers prefer the slightly more expensive 
 machines in which the whirling bottles are enclosed in a cast iron 
 frame. These give the operator complete protection from broken 
 glass or spilled acid in case of an accident. 
 
 116. The cast iron machines are made to test from 6 to 24 
 samples at one time. The prices of these testers with apparatus com- 
 plete for making tests are about : 
 
 $ 8 for a 6-bottle tester. 
 
 $ 9 for a 8-bottle tester. 
 
 $10 for a 10-bottle tester. 
 
 $12 for a 12-bottle tester. 
 
 These testers weigh about 75 pounds and are substantially made. 
 
 117. The acid used in making the tests may be bought by the 
 gallon in jugs at about 60 cents per gallon. These must be shipped 
 by freight. Larger quantities can be bought by the carboy at about 
 2 cents per pound. One pound of acid will make 14 tests. When 
 the glassware breaks, it can be replaced at approximately the follow- 
 ing prices: 
 
 Per 
 Each. doz. 
 
 Milk test bottles $ .15 $1.25 
 
 Cream test bottles .20 1.50 
 
 Skim milk test bottles 60 
 
 Acid measures 15 
 
 Milk pipettes .15 
 
44 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
DAIRYING. 45 
 
 118. Any owner of cows can well afford to invest $10 in an 
 8-bottle tester, $3 in a milk-weighing scale with an adjustable loose 
 hand on the dial for balancing the weights of the pail, and 50 cents 
 in milk record sheets. The information obtained by the use of these 
 in getting an exact knowledge of the milk production of each cow 
 will be worth many times the price paid for it. 
 
 G Methods of Testing the Milk Production of Cows. 
 1. Farm Tests by the Owner. 
 
 119. Many good dairymen consider the information gained by 
 weighing each cow's milk at each milking, well worth the time 
 required to do this work. It has been shown, however, that weigh- 
 ing the milk of each cow two consecutive milkings one each week or 
 even one in two weeks, and multiplying the figures thus obtained by 
 the number of days elapsed since the preceding weighing, will give 
 a fairly close agreement with the results obtained by weighing the 
 milk of each milking. 
 
 120. The number of tests necessary for showing the total pro- 
 duction of a cow depends largely on the uniformity of her milk in 
 quality from day to day. The milk flow of all cows gradually de-' 
 creases with the progress of the period of lactation, but the rich- 
 ness of some cows' milk varies more than others from day to day, 
 hence the number of tests necessary to show her average produc- 
 tion will vary with the peculiarity of the cow in this respect. Some 
 information on this point has been obtained by comparing the results 
 obtained by adding together the weights recorded at each milking 
 with those found by calculating the total production of milk and 
 butter fat from weights and tests made once each week, two weeks, 
 and four weeks. Such a comparison made with the records of each 
 one of six COW T S showed- that weighing and sampling the milk of two 
 consecutive milkings once a week gave 98 per cent, once in two 
 w r eeks 97 per cent, and once in four weeks, 96 per cent, of the 
 amount of milk and of butter fat obtained by daily weights. This 
 shows that there is a probable error of about 2 per cent, in the 
 calculation of a cow's annual production of milk and of butter fat 
 when such calculations are based on weights and tests made for 
 one day either once a week, or once in two weeks, and that a probable 
 error of about 4 per cent, exists in records based on weights and 
 
46 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
OF THE 
 COLLEGE OF 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 tests made for only one day in every month. This reduction in the 
 amount of record work is quite an object with some cow owners, and 
 the information obtained by weekly or bi-weekly weighings is ol 
 more value than no record whatever. It is true, however, that when 
 a start has been made with this work, the interest increases, and if 
 semi-monthly records are made at the beginning, the gaps between 
 weighings will be closed up as the work progresses. 
 
 121. Weighing and testing the milk of one milking only is likely 
 to give a very erroneous impression of the actual milk producing 
 capacity of a cow as very sudden and unexplainable varations in 
 both the weights and the test of a cow's milk may occur at any one 
 milking. These variations are, however, qualified by mixing the 
 milk of two or more consecutive milkings. 
 
 122. A profitable cow, or one producing more than enough milk 
 to pay for her feed and care, may not require any more attention 
 than one that is running her owner in debt every day of her life 
 but the profitable cow can be made more valuable by increased 
 attention, which if bestowed on the other cow is wasted. It would 
 seem then that it ought not to be necessary to present arguments to 
 cow owners to convince them of the cash value of records of milk 
 production of each cow. Many neglect this work because they do not 
 know exactly how to make the records. 
 
 123. When once convinced that weighing the milk of each cow 
 is necessary for profitable milk production, it will pay to make a 
 business of fitting up a convenient place for the scales, record sheet, 
 sample bottles, etc., as awkward arrangements for this work tend 
 to make it distasteful and it is more likely to be neglected than when 
 a comparatively easy and handy way for weighing and recording is 
 provided. 
 
 124. A spring balance with two hands on the dial is the most 
 convenient scale for weighing the milk. If the divisions on the dial 
 indicate pounds and tenths of a pound, the additions of the weights 
 of milk will be easier than with a scale which weighs to ounces. 
 
 125. The records may be kept on sheets made for the purpose 
 that can be bought of dairy supply firms. These are usually arranged 
 as follows: 
 
48 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 Cow Name or No. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Date 
 
 A.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 August 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This sheet is usually tacked to a board and kept on a shelf near 
 the weighing scales. Various arrangements have been suggested 
 for keeping this record sheet so as to protect it from dirt, and make 
 the writing of weights convenient for each milker. 
 
 Another way of keeping the records is to give one page or more 
 of a small book to each cow and rule the pages in the following way : 
 
 Cow No. 1 Milk Record 
 
 Age Fresh, Date Breed Sold (alf, Date 
 
 Date 
 
 Time 
 
 Night 
 
 Morn 
 
 Tola 
 
 Date 
 
 Time 
 
 Night 
 
 Morn 
 
 Total 
 
 P.M. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This has the advantage of keeping all the information about one 
 cow together and the disadvantage of being less convenient to record! 
 the weights on the various pages of a book at milking time than on 
 one blank sheet. 
 
 126. A number of wide mouthed glass bottles holding about four 
 ounces may be provided for taking a sample of each cow's milk. A 
 small amount of powdered bichromate of potash (about as much as 
 will be dipped up on one-fourth inch of a pen knife blade) should be 
 added to each bottle to keep the sample of milk sweet until it may 
 be tested. These bottles should be corked and numbered to cor- 
 respond with the cows. A small sampling dipper will be needed to 
 take a sample of each lot of milk after weighing it. 
 
 127. The complete outfit for testing the cows includes : 
 
 1. A milk weighing scale. 
 
 2. A record sheet or book. 
 
 3. Sample bottles, one for each cow. 
 
 4. Preservative. 
 
 5. A sampling dipper. 
 
DAIRYING. 49 
 
 6. A lead pencil. 
 
 7. A Babcock milk tester. 
 
 128. A general plan on which the work may be arranged will be 
 understood from the following directions: 
 
 1. Give each cow a permanent name or number. 
 
 2. Provide a place for using the scales at milking time. 
 
 3. Select a milk weighing pail, or bucket. 
 
 4. Record the weight of this empty pail, or provide some sure 
 way of deducting its weight from each lot of milk. 
 
 5. After milking a cow dry, pour all her milk into the weigh- 
 ing pail. 
 
 6. Record the weight of this milk in the proper place in the 
 book. 
 
 7. Pour milk from weighing pail into milking bucket and 
 immediately dip a sample from it into a bottle having 'the 
 number of this cow. 
 
 8. The sample from the first milking should only fill the bottle 
 one-half full. 
 
 9. At the next milking, repeat the weighing and sampling and 
 pour the second sample into the same bottle that w T as pre- 
 viously half filled. 
 
 10. Each sample bottle should contain a mixture of milk from 
 two consecutive milkings of one cow. 
 
 11. Cork the sample bottles to prevent evaporation. 
 
 12. Weigh and sample the milk of each cow once, twice and 
 four times per month. 
 
 13. Note time of each milking. 
 
 14. Record the date each cow calves. 
 
 15. State how many days each calf w r as fed its mother's milk. 
 
 16. Record how you disposed of each calf. 
 
 17. Weekly statement of cow's feed, including the weight, 
 price of grain, if any, with the amount and kind of hay, 
 cornstalks or other coarse fodder. 
 
 18. Health of cows. 
 
 19. Note change of any milkers. 
 
 20. Record date when cow was dry. 
 
 129. A farmer with twelve cows has estimated that fifteen min- 
 utes' extra time was required to weigh, sample and record the milk 
 
DAIR YING. 
 
 MILK TESTING^OUTFIT FOR WEIGHING AND TESTING MILK 
 OF EACH COW AT THE FARM 
 
DAIRYING. 51 
 
 of his cows on testing days. Such records are sometimes taken by 
 a boy who is too young to milk, but capable of doing the extra work 
 required at milking time on testing days. At one farm this work 
 has been done by the women. 
 
 ACCURACY OF THE RECORDS. 
 
 131. The accuracy of such records as these is necessarily 
 influenced by the conditions common to nearly all farms. Milk- 
 ing is usually clone with more or less haste, especially at the 
 planting, haying or harvesting seasons. The milkers as a 
 rule are not accustomed to the use of scales and often consider a 
 weight within one pound of the true figure "near enough." They 
 do not understand the necessity of promptness in sampling milk 
 after it has been poured from one pail to another before the cream 
 has begun to separate. In spite of these and other disturbing fac- 
 tors, results have shown that tests of dairy cows can be made by 
 the farmers themselves with sufficient accuracy to give a very satis- 
 factory knowledge of the performance of each cow. 
 
 131. From the results obtained every week or two weeks, the 
 total annual production of a cow is found by multiplying the average 
 of weights representing the milk production of one day by 4he num- 
 ber of days in the month and adding the figures for each month. 
 
 132. The money value of each cow's milk for the month may be 
 found by multiplying the monthly weight of butter fat by the mar- 
 ket price of butter for that month if the farmer wishes to know 
 the creamery value of each cow's milk. This does not take into 
 account the so-called "overrun," which is the increase in butter 
 over the butter fat, because the cost of making the butter is an item 
 that should be taken into consideration and it may be assumed that 
 this is offset by the overrun. If one wishes to calculate the produc- 
 tion of a cow to butter, it may be readily done by adding one-sixth 
 to tfee weight of butter fat. 
 
 The figures obtained by such records for one cow are given in 
 the following table : 
 
52 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 Details of One Cow's Milk Record. 
 Cow No. 32. 
 
 DATE. 
 
 WEIGHT OF MILK, LBS. 
 
 Test, fat, 
 per cent. 
 
 Butter fat, 
 Ibs. 
 
 Morning' 
 
 Night 
 
 Total 
 
 Aug 1 
 
 8. 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 3.5 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 6.5 5.2 
 5.0 4.5 
 5.0 4.2 
 5.0 3.9 
 
 .34 
 .22 
 .21 
 .19 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 Average 
 
 5.37 4.5 
 
 .24 
 
 Sept 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Fresh. 
 6.5 
 18. 
 18.5 
 16.5 
 
 4.5 
 16. 
 16. 
 14. 
 
 11. 3.6 
 34. 4.5 
 34.5 4.3 
 30.5 5.0 
 
 .33 
 1.53 
 1.48 
 1.52 
 
 Oct. 26 
 Nov. 7 
 
 14 
 21 
 28 
 
 Average 
 Dec. 5 
 
 27.5 4.5 
 
 1.23 
 
 TOT 
 
 1.55 
 1.46 
 
 1.58 
 
 19. 
 19. 
 21. 
 
 20.5 
 
 15.5 
 17. 
 
 18.5 
 18. 
 
 34.5 3.1 
 36. 4.3 
 39.5 3.7 
 38.5 4.1 
 
 13. 
 
 20 
 26 
 
 Average 
 
 37.1 3.8 
 
 1.41 
 
 Jan. 3 
 10 
 
 21. 
 20.5 
 18.5 
 21 
 20! 
 
 19. 
 16.5 
 15.5 
 18.5 
 17. 
 
 40. 
 37. 
 34. 
 39.5 
 37. 
 
 4.3 
 4.0 
 3.4 
 3.8 
 3.8 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.48 
 1.15 
 1.50 
 1.48 
 
 16 
 23 
 31 
 
 Average 
 
 37.5 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.46 
 
 Feb. 6 
 
 17. 
 16. 
 19. 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 18.5 
 17. 
 17. 
 
 33. 
 34.5 
 36. 
 32. 
 
 3.7 
 3.4 
 3.4 
 4.1 
 
 1.22 
 1.17 
 1.22 
 1.31 
 
 14 
 22. . 
 
 28 
 
 Average 
 
 33.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.23 
 
 Mar. 8 * 
 
 17. 
 17.5 
 19. 
 
 17. 
 16.5 
 15.5 
 
 16. 
 14.5 
 15.5 
 17.5 
 11.5 
 
 34. 
 34. 
 34.5 
 
 42 
 3.6 
 3.6 
 
 1.43 
 1.22 
 1.24 
 
 16 
 26 
 
 Average. 
 
 34.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.33 
 
 April 2 
 
 19.5 
 19. 
 19. 
 15. 
 17. 
 
 35.5 
 33.5 
 34.5 
 32.5 
 
 28.5 
 
 3.8 
 4.2 
 3.8 
 4.4 
 3.8 
 
 1.35 
 1.41 
 1.31 
 1.43 
 1.08 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 23... . 
 
 30 
 Average 
 
 32.9 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.31 
 
 May 7 
 
 19. 
 19.5 
 18.5 
 15.5 
 
 14.5 
 14. 
 12.5 
 9. 
 
 33.5 
 33.5 
 31. 
 24.5 
 
 3.8 
 3.8 
 3.8 
 3.7 
 
 1.27 
 1.27 
 1.17 
 .90 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 28.... 
 
 Average 
 
 30.6 
 
 3.7 
 
 1.15 
 
 June 6 
 
 13. 
 12. 
 12. 
 
 7.5 
 
 10. 
 8.5 
 9. 
 7.5 
 
 23. 
 20.5 
 21. 
 15. 
 
 4.0 
 4.6 
 5.1 
 4.2 
 
 .92 
 .94 
 1.07 
 .63 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 27 
 
 Average 
 
 19.9 
 
 4.5 
 
 .89 
 
 July 6 
 12 
 
 7. 
 6.5 
 4. 
 3. 
 
 7.5 
 5. 
 3. 
 2. 
 
 14.5 
 11.5 
 7. 
 5. 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.8 
 4.4 
 4.4 
 
 .60 
 .55 
 .30 
 
 .20 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 Average 
 
 9.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 .41 
 
 
 
 
DAIRYING. 
 
 Monthly Summary of Preceding Table, 
 Cow No. 32. 
 
 Months. 
 
 AVERAGE PER DAY 
 
 Multi- 
 plied 
 by 
 days. 
 
 MONTHLY TOTAL 
 
 *Price 
 per Ib. 
 fat 
 
 Value 
 of fat 
 
 Milk 
 
 Test. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Milk Fat 
 
 Aug 
 Sept 
 
 Lbs. 
 5.37 
 Dry 
 
 4.5 
 
 Lbs. 
 .24 
 
 31 
 
 Lbs. Lbs. 
 166 7.44 
 
 Cts. 
 16. 
 18.6 
 21.75 
 22.0 
 21.1 
 19.1 
 18.9 
 18.25 
 17.9 
 15.3 
 15.4 
 16.0 
 
 $1.19 
 
 Oct 
 Nov 
 
 
 
 
 ""825" 
 1,150 
 1,162 
 946 
 1,057 
 987 
 948 
 594 
 294 
 
 36.90 
 43.71 
 45.26 
 34.44 
 41.23 
 39.30 
 35.65 
 26.70 
 12.71 
 
 ""s'iii 
 
 9.22 
 8.64 
 6.51 
 7.52 
 7.03 
 5.45 
 4.11 
 2.03 
 
 27.5 
 37.1 
 37.5 
 33.8 
 34.1 
 32.9 
 30.6 
 19.9 
 9.5 
 
 4Ji 
 
 3.8 
 3.9 
 3.6 
 
 3.9 
 4.0 
 3.7 
 4.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 1.23 
 1.41 
 1.46 
 1.23 
 1.33 
 1.31 
 1.15 
 .89 
 .41 
 
 30 
 31 
 31 
 28 
 31 
 30 
 31 
 30 
 31 
 
 Dec 
 Jan 
 
 Feb 
 March 
 April 
 May 
 June 
 July 
 
 Aver. 
 Total 
 
 26.75 
 
 3.97 
 
 1.06 
 
 
 
 323." 
 
 18.4 
 
 '""059.81 
 
 304 
 
 8,131 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Creamery price which was one half cent under the average Elgin market price for the month 
 at that time. 
 
 This shows the method by which the total milk and butter fat 
 production is obtained and the way in which its cash value may 
 be figured. 
 
 Variations in the Test of Milk. 
 
 The daily tests of the milk show to what extremes the milk of 
 one cow will vary from day to day, a difference of one-half of one 
 per cent, and occasionally even more than one per cent, being noticed 
 on some days. This is shown by these records for August, Novem- 
 ber, December and June. Such variations, however, tend to equalize 
 each other from day to day, and milk of unusual richness is gener- 
 ally followed by exceptionally thin milk, so that the average rich- 
 ness of the two lots comes near to the normal quality that the cow 
 produces. This daily variation in milk is much more striking in 
 some cows than in others, even in a herd having the same feed 
 and care ; it seems to depend largely on the health and more or less 
 excitable temperament of a cow, nervous cows showing a much 
 greater tendency to unevenness in the quality of their milk than 
 cows of a quiet disposition. 
 
54 DAIRYING. 
 
 Feed Records. There are but few farmers who keep any records 
 whatever of the feed consumed by their cows during the year. AIL 
 the cows at one farm are usually fed in the same way, no attempt is 
 made to vary the feed of each cow excepting where grain feeding 
 is practiced, it is usually stopped while a cow is giving little or no 
 milk. It may not be profitable to keep feed records for each cow 
 in a herd at the beginning of a systematic study of the cows, but 
 every farmer ought to know how much the milk his cows are produc- 
 ing is costing him. A record which was kept on a farm where twelve 
 cows were milked will illustrate one step in this direction. 
 
 Estimated feed cost and receipts from twelve cows: 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Grain bought during year $181.00 
 
 30 acres corn stalks, $2.00 per acre . ." 60.00 
 
 10 tons of clover hay, $5.00 50.00 
 
 10 acres good pasture and 15 acres woodland 65.00 
 
 Total cost of feed $355.00 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Received for milk at creamery $572.00 
 
 Sold 12 calves at $5.50 66.00 
 
 $638.00 
 
 60,000 Ibs. skim milk, 10 cents per 100 Ibs 60.00 
 
 Receipts exceed feed cost $343.00 
 
 $698.00 
 
 The grain feed consists of corn and oats ground together, corn 
 meal and bran, or about 15 tons of grain at $12.00 per ton. 
 
 This record shows that the estimated cost of feed at this farm 
 was nearly $30 per cow; and the total receipts $698.00 divided by 
 12, the number of cows in this herd, gives a little over $58 as the 
 average receipts per cow. Assuming that the manure will pay for 
 the care of a cow, the owner of this herd received an average profit 
 of $28 per cow. Each cow was fed about the same amount of grain 
 and hay during the period of stable feeding November 1 to May 1. 
 The grain was fed dry just before milking, ten to fourteen pounds 
 per head being fed per day, excepting the dry cows, which received 
 
DAIRYING. 55 
 
 very little grain. Hay was fed the last thing at night after milking. 
 During day time the cows were turned out into a sheltered yard 
 where they were fed corn stalks that had been stacked near the 
 barn at husking time. The corn stalks were well eaten and it is 
 probable that the cows satisfied their differences in appetite on the 
 corn stalks, if, as stated, each one was given the same amount of 
 hay and grain. The cows had access to well water during the entire 
 year, and were in pasture from May to November. When cows 
 were fresh the calf was allowed to have its mother's milk for about 
 three weeks, when it was sold for veal'. 
 
 133. An inspection of the records of each cow at this farm 
 shows that the butter in the milk of one cow in this herd brought 
 $53.35 in a year, and that of another $28.72. These figures do not 
 mean that cow No. 1 is worth $53.00 and No. 2, $28.00, because if 
 the feed of a cow for a year cost $30, cow No. 1 earned an annual 
 profit of $23.00, but the farmer lost $2.00 by keeping No. 2. In five 
 years No, 1 would pay $115.00 into the owner's pocket, but if he 
 kept No. 2 during this time, a loss of $10.00 must be made up from 
 some other source, and inspection of the receipts from twelve cows 
 on each of two farms shows that at farm A. there were three cows 
 which did not produce enough milk to pay for their feed. The 
 entire herd only paid a profit of $7.00, and three of the twelve cows 
 paid $50.00 of this amount, while the combined profit of the other 
 nine cows is only $25.00. In this case three cows earned 100 per 
 cent, more money in a year than was earned by nine cows on the 
 same farm. On the other farm, twelve cows earned a total profit 
 of $228.00, instead of $75.00 as on the first farm, but even at farm 
 B. there is a considerable difference in the cows. No. 1 earned only 
 about $8.00 profit while No. 2 earned nearly $31.00, a difference of 
 about 400 per cent, in the annual butter value of these two cows 
 to their owner. 
 
 135. These tests are of more value to the owners of the herds 
 tested than to anyone else, but some illustrations of general interest 
 may be drawn from them. The cows on one farm were tested for three 
 years. The average receipts per cow in 1898, from the creamery 
 were $36.30 ; in 1900, $39.20, and in 1901, $38.92. The figures do not 
 show much indication that the owner profited by these tests. Two 
 cows that did not produce enough milk to pay a profit on their 
 
56 DAIRYING. 
 
 ' feed were kept in the herd for three years, and five other cows pro- 
 duced less than $30.00 worth of butter in a year. The annual pro- 
 duction of the mature cows during the three years shows that the 
 poor cows did not improve from year to year, but continued to 
 give less milk than required to pay for the feed consumed. The 
 one good cow was equally persistent in doing well. The creamery 
 value of her milk for three years was $200. This is $110 more than 
 the cost of her feed when we take $30 per year as the value of 'a 
 cow's feed. The butter produced by the other five cows tested for 
 three years amounted to only $114 more than the cost of their feed 
 during the same time. The milk of one cow, therefore, paid the 
 owner within $4 as much profit in three years as the milk of five 
 cows in the same herd for the same length of time. In another herd 
 the excess of butter over cost of feed of two cows was worth $60, 
 while that of five other cows was worth only $56.00. Thus the 
 owner received at the creamery $2.00 less for the milk of five cows 
 than he did for that of two cows in the same herd. Many more 
 startling illustrations might lie given from the records of the 
 different herds. 
 
 136. If, as has been stated, each farmer fed all his cows in the 
 same way, and the time and labor of milking and feeding the cowrf 
 were approximately the same for both good and poor cows, it fol- 
 lows that it did not cost any more to feed the best than the poorest 
 cows in the herd. The information furnished by these tests may 
 be very valuable to the owner of the cows, and should be of im- 
 portance to the cow as her life ought to depend upon the record 
 she makes. Previous to making the tests, the owners of these cows 
 had no accurate idea of the relative value of their cows ; but the 
 records show that the information gained is worth many times the 
 cost of a milk weighing scale, a Babcock test, and the time neces- 
 sary to use them. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 57 
 
58 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
DAIRYING. 59 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 Note to Student These questions are to be answered inde- 
 pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your exami- 
 nation. Use thin white paper about 6"x9" for the examination. 
 Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat 
 the question. Mail answers promptly when completed. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LESSON I. 
 
 1. How far back in history does the dairy industry extend? 
 
 2. "What two machines had an influence on the early development 
 of dairying! 
 
 3. Show by a calculation the amount of money that may be saved 
 by the Babcock Test in making $1,000 worth of butter. 
 
 4. What was the approximate test of skim milk before and after 
 the invention of the Babcock Test, and what percentage of the 
 total fat in average milk does the saving by this test represent? 
 
 5. Along what lines has dairying progressed during the past 30 
 years, and when did co-operation among farmers begin to pro- 
 duce results? 
 
 6. Why is co-operation among farmers in the United States un- 
 successful ? 
 
 7. Why is cream and butter selling less exhaustive of soil fertility 
 than the selling of milk, cheese or grain crops from the farm? 
 
 8. Which of the constituents of dairy products and of farm crops 
 have the greatest and which ones have the least money value? 
 
 9. Show by a calculation the money value of the fertilizing con- 
 stituents in 3,800 pounds of hay, of corn, of milk, of butter, 
 and of cheese. 
 
 10. How does the annual value of dairy products compare with that 
 of some farm crops? 
 
 11. Why are the exports of dairy products from the United States 
 so small and of what do our imports of dairy products consist? 
 
 12. Why is it profitable for the European farmer to import grain 
 for feeding cows? 
 
60 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 13. A cow giving 8,500 pounds of milk in a year consumed the fol- 
 lowing amount of feed : 
 
 <Hay 1.237 Ibs. 
 
 Silage 7,735 Ibs. 
 
 Pasture grass 301 Ibs. 
 
 Sugar beets 502 Ibs. 
 
 Wheat bran 570 Ibs. 
 
 Oats 138 Ibs. 
 
 Corn meal 650 Ibs. 
 
 Oil meal 70 Ibs. . 
 
 Distiller's Grain '. 546 Ibs, 
 
 These feeds and the milk contained the following percentages 
 of fertilizing elements : 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 Hay (mixed) 1.41 
 
 Phosphoric 
 acid. 
 .27 
 
 Potash. 
 1 ^ 
 
 Silage (corn) .28 
 
 .11 
 
 ^7 
 
 Pasture grass .91 
 
 .23 
 
 7^ 
 
 Sugar Beets .22 
 
 .10 
 
 40 
 
 Wheat bran 2.67 
 
 2.89 
 
 1 ftl 
 
 Oats 1.86 
 
 .77 
 
 59 
 
 Corn meal 1.58 
 
 .63 
 
 40 
 
 Oil meal 5.43 
 
 1.66 
 
 1 39 
 
 Distiller's grain (dry) 3.62 
 
 1.03 
 
 09 
 
 Milk .55 
 
 .19 
 
 .18 
 
 The fertilizing value of these materials is: 
 
 Nitrogen, 20 cents per pound. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 4 cents per pound. 
 
 Potash, 4 1 / t cents per pound. 
 
 What is the value of the excess of fertilizing constituents in 
 the feed over these in the milk of this cow? 
 
 14. Give a rule for estimating the money value of skim milk per 
 100 pounds. 
 
 15. Explain at least five advantages which dairying has over other 
 lines of farming. 
 
 16. Mention some of the traits of character which a successful 
 dairyman should possess and why are these advantageous? 
 
DAIRYING. 61 
 
 17. What are some of the advantages of winter dairying? Are 
 there any disadvantages? 
 
 18. What are the differences between winter and summer prices 
 of dairy products in your locality ? 
 
 19. What is the value of 100 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent, 
 fat: First, when sold at retail at 8c and at 5c per quart? 
 Second, when made into butter which sold at 35c per pound, 
 if the cost of making is 2y 2 c and corn is worth 75c per bushel 
 Third, when made into cheese that sells for 20c per pound and 
 the cost of making is l^c per pound. In these calculations it 
 may be assumed that 1 quart of milk weighs 2 pounds, that the 
 skim is 80 per cent, of the whole milk, the yield of cheese 9.5 
 pounds per 100 pounds of milk and the whey is 90 per cent, of 
 the milk. 
 
 20. What is the approximate annual production of milk and of 
 butter fat by the average cow in the United States and what 
 will be the average test of the milk? 
 
 21. What objections may be made to a "churn test" of a cow's 
 butter production? 
 
 22. Give some reasons for weighing and testing the milk of a cow. 
 
 23. Taking as the basis of your calculations the average farm value 
 per cow in the United States and the average butter produc- 
 tion as standards, what would be the price of the butter per 
 pound ? 
 
 24. Assuming that each cow gave milk 360 days in a year, how 
 many pounds of milk and of butter fat were produced per day 
 by the best Ayrshire, Guernsey, Holstein and Jersey cow on 
 record up to January, 1910? 
 
 25. What is the average milk consumption per person per year, 
 and how many persons will the best cow of each of the four 
 breeds mentioned supply with milk for a year? 
 
 26. How do steers and cows compare as producers of human food? 
 
 27. Discuss the question, which is the best dairy breed of cow r s. 
 
 28. Outline a plan for calculating the cost of keeping a cow for 
 one year. Discuss the value of each of the factors that should 
 be taken into consideration in such a calculation. 
 
 30. What is the actual value of the solid and liquid manure pro- 
 duced by a cow in one year and why does this differ so much 
 from the value realized from the manure per cow each year? 
 
62 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 31. What are the constant and the variable factors in calculating 
 the cost of milk produced by different cows? 
 
 32. How much milk at 3c per quart and butter at 30c per pound 
 must a cow produce to pay the expenses of keeping her per 
 year? 
 
 33. How may a calculation be made to demonstrate that one cow 
 giving 2,000 pounds more milk than another cow is worth $200 
 more to her owner? 
 
 34. What are some of the important factors that influence the cost 
 of producing milk in different localities ? 
 
 35. What do you estimate the cost of keeping a cow in your herd to 
 be for one year and what is the cost per pound of the total 
 milk produced by the herd? 
 
 36. Give a complete list of the supplies needed for testing the milk 
 of cows at the farm and an estimated cost of the same. 
 
 37. How often should the milk of a cow be weighed and tested in 
 order to calculate her total production? 
 
 38. What is the objection to weighing and testing one milking only? 
 
 39. Briefly describe a way of testing the milk of a cow for one year. 
 
 40. How much milk and butter fat was produced by a cow in one 
 year where the following record was made and what was the 
 value of the butter fat in her milk at the prices given ? What is 
 the value of the skim milk when corn is worth 60c per bushel ? 
 
 The cow began milking October 1, 1910. 
 
 Weight of Milk 
 
 Fat 
 per cent 
 
 Price of Butter 
 Fat Cents 
 
 Date 
 
 Pounds 
 
 A. M. 
 
 P. M. 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 4.2 
 
 28 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 3.8 
 
 27.5 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 3.7 
 
 29 
 
 Jan. ] 5 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 3.9 
 
 30 
 
 Feb. 15 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 4.1 
 
 30 
 
 Mar. 15 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 4.0 
 
 32 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 4.3 
 
 30 
 
 May 15 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4.5 
 
 26 
 
 June 15 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4.8 
 
 27 
 
 July 15 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5.0 
 
 28 
 
DAIRYING ' 63 
 
 WRITE THIS AT THE END OF YOUR EXAMINATION 
 
 I hereby certify that the above questions were answered en- 
 tirely by me. 
 
 Signed 
 
 Address... 
 
Correspondence College 
 of Agriculture 
 
 DAIRYING PART TWO 
 
OF THE 
 COLLEGE OF 
 
 THE 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE 
 OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 DAIRYING, Part II 
 
 CARE OF THE DAIRY AND 
 ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 ... BY .... 
 
 EDWARD H. FARRINGTON, M. S. 
 
 Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the 
 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 This is the second of a series of six books giving a complete course of instruc- 
 tion in DAIRYING 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1910 
 THE CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
NOTE TO STUDENTS 
 
 In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from 
 this paper, you must thoroughly master the text. While 
 it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the 
 text to memory, still there is nothing: contained in the text 
 which is not absolutely essential for the intelligent dairy- 
 man to know. For your own good never refer to the ex- 
 amination questions until you have finished your study of 
 the text. By following this plan, the examination paper 
 will show what you have learned from the text. 
 
Part II 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 CARE OF THE DAIRY AND 
 ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 137. 2. Cow Testing Associations. In about the year 1805 a 
 Danish farmer's wife, it is claimed, suggested that both time and 
 money might be saved if a number of farmers in a neighborhood 
 should club together and employ one man to do the work connected 
 with the weighing and testing of the milk of each cow belonging 
 to these farmers. Some of the advantages of such an arrangement 
 over the doing of this work by the farmers themselves are : 
 
 I. Economy. 2. Increased value of the records because of 
 their greater accuracy. 3. Increase in the number of farmers 
 that would avail themselves of this opportunity to gain definite 
 information about their cows. 
 
 A development of this idea led to the establishment of what is 
 known as "Cow Testing Associations." These have increased in 
 number until it is claimed that 400 such associations have been 
 organized in Denmark. 
 
 The idea did not get much of a start in the United States until 
 about 1905-1906, but at the present time cow testing associations 
 are established in Maine, Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Mich- 
 igan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Ohio ; and the work is fast spreading 
 to other states which may have associations by this time. 
 
4 DAIRYING 
 
 138. Plan of Organization. When there are indications fav- 
 orable to learning something about the profitableness of the cows 
 in a number of farmers' herds, a paper is circulated for the purpose 
 of finding out how many farmers are willing to join in this effort 
 to "weed out the unprofitable cows." This paper is a contract 
 which each farmer signs. The following is a copy of such a con- 
 tract as used for this purpose in the State of Wisconsin:* 
 
 Whereas, .'...... Association has been 
 
 organized for the principal purpose of providing means for the co-opera- 
 tion of its members in testing milk of their cows periodically and for the 
 improvement of their dairy interests, and Whereas, it is proposed by the 
 said Association to engage a suitable person for the purpose as soon as 
 enough subscriptions are obtained to warrant said Association to engage 
 such person, w.e, the undersigned, members- of said association, each for 
 himself and not one for the other, severally agree to pay the sum of 
 
 .a year for each cow set opposite our respective 
 
 names to said Association for the purpose. Said fees to be paid in Semi- 
 Yearly installments in advance, the first payment to be made as soon as 
 such person is engaged by said Association. Each one of us also agees 
 to furnish board and lodging for said person for at least one day each 
 month and convey him to his next place of work, or should such person 
 furnish his own conveyance, each one of us agrees to feed said person's 
 horse for at least one day a month. Said person shall not work on Sun- 
 days, but shall have board and lodging over Sunday at the place where 
 he is working Saturday. 
 
 Name. No. of Cows 
 
 139. The association is given any local name which the mem- 
 bers may choose. The amount usually paid by each member is 
 $1.00 to $1.25 per cow tested, depending on the amount of work 
 done by the traveling representative of the association, who fur- 
 nishes each member with the record he makes at each visit and 
 also a summary record at the end of the year. 
 
 When about 25 farmers have signed the contract, a meeting 
 is called of all parties interested in the association. At this meet- 
 ing officers are elected and by-laws adopted. The following is an 
 
 * State Dairyman's Association. 
 
DAIRYING S 
 
 
 
 illustration of the articles, etc., of such an association organized 
 in Wisconsin. * 
 
 140. ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION 
 
 Article I. 
 
 The name by which said association shall be known in law is 
 
 Association. 
 
 Article H. 
 
 The purpose for which it is formed is generally to promote the dairy 
 interests of its members and particularly to provide means and methods 
 for improvement of dairy qualities of cows and for testing of cows of 
 the members periodically. 
 
 Article III. 
 
 Its principal office and place of business shall be at 
 
 Article IV. 
 
 The number of its directors shall be . , 
 
 Article V. 
 
 The names of the Directors for the first year of its existence are 
 
 as follows : 
 
 Article VI. 
 
 Any person may become a member of this association and be entitled 
 to its benefits and privileges upon being accepted by its Board of Di- 
 rectors and upon complying with the requirements of its by-laws. 
 
 In witness whereof, we, the parties hereby associating, for the pur- 
 pose of giving legal effect to these articles, hereunto sign our names 
 this day of , A. D., 19 
 
 State of 
 
 County of 
 
 On this day of . . . .19. . . ., before me, a Notary 
 
 Public in and for said county, personally appeared 
 
 known to me to be the persons named in and who executed the foregoing 
 instrument and severally acknowledged that they executed the same 
 freely and for the intents and purposes therein mentioned. , 
 
 Notary Public 
 My Commission expires. . 
 
 * State Dairyman's Association. 
 
6 DAIRYING 
 
 141. BY-LAWS OF . 
 
 Article I Annual and Special Meetings. 
 
 The annual meeting of this association shall be held at a place to 
 be designated by the Board of Directors in on the 
 
 day of of each year at o'clock in the 
 
 afternoon, for the purpose of electing a Board of Directors, and of the 
 transaction of such other business as may lawfully come before said 
 meeting. 
 
 Special meetings may be called by the Board of Directors or by the 
 President, and notice thereof shall be given by the Secretary by mailing 
 to each member a written or printed notice thereof at least five days 
 prior to such meeting. Such notice shall state the object of the meeting, 
 and no other business shall be transacted thereat. 
 
 Article II Board of Directors 
 
 Section I. The Board of Directors shall consist of mem- 
 bers. They shall be elected at each annual meeting, the first election to 
 be held on the day of 1 9 .... 
 
 Section II. The Board of Directors shall have the management and 
 control of the business of the association, and shall employ such agents as 
 they may deem advisable, and fix the rates of compensation of all officers, 
 agents and employes. 
 
 Section III. Whenever any vacancies TDCtmr in the Board of Direc- 
 tors by death, resignation or otherwise, the same may be filled without 
 undue delay by the majority vote of the remaining members of the Board. 
 The person so chosen shall hold office until the next annual meeting or 
 until his successor is elected and qualified. 
 
 Section IV. The Board of Directors shall meet on the first 
 
 of each month, at such times and in such places as they may by resolu- 
 tion determine. 
 
 Article III Officers. 
 
 Section I. The officers of the association shall consist of President, 
 Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer. The offices of Secretary and 
 Treasurer may be held by the same person. The officers shall be elect- 
 ed by the Board of Directors by a majority vote of the whole number of 
 Directors. The first election shall be held immediately after the election 
 of the Board. Subsequent elections shall be held annually on the day of 
 the regular meeting of the Board next ensuing annual election, the day to 
 be fixed by resolution of the Board of Directors. 
 
 Section II. In case of the death, resignation or removal of any officer, 
 the Board shall elect his successor who shall hold office for the unexpired 
 time. 
 
DAIRYING 7 
 
 Article IV Membership. 
 
 Any person acceptable to the Board of Directors may become a member 
 upon paying a membership fee of 25 cents. 
 
 Article V Dues. 
 
 Each member shall pay a fee of 25 cents annually on or before 
 
 the first of The first annual dues to be payable on or 
 
 before the of 19 .... No member shall be allowed 
 
 to participate in the election of the Board of Directors who shall not have 
 paid his annual dues in advance. 
 
 Article VI. 
 
 These by-laws may be amended, added to or altered by a majority 
 vote of all members present at an annual meeting, or at a special meeting 
 called for that purpose. 
 
 142. As soon as the association is organized the directors may 
 be authorized to purchase a testing outfit and engage a man to do 
 the work of the association at the farms of its different members. 
 
 . The testing outfit should include the following supplies which 
 may cost about $30.00: 
 
 A 10-12 bottle Babcock milk testing machine. 
 
 i gross guaranteed milk test bottles. 
 
 3 milk measuring pipettes.- ; 
 
 i acid measure, i can of cleaning powder. 
 
 3 cream test bottles, 3 skim milk test bottles. 
 
 i sample dipper, 3 brushes for cleaning bottles. - 
 
 i pair dividers for reading fat tests. 
 
 i gal. sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.82. 
 
 50 one-half pint, numbered sample jars, with covers. 
 
 i milk weighing scale. 
 
 A record book for each member. 
 
 143. Qualifications of the Man Employed for Testing. The 
 man employed by each association for testing the cows and making 
 the records for the members should have not only an ability to 
 sample and test milk accurately by the Babcock test, but he must 
 be quick and correct in making the necessary calculations, write 
 plainly, possess considerable general information about farming, 
 take an interest in the work, be eager to accommodate his as- 
 sociates, and manifest a disposition to receive as well as impart 
 information. 
 
qi , 8nnmpo Jd ,o 1*0 
 
 001 8 P n l xu d P ""D 
 
 .5 
 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 His duties will require him to be present at the farm of each 
 member at least one day in every month and he must be on hand 
 when the cows are milked and when they are fed. He must weigh, 
 sample, and later test the milk of each cow, weigh the feed, calcu- 
 late the pounds of butter fat produced by each cow, multiply this 
 figure by the number of days elapsed since the previous test, then 
 multiply the product by the market price of butter for that month. 
 
 He can also calculate the cost of the feed consumed by each 
 cow, the cost of milk per 100 pounds, and of one pound of butter 
 fat, and when desired, the receipts for $1.00 worth of feed. 
 
 144. A copy of his record may be left with the farmer at each 
 visit and a duplicate kept for the purpose of making a summary 
 statement of each herd at the end of the season. 
 
 Blanks for keeping the records may be furnished by the as- 
 sociation and the data which shall be recorded on them determined 
 by the directors. 
 
 145. The following outline may be helpful in showing how 
 records may be kept and such changes as seem desirable can be 
 made by each association. 
 
 MILK RECORD 
 
 | Record for 1 day 
 
 Total for the month 
 
 Cow 
 No. 
 
 Milk 
 Ibs. 
 
 Fat 
 p'rct. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Milk 
 Ibs. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Price 
 of fat 
 cents 
 
 Value 
 of fat 
 
 Value 
 of feed 
 
 Differ- 
 ence 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 a. m. 
 
 8.4 
 p. m. 
 7.6 
 
 16.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 .64 
 
 480 
 
 19.2 
 
 30 
 
 5.76 
 
 4.87 
 
 89cts. 
 
 FEED RECORD 
 
 Daily feed, Ibs. 
 
 Total feed for month, Ibs. 
 
 Cow 
 No. 
 
 Hay 
 
 Silage 
 
 Bran 
 
 Corn 
 Meal 
 
 Hay 
 
 Silage 
 
 Bran 
 
 Corn 
 Meal 
 
 Cost 
 Feed 
 
 1 
 Cost 
 per 
 ton 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 $10 
 
 30 
 $2.50 
 
 4 
 
 $17 
 
 6 
 
 $16.00 
 
 450 
 
 per Ib 
 .5c 
 
 900 
 0.125c 
 
 120 
 .85c 
 
 60 
 
 .80c 
 
 $4.87 
 
 $2.25 
 
 $1.12 
 
 $1.02 
 
 $.48 
 
10 DAIRYING 
 
 146. Benefits of Cow Testing Association to Members, i. The 
 monthly meetings give an opportunity for a discussion and a com- 
 parison of the various herd records, methods of feeding the cows, 
 and of handling the milk. 
 
 2. The members can take advantage of this opportunity to dis- 
 cuss co-operation in buying feed, seed, and other farm supplies. 
 
 3. The records obtained are economically made by a disinterest- 
 ed party, thus giving confidence in them as indicating which cows 
 should be kept and which should be disposed of. 
 
 4. If the traveling representative of the association is well in* 
 formed concerning modern ideas of feeding and other farm opera- 
 tions, his suggestions may be valuable and show that a change of 
 feed or in many cases, more feed, is what is needed to make the cows 
 profitable. 
 
 5. The records will show that there are special characteristics 
 among the cows, some making more milk from a given amount of 
 feed than others ; and that the cost of producing a quart of milk or 
 a pound of butter fat varies with different animals. 
 
 6. Some cows that are large milkers may eat more feed than 
 their milk is worth, and a large flow of milk is not always an indi- 
 cation of a profitable milk producer. 
 
 7. Rich milk does not always indicate a profitable cow. 
 
 8. If the records are studied by the owners they will show the 
 value of definite information and systematic work, and the members 
 of the association will get large returns for the money invested 
 by them. 
 
 147. A veteran organizer of cow testing associations states 
 that success depends largely upon the individuality of the man 
 employed to visit the farms. He must have patience to explain 
 the work repeatedly; he must not be inclined to talk too much; he 
 should be accurate in figures and never urge a farmer to join ^.he 
 association against his will, as such a member may do more harm 
 than good. He should also be ready to supply the farmers with 
 ear tags for their cows if necessary, and in some cases it is better 
 for the traveling representative of the association to furnish his 
 
DAIRYING 11 
 
 own horse and wagon as some farmers prefer to board both man 
 and horse, rather than to hitch up and drive from one to four 
 miles to the next farm. 
 
 148. A summary of records of 50 herds gave the following 
 figures : 
 
 Highest Lowest Average 
 
 Butter per cow, Ibs 267 46 140 
 
 Cost of feed $41.00 $17.00 $29.00 
 
 Cost of butter fat per Ib 54 .11 
 
 Butter fat for $1.00 of feed 2.40 .45 1.35 
 
 3. Official Testing of Dairy Cows. 
 
 149. Weighing and testing the milk of each cow at the farm 
 by the owner or by an employee of a Cow Testing Association as 
 already described are done for the purpose of "weeding out the un- 
 profitable cows." There are at the present time, however, two other 
 systems of testing cows that are carried on for the purpose of ob- 
 taining an official statement of cow's milk and butter fat produc- 
 tion, in order that such a record if exceptionally high may help to 
 obtain an increased price for the cow and her offspring. In this 
 way the owner may dispose of his surplus stock at good prices. 
 One of these systems of testing cows is known either as the Ad- 
 vanced Registry or the Authenticated Tests, and the other as the 
 Dairy COAV Competition. 
 
 150. In 1894, the American Holstein-Friesian Association es- 
 tablished what was called- the "Advanced Registry," or a class 
 which included cows that had reached a .certain standard of milk 
 and butter production in tests supervised by a representative of an 
 Agricultural College or an Experiment Station and conducted ac- 
 cording to certain regulations. This same general idea was taken 
 up by the Guernsey Cattle Club in 1901, and by the Jersey Cattle 
 Club in 1903. The tests recognized by these various associations 
 are confined to pure breed cows. Rules for making such tests as 
 well as directions to be followed by the man supervising them are 
 printed; and there has been a constantly increasing number of 
 such tests made each year since the work was started. 
 
12 DAIRYING 
 
 151. Detailed information concerning the making of these 
 tests and the official recording of the results can be obtained from 
 the secretaries of each of the dairy cattle associations which at the 
 present time are the following: 
 
 Holstein-Friesian Association, 
 
 Malcolm H. Gardner, Secretary, Delavan, Wis. 
 Guernsey Cattle Club, 
 
 W. H. Caldwell, Secretary, Peterboro, N. H. 
 Jersey Cattle Club, 
 
 J. J. Hemmingway, Secretary, New York City. 
 Ayrshire Breeder's Association, 
 
 C. M. Winslow, Secretary, Brandon, Vt. 
 
 During the progress of this work or since it was first started, 
 a system of both official and semi-official test has been organized. 
 
 152. The official tests are conducted mostly for seven days 
 although sometimes for 30 or even 60 days. During the time 
 these tests are being conducted the college representative must be 
 present at each milking and both he and the owner of the cows 
 make affidavits concerning the results obtained. 
 
 153. The semi-official tests are carried on for one year and 
 the college representative is responsible only for the figures ob- 
 tained during two days each month, but he checks up the owner's 
 figures for the monthly milk yield "and the average quality of the 
 milk of the monthly tests is taken to represent that of the entire 
 month for the cow tested. The sum of the figures for the produc- 
 tion of milk and butter fat of a cow for 12 consecutive months or 
 for such part thereof during which she is in mill^ gives the semi- 
 official record of the cow for the year." * 
 
 154. "Retests" of cows on official tests are sometimes ordered 
 by the Superintendent of the Advanced Registry of each associa- 
 tion. These "retests" are ordered mostly on the ground of exces- 
 sively high results as reported by the parties testing a cow. ''Re- 
 tests" are ordered by the Holstein-Friesian Association when a 
 cow "has for three consecutive days under test produced an aver- 
 age in excess of the following figures : 
 
 * Woll in Wis. Expt. Station Bulletin 160. 
 
DAIRYING 13 
 
 Butter fat, Ibs. 
 
 Heifer, ist calving, average above. . . .2.1 
 
 Heifer, 2nd calving, average above 2.5 
 
 Heifer, 3rd calving, average above 2.8 
 
 Older cows, average above 3.0 
 
 Any animal of any age averaging for 3 days above 4.5 per cent fat." 
 
 155. The Guernsey Cattle Club also requires "another test 
 within 15 days" when the figures reported for a cow are above cer- 
 tain prescribed limits. 
 
 156. Each of the Cattle Associations and Clubs which have 
 taken up this line of work has prepared regulations and printed 
 instructions for conducting tests as well as a scale of charges and 
 rules to cover all questions and conditions that may arise. 
 
 157. The following instructions issued by the Guernsey Cattle 
 Club illustrate some of the points covered by the various associa- 
 tions in carrying on this work : 
 
 SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS TO INSPECTORS 
 
 Identification of Cow. The Supervisor shall satisfy himself that the 
 cow to be tested answers the description as to color markings given when 
 registered, a tracing of which will be furnished by the Secretary of the Club. 
 
 In case the animal does not agree with the description furnished, 
 the Supervisor shall make a diagram of the -color markings of the cow, 
 and attach same to his detailed report of her test. 
 
 Conduct of Test. 1. The Supervisor shall be present at the last 
 regular milking preceding the beginning of the test and shall satisfy him- 
 self that the cow is milked dry at that time. He shall note the hour at 
 which this milking is made, and the final milking on the test must be made 
 at exactly the corresponding hour en the last day of the test. 
 
 " 2 He must be present, at each and every milking during the test and 
 satisfy himself that at the clcse of each milking the pail contains nothing 
 but the milk drawn from the cow in the test. 
 
 3 Under no circumstances shall more than cne cow undergoing test 
 be milked at the same time. The Supervisor must in every case be in 
 position to observe the milker during the whole milking. 
 
 4 Immediately after the milking is done he shall take charge of 
 the pail and contents, weigh the same on scales, the accuracy of which he 
 has tested, and enter the exact weight of milk, at once, on his records. 
 
 5 As soon as the milk has been weighed, it is thoroughly mixed by 
 
14 DAIRYING 
 
 pouring it from one pail to another, or by means of a dipper, and a test 
 sample is immediately taken. The Supervisor takes charge of and is 
 personally responsible for this sample, which is kept under lock and key 
 until tested. 
 
 The test is proceeded with as soon as convenient after the milk has 
 cooled to ordinary room temperature. 
 
 6 Duplicate fat determinations are always made by the Babcock 
 test and both determinations recorded. Readings of the results are made 
 at about 130 F., the test bottles are preferably placed in a small tin pail 
 containing water of this temperature for five minutes before the readings 
 are taken. If duplicates vary more than two-tenths of one per cent, the 
 test must be repeated. The sample taken of any one milk is not thrown 
 away until a satisfactory test of the milk is obtained. The Supervisor 
 shall enter at once the results obtained on his record book, and shall fill 
 out proper blanks, in ink or indelible pencil, on completion of test. 
 
 7 If any of the milk or the test sample from a milking is accidentally 
 lost, the missing weight or the test credited to this milking is to be ob- 
 tained by taking the average of the corresponding milking during the test; 
 e. g., if the evening milking is lost or the sample therefrom, the average 
 of the weights or tests of the evening milking during the test is taken as 
 the yield or the test for the one lost. It must be stated on the report 
 that the data so obtained are estimated and not actual. 
 
 8 The Supervisor shall be required to pay special attention to the 
 filling out of the test report blanks, especially as to dates of calving, ser- 
 vice, in heat, or not served, etc. Any sickness or other conditions shall be 
 made note of. A full statement as to feed shall be given. 
 
 9 The Supervisor is not at liberty to decide as to which stipulations 
 contained herein are essential and which are not, but is required to ob- 
 serve these directions in all details. He shall report promptly any irreg- 
 ularity or unusual occurrence in connection with the test which he may 
 observe, and shall, in general, take all means to conduct a fair and equit- 
 able test of the cows placed under his supervision. 
 
 Advanced Registry of the Breed Associations. * 
 
 The following table gives the requirements for admission to 
 the Advanced Registers established by the various breed associa- 
 tions. Cows credited with the production given of butter fat or of 
 milk and butter fat on authenticated tests conducted under the 
 direction of an agricultural college or experiment station are ad- 
 mitted to the Advanced Register (or Register of Merit) of the 
 respective breed associations. 
 
 * Bui. 191, Wis. Expt. Station. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 HOT - 
 
 
 
 
 GUERNSEY 
 
 STEIN 
 
 JERSEY 
 
 AYRSHIRE 
 
 AGE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7-day 
 record 
 
 Year 
 rec'd 
 
 7-day 
 record 
 
 7-day 
 record 
 
 Year 
 record 
 
 Year record 
 
 
 Pounds butter fat 
 
 Lbs. milk and butter fat 
 
 2 years ... 
 
 10.0 
 
 250.5 
 
 f 7.2 
 
 I 
 
 260 (24yrs.) 
 
 
 
 3 " 
 
 11.66 
 
 287.0 
 
 1 8.8 
 
 
 300 
 
 6,000 
 
 214.3 
 
 4 " 
 
 13.32 
 
 323.0 
 
 1 10.4 
 
 r 1Z.U 
 
 350 
 
 6,500 
 
 236 
 
 5 " 
 
 15.0 
 
 360.0 
 
 [12.0 
 
 J 
 
 400 
 
 7,500 
 
 279 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,500 
 
 322 
 
 .Requirements 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 increase each 
 day by pounds 
 
 .00456 
 
 .1 
 
 .00439 
 
 
 
 jl.37 
 
 (2.74 
 
 .06* 
 .12f 
 
 
 
 *Two-year-old form. 
 tThree-year-old form. 
 
 There is no increase in the requirements for any breed after a 
 cow is five years old. The age of a cow is taken at the beginning 
 of the record, in case of the Guernsey, Jersey, and Ayrshire breeds, 
 while in the case of the Holstein breed it is taken at the time of 
 last calving. 
 
 4. Official Tests in Dairy Cow Competition.* 
 
 158. The importance and value of a yearly milk record of 
 each cow in a herd is often realized, but not always obtained by 
 owners of dairy cows. They hesitate to undertake what to them 
 seems to be a lot of extra work. An effort has been made in sev- 
 eral states to encourage this work by raising a sum of money which 
 is used for prizes to be awarded to the owners of single cows and 
 of a given number of cows that come up to certain prescribed 
 standards in their milk and butter fat productions for one year. 
 These tests are conducted and the records certified to by a represen- 
 tative of the Agricultural College, and the following brief outline 
 of the rules governing this work in the State of Wisconsin is given 
 as an illustration of the plan which is proving to be satisfactory : 
 
 1. Any cow owned by a resident of the State may be entered in 
 competition. 
 
 2. Cows entered in the competition shall be tested for two days 
 each month during the year, as arranged for by the rules governing the 
 semi-official yearly tests in this state, with the provision that no award 
 
 * Woll in Wis. Expt. Station Circular No. 9. 
 
16 DAIRYING 
 
 shall be given to a cow that has not been safely bred within five months 
 from the date of last calving. 
 
 3. The owner shall furnish a detailed monthly statement of the 
 kinds and the amounts of the different feeds eaten each month by the 
 individual cows entered in the competition. 
 
 4. In order not to place young animals at a handicap in the award 
 of prizes, the records of production actually made by cows under five 
 years of age shall be increased in accordance with the average results 
 obtained in authenticated yearly tests of cows of different ages, as follows: 
 Records made by cows under 2 l /z years at the beginning of the yearly 
 test shall be increased by 30 per cent; 2 l / 2 to 3 years old by 24 per cent; 
 3 to 3% years old by 18 per cent; 3^ to 4 years old by 15 per cent; 4 
 to 4% years old by 8 per cent; and 4 1 /& to 5 years old by 5 per cent. 
 
 5. Records of production for the competition may begin on the fifth 
 day after calving and shall close 365 days from the date of the beginning 
 of the test. 
 
 6. The cost of the monthly two-day tests conducted in connection 
 with this competition shall be $5 for each farmer. The expense stated 
 covers the entire cost of the test to farmers so far as the Station is con- 
 cerned and includes all necessary expenses of the supervisors of the tests 
 (traveling, hotel, per diem, etc.) Farmers supply the sulphuric acid and 
 glass jars or bottles used in the tests, and pay notary fees (if affidavits 
 are required) and express charges on Babcock testers. They provide for 
 the accommodation of supervisors at the farm during the tests and con- 
 vey them from and to the nearest railway station or next farm where 
 tests are conducted. 
 
 No more than ten cows in any one herd shall be tested at one time 
 on monthly tests if the cows are milked twice a day, and no more than 
 eight cows .where any are milked three or four times a day. The number 
 of milkings per day shall in no case exceed four. 
 
 7. Prizes shall be awardei as follows: 
 
 (a) For the highest records of production of butter fat by a cow 
 for one year 
 
 First prize, $300. Third prize, $100. 
 
 Second prize, $200. -Four prizes of $50 each. 
 
 (b) For the highest records of production of butter fat by 10 cows 
 in any one herd for one year 
 
 First prize, $500. Third prize, $200. 
 
 Second prize, $300. Fourth prize, $100. 
 
 Two prizes of $50 each. 
 
 In addition special prizes, both for individual and herd records, are 
 offered. The maximum amount of money paid to any one breeder shall 
 
DAIRYING 17 
 
 be $500. Prizes shall only be awarded to the bona fide owner of a cow 
 at the time her record is made. * * 
 
 The present competition differs from previous tests of dairy cows 
 in that the rules require the cows shall be bred regularly. Failure to 
 get a cow in calf before the end of the fifth month after calving will bar 
 her from competing for prizes. This will enable a breeder to obtain high 
 records from his best cows without the risk of ruining them for future- 
 usefulness in the herd. 
 
 III. Causes of Variation in the Amount and the Richness of Milk 
 Produced Under Normal Conditions. 
 
 159. One of the first things noticed by a beginner in weighing 
 and testing the milk of a cow is the surprising variations in the per 
 cent of fat that may occur from day to day. These variations lead 
 sometimes to a questioning of the accuracy of the method of testing 
 the milk, because the results in some cases seem to be decidedly 
 contradictory to the conclusions of cow owners who, have milked 
 cows for years and whose opinions have been formed from their 
 own expectations rather than from actual tests they have made. 
 The general impression among farmers seems to be that the rich- 
 ness of a cow's milk should remain the same as long as there is no 
 change in the cow's feed. It should be remembered, however, that 
 the teacher or scientist who makes the statement that rich feed 
 does not make rich milk is basing his conclusions on the results of 
 actual trials that have been made, and while he might prefer to be 
 on the popular side and agree with the opinions of those who have 
 fed cows for years, he must record the figures just as they come 
 even if they are contradictory to the popular idea on this matter. 
 It has been demonstrated beyond question by many scientists that 
 the Babcock Test gives accurate results when properly used, and 
 since the method is so simple that any intelligent person should 
 have no difficulty in getting accurate results with it, we should have 
 perfect confidence in the figures obtained by weighing and testing 
 the milk of a cow or cows each day. 
 
 160. The cause of many of the variations in milk have been 
 carefully studied and the observations of scientists nearly always 
 point in the same direction. Among the factors that have been 
 noted to have an influence on the amount and the richness of a cow's 
 milk are the following: 
 
18 DAIRYING 
 
 A. The Individuality of the Cow. 
 
 161. The peculiar characteristics which each cow possesses, 
 or the traits of disposition that are born in her have a great in- 
 fluence on her milk secretions. The effect of individuality on milk 
 production may be noticed first as to the amount of milk produced, 
 and second, as to its richness. 
 
 The amount of milk a cow is capable of producing is unfor- 
 tunately an unknown quantity with many cows, simply because 
 their owners will not give them feed enough. The grain ration and 
 other feed are dipped out to all cows in the herd in like quantities, 
 and the milk each one gives is supposed to be the best she can do. 
 This may be true; but each cow has her individual capacity which 
 should be found out. 
 
 A certain amount of feed is naturally needed to keep the ani- 
 mal in normal health ; this maintenance ration is simply enough to 
 keep up the normal weight of the cow ; but no one can afford to 
 keep a dairy cow on this basis, as the profit she makes will come 
 from the amount of feed she will convert into milk above her main- 
 tenance ration without getting sick. It is therefore necessary to 
 determine first of all whether a cow will respond with milk or with 
 increase in live weight when she is given an abundance of feed. 
 No amount of care and feed can make some cows increase their 
 milk flow any more than it is possible to make a trotter of a draft 
 horse by feed, or make a man handsome by changing his boarding 
 place. A poor cow gives but little milk no matter how she is fed, 
 but a cow having a so-called "dairy temperament" is just as stub- 
 born the other way. She converts her excess of feed over a main- 
 tenance ration into milk and it is impossible to fatten her during 
 the milking period. 
 
 162. The cow shown in Plate 2, is a good illustration of one 
 having a dairy temperament, as this cow was eating about 87 
 pounds of green feed and hay together with 22 pounds of grain per 
 day when this picture was taken, and the way in which her ribs 
 show indicates that this feed was converted into milk rather than 
 into live weight. She gave for 120 days an average per day of 67.5 
 pounds of milk, and this milk contained 2.35 pounds of butter fat, 
 equivalent to two and three-fourths pounds of butter. This char- 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 19 
 
 PLATE 2 A Dairy Temperament Cow. 
 
 acteristic of cows is well worth finding out, and success or failure 
 in dairying largely depends on the attention given to the study of 
 each cow's individuality. 
 
 163. The influence of individuality on the variation in test of 
 a cow's milk is very striking. A cow with a quiet disposition will 
 with quiet handling give milk of about the same richness from day 
 to day ; little diturbances do not change the test of her milk nearly 
 so much as the same annoyances may effect the milk of a high 
 strung, nervous cow. A cow with an excitable temperament has a 
 much greater tendency to unevenness in the quality of her milk than . 
 the mild eyed "Mooley" cow which quietly chews her cud and is 
 not much disturbed by her surroundings. The nervous system has 
 .an important effect on milk secretion, and a sensitive cow may 
 show great variations in the test of her milk. A test of the milk 
 of each milking of any cow may, however, give results that are 
 surprising to anyone whose attention has not been drawn to this 
 matter. A difference in test of one-half to one per cent and even 
 
20 DAIRYING 
 
 more than one per cent may be noticed in the milk of a cow from 
 day to day, or between the two milkings of one day. Such varia- 
 tion may tend to equalize each other and a milking of unusual 
 richness is generally followed by exceptionally thin milk. 
 
 164. Nearly every kind of a variation has been noticed in the 
 amount and the richness of some cows' milk from one milking to 
 another, but a sudden drop or an exceptional increase in the weight 
 of milk given at one milking does not necessarily indicate that the 
 larger quantity will be thinner and the smaller amount richer than 
 the average test of that cow's milk. There is no uniform relation 
 between quantity and quality of milk from one milking to another. 
 
 165. The test or per cent, of fat in a cow's milk from day to 
 day furnishes not only a means of calculating her value as a pro- 
 ducer of butter, but it may serve to show the physical condition of 
 the cow, as there is usually a good reason for a sudden change in the 
 richness of the milk from one milking to another. This was well 
 illustrated in the dairy cow tests conducted during the Columbian 
 Exposition or World's Fair held at Chicago in 1893. The milk 
 of each cow was weighed and a sample of each milking tested. I 
 well remember how keenly the test s'heets were watched every day 
 by the superintendents of the different herds of cows. If the 
 per cent of fat in the milk of any one cow showed a sudden increase 
 or a decrease, that cow was immediately examined, her tempetature 
 taken and questions asked about her treatment as to whether she 
 had broken loose in the night or anything whatever had happened 
 to her between milkings, that would help to explain the variation, 
 as the managers had learned that by watching the tests of a 
 cow's milk they could judge of her physical condition in much the 
 same way as a physician gets information about a patient's health 
 by feeling of his pulse. The cows in these World's Fair tests, 
 were very highly fed and on that -account not strictly comparable 
 with many cows on the farm, but the relation between a cow's 
 health, her treatment, etc., and the daily variation in the test 
 of her milk is undoubtedly a natural characteristic and of much 
 greater significance with some cows than with others. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 21 
 
 166. Some of the variations that may occur in the per cent, of 
 fat in the milk of one cow from one milking to another is shown 
 by the following figures taken from the records of six cows whose 
 milk was weighed and tested each day during an entire milking 
 period. 
 
 Extreme Results Obtained During One Milking Period. * 
 
 
 Per cent Fat in Milk 
 
 
 Cow No. 
 
 No. Days 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Average 
 
 j 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 307 
 428 
 
 332 
 
 342 
 278 
 
 33 2 
 
 12.3 
 
 7-9 
 9-2 
 8.1 
 6.6 
 8.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 2-5 
 1.8 
 
 2.O 
 
 i-5 
 
 2.2 
 
 5-0 
 3-7 
 3-9 
 3-7 
 3-3 
 3-7 
 
 
 These figures show that with nearly all cows there is some 
 one milking during the year when the per cent of fat is very 
 different from the normal figure for that cow. It has been no- 
 ticed also that such extreme variations in the per cent of fat 
 are much more common with some cows than with others, depend- 
 ing largely on the nervous disposition or individuajity of each cow. 
 
 167. The way in which two cows will differ in the amount of 
 variation that may occur in their milk when in the same herd 
 and with the same treatment is shown by the following figures. 
 
 Illinois Bui. No. 24. 
 
22 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 Variation in the Daily Weight and Test (per cent, fat) of Milk 
 of Two Cows in the Same Herd.* 
 
 
 Cow No. 1 
 
 Cow No. 3 
 
 Date 
 
 Milk Ibs. 
 
 Fat % 
 
 Milk Ibs. 
 
 Fat % 
 
 Dec. 18 
 
 15 
 
 5.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 Dec. 19 
 
 16 
 
 4.5" 
 
 11.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 Dec. 20 
 
 15.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 3.7 
 
 Dec. 21 
 
 1? 
 
 4.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 3.4 
 
 Dec. 22 
 
 15 
 
 4.0 
 
 11 
 
 3.8 
 
 Dec. 23 
 
 14.5 
 
 4.6 
 
 11 
 
 3.8 
 
 Dec. 24 
 
 15 
 
 4.3 
 
 12.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 Dec. 25 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.7 
 
 12.5 
 
 3.6 
 
 Dec. 26 
 
 16 
 
 5.2 
 
 14 
 
 3.6 
 
 Dec. 27 
 
 17 
 
 5.3 
 
 14 
 
 4.0 
 
 Dec. 2-8 
 
 17.5 
 
 5.9 
 
 14.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 Dec. 29 
 
 19 
 
 4.8 
 
 15 
 
 4.0 
 
 Dec. 30 
 
 19 
 
 4.8 
 
 15 
 
 3.6 
 
 Dec. 31 
 
 19 
 
 4.6 
 
 16 
 
 3.6 
 
 . Jan. 1 
 
 18 
 
 5.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 Jan. 2 
 
 19 
 
 4.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 Jan. 3 
 
 18 
 
 4.9 
 
 14.0 
 
 3.8 
 
 Jan. 4 
 
 20 
 
 4.9 
 
 15 
 
 3.7 
 
 Jan. 5 
 
 19 
 
 8.2 
 
 15.5 
 
 3.9 
 
 Jan. 6 
 
 19 
 
 4.2 
 
 15 
 
 3.8 
 
 Jan. 7 
 
 20 
 
 5.2 
 
 16 
 
 4.0 
 
 A glance at these figures shows that the per cent of fat in the 
 milk of cow No. I varied considerably more from one day to 
 another than that of cow No. 3, even though they were fed and 
 handled in the same herd. 
 
 B. Lactation Period. 
 
 168. The time between the calving or "freshening" and the 
 "drying up" of the milk flow of a cow is called her period of 
 lactation. This comes usually within one year, but the length 
 of one period of lactation varies with different cows: it is in- 
 fluenced, first, by the natural characteristics of the cow, second, 
 
 * 111. Bui. No. 24. 
 
DAIRYING 23 
 
 by the way she is milked, and third, by the time of the beginning 
 of the next milking period. 
 
 A cow having a natural tendency to give milk will often con- 
 tinue milking until near calving time, and such a one is nearly 
 always a profitable cow even if she does not give a large quantity 
 at any one milking. The cow which gives a large flow of milk 
 for a few months and then stands dry for several months is less 
 likely to pay as well as the persistent milker. The length of the 
 lactation period naturally varies, but observations made from the 
 records of 665 cows have shown that a "standing dry" period of 
 40 to 75 days is advisable for milch cows. * 
 
 The general tendency with cows is to give the maximum 
 amount of milk soon after freshening or early in the lactation 
 period, and then the flow gradually diminishes until the end of the 
 period when the cow is "dry." 
 
 169. The period of lactation may be lengthened by milking 
 the cow regularly and by taking pains to strip her at each milking. 
 Failing to do this will help to dry up the cow ; and this is some- 
 times necessary in order to have a period of about six weeks rest 
 or "standing dry." 
 
 170. The decline in the flow of milk is not uniform with all 
 cows, some fall off gradually, others drop suddenly in their milk 
 flow, and still others are rather intermittent in giving milk. 
 
 171. The milk flow generally increases during the first and 
 sometimes through the second month, but this is influenced by the 
 feed during the flush of the milking period. Changes in feed, 
 especially from dry feed to pasture have a great influence on the 
 milk flow. The effect of the advance in the lactation period on 
 the richness of the milk is comparatively uniform with cows. 
 Fleischman found that with 16 cows, the milk of 15 increased in 
 richness, and one decreased from the first to the last week of the 
 milking period. The milking period of one cow was divided into 
 four parts with the following results : * 
 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
24 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 Lactation Period 
 
 
 
 Proportion of Fat in 
 
 Week 
 
 Milk Ibs. 
 
 Fat % 
 
 Total Solids in Milk % 
 
 3rd 
 
 30 
 
 3.3 
 
 26.6 
 
 22nd 
 
 20 
 
 4.6 
 
 32.6 
 
 31st 
 
 12 
 
 4.5 
 
 32.2 
 
 44th 
 
 3 
 
 8.0 
 
 44.8 
 
 172. By dividing the lactation periods by five cows into 
 months which may have been at different seasons of the year, the 
 following results were obtained. 
 
 Daily Average Milk Pounds and Fat per cent. During Each Month 
 of the Lactation Period of Several Cows in the Same Herd.** 
 
 Month of 
 
 Cow No. 1 
 
 Cow No. 3 Cow No. 4 Cow No. 5 
 
 Lactation 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 
 Milk Fat Milk 
 
 Fat 
 
 Milk Fat 
 
 Period 
 
 It) 
 
 % 
 
 Ib 
 
 % 
 
 Ib 
 
 % 
 
 Ib 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 4.5 
 
 24 3.7 
 
 30 
 
 2.9 
 
 26 
 
 3.6 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 4.6 
 
 23 
 
 3.2 
 
 26 
 
 2.8 
 
 30 
 
 3.9 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 4.7 
 
 18 
 
 3.3 
 
 26 
 
 3.2 
 
 31 
 
 3.5 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 4.9 
 
 14 
 
 3.7 
 
 27 
 
 3.2 
 
 27 
 
 3.6 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 4.6 | 12 
 
 3.7 
 
 30 
 
 3.1 
 
 23 
 
 3.5 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 4.9 
 
 12 
 
 3.8 
 
 25 
 
 3.4 
 
 23 
 
 3.4 
 
 ' 1 
 
 16 
 
 5.4 
 
 16 
 
 3.7 
 
 19 
 
 3.6 
 
 20 
 
 3.5 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 5.2 
 
 16 
 
 3.6 
 
 15 
 
 3.7 
 
 20 
 
 3.6 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 5. .7 
 
 14 
 
 3.8 
 
 11 
 
 3.8 
 
 16 
 
 3.8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6.3 
 
 14 4.0 
 
 5 
 
 4.0 
 
 12 
 
 4.3 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 6.4 
 
 14 3.8 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4.1 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 These records illustrate some of the peculiarities of different 
 cows in the changes in quantity and quality of their milk through 
 one lactation period. The milk of cow No. I decreased gradually 
 in flow and increased in richness during* an eleven month period. 
 No. 3 gave milk for 14 months ; and when she finally was dry the 
 richness of her milk had not increased to a very high figure. Cows 
 Nos. 4 and 5 had shorter milking periods and the decrease in flow 
 of milk was rather sudden, with not much increase in richness at 
 -the end of the lactation period. 
 
 ** Illinois Bui. No. 24. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 25 
 
 There is more or less variation in this respect among cows, 
 but the average figures obtained from the milk records of 1300 cows 
 has been reported as ist month, 3.75 per cent, fat; 3rd month, 
 3.50 per cent, fat, and last month of the period of lactation, 4.14 
 per cent. fat. ** 
 
 C. Different Portions of One Milking. 
 
 173. No one thing probably interferes more with the accuracy 
 of the results obtained by inexperienced persons in testing the 
 milk of each cow in a herd than the failure to take into considera- 
 tion the difference in richness of the first and the last milk drawn 
 from a cow's udder. When one wishes to know the richness of 
 milk given by a cow, all the milk including the "strippings" as well 
 as the "fore" milk should be included in the total amount; this 
 total quantity is then thoroughly mixed by pouring from one pail 
 to another before taking a sample of it for testing. The reason 
 for this mixing may be seen in the following figures which show the 
 richness of the milk drawn from different quarters of a cow's udder 
 in separate portions at one milking. 
 
 Amount and Richness of Milk from Beginning to End of 
 Milking of One Cow.* 
 
 Two left teats 
 
 Two right teats 
 
 Sample 
 No. 
 
 Milk 
 Oz. 
 
 Fat 
 
 % 
 
 Sample 
 No. 
 
 Milk 
 Oz. 
 
 Fat 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 4.3 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 4.5 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4.3 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4.5 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 4.4 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4.6 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 -4.8 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4.6 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4.8 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4.9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 5.7 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 5.2 
 
 7 
 
 > 9 
 
 6.1 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 6.5 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8.0 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6.5 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 2 8.8 
 
 In this case only a small amount of milk was- drawn in each 
 of the several samples into which the milking was divided. A 
 more striking difference between the richness of the first and the 
 last portion of one milking is shown when a cow gives a large 
 
 ** Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtscaft. 
 
26 DAIRYING 
 
 quantity of milk and the samples are taken of only the first and the 
 last portions 
 
 Per cent of Fat in First and Last Quart of Milk Drawn 
 from Each of Three Cows at One Milking.** 
 
 Cow No. i Cow No. 2 Cow No. 3 
 
 Milk, pounds 40 28 40 
 
 Fat per cent in ist qt 1.4 1.8 .08 
 
 Fat per cent in last qt 7.4 4.3 6.4 
 
 174. The changes in richness of milk during one milking is 
 still further shown, by dividing the milk of one milking into 13 
 parts when the following results were obtained.*** 
 
 Sample Fat per cent. Sample Fat per cent. 
 
 No. i, 1.3 No. 8, 5.8 
 
 No. 2, 1.7 No. 9, 6.1 
 
 No. 3, 2.4 No. 10, 7.2 
 
 No. 4, 2.9 No. n, 8.1 
 
 No. 5, 3.3 No. 12 9.7 
 
 No. 6, 3.8 No. 13, 11.5 
 
 No. 7, 4.8 
 
 175. It is a -well known fact that the milk of a cow is not of 
 the same richness throughout the entire milking, the first portions 
 or "fore" milk are thin while the last or "strippings" are rich. 
 The cause of this difference in richness between the first and last 
 milk is sometimes said to be due to the raising of the cream on 
 the milk in the udder. This is extremely doubtful because milk is 
 secreted during the milking process, and very little of it exists 
 ready formed in the udder when milking begins. 
 
 The most probable explanation of this difference In richness 
 is that the fat in the milk accumulates in the fine tubes of the 
 cows udder from the first to the last of a milking and as the 
 milking process proceeds the hand pressure and manipulation of 
 the teats and the udder is greatly increased, and by this means the 
 butter fat which has clogged the fine ducts is squeezed out with the 
 last portions or "strippings." This is well illustrated by the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 ** Mich. Zeitung, Vol. No. 36, Pg. 575. 
 *** Stohmann Milch und Wolkereiprodbete. 
 
DAIRYING 27 
 
 176. A cow was milked dry ; the milk obtained was divided 
 into three portions, the per cent of fat in these three portions was :* 
 
 ist, 1.04; 2nd, 3.57; 3rd, 8.61. The average of the three por- 
 tions of mixed milk of this milking was 3.6% fat. A second 
 milking of the cow after 15 minutes gave a small quantity of milk 
 which contained 7.8% fat; a third milking after another period of 
 15 minutes contained 6.0% fat, and a fourth after 15 minutes con- 
 tained 4.4% fat ; showing that the difference in the richness of the 
 milk is not due to a change in the milk secretions or the creaming 
 of milk in the udder, but that some of the fat of the milk is 
 mechanically held in the fine ducts of the cow's udder and when 
 these are rinsed out, the milk returns to about its normal richness 
 or fat content as in this case from 3.6 to 4.4%, the latter figure 
 representing the newly formed milk in the last 15 minute period 
 after the ducts had been rinsed out by the milk secreted during 
 the two preceding 15 minute periods ; the newly formed milk having 
 about the normal per cent of fat. 
 
 177. Many analyses have shown, however, that the difference 
 between the first and the last milk is confined almost wholly to the 
 per cent of fat and that the other constituents, casein, milk sugar, 
 etc., are present in about the same amounts in the milk from the 
 beginning to the end of a milking. It has also been noticed that 
 other things besides milking, that give the udder extra manipula- 
 tion such as the butting of a calf, moving around through the day, 
 and the extra manipulations given by milking on the right side of 
 the cow have a tendency to increase the fat per cent, in the milk, 
 as the night milk is richer than the morning milk when the interval 
 of time between the milkings is the same and the milk from the 
 right side of the udder is richer than that from the left side because 
 of the extra manipulations on the milking side of the cow. 
 
 D. Intervals Between Milking. 
 
 178. The question is often asked, "Which is the richer, the 
 morning's or the night's milk?" The answer to this question is 
 another question, "What time are the cows milked in the morning 
 and at night?" If the milkings are at five o'clock and there is 
 just 12 hours between them, there will be'very little difference, if 
 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
28 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 any, in amount, and in richness of milk of the two milkings. When 
 farmers are busy during the long days of the year, the cows are 
 often milked at 4:00 A. M. and at 8:00 P. M. At such times there 
 is an interval of eight hours between night and morning milkings, 
 and 16 hours between the morning and night milking. Under 
 such conditions the morning milk is the richer, as the longer the 
 time between milkings the thinner the milk. 
 
 179. Fleischmann made careful observations on the weight 
 and composition of milk from a herd which averaged 129 cows 
 during a year. His figures show the following: 
 
 Average richness of morning and night milk of herd of 129 cows 
 
 No. of Cows Morning Milk Night Milk 
 
 Oct. to Jan 126 
 
 Jan. to April 117 
 
 April to July 139 
 
 July to Oct 136 
 
 Fat % 
 
 3-15 
 2.97 
 
 3-32 
 3.60 
 
 Average 129 3.26 3.18 
 
 This shows that with herd milk, where there is not much dif- 
 ference in the number of hours between the night and morning 
 milkings, the richness is very uniform. 
 
 180. The variations that may occur in the night and the 
 morning milk of one cow are shown by the following figures : 
 
 Daily Average and Extremes in the Milk of One Cow.* 
 
 Month of | 
 Lactation Milk 
 Period Extr. 
 
 Night milkings 
 
 Morning milkings 
 
 Ibs. j Fat per cent. 
 
 Milk 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ave. 
 
 Extr. 
 
 Ave. 
 
 Extr. 
 
 Ave. 
 
 Fat per cent. 
 Extr. I Ave. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 8.5-12 
 
 10.6 
 
 4-6 
 
 4.8 
 
 10-14 
 
 12.3 
 
 3.4-5.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 Nov. 
 
 6. -9.5 
 
 8.3 
 
 2.9-6.5 
 
 4.9 
 
 9.5-12 
 
 10.7 
 
 3.3-6.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 Dec. 
 
 3.5-9 
 
 7.5 
 
 3.3-7.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 8 -11.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 3.8-5.8 
 
 4.5 
 
 Jan. 
 
 7.5-9.2 
 
 8.6 
 
 3.9-9.4 
 
 5.0 
 
 10-12.5 
 
 11.1 
 
 4-11.2 
 
 4.8 
 
 Feb. 
 
 7.5-10.5 
 
 8.7 
 
 4.1-10.2 
 
 4.7 
 
 9.2-11.7 
 
 10.6 
 
 3.6-6.8 
 
 4.5 
 
 Mar. 
 
 7.2-9.5 
 
 87 
 
 4.5-6.2 
 
 5.0 
 
 8 9.5 
 
 8.8 
 
 4.4-5 8 
 
 4.8 
 
 Apr. 
 
 6.2-10.2 
 
 8.1 
 
 4.0-7.1 
 
 5.4 
 
 5-10 
 
 7.7 
 
 4.5-6.9 
 
 5.4 
 
 May 
 
 7-9.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 4.0-5.9 
 
 5.1 
 
 6-9.5 
 
 7.6 
 
 4-7.2 
 
 5.4 
 
 June 
 
 5-7.2 
 
 6.4 
 
 4.6-7.1 
 
 5.6 
 
 5-5.7 
 
 6.3 
 
 4.7-7.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 July 
 
 1-5.7 
 
 3.8 
 
 .3.3-9.7 
 
 6.3 
 
 1.5-7 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.2-12.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1-2 
 
 1.5 
 
 *6.2-9.2 
 
 7.3 
 
 1-2 
 
 1.3 
 
 4.6-6.7 
 
 5.5 
 
 Illinois Bui. No. 24. 
 

 DAIRYING 29 
 
 At the beginning of the lactation period the weight of the 
 morning milk was a little greater and the per cent of fat somewhat 
 less than the night milk, but on certain days both the weight and 
 the test of the milk varied considerably at both milkings from the 
 average figures for the month. This cow was milked throughout, 
 the year in the way and at the times each day that the cows are 
 milked on the average farm and the figures give a fair representa- 
 tion of results that will be obtained under such conditions. 
 
 E. Number of Milkings in One Day. 
 
 181 The practice of milking cows twice each day is nearly 
 universal. Some cows giving large quantities of milk and others 
 during the beginning of the lactation period are milked three times 
 in 24 hours. 
 
 182. An experiment was made with 8 cows by Backhaus** 
 in which the cows were milked twice a day for one week, and four 
 times a day the following week. A comparison of the weights and 
 analyses of the milk during these two periods showed that 10% 
 more milk and 6% more butter fat was obtained by milking four 
 times each day. Hittcher found that with fresh milking cows 
 6.3% more milk and 6.8% more butter fat was obtained by milking 
 three as compared with two times a day. Fleischmann tound that 
 when the day was divided into periods of 9 hours between night 
 and morning milkings, 8}/2 hours between morning and noon, and 
 6y 2 hours between noon and night milkings, that the following 
 average figures per cow were obtained during a six months' record 
 of a herd: 
 
 Morning Noon Night Milking 
 
 Milk, pounds 8.5 6.7 5.1 
 
 Fat per cent 2.7 3.0 3.7 
 
 Hours preceding milking 9 6^ 
 
 The last and the richest milk was obtained after the shortest 
 period of time between milkings. This is in accordance with the 
 usual observations, but it has shown that the evening milk may be 
 richer than the morning milk even where the time elapsed before 
 
 ** Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
30 DAIRYING 
 
 the evening milking is longer than before the morning milking 
 as it is claimed that exercise of the cow during the day has a 
 tendency to make the udder secrete somewhat richer milk than is 
 the case during a quiet night period. 
 
 183. There is no doubt that the act of milking excites 
 the activities of the milk glands, and consequently the greater the 
 number of milkings in a day, the more milk will be obtained, but 
 whether or not the increased amount obtained by three or four 
 milkings each day and the price received will cover the expense 
 of time and labor in doing this extra milking, and caring for the 
 milk three or four times instead of twice a day, is a question that 
 each man must decide for himself. 
 
 F. Milking One Teat at a Time. 
 
 184. It has been shown by a number of trials that when the 
 milk from each teat is kept separate there is a difference in the 
 amount and in the richness of the milk obtained from the different 
 teats. The average of four trials made with one cow milked one 
 teat at a time gave the following figures.* 
 
 Milk Ibs. Fat % 
 
 (A) Right fore teat 2.17 3.76 
 
 (B) Right hind teat .2.15 3.93 
 
 (C) Left hind teat 2.95 4.26 
 
 (D) Left fore teat 2.05 3.69 
 
 9.32 3.92 
 
 It was found, however, during these trials that the difference 
 was not always the same, but the amount and the richness of the 
 milk obtained from each teat was influenced by the order in which 
 the teats were milked, and by changing the order at each of four 
 milkings the following variations in the milk from each teat was 
 noted : 
 
 * Wis. Exp. Sta. Report 1889. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 31 
 
 
 Teat A 
 
 Right fore 
 
 Teat B 
 Right hind 
 
 Teat C | Teat D 
 Left fore | Left hind 
 
 When 
 Milked 
 
 Milk Fat 
 Ib. percent. 
 
 , Milk Fat 
 | Ib. percent. 
 
 Milk Fat 
 Ib. percent. 
 
 Milk Fat 
 Ib. percent- 
 
 First 
 Second 
 Third 
 Fourth 
 
 2.5 3.56 
 2.4 3.6 
 2.3 3.9 
 1.5 3.6 
 
 | 2.1 | 4.9 
 2.3 3.5 
 2.5 4.0 
 | 1.7 I 3.2 
 
 3.0 | 4.47 
 3.1 | 6.00 
 2.7 | 2.37 
 3.0 | 3.93 
 
 2.2 
 2.3 
 2.0 
 1.7 
 
 3.5 
 4.4 
 4.5 
 2.0 
 
 Average 2.17 3.76 
 
 I 2.15 | 3.93 
 
 2.95 | 4.26 | 2.05 
 
 3.69 
 
 G. Milking Fast and Slow. 
 
 185. It is often claimed that a strong, fast milker will get 
 more milk than a boy or than a milker who prolongs the milking 
 time by indifferent attention to his work. The effect of fast and slow 
 milking was tried (**) on nine cows which were each milked rapidly 
 (3 to 4 minutes) for a period of time and then milked slowly, 
 taking double the time of the fast milking, some cows being milked 
 fast and some slow each day so as to eliminate other disturbing 
 conditions. The results showed in .every case that the fast milking 
 gave a richer milk than the slow milking, the gain in butter fat by 
 fast milking being 11.73% f r the herd. The gain from fast 
 milking was greatest with the three cows giving the most milk ; 
 49 pound, or nearly one-half a pound of butter fat per day being 
 the sum of the increase in fat for the three cows. The effect on 
 cows giving but little milk was not so marked. 
 
 During these trials it was noticed that whenever a change was 
 made from fast to slow milking or the reverse, there was not at the 
 time of this change a decided difference in the milk, but after 
 continuing one way of milking for a few days, the milk gradually 
 returned to its normal amount and richness although slow milking 
 never gave quite so good results as fast milking. 
 
 H. Change of Milker. 
 
 1 86. Nearly everyone who has owned cows knows that the 
 milker has a great influence not only on the amount of milk ob- 
 tained from a cow, but on the persistency with which the cow 
 gives milk. Some milkers will dry up the cows while others by 
 their way of milking will develop the milk producing qualities of 
 
 Wis. Exp. Sta. Report i 
 
32 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 a cow so that she is constantly gaming in milk production from 
 year to year. Many trials have been reported of the difference in 
 the amount of milk obtained from the same cow or cows by dif- 
 ferent milkers. From one cow in a herd as reported by Henkel * 
 a good milker got 18 pounds of milk testing 4.2% fat 'while a poor 
 milker got 12.5 pounds of milk testing 2.7% fat. At the Wisconsin 
 Agricultural College one milker got 244.5 pounds more milk from 
 five cows in a two weeks* period than a poor milker got from the 
 same cows in two weeks. A trial is reported by Babcock in which 
 four cows were milked for periods of one week by each one of three 
 men all of whom were considered good milkers. The results show- 
 ed that one of these three men always got more milk and more 
 butter fat than the other two men. 
 
 The greatest difference in the yield of milk always occurs 
 at the first milking after the change of milkers, but in the 16 
 changes from milker A to B there was obtained 1.7 pounds more 
 butter fat by B than by A in milking the same cows. 
 
 A Summary of the Results Calculated per Cow per Day 
 Were as Follows: 
 
 Cow 2 Cow 3 Cow 4 
 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 perce't 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 perce't 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 perce't 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 perce't 
 
 Milker A 
 Milker B 
 Milker C 
 
 20.2 
 22.0 
 20.0 
 
 4.5 
 4.85 
 4.85 
 
 15.3 
 16.2 
 
 4.45 
 4.75 
 
 21.0 
 23.6 
 
 18.8 
 
 3.94 
 4.84 
 4.06 
 
 17.8 
 18. 
 
 3.9 
 
 4.1 
 
 These figures show that B got more and richer milk from the 
 same cows than the other milkers, and with cow No. 3 he got over 
 one quart more milk and the milk tested 1.0% more butter fat 
 Beach* reports that from six cows there was obtained 22.3 pounds 
 milk testing io'.6%fat by stripping them immediately after they 
 had been milked by careless milkers. This amounts to 2.4 pounds 
 of butter fat, or 2^ pounds of butter, which at 30 cents per pound 
 gives 82 cents as the loss at one milking from six cows by careless 
 milkers. 
 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
 *Storrs Conn. Expt. Sta. Report 1903. 
 
DAIRYING %^|3 
 
 . Carlyle** found that with eight cows milked by men who were 
 all kind and' capable milkers, and for whom the cows all showed a 
 certain' amount of "affection;" there was not so much difference in 
 milk obtained by the regular and the irregular milkers. The av- 
 erage yield of milk per cow for the four days of the trials was by 
 the regular milkers 69.3 pounds of milk testing 4.75% fat, and by 
 the irregular milkers 73.7 pounds of milk testing 4.85% fat. The 
 relation between 'the milker and the cow should be a cordial, one, 
 as any feeling of fear or of dislike for the milker will have a ten- 
 dency to reduce both the amount and the quality of the milk a 
 cow gives. 
 
 I. Milking a Cow Dry 
 
 187. The necessity of "stripping" a cow dry each time she is 
 milked is very generally understood among milkers, as leaving 
 some milk in the udder or stopping the milking before the glands 
 stop secreting milk is one of the best means known for "drying up" 
 a cow. Many illustrations of this fact have been known and one 
 of those reported by Soxhlet and Svoboda* shows that a cow 
 which gave 71 pounds of milk from six milkings gave only 44 pounds 
 at the next six milkings when she was only half milked at five of 
 the last six milkings. This is a loss of 39% ; and by continuing this 
 inefficient milking for 10 weeks the cow was ruined as a milker. 
 
 J. The Hegelund Method of Milking 
 
 188. This method of milking consists of a set of manipulations 
 used after the usual milking and stripping of a cow ; these are de- 
 signed to obtain the last traces of rich milk left in the udder. This 
 method of after-milking has attracted considerable attention and 
 several investigators have reported on its use in a number of 
 herds. The following description of the manipulations and the 
 illustrations are given by Woll in Wis. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 96. 
 
 Description of the Manipulations in the Hegelund Method of Milking. 
 
 First Manipulation The right quarters of the udder are pressed 
 against each other (if the udder is very large, only one quarter at a time 
 
 **Wis. Expt. Sta. Report 1903. 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 

 Fig. 1 First manipulation of udder, right quarters. Fig. 2 First manipulation, left quarters 
 
 
 Y \ 
 
 Fig. 3 2nd manipulation, right fore quarter. Fig. 4 2nd manipulation, right hind quartes 
 
 Fig.5^2d manipulation, right hind quarter, rear view Fig. 6 Third manipulation 
 
 PLATE 3 The Hegelund Method of Milking. 
 
DAIRYING 35 
 
 is taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right hand in 
 front on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the outside of the 
 idder and the four fingers in the division between the two halves of the 
 udder. The hands are now pressed toward each other and at the same 
 time lifted toward the body of the cow. This pressing and lifting is 
 repeated three times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked 
 out, and the manipulation repeated until no more milk is obtained in this 
 way, when the left quarters are treated in the same manner. (See Figs. 
 1 and 2.) 
 
 Second Manipulation The glands are pressed together from the side. 
 The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand, with 
 fingers" spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand in 'the 
 division between the right and left fore quarters; the hands are pressed 
 against each other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is ob- 
 tained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are milked by placing a 
 hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with fingers spread and 
 turned upward, but with the thumb just in front of the hind quarter. 
 The hands are lifted and grasp into the gland from behind and frora 
 the side, after which they are lowered to draw the milk. The manipula- 
 tion is repeated until no more milk is obtained. (See Pigs. 3-5.) 
 
 Third Manipulation The fore teats are grasped with partly closed 
 hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the 
 same time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands 
 and the body; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. When the 
 fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked in the same manner. 
 (See Fig. 6.) 
 
 Hill's reports on the use of this method that the extra milk ob- 
 tained about evenly balanced the extra expense ; and, unless the 
 cows' udders are clean, the extra manipulations of the udder causes 
 considerable more dirt to fall into the milk than by the ordinary 
 way of milking. Wing reports that by the after-milking or by 
 stripping cows thoroughly, the residual milk obtained averaged 8.75 
 pounds per cow per week and .6 pounds butter fat. Woll reports 
 that by using this method for four weeks with 24 cows the average 
 gain per cow per day was i. pound milk and .09 pounds butter fat; 
 the greatest increase for any one cow per day was 5.5 pound milk 
 and the least .2 pounds milk. 
 
 The extra time required for the 'after-milking manipulations 
 was about three minutes per cow, or 20 cows per hour, and this 
 time at 15 cents per hour makes the cost of labor per day 30 cents. 
 If the average increase is .1 pounds butter fat per cow per day, 
 this for 20 cows is 2. pounds, which at 25 cents per pound gives 50 
 cents from which subtracting the cost of the extra labor, 30 cents, 
 
36 DAIRYING 
 
 leaving a margin of 20 cents per day or $6.00 per month earned by 
 applying this method of after-milking to a herd of 20 cows. The 
 evidence all shows the great importance of carefully milking each 
 cow dry at every milking. 
 
 K. The Use of Milking Tubes 
 
 189. As a rule milking tubes are only used when a cow has 
 a sore teat or quarter of her udder and hand pressure is so painful 
 that milk cannot be drawn in the usual way. The insertion of the 
 tubes into the cows teats is a painful operation with most cows 
 and a disturbance of this kind will have a great effect on the milk 
 secretion. Babcock reports a trial of milking tubes with 8 cows 
 for seven milkings. Four tubes were used on each cow at once, 
 and after milk stopped flowing from the tubes the cows were 
 hand stripped but no more milk was obtained. Some cows did not 
 object to the milking tubes while others did; but in all cases the 
 milk drawn by means of the tubes contained less butter fat than 
 was obtained by hand milking. There was obtained from the 8 
 cows by hand milking 140 pounds of milk testing 4.7% fat and by 
 use of the milking tubes 134 pounds of milk testing 2.9% fat or 
 6.6 pounds of butter fat by hand and 3.9 pounds by tube milking, 
 or a loss of 2.7 pounds butter fat from the use of the tubes. This 
 shows that they should be used only in case of injury or soreness 
 of the cow's udder. 
 
 L. Effect of Changing Quarters, Dehorning, etc. 
 
 The illustrations previously given in regard to the effect of 
 change of milkers, method of milking, etc., show that the dairy 
 cow is a very sensitive animal, and that the sudden disturbance of 
 her normal quiet life has a depressing effect on her milk production. 
 This sensitiveness is greater in some cows than in others: as a rule, 
 the better the cow the more sensitive she is to any irregularity. 
 
 Certain disturbances seem to have a temporary effect on the 
 milk production, causing a loss of milk and butter fat in the 
 milking immediately following the excitement, but the cows seem 
 to recover from this loss in a short time. 
 
 M. Change of Quarters. 
 
 191. Babcock found that when two cows were taken from 
 their home stable to a neighboring barn one mile away that at the 
 
DAIRYING 37 
 
 first milking in the new quarters one cow gave 2 pounds less milk 
 and that this milk contained 1.0% less fat than at the last milking 
 before leaving her home quarters, but at the second milking in the 
 new quarters the loss of the first milking was recovered and she 
 continued her normal flow of milk. The other cow showed the 
 same tendency, giving nearly I pound less milk testing 1.5% less fat 
 than at the last milking before the change of quarters, but recov- 
 ering her normal production soon after. Hill reports results from 
 7 cows driven 3^2 miles from one barn to another in which there 
 was a general increase in yield of milk during two days following 
 the change of quarters, but six of the seven cows gave milk of a 
 poorer quality after the change. The effect of transportation and 
 change of quarters with cows exhibited at fairs has frequently been 
 noticed, and the so-called "milk tests" at these fairs for one or two 
 days only, are likely to give an erroneous impression of the milk 
 producing qualities of the cow under normal home farm conditions. 
 
 N. Dehorning. 
 
 192. A number of observations on the influence of dehorning 
 of cows on the amount and richness of the milk given by the cows 
 have been made. Babcock reports results of dehorning on 10 
 cows. The details of five records are as follows : 
 
 Cow 1 Cow 2 Cow 3 Cow 4 Cow 5 
 
 Milking be- Milk Fat% Milk Fat% Milk Fat% Milk Fat% Milk Fat% 
 
 fore Dehorning 11.2 4.2 8.4 4.4 9.1 4.0 8.5 4.0 3.5 3.8 
 
 After Dehorn'g 8.1 3.9 7.2 3.8 9.1 4.6 6.0 2.7 3.7 3.6 
 
 The results obtained from the five other cows were similar to 
 these. There was a decrease in both amount and quality of the 
 milk at the first milking after dehorning, but this was only tem- 
 porary, as by taking the herd of ten cows as a whole, the weight 
 of milk for two days before dehorning was 289 pounds, and two 
 days after dehorning was 244 pounds, while for the next two day 3 
 it was 280 pounds. This shows that cows can be dehorned witho.it 
 seriously affecting their milk yield. 
 
 Other observers report similar results, although Doane found 
 in observations made with a number of cows that they failed to 
 regain the normal flow of milk until about 8 days after dehorning. 
 
 O. Weather Exposure 
 
 193. Nearly every creamery and cheese factory owner lias 
 
38 DAIRYING 
 
 noticed the effect of continued hot weather in summer and a cold, 
 raw wind or storm at any season of the year on the milk supply 
 received at the factory. The loss on account of such exposure of 
 the cows can be more than saved by providing a shelter in the 
 pastures in summer and comfortable quarters in winter. Plumb 
 made a comparison from Jan. 27 to Mar. 10, of the amount of milk 
 obtained from six cows which were all given the same kind of feed, 
 and as much as they would eat of it. Three of the cows were kept 
 in a comfortable stable while three were left outside regardless of 
 the weather. The results showed that the cows in the comfortab'e 
 stable ate less feed, gained more in live weight and gave more 
 milk than the unsheltered cows. The financial results showed 
 $12.79, or $4.29 per cow in favor of the sheltered cows for this 
 short period of about six weeks. 
 
 P. Stable Temperature 
 
 194. The effect of keeping cows in a stable at a temperature of 
 55 degrees F. as compared with a temperature of 45 degrees F., and 
 tried at Wisconsin. Several trials were made with 12 and 6 cows 
 in different years. An increased yield of milk was noticed with 
 cows kept in the stable at 55 degrees F. during three trials, and 
 in the stable at 45 degrees F. during two trials. The average of 
 results, however, was in favor of the higher temperature. 
 
 Brooks reports a trial made in Massachusetts with six cows 
 from Dec. 18 to Mar. 8, in which one lot of three cows was kept 
 in a stable heated by hot water pipes to a temperature of 55 de- 
 grees F., and the other lot in a stable not heated. He found but 
 little difference in the milk yield of the two lots, the increase not 
 being nearly enough to pay for the cost of heating the stable. 
 Cows need plenty of fresh air and they can stand a cool tempera- 
 ture without loss of milk, but protection from exposure to storms 
 and cold winds is always necessary as the food a good dairy cow 
 eats should be converted into milk and not into a layer of protective 
 fat on her ribs for the purpose of keeping her warm. 
 
 Q. Changes in Stable Routine. 
 
 195. The effect on their milk flow of feeding cows before, after 
 or during milking depends on the training or habit of the cows. 
 If accustomed to any one of these practices it is not advisable to 
 change. Emery, of North Carolina, reports a falling off in milk 
 
DAIRYING 39 
 
 from 7 pounds to I pound with one cow, and in per cent of fat 
 in the milk from about 4.0 to 1.6 with another cow when the grain 
 which they had been accustomed to have during milking was not 
 fed until after milking. This must not be interpreted as showing 
 the advantage of feeding cows during milking, because many cows 
 have not been accustomed to being fed at that time and they give 
 as much milk as can be expected of them ; probably they would 
 not give more if they were fed during milking. It shows a serious 
 loss in milk may be caused by failure to follow a certain routine in 
 feeding to which the cows have become accustomed. 
 
 R. Age of the Cow. 
 
 196. The usefulness of any cow as a milk producer will 
 naturally depend on her individuality and her treatment during 
 the different years of her life, but under the best conditions there 
 is a limit to the number of years she will give milk at a profit. 
 The rate at which the milk production increases and decreases dur- 
 ing the average life of a cow has been studied by a number of in- 
 vestigators. Hills, of Vermont,* reports the following figures 
 from an exhaustive study of the yearly records of 99 cows. 
 
 Age of cow 
 
 years . . 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 910 
 
 Milk, Ibs.. 4172 4797 5061 5394 5493 5549 5613 5678 5642 
 Fat % . . 5.43 5.33 5.34 5.27 5.21 5.33 5.37 5. 25 5.28 
 These are only a few of the many figures given in Hills' study 
 of this question, and he concludes that "the differences one year 
 with another in no case are large, and that heifers practically "strike 
 their gait" so far as the quality (or richness) of the milk is con- 
 cerned in their first lactation period." 
 
 An inspection of the records of 150 cows in Germany gave the 
 following results.** 
 
 Lactation period ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Beyond6th 
 Milk, pounds ....5490 6600 7040 7209 7535 7434 6790 
 Fat per cent 3.65 3.68 3.64 3.65 3.61 3.62 3.58 
 
 Another study of records of 2454 cows showed an increase in 
 the annual milk production to the seventh lactation, and after this 
 
 *Vt. Expt. Sta. 1906. 
 
 ** Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
40 DAIRYING 
 
 a decline with a slight change in the per cent of fat in the milk 
 from 3.37 in the first to 3.19 in the sixth lactation period. 
 
 The evidence indicates that cows as a rule begin to decline in 
 milk production after the sixth to the eighth lactation period. 
 
 S. Abortion. 
 
 197. The statement is sometimes made that abortion ruins 
 a cow as a milk producer, and she should be fattened and sold. 
 This is a mistake, as abortion can be cured ; and after recovery a 
 cow may produce a satisfactory yield of milk. Several observa- 
 tions have been made which show the effect of abortion on the 
 milk yield. Hills* gives the average per cow of six that aborted 
 as follows: 
 
 Normal Calving Abortion Period 
 
 Milk, pounds 6115 3902 
 
 Fat per cent 4.93 5.43 
 
 Fat pounds 351 247 
 
 Beach** reports the records of 10 cows under normal calving 
 and through an abortion period to the following normal calving 
 period. The average milk production per cow per year before 
 abortion was 5,892 pounds milk and 283 pounds butter fat. "These 
 cows aborted seven months (average 211 days) after conception" 
 and the average time per cow before another normal calving took 
 place was 2.1 years. During this time or the abortion period, the 
 the average per cow was 5,196 pounds of milk and 268 pounds of 
 butter fat per year. The milk was 696 pounds, or 12% less per 
 year during the abortion period. The satisfactory yields are at- 
 tributed in part to the complete removal of the after birth, and the 
 thorough disinfection of the animal after abortion." No trouble 
 arose from failure to breed -after abortion when time (about six 
 months) is given to recuperate from the effects of abortion. 
 
 T. The Use of Tuberculin. 
 
 198. When cows are tested for tuberculosis by injecting a 
 small quantity of tuberculin into the circulation an increase in the 
 temperature is noticed in the reacting cows. This treatment does 
 
 *Vt. Expt. Sta. Report 1895. 
 **Storrs Conn. Expt. Sta. Report 1907. 
 
DAIRYING 41 
 
 not have any serious effect on the health of the cow, and it has 
 been found that the effect if any on the milk flow is temporary. 
 Bohm*** reports that with reacting cows there was a falling off in 
 milk within two or three days after injection, but a return. to normal 
 milk yield within one week. In non-reacting cows there was no 
 diminution in the milk yields. 
 
 Trials made by de Schweinitz**** showed that when large doses, 
 30 cc. of tuberculin, were injected into healthy cows there was 
 no variation in the fat in the milk, but with some reacting cows "a 
 marked decrease in fat was noted." The data collected indicates 
 that the testing of cows by injection of tuberculin into' the circula- 
 tion has no serious effect on the milk secretion. 
 
 U. Sickness of a Cow. 
 
 199. Any disturbance of a cow's digestion which is sufficient 
 to cause her to refuse to eat, or the appearance of a feverish con- 
 dition as well as the occurrence of a more serious sickness has an 
 influence on milk secretion. The most common change in the milk 
 is a decrease in the amount, and an increase in the per cent of fat. 
 If the milk of cow is being tested at each milking, and a sudden 
 increase in fat is noticed at any one milking, this is a good indica- 
 tion of some disturbance of the health of the cow provided nothing 
 else, like the breaking loose of some cow in the stable at night, has 
 happened. The" per cent of fat in milk varies more than the other 
 constituents of milk and although severe sickness may change the 
 entire composition of a cow's milk, the per cent, of fat is subject to 
 so much variation from one milking to another that the old idea 
 of feeding a baby with the milk of one cow only, is no longer 
 considered advisable. 
 
 The mixed milk from several cows is much more uniform in 
 composition from day to day than that of one cow, as the entire 
 herd of cows is not likely to be influenced by the same disturbance 
 that may effect one or more cows in the herd. 
 
 V. Protection from Flies. 
 
 200. Many remedies have been proposed for keeping the flies 
 away from cows, and a number of trials have been made to note 
 
 ***E. S. R. xx 85. 
 **** B. A. I. 13. 
 
42 DAIRYING 
 
 their effect on milk production. The general impression seems to 
 be that so much of the cow's time is wasted in fighting flies, 
 when they are exceptionally numerous, that she does not have 
 sufficient time to eat feed enough to keep up her milk supply. 
 
 Beach* tried a proprietary remedy for flies on the Experiment 
 Station herd for two years, and found that while the cows were not 
 troubled by flies when these remedies were used, there was no 
 change in the milk flow that could be attributed to the fly pro- 
 tectors. He concluded that the annoyance of cows by flies is 
 overestimated. Carlyle* ' kept a herd of 14 cows in a well venti- 
 lated and fly screened stable where they were protected from flies, 
 and by comparing their milk and butter production with that of 
 14 cows given the same treatment excepting that they were kept 
 outside in a shaded paddock where flies were numerous, he found 
 that the cows protected from flies "produced more butter fat, but 
 the increase was not sufficiently great to pay for the trouble and 
 expense." 
 
 One of the best protections from flies that has been found in 
 recent years is a barnyard floor built of concrete. When the 
 manure of the stable is removed from the barn and the barnyard 
 is kept clean and dry, the number of flies is greatly diminished and 
 the cows as well as the milkers are relieved from a large share of 
 the usual annoyance from flies. 
 
 W. The Effect of Drought 
 
 201. It is a well known fact that the lack of feed for cows 
 during a long and continued drought will diminish the flow of 
 milk and usually when a cow "dries up" the per cent of fat in the 
 milk increases. It has been noticed however, that during a severe 
 summer drought, the yield of cheese per 100 pounds of miik is not 
 what would naturally be expected from, normal milk of a giver, 
 per cent fat. This led to an investigation by Babcock which showed 
 that the per cent, of solids-not-fat in the milk, wHch usually is com- 
 paratively uniform was decidedly low in the milk of cows receiving 
 scant feed during a dry season. 
 
 At a factory where the milk of 50 patrons was received the 
 
 
 *P>ul. 32 Conn. Storrs. Expt. Sta. 
 
 **Wis. Expt. Sta. Report 1899, p 92. 
 
DAIRYING 43 
 
 per cent, of solids-not-fat in the milk was about 9.0% in April, May 
 and October, but in July and October it dropped to 8.4%. It was 
 further shown that in those herds fed grain during the drought, the 
 per cent of solids, not fat, in the milk was about normal, while 
 with no grain feeding it was low. The average of five herds which 
 were fed grainduring drought was 4.28% fat; 8.82% solids-not- 
 fat, and 11.03% pounds cheese per 100 pounds of milk. The average 
 of five herds receiving no grain during drought was 4.02% fat; 
 8.19% solids-not-fat, and 9.86 pounds of cheese for 100 pounds of 
 milk. A similar condition of the milk has been noticed at other 
 cheese factories, showing that long continued drought and insuf- 
 ficient feed at such times has a tendency not only to reduce the 
 milk flow but to reduce the per cent, of solids-not-fat in the milk. 
 This makes a low yield of cheese, although the per cent of fat in 
 the milk would indicate the contrary, and the yield of butter at 
 such times would be increased. 
 
 X. Warm or Cold Drinking Water. 
 
 202. An exhaustive study of the effect of warming the water 
 in winter on the milk production of cows has been made by Prof. 
 F. H. King. He made observations during two winters from 
 about Jan. 2ist to March 3ist, covering periods of 64 and 80 days 
 respectively. Six cows kept in a good stable were divided into two 
 lots. To one lot of three cows was given water at 70 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. Each lot was given water at one of these temperatures 
 Fahrenheit, and to the other lot of three cows water at 32 degrees 
 for a period of about 16 days and then changed to water of t^2 
 other temperature. The observations showed that the cows re- 
 ceiving the warm water drank about 10 pounds more water, ate 
 more food and gave about i.o pounds more milk during one year, 
 and J4 pound more milk the second year per day per cow than 
 those given cold water. The cows on cold water required 1.54 
 and 1:41 pounds food per pound of milk, and those on warmer water 
 1.44 and 1.39 pounds. A calculation of the financial difference in 
 the returns from the two lots based on the same prices of feed and 
 milk, and assuming the cost of warming the water for 40 cows 
 during 120 days to be $15.00, showed a profit of $26.40 the first 
 year and a loss of $5.98 the second year. Every cow showed a 
 preference, except one, for the warm water. Other investigations 
 
44 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 report little or no financial benefit from warming the water for 
 milch cows, but it is certainly true that a sensitive cow especially 
 when fresh in milk may be injured by drinking cold water, while 
 other cows not accustomed to a comfortable stable and producing 
 little milk may not be disturbed in any way by drinking cold water. 
 
 
 PLATE 4 A Well Balanced Udder. 
 
 Y. The Form of the Udder 
 
 203. In judging or in selecting a dairy cow the form or shape 
 of the udder is an important point to be considered. It has al- 
 ready been shown (Par. 184) that the different quarters of a cow/s 
 udder may give milk containing different per cents fat, but this only 
 varies with the order in which the quarters or teats are milked. 
 
 The udder as a whole secretes milk of the same average 
 composition from all quarters. The development of the udder, 
 however, may have considerable influence on the amount of milk 
 produced by each quarter. If the udder is well balanced, ap- 
 proximately the same amount of milk will be produced by the 
 fore as the hind quarters. Hills reports trials with five cows 
 which gave 46 per cent, of their milk from the fore quarters 
 and 54% per cent from the hind quarters. Plumb found that with 
 well balanced udders the difference in yield of milk from the fore 
 and the hind quarters was only about 0.2 pounds per day. 
 
 The shape of the udder is largely an inherited characteristic, 
 and since faulty fore udders are more common than defective hind 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 45 
 
 PLATE 5 THE MAMMARY GLAND 
 
 udders, a development of the fore udder by selection and breeding 
 will undoubtedly have a tendency to increase the yield of milk. 
 
 Z. Milk Secretion. 
 
 204. The secretion of milk is a process that is not thoroughly 
 understood in all its details. It is known however, that there are 
 only two mammary glands in all mammals. The number of lobes 
 or teats on each gland varies however, with different animals from 
 a large number, as in the case of the sow, to one teat on each 
 gland as in the goat's udder. The cow usually has two teats on 
 the right and two on the left gland. Occasionally a tliird, smaller 
 teat occurs on the udder of some cows. The two glands of f he 
 cow are separated by a membrane or partition, the ligamentum 
 suspensorium mammarum* which helps to support the udder and 
 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
46 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 hold it in place. This fibrous partition is attached to the abdomen 
 in front and to a point between the thighs in the rear. There is 
 no passage of the milk from one gland to another on each side of 
 this partition, but there is some passage of milk from one teat- to 
 another on the same gland. This may be shown by milking dry 
 the two teats on each side of the cow or those on the same gland 
 when approximately the same amount of milk will be obtained 
 from each pair of teats. If the two fore teats or the two hind teats 
 which are each on different glands are milked dry it will be found 
 that the weight of milk obtained from each of these pairs will be 
 influenced by the order in which they are milked as the milk of 
 each teat of a pair in this case comes from a separate gland. If. 
 however, the milk from each teat on one side or on the same gland 
 is weighed it will be found that the most milk will be obtained from 
 the teat milked first, showing that there is some communication 
 
 GLAND-LOBULE. 
 
 AtVf-OLl~~i 
 
 PLATE 6 Cow's Udder Showing Gland Cells. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 47 
 
 between the sections of one gland and that some of the milk in the 
 second quarter milked will be drawn away through the first one 
 milked. 
 
 Condition of Milk in the Udder. 
 
 205. Milk ready formed in a liquid condition is not stored 
 up in the udder like water in a sponge for if this was the case, there 
 would be no change in the milk from the first to the last of a 
 milking. It would all be of the same richness from the beginning 
 to the end of the milking. Neither is milk filtered or diffused 
 directly from the blood, because the constituents of milk such as 
 casein and milk sugar are never found ready formed in the blood. 
 
 Milk -cis- 
 tern and Outlet Tube 
 of Mi Ik -gland, laid- 
 open. Two-thirds of 
 natural slzs. 
 
 a, Basis qf teat; Z>, 
 upper end of milk- 
 cistern ; d, lower 
 end of same and 
 ; upper end of teat; 
 ' c', dilatation ? 6f 
 canal of the teat; 
 /, rosette on end 
 of lower portion 
 
 . of canal of teat; 
 h, small, and o, 
 large ^land-ducts, 
 (Furslenberg.) 
 
 _ r f. 
 
 PLATE 7. 
 
 I\ ilk is the product of active gland cells, a collection of which is 
 called a gland lobule and these cells are capable of changing the 
 raw materials of the blood into the peculiar constituents of milk. 
 The characteristic composition and richness of each cow's milk is 
 
48 DAIRYING 
 
 determined by the gland lobule cells, just as the color and variety 
 of an apple is a characteristic of certain cells in each bud. A 
 change of food of the tree will have no effect on the color or the 
 other normal characteristics of. the fruit of that tree. A Baldwin 
 tree contains cells that produce a Baldwin apple ; and green colored 
 appLes as well as red apples are produced on trees side by side in 
 the same orchard. The nature of the cells determines the char- 
 acteristics of the fruit, and no amount of food in the way of a 
 fertilizer can change this quality.- In the same way each cow is 
 born with cells in her milk glands that secrete milk ot a certain 
 composition, and no amount of feed or lack of feed will change 
 their character so long as the cow is in normal condition; more 
 feed will produce more milk by making these glands more active 
 or by building up a larger number of cells, but the milk secreted 
 will always have the same characteristic composition. If this were 
 not true it would be possible to make a cow give cream by feeding 
 a suffciently concentrated feed, and we could by changing the feed 
 obtain either Jersey or Holstein milk from the same cow. It may 
 be asked how does it happen that we have Jersey and Holstein milk 
 if feed does not change its richness, and why is not the milk of all 
 cows of the same percentage of composition? The answer to this 
 question is that there is a variation in the cell structure character- 
 ictics of the milk glands of cows when born and by selecting 
 animals that give a little richer or a thinner milk than the mother, 
 a strain of cows has been developed that after a few generations 
 give milk of a different percentage composition than that of the 
 first cow. The change in the per cent of fat (which is the most 
 easily varied of any of the milk constituents) is accomplished in 
 much the same way as the change in the color of a cow's hair. 
 There is no change during the life of one -cow in this particular, 
 but her offspring may be of a slightly different color than its moth- 
 er, and succeeding generations will show still greater variations 
 from the original animal if careful selections are made with this 
 point in mind. 
 
 206. The Milk Glands are located in the udder near the body 
 of the animal as shown in Plate 8. Blood circulates through the 
 arteries and veins to the gland lobules which takes substances in the 
 blood and convert them into milk by means of microscopical 
 bodies called alveoli. When milk is being produced by the gland 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 49 
 
 Gland -lobules, e, Outlet tube, 
 (x 00.) (Furstenberg.) 
 
 Alveoli, d, Common duct, (x 800.) 
 (Furstenberg.) 
 
 PLATE 8 The Milk Glands. 
 
 these alveloi become swelled as shown in i, but at other times are 
 flat and contracted as in 2. During secretion the milk flows from 
 these alveoli in the gland lobules through fine ducts or tubes that 
 increase in size as they near the milk cistern which is a cavity 
 holding about one-half a pint located just above the roots of the 
 teat. From this milk cistern the milk flows through the tube in 
 its center to the end of the teat when the sphincter muscle closes 
 the opening. The cow has no control over this muscle and but 
 little control of another muscle at the root of the tent which helps 
 to hold the milk that accumulates in the cistern. The muscles 
 surrounding the gland near the body of the animal are partially 
 under control and this enables the cow to "hold up" her milk 
 under nervous excitement. 
 
 The control which .a cow has over her milk secretions is 
 similar to that "which a man has over the salivary and the tear 
 glands. Certain conditions cause one's "mouth to water" or the 
 saliva to flow and one's "eyes may water" either voluntarily or in- 
 voluntarily. In the same way the act of milking causes the milk 
 
50 DAIRYING 
 
 gland to begin the secretion of milk and this continues until the 
 gland is emptied or until some sudden excitement causes the 
 nerves surrounding the milk gland to check the milk secretion. 
 
 After birth of the young the blood which was used to nourisji 
 the young mammal before birth is sent to the udder, and this 
 causes the glands to become active. The inside of the gland lobules 
 is covered with a layer of epithrelial cells which are swelled when 
 secreting milk and flat when no milk is given. The outside o f the 
 gland lobule is covered with a network of blood and lymph vessels 
 which nourish and build up the gland. The more of these glands 
 there are the more milk is produced, but a certain amount of the 
 milk is undoubtedly formed during milking, as the milk given at 
 one milking weighs more than the entire udder and its contents 
 before milking began. The cow's milk glands ordinarily weigh 
 between two and three pounds, and the solid matter alone in 20 
 pounds of milk will amount to about two and one-half pounds; 
 while with cows giving 50 pounds of milk, the solid or dry matter 
 amounts to six pounds. 
 
 The activity of the milk glands in a cow is therefore influenced 
 by the inherited milk-giving capacity of the animal and by the 
 treatment the cow receives such as milking dry at each milking, 
 regularity of time between milkings, promptness and gentleness 
 during milking, protection from excitement, and an abundant sup- 
 ply of palatable feed at all times. These are points to which the 
 owner and the milker of cows should give close attention in order 
 to develop and maintain the maximum activity of the milk glands. 
 
 The milk veins under the abdomen of the cow extend for- 
 ward from the udder to a point near the middle of the abdomen 
 where they enter the body, and then pass on to the heart. The 
 size of this opening which the blood passes through as well as 
 the size of the milk veins is some indication of the milking capacity 
 of the cow. 
 
 207. Too Frequent Milking or too long a time between milk- 
 ings tends to diminish the activity of the gland like the tiring of a 
 muscle by excessive exercise, but with a normal amount of milk- 
 ing the emptying of the glands seem to be a stimulus to milk se- 
 cretion and a knowledge of this fact may aid cow owners in their 
 
DAIRYING 51 
 
 efforts to develop the milk giving tendency in cows. Some investi- 
 gators have suggested that since the fluctuations in the flow of milk- 
 has a great effect on the per cent of fat in the milk the secretion 
 of fat is a controlling factor in milk formation. Collier* found 
 that when the time between milkings was exactly 12 hours the 
 average for 9 cows of five breeds was .696 pounds of milk per hour 
 during the night and .7 pounds of milk per hour during the day; 
 the average per cent of fat in the morning milk was 4.26 and of 
 the night's milk 4.22 showing a great uniformity in the milk 
 secretion, and in the fat per cent when there are no fluctuations in 
 milking. The great activity of the milk gland has also been illus- 
 trated by Collier in a calculation based on the figure obtained above 
 .7 pounds or 19.6 cc milk per hour, and on an -average of 150 obser- 
 vations on the milk of 15 cows of six breeds which later showed 
 152 fat globules in one-one-thousandth of a millimeter of milk; 
 his calculation showed that under these conditions the milk gland 
 is secreting 136,000,000 fat globules per second. This gives some 
 idea of the great activity of the milk gland. The subject of the 
 source of the fat in milk has been studied by a number of investi- 
 gators; but this question can not be discussed at this point. One 
 experiment made by Collier showed that for every one pound of 
 fat in the milk, the cows received 1.21 pounds of fat in their feed; 
 and although it may be possible that a cow converts some of the 
 other constituents of her feed into milk fat, there is usually more 
 fat in the feed than in the milk. 
 
 AA. The Breed of the Cow. 
 
 208. The general characteristics of certain breeds of dairy 
 cows are well known. The Jersey and the Guernsey cows as a rule 
 give less and richer milk than the Ayrshire and the Holstein cows, 
 while the Brown Swiss, Shorthorn, Red Polled and Devon breeds 
 come about half-way between the two extremes in the amount and 
 quality of the milk they produce. 
 
 The richness of the milk, or the per cent of fat it contains, is 
 a breed characteristic, as is also the size of the animal, earliness 
 of maturity, disposition, persistency of milking, length of milking 
 
 *N. Y. Geneva Report 1891, page 28. 
 
52 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 periods, etc. Some breeders are now trying to combine many of 
 the good qualities of several breeds into one, such as a large 
 quantity of rich milk. 
 
 Such a development as this may be promoted by keeping in- 
 dividual records of both feed and milk per cow per day as the feed 
 consumed per unit of milk or milk fat is of great importance in 
 the collection of data to be used in selecting cows to breed from 
 and from which to build up a herd having the characteristics most 
 desired. 
 
 The breed of a cow, however, does not always insure her pos- 
 sessing the peculiar qualities of that breed, as there are many ex- 
 ceptions and considerable variation in the cows of one breed. This 
 is well illustrated by the following figures collected during the 
 Dairy Cow Demonstration at the World's Fair held at St. Louis. 
 The cows of each breed were all under one management which was 
 trying to make each cow give the most milk possible at the least 
 food cost; but the figures show considerable variation in the ca- 
 pacity of the cows of each breed. 
 
 Variation in Milk Production of Cows of One Breed 
 St. Louis Dairy Test, 120 Days' Record. 
 
 Holstein 
 
 Jersey 
 
 Best i Poorest ! Ave. 
 
 Best ! Poorest I Ave. 
 
 Milk per day Ibs 
 
 67 
 
 47 
 
 53 
 
 48 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 Test of milk 
 
 3.5 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 4,7 
 
 Butter fat Ibs. 
 
 2.35 
 
 1.51 
 
 1.83 
 
 2.33 
 
 1.61 
 
 1.93 
 
 Feed cost milk ] er quart 
 Feed cost butter per Ib. 
 
 9cts. 
 llcts. 
 
 1.2cts. 
 16.4cts. 
 
 1.07cts. 
 13.5cts. 
 
 l.lcts. 
 9.7cts. 
 
 1.3cts. 
 13.2cts. 
 
 1.16c 
 10. 5c 
 
 No. cows in he id 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! SLorthorn 
 
 Brown Swiss 
 
 
 BnPt 
 
 Poorest i 
 
 Ave. | Best 
 
 Poorest 
 
 Ave. 
 
 Milk per day IDS 
 
 43 
 4.0 
 1.73 
 1.09cts 
 ll.Tcts 
 
 21 
 3.9 
 
 | 0.84 
 2.15cts. 
 23.4cts. 
 
 35 
 3.8 
 j 1.28 
 1.3cts. 
 15.3cts 
 
 51 
 3.4 
 1.75 
 1.09cts 
 13.6cts 
 
 38 
 | 3.8 
 | 1.48 
 ! I Acts. 
 \ 15.5cts. 
 
 44 
 3.6 
 1.6 
 1.2c 
 14. 7c 
 
 Test of milk 
 Butter fatlbs 
 Feed cost milk per quart 
 Feed cost butter per Ib. 
 
 No. cows in herd 
 
 28 
 
 
 5 
 
DAIRYING 53 
 
 The figures show the characteristic richness* of the milk of 
 these different breeds and their milk production. The cows were 
 selected at that time for the purpose of making as good a showing 
 as possible for each breed. The feed cost per quart of milk is low- 
 est in the case of the best Holstein cow and the feed cost per pound 
 of butter fat is the least with the best Jersey cow, but there were 
 cows in each of the breeds which produced both milk and butter 
 more economically than some one cow in every other breed. 
 
 . BB. Feed. 
 
 209. The calculation of standard feeding rations and related 
 questions will be discussed under another head, but the effect of 
 the feed on milk secretion is a matter of importance independent of 
 compounding of rations. Economical milk production depends 
 largely on healthly and active milk glands, and since such glands, 
 like muscles, are nourished by the protein feeding stuff's, an ample 
 supply of this constituent should be available in the feed of milch 
 cows. The fat in feeding stuffs is also important, as it doubtless 
 aids in supplying the fat of milk, although the food fat is changed 
 by the digestion process and does not appear as such in the milk. 
 A sufficient amount of food fat has a favorable action on milk se- 
 cretion, but an excess not only makes a feed too expensive, but it 
 may disturb digestion and thus reduce the flow of milk. An in- 
 sufficient amount of fat as well as a scanty supply of other feed 
 fails to keep the animal up to its producing capacity, and this 
 deficiency may reduce the flow of milk. It is necessary, therefore, 
 to supply the cows with an ample quantity of feed of the right 
 kind in order to keep the milk glands in a healthy and active con- 
 dition. 
 
 Even green feeds are not always nutritious, as it is well 
 known that pasture grass and other feeds grown during a continued 
 wet spell of weather have "no strength" as stock feed, and brew- 
 ery slop feed, roots, etc., fed in too large quantities do not aid 
 
 * See also page 24, Lesson i. 
 
54 DAIRYING 
 
 milk secretion. A consumption of large quantities of water either 
 m feed or as a result of feeding salt to such an extent as to make 
 cows drink more water, fails to increase the milk flow or to 
 diminish the per cent, of solids in the milk. 
 
 There is a limit to the amount of concentrated feed and of 
 protein that should be given cows for the purpose of increasing 
 their milk flow, as a point will be reached at which the Increase in 
 milk is not sufficient to pay for this increased feed and when there 
 is no further gain in milk it may be assumed that the feed is suf- 
 ficent for a maximum flow of milk. A feeding rule for cows has 
 been suggested that is based on the amount of milk given. This 
 rule is to feed as many pounds of grain per day as the milk of the 
 cow contains pounds of butter fat per week, or one-third to one- 
 fourth as much grain as the cow gives pounds of milk per day> 
 varying it according to the richness of the milk. If a cow gives 
 30 pounds of milk testing 4% fat the amount of grain she may be 
 fed per day according to this rule is either one-third of 30, 10 
 pounds ; or one-fourth of 30, 7.5 pounds when the calculation is 
 based on the amount of milk given. If based on the richness as 
 well as the weight of milk, the amount of grain to be fed per day 
 is found as follows: 30x4% equals 1.2 pounds of fat in the dairy 
 milk, and seven times this figure (1.2x7) ' ls 8.4 pounds of grain. 
 
 The butter fat in the milk is a better basis than the weight of 
 milk only for calculating the amount of grain to be fed a cow, as it 
 takes the richness of the milk and the consequent increase in ac- 
 tivity of the milk glands into consideration. When fed by this 
 rule a cow is supposed to be given all the roughage or coarse feed 
 such as hay, silage, roots, etc., that she will eat. By regulating the 
 amount of grain or concentrated feed that a cow may have, she is 
 permitted in this way to satisfy her appetite on the coarse feed and 
 thus use her judgment as to the amount of feed she needs. 
 
 210. The palatability of the feed is all-important, as cows will 
 not eat spoiled hay, although such hay may contain a sufficient 
 quantity of nutrients to produce milk. The addition of grain or 
 something that tempts the cow's appetite will sometimes induce her 
 to eat such spoiled hay, but these same appetite-exciters will not 
 be needed to increase the consumption of well-cured, palatable 
 feed. The condition of the animal will also have an effect on the 
 
DAIRYING 55 
 
 amount of feed eaten, but increasing the feed to an under-fed cow 
 will not change the richness of the milk, although it does increase 
 the amount of milk she gives. There are no feeds, however, that 
 permanently change the normal per cent, of fat in milk. 
 
 Milk secretion is influenced by other things than the amount 
 of nutrients in feed. One of the most conspicuous of these is the 
 change from stable to pasture feed in the spring. This green feed 
 containing an abundant supply of easily digested protein and the 
 exercise in the open air after several months in a closed stable, 
 have a stimulating action on milk secretion and an immediate 
 effect is noticed in the milk; it changes color, flavor, and viscosity* 
 there is a sudden increase in the per cent, of fat in the milk with 
 a slight decrease in amount, but by the second week on pasture 
 the per cent, of fat returns to its normal figure and there is a gain 
 in quantity of milk. Fleischmann reports the following figures ob- 
 tained from the record of a herd of cows that show the effect of 
 changing from stable to pasture. 
 
 Last week 
 in stable 
 
 l /2 week in stable 1st full wk. 
 ^wk. at pasture at pasture 
 
 2d wk 
 at pasture 
 
 Milk per cow It) 19.3 
 Fat ner cent. , .3.08 
 
 18.5 19.9 
 3.78 3.50 
 
 20.7 
 3.21 
 
 Observations on the changes that take place in milk when 
 cows first go from stable- to pasture have been procured at the 
 Vermont Experiment Station for eight years. 'The herd varied in 
 number from 30 to 50 cows during the different years. The milk 
 yield on going to pasture increased each year but one. This in- 
 crease may be expressed in the proportion of 100 pounds of milk 
 during two weeks stable feeding before pasture to 107 pounds 
 during the first two weeks on pasture, and 103 pounds during the 
 next four weeks on pasture, excepting four years when it was 95 
 pounds in the last period of four weeks. 
 
 The per cent, of fat in the milk during these periods of the 
 different years is shown by the following figures. 
 
56 DAIRYING 
 
 Average per cent, fat in milk 
 
 
 2 weeks 
 Stable 
 
 1st 2 weeks 
 at pasture 
 
 Next 4 wks 
 at pasture 
 
 4 years showing increase . . 
 
 . . . . 501 
 
 5 39 
 
 5 08 
 
 1 year showing increase 
 
 4 88 
 
 5 02 
 
 5 r 8 
 
 3 years showing increase . . 
 
 . . . . 5 11 
 
 5 11 
 
 5 08 
 
 
 
 
 
 Not every cow in the herd showed the same effect of this 
 change each year, but during four years only 2% of the cows gave 
 thinner milk on pasture than on stable feed. In one year 7% 
 of the cows and during three years 15% -of the cows gave thinner 
 milk during the first two weeks on pasture than in the last two 
 weeks on stable feeding. The results as a whole show that milk 
 from pasture feed is not as a rule poorer than from stable feed, 
 and that there are no facts to uphold the double standard of milk 
 which has been adopted by some cities and states where a thinner 
 milk is permitted during the months the cows are at pasture than 
 in the winter months of the year. 
 
 211. Effect of Heavy Grain Feed. Many trials have been 
 made to show the relation between the amount and the richness of 
 a cow's milk and the amount and richness of her feed. There is an 
 impression among some cow owners 'that rich feed makes rich milk 
 and vice versa. The experiments made on this point invariably 
 show, however, that while an increase in the grain ration may cause 
 a gain in the milk flow and more butter is made, there is practically 
 no change in the per cent, of fat, or in the richness of the milk. 
 If a cow is giving 20 pounds of milk per day, and it tests 4% fat 
 this amounts to .8 pounds butter fat or about one pound of butter 
 per day. If her grain ration is increased she may give 25 pounds 
 of milk per day, but this milk will test approximately 4% of fat 
 the same as it did before. This increase will make more butter 
 than formerly, even though the test of the milk has. not changed, 
 since 25 pounds of milk testing 4% fat gives one pound of butter 
 fat. This is about 1.2 pounds of butter, or a gain of 20% .in the 
 amount of butter made by the cow in consequence of the increase 
 in feed, even though there was no change in the test of the milk. 
 
 The following figures were obtained in an experiment made 
 by the writer in which an attempt was made to increase the .grain 
 ration of three cows to as large a quantity as seemed safe without 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 57 
 
 making the cows sick. During this time the milk of each cow was 
 tested daily and note made of. the changes if any took place. When 
 the experiment was begun the cows were not fed as much as they 
 ought to receive. The results obtained are given in the following 
 table. 
 
 Feeding period 
 
 Corn and 
 cob meal 
 
 Wheat 
 Bran 
 
 Oil 
 
 Meal 
 
 Timothy 
 Hay 
 
 Corn 
 Silage 
 
 Dry matter 
 in feed 
 
 Days 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 I 25 
 II 12 
 III 27 
 IV 15 
 V 51 
 VI 6 
 VII 16 
 IX 31 
 
 6 4 
 8 4 
 10 5 
 12 6 
 12 
 
 Pasture luxuriant blue 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 grass. 
 
 10 
 6 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 22 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 18.6 
 23.7 
 24.9 
 28.4 
 32.0 
 26.5 
 25.2 
 
 Daily Weight and Test of Milk 
 
 Cow i 
 
 Cow 3 
 
 Cow 5 
 
 Milk Ib 
 
 Fat % 
 
 Milk ib , Fat % 
 
 Milk tt> 
 
 Fat % 
 
 16.7 
 
 4.6 
 
 ii-5 
 
 3-8 
 
 25 
 
 3-6 
 
 184 
 
 5-2 
 
 14.8 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 3-9 
 
 19.9 
 
 4-9 
 
 16.3 
 
 3-6 
 
 3i 
 
 37 
 
 19-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 16.6 
 
 3-5 
 
 3i 
 
 3-5 
 
 17.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 14.9 
 
 3-8 
 
 28 
 
 3-5 
 
 18.6 
 
 5-o 
 
 15-2 
 
 37 
 
 26 
 
 1 34 
 
 13-6 
 
 5-9 
 
 12-5 
 
 4-2 
 
 19 
 
 4.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 S- 2 
 
 14-5 
 
 37 
 
 23 
 
 34 
 
 These figures show that an increase in the grain ration from 
 two pounds to 24 pounds per cow per day did not change the aver- 
 age test of the milk of these cows, even though the heavy grain 
 feeding was continued for nearly four months. There was an in- 
 crease however, in the flow of milk amounting to three pounds of 
 milk per day for cow No. i and five pounds and six pounds per day 
 for cows Nos. 3 and 5 respectively. 
 
 It will be noticed that the milk flow of each cow increased on 
 the heavy grain ration for about 60 days, that there was then a 
 slight falling off for about 60 days, and a decided decrease in milk 
 
58 DAIRYING 
 
 with all the cows during the last 16 days, when the grain was re- 
 duced to six pounds per day. But it will also be noticed that as 
 soon as the cows went to pasture, the milk flow gained again to 
 nearly the same amount as four months earlier in the cow's milk- 
 ing period. 
 
 The drop in the test of the milk when the cows went to pasture 
 was simply bringing it back to the same richness that the milk had 
 before the cows began to dry up on account of a reduction in the 
 grain ration. 
 
 The conclusions of all careful experiments on this point have 
 been the same; and as before stated the richness of a cow's milk is 
 a natural characteristic like the color of her hair. Changes in feed 
 do not permanently affect it so long as the cow is in normal con- 
 dition/ The net profit or a profitable return for the feed consumed 
 is the all important point in feeding and breeding dairy cows, and 
 records of milk produced and feed consumed if carefully obtained 
 by the owners of cows or by farmers' Cow Testing Associations 
 will furnish valuable information concerning the animals to be 
 selected for breeding purposes in order that milk may be produced 
 as economically as possible. 
 
DAIRYING 59 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 Note to Students These questions are to be answered inde- 
 pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your exami- 
 nation. Use thin white paper about 6 in.x 9 in. for the examination. 
 Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat 
 the question. Mail answers promptly when completed. 
 
 Questions on Lesson II. 
 
 1. Briefly describe the origin and the advantages of Cow Testing 
 Associations. 
 
 2. Give some of the important points that should be included in 
 a contract to be signed by the members of a Cow Testing As- 
 sociation. 
 
 3. What is the cost to each member per year and what does he 
 receive for his money? 
 
 4. What points should the Articles and By-laws cover? 
 
 5. What are the requirements for becoming a voting member? 
 
 6. Describe the kind of a man needed for doing the work of the 
 Association. 
 
 7. From the following record of one cow : Milk A. M., 10 pounds, 
 P. M., 12 pounds, test 3.8, price of butter 30 cents, feed eaten 
 12 pounds of hay, cornstalks 40 pounds, corn meal 8 pounds. 
 Price of hay $12.00 per ton, corn stalks $1.50 per ton, corn 
 meal $8.00 per ton. Calculate the feed cost per 100 pounds 
 of milk and per pound of butter fat, also the total milk and 
 
60 DAIRYING 
 
 butter fat production for 30 days, and the receipts from butter 
 fat for $1.00 worth of feed. 
 
 8. Mention six or more ways in which these associations may be 
 a benefit to the members. 
 
 9. What is the -tlifference between Cow Testing Associations and 
 Advanced Registry testing of cows? 
 
 10. When and by whom was the Advanced Registry testing begun? 
 
 11. Where are the headquarters of the Secretaries of the Associa- 
 tions which make Advanced Registry tests of cows? 
 
 12. What is an official test, a semi-official test, and how long a 
 time does each coyer? 
 
 13. W 7 hat is meant by a retest? 
 
 14. W 7 hat are the requirements for admission to the Advanced 
 Registry in each of the dairy breeds? 
 
 15. What is meant by "Dairy Cow Competition" tests? 
 
 16. Mention some of the individual characteristics of a cow that 
 are of importance to a dairyman. 
 
 17. What is the usual relation between amount and richness of a 
 cow's milk? If the milk suddenly increases in weight what 
 is the common change in richrfess? 
 
 18. What kind of cows show the most striking variations in rich- 
 ness of milk? 
 
 19. What may a sudden change in richness of a cow's milk indicate? 
 
 20. To what extent may the test of one cow's milk vary from day 
 to day? Give figures. 
 
 21. Is this variation the same with all cows and how does it differ? 
 
 22. What is meant by "Lactation period'' and what influences its 
 length ? 
 
 23. What is a satisfactory "standing dry" period in days? 
 
 24. How may the lactation period be lengthened? 
 
DAIRYING 61 
 
 25. What per cent, of dry matter in the milk is the fat at different 
 parts of the milking period ? 
 
 26. To what extent does the richness of a cow's milk change in 
 different portions of one milking? Give figures. 
 
 27. Why is the last milk, or stripping, the richest, and what kind 
 of treatment tends to make the milk richer? 
 
 : 
 
 28. What influences the richness of the morning and night milk? 
 
 29. To what extent does the w.ejght and the test of the milk of 
 one cow vary from morning to night? Give figures. 
 
 30. When is it profitable to milk cows more than twice a day? 
 
 31. What portion of the udder gives the most and the. richest milk? 
 
 32. What effect does fast or slow milking have on the milk ob- 
 tained J Give figures. 
 
 33. How much difference in wages can a good milker earn more 
 than a poor milker? Calculate from one of the records given 
 in paragraph 186. 
 
 34. How much money may be lost per cow by failing to milk dry? 
 Calculate from record given in paragraph 187. 
 
 35. What would be the value of the milk and butter fat saved in 
 a year if all cows were milked by the Hegelund method and 
 the figures reported in paragraph 188 were obtained by its use? 
 
 36. What are the advantages and disadvantages of milking tubes? 
 
 37. What is an objection to State and County Fair tests of dniry 
 cows? 
 
 38. What influence has dehorning cows on the test of their milk? 
 
 39. What may be the financial loss if 10 cows are exposed to the 
 weather for six months, based on the results reported in 
 paragraph 193? 
 
 40. Is there any necessity of heating cow stables in winter? 
 
 41. Should cows be fed during milking? 
 
62 DAIRYING 
 
 42. At what age does a cow begin to decline in milk production 
 and richness of milk? 
 
 43. Is it necessary to fatten and sell good dairy cows after an 
 abortion period, and what may be the loss in milk during- an 
 abortion period? 
 
 44. What effect on milk flow is caused by testing cows for tuber- 
 culosis? 
 
 45. Why is not advisable to feed the milk of one cow to a baby 
 and what effect on milk has the sickness of a cow? 
 
 46. What effect have fly protecting medicines on milk flow and 
 what is a good protection from flies for cows? 
 
 47. In what way does scant feed during a dry season effect the 
 composition of milk and yield of cheese? 
 
 48. How much money could a farmer afford to use in buying grain 
 for his cows during drought if he kept ten cows that gave 30 
 pounds of milk each per day and cheese is worth 15 cents per 
 pound? 
 
 49. Does it pay to warm water for cows in cold weather? 
 
 50. In what part of a cow's udder is the most milk produced? 
 
 51. Are the teats diagonally opposite on a cow's udder on the 
 same gland, 'and which of these two will give the most milk 
 when milked first.? 
 
 52. Give proof that milk is not filtered from the blood. - 
 
 53. What determines the richness of a cow's milk? 
 
 54. How are thin-milk-giving cows obtained? 
 
 55. What muscles of the udder are under the control of the cow, 
 and what control over milk secretion has the cow? 
 
 56. What are the alveoli? 
 
 57. How may the activity of the milk gland be stimulated? 
 
 58. What are some of the characteristics of a dairy cow that are 
 peculiar to the breed to which she belongs? 
 
DAIRYING 63 
 
 59. To^what extent do cows of the same breed vary in their 
 economical milk production? 
 
 60. Why is abundant feed economical and why are protein feeds 
 especially appropriate for cows giving milk? 
 
 61. What objections may be made to feed containing too much fat? 
 
 62. How may the activity of the the milk gland be illustrated? 
 
 63. If a cow gives 50 pounds of milk testing 3.5% fat, how much 
 grain and rough feed should be fed her? 
 
 64. What effect does the feeding of salt or of watery feeds have on 
 the milk and milk production? 
 
 65. How does turning out to pasture affect the milk of cows during 
 the first and later weeks? 
 
 66. What changes in the standard of richness in milk should be 
 made during the season when cows are on pasture feed? 
 
 67. What are four or more changes that are noticed in milk when 
 cows are first turned out to pasture ? 
 
 68. Did the increased milk and butter fat obtained in the case of 
 Cow i, 3, and 5 in paragraph 210 pay for the increase in feed 
 at present prices of milk, butter and of the feeds used? 
 
 Write This at the End of Your Examination 
 
 I hereby certify that the .above questions were answered entirely 
 by me. 
 
 Signed 
 
 Address. . 
 
Si Correspondence College 
 of Agriculture 
 
 li 
 
 DAIRYING Part III 
 
L COLLEGE OF 
 
 THE 
 
 Correspondence Colleg 
 
 of Agriculture 
 
 FT. WAYNE, INDIANA 
 
 DAIRYING Part III 
 
 Cream Separation 
 
 By EDWARD H. FARRINGTON, M. S. 
 
 Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the University of \Visconsin 
 
 This is the Third of a Series of Six Books giving a Complete Course of Instruction 
 
 in Dairying 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1911 
 Vhe CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
NOTE TO STUDENTS 
 
 In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from 
 this paper, you must thoroughly master the text. While 
 it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the 
 text to memory, still there is nothing: contained in the text 
 which is not absolutely essential for the intelligent dairy- 
 man to know* For your own good, never refer to the 
 examination questions until you have finished your study 
 of the text. By following this plan, the examination 
 paper will show what you have learned from the text. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 DAIRYING-Part III 
 
 Cream Separation 
 
 212. Wherever milk is used as a human food some attempt 
 is ordinarily made to skim off the cream. Nearly every civilized 
 person considers cream to be the most valuable part of. milk. A 
 higher price is paid for it than for either butter or cheese, and 
 none of the common milk products are so expensive as cream. 
 On account of this superior value which cream possesses, a con- 
 stant effort has been made in the past, to separate "the cream 
 from milk by the most economical means possible. 
 
 Two forces have been used for this purpose in the past, 
 the force of gravity, and centrifugal force. The former costs 
 nothing, while the application of centrifugal force to cream separa- 
 tion is more or less expensive. Gravity, which works in a per- 
 pendicular direction, was used almost exclusively until about 
 1876, when centrifugal force, which acts horizontally, began to 
 be used for skimming milk. 
 
 High temperatures favor the separation of cream by cen- 
 trifugal force, because hot milk is less viscous than cold, just as 
 hot syrup is thinner than cold syrup, but cream rises slowly by 
 gravity, and on this account milk must be cooled to prevent its 
 souring and coagulating before the cream has all come to -the 
 surface. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 Another possible cause of the cream rising better at a low 
 than at a high temperature is that the surface tension is increased 
 at lower temperatures, and the fat globules in milk unite more 
 rapidly at low than at high temperatures, forming larger lumps 
 of fat, that rise to the surface easier than smaller ones. 
 
 Up to the. present time, no method has been devised that will 
 recover all the fat of milk in the cream; losses occur during each 
 handling of the milk, first from waste by milk sticking to the 
 pails, cans or machines, and second, some fat is always left in 
 the skim milk. The amount of butter fat lost in these two ways 
 may be very small or it may be a large percentage of the fat 
 in the whole milk. The extent to which the milk fat is recovered 
 in the cream will depend largely on the efficiency of the method 
 of cream separation used, and the ability and carefulness of the 
 person doing the work. 
 
 In the early days little was known about milk except that 
 cream will rise when it is allowed to stand quietly for a few 
 hours. This is the simplest division of milk into its component 
 parts, i. e., separating the cream from the skim milk or the fatty 
 portion from the serum. We know at the present time that the 
 solids in the milk have a very complex composition, but without 
 going deeply into the subject we will consider briefly the relation 
 which the milk constituents have to cream separation. 
 
 CAUSE OF CREAM SEPARATION 
 
 214. When milk is divided into cream and skim milk, the 
 greater portion of the milk serum is left in the skim milk. A cer- 
 tain amount of it gets into the cream, but this cream-serum is of 
 about the same composition as the milk serum. Skim milk con- 
 taining no fat is therefore a good illustration of what is known as 
 milk serum. It is heavier than water, having a specific gravity 
 of 1.04; and in normal milk the butter fat, which has a specific 
 gravity of .9, is suspended in the milk serum in the form of 
 microscopic globules. 
 
DAIRYING 5 
 
 215. The term specific gravity means that if a certain quan- 
 tity or measure of water at a given temperature weighs 100 or 
 1000 pounds, the same quantity of milk serum, or skim milk, 
 weighs 104 or 1040 pounds, and the same quantity of butter fat 
 weighs 90 or 900 pounds. This difference in weight between the 
 milk serum and the fat is the cause of cream separation. If the 
 butter fat were free to move in the serum there would be a 
 complete separation of the fat by allowing milk to stand, but this 
 is not the case. The curd or casein of the milk and other sub- 
 stances present act as a retarder on the fat from coming to the 
 surface. A certain amount of the fat of milk rises when the 
 milk is left standing quietly and forms a layer of cream on the 
 surface, while the skim milk underneath retains some fat, depend- 
 ing on certain conditions. The amount of fat left in the skim 
 milk is the standard commonly used for measuring the efficiency 
 of different methods of cream separation. 
 
 216. The condition of the serum varies in different lots of 
 milk. The casein is not always in the same condition, and this 
 influences the thickness or viscosity of the serum. The greater 
 the viscosity, the more resistance there is to the movement of 
 the butter fat, and the less the viscosity, or the thinner the serum, 
 the easier the fat rises. 
 
 This viscosity of the serum is not only influenced by the con- 
 dition of the curd or casein, but by the amount of milk sugar, 
 etc., in solution in the serum. Milk rich in fat contains usually 
 more solids-not-fat than thinner milk, and the more solids in 
 the serum the greater its viscosity and its resistance to the 
 separation of the fat. If the serum of milk was always the same, 
 rich milk would skim easier than thin milk. 
 
 217. The size of the fat globules in each lot of milk has 
 considerable influence on cream separation. It has been found 
 by looking at a drop of milk under a microscope that the fat is 
 distributed through it in extremely small drops or globules, and 
 that these globules vary in size. As a rule, they are larger in the 
 milk of a fresh cow than when the same cow is a stripper. It is 
 evident that the larger the fat globules, the quicker they will 
 separate from the serum, and this, together with the increased 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 percentage of solids-not-fat in the milk serum explains the 
 difference between the skimming efficiency of milk from a fresh 
 and from a stripper cow. Late in the milking period the fat 
 globules are small, and although the milk may be rich as is usual 
 with an old milking cow, the cream does not separate so well as 
 earlier in the milking period, because of the change in size of 
 the fat globules. 
 
 218. Dean reports results from setting milk in cans in ice 
 water in which the skim milk from fresh cows contained .4% fat; 
 at the middle of the milking period, .6% fat; and late in the 
 milking period, .7% fat. Another investigation on the influence 
 of the size of the fat globules on cream separation showed that 
 the richness of the skim milk increases as the number of the 
 small fat globules increased. Each lot of milk was examined 
 with a microscope and graded according to the percentage of 
 fat globules having a diameter of .003 millimeters. These were 
 skimmed with a separator and the following results reported : 
 
 Milk 
 of 
 Lot 
 
 Per cent, of the fat 
 globules .003 m.m. 
 or less in diameter. 
 
 Fat, Per Cent. 
 
 Whole Milk 
 
 Skim Milk 
 
 1 
 
 33.9 
 
 4.63 
 
 0.11 
 
 2 
 
 53.9 
 
 3.17 
 
 0.12 
 
 3 
 
 56.8 
 
 3.53 
 
 0.16 
 
 4 
 
 58.0 
 
 3.65 
 
 0.17 
 
 5 
 
 58.2 
 
 3.98 
 
 0.17 
 
 6 
 
 60.2 
 
 3,33 
 
 0.19 
 
 7 
 
 74.0 
 
 2.54 
 
 0.21 
 
 This shows that when only one-third or 33.6 per cent, fat, the 
 skim milk tested about one-half as much as when three-fourths or 
 74.0 per cent, of the fat globules were the diameter mentioned, 
 and the whole milk tested 2.54 per cent. fat. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 219. Results similar to this were reported in Bulletin 122 of 
 the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station in which 
 mixed Holstein and mixed Jersey milk were skimmed, with the 
 
 following results : 
 
 
 Holstein 
 
 Jersey 
 
 Number 
 of Trials 
 
 Milk, 
 
 Fat % 
 
 Skim Milk, 
 Fat % 
 
 Milk, 
 Fat % 
 
 Skim Milk 
 Fat % 
 
 7 
 
 3.77 
 
 .077 
 
 5.65 
 
 0.95 
 
 29 
 
 3.45 
 
 .188 
 
 5.71 
 
 0.38 
 
 It is a well known fact that the fat globules in Holstein milk 
 are much smaller than in Jersey milk and the difference in the 
 per cent, of fat in the skim milk here given is undoubtedly caused 
 by this fact. 
 
 220. The effect of agitation of the milk is to break up the 
 fat globules into smaller ones, and thus reduce the skimming 
 efficiency. Cream will not rise on milk that has been transported 
 either by rail or by wagon nearly as well as it will on the same 
 milk before this agitation. And heaters used for bringing milk 
 to a skimming temperature for centrifugal cream separation should 
 not agitate the milk violently. This is shown by the following 
 experiment. Milk was churned for five minutes in a churn having 
 a dasher, at different temperatures, and it was found that the 
 churned milk always left more fat in the skim milk than the un- 
 churned. The effect of the churning increases with the temper- 
 ature of the milk. 
 
 Temperature of milk 87 F. 122 F. 185 F. 
 
 Milk not churned 13 .12 .13 
 
 Milk churned before separated... .14 .69 .72 
 
 The influence of agitation on the rising of cream when milk 
 is allowed to stand for some hours in pans or cans is much 
 greater than when milk is skimmed by a centrifugal separator. 
 
8 DAIRYING 
 
 221. Grouping of the Fat Globules. When milk is first drawn 
 from, the udder, the serum is in its most limpid condition, and the 
 fat globules are evenly distributed throughout the serum, in which 
 they move readily. After standing for a time at ordinary temper- 
 atures without immediate cooling, the serum thickens somewhat, 
 and the fat globules group themselves together into clots or clus- 
 ters which rise to the surface slowly. This grouping seems to 
 cause the clusters to drag on their way to the top of the milk. 
 An entirely satisfactory explanation of this grouping into clusters 
 has not as yet been given, but there is some similarity between it 
 and the action of the corpuscles in blood. 
 
 222. Similarity Between Blood and Milk. If blood in the 
 veins is examined with a microscope it will be noticed that the 
 corpuscles appear to be uniformly distributed throughout the 
 liquid, they do not touch one another. This condition of the cor- 
 puscles changes, however, when blood is exposed to the air at 
 ordinary temperatures, the corpuscles then group themselves into 
 clots in very much the same way as the fat globules arrange them- 
 selves in the milk after it stands a while. 
 
 223. Another similarity between the action of the fat globules 
 and the blood corpuscles is the behavior of certain alkalies towards 
 both substances. If caustic soda or potash is added to milk, the 
 grouping of the fat globules is prevented, and the cream rises 
 quickly. These same alkalies prevent the coagulation of blood. 
 It has been further noticed that when blood is immediately cooled 
 to a temperature below 40 degrees F. that it does not coagulate, 
 but remains liquid. A similar action is shown by the fat globules 
 in milk. They remain apart and rise quickly to the surface when 
 the milk is cooled to about 40 degrees F., immediately after draw- 
 ing it from the udder. This cooling must be done at once as a 
 delay of even a few minutes allows the grouping of the fat glob- 
 ules into clusters which rise much more slowly than do the single 
 globules. The substance which entangles the globules is appar- 
 ently heavier than the fat and acts as a load on them. This has 
 been illustrated by certain experiments which have shown that 
 when cream is obtained by "deep setting" of cans of milk in cold 
 water, there may be a loss in the cream if the milk is allowed to 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 stand twenty or thirty minutes before placing it in the cold water. 
 When the cans of milk are set in cold water immediately, the 
 sudden chilling of the milk next to the walls of the can by the 
 cold water seems to prevent the groups of fat globules in the 
 milk from attaching themselves to the walls of the can and hastens 
 the cream rising, even though the interior temperature may not 
 be brought to 40 degrees or lower for some little time thereafter. 
 224. These comparisons of the blood corpuscles with the fat 
 globules, together with a knowledge of the fact that the fat in 
 .milk is suspended and not dissolved in the milk serum, help to 
 make clear the reasons for some of the manipulations and arrange- 
 ments that are commonly used in the various methods of cream 
 separation. It is obvious that the thinner the layer of milk the 
 quicker the fat will rise to the surface, and since the serum cools 
 faster than the fat, cooling has a tendency to hasten the rising of 
 the cream because it increases the difference between the specific 
 gravity or weight of the butter fat and that of the milk serum. 
 Heat, however, has the opposite effect and retards the rising of 
 the cream. 
 
 A. SEPARATING CREAM BY GRAVITY. 
 
 225. Cream is usually obtained from milk in one of two ways, 
 first, by the so-called "gravity processes," and second, by means of 
 centrifugal force. The "gravity processes" have passed through 
 two stages of development during the years they have been in 
 use, starting with ''shallow setting" and progressing to the "deep 
 setting" process. 
 
 a. "Shallow Setting." 
 
 226. The first method of cream separation, historically speak- 
 ing, is the shallow setting of milk into tin pans or in earthen 
 vessels. The details of this process of creaming milk are very 
 simple. Directly after milking the fresh, warm milk is strained 
 into tin pans which are about fifteen inches in diameter and four 
 inches deep. The pans have floating sides and are filled two- 
 thirds full of milk. These pans of milk are set in the pantry, the 
 buttery, or some other convenient place about the house and left 
 
io DAIRYING 
 
 standing from 12 to 48 hours. The temperature of the milk dur- 
 ing this period is the same as that of the surrounding air and 
 varies with the seasons of the year. The temperature of the room 
 in which the milk is set should control the depth of the milk, if 
 the room has a temperature of 60 degrees Fahr., three inches is 
 deep enough, and some idea of the rate at which the cream rises 
 at this temperature is shown by the following observations : 
 
 227. When set at 60 degrees Fahr. the percentage of the fat 
 in the milk that was recovered in the cream was as follows : 
 
 After standing 8 hours 43.5% or at the rate of 5.44% per hour. 
 
 The following 8 hours 11.5% or at the rate of 1.44% per hour. 
 
 The following 12 hours 11.4% or at the rate of 0.95% per hour. 
 
 The following 12 hours 6.7% or at the rate of 0.56% per hour. 
 
 Total, 40 hours 73.1% 
 
 The higher the temperature at which the milk is set the richer 
 the cream and the smaller the quantity of cream obtained. 
 
 AYhen set in this shallow layer the fat globules do not have 
 far to rise to reach the surface ; the cream separation therefore 
 begins at once. The cream which rises first is rather thin, but it 
 gradually thickens by standing, and if the room is warm and dry 
 there is so much milk surface exposed to the air that the constant 
 evaporation makes a rather tough, leathery cream. This drying 
 of the cream may be somewhat overcome by setting the pans of 
 milk in a well ventilated basement or cellar, where the air is 
 partially saturated and where the temperature does not go b.elow 
 60 degrees F. 
 
 Condition of Cream When Skimmed. 
 
 228. If sweet cream for the table is wanted, the milk must 
 be skimmed before the souring process has begun. It is, however, 
 very difficult to skim off such cream without losing a considerable 
 quantity of it by the mixing which is nearly unavoidable when 
 the skimming is done. Not much more than one-half the cream 
 in milk is obtained when it is skimmed sweet by this process. 
 
DAIRYING ii 
 
 229. When cream is skimmed for churning and butter mak- 
 ing, the milk may stand until the souring process has thickened 
 and curdles the skim milk. This often gives the milk some 48 
 hours or even longer to stand. Nothing is gained by this pro- 
 longed standing excepting the advantage of skimming the cream 
 from curdled milk. Cream will not rise on sour milk, but after 
 standing long enough the cream becomes thick and somewhat 
 tough on the surface, and this aids in taking off the cream be- 
 cause there is no danger of setting up currents which may remix 
 the cream when the skimming is done. 
 
 1. Conditions Influencing "Shallow Setting" Cream Separation. 
 
 230. The completeness with which cream is separated by the 
 "shallow setting" process has been found to be influenced by some 
 one or more of the following conditions : 
 
 . The temperature at which the milk is set. 
 The length of time the milk stands. 
 The condition of the milk serum. 
 The period of lactation of the cows. 
 The size of the butter fat globules in the milk. 
 The depth of the milk layer. 
 
 The skill of the person skimming the cream with the shallow 
 cream skimmer. 
 
 231. The effect which these conditions have on the complete- 
 ness of cream separation by this process may be briefly explained 
 here, as they also have more or less influence on other methods of 
 creaming milk. 
 
 First, a temperature of 40 to 50 degrees F. is favorable for 
 cream rising, as the serum, being the better conductor of heat, is 
 cooled more quickly than the fat and consequently the difference 
 in specific gravity is increased and the cream rises quickly. A 
 thermometer should therefore be placed in the room where milk is 
 set for creaming in order to indicate the temperature, and to show 
 what changes may be needed for keeping the milk at the tem- 
 perature best suited for cream rising. 
 
12 DAIRYING 
 
 Second, more cream will rise in twenty-four hours than in 
 twelve hours. The difference between the weight or the specific 
 gravity of the butter fat and the milk serum is not very great and 
 the cream is therefore slow in rising to the surface. It will con- 
 tinue to rise so long as the milk is perfectly sweet, but it is 
 stopped by the souring and thickening of the milk. 
 
 Third, the milk of a '"fresh" cow contains fat globules of a 
 larger size than those in the milk of a "stripper/' and the cream 
 will therefore rise more quickly at the beginning than at the end 
 of the cow's period of lactation. This gradual diminution in size 
 of the fat globules, together with the increase in viscosity of the 
 milk from the beginning to the end of the lactation period, has a 
 tendency to retard the cream separation by any process. 
 
 Fourth, the fat globules of milk are not uniform in size with 
 all breeds of cows ; the average size of these globules is to a cer- 
 tain extent a breed characteristic. The Holstein and the Ayrshire 
 cows, as a rule, give milk which contains smaller fat globules 
 than those in the milk of the Jersey and Guernsey breeds. On 
 this account cream will separate more quickly and completely 
 from the milk of some cows than from that of others ; the larger 
 the fat globules the more quickly the cream will rise and the 
 richer it will be when all other conditions are uniform. 
 
 Fifth, cream is ordinarily skimmed from shallow pans with a 
 skimmer, made clam-shell shape and about six inches in width. 
 Several small holes are punched in the center of its bowl to allow 
 the skim milk to drain away from the cream while skimming. If 
 this skimmer is skillfully used, the cream is nearly all taken from 
 the milk, but a careless handling mixes the cream more or less 
 with the skim milk, and fails to get all the cream. 
 
 2. Characteristics of "Shallow Setting" Cream. 
 
 232. The "shallow setting" method is a rather crude one, but 
 it has been used for many years, and is still found in some local- 
 ities. Earthenware crocks of varied sizes are occasionally substi- 
 tuted for the tin pans, but the process of getting the cream differs 
 only in the shape and material of the containing vessel. 
 
DAIRYING 13 
 
 The cream obtained by "shallow setting" is comparatively rich 
 in fat, provided too much skim milk is not taken with the cream 
 when it is skimmed ; and since cream rises more slowly on warm 
 than on cold milk, it becomes compact and thick by long standing. 
 
 233. The only effort commonly made to control the tempera- 
 ture of the milk set in "shallow pans" is to keep it from freezing 
 in cold weather and from souring in warm weather. If the milk 
 stands 24 hours or more in these pans in a room at a temperature 
 of 60 degrees F. or higher the cream which rises will be some- 
 what ripened as the souring begins quickly at this temperature. 
 
 3. The Principal Advantages of the "Shallow Setting" Method of 
 
 Creaming Milk Are: 
 
 234. First, the inexpensive outfit needed for separating the 
 cream. The tin pans and skimmer do not cost much, and milk 
 is usually set on some more or less convenient shelf about the 
 house. 
 
 Second, it is a convenient way of obtaining cream from small 
 quantities of milk. 
 
 Third, the cream will separate from the milk of stripped cows 
 better by the shallow than the deep setting gravity method, 
 
 4. The Objections to the "Shallow Setting" Method of Cream 
 
 Separation Are : 
 
 235. First, that the large surface of milk exposed to the air 
 will not only collect dust and taints from its surroundings, but 
 molds may also grow on the cream surface. 
 
 Second, it may be claimed that it is an advantage to have the 
 cream ripen during the time it is standing and that it will there- 
 fore be ready to churn when a sufficient amount is obtained at 
 one time to make a churning. This may be true in some cases. 
 but when the quantity of milk set each day does not give cream 
 enough for a churning, each lot of cream held after skimming will 
 continue to ripen and will be overripe when more cream is skim- 
 med from subsequent milkings. Overripening of cream is the 
 source of much of the strong flavor in butter. 
 
14 DAIRYING 
 
 Third, the evaporation from the surface dries the cream and 
 tends to form clots of dried cream which will not churn, but may 
 be carried into the butter, making the white specks often noticed 
 when cutting through a piece of farm dairy butter. These white 
 specks are also caused bv lumps of sour skim milk or curd that 
 are skimmed off with the cream. 
 
 Fourth, this method of cream separation often fails to get 
 more than three-fourths of the fat from the milk and it is thereby 
 responsible for a loss of at least one-fourth of the butter. 
 
 The efficiency of the "shallow setting" method of cream sep- 
 aration is the lowest of all the means employed for taking cream 
 from milk. The average of a great many tests of skim milk from 
 "shallow settings" is nearly one per cent. fat. In some cases 
 where the milk is skimmed sweet only about one-half the fat is 
 removed in the cream and the skim milk may test as high as 
 2% fat. 
 
 Fifth, the lumps of sour curds in "shallow setting" cream are 
 often the cause of white specks in butter. 
 
 Sixth, much more space is required for setting milk in shallow 
 pans or crocks than to skim the same amount of milk by other 
 processes. 
 
 236. A thick, rich cream can be obtained by setting the milk 
 in shallow pans, such cream often testing as high as 30% fat and 
 being of a different consistency, because of the long time standing, 
 than centrifugal separator cream of the same richness. 
 
 The body of "old fashioned" cream which is so frequently 
 referred to as much superior to that of modern ceram may be de- 
 veloped in centrifugal separator cream by allowing it to stand a 
 day or two at a temperature which will prevent its souring. 
 
 237. In using the old methods of "shallow setting" milk no 
 attempt was made to control the temperature of the place where 
 it was kept except to prevent the milk souring in summer and 
 freezing in winter. 
 
 b. Devonshire Cream. 
 
 238. This is a cream which is rich and nearly solid. It is 
 made by setting milk for 12 hours or more in pans, which, after 
 
DAIRYING 15 
 
 the cream has risen, are placed on a stove or over hot water and 
 heated to about 190 degrees F., or until. cream melts into drops 
 of butter oil around the edges of the pan. These are then allowed 
 to stand 12 hours longer and the cream is skimmed off in a layer 
 of thick consistency that is considered a great delicacy. 
 
 c. "Deep Setting." 
 
 239. The second step in the development of cream separation 
 methods was the so-called "deep setting" process. This differs 
 from "shallow, setting" in the shape and size of the vessel used 
 
 PLATE i "Deep Setting" of Milk for Cream Raising. 
 
 for setting the milk and the temperature at which the milk is set. 
 The process is carried out in the following way : 
 
 240. The freshly drawn, warm milk is strained into cylin- 
 drical cans 18 inches high and about 8 inches in diameter. Some 
 of these cans are covered, but the cover is made so as to prevent 
 water from running over the tops of the cans into the milk, even 
 w r hen they are submerged in water. The cover fits over the out- 
 side of the can and permits the circulation of air above the milk. 
 This protects the milk from flying dust and unwholesome odors 
 and at the same time provides a simple way of keeping the milk 
 
i6 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 at a uniform temperature, which is maintained by adding ice to 
 the water around the cans or by keeping a small stream of water 
 running through the tank in which the cans are set. 
 
 241. The fat globules in the milk in these cans have a much 
 greater distance to travel to reach the surface than is the case 
 when milk is set in "shallow pans." This naturally leads one to 
 inquire where there is any advantage in the "deep setting" over 
 the "shallow setting." The answer to this question is, that the 
 temperature of the milk when set in the ice water is much more 
 
 PLATE 2 The "Deep Setting" Cooley Process for Skimming Milk. 
 
DAIRYING 17 
 
 favorable for cream rising than is that of the rooms in which the 
 shallow pans of milk are usually set and the milk does not sour 
 
 so quickly. 
 
 242. The sudden chilling which warm milk receives by sub- 
 merging the cans in cold water is beneficial for gravity cream 
 separation because it retards the grouping of the fat globules into 
 clusters, as already described. When a temperature of near 40 
 degrees F. is maintained for 12 to 24 hours the cream separation 
 is nearly complete if all the conditions are favorable. 
 
 243. (1) The "Cooley process" is a good illustration of the 
 "deep setting" method of creaming milk. After milk is set in the 
 "Cooley" cans, the cream is obtained by drawing off the milk 
 from the bottom of each can through a faucet, which is so made 
 that the flow of skim milk will stop when the cream is reached. 
 A strip of glass placed in the side of the can enables the operator 
 to see the thickness of the cream and to adjust the faucet ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 244. When the skimming faucet at the bottom of the can is 
 once opened the flow of skim milk should not be checked until 
 the cream is reached, as repeated opening and closing of the faucet 
 sets up currents in the milk, which again mixes the cream already 
 separated. This practice not anly makes the cream thin, but it 
 allows too much of the cream to pass away with the skim milk 
 and diminishes the efficiency of the skimming. The skimming 
 faucet is usually set so that the flow of milk will stop at about 
 one to two inches below the cream line. If drawn close to the 
 cream line there will be too much loss of fat in the skim milk. 
 
 245. The "deep setting" cream may be skimmed every 12 
 hours or just before the next milking, so that the same cans may 
 be in constant use. The thinness of the cream is due somewhat to 
 this short time of setting and is also influenced by the carefulness 
 with which the skim milk is drawn off. 
 
 This "Cooley" cream usually contains from 15 to 20 per cent. 
 fat and the skim milk may test as low as 0.2% fat, but the average 
 test of the skim milk from deep setting is about .75% fat. This 
 is 0.25% fat less than the average skimming done with shallow 
 setting so that on the whole the "deep setting" of milk for cream 
 
18 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 rising is an improvement on the shallow setting. In former years 
 the "Cooley" process was used a great deal and developed to. a 
 high degree of efficiency. At 165 farms in Maine where this pro- 
 cess was used and the cans of milk set in water tanks in which 
 ice was continually kept, the per cent, of fat in the milk did not 
 exceed 0.2%, the average being 0.15%. 
 
 246. (2) The "Shotgun" can is similar to the Cooley can in 
 shape and dimensions, but the cream is dipped off from the top 
 by using a conical dipper which should be dipped in water to wet 
 it before using. Considerable more care is required to skim off 
 
 PLATE 3 Equipment for Cooley "Deep Setting" Process. 
 
 the cream efficiently by this process than by drawing off the skim 
 milk at the bottom as in the Cooley process. 
 
 247. The cream from "deep setting," which usually contains 
 about 20% fat, is rather thin for selling direct to the consumer. 
 There may be no objection to churning such cream, but it is 
 hardly thick enough for table use; the best way to thicken this 
 cream is to add that skimmed from several cans into one can and 
 let the cream rise a second time on the mixed cream. More skim 
 
DAIRYING 19 
 
 milk may be drawn off from this cream and such a practice not 
 only furnishes a thicker cream, but it removes the necessity of 
 drawing- off the skim milk too close to the cream the first time 
 and encroaching- on the directions to skim to "one inch below the 
 cream line." 
 
 Some of the conditions already mentioned under "shallow 
 setting'' have an influence on cream separation by the "deep set- 
 ting" process, especially those which affect the size of the fat 
 globules in the milk. These have been shown to be affected by 
 the breed of the cows and their period of lactation. 
 
 Effect of Richness of Milk on Cream Separation. 
 
 248. It has been claimed that milk which is rich will skim 
 cleaner by the gravity process than that poor in fat. An experi- 
 ment has been made on this point in the following way : 
 
 249. A herd of cows was divided into five groups, those giv- 
 ing the richest milk being placed in one group, and those giving 
 the thinnest milk in another, with intermediate groups between 
 them. The test of the milk from each group was as follows : 
 
 Group 1 5.46 Group 3 4.36 
 
 Group 2. 5.33 Group 4 4.21 
 
 Group 5 3.85% fat. 
 
 The milk from each group was set at the same temperature 
 and skimmed in the same way. The per cent, of fat found in the 
 skim milk of the two extreme groups was, Group 1, .12, and Group 
 5, .44. The intermediate groups did not seem to follow any rule, 
 as the test of the skim milk of Group 2 was .29% fat, Group 3, 
 .25% and Group 4, .26%. 
 
 These results indicated that there was a difference in the 
 efficiency of the cream between the richest and poorest milks, 
 but there is no indication of a definite relation between the rich- 
 ness of the milk and its creaming qualities in all cases. 
 
 Losses from Delay in Setting the Milk. 
 
 250. The effect of immediate and delayed setting of the milk 
 after milking has been shown by Babcock in some experiments in 
 
20 DAIRYING 
 
 which one lot of milk was set within four minutes after milking 
 and another lot within fifteen to thirty minutes. The test of the 
 skim milk showed it contained .3 to .4 per cent, more fat when 
 there was a delay of thirty minutes in setting the milk than was 
 found when the milk was set four minutes after milking. The 
 advantage of immediate, over delayed, setting was conclusively 
 proved. 
 
 Influence of Temperature on Cream Rising. 
 
 251. The effect of different temperatures on the cream rising 
 by "deep setting" the milk in cold water has been shown by set- 
 ting milk at various temperatures, between 35 and 58 degrees F. 
 When set at 35 to 45 degrees F. it was found that the skim milk 
 tested .23% fat, at 48 degrees F. it tested .30% fat, at 50-54 de- 
 grees F., .74% fat, and that set at 58 degrees F., .95% fat. These 
 results indicate that the milk set at the lowest temperature was 
 most exhaustively skimmed. 
 
 252. From these figures a calculation may be made to dem- 
 onstrate whether or not one can afford to buy or put up ice to cool 
 the water used in the "deep setting" process. The difference be- 
 twen the best and the poorest skimming, .23 and .95, is .72 of a 
 pound of fat. This will make three-fourths of a pound of butter, 
 which is worth at least fifteen cents. The problem resolves it- 
 self then into determining how much ice may be bought with the 
 money lost at the rate of fifteen cents per one hundred pounds of 
 milk. 
 
 253. If small quantities of milk only are skimmed, and if ice 
 is expensive in a certain locality, it probably will not pay to go to 
 any great expense for ice, but in the milk given by the average 
 cow in a year, there will be about 4000 pounds of skim milk ; this 
 is forty 100 pounds, and if the loss from lack of ice is fifteen cents 
 per 100 pounds, the loss per cow per year will amount to $6.00 
 when milk is set at 58 degrees F. instead of at 40 degrees F. 
 
 The important points to be kept in mind when using the 
 "deep setting" method of creaming milk are : 
 
 First, to set the milk immediately after milking by getting the 
 cans into cold water in less than five minutes after it is milked. 
 
DAIRYING 21 
 
 Second, keep the temperature of the water in which the milk 
 cans are set below 50 degrees F. 
 
 Third, do not skim closer tlran one inch below the cream line 
 when drawing off the skim milk. 
 
 254. The efficiency of the skimming is influenced by the 
 same conditions that influence the "shallow setting" process, tem- 
 perature of milk, period of lactation of the cows, size of the fat 
 globules, richness of the milk, length of time milk stands before 
 skimming, delay in setting cans in cold water and the agitation of 
 the milk before setting. 
 
 255. The advantages which the "deep setting" process has 
 over the "shallow setting" are: 
 
 1. Less space is required for setting a given quantity of milk. 
 
 2. Less labor in skimming. 
 
 3. Milk and cream are not exposed to the air. 
 A sweet cream is obtained. 
 
 Less fat is lost in the skim milk. 
 
 Tin cans are mostly used for "deep setting" milk, although 
 stationary glass jars placed in a cabinet have been made. These 
 are hard to clean, and as the glass is not as good a conductor of 
 heat as the tin, the skimming is not so satisfactory. 
 
 "Deep setting" cream is usually sweet because the milk is 
 cooled at once after milking. If the milk is clean it will not sour 
 for 36 hours or more when the cans are set in ice water. The 
 cream will all rise on fresh cow's milk in 12 hours, but strippers' 
 milk must stand from 24 to 36 hours. 
 
 256. Cream shrinks in thickness or volume by standing too 
 long a time in cans. Dean states that in cans 8^ inches in dia- 
 meter and 20 inches deep, the shrinkage of cream is about one- 
 eighth of an inch for each 12 hours standing after the first 12 
 hours. 
 
 d. Cream Raising by Dilution with Water 
 
 237. Separating cream from milk by adding water to it is a 
 very old idea, but every few years some agent is found traveling 
 
22 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 around the country with a cheap combination of tinware, tubes 
 and a faucet, trying to induce the farmers to buy this "Most 
 Valuable Invention." 
 
 This so-called ''separator" is simply a painted tin can with' a 
 funnel shaped tube on one side of it. Milk is poured into the can 
 through the top cover and water through the funnel tube at the 
 side. The mixture of equal parts milk and water is allowed to 
 stand from "30 to 90 minutes," and then the skim milk is drawn 
 off through a faucet near the bottom of the can. What is drawn 
 off appears to be a very thin skim milk, but as it is more than half 
 water, considerable cream is required to make it even look like 
 skim milk. 
 
 SECTIONAL VIEW 
 
 PLATE 4 Type of Can used for Raising Cream by Dilution and Water. 
 
 258. A great many trials of this dilution method of cream 
 raising have been made at experiment stations. Professor Wing, 
 of Cornell University, has tried three different kinds of apparatus 
 devised for this purpose. He did not get nearly so complete a 
 separation of cream with any of them as was obtained by the 
 centrifugal separator, the shallow setting or the deep setting of 
 the milk in cold water. At 5 farms where these "new" dilution 
 methods of cream separating were used, the skim milk tested from 
 0.66 to 1.20 per cent. fat. At 40 farms where milk was set in 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 shallow pans the average test of the skim milk was 0.39 per cent, 
 fat, and at 30 farms where deep setting of the milk in cold water 
 was practiced, the average test of the skim milk was 0.39 per 
 cent. fat. It is a well-known fact that centrifugal separators will 
 skim milk to 0.1 per cent, fat, which is about ten times better 
 than the results obtained by these dilution methods. 
 
 259. The difference between the effect of warm and of cold 
 water for diluting milk to aid the cream rising is shown by the 
 following results reported by Professor Wing: 
 
 
 Cooley cans of 
 milk in ice 
 water at 44 F. 
 
 ]/2 warm milk 
 Y> cold water 
 47-60 F. 
 
 10-100 parts milk 
 10-100 parts hot 
 water 
 
 Per cent, fat 
 in skim milk 
 
 .23 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.11 
 
 No. of trials. 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 These "aquatic," "hydraulic," or "ventilated" cream "separ- 
 ators" are all operated on practically the same peculiar plan, and 
 any tin can with a faucet at the bottom will answer the purpose 
 for which these painted wonders are sold at large prices. Dairy- 
 men should know that they are not so efficient as the methods 
 ordinarily used for skimming milk at the farm. 
 
 Average Results of Skimming Milk by Gravity Process. 
 
 260. The following summary gives the temperature, also the 
 test of skim milk and cream that may be expected from the three 
 gravity methods of cream separation under average conditions : 
 
 Method 
 
 Temp, of milk F. 
 
 Per cent, of fat in 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 Cream 
 
 Shallow setting. . . . 
 Deep setting 
 
 60-90 
 40-50 
 40-140 
 
 .5- .10 
 .2- .5 
 1.0-1.5 
 
 10-35 
 15-20 
 10-12 
 
 Dilution, aquatic. . ., 
 
24 DAIRYING 
 
 261. The skimming efficiency of any method of cream sep- 
 aration is sometimes expressed in percentage which the cream fat 
 is of the whole milk fat. If 100 pounds of milk containing 4 per 
 cent. fat is so skimmed that 85 pounds of skim milk testing .2 
 per cent, fat is obtained from it, the .17 pounds of fat (or 85 X 2%) 
 subtracted from the fat in the whole milk, 4.0 pounds, leaves 3.83 
 pounds of fat in the cream. The per cent, which the fat recovered 
 in the cream is of the fat in the whole milk represents the skim- 
 ming efficiency of the method, or expressed in form of a propor- 
 tion, 4 :3.83 :: 100 :X = 9575%. 
 
 This figure will be influenced both by the richness of the milk 
 and the amount of skim milk as well as by the test of the skim 
 milk. If the milk tested 3.0 per cent, fat, and .17 pounds fat was 
 left in the skim milk as before, the skimming efficiency i-s 
 3 minus .17=2.83, and then 3 : 2.83 : : 100 : X or 94-35 per cent. 
 
 If 80 instead of 85 pounds of skim milk is taken and this tests 
 .2 per cent, fat, the skimming efficiency of milk testing 4.0 per 
 cent fat is 80 X .2 per cent, or .16 pounds, and 4 - - .16 3.84 
 pounds, which is the fat recovered in the cream and using the 
 same proportion, 3 : 3.84 : : 100 : X = 95.78 per cent., which repre- 
 sents the skimming efficiency. 
 
 e. Centrifugal Cream Separation. 
 
 262. It has been shown that there is a considerable loss of 
 fat when cream is obtained from milk by either of the common 
 gravity methods of cream separation described in the preceding 
 pages. These losses are now almost entirely overcome by the 
 modern "centrifugal" cream separator. This machine has made a 
 wonderfully rapid development in its construction since the time 
 it was first proposed for this purpose. It is now only about 
 twenty years old, though the principle of using centrifugal force 
 for separating the fat from the milk serum was recognized some 
 fifty years ago. 
 
 263. Before considering the stages of development through 
 which the separator has passed it may be well to get a slight idea 
 
DAIRYING 25 
 
 of the force which acts on milk while it is in a centrifugal separ- 
 ator. The contrast between the action of the force of gravity on 
 a body and the centrifugal force exerted on a body revolving 
 about a center may be illustrated by comparing the weight, or 
 the gravity of a body with the pull on a string to which the same 
 body is attached, when whirled around one's head at a high speed. 
 If a weight is hung on a spring balance and swung around in a 
 circle at various speeds, it will be noticed that the pull of the 
 weight on the balance will increase if the speed increases. A dif- 
 ference will also be noticed between the pull exerted by a small 
 weight as compared with a larger one where both are revolved 
 at the same speed. This explains the action of centrifugal force 
 on milk ; the cream is separated from the skim milk because the 
 fat is lighter than the serum when milk is revolved at a high 
 speed. 
 
 264. If the weight of a certain volume of milk serum is 1.04 
 Ibs., then that of an equal volume of butter fat is .90 lb.* The 
 difference between the weights of these two volumes is .14 lb., 
 and the effect which centrifugal force may have to separate the 
 fat from the serum can be calculated by determining the pull 
 which i-s exerted on a weight of .14 lb. when revolved at any 
 given speed in a circle of a given diameter. If the weight .14 lb. 
 is hung from one end of a spring balance one foot long, and this 
 is revolved about the other end as a center at the speed of 100 
 revolutions per minute, the indicator on the balance will show 
 that the weight is pulling .48 lb. Increasing the speed to 200 
 revolutions makes the pull 1.92 Ibs. At a speed of 1000 it is 
 48 Ibs., and at 5000 revolutions per minute the pull of this .14 
 pound weight on the balance is 1200 Ibs. This shows the differ- 
 ence between gravity and centrifugal force to be as .14 is to 1200 
 when milk is revolved at a speed of 5000 revolutions per minute 
 in a circle having a radius of one foot. 
 
 Calculation of Centrifugal Force 
 
 The centrifugal force in pounds exerted on any body may be 
 calculated by multiplying the weight of the body in pounds by the 
 
 * These numbers are taken because they represent the spec- 
 ific gravity of milk serum and of butter fat respectively. 
 
26 DAIRYING 
 
 square of the velocity in feet per second, and dividing by the 
 radius in feet multiplied by 32.2.* 
 
 Centrifugal force equals 
 
 W X V 2 in feet per second 
 
 RX 32.2 
 
 In the above illustration the centrifugal force exerted on a 
 weight of .14 pound when revolved at a speed of 100 revolutions 
 per minute in a circle having a radius of one foot is calculated 
 as follows: 
 
 266. The velocity in feet per second is found by multiplying 
 the diameter of the circle by 3.1416, in this case it is 2 X 3.1416 = 
 6.283, then multiplying this figure by the speed 100, and dividing 
 by 60 to reduce to seconds, gives the velocity as "10.94 ft. per 
 second. The square of 10.49 is 110, which multiplied by the 
 weight .14, gives 15.40, and this divided by the radius, one foot, 
 after multiplying by 32.2, gives 0.48, the centrifugal force in 
 pounds. 
 
 267. The effect of centrifugal force on milk in a cream sep- 
 arator has also been illustrated by Fredericksen.** "When a par- 
 ticle of matter is swinging round a central point, the force by 
 which it presses outward from the center revolution depends upon 
 the gravity, the speed, and the distance from the center. Sup- 
 posing a weight W to revolve around an axis, the distance from 
 the center (the radius) being R feet, and the number of revolu- 
 tions S hundred a minute, then the centrifugal force F=3.4X 
 RXW'XS 2 . Consequently, if R is one foot and W is one pound 
 the centrifugal force will be: 
 
 For 100 revolutions a minute 3.4X 1= 3.4 pounds 
 
 For 200 revolutions a minute 3.4X 4= 13.6 pounds 
 
 For 400 revolutions a minute 3.4X 16= 54.4 pounds 
 
 For 1000 revolutions a minute 3.4X 100= 304. pounds 
 
 For 5000 revolutions a minute 3.4X2500=8500. pounds 
 
 * The velocity of a body falling in vacuum increases in each 
 second by 32.2 feet per second. 
 
 **2 J. D. Fredericksen in The Dairy Messenger. 
 
DAIRYING 27 
 
 268. In other words, for 1000 revolutions a minute the dis- 
 tance from the center R being 1 foot, the centrifugal force is 340 
 times the weight of the matter; R being 2 feet, it is 680 times; R 
 being 3 feet it is 1020 times the weight, etc. Supposing the 
 weight of a particle of fat in the milk to be 10 weight units, and 
 that of an equally large particle of milk serum to be 11 weight 
 units, then the force by which the fat is naturally driven towards 
 the surface by gravity only will be 11 10=1, while the centrifugal 
 machine making 1000 revolutions a minute with an average radius 
 of 1 ft. the force will be 340X1 1340X1 0=340. Thus the tendency 
 of separation is increased 340 times by the centrifugal forces, 
 and if the speed is 5000 revolutions per minute, the increase will 
 be 8500 times. This gives an idea of the efficiency of centrifugal 
 creaming as compared with any gravity process, and also suggests 
 the enormous strain to which the drum of a separator is sub- 
 jected. Supposing a stick to make 1000 revolutions a minute 
 around its center in the horizontal plane, at each end carrying 
 a pail with milk weighing 60 pounds, and supposing the average 
 radius to be 2 feet, then the force with which each pail will pull 
 the stick is 340X2X60=40,800 pounds or about 20 tons." 
 
 269. Besides showing the difference between the force of 
 gravity and centrifugal force these figures give some idea of the 
 tremendous strain there is exerted on separator bowls run at a 
 high speed. It should be noticed in the figures given that the 
 pull on the balance does not increase directly in proportion to the 
 increase of the speed or the velocity, but to its square. Doubling 
 the speed or velocity quadruples the centrifugal force. 
 
 These brief statements show that the strain on the walls 
 of a separator bowl is influenced by three things, the weight of the 
 material revolved, the diameter of the bowl, and its velocity. The 
 smaller the bowls, the higher the speed at which they may safely 
 run. 
 
 Pail and Drum Separators 
 
 270. Many experimental machines were made for the purpose 
 of separating cream from milk before any satisfactory results were 
 
28 DAIRYING 
 
 obtained. One of the first applications of this principle to cream 
 separation was made by a Massachusetts man in about 1870. 
 He placed graduated glass tubes filled with milk in pockets some- 
 thing like those now used in the Babcock milk tester and whirled 
 these tubes in a machine constructed for the purpose. Aft^i- 
 whirling about 20 minutes the thickness of the cream was meas- 
 ured in each tube. This machine was designed to be used as a 
 cream tester for milk. It was, however, a pattern for the first, 
 commercial cream separators which were constructed on the same 
 plan excepting that pails holding fifty to sixty pounds of milk 
 were substituted for the glass tubes. These pails of milk were 
 whirled at a speed of 400 revolutions per minute and when they 
 were stopped the cream was skimmed from them in the same way 
 as gravity cream had been formerly skimmed from milk. This 
 operation required a great deal of time and power. It was of 
 no particular value except as a demonstration that cream could 
 be separated by centrifugal force. A number of machines of this 
 type were made, but they all had to be stopped after whirling 
 and the cream skimmed off as in the gravity methods. 
 
 271. These so-called "pail" machines were followed by the 
 "drum" centrifuge, which was a revolving, vertical cylinder filled 
 with milk. Four wings extended from the walls to the about one- 
 half way to the center of the drum, in order to carry the milk 
 with the drum. After whirling for some time the drum was 
 stopped and the skim milk or the heavier part thrown toward 
 the circumference of the drum was drawn off by means of faucets 
 in its walls. The cream was then removed from the center, a new- 
 supply of milk added and the whirling process repeated. These 
 "drum" centrifuges were experimented with for some time. Dr. 
 Fleishman used one holding 200 pounds of milk, which was 
 whirled at about 900 revolutions per minute. The time required 
 for this heavy drum to stop after it had attained full speed was 
 about one-half hour, and this long time was a serious drawback 
 to its use. It was demonstrated, however, by the use of this 
 machine that 95.6 per cent, of the fat in normal whole milk could 
 be separated in this way and that the completeness of the cream 
 separation is influenced by the temperature of the milk and the 
 length of time it is whirled in the centrifuge at full speed. 
 
DAIRYING 29 
 
 The Continuous Cream Separator 
 
 272. The next suggestion in the way of a mechanical sep- 
 arator was the revolving bowl, from which the skim milk and the 
 cream are removed while the bowl is running at full speed. The 
 Danish-Weston was one of the first separators of this kind. It 
 appeared on the market in about 1880. A continuous flow of milk 
 was delivered into the open, top, center of the revolving bowl, 
 and when it attained full speed, the skim milk was thrown by the 
 centrifugal force to the outside walls .of the bowl and the cream 
 towards the center. The skim milk and cream were removed by 
 skimming tubes or arms which curve over the top of the bowl 
 into the center where one of them dips into the milk and the other 
 into the cream. These separator bowls were about 15 inches in 
 diameter, and 12 inches high. They were run at a speed of nearly 
 4000 revolutions per minute, and skimmed about 2000 pounds 
 of milk per hour. One of the advantages claimed for this ma- 
 chine was the opportunity it gives the operator to change the 
 thickness or richness of the cream by adjusting the skimming 
 tubes while the bowl was revolving. This is done without inter- 
 rupting the flow of the milk into the bowl. One of the objections 
 to this machine was the way in which the skimming was some- 
 what interfered with by the milk supply as it entered the bowl. 
 The cream layer or core in the center was constantly being broken 
 up by the milk as it entered the bowl. The whirling motion 
 forced the milk through the cream layer already formed and 
 thereby partiially mixed the cream again with the milk. 
 
 273. This difficulty w r as overcome by what is called the 
 Peterson ring. A tube or ring is placed at the bottom center 
 of the bowl and through this tube the milk is delivered back of 
 the cream core. This allows the milk supply to enter the bowl 
 without interfering with the separation which has already been 
 done. 
 
 This separator soon had a competitor in the DeLaval 
 Standard. The bowl of this machine was radically different in 
 construction from those formerly made. A spindle is attached 
 to the hollow bowl and the cream and skim milk are thrown 
 from the openings at the top of the bowl into tin covers placed 
 
30 DAIRYING 
 
 over the bowl. From these covers or pans the skim milk and 
 the cream are conducted into cans or vats by the side of the 
 machine. The required speed of this bowl is 8000 revolutions per 
 minute and about 1200 pounds of milk are skimmed per hour. 
 
 274. These two machines were in use from 1879 to 1892. 
 They had nearly the same skimming efficiency ; approximately 
 0.2% of fat was left in the skim milk. Since then the separator 
 bowl has been considerably changed, but the construction of the 
 frame which supports the bowl and the method of attaching 
 power to it, together with some other features, are practically 
 the same today as they were in those old machines which possess 
 the distinction of being the first successful power cream separators 
 invented. 
 
 At the present time some of the largest cream separators will 
 skim 300 pounds of milk per hour so that not more than one-tenth 
 of one per cent, of the butter fat is left in the skim milk, and in 
 addition to this the sweet milk from cows of any breed or in any 
 part of their lactation period may be efficiently skimmed. 
 
 275. The power cream separators were the first ones used 
 extensively. These may be divided into two general classes, the 
 "hollow bowl" and those having the bowls filled with discs or 
 plates of some sort. 
 
 In both types, milk enters at either the top or the bottom 
 of the bowl and by whirling in the bowl it is separated into three 
 layers, first, the dirt, ash and precipitated albumen, and casein 
 of the milk, which being the heaviest, flies to the walls of the 
 bowl and is deposited as "slime ;" second, the layers of skim milk, 
 and third, the cream which increases in richness towards the center 
 of the bowl. 
 
 276. Both the cream and the skim milk are discharged near 
 the center of the bowl and the nearer the center these openings 
 are placed, the easier the bowl runs. If the skim milk discharged 
 at the circumference of the bowl considerable more power would 
 be required to run it. The size of the skim milk tubes in the 
 bowl are also regulated by the size of the milk inlet and the 
 speed of the bowl. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 277. In developing the separator the manufacturers have 
 tried to increase the capacity and still have efficient skimming, 
 also to overcome the interruption of the skimming caused by the 
 milk entering the bowl without interfering with the cream passing 
 to the center and the skim milk to the walls of the bowl. The 
 entering milk is now delivered in the bowl at a point 'between the 
 layer of cream and skim milk where the specific gravity is nearly 
 the same as that of the whole milk because the cream and skim 
 
 MILK RECEIVING 
 
 CAN 
 
 FEED CUP 
 CREAM PAN 
 
 CREAM 
 SPOUT 
 
 BO'WL 
 
 OILCUP 
 
 SKIM-MILK 
 SPOUT 
 
 GEARS ALL 
 ENCLOSED 
 
 SIMPLE 
 BALL BEARING 
 
 OIL DRIP PAN 
 
 PLATE 5- -The De Laval Cream Separator. 
 
 milk travel in opposite directions after entering the bowl, and the 
 continuous inflow should interfere as little as possible with these 
 currents. 
 
 Advantages of Centrifugal Over Gravity Skimming 
 278. The same conditions that affect the cream rising by 
 gravity influence centrifugal cream separation, but to a less degree. 
 
32 DAIRYING 
 
 First the friction of small fat globules is greater than large ones, 
 as they have more surface for a given amount of fat. Second, 
 the condition of the fibrium in milk makes cream separation 
 easier directly after milking than after standing some hours, and 
 third, the depth of milk in the bowl or the greater the distance 
 the milk must travel before leaving the bowl, the more efficient 
 is the skimming. 
 
 279. A comparison of the centrifugal and gravity methods 
 shows : 
 
 1. That the centrifugal separator skims milk satisfactorily 
 at a greater range in temperature, say anywhere from 80 to 120 
 degrees F. 
 
 2. There is less exposure of the milk to air, dirt and bacteria. 
 
 3. There is greater certainty of skimming all the fat from 
 the milk, as the machine is not subject to all the influences which 
 man cannot regulate, such as the temperature and weather, lack 
 of ice, transportation, etc., which affect gravity skimming. 
 
 4. The separator cleans some of the dirt and slime from 
 the milk during the skimming. 
 
 5. A better quality of cream is obtained where milk is 
 skimmed immediately after milking and the cream is perfectly 
 sweet, although it may be soured to churn or kept sweet. 
 
 6. The richness of the cream may be easily regulated. 
 
 7. Skim milk is in the best possible condition to feed when 
 separated right after milking. 
 
 8. The cream is nearly all skimmed from the milk, the 
 skimmed milk containing only a trace of fat when all the condi- 
 tions of skimming are the best. 
 
 The Development and Classification of Cream Separators 
 
 280. Competition among manufacturers and the widespread 
 use of cream separators has caused a great development in these 
 machines in recent years. The great number of separators now 
 
DAIRYING 33 
 
 on the market makes it impossible to describe them all, but some 
 have stood the test of years and proved their superiority. 
 
 The number of hollow bowl machines now on the market is 
 not large, but some of these are as satisfactory as those filled with 
 discs or plates. 
 
 28.1. The discs in a separator bowl divide the milk into 
 thin layers and subject it gradually to the action of the centrifugal 
 force. This reduces the power required to turn the bowl of a 
 given capacity and it also reduces the length of time necessary 
 to subject milk to the centrifugal force in order to give a satis- 
 factory skimming. The discs may increase the capacity of a 
 bowl about three times over that of the same bowl without discs. 
 
 282. The time milk remains in a separator bowl may be 
 calculated from the amount of milk it holds and the amount 
 skimmed per hour, e. g., if a bowl holds 10 pounds of milk when 
 rilled and its capacity is 3000 pounds per hour, or 50 pounds per 
 minute, milk must remain in the bowl about one-fifth of a minute, 
 or 12 seconds, during the process of skimming. 
 
 283. The development of the cream separator may be seen 
 from the following results * obtained in Germany, where several 
 tests were made of machines from year to year. The average 
 per cent, of fat in the skim milk in 1894 was .19; in 1898, .22; 
 in 1900, .16, and in 1904, .11.** 
 
 284. Further reduction in the amount of fat left in the skim 
 milk can hardly be expected, but the capacity of the bowls may 
 be increased by greater speed as stronger material may be found 
 from which to manufacture the bowls. 
 
 Cream separators may be classified first, according to the 
 method of attaching power to the bowl, such as belt, turbine, and 
 crank or cog gearing attachments, second as hollow or filled with 
 discs or plates, third, bowls with or without a spindle, fourth, sus- 
 pended bowls. 
 
 * Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
 ** These tests of skimmed milk were not made by the Bab- 
 cock test. 
 
34 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 All cream separators may be divided into two principle parts, 
 first, the frame with power attachment, oiling devices, milk sup- 
 ply, pan, cream and skim milk spouts, and second, the bowl with 
 its peculiar features. 
 
 Selecting a Cream Separator 
 
 285. Among the great variety of separators now on the 
 market there is no one that is always the best under all circum- 
 stances. The manufacturers are making improvements and changes 
 
 PLATE 6 The U. S. Cream Separator. 
 
 in various parts of their machines each year, but perfection has 
 not been reached in any one of them. 
 
 At the present time a clean skimming of the milk to at least 
 one-tenth per cent, fat in the skim milk is to be expected of all 
 standard makes of separators. Some of the important points to 
 be considered in a cream separator are : 
 
DAIRYING 35 
 
 1. The simplicity of the bowl and of the construction of the 
 machine in general. 
 
 2. Method of attaching power to the bowl or to the spindle. 
 
 3. The construction of the bowl, its diameter, weight, and 
 the amount of time required to clean it, also the bowl bearings. 
 
 4. The cream regulating device. 
 
 5. The capacity or amount of milk skimmed per hour. 
 
 6. Time required to put together, take apart and clean the 
 bowl and its attachments. 
 
 7. Protection of the operator from moving parts. 
 
 8. Convenience for oiling and amount of oil needed. 
 
 9. Smoothness of the cream. 
 
 10. Power required to operate the machine. 
 
 11. Durability. 
 
 12. Convenience of obtaining repairs. 
 
 286. Some separators have more of these points satisfactory 
 than others, and in making a selection one must decide to what 
 extent these requirements are satisfied in one machine more than 
 in another. When the price is the same for equally good skimming 
 and the amount of milk skimmed per hour, the advantages of 
 each in construction should be considered. 
 
 287. The price of a separator per 100 pounds of milk skimmed 
 varies according to the capacity, the largest capacity machines 
 costing much less per 100 pounds of milk skimmed than the 
 smallest ones. The power required to run the separators varies 
 a great deal, some requiring 10 to 15 times more power to run 
 them than others to do the same amount of skimming. The ex- 
 cessive strength of material used in some cases may be responsi- 
 ble for the great difference in power needed, but accidents from 
 a machine breaking seldom occur except when the instructions 
 of the manufacturers are not followed. 
 
 288. The best separator, therefore, is the one which skims 
 the most milk per hour at the lowest speed, at the lowest tem- 
 perature of the milk with the least expense of power, and is the 
 
36 DAIRYING 
 
 most durable as well as the most easily cleaned. Some separators 
 do good work when all conditions are constantly watched and 
 kept up to or exceed the instructions of the manufacturer, but 
 a slight variation from these, such as a low speed, high feed, low 
 temperature of milk, etc., seriously affect the test of the skim 
 milk and cause a loss of cream. Several tests of a separator 
 should, therefore, be made, before final judgment is passed on it. 
 These tests should cover not only the skimming qualities of the 
 separator, but they should be extended to an inspection of the 
 upper or neck bearing of the bowl, the lower bearings, the gear- 
 ing, if any, the advertised capacity and speed of the bowl, the 
 way in which the height of the bowl is adjusted, the cream 
 screw and its adjustment, the skimming tubes in the bowl, and 
 the means by which the power is applied to the bowl to re- 
 volve it. 
 
 Method of Testing a Cream Separator 
 
 289. Nearly all manufacturers are willing to have their 
 machines tested by the purchaser before buying it. Such a test 
 may include some or all of the following observations: 
 
 1. Time required to take apart, clean and put together ready 
 for skimming. 
 
 2. Time to get up to full speed. 
 
 3. Turns of crank per minute (if hand machine). 
 
 4. Noise of machine and space occupied. 
 
 5. Weight and measure of the frame and bowl and its part. 
 
 6. Weight of cream, Ibs., and of skim milk, Ibs., collected 
 from the machine in one-half minute, both to be sampled and 
 carefully tested when first the bowl is running at speed required 
 by the manufacturer; second, when running 10% under normal 
 speed; third, when temperature of milk is 75 degrees F. ; fourth, 
 when temperature of milk is 85 degrees ,F. 
 
 290. From the weights of cream and skim milk collected 
 in one-half minute the capacity of the separator or the pounds 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 37 
 
 PLATE 7 Sectional View of a Cream Separator. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 of milk it was skimming per hour may be calculated by multiply- 
 ing the weights obtained by 120. If one-half a pound of cream 
 and 5 pounds of skim milk were collected in one-half minute, 
 there w r ere S l / 2 pounds of milk passing through the bowl in one- 
 half minute, and this is at the rate of 5 l /> x 120, or 660 pounds per 
 hour. Hence the capacity of the separator at that trial was 660 
 pounds per hour. 
 
 Careful tests of samples of skim milk and of cream taken 
 each time will demonstrate the skimming efficiency under the 
 varying conditions of speed, temperature of milk, and capacity, 
 that may be tried. 
 
 PLATE 8 The Tubular Cream Separator. 
 
 291. In making tests of any separator the printed directions 
 furnished by the manufacturer should be carefully .read, and al- 
 ways followed whenever the machine is used. The book of in- 
 structions should be as carefully kept as any of the various 
 parts of the machine, as it may be the means of preventing large 
 losses in using the separator each day, and it is also essential for 
 ordering new parts or in getting repairs when needed. 
 
DAIRYING 39 
 
 Scale of Points for Judging Cream Separators 
 
 292. If a number of cream separators are to be tested they 
 may be compared with each other according to the following 
 standard of points : 
 
 Skimming efficiency 60 
 
 Construction 10 
 
 Ease of cleaning 20 
 
 Power required 10 
 
 100 
 
 Recording a Separator Test 
 
 293. The capacity and the skimming efficiency of a separator 
 may be recorded with the following observations : 
 
 1. Date 
 
 2. Name of separator 
 
 3. No. of separator bowl 
 
 4. Speed of bowl, r. p. m 
 
 5. Temperature of milk 
 
 6. Weight collected in minutes. 
 
 7. Cream Ibs. Skim milk Ibs. 
 
 8. Skimming per hour .Ibs. 
 
 9. Proportion of cream from milk 
 
 10. Test of skim milk 
 
 1 1 . Test of cream* 
 
 12. Test of the whole milk 
 
 294. A series of records like the above may be made when 
 the separator is running below speed as well as at normal speed. 
 This will show the effect of variations in speed on the skimming. 
 
 Other tests made when milk is skimmed at different tempera- 
 tures and when more or less than the advertised amount of milk 
 
 This may be calculated if necessary. 
 
40 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 is being skimmed per hour, will show how these variations in 
 capacity, in speed and in temperature will affect the skimming. 
 
 The best separator is one in which the skimming is least in- 
 fluenced by such variations. The following example illustrate^ 
 some of the calculations made in tests of this kind : 
 
 PLATE 9 A Belt- Power Type of Cream Separator. 
 
 295. When the separator is running under normal conditions 
 the cream may be collected in pail No. 1 and the skim milk in 
 pail No. 2 by holding these under the respective spouts of the 
 separator for a certain number of seconds. If one pound of cream 
 and nine pounds of skim milk are caught from the separator in 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 exactly one-half minute of skimming, the total weight of milk 
 skimmed in one minute is 20 pounds, and in one hour it is 20 X 60, 
 or 1200 pounds. The capacity of the separator then is 1200 pounds 
 per hour according to this observation. The proportion of cream 
 from milk is one pound of cream from each 10 pounds of milk 
 md the test of the cream may be calculated from the weights and 
 tests of the milk and the skim milk. 
 
 If the whole milk tested 4.0% fat and the skim milk one- 
 tenth of one per cent, fat, the test of the cream may be found 
 is follows : the record shows that in each 100 pounds of milk 
 jkimmed there is obtained 90 pounds skim milk and 10 pounds 
 cream. They also show that in this 100 pounds of milk there 
 ire four pounds fat. If the fat separated in the skim milk is 
 mbtracted from the whole milk fat, that which is left must 
 >e the cream fat. The weight of this fat is obtained first by 
 mltiplying the 90 pounds skim milk by its test, .1%, which gives 
 X.001, which equals -09 pound fat. Subtracting this from 4 
 >ounds of fat in the whole milk leaves 3.91 pounds fat in the 
 [0 pounds of cream and the test, or per cent., of fat this repre- 
 sents in shown by the proportion 3.91 : 10 : : X : 100 in which X 
 equals 39.1% fat, or the calculated test (fat %) of the cream. 
 
 Points Common to All Separators 
 
 296. A cream separator consists of first, the frame; second, 
 the bowl, provided with some arrangement by which it is brougm 
 to a high speed ; and third, the milk supply can and the cream 
 and skim milk spouts or pans. 
 
 Nearly all separator bowls should be filled with milk or water 
 >efore starting them or soon after they begin to revolve. The 
 
 bowl should be started slowly, taking several minutes to get it 
 ip to full speed. This caution helps to preserve the machine and 
 
 prevents any unnecessary wear from too sudden starting, and 
 
 bringing it up to full speed too quickly. 
 
 297. In coming up to full speed there may be more or less 
 trembling of the bowl, but this ought to entirely pass away in a 
 
42 DAIRYING 
 
 short time and the bowl should run steadily and smoothly when 
 it has attained full speed. Separator bowls are balanced to run 
 quietly at a certain speed, but this does not always insure their 
 running with the same smoothness at other speeds. Some un- 
 steadiness and jarring of the frame and of the bowl may be safely 
 ignored if this is noticed while the separator is coming up to 
 speed, and disappears w r hen the bowl reaches its normal speed. 
 
 PLATE 10 The Simplex Cream Separator. 
 
 The separator bowl should be put into place in the frame very 
 carefully, as a sudden dropping of the bowl into the bearings 
 may cause serious injury to them, and such rough treatment may 
 also bend the spindle or break the gearing, pins, etc., in the lower 
 bearings. 
 
 All the bearings of the bowl and of the spindle should be 
 perfectly smooth, clean and bright and the oil started in all the 
 oil cups as soon as the bowl begins to revolve. 
 
 

 DAIRYING 43 
 
 
 Clogging of the separator bowl is usually indicated by a 
 change in the thickness of the cream. When the bowls become so 
 filled with slime that milk cannot pass through the skim milk 
 tubes, it must leave the bowl through the cream tube, and con- 
 sequently the cream becomes thin by the milk passing out the 
 cream spout. 
 
 Factors Influencing the Efficiency of Cream Separators 
 
 1. The speed of the separator bowl. 
 
 2. The temperature of the milk, and method of heating milk. 
 
 3. The richness of the cream separated. 
 
 4. The amount of milk skimmed per hour. 
 
 5. Sour or clotted milk. 
 
 6. Cream outlet becoming clogged. 
 
 7. Bowl not clean. 
 
 8. The steady, smooth running of the bowl at full speed and 
 the uniformity with which the bowl speed, the milk feed, and the 
 temperature of the milk recommended by the manufacturer are 
 maintained. 
 
 1. The Speed of the Separator Bowl 
 
 299. The manufacturers determine, by careful tests, the safe 
 speed at which their separator bowls may be run. This will vary 
 with their diameter, as it has already been shown that the cen- 
 trifugal force exerted on the walls of a bowl increases as the 
 square of the diameter ; a ten inch bowl may be run at a speed of 
 6000 revolutions per minute ; and one three inches in diameter 
 may safely make 20,000 revolutions per minute. The speed recom- 
 mended by the manufacturer ought to be known by each user 
 of a cream separator, and the speed should be maintained when- 
 ever the machine is used for skimming milk. If run below speed 
 there may be an unnecessary loss of butter fat in the skim milk, 
 and too high speed may be the cause of serious accidents. In- 
 creasing the speed will sometimes improve the skimming done by 
 some separators, but there is more or less danger from such a 
 
44 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 practice, 
 followed. 
 
 The manufacturer's instructions should be careful! 1 
 
 When the separator is driven by some power the connecting 
 pulleys should be of such sizes as will give the proper speed to 
 the bowl and some sort of reliable governor ought to be placed 
 
 NTERMeDIATE 
 GEAR 
 
 PLATE n Sectional View of the Bluebell Cream Harvester. 
 
 on the power, so that the bowl will not run either above or below 
 the required speed. 
 
 Calculating Size of Pulley for Running a Belt Separator 
 
 300. The required speed of the separator bowl and of the 
 intermediate pulleys is given in the book of instructions sent 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 45 
 
 with the separator by the manufacturer. In order to obtain this 
 speed it is necessary to provide a pulley of a certain diameter 
 on the line shaft from which the intermediate is run. This dia- 
 meter is found by multiplying the diameter of the driven pulley 
 by its speed and dividing this product by the speed of the driver. 
 Such a calculation may be illustrated by assuming that the small 
 pulley on the intermediate is five inches in diameter, and makes 
 910 revolutions per minute, and that the line shaft has a speed 
 of 300 revolutions per minute. The diameter of the pulley needed 
 on the line shaft is then found by multiplying 5 by 910, which 
 gives 4550. Dividing this by 300 gives 15 inches, which is the 
 diameter of the pulley needed. 
 
 The line shaft pulley should have a flat face at least six 
 inches wide and the belt which connects it to the intermediate 
 should be at least 2^ inches wide when power cream separators 
 are used. The speed indicator on power machines should always 
 be in place and in good repair. Frequent observations of the 
 speed should be made during each run, as losses of fat in the skim 
 milk caused by irregularity of the bowl speed, may amount to 
 a considerable figure. 
 
 With hand machines the number of turns of the crank may 
 be regulated by using a watch to time the turns per minute. 
 
 301. The following table * shows the effect of variations in 
 speed of a hand separator bowl on the efficiency of skimming 
 milk. The figures represent the average of 12 trials in each case. 
 
 Per cent, fat 
 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 Cream 
 
 Turns of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 separator 
 crank or 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Ave. 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Ave. 
 
 speed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Normal . . . 
 
 42 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 .04 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 10 too high 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 .04 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 10 too low. 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 .10 
 
 .10 
 
 .12 
 
 20 too low. 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 .38 
 
 .14 
 
 .21 
 
 * Indiana Experiment Station, Bulletin 116. 
 
46 DAIRYING 
 
 302. These figures show a difference in the per cent, of fat 
 in the skim milk of .18% (.03-.21) between normal speed and 20 
 turns of the crank below normal speed. This is a loss of one-fifth 
 of a pound of butter in each 100 pounds of milk skimmed or at 
 least 5 cents worth of butter per 100 pounds of milk. Calculated 
 on the basis of 8000 pounds of milk per cow per year, the loss 
 amounts to $40 for a herd of 10 cows, or about one-half the price 
 of the machine, and with the herd of 20 cows, the loss would be 
 equal to the cost of some separators when new. The figures show 
 that it pays to give attention to the speed at which the separator 
 is run every day. 
 
 303. The speed of the turbine separators is somewhat regu- 
 lated by the pounds of steam pressure shown on the steam gauge, 
 but frequent use of the speed indicator is always advisable. A 
 variation in speed affects both the cream and the skim milk. Too 
 low speed tends to thin the cream and enrich the skim milk, 
 while too high a speed will thicken the cream and diminish the 
 per cent, of fat in the skim milk. Variations above and below 
 normal speed during one run are very wearing on the machine 
 as well as expensive in losses of more or less butter fat. It should 
 also be remembered that there is a limit to the strain which the 
 separator bowl will endure without bursting, and on this account 
 the speed of the separator bowl should be carefully watched. 
 
 Skimming Temperature of the Milk. 
 
 304. The temperature to which the milk is usually heated for 
 cream separation ranges from 75 to 85 degrees F. When cows 
 are receiving a large amount of green feed and when they are fresh 
 or producing a large flow of milk, the cream is separated easier 
 than is the case with milk from strippers or from cows receiving 
 dry feed exclusively. 
 
 These two factors, the feed of the cows and their period of 
 lactation, have an influence on the temperature to which milk may 
 be heated before separation. When many cows are fresh a tem- 
 perature of 75 degrees F. is often high enough for the milk. Dur- 
 ing hot weather it is the custom at some creameries to skim the 
 
DAIRYING 47 
 
 milk without heating it. A temperature above 75 degrees F. may 
 not do any harm, but the best separators will skim summer milk 
 at. a temperature of 75 degrees and leave only one-tenth of one 
 per cent, or less of fat in the skim milk. In the fall and winter 
 seasons when the cows are drying up, the milk should be heated 
 to 80 or 85 degrees F. for separating. If the temperature falls 
 below 70 degrees F. and in some cases below 80 degrees F., there 
 may be an unnecessarily large loss of butter fat in the skim milk 
 as a great fluctuation in the temperature during separation is detri- 
 mental to the best skimming. The higher the temperature of the 
 milk, the better the skimming, and it has been suggested that by 
 heating milk to 160 degrees F., or to a pasteurizing temperature, 
 that nearly all the fat in the milk may be skimmed out. Such a 
 high temperature will undoubtedly aid in removing the last traces 
 of fat from the skim milk, but the uniform heating to 80 degrees 
 F. is the temperature commonly recommended and used. 
 
 305. The temperature of the milk changes its viscosity and 
 this influences the separation of the fat globules ; the warmer 
 the milk the thinner the serum, and the colder the milk the 
 thicker the serum becomes. There is not much increase in 
 efficiency of skimming- when the temperature of the milk goes 
 above 90 degrees F. A higher temperature than this does not 
 give enough better skimming to pay for the extra heat. Skim- 
 ming milk at a pasteurizing temperature, 160 degrees F., in- 
 creases the capacity of the separator and more slime is thrown 
 out of hot milk than when skimmed at 85 degrees F. 
 
 306. When first drawn from the cow, milk skims better than 
 after standing several hours. This may be due to the solidifying 
 of the fat globules, to the enclosing of these globules in the curd 
 or casein to some extent, and to changes in the casein which make 
 the milk more viscous. 
 
 307. A change in the viscosity or fluid condition of the milk 
 las been noticed when cows change from stable to pasture feed, 
 ind again when they return from pasture to stable feed in the 
 fall. The following figures* illustrate this change in the skim- 
 efficiency : 
 
 *Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
48 DAIRYING 
 
 Per Cent. Fat in the Skim Milk. 
 Spring. Fall. 
 
 .11 Stable Feed 14 
 
 .13 Mixed Feed 16 
 
 .15 Pasture Feed 18 
 
 308. The stable milk skimmed a trifle better in each case 
 than the pasture milk. Whether this is due to the difference in 
 viscosity or the effect of exercise of the cows is uncertain, but 
 it has been noticed that morning milk skims better than night 
 milk, and milk that has stood quietly better than that which has 
 been transported. 
 
 The effect of such differences in the skim milk may not seem 
 to amount to much, but .1 pound buter fat is worth 2^ cents, 
 and this loss may easily occur in each 100 pounds milk skimmed, 
 if all the known precautions for skimming clean are not taken. 
 
 Methods of Heating Milk Before Skimming. 
 
 309. Holding milk at a skimming temperature (85 de- 
 grees F.) for one-half hour or more before skimming is not ad- 
 visable because of the rapid development of bacteria at this tem- 
 perature, and a partial ripening of the milk which may be re- 
 sponsible for objectionable flavors in the cream or the butter if 
 the latter is made from the cream. 
 
 This makes the heating of milk in a large receiving vat at a 
 creamery objectionable because it may be thus heated for too long 
 
 a time. 
 
 310. Heating milk by forcing steam directly into it is also 
 objectionable, first, because of the unevenness of the heating; 
 second, because the excessive heat from the steam may coagulate 
 particles of casein around the fat globules, and third, the steam 
 may contain impurities from the water, or the boiler from which 
 it comes. 
 
 Milk heaters with a revolving dasher that throws the milk in 
 a thin film around a steam heated drum are not the best kind of 
 a heater because the excessive agitation splits up the fat globules, 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 49 
 
 PLATE 12 Cooley Milk Heater. 
 
 PLATE 13 Factory Milk Heater. 
 
 PLATE 14 Tempering Vat for heating Milk before Separating. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 and this tends to leave more fat in the skim milk. The higher the 
 speed of the dasher the more fat is left in the skim milk, as is 
 shown by the following- figures : 
 
 Revolutions of Dasher 
 Per Minute. 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 
 Fat in Skim Milk, 
 Per Cent. 
 .11 
 .13 
 .20 
 .23 
 
 PLATE 15 2oth Century Milk Heater with Pump Attachment. 
 
 Milk heaters in which the milk passes over a metal surface 
 heated with hot water or the revolving discs filled with hot 
 water are very satisfactory for heating milk to a skimming tem- 
 perature. 
 
 311. The influence of different temperatures of heating milk 
 on the efficiency of skimming is shown by the following figures,* 
 which are averages of the eight trials in each case : 
 
 
 *Indiana Expt. Sta. Bui. 116. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 51 
 
 Temperature 
 of Milk 
 Skimmed. 
 
 Per Cent, of Fat in Skim Milk. 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Average 
 
 90 
 
 75 
 60 
 
 .04 
 .07 
 .20 
 
 .01 
 .04 
 .09 
 
 .022 
 .051 
 .120 
 
 Here is an average difference of .1% fat between skimming 
 at 90 degrees F. and 60 degrees F., and if butter fat is worth 
 25 cents per pound, this difference in fat lost amounts to 2y 2 
 .cents per 100 pounds milk skimmed, or $2.50 per day at a factory 
 where 10,000 pounds of milk are skimmed. 
 
 Richness of the Cream. 
 
 312. Many separator bowls are provided with a cream screw 
 by means of which the richness or the thickness of the cream may 
 be changed. This screw can be adjusted so that a thick or thin 
 cream will be separated when the bowl is skimming its normal 
 amount of milk and is running at full speed. A certain amount of 
 variation in the richness of the cream has no effect on the richness 
 of the skim milk and the best separators will skim a cream con- 
 taining 40% fat as well as thinner cream, but fluctuations in the 
 richness of the cream should be avoided. 
 
 313. Most of the standard makes of cream separators will 
 leave as little fat in the skim milk when skimming cream of 20% 
 as 40% fat, but there is some difference in separators on this point. 
 Some of them skim a thin cream with less loss in the skim milk 
 than when rich cream is skimmed. The very rich cream, 50% fat, 
 is successfully skimmed as a rule only when the skimming is 
 done under normal conditions of speed, temperature and capacity. 
 
 Importance of Cleaning a Separator. 
 
 314. Observations of dairy inspectors among users of farm 
 separators indicate that about one-third to one-half are washed 
 
52 DAIRYING 
 
 after each skimming, and two-thirds to one-half are not washed 
 until after using two or three times for skimming milk. 
 
 This attempt to save work and to put off the cleaning as long 
 as possible has an injurious effect on the quality of the cream or 
 butter made from the cream, because the slime and dirt left in the 
 separator bowl after the first skimming decomposes very fast and 
 taints the next lot of fresh, sweet milk run through it. This is 
 one of the important causes of the inferior quality of farm sepa- 
 rated butter, about which so much has been said in recent years. 
 
 A dirty separator is not only the cause of a loss to the user 
 of such a machine because it taints the cream from sweet milk, 
 but the dirty separator does not skim so well as a clean one; the 
 slime left in the dirty bowl may clog the small skim milk and 
 cream tubes in the bowl and thus prevent the free passage of milk 
 through them while the separator is skimming. 
 
 315. A report made by Hunziker on this point showed that 
 at 35 dairies where the separator bowl was taken apart and thor- 
 oughly cleaned each time it was used, the highest test of the skim 
 milk was .12%, the lowest .02%, and the average .038%, while at 
 23 dairies where the separator bowl was cleaned only once a day 
 the skim milk tests ranged from .72% to .02% with an average of 
 .1% fat, making an average difference of .06% fat in the skim milk 
 from the clean and dirty separators or from washing it once or 
 twice a day. If the skim milk from a dirty separator tests as 
 high as it did in one case, .72% fat, this means a loss from using 
 a separator without washing each time after skimming of 35 
 pounds fat in the skim milk of a cow giving about 6,000 pounds 
 of milk in a year, or 40 pounds of butter at 25 cents per pound 
 amounts to $10, and the same loss in a herd of 10 cows amounts 
 to $100 per year, which added to the cost of a new machine that 
 in many cases is $100, makes the hand separator an expense, of 
 $200 per year to the dairy that fails to wash the separator each 
 time it is used, and on this account leaves .72% fat in the skim 
 milk. 
 
 If this is added to the losses caused by taints introduced into 
 the cream from a dirty separator, the total losses amount to high 
 pay for the time required to carefully clean a separator bowl and 
 all its parts after each skimming. 
 
DAIRYING 53 
 
 316. The efficiency of skimming by a separator is influenced 
 in much the same way as just described if the milk is not per- 
 fectly sweet at the time of skimming, or if it is sweet and not well 
 mixed before skimming, as any lumps of sour curd or dried cream 
 in the milk will clog the tubes in the separator bowl in the same 
 way as the slime and dirt left in the uncleaned bowl interfere 
 with clean skimming. 
 
 CAPACITY OF A SEPARATOR. 
 
 317. The amount of milk skimmed per hour indicates the 
 capacity of a separator bowl. This is determined by the manu- 
 facturer. If too much milk is forced through a bowl the skim- 
 ming will not be satisfactory, as under such conditions the milk 
 does not remain long enough in the bowl to receive the full effect 
 of the centrifugal force and some of the cream is consequently 
 carried into the skim milk. 
 
 318. Each separator bowl is designed to skim milk at a cer- 
 tain rate and to remove all the cream excepting a trace of fat 
 which goes into the skim milk. The amount of milk which will 
 be skimmed clean indicates the capacity of a separator. This 
 may be increased somewhat by excessive heating of the milk, but 
 as a rule the capacity advertised by the manufacturer is under- 
 stood to be the amount of milk which the bowl will skim per 
 
 lour when heated to about 85 deg. F. 
 
 319. It is very essential that the supply of milk shall be kept 
 iniform during skimming; an irregular or fluctuating flow of milk 
 lot only interferes with clean skimming, but in some cases the 
 
 ibes in the bowl become clogged, especially when the milk sup- 
 >ly is stopped for a few minutes. With some separators the bowl 
 mst be cleaned after each stopping before skimming can be 
 mtinued. An even feed, even speed, and a uniform temperature 
 )f the milk are three very important points to be watched in using 
 separator. 
 
 320. A change in the amount of milk skimmed per hour 
 ioes not cause a uniform change in the test of the skim milk. 
 
54 DAIRYING 
 
 If a separator has a capacity of 600 pounds per hour and 
 leaves .1% fat in the skim milk, a reduction of 10% in the capac- 
 ity or to 540 pounds, may cause a 10% drop in the test of the 
 skim milk or from .1% to .09% fat, but an increase ' of 10% in 
 capacity, or to 660 pounds, makes more than a 10% increase in 
 the test of the skim milk. It will probably test .15% instead of 
 .11% fat, and a further increase to 720 pounds will raise the test 
 of the skim milk more than 20%, probably to .2% rather than to 
 .12% fat. 
 
 321. The amount of milk running 1 into the separator is usu- 
 ally regulated by a float under the faucet in the milk supply pan, 
 and this should always be used, as it feeds the milk into the sepa- 
 rator at the rate designed by the manufacturers for giving the 
 best results. 
 
 The effect of a variation in the capacity of a separator is 
 shown by the following figures* taken from six skimming trials 
 in each case : 
 
 Per Cent. Fat in Skim Milk 
 
 Normal amount of milk 02 to .035, average .028 
 
 Above normal 13 to .165, average .145 
 
 Below normal 02 to .035, average .027 
 
 322. The capacity of a separator bowl may be changed by 
 the accumulation of dirt and slime as the skimming progresses.! 
 This fills the bowl and naturally reduces the amount of milk the 
 bowl will hold. If there is .05% of dirt and slime in milk and a 
 separator bowl when filled holds three pounds, and further if milk 
 is passing through the bowl at the rate of 600 pounds per hour, 
 there will be accumulated .05%' of 600 pounds or .3 pound dirt 
 and slime per hour, and this is 10% of the three pounds, or the 
 capacity of the bowl is reduced 10% per hour while skimming 
 such milk. 
 
 323. When the bowl is clean, milk passes through it at 
 the rate of 10 pounds per minute (600 pounds per hour), and if 
 the bowl holds three pounds then the milk remains in the bowl 
 
 *Indiana Experiment Station Bui. 116. 
 IKirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
DAIRYING 55 
 
 .3 minute or 18 seconds. If the dirt and slime accumulates and 
 reduces the space from 3 pounds to 2.8 pounds, the time the milk 
 will remain in the bowl is reduced from 18 to 16 seconds and this 
 w.ill have the same effect on the efficiency of skimming as in- 
 creasing the amount of milk skimmed per hour. 
 
 The Separator Slime. 
 
 324. A deposit of dirt, hair, and a greyish white, slimy sub- 
 stance is left on the walls of a separator bowl after it has been 
 used for skimming milk. The amount of this deposit varies with 
 the sw v eetness and the cleanness of the milk and the temperature 
 jf the milk at the time it is skimmed. It increases with the 
 acidity and with the temperature of the milk. If perfectly sweet 
 milk is skimmed at a pasteurizing temperature, say 160 deg. F., 
 this slime will accumulate in the bowl very rapidly and may soon 
 fill the bowl so that it is 'necessary to stop the skimming and re- 
 move this slime. 
 
 325. Besides the dirt in the milk and many of the bacteria, 
 the bowl slime contains a nitrogenous constituent of the milk 
 which is probably in suspension and heavier than the milk serum. 
 The amount of slime taken from milk varies from .01% to .3%. 
 Many analyses of it have been made and its composition is shown 
 by the following figures :* 
 
 Water 66. to 75. % 
 
 Fat 1 to 4.1 % 
 
 Nitrogenous matter 17.5 to 29.4 % 
 
 Other organic matter 85 to 7.75% 
 
 Mineral matter 1.5 to 4.1 % 
 
 This leathery coating of slime taken from the inside of the 
 separator bowl when cleaning it should be burned and not washed 
 lown the drain or fed to any animal, because of the large number 
 bacteria it contains, and while these may be harmless at times, 
 lere is danger of spreading diseases by feeding it to any animal. 
 
 *Kirchner Milchwirtschaft. 
 
56 DAIRYING 
 
 Steady Running of the Separator. 
 
 326. If the separator runs roughly and trembles when under 
 full speed, an efficient skimming may be interfered with. The 
 cause of the vibration should be located at once. An uneven or 
 unsteady motion which makes the separator pans or frame vibrate 
 may be caused by 
 
 1. The separator frame or bowl is not level. 
 
 2. The bowl is out of balance. 
 
 3. The bowl spindle is bent. 
 
 4. The bowl is too high, does not run freely. 
 
 5. The bowl is not put together properly. 
 
 6. The upper bearing is too tight. 
 
 7. The frame is not securely fastened down. 
 
 8. Milk enters before bowl is up to full speed. 
 
 9. Oil not good, or gummed bearings. 
 
 10. Defective gearing or too tight belt. 
 
 11. Worn or dirty bearings. 
 
 12. The bowl is running backward. This is dangerous, as 
 the cover may be thrown off when the bowl turns in the wrong 
 direction. 
 
 13. The speed is too high. 
 
 14. The cover is not screwed down to the mark. 
 
 327. Running a high-speed separator bowl when it trembles 
 perceptibly at full speed is not safe. An effort to remedy the dif- 
 ficulty should be made at once, and if unsuccessful in overcoming 
 this by such means as are available, the bowl should be sent to 
 the manufacturers for repairs. When a separator bowl needs re- 
 pairing it should not be sent away until after a ''loaning bowl' is 
 received from the repair shop. "Loaning bowls" are usually kept 
 on hand at the factory and can be put into the separator frame 
 and used until the one needing rebalancing or other repairs is 
 returned. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 57 
 
 328. The effect of an unbalanced bowl and uneven, rough 
 -mining- of a separator when at full speed and skimming milk is 
 >hown by the following figures :* 
 
 Per Cent. Fat 
 
 Balanced 
 
 Unbalanced 
 
 Cream 
 
 Skim Milk 
 
 Cream 
 
 Skim Milk 
 
 42 
 28 
 32 
 
 .03 
 .03 
 .03 
 
 25 
 28 
 31 
 
 .15 
 .16 
 .18 
 
 Avera, 
 
 ?e.. .03 
 
 
 .16 
 
 A loss of .13% fat in the skim milk from unsteady running of 
 the separator, and this on the milk of one cow for a year or about 
 
 ',000 pounds skim milk, amounts to 6.5 pounds butter fat, which 
 is equal to 7.5 pounds butter; that at 25 cents per pound is worth 
 $1.87, and for 10 cows $18.70. This will more than pay the ex- 
 
 >ense of repairing the bowl and keeping it in good running order. 
 
 Important Points to Be Observed in Running a Cream Separator. 
 
 1. Read and preserve the manufacturers' book of instructions. 
 
 2. Test the spirit level to be used in leveling the frame and 
 the bowl. 
 
 3. Carefully clean all the small tubes in the bowl and its 
 cover. 
 
 4. Soap the rubber bowl ring before screwing down the cover 
 md do not leave the ring in the bowl after cleaning, but hang it 
 
 on a nail to dry. 
 
 5. Screw the bowl cover up to the mark. 
 
 6. See that the oil runs freely. Keep dirt and milk out of 
 he oil and shut off oil when the machine stops. 
 
 7. Do not drop the bowl into its bearings. 
 
 8. Start speed slowly and keep a uniform speed. 
 
 9. When through skimming, flush the bowl with warm 
 
 "Indiana Expt. Sta. Bui. 116. 
 
58 DAIRYING 
 
 water or skim milk to clean last traces of cream from bowl and 
 from skimming pans. 
 
 10. Clean the separator bowl before the milk sours in it. 
 
 11. The separator bowl should revolve in the same direction 
 as the hands of a watch. 
 
 12. Keep the milk float in supply pan when skimming. 
 
 13. Turn faucet of milk supply can full open at once when 
 bowl is up to speed and allow full flow of milk to enter the bowl. 
 
 14. Inspect the bearings and oil tubes before each skimming. 
 
 Setting Up Power and Hand Separators. 
 
 329. The smoothness with which a separator runs and the 
 efficiency of the skimming done by it, are both influenced by the 
 care and accuracy with which the separator is placed in position 
 to run. Some separator frames are placed on rubber cushions 
 enclosed in tin cases, one at each corner. A lag screw passes 
 through the center of the rubber and case with an iron washer 
 under it. These lag screws fasten the separator to the floor, but 
 they must not be drawn so tightly as to destroy the elasticity of 
 the rubbers. Lag screws may be made to hold firmly in a stone 
 or cement foundation by using just enough strips of leather for 
 filling the hole in the cement as to make the screw fit tightly. 
 
 The separator frame ought to be raised somewhat above the 
 foundation in order to permit cleaning out the oil, milk and dirt 
 which accumulate under it. 
 
 Leveling the Separator. 
 
 330. When the frame is securely fastened to the foundation, 
 place the separator bowl in it. Then place an accurate level on 
 top of the bowl and turn the bowl slowly. This will show whether 
 or not the bowl is level at all points in the circle. If it is not, the 
 necessary adjustment may be made by placing thin pieces of wood, 
 tin, and even paper, under the corners of the frame where needed. 
 
 331. The belt which connects pow r er separators to the inter- 
 mediate should make a straight line from the left side of the sepa- 
 
 
DAIRYING 59 
 
 
 rator pulley over the top of the intermediate pulley and move 
 away from the separator so that the bowl turns in the direction 
 indicated by the arrow stamped on the bowl cover. The belt 
 must not be too tight, as the tight belt may cause the lower bear- 
 ings to heat and require an unnecessary amount of power to run 
 the separator. A tight belt may also increase the wear of the 
 bearings. When a flat belt is used the unpainted side should be 
 placed next to the pulleys. The upper side of the belt is tight 
 and the lower slack. A new belt should be put on in the evening 
 if possible so that it may be stretched over night. When the belt 
 becomes stretched by long use, the belt tightener should take up 
 the slack. 
 
 Cleaning a Separator. 
 
 332. A new separator bowl is often covered with a coating 
 of grease to keep it from rusting. This is cleaned by first wiping 
 off the grease from all parts of the bowl and the tin covers and 
 then washing them with hot water containing a little sal soda. 
 It is not often necessary to remove the bearings of the bowl or 
 the lower spindle of a new machine unless there is some defect in 
 the running of the separator. These bearings, however, must be 
 clean and bright, with no grit or threads left in them. 
 
 Cleaning After Separating. 
 
 333. When through separating, the bowl is first flushed out 
 with warm water before there is any reduction in its speed. This 
 will remove the cream frorii the bowl and from the cream cover. 
 The bowl is then allowed to stop or to "run down." Both the tin 
 covers, the float, and the faucet are then taken off and thoroughly 
 washed in a sink. This tinware should also be scalded, then placed 
 where it will be dry and not rust until used again. 
 
 334. The separator bowl of power machines is nearly always 
 emptied by using a siphon. This must be done before the bowl 
 cover is unscrewed. After the liquid is all drawn from either a 
 hand or power bowl the cover is unscrewed (left Handed), by 
 using wrenches made for the purpose; the different parts of the 
 
60 DAIRYING 
 
 bowl are thoroughly washed in the sink, rinsed with scalding 
 water or steamed and kept in a clean, dry place until the next 
 skimming. 
 
 335. The slime that collects in a separator bowl can often 
 be removed in one large piece and burned. It should not be left 
 in the sink or thrown into a drain as it will easily clog them. The 
 tibes in the bowl should all be cleaned by passing a spiral wire 
 brush through them. This is very important, as small pieces of 
 curd or slime left in any of these tubes will interfere with the 
 skimming. The tinware and parts of the bowl should be steamed 
 after washing and made so hot that they will dry. Never wipe 
 the tinware with a towel or cloth, but keep these after steaming 
 in a clean place until needed for the next skimming. 
 
 Causes of Variations in the Richness of Separator Cream. 
 
 336. Any treatment or condition of the milk that has a ten- 
 dency to make the serum thin will help to increase the richness of 
 the cream coming from a separator when all other conditions are 
 the same, and thus increase or reduce its richness. 
 
 Hot syrup is thinner than cold, but the hotter the milk when 
 skimmed the richer the cream. There are objections, however, 
 to heating the milk much above 80 degrees F. for skimmings, first 
 bcause of the cost of the fuel ; second, the cost of cooling the 
 cream; third, it is more wearing on the separator to skim hot 
 milk than warm milk. 
 
 Excessive Capacity. 
 
 337. Allowing too much milk to run through the separator 
 bowl makes a thin cream because any excess of milk over the 
 amount designed by the manufacturer must flow out of the cream 
 spout, as only a certain quantity can be thrown out as skim milk 
 at a certain speed. 
 
 Too little milk makes a rich cream, because the amount of 
 skim milk remains constant and any deficiency as well as excess 
 must come on the cream. 
 
DAIRYING 61 
 
 Position of the Cream Screw and of Skim Milk Tubes in the Bowl. 
 
 338. When the cream screw is turned in, a richer cream is 
 obtained because it takes cream from nearer the center of the bowl. 
 Turning the screw out will naturally make the cream thinner. 
 A fraction of one turn of the screw is often sufficient to make a 
 difference of several per cent, in fat in the cream. 
 
 When adjustable skim milk tubes are placed in the bottom 
 of the bowl these should be turned out to make the cream richer, 
 as this will force more skim milk through them. 
 
 Variations in Speed. 
 
 339. The amount of skim milk thrown out the skim milk 
 tubes may be increased by increasing the speed of the bowl, and 
 this will naturally make less and richer cream. Reducing the 
 speed gives opposite results and makes a thinner cream. 
 
 If the cream coming from a separator is getting thin this may 
 be due, first, to clogging of the bowl with slime so that the skim 
 milk cannot pass through the skim milk tubes of the bowl ; second, 
 to a reduced speed; third, to too much milk flowing into the sepa- 
 rator; fourth, to a change in the cream screw. 
 
 340. One of the most common causes of a variation in the 
 richness of cream from the farm separator is the different amount 
 of water or skim milk that is used to flush out the bowl when 
 through skimming. Most of this goes into the cream spout and 
 the extent to which the cream is diluted by it will depend on the 
 
 imount of rinsing water used. 
 
 Uniformity in all the operating processes will help to give a 
 :ream of uniform richness. 
 
 341. The following figures show the effect of various condi- 
 tions of operation on the richness of separator cream, most of the 
 igures being taken from Kan. Exp. Sta. Bui. 137: 
 
 Influence of Temperature of Milk. 
 
 . of milk, F. deg. . 115 110 90 80 70 
 
 :ream test, fat % 32 30 29.5 29 27 
 
 )kim milk test, fat % . . .01 .01 .012 .02 .039 
 
62 DAIRYING 
 
 342. The richness of the cream increases in these trials from 
 27% to 32% fat as the temperature of the milk is raised from 70 
 degrees F. to 115 degrees F., showing that the milk should be 
 skimmed at the same temperature from day to day and a ther- 
 mometer used at each skimming. 
 
 Influence of Speed of Separator Bowl. 
 
 Normal speed 
 
 Cream test, fat % 28 35 28 30 35 
 
 Skim milk test, fat % . . .02 .02 .01 .02 .03 
 
 Low speed 
 
 Cream test, fat % 25.6 30 24 25 28 
 
 Skim milk test, fat % . . .035 .045 .025 .05 .055 
 
 343. Failing to keep the speed up to that required by the 
 manufacturer reduces the richness of the cream and increases the 
 test of the skim milk. 
 
 Change in Flow of Milk or Capacity of Separator. 
 Full capacity 
 
 Cream test, fat % 28 35 28 30 35 
 
 Skim milk test, fat % . . .02 .01 .01 .02 .03 
 
 Half capacity 
 
 Cream test, fat % 36.8 43 35 40 41 
 
 Skim milk test, fat %.. .01 .01 .015 .01 .02 
 
 A reduction of one-half in the flow of milk gives a cream of 
 about 8% more fat than with full capacity. 
 
 Influence of Steadiness of Running. 
 
 Steady- 
 Cream test, fat % 38.8 29 32 25 25 
 
 Skim milk test, fat %.. .01 .015 .02 .025 .02 
 
 Unsteady 
 
 Cream test, fat % 24 27 18 21.2 9 
 
 Skim milk test, fat %.. .03 .25 .04 .05 .30 
 
DAIRYING 63 
 
 Influence of Acidity of Milk. 
 
 Acidity of milk, % 26 .29 .50 .42 .29 
 
 Cream test, fat % 31 28 36 32 30 
 
 Skim milk test, fat %-. . .015 .01 .01 .01 .05 
 
 Effect of Change in Richness of the Milk. 
 
 Milk, fat % 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.6 6.1 
 
 Cream, fat % 20.7 24.5 28.2 33.1 38 
 
 344. The results given above illustrate the way in which farm 
 separator cream is affected by lack of uniformity in the everyday 
 running of the machine. The centrifugal cream separator is a 
 very valuable machine in the dairy and the creamery, but it is not 
 an absolutely automatic machine. A reasonable amount of atten- 
 tion must be given to it in order to get the most satisfactory re- 
 sults. Losses of fat in the skim milk may easily be reduced to a 
 satisfactory figure and uniformity in the richness of the cream 
 may also be obtained, but these results require some care on the 
 part of the operator of the machine. 
 
 Advantages of a Rich Cream. 
 
 345. When cream is sold from the farm there is sometimes a 
 tendency to skim too thin cream on the assumption that the- more 
 cream sold the more money will be received for it. This is a 
 mistake for the following reasons : 
 
 First, skimming a rich cream gives more skim milk for stock 
 feed than a thin cream. 
 
 Second, the richer the cream the smaller the quantity to cool, 
 and this is sometimes an important matter where ice is scarce and 
 expensive. 
 
 Third, rich cream occupies less space and reduces the weight 
 and transportation charges. 
 
 Fourth, if butter is made of cream, more starter can be added 
 to a rich than to a thin cream, and a rich cream can be churned 
 at a lower temperature, which gives a better body and more ex- 
 haustive churning than is the case with thin cream. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 THE COST OF SKIMMING MILK BY A CENTRIFUGAL 
 
 SEPARATOR. 
 
 346. Many farmers have been accustomed to the inexpensive 
 outfit needed in the gravity process of skimming cream from milk 
 and are inclined to consider the $100 charged for a centrifugal 
 cream separator as more than they can afford to pay, and further, 
 the number of years such a machine may be successfully used, as 
 well as the cost of operating it, are items that may easily make 
 one hesitate to buy one of these machines. 
 
 A little figuring will, however, show that the butter fat that 
 may be saved from the skim milk by the centrifugal separator will 
 soon pay for the machine. 
 
 347. Professor Hunziker in Ind. Bui. 116 gives the following 
 as the average per cents of fat in 223 samples of skim milk col- 
 lected from farms in different sections of the state. One hundred 
 and fifty-six (156) of these were from hand separators with an 
 average of .05% fat; 17 from "deep setting" with an average of 
 .34% fat; 15 from "shallow pan setting" with an average of .50% 
 fat; 35 from "water dilution" with an average of .57$ fat. 
 
 He also gives the following figures which show the value of 
 the fat lost in the skim milk from one to 20 cows in a year on the 
 basis of 85 pounds skim milk in 100 pounds whole milk, an over- 
 run of one-sixth, and butter worth 23 cents per pound : 
 
 Value of Butter Fat Left in Skim Milk. 
 
 Method of Skimming the Milk 
 
 No. 
 Cows 
 
 Lbs. 
 Milk 
 
 Water 
 Dilution 
 
 Shallow , 
 Pan | 
 
 Deep 
 Setting 
 
 Hand 
 Separator 
 
 1 
 
 6,000 
 
 $ 6.68 
 
 $ 5.86 , 
 
 $ 3.99 
 
 $ .63 
 
 5 
 
 30,000 
 
 33.43 
 
 29.32 
 
 19.95 
 
 3.16 
 
 10 
 
 60,000 
 
 66.86 
 
 58.65 ; 
 
 39.90 
 
 6.33 
 
 15 
 
 90,000 
 
 102.90 
 
 87.97 
 
 59.85 
 
 9.49 
 
 20 
 
 120,000 
 
 133.72 
 
 117.30 
 
 79.80 
 
 12.66 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 348. These figures show that the fat saved from the skim 
 ilk when milk is skimmed by a centrifugal separator, as com- 
 ared with gravity skimming, is worth from $4 to $6 per cow per 
 ear, and with a herd of 10 to 20 cows enough fat will be saved 
 o pay for the separator in one year. 
 
 349. The number of years that a separator will keep in good 
 unning order depends on its construction and on the kind of use 
 t has at the farm. There is no doubt but these machines, as 
 
 made by the manufacturers who have been in the business for 
 many years, will last for ten years or more ; but it is probably 
 safe to place the depreciation in value and interest on the money 
 invested in a separator costing $100 as about $15 per year, or 
 about five cents per day. 
 
 350. Other items of expense in running a separator daily 
 are, first, the power, which, if run one hour each day, is worth 25 
 cents ; second, the separator oil and some repairs, which may cost 
 about five cents per day, and third, the cost of the labor of clean- 
 ing, w r hich may be about 20 cents. The sum of these daily ex- 
 penses is 55 cents, and if 100 pounds of milk are skimmed per day, 
 the cost of skimming is a little more than one-half a cent per 
 pound or about one cent per quart. The cost of the machine and 
 its operation will, however, be about the same for 1,000 pounds 
 of milk per day as for 100 pounds of milk, and when the larger 
 amount of milk is handled, the cost per pound of milk is reduced 
 to one-tenth of a cent per quart or one-twentieth of a cent per 
 pound of milk. This, together with the quality of the sweet 
 cream and sweet skim milk obtained by using the centrifugal 
 cream separator, make it a valuable machine for farmers owning 
 cows and who either make butter or sell cream. 
 
 HAND SEPARATOR POWER. 
 
 351. People who have traveled extensively among farmers 
 where hand separators are in use, state that the kind of power 
 used to run the separator in various localities is something that 
 seems to be regulated by custom in each locality. In some coun- 
 ties or localities the machines are all turned by hand, while in 
 
66 DAIRYING 
 
 others some tread power is used, and in still other places a gaso- 
 line or steam engine is the customary power. In addition to these, 
 electric motors and water power may be used. 
 
 352. The tread power is not always satisfactory or econom- 
 ical unless some farm animal besides a horse is used. A dog or 
 sheep is not satisfactory in a tread power, but a bull is occasionally 
 used for this purpose with excellent results. 
 
 The power must require little attention ; it must be uniform 
 and so attached to the separator that its speed will not vary. 
 Gasoline engines are used a great deal ; electric motors give a 
 uniform speed, and a steam engine has not only the advantage of 
 being a good power, but the necessary steam boiler gives a sup- 
 ply of steam and hot water that is always useful and needed for 
 heating the milk and for cleaning the tinware, separator bowl and 
 other utensils used in handling milk. 
 
 353. If large quantities of milk are to be skimmed each day, 
 several small separators are better than one or two excessively 
 large ones, as one may be started earlier than the others and 
 later on stopped and cleaned while the others are running. 
 
 354. The cost of the power is not always in proportion to 
 the amount of milk skimmed, as the equipment must be large 
 enough to take care of the maximum amount of milk that will be 
 received and all the machinery must be run except some of the 
 separators for smaller quantities of milk. Hand power at farms 
 may be expensive for running separators because of the uneven- 
 ness of the speed kept up. This, however, may be regulated by 
 using a watch to time the crank revolutions if necessary. 
 
 355. If small quantities of milk are to be skimmed at a farm 
 by steam engine power, the milk must either be cooled at one 
 milking and then heated to a skimming temperature at the next 
 milking, or steam raised in the boiler after each milking. The 
 difference in labor or expense of the two practices must be de- 
 cided at each farm. 
 
DAIRYING 67 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL CREAM SEPARATOR 
 
 TO FARMERS. 
 
 1. If farmers have been accustomed to haul their milk to a 
 creamery and bring back skim milk from the factory, the cost of 
 this hauling is seldom less than 10 cents per 100 pounds of milk, 
 or about three cents per pound of butter. 
 
 356. If the milk of a cow contains 200 pounds butter in a 
 year the farm separator, by saving this cost of hauling, earns $6 
 per year or $60 for a herd of ten cows. The cream hauling, how- 
 ever, costs about one cent per pound butter fat and this will re- 
 duce the $60 to $40 gain per year by cream instead of milk hauling. 
 
 2. The feeding value of the skim milk as it comes from the 
 farm separator directly after milking is better than at any other 
 time. Mixed creamery skim milk is not only older, but may be 
 diluted somewhat, and it may also be the means of spreading 
 tuberculosis from one herd to another. 
 
 357. The condition of the creamery skim milk is often the 
 cause of keeping some whole milk on the farm to feed calves. 
 This is rather expensive feed when butter is worth 30 cents per 
 pound, but the calves will not need whole milk when they can get 
 sweet skim milk from the farm separator. The farm skimming 
 therefore helps not only in raising calves economically, but it 
 helps to increase the amount of milk fat sold to the factory. 
 
 3. The farm separator reduces the loss from an occasional 
 can of sour milk which may be sent to the creamery when whole 
 milk is delivered. 
 
 4. The farmer can keep more cows when a farm separator 
 is used, as he has more time at home than when delivering whole 
 milk. 
 
 5. There is more demand for cream than for milk and it can 
 be economically shipped longer distances and thus give farmers 
 the benefit of a wider territory or more extensive market than he 
 is able to get for his milk. 
 
 358. All these advantages which may be obtained from the 
 use of a farm separator are based on its supplying a perfectly 
 
68 DAIRYING 
 
 clean and sweet cream. This -necessitates a constant effort on 
 the part of the farmer to keep the machine clean and the cream 
 cool. If this is not done and a sour, tainted cream is produced 
 at the farm, the returns from using a farm separator will be less 
 than those from selling whole milk to a creamery. 
 
 359. In recent years the rapid introduction of the farm sep- 
 arators has brought a new problem into the creamery industry. 
 Many gathered cream factories are receiving farm separator 
 cream and the amount of it is constantly increasing ; in fact the 
 whole milk creameries find their patrons in some cases voluntarily 
 changing from the old way of delivering milk, to the new one 
 of using a farm separator and sending their cream to the factory. 
 The rapid development of this tendency among farmers indicates 
 that the system has merit which they appreciate, and that the 
 creameries must necessarily arrange to receive such cream and 
 to make the best butter possible from it. 
 
 Quality of the Butter 
 
 360. The experience of many creameries with farm gravity 
 cream in the past has been such as to cause them to doubt the 
 practicability of making so fine a quality of butter from farm 
 separator cream as they formerly have made from factory sep- 
 arated cream. The standard of butter quality certainly ought 
 not to be lowered by farm separator cream; for when it is skim- 
 med from the warm, new milk, cream is in a purer condition than 
 that skimmed from milk which is twelve or more hours old. The 
 sooner cream is separated from milk after milking the better 
 the cream for any purpose. This being true, faults in the 
 butter made from such cream cannot be charged to the farm 
 separator. In many cases, butter made from cream not properly 
 cared for does not sell for the top market price, and since there 
 is a growing tendency to sell butter on its merits, giving only the 
 price its quality deserves, there will be difficulty in disposing 
 of butter made from a poor quality of farm separator cream, at 
 prices equal to those of butter made at whole-milk creameries. 
 Considering the question, however, from the mechanical side of 
 the butter making process alone, there is no good reason why 
 
 
DAIRYING 69 
 
 farm separator cream should not be equal to, if not better than, 
 that separated at a factory with power separators. 
 
 Defects in Farm Separator Cream 
 
 361. The defects found in gathered cream butter usually 
 arise from improper care of the cream before it is delivered to the 
 factory. These defects develop or are introduced into the cream 
 either by the method of caring for it at the farm or by the way 
 it is transported to the creamery. A perfectly clean, sweet and 
 satisfactory cream is produced on many farms and delivered in 
 good condition to either retailer, an ice-cream maker or a creamery. 
 There are, however, places where tainted and defective cream is 
 found and in some cases it is being mixed with cream of a better 
 grade. This is hardly fair to the producer of a first-grade cream 
 and in order to raise the standard of the entire product to a grade 
 equal to the best, the following suggestions are offered as a 
 guide to persons not familiar with proper methods of caring for 
 cream. 
 
 Care of Farm Separator Cream 
 
 1. The farm separator should be placed where there are no 
 bad odors. It must be thoroughly cleaned each time it is used; 
 the bowl and all tinware must be scalded and placed out of the 
 reach of dust. Under no circumstances should the separator bowl 
 be left until it has been used a second time before the cleaning is 
 done. The bowl-slime and rinsings left in the separator after 
 skimming begin to sour and decay in a very short time, and if the 
 cleaning is not done immediately after skimming, the taints of this 
 sour milk are hard to remove. 
 
 2. Cool the cream to near 50 degrees F. immediately after 
 separating it. The ideal way of cooling separator cream is to 
 conduct it from the cream spout of the separator directly over a 
 water cooler. The cream must then be kept at a temperature 
 near 50 degrees F. by setting the cream cans in cold water. When 
 a cream cooler is not used the cream cans should not be over six 
 inches in diameter. They should be set in cold water and the 
 temperature reduced to 50 degrees F. or lower. This should be 
 
70 DAIRYING 
 
 done at once and the cream stirred frequently in order to hasten 
 cooling. A tin disc to which is attached a strong wire handle 
 two feet long makes an efficient agitator for this purpose. 
 
 3. Never mix warm and cold cream or sweet and sljghtly 
 tainted cream. 
 
 4. Provide a clean and covered water tank for holding the 
 cans of cream, and change the water frequently in the tank so 
 the temperature does not rise above 60 degrees F. A satisfactory 
 arrangment may be made by allowing running water to flow 
 through the milk and cream cooling tank to the stock watering 
 tank. 
 
 5. Skim the cream immediately after each milking. It is 
 more work to save the milk and separate once a day and less 
 satisfactory than skimming while the milk is warm, since the milk 
 must be heated again when saved until another milking. 
 
 6. A rich cream testing 35 per cent, fat or more is the most 
 satisfactory to both farmer and factory. The best separators 
 will skim rich cream as efficiently as a thin cream and more skim 
 milk is left on the farm when a rich cream is sold. 
 
 7. Cream should be perfectly sweet, containing no lumps or 
 clots when sampled or delivered to the haulers or to parties 
 buying it. 
 
 There is a good demand for sweet cream and it can easily 
 be supplied by keeping the tinware, separator, strainer-cloth and 
 water tank clean and the cream cold. 
 
 8. It is best not to attempt to turn the farm separator by 
 hand, but to provide some power such as a tread power on which 
 a bull or horse can be worked, or use a small gasoline engine. 
 
 9. When patrons persistently fail to take good care of their 
 cream at the farm, some creameries adopt the practice of grading 
 it ; and by keeping the tainted, sour cream separate from that of 
 good quality they make two grades of butter, paying the farmers 
 according to the purity of their cream. 
 
 10. The best way to prevent the use of farm separators 
 from destroying the reputation of butter made in localities where 
 these are numerous, is to collect the cream daily in small cans 
 which are washed at the factory; each can containing the cream 
 from one farm only. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 PIRATE 16 Showing complete equipment of the Cream Hauler. No. i is the 
 stirrer and sampler. No. 2 is the rubber scraper used for scraping 
 the farmer's pail and the weigh can. No. 3 is the box holding the 
 sample bottles. No. 4 is a firmly secured hook on which to suspend 
 the weigh pail. No. 5 is a 6o-pound capacity cream spring scale, and 
 No. 6 is the weigh pail. 
 
 Ind. Expt. Sta. Bui. 116. 
 
72 DAIRYING 
 
 The Cream Hauling 
 
 362. It often happens that cream which has been well cared 
 for at the farm is damaged during transportation to the creamery. 
 The cream gathering wagon starts out early in the morning-, and 
 the first cream which it collects must remain in the wagon until 
 it returns at night. This trip when taken in the hot days of 
 summer or the cold days of winter is likely to be injurious to 
 the quality of the cream. An efficient protection from these ex- 
 treme temperatures is a problem which must be solved if the 
 butter made from such cream is to grade as extra in quality. 
 
 Sampling- Cream 
 
 363. When cream stands for any length of time the top 
 layer will be richer than the cream below; this makes it neces- 
 sary to thoroughly mix each lot of cream by pouring from one 
 can to another just before taking a sample for testing. If the 
 cream is lumpy it should be poured through a fine hair sieve 
 before sampling. 
 
 364. Gathered-cream factories have in some cases adopted 
 the following method of sampling cream : Each driver is pro- 
 vided with a box of numbered bottles having a capacity of about 
 four ounces each, one bottle being provided for each patron. 
 This box is protected from heat in summer and cold in winter 
 so that the sample bottles of cream may arrive at the factory in 
 nearly the same condition as when taken from the farms. This 
 gives the butter maker a chance to inspect each patron's cream 
 and locate the defective lots, if there are any. 
 
 365. After inspection at the factory the samples are either 
 tested before souring or poured into composite sample jars which 
 contain a preservative, no preservative is added to the bottles 
 taken to the farms by the man who weighs, samples and gathers 
 the cream, but he must protect these samples from changes 
 caused by heat and cold during the different seasons of the year. 
 
 In some factories each lot of cream is tested as received. 
 This is considered more accurate and satisfactory than tests of 
 composite samples. 
 
DAIRYING 73 
 
 Cream should be sampled with a tube or some arrangement 
 that gives the same aliquot portion of each lot. 
 
 366. When the composite samples are tested, the cream 
 shoul be weighed into the Babcock cream test bottles. Meas- 
 uring cream with a pipette of any kind or size does not give ac- 
 curate results in testing with the Babcock test. In Wisconsin 
 the law requires that cream should be tested by weighing into 
 test bottles, and legal cream must contain at least 18 per cent. fat. 
 
 367. Testing cream accurately requires greater care than 
 testing milk, especially in reading the per cent, of fat. The short 
 necked cream bottles, graduated from 40 to 50 per cent., do not 
 afford an opportunity for exact readings, because the column of 
 fat is so wide that the menicus may include nearly one-half of 
 one per cent, fat, and uncertain readings that may be either 
 too high or too low are the result. Cream test bottles should 
 have a narrow neck. This makes it possible to graduate the 
 necks to divisions representing less than one-half of one per cent, 
 each. 
 
 Very accurate tests of cream may be obtained by weighing 
 half the usual quantity of cream, or nine grams, into narrow 
 necked test bottles that are graduated to two-tenths of one per 
 per cent., like the whole milk bottles, and multiplying the read- 
 ings by two. 
 
 Testing Cream When Received 
 
 368. The tendency at the present time seems to be towards 
 testing each lot of cream when it is received. The method of taking 
 composite samples described in preceding paragraphs is not con- 
 sidered by some factories and farmers so satisfactory as gather- 
 ing or shipping each farmer's cream in his own can and then 
 weighing and testing this cream when it is delivered. Some 
 creamery managers find it more satisfactory to confine the cream 
 hauler's duties simply to the delivery of an empty can and the 
 collection of a full or partially filled can of cream at each farm 
 than to expect the hauler to both weigh and sample each lot of 
 cream when he collects them. Gathering the cream in separate 
 
74, 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 cans gives the manager of the factory an opportunity to inspect 
 each lot of cream and to do the weighing and sampling at the 
 factory, where he has better facilities for this work than the 
 driver has on his route. 
 
 369. If the cream is used wholly for butter making the 
 butter maker at the factory may place a small amount of carefully 
 prepared starter in each clean can sent to the farms and in this 
 way exert some control on the fermentations started in the cream 
 as it is poured into these cans at the farms. 
 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 75 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 Note to Students These questions are to be answered inde- 
 >endently. Never consult the text after beginning your examina- 
 ion. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the examination, 
 'umber the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat 
 question. Mail answers promptly when completed. 
 
 1. Why is an effort made to separate cream from milk and 
 t two forces have been used for this purpose? 
 
 2. At what date did centrifugal cream separation begin to 
 >e studied? 
 
 3. In what way does heat and cold affect gravity and 
 rentrifugal cream separation? 
 
 4. Give an explanation for the separation of cream from 
 lilk. 
 
 5. What is milk serum and what is its sp. gr. ? 
 
 6. If a given quantity of milk weighs 1039 Ibs. and the same 
 [uantity of water weighs 1000 Ibs., what is the sp. gr. of the 
 
 dlk? 
 
76 DAIRYING 
 
 7. Explain how the separation of cream from milk is in- 
 fluenced: 1. By the composition of the milk serum; 2. By 
 a cow being "fresh" or a "stripper;" 3. By the size of the fat 
 globules; 4. By agitation of the milk. 
 
 8. What similarity is there between milk and blood? 
 
 9. What effect on the cream raising has the addition of 
 caustic soda to milk? 
 
 10. What are the names of several methods of gravity 
 cream separation? 
 
 11. Briefly describe the "shallow setting" process. 
 
 1 12. At what rate does cream rise when milk is set at 60 Fahr. ? 
 
 13. Describe the effect of different temperatures on gravity 
 cream raising. 
 
 14. How many hours is milk usually allowed to stand for 
 cream to rise by "shallow setting" and how many inches deep 
 is the milk? 
 
 15. Does setting milk in a warm place give a richer or 
 thinner cream than keeping it cold? 
 
 16. Why is hand skimming of sweet milk more difficult than 
 skimming sour milk? 
 
 17. How may shallow setting of milk cause white specks 
 in butter? 
 
 18. Give at least 3 points in favor of the shallow setting 
 process for creaming milk. 
 
 19. Explain at least six objections to the shallow settinj 
 process. 
 
 20. How is Devonshire cream made? 
 
DAIRYING 77 
 
 21. Explain the "deep setting" process of cream separation. 
 
 22. Describe the equipment needed in this process. 
 
 23. Wliy are better results obtained by the deep than by 
 the shallow setting process? 
 
 24. What temperature of the milk is best suited to the deep 
 setting? 
 
 25. Which gives the best results, skimming from the top 
 or the bottom of the milk? 
 
 26. What is the average richness of deep setting cream? 
 
 27. What effect has the richness of the milk, also delay in 
 jetting the milk on the richness of the skim milk obtained by this 
 >rocess? 
 
 28. What objection is there to opening and closing the skim 
 tilk faucet while skimming? 
 
 29. What are five advantages of the deep setting over the 
 shallow setting process? 
 
 30. Describe the process of cream raising by dilution with 
 rater and what are its advantages if any? 
 
 31. What is meant by the skimming efficiency of a process? 
 
 32. Give the average temperature of the milk, the richness 
 >f the cream and of the skim milk obtained by each of the three 
 gravity processes of cream separation. 
 
 33. If 100 Ibs. milk testing 5% fat gives 80 Ibs. skim milk 
 ;sting .3% fat, what is the skimming efficiency? 
 
 34. Briefly explain how and why cream is separated from 
 iilk by centrifugal force. 
 
 35. If a weight of two Ibs. is revolved in a circle six inches 
 diameter what is the amount of the centrifugal force exerted 
 
 >n it? 
 
78 DAIRYING 
 
 36. What difference in centrifugal force is caused by doubling 
 the diameter and by doubling the speed of a separator bowl ? 
 
 37. Briefly describe the stages of development of the cream 
 separator. 
 
 38. Of what benefit are discs or plates in a separator bowl? 
 
 39. Into what three layers is milk divided in a separator 
 bowl? 
 
 40. Why is the skim milk opening of a separator bowl 
 near its center or axis? 
 
 41. At what point in the separator bowl is milk delivered? 
 
 42. What are some of the advantages of a centrifugal sep- 
 arator? 
 
 44. Which is the best separator? 
 
 45. What observations may be made for testing a separator? 
 
 46. If 5 Ibs. cream and 5 Ibs. skim milk are collected from 
 a separator in 20 seconds, how much milk is being skimmed per 
 hour and what per cent, of the milk is the cream? 
 
 47. If 100 Ibs. milk testing 3.5% fat give 80 Ibs. skim milk 
 testing 2% fat what is the test of the cream? 
 
 48. Explain how^ at least five different things may influence 
 the skimming efficiency of a cream separator. 
 
 49. If a 4-inch pulley on separator should make 200 r. p. m., 
 what size pulley is needed on a driving shaft having a speed of 
 50 r. p. m.? 
 
 50. What is the best temperature for milk skimmed and 
 what are the objections to skimming at a high temperature, 
 say 170 p.? 
 
 
DAIRYING 79 
 
 51. How does the method of heating milk affect its skim- 
 ming efficiency? 
 
 52. Why should not milk be kept warm a long time before 
 skimming? 
 
 53. Give an illustration of the damage that may easily be 
 done by not washing a separator bowl each time it is used. 
 
 54. What is meant by the capacity of a separator? 
 
 55. How may the capacity of a separator be determined? 
 
 56. Give figures showing how long milk remains in a sep- 
 arator bowl while skimming. 
 
 57. What is separator bowl slime and what is its composi- 
 tion? 
 
 58. Give some of the causes of a rough running separator? 
 
 59. What is meant by a loaning bowl? 
 
 60. How does an unsteady running bowl affect the skim- 
 ming. 
 
 61. Give some points to be observed in running a separator. 
 
 62. Describe the setting up of a separator. 
 
 63. Describe the cleaning of a separator. 
 
 64. Explain in detail at least 5 different causes for separator 
 earn varying in richness. 
 
 65. How does the speed of the bowl change the richness of 
 le cream? 
 
 66. If milk testing 3.0% fat gives cream testing 20% fat 
 lat test of cream will milk testing 5.0% give? 
 
80 DAIRYING 
 
 67. What should induce a farm separator owner to skim 
 a rich cream? 
 
 68. If a cow gives 5000 Ibs. milk, what would be the value 
 of the fat left in her skim milk if skimmed by each of 4 different 
 methods of separating cream and when butter fat is worth 30c 
 per lb.? 
 
 69. What is a fair estimate of the cost of skimming milk 
 by a centrifugal cream separator? 
 
 70. How is the quality of milk affected by the hand sep- 
 arator? 
 
 71. Give an outline of a good method of caring for cream 
 until it is sold. 
 
 Write this at the End of Your Examination 
 
 I hereby certify that the above questions were answered entirely 
 by me. 
 
 Signed - 
 Address 
 
oirespondence College 
 ulture 
 
 --Part IV 
 
THE 
 
 Correspondence College 
 
 of Agriculture 
 
 FT. WAYNE, INDIANA 
 
 DAIRYING-Part IV 
 
 Care of the Dairy and its Products 
 
 By EDWARD H. FARRINGTON. M. S. 
 
 Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the 
 University of \Visconsin. 
 
 This is the Fourth of a Series of Six Books giving a Complete Course of Instruction 
 
 in Dairying 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1911 
 ?he CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 

 INOTE TO STUDENTS 
 
 In order to derive the the utmost possible benefit from 
 this paper, you must thoroughly master the text. While 
 it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the 
 text to memory, still there is nothing: contained in the text 
 which is not absoltuely essential for the intelligent dairy- 
 man to know. For your own good, never refer to the 
 examination questions until you have finished your study 
 of the text. By following this plan, the examination 
 paper will show what you have learned from the text. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 DAIRYING Part IV 
 
 CARE OF MILK. 
 
 670. Pure, clean milk is one of the most healthy and nu- 
 tritious of human foods. This or a similar statement is made so 
 often in print and in lectures that the value of milk as a food, 
 especially for infants and invalids, is well nigh universally 
 known. In former years milk consumers were supposed to need 
 protection from the watering and skimming of milk only, and a 
 determination of the amount of cream and of natural, solid mat- 
 ter in the milk was about all that was considered necessary in 
 order to protect the public from a fraudulent milk supply. This 
 Reeling of security and confidence in the milk supply so long as 
 it was rich enough, has in recent years been sho\vn to be abso- 
 lutely wrong. The developments in bacteriology and in medical 
 science have proved beyond the slightest doubt that milk and 
 other dairy products may be among the most dangerous of human 
 foods. Such diseases as typhoid fever, tuberculosis, diphtheria 
 and many others, also the disturbances of the bowejs that cause 
 suffering and often death of many infants and children arc 
 spread by dirty, contaminated milk. It has been proved that the 
 germs that cause these and other diseaeses find milk about the 
 best possible soil to grow in, and since it has also been proved 
 that one germ will multiply into millions in a few hours and that 
 small particles of dust and dirt, as well as the legs of flies, con- 
 tain thousands of germs, it certainly is clear that the germ,, and 
 the dirt content of milk is of more vital importance to humanity 
 
4 DAIRYING 
 
 than is its per cent of cream or the amount of solid food it con- 
 tains. 
 
 671. An enormous amount of milk is consumed in the 
 United States every year. It has been estimated that the milk 
 sold from house to house, the so-called market milk, is equal to 
 the production of about 7,600,000 cows, and that used in butter- 
 making 9,700,000 cows, and in cheese-making 800,000 cows. If 
 has also been estimated by the Illinois Experiment Station that 
 the 2,000,000 inhabitants of the city of Chicago consume over ten 
 tons of dirt every year in their milk. These figures are startling 
 although they are undoubtedly true, and while a little filth 
 dropping into the milk pail may not seem to amount to much to 
 the milker at the time, it is contributing to the tons of dirt that 
 are being unconsciously consumed every day in our milk supply. 
 
 A realizing sense of the truth of such statements as the fore- 
 going, as well as the frequent proof that contagious diseases have 
 been spread by means of milk, makes people in some localities 
 willing to pay 12 to 20 cents per quart for milk which they know 
 is perfectly pure and clean. The increasing number of sanitary 
 milk-producing farms, where milk is simply protected from 
 disease, dust and dirt to such an extent that it will keep sweet 
 for weeks, is certainly an indication of the advancement of civili- 
 zation. 
 
 672. It is a well known fact that most of the milk brought 
 to creameries and cheese factories will not keep sweet for more 
 than one day in warm weather. The reason why this milk spoils 
 so quickly is also well known. It is not the fault of the cows; 
 they are innocent of any wrongdoing; it is the person who feeds 
 ?nd milks the cows that is responsible for the dirt in the milk. 
 If the milk producer wants a higher price than he is now re- 
 ceiving for his milk, no matter to whom he is selling it, the surest 
 way for him to accomplish this is to keep the milk clean ; there 
 is always a good demand for pure milk and when a factory re- 
 ceives such milk, the butter, the cheese or the cream it sells will 
 be so improved in quality that a higher price can be demanded 
 for it than those products made from impure milk. Persons 
 buying such milk will be glad to pay an extra price for it. This 
 
DAIRYING 5 
 
 has been the case in many instances and the reputation of a farm 
 or factory that is based on the purity of its products is standing 
 on a firm foundation. Certainly everyone that is connected 
 with such an enterprise may justly be proud of it. A reputation 
 of this kind arouses an interest in one's work and puts the neces- 
 sary effort to obtain it on a higher plane than that of mere 
 drudgery. 
 
 THE NUMBER OF GERMS IN MILK. 
 
 673. Milk produced in the common way without any special 
 precautions to protect it from dirt during milking contains from 
 100,000 to 20,000,000 germs in 1 cc. (1 cc. equals about 20 drops). 
 Many samples of sweet milk taken from bottles delivered to the 
 city consumer and from the weigh-can at a creamery or a cheese 
 factory have been found to contain many millions of germs in 
 one cubic centimeter, or at least one million germs in each drop 
 of milk. 
 
 a *'6 
 
 Plate 1. Effect of temperature upon growth of bacteria. A, a 
 single bacterium; B, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept at 
 fifty degrees F. (5 bacteria); C, its progeny in twenty-four hours in 
 milk kept at seventy degrees F. (750 bacteria). From Bui. 26 Storrs 
 (Conn.) Agr. Expt. Sta. 
 
 Nearly all these germs get into the milk after it is drawn 
 from the cow, showing that the number may be easily reduced 
 bv carefulness and cleanliness of the milker and of all others 
 
6 DAIRYING 
 
 who may handle the milk up to the time it is delivered to the 
 factory or to the city consumer. 
 
 Since the number of germs in milk is due largely to the 
 way in which it is handled, some cities have passed ordinances 
 requiring milk sold in that city to contain not more than 500,000 
 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Other cities have adopted a 
 different standard, but this is about the average figure. 
 
 There is a strong tendency on the part of health officers and 
 of manufacturers of a high quality of dairy products to insist on 
 clean milk and a frequent inspection of the cow stables, as well 
 as the methods of handling the milk at the farms, is being en- 
 forced to a greater extent each year. 
 
 THE KIND OF GERMS IN MILK. 
 
 674. It is claimed at the present time that there have been 
 found at least 200 different kinds of bacteria in milk. These may 
 in a general way be divided into the good, the bad, and the 
 indifferent gerrns. The lactic acid bacteria which cause milk to 
 sour, may be classed under the head of "good" germs, in so far 
 as they aid in the development of desirable flavors in butter and 
 in cheese after it is made, but these same bacteria may spoil the 
 milk for cheese-making if they are too numerous in the fresh 
 milk. 
 
 675. Under the head of "bad" germs may be included the 
 disease producing bacteria and those that cause bad flavors in 
 milk, butter and cheese. The "indifferent" germs include a, 
 large number that grow rapidly in milk, but have no particularly 
 injurious or beneficial effect on dairy products, or on the con- 
 sumer of such products. It is true, however, that the entire 
 absence of germs helps the flavor of milk and cream while their 
 presence may spoil these products, and when one realizes that 
 16 million bacteria may grow from one bacterium in 24 hours, the 
 necessity of protecting milk from dirt, dust and dirty utensils 
 can be readily understood. Each hair that drops in the milk 
 
DAIRYING 7 
 
 during milking may bring thousands of bacteria with it, and 
 each particle of dirt and dust may be swarming with germs 
 from the alimentary canal of the animals, while the strainer 
 cloth, if one is used, and the tinware of all kinds, if not thor- 
 oughly washed and scalded just before using them, will continu- 
 ally be adding their supply of bacteria to those already accumu- 
 lated in the milk. 
 
 PROTECTION OF MILK FROM GERMS. 
 
 676. Persons handling milk in any way may be divided into 
 two general classes ; first, those who understand the ways in 
 which milk may be contaminated by dirt and careless handling, 
 but who fail to do so well as they know how ; and second, those 
 who are ignorant of the best methods of handling milk in order 
 to protect it from contamination. 
 
 Both classes of people should feel their responsibility to 
 humanity in handling such an easily contaminated food product 
 and they should never relinquish their efforts to keep the milk 
 absolutely free from dirt and dirty utensils while it is in their 
 possession or care. 
 
 677. The protection of milk from dirt and disease germs is 
 an easy or a hard matter according to the conditions under 
 which it is produced. If cows are milked in a dark stable where 
 the floor is saturated with water, the walls spattered with 
 manure and the ceiling decorated with hay or straw, squeezing 
 through loose boards, these and other conditions that usually 
 accompany such a place make it nearly impossible to produce 
 milk fit for human consumption or for making good butter and 
 cheese. 
 
 Expensive stables and high-priced cows are not, however, 
 necessary for producing clean milk; constant attention to simple 
 details will protect milk from contamination in a cheap barn 
 as well as in any other place. 
 
 Some of the conveniences and necessary arrangements for 
 keeping milk clean are included in the following specifications: 
 
8 DAIRYING 
 
 INFLUENCE OF STABLE CONSTRUCTION ON 
 CLEANLINESS OF MILK. 
 
 678. The place where cows are milked should be as clean as 
 the place where it is consumed. In other words, the cow stable 
 should be as clean as the dining-room and the cows and the 
 milkers as clean as the household cook. 
 
 A cow stable should be built so that it can easily be kept 
 clean and the cow clean and healthy, while in the stable. It need 
 not be an expensive building, although the place where the cows 
 are tied up is usually a part of the farmer's barn in which other 
 stock as well as the hay, grain, etc., are housed. 
 
 679. A few things necessary in a cow stable for protecting 
 the milk from contamination are the following: 
 
 1. Ventilation, which is best secured by some well-con- 
 structed and easily operated device (see par. 718) rather than 
 by loose boards or accidental holes in a window. The walls and 
 ceiling of the. stable may be purified by a coat of whitewash 
 which can be effectually applied with a spray pump ; this ought 
 to be used several times in a year. Some cow stables are cov- 
 ered with straw or old hay placed on boards with large cracks 
 between them. No amount of whitewash will keep such a ceiling 
 in a sanitary condition. Chaff and loose straw dropping through 
 the cracks are a constant source of dust and dirt during milking ; 
 the floor above the cows ought to be as tight as the walls of the 
 stable. 
 
 Smooth, tight walls and ceiling which can be whitewashed 
 with a spray pump or brush at least twice a year are therefore 
 necessary. 
 
 2. Sufficient light should be provided by windows that can 
 be opened and shut easily. See par. 717. 
 
 3. A smooth, watertight floor that drains to the gutter and 
 thence away from the barn. After cleaning out the cow stable, 
 at least twice each day, a sprinkling of plaster over the floor will 
 aid in absorbing the liquids and in preserving the wooden floors; 
 
DAIRYING 9 
 
 cement floors do not need plaster as they may be flushed with 
 water from a hose. Any stable floor should be sprinkled with 
 water before sweeping. 
 
 5. Comfortable stalls, stanchions or cow ties. See par. 723. 
 
 6. Clean bedding free from an excess of dust and odors. 
 
 7. Feeding mangers that can be easily cleaned. 
 
 8. A handy place for keeping the milking stools and tools 
 used for cleaning the cows and the stable, such as brushes, 
 manure forks, shovels, etc. 
 
 9. Place a name or number at each stall and provide a 
 milk weighing scale and record sheet. 
 
 10. The presence or absence of each one of these simple, 
 
 Plate 2. One way by which milk becomes contaminated. From 
 1st report, Kans. Dairy Comr., June, 1908. 
 
10 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
DAIRYING ii 
 
 easily obtained conveniences may be noted by the inspection of 
 anv cow stable. 
 
 THE COW YARD. 
 
 680. Pools of standing water in the yard, around the water- 
 ing tank or in the pasture ought to be drained or fenced off to 
 prevent the cows getting into the stagnant water. When cows 
 walk through such places more or less mud sticks to their legs 
 and body, making the milker a great deal of trouble when he 
 tries to clean the cows. The dust from this mud finds its way 
 very easily into the milk at milking time. Such milk sours 
 quickly and the dangers from diseases are increased with the 
 amount of mud in the milk. 
 
 Deep well, spring or running Avater are the best sources of 
 supply for watering cows. The concrete cow yard and the 
 manure carriers not only help to keep the cows clean, but solve 
 the fly question by removing their breeding places from the 
 stable and its vicinity. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CARE OF COWS ON CLEAN MILK. 
 
 681. Tuberculin testing is absolutely necessary in order to 
 be sure the cows are all free from tuberculosis. The germs from 
 this disease may get into the milk from a tuberculous udder and 
 from the excrement which dries and the mucus which adheres to 
 small particles of dust and dirt that fall into the milk. 
 
 When buying cows insist on a certificate of good health and 
 freedom from tuberculosis. 
 
 A place should be provided for keeping sick cows separate 
 from the herd. 
 
 682. No dusty bedding or musty feed should be used and 
 feeds having a strong odor, like silage, turnips, etc., should be 
 fed after milking. 
 
12 DAIRYING 
 
 Waste feed should be removed from the mangers and not 
 thrown under the cows for bedding. This applies especially to 
 silage, which will not contaminate milk except through the air. 
 If the waste is left in the stable the air becomes saturated with 
 silage odor and this is absorbed by the milk after it is drawn 
 from the cow, but not before. Silage fed to cows will not con- 
 taminate milk if the stable is well ventilated and the milk is 
 never exposed to a silage laden atmosphere. 
 
 683. A gentle brushing or carding of the cows every day 
 will be found to be very beneficial to them; if this is not done 
 regularly, the flanks and udder of a cow should be brushed just 
 before milking in order to remove all loose hair and dirt that 
 might fall into the pail during milking. The mud which cows 
 have gotten on their legs and udders should be brushed off be- 
 fore milking is begun, and before the pails are brought to the 
 stable so. that the dust will not settle on the tinware and thus 
 get into the milk. Just before milking the udder of a cow should 
 be washed with a clean damp sponge and then wiped dry. 
 
 684. Dairy COW T S must be kept quiet and never hurried or 
 worried; rough treatment, loud talking and dogs will diminish 
 both the milk flow and its richness. Abundance of sound feed 
 is economical but be careful to make all changes in feed grad- 
 ually, as too sudden changes may bring on indigestion and dis- 
 turbances that interfere with milk secretion. Milk should not 
 be used for 20 days before or until 3 to 5 days after calving. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF THE MILKER AND THE MILK PAIL ON 
 
 CLEAN MILK. 
 
 685. When a man is milking, he should bear in mind that 
 he is handling a food product which will undoubtedly be placed 
 on the tables of many people in essentially the same condition 
 that it is obtained from him. He should be just as particular 
 and as careful when milking to supply his customers or for a 
 factory as he is when filling the glass pitcher which his wife or 
 child brings him when milking and asks to have it filled for his 
 own supper table. 
 
DAIRYING 13 
 
 Many of our food products are "purified by fire," or cooked, 
 before they appear on the table, but milk and its products are, 
 as a rule, used raw, with all the impurities that may have gotten 
 
 Plate 4. An inexpensive but clean dairy house. Milkers in clean 
 white suits; pails and cans handled in a sanitary manner. From Cir- 
 cular 142, B. A. I., U. S. Dept. Agr. 
 
 into them on the way from the cow to the table. The consumer 
 does not like to be reminded of these possibilities of contamina- 
 tion and he would therefore gladly pay an extra price for milk 
 which is known to be clean and wholesome. 
 
 686. Milk is sometimes a source of positive danger to a 
 community, as it has been demonstrated that diseases may be 
 spread by this food product from one farm to many households. 
 When such contagious diseases as typhoid fever, diphtheria, 
 scarlet fever, etc., occur in a family selling milk, the fact should 
 at once be made known to the proper authorities and the milk 
 produced on that farm should be disposed of as directed by 
 them. A sick person or one convalescing from any contagious 
 disease, or any one acting as a nurse for the sick, should not be 
 
14 DAIRYING 
 
 allowed in the cow stable or permitted to take care of cows. He 
 also should neither be allowed to handle nor deliver the milk, as 
 it is one of the best food materials for disease germs. In it they 
 thrive and multiply with alarming rapidity. This makes it neces- 
 sary to use every precaution possible to prevent the spreading 
 of diseases by criminal carelessness in handling milk from an i3- 
 fected localitv. 
 
 THE MILKER'S PREPARATION. 
 
 687. The milker should wash his hands with soap and 
 water just before milking and wipe them dry with a clean 
 towel. His finger nails should be cut close so as not to injure or 
 irritate the cow. No loud talking should be permitted during 
 milking. Go about this work promptly and quietly, with as much 
 regularity in the time of milking as is possible. Some success- 
 ful dairymen milk their cows "by the w r atch" and are very par- 
 ticular about the exact time each cow is milked. They are also 
 careful to have the same cows milked by the same men in the 
 same order. Experience has taught them that regularity in 
 milking aids in developing a tendency to prolong the period of 
 lactation. 
 
 Always milk with dry hands; moistening the hands with 
 milk or water during milking is one of the most filthy practices 
 imaginable. 
 
 MILK THE COW DRY. 
 
 688. A great many milkers are in too much of a hurry to 
 get through milking to milk the cows dry. This loss may amount 
 to one-half a pound of milk from each cow at every milking, as 
 was found to be the case by a farmer who followed his hired 
 man and milked all the cows after him. By this second milking 
 he got over a pound from some cows and less than one-half a 
 pound from others, but from ten cows he got five pounds of 
 strippings at one milking. This to some does not seem to be a 
 very large amount of milk to bother with, but if milking in gen- 
 
DAIRYING 15 
 
 eral was done so carelessly, the total loss of milk in the United 
 States from lazy milking would amount to sixteen million pounds 
 per clay. This startling figure is undoubtedly as correct as the 
 statistical reports which give the number of milch cows in the 
 United States as 16,292,360, and it shows that a great saving 
 may be made by milking the cows dry. The last milk or strip- 
 pings is also much richer than the first milk, so that it is worth an 
 extra effort to obtain it. 
 
 689. It has been estimated from careful observation made 
 by Professor Woll that the yield of milk can be permanently in- 
 creased nearly twelve per cent by a systematic udder manipula- 
 tion and further that there is such a difference in the way cows 
 are milked by different persons that some milkers are worth at 
 least $14.00 a month more than others on account of the differ- 
 ence in the amount of milk an extra good milker will obtain from 
 a given number of cows as compared with other careless milkers. 
 This fact was obtained from some experiments made at the Wis- 
 consin Experiment Station in which the difference in the amount 
 of milk obtained by four different men from the herd of fifteen 
 <iows was noticed. 
 
 Milker No. 1 left .17 Ibs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk. 
 Milker No. 2 left .05 Ibs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk. 
 Milker No. 3 left .19 Ibs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk. 
 
 Milker No. 4 left .2 Ibs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk. 
 
 
 These figures show a difference between extremes of .15 
 
 pounds butter fat per day and if these fifteen cows are milked 
 300 days in the year, the difference would amount to an annual 
 loss to the ow r ner of 675 pounds butter fat which at 25 cents a 
 pound, amounts to $169.00, showing that the owner could afford 
 to pay the best milker $14.00 a month higher wages than the 
 poorest milker. 
 
 690. The first jets of milk from each teat often contain a 
 large number of bacteria that have entered the udder by way of 
 dust and dirt adhering to the moist ends of the teats. This 
 "fore" milk rinses the tubes of each and removes many bacteria 
 so that when it is kept separate from the later milk this is more 
 nearly germ free than when no attempt is made to keep the 
 "fore" milk out of each milking. 
 
i6 
 
 DAIRYING 
 COVERED MILK PAILS. 
 
 691. Many kinds of covered milk pails have been suggested 
 in recent years. The idea in them all is to reduce the size of the 
 top of the pail and thereby expose less space to the air and dust- 
 
 Plate 5. Two kinds of milk pails. The open pail admits much 
 dirt; the covered pail keeps it out. From Circular 158, B. A. I., U. 
 S. Dept. Agr. 
 
 In some cases layers of cloth or cotton and wire gauze are placed 
 over the reduced opening ^in this way falling 'dust or dirt is kept 
 
 Plate 6. The Gurler Milk Pail. 
 
 out of the pail during milking. Careful trials with such pails as 
 compared with the common open pail have shown over 60% less 
 dirt and 25 to 95% less bacteria in milk when a covered pail was 
 
DAIRYING 17 
 
 used. Covered milk pails are more necessary in a dirty than in a 
 clean stable and cloth or cotton coverings may be a source of 
 bacteria rather than a protection unless these are sterilized each 
 time before using them. 
 
 Plate 7. The Sterilac Milk Pail. 
 
 The pail with a hood cover which gives a small opening for 
 milking into is now considered a very satisfactory milk pail as 
 it may be easily cleaned, it is convenient, and furnishes nearly 
 all the protection needed in a clean stable when used by a clean 
 milker. The use of open pails for hand milking is fast disappear- 
 ing and doubtless before many years it will be forbidden by state 
 and city boards of health. 
 
 692. Wooden pails should not be used as they easily get 
 sour and cannot be kept thoroughly clean when new. A clean 
 place should be provided for the pails in the stable when it is 
 necessary to set them down. 
 
 The kind of bedding under the cow has a great influence on 
 the contamination of milk. The Virginia Experiment Station 
 found twice as many bacteria in milk when straw as compared 
 with sawdust was used for bedding the cows and by sprinkling 
 straw bedding with water just before milking, the number of 
 bacteria in the milk was reduced 53 per cent. 
 
i8 DAIRYING 
 
 CARE OF MILK AFTER MILKING. 
 
 693. Milk should be removed from the stable immediately 
 after milking and not poured into cans standing behind the cows. 
 When a clean milk room is built at one end of the stable, em-li 
 pailful of warm milk may be poured into a funnel which is con- 
 nected by a spout to milk cooler and cans on the other side of 
 the partition, separating the milk room from the stable. A better 
 way, however, is to remove the milk at once to an adjoining milk 
 house. 
 
 694. Milk strainers ought not to be necessary and the cov- 
 ered milk pail is helping to discard the strainer, but when used, 
 these, if made of cheese cloth or of flannel, should be boiled after 
 washing and protected from dust while drying. A dirty strainer 
 may introduce many bacteria into the milk. Swiss cheese makers 
 forbid the use of strainers at the farms as experience has shown 
 that a more satisfactory milk is obtained when strainers are not 
 used. 
 
 695. Cooling milk immediately after milking improves its 
 flavor and checks the growth of any bacteria that may be present 
 in the milk. A temperature of 50 F. and lower is unfavorable 
 for the growth of nearly all bacteria, but as soon as the tempera- 
 ture is 60F. bacteria begin to grow and develop rapidly between 
 this temperature and 90F. 
 
 The warm milk fresh from a cow should be cooled at once 
 to 50F. and kept at near this temperature until delivered to the 
 consumer. 
 
 696. There are three general methods of cooling milk di- 
 rectly after milking. First, by frequent stirring and dipping the 
 warm milk in a can set in cold water. This is often too slow as 
 the water may not be cold enough and the milk not stirred fre- 
 quently enough to reduce the temperature fast enough to be of 
 much help in keeping it sweet. 
 
 Second, by pouring the milk into a cylinder the bottom of 
 which is punched with holes about the size of a pin ; then by 
 holding this a few feet above the can, the milk flows in fine 
 streams through the air to the can below. This cools the milk 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 19 
 
 somewhat, but not to the temperature of the air; it is a good 
 preliminary treatment before cooling further in cans as described 
 in the first case. 
 
 Plate 8. Milk Cooler. 
 
 It is obvious that the air must be dust-free and odorless 
 when this method of cooling is used. 
 
 Plate 9. The Champion Milk Cooler. 
 
 Third, by allowing the milk to flow in a thin layer over a 
 metal surface which is cooled with water or brine. 
 
20 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 Plate 10 Bestov Milk Cooler. 
 
 697. All the many kinds of coolers designed for using water 
 require cold water. Some are so arranged that ice may be placed 
 in the water, but this must be stirred as the hot milk warms the 
 water next to the tin. If a constant supply of running water is 
 available, a tank or barrel of water with ice in it may be placed 
 above the cooler and siphoned through the cooler and the tank. 
 
 The Star cooler and others made of rows of coils of pipe are 
 rather expensive, but efficient and satisfactory. If not crowded 
 above their capacity these will cool milk or cream to within a 
 few degrees of the temperature of the water used in the cooler. 
 
 Some of these coolers are so arranged that brine may be 
 pumped through the lower half and a lower temperature than 
 that of the water thus obtained. 
 
DAIRYING 21 
 
 698. Aeration of milk is not necessary if the milk is clean 
 and the cooling can be done without it. Milk or cream should be 
 exposed as little as possible to dusty air. Sudden cooling and 
 holding at a cold temperature is the most satisfactory way of 
 keeping milk sweet. 
 
 Cooling is the only milk preservative that is permitted by 
 law in some states ; the chemicals advertised for this purpose are 
 injurious to the consumer's health and the addition of them to 
 the milk, cream or butter is forbidden. 
 
 Never pour warm milk into cold. Do not mix the two lots 
 until both are near the same temperature. 
 
 ODORS IN MILK. 
 
 699. The common odors in milk may be divided into two 
 classes: First, those that can be removed by aeration. These 
 are absorbed from the surrounding air after milking and include 
 such odors as barny or stable odors, cowey, kitchen and silage 
 odors. 
 
 To the second class belong the odors that cannot be removed 
 by aeration. These come from the feed eaten, such as wild 
 onions, weeds, turnips and too much new pasture grass, which 
 latter gives an unpleasant flavor to butter during the first days 
 of changing from stable to pasture feed. This soon passes away, 
 however, when the cow's digestive system gets adjusted to the 
 sudden change. 
 
 700. The feeding of silage to cows does not necessarily con- 
 taminate the milk. Sufficient proof of this is the fact that silage 
 is being constantly fed to cows that are producing some of the 
 highest priced milk in the country and milk which is much 
 sought for by physicians for the use of invalids and hospitals 
 because of its purity and wholesome flavor. 
 
 The objection to silage feeding in the majority of cases 
 comes from the poorly ventilated stables. Milk will absorb the 
 silage odor if it is present in the barn and for this reason it is 
 necessary to have the silo closed except when silage is being 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 taken from it at feeding time. All the waste silage that is not 
 eaten by the cows should be removed and not left in the mangers 
 or under the cows for bedding. When this is allowed the air 
 will be so filled with silage odor that it will be absorbed by the 
 milk at milking time. No trouble, however, will come from silage' 
 odor when the barn is clean and well ventilated and the silage is 
 fed after milking. 
 
 Turnips and rape may also be fed without transmitting their 
 characteristic odor to the milk if fed after milking and in not too 
 large quantities at first. 
 
 The objectionable flavors in milk that come from the cows 
 eating musty feed, pasture weeds, garlic and wild onions, are not 
 so easily gotten rid of as the silage odor and such feeds should 
 be avoided. 
 
 701. The cowey, barn and kitchen odors sometimes so prom- 
 inent in milk may be removed to a certain extent by aeration, but 
 prevention is preferable to cure in such cases. Keep the milk 
 out of these places and give it a chance to live by itself where it 
 will not be contaminated by unprofitable neighbors. 
 
 CARE OF DAIRY UTENSILS, TINWARE, ETC. 
 
 702. All efforts to supply the consumer with clean, sweet 
 milk, are useless if the milk pails, cans, bottles, etc., are not faith- 
 fully washed and scalded- just before .milk is handled in them. 
 
 Milk sours so quickly and the sour smell is so hard to wash 
 out that all dairy utensils ought to be washed very soon after 
 they are used. The best results are obtained by rinsing off the 
 film of milk with cold water, then washing thoroughly with 
 warm water, using a brush to clean out the seams of cans, and 
 finally rinse with scalding hot water and place in the sun or some 
 dustless place to dry. 
 
 Do not wipe milk tinware with a cloth but let the rinsing 
 water be so hot that there is no need of further drying than the 
 evaporation of this boiling water. 
 
DAIRYING 23 
 
 Wooden pails or other utensils are not suitable for handling 
 milk in miv wav. 
 
 Plate 11. Wash Sink. 
 
 Milk cans and pails should be smooth with all cracks and 
 seams flushed with solder. 
 
 703. If skim milk or butter milk is returned in the cans to 
 the farms such milk should be emptied from the cans as soon as 
 they reach the farm. If the skim milk is allowed to stand in 
 them until it becomes sour it is difficult to remove the odor. 
 Washing the milk cans at the factory or place of delivery and 
 returning them empty to the farmers is an excellent practice. It 
 will remove the cause of many failures to make butter, cheese 
 and cream of first class quality. 
 
 704 Anyone advocating the washing of any dairy utensils 
 or machine only once a w r eek is an enemy to the dairy business. 
 Milk and cream cannot be kept in a condition suitable for human 
 food unless they are produced from sound feed in a clean barn 
 and handled in carefully washed utensils. 
 
 Handling milk in rusty, dirty or unsanitary cans is forbid- 
 den by law in some states and fines amounting to $25 and over 
 are imposed on guilty parties convicted of this misdemeanor. 
 
 705. Keep Night and Morning's Milk Separate. Never mix 
 warm milk with cold milk as this will spoil both. The morning 
 and night's milk should be kept in separate cans until thorough- 
 
24 DAIRYING 
 
 ly cold. The cans of milk must be loosely covered and kept in a 
 perfectly clean place protected from dirt and bad odors. In 
 winter the milk should not be allowed to freeze and in summer it 
 must be kept sweet without the use of any kind of preservative. 
 In some states there are strict laws against the use of preserva- 
 tives in milk. 
 
 706. Delivering the Milk. During transportation the cans 
 of milk must be filled to prevent churning and must be closed 
 with tightly fitting covers and jackets or a canvas placed over 
 them as a protection from dust, mud, or rain. These coverings 
 will aid in keeping the milk cool in extremely hot weather and 
 in winter they may prevent the milk from freezing. 
 
 Milk ought to be below sixty degrees Fahrenheit when de- 
 livered to a factory or to any other buyer, and the nearer fifty 
 degrees, the better for the milk, as this indicates that it has been 
 thoroughly cooled at the farm. 
 
 707. The Purity of Milk is entirely within the control of the 
 milker. If the cows are healthy there is no excuse for dirty, 
 tainted or sour milk. The defects most commonly met with in 
 milk may be avoided by following the directions here given. 
 
 708. Health of the Cows. Milk from a cow having any 
 kind of disease should not be used for human food. Sore teats, 
 a caked udder, or anything that causes bloody milk must be 
 cured before the milk is usable. Milk from healthy cows ought 
 not to be used until six days after calving ; some authorities also 
 refuse to accept milk- for thirty days before calving or when a 
 cow gives less than six pounds per day. 
 
 709. Injurious Food. Decayed or musty grain or feed is 
 unfit food for milch cows as it has an injurious effect on the 
 product made from it as in fact on the cow herself. Musty hay 
 and decayed silage are as bad as musty grain; certain kinds of 
 roots, rape, etc., should only be fed in such a way as to leave the 
 milk free from taint or odor, which can be done by feeding these 
 foods directly after milk; wet brewers' grains must be fed with 
 caution ; on account of the strong odor from this by-product and 
 similar feeds, the milk will be contaminated unless removed at 
 once from the stables after milking. 
 
DAIRYING 25 
 
 710. Pure Water. This is as essential for cows as it is for 
 humanity, and nothing but deep well spring or pure running 
 water is fit for cows. 
 
 Watering troughs must be cleaned regularly and one found 
 to contain rusty iron or decayed wood ought to be repaired or 
 replaced. Fresh water should be pumped daily if the cows are 
 watered at the stable. Two water tanks are sometimes provided 
 at dairy farms and a milk house built over one of them. The 
 water is pumped by a wind mill through the milk house tank 
 containing the cans of milk and then passes on to the stock water- 
 ing tank. This makes a very satisfactory arrangement for keep- 
 ing the milk cool when the wind blows but when there is no wind 
 the water must be pumped by hand. Such a milk house should 
 be well ventilated and kept clean. The water tank ought to be 
 regularly scrubbed so that the cows may always be supplied with 
 an abundance of pure, clean water. 
 
 THE COW STABLE. 
 
 711. A sanitary cow stable that may be clean enough to be 
 used as a dining room if desired is not necessarily an expensive 
 building. The same material may be used in building a clean as 
 a dirty cow stable and by giving the matter some study it will 
 be found that the arrangements and the conveniences needed for 
 keeping the cows healthy and the milk clean are not expensive 
 luxuries; they are common, every-day necessities that far exceed 
 in satisfaction the cost of building them. 
 
 712. Two general types of cow stables are illustrated in 
 *Plates 12 and 13 and in the plans of the model barn erected at the 
 Wisconsin State Fair grounds. First, the one-story stable used 
 only for housing, feeding and milking the cows, with no feed or 
 hay stored in the building and second, the two-story stable with 
 cows, feed and other stock all under one roof. 
 
 The one-story stable is better adapted to localities where the 
 climate is mild or not severely cold at any time during the year 
 
 >U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Circ. 131. 
 
26 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 OOM 
 
 
 fi/LH 
 ftOOM 
 
 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 o a i \s E w a Y 
 
 Plate 12. Floor plan of one-story stable. From Circular 131, 
 B. A. I., U. S. Dept. Agr. 
 
 Plate 13. Cross Section of Barn shown in Plate 12, looking 
 toward front. * 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 27 
 
 I 1 Ml 
 
 f D / N G 
 
 Plate 14. Floor plan of two-story cow stable. 
 131, B. A. I., U. S. Dept. Agr. 
 
 From Circular 
 
 than to places where cows need good protection during a long 
 winter. The one-story stable is also supposed to be easily kept 
 clean because the feed is brought in and the manure taken out 
 of the building each day and the concrete floor of the entire 
 building flushed with water daily if desired. The manure is re- 
 moved from the building by carriers on an elevated track and 
 feed brought in by the same means by from nearby feed barns. 
 
 These same aids to clean cows and clean milk may be had in 
 a two-story cow stable and in cold climates the hay loft over the 
 cows helps to keep them warm in winter. 
 
 713. The necessary ventilation should be provided in either 
 type of stable, although the one-story building in a mild climate 
 has less need of such provision than the two-story stables of 
 colder countries. The details of construction for sanitary cow 
 stables have been worked out by building firms and dealers in 
 farm machinery. Bulletins on the subject are also published by 
 the IJ. S. Department of Agriculture at Washington and by a 
 
28 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 number of state agricultural experiment stations. Space will 
 not permit more than a general discussion of some of the essential 
 features needed in a sanitary cow stable, but such plans are 
 numerous and easily obtained, nearly every agricultural college 
 will supply blue prints and publications on application, and some 
 manufacturing firms make a specialty of furnishing plans and 
 specifications for dairy barns appropriate to the needs of the 
 applicant. 
 
 Plate 15. Cross sections of stable shown in Plate 14. 
 
 714. The location of the stable should be on well drained 
 land and near a satisfactory water supply. This is self-evident. 
 It is also well known that protection of the stable from the hot 
 sun and .from cold storms by means of trees or a side hill will 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 29 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 <! 
 
 " 
 
 "flj "Td 
 
 d 02 
 
 -I-J r< 
 
 g 
 
DAIRYING 31 
 
 make a difference of several degrees in the temperature and will 
 provide a cooler stable in summer and a warmer one in winter 
 than an unprotected, bleak location. 
 
 The convenience to market or to a shipping point is also 
 important as the least time possible should be given to delivering 
 
 Plat 18. Detail of Truss, Model Farmers' Barn on Wisconsin 
 State Pair Grounds. 
 
 the milk or cream to a creamery, a cheese factory or a city milk 
 depot. A long haul in the hot sun is not only a damage to the 
 quality of the milk and other dairy products, but it is an ex- 
 pensive use of time. 
 
32 DAIRYING 
 
 The distance of the stable from the dwelling house should 
 not be overlooked on account of the odors and the drainage that 
 may come from the stable and the cow yard. It should not be 
 possible for the surface water to flow from the stable towards 
 any dwelling. Surface drains may sometimes be clogged or 
 
 
 Plate 19. Panel between Trusses, Model Farmers' 
 consin State Fair Grounds. 
 
 Barn on Wis- 
 
 frozen and the natural drainage should therefore be away from 
 any dwelling. A concrete cow yard built like a cement sidewalk 
 has been found to be very satisfactory. It should be well built 
 and given a grade so that it will drain. The concrete must also 
 be kept dry underneath by drains. In such a yard the cows can 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 33 
 
 stand in wet weather and keep clean. Sometimes only a part of 
 the cow yard is concrete and this may be enclosed with a fence 
 while another part or the dirt yard may be used in dry weather. 
 
 Plate 20. End Construction, Model Farmers' Barn on Wisconsin 
 State Fair Grounds. 
 
 715. Protection from flies is one of the advantages obtained 
 by the concrete cow yard and by removal of manure away from 
 the stable. A muddy yard and heaps of manure are the best kind 
 of breeding places for flies. It is much more economical to re- 
 move the cause than to buy sprays and washes that have to be 
 renewed each day in order to protect the cows and the milkers 
 from flies. 
 
34 DAIRYING 
 
 716. The Water Supply. Deep well water is usually pure 
 and cold and when pumped by farm engine of some sort into a 
 clean tank that is not too large or inaccessible, it makes a satis- 
 factory water supply. Spring water piped to the stable or forced 
 by a water-ram is an exceptional source of supply, but a good 
 one when possible. 
 
 The city or town water supply may sometimes be piped to a 
 cow stable and thus solve this question for some dairies, but such 
 water is likely to be expensive and considerable warmer in the 
 summer season than water from a deep well on the farm. 
 
 Pond, lake or river water is seldom safe because of the prob- 
 able pollution from surface drainage. Cows should not have 
 access to any quiet, shady pond or pool of water. Such a com- 
 bination may make an artistic picture and look as if the cows 
 were extremely comfortable, but they produce human food and 
 wading in the mud usually necessary for getting into a body of 
 open water will contaminate the milk in at least two ways ; First, 
 by the dirt and mud that sticks to the cow's legs and udder and 
 second, "by drinking the foul water which the cow herself has 
 polluted. 
 
 Drinking water for the cows is best supplied either by means 
 of a clean tank in the dry cow yard, or by filling the cement 
 manger in front of the cows with clean water some time during 
 the day. Such a manger can be easily cleaned, but the small, 
 stationary box, sometimes provided for each cow and filled with 
 water occasionally, is a filthy way of making cows drink stale 
 water. Watering the cows once a day in the cement mangers and 
 once in the tank in the barn yard has been found to be a good 
 practice. 
 
 717. Amount of Light Needed in the Stable. The destruc- 
 tive effect of direct sunlight on tuberculosis- and other germs is 
 sufficient ground for providing an abundance of daylight in a 
 cow stable. There are other beneficial effects of light on both the 
 cows and the persons who care for them, but this one, the germi- 
 cidal power of light, is of the first importance. A dark corner or 
 a dim basement is a dangerous place in which to keep animals 
 that are to be used for food or that produce food such as pork, 
 
DAIRYING 35 
 
 eggs and milk. Direct sunlight at noon is a stronger germ 
 destroyer than towards morning and evening, and diffused light 
 is less effectual in this direction than direct sunlight. It is also 
 true that germs protected by shadows or by a covering of dirt 
 may not be destroyed by even direct sunlight because it cannot 
 penetrate through the dirt. This shows why cleanliness and 
 scrubbing are beneficial to the public health. A sufficient num- 
 ber of windows in a cow stable not only makes the place a more 
 cheerful, but a more healthy habitation for both man and beast. 
 Vertical windows admit more light than horizontal windows of 
 the same size and the thickness of the wall in which the window 
 is placed has an influence on the amount of light passing through 
 the window. 
 
 A good rule to follow in lighting a cow stable is to provide 
 four square feet of window space for each mature animal or 
 devote one-fourth the wall space to windows. 
 
 718. Some Essential Points in Barn Ventilation. The nat- 
 ural forces that cause the passage of air through the flues and the 
 rooms connected with a properly constructed ventilating system 
 are first the pressure of the wind on the outside walls of the 
 building and second the difference in temperature and in 
 moisture content between the inside and the outside air. The 
 breath of the cows and the temperature of their bodies are 
 warmer than the air surrounding the stable and this makes such 
 inside air lighter than the colder air outside, so that it will rise 
 to the ceiling of the room in which the cows are standing. Dry 
 air is also lighter than moist air and this helps the circulation of 
 air in the stable. In order to take advantage of these conditions 
 of the air and the force of the outside wind as aids in procuring 
 desirable currents of air or ventilation through a cow stable, it 
 is necessary that the walls and windows of the stable, as well as 
 the air ducts and flues of the ventilating arrangements should be 
 made air tight, except where the intakes and the exits of air are 
 placed. 
 
 719. Volume of Air Required per Cow. It has been esti- 
 mated* that the air drawn into and forced out of the lungs of a 
 
 "Ventilation by F. H. King. 
 
36 DAIRYING 
 
 cow each hour amounts to 117 cubic feet ; this air in 24 hours will 
 fill a space about 14x14x14 feet in dimensions, or stated in an- 
 other way, if air is supplied to cows in the same way as water is 
 given to them, each COW T needs 6 full pails of -air per minute. It 
 is further estimated "That the air of stables and dwellings should- 
 at no time contain more than 3.3 per cent of the air once breathed 
 and in order that the air of a stable shall at no time con- 
 tain more than 3.3 per cent of air once breathed it must enter and 
 leave at the rate of 3,542 cubic feet per hour per cow." 
 
 720. Unless animals as well as man are given a constant 
 supply of fresh air they are poisoned by the accumulation of CO.,, 
 water and waste products in the air, their vitality is diminished 
 and they finally suffocate. In an experiment with twenty cows, 
 reported by Professor King, there was found to be a loss of .55 
 pounds of milk per cow per day when the stable was poorly 
 ventilated, as compared with the 2-day periods of ample ventila- 
 tion and in addition to this, the cows in the insufficiently venti- 
 lated stable showed evidence of blood poisoning by an appear- 
 ance of a rash on the skin that made the cows rub their sides 
 "until the hair in many cases was stained with blood." 
 
 721. A good indication of poor ventilation is the accumula- 
 tion of moisture which may even fall in drops from the walls and 
 ceiling of a cow stable. This is evidence of an extremely un- 
 healthy condition and where it exists some provision should be 
 made at once to overcome it. If 10.4 pounds invisible vapor are 
 thrown off daily by an animal weighing 1000 pounds, the air in 
 a 20-cow stable 20x40 feet and 9 feet high must be changed every 
 50 minutes when the temperature is 70 in order to carry off the 
 moisture exhaled by the cows and to prevent its condensation 
 on the walls and ceiling of the stable.* 
 
 722. Space per Cow. From 400 to 800 cubic feet per cow 
 stanchion may be used as a guide in calculating the length and 
 width of the stable, and the height of the ceiling above the cows 
 which is usually not over 9 feet. The amount of cold weather 
 during a year in each locality should be considered in planning 
 the stable. Too much space per cow is a waste of heat from the 
 
 *Figures taken from King's Book on Ventilation. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 37 
 
 B 
 
 ' ''' '''''' 
 
 Plate 21. Barn Ventilation. The best method of ventilating an 
 ordinary stable. The intake flues are constructed in the side wall. 
 The ventilator flues, CE, will take up space occupied by two cows, but 
 they will be found more efficient than a single flue. They should have 
 their lower openings at or near the floor level and rise two or three 
 feet above the ridge of the roof, or any adjoining roof. These flues 
 may be constructed of very light galvanized iron and have caps placed 
 over them. From Bulletin 164, Wis. Agr. Expt. Sta. 
 
 bodies of the animals which aids in making the ventilating system 
 work; it also helps to keep the cows warm in cold weather. On 
 the other hand, too many animals in a given space pollute the air 
 and make the stable unhealthy as well as hard to keep clean. All 
 these things should be taken into consideration when calculating 
 the space per cow in the stable. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 
 Plate 22. Method of ventilating a lean-to stable. The air enters 
 at AB, and then passes out through the flue CE, built on the side wall 
 and roof of the upright. In constructing this flue enlarge it at the 
 plate and purline plate to avoid checking the draft. This flue, CE, 
 might, instead of following the line of the roof, pass out through the 
 roof at the plate to a height of two or three feet above the ridge. 
 
 SUMMARY OF ESSENTIAL POINTS IN VENTILATION. 
 
 1. The stable must be tight or so built that it can be made 
 tight by closing windows, doors, etc. 
 
 2. The exit flue for the ventilating system must be air tight 
 like the smoke chimney for a stove, with no reduction in size 
 throughout its length. A round or a square flue is most efficient 
 and this construction with as few bends in the flue as possible 
 will reduce the friction of the air passing through it. 
 
 3. The openings for air entering the stable should be placed 
 on all sides of the building one about every 10 feet, with the out- 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 39 
 
 A 
 
 Plate 23. A wall section of a stable constructed of wood. The 
 exterior, A, shows the opening at C. The cross section, B, shows the 
 method of constructing the fresh air intake. The outside opening is 
 shown at D and the inside at E. A simple but effective valve to regu- 
 late the supply of fresh air is also shown at E. 
 
 side opening in the wall at least 3 feet below the one on the inside 
 of the wall. A large number of openings, one about every fourth 
 studding, distributed along the walls are better than a few large 
 ones, and they should all be provided with a door or register 
 which may be easily opened and closed and thus provide a means 
 of regulating the amount of outside air coming into the building. 
 
40 DAIRYING 
 
 4. The outside air should enter the room near the ceiling 
 and the exit flue should open about one foot from the floor. 
 
 5. The capacity of the entire number of inlet flues and the 
 one or two outlet flues should be about equal although the outlet 
 is usually only one or two large flues while there are many small 
 inlet flues, some of which may be closed during cold weather. 
 
 6. The height of the outlet flue will be governed by the 
 difference in temperature of the inside and the outside air. Pro- 
 fessor King gives the following conclusion in regard to this 
 point : 
 
 "Outtakes and intakes for horses and cows should provide 
 not less than 30 square inches per head when the outtake has a 
 height of 30 feet; if the outtake is shorter the area should be 
 greater; if higher it may be less. 
 
 "A 20 foot outtake would require about 36 square inches 
 per head instead of 30." 
 
 723. The Cow Stall. Considerable attention has been given 
 in recent years to the construction and the arrangement of cow 
 stanchions and stalls so that they will keep the cow clean and 
 will also be comfortable to both the cow and to the milker. Other 
 desirable qualities of a stall or stanchion are convenience in tying 
 up and turning out the cows and protection from injury which 
 may be caused by a cow stepping on the udder of a neighboring 
 cow. 
 
 An arrangement that satisfies these requirements is not 
 necessarily an expensive one, but the way in which a cow is tied 
 or stalled will have considerable influence on the amount of labor 
 necessary to keep her clean while in the stable. 
 
 724. The chain tie around a cow's neck is comfortable, but 
 it gives the cow too much freedom to move from side to side and 
 when this is possible, manure is likely to be dropped on the floor 
 of the stall instead of in the gutter behind the cows, and thus 
 make it difficult to keep the cow clean. 
 
 725. The rigid stanchion is uncomfortable and has the same 
 objections mentioned for the chain tie. Both the tie and the 
 
DAIRYING 41 
 
 stanchion leave the cows exposed to the danger of having their 
 udders injured by being stepped on by a neighboring cow. 
 
 726. The swinging stanchion is comfortable and gives a cow 
 freedom of movement. It also keeps the cow in place better than 
 the chain tie. 
 
 727. The cow stalls that keep the cows separate from each 
 other by iron partitions between them and a chain rope across 
 the rear of each stall represent an entirely different way of 
 stabling cows than any kind of chain tie or stanchion. These leave 
 each cow free in the stall ; she is not tied by the head or neck in 
 any way, and the front of the stall is adjustable to accommodate 
 cows of different sizes. The rear posts near the gutter are some- 
 times objected to because of the inconvenience they cause in 
 cleaning out and in milking the cows. Such stalls are not adapted 
 to the use of a milking machine, as the partition prevents any use 
 of the machine between two cows which are usually milked at one 
 time. 
 
 728. Another type of cow stall that is about half way be- 
 tween the full stall and no stall, is now being extensively used. 
 The cow is tied by a chain around her neck and a short partition 
 extending only about half way to the gutter keeps her in place 
 so that the manure drops into the gutter. There is also little 
 danger of injury from a neighboring cow stepping on her udder 
 when she is lying down. This type is illustrated by the Ideal 
 stall shown in Plate 25, made of iron pipe. The latter is used in 
 the dairy barn of the Purdue, Indiana, Experiment Station. 
 
 Several cow . stalls have been patented and can be bought 
 ready made, but when the important requirements of a sanitary 
 stall are understood, they can be made without great expense. 
 
 729. The floor of the stalls, as well as the mangers, feeding 
 alley and alley back of the cows, are usually made of concrete, 
 with a cement finish. It is also a good plan to extend the cement 
 a foot or two up from the floor on the walls all around the stable. 
 Such floors are easily kept clean and they also make it possible 
 to save the liquid manure which is so valuable. When a cement 
 floor is laid directly on the ground it is necessary to make pro- 
 vision for protection from dampness ; this may be done by laying 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 Plate 24. The Model stall, which has been in -use for several 
 years, has been adopted by many of the best dairymen of the country. 
 The essential feature of this stall is the movable cross bar near the 
 hind feet of the cow, which causes her to move forward when lying 
 down, thus avoiding her own droppings. From Bui. 185, Wis. Expt. Sta. 
 
 a cobble stone and cinder foundation underlaid with tile drains. 
 The concrete floor on which cows stand is sometimes covered with 
 a movable platform as a protection to the cows in cold weather 
 and when continuously standing in the stalls. The use of a cork- 
 brick covering over the cement has been recently suggested for 
 making the floor more comfortable for the cows. 
 
 730, The floor of the stall should be about 4 feet between the 
 gutter and manger for the small cows at one end of the stable, 
 and 5 feet at the other end for the large cows. The width of floor 
 required per cow will vary from 3 feet to 3% feet, according to the 
 size of the cows. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 43 
 
 Plate 25. The New Ideal stall used in the dairy barn of the 
 Purdue Experiment Station is one of the most sanitary of the simple 
 home-made stalls now used. This is made of gas pipes with the ex- 
 ception of the mangers and their partitions, which are of wood. The 
 guides for the chain tie are placed at an angle nearer to each other at 
 the top, which tightens the chain and draws the cow nearer the 
 manger when she lies down, thus preventing entanglement and bring- 
 ing her forward out of her own filth. 
 
 731. The gutters behind the cows are usually about 18 inches 
 wide and 4 inches deep at the shallow end of the row of cows, and 
 6 to 8 inches deep, according to the length of the row at the end to 
 which the gutter drains. 
 
 732. The mangers when made of concrete should be provided 
 with a movable partition which will keep the feed of each cow 
 separate from her neighbor and allow watering in the manger as 
 well as easy cleaning out when the partitions are removed. A 
 convenient size of manger is one about 20 inches wide at the top, 
 
44 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 15 inches at the bottom and about 6 inches deep. This will bo 
 large enough to prevent waste of feed while eating, and give good 
 ventilation in front of the cows. 
 
 Plate 26. Stable equipped with James Steel Stalls. 
 
 The feeding alley may be from 4 to 7 feet wide, the greater 
 width being needed only when it is desired to drive a wagon 
 
 Plate 27. Another stable equipped with James Steel Stalls. 
 
 through the alley. The alley back of the cows through which 
 they pass in and out of the stable need not be over 4 feet wide, 
 but this width should be regulated to accomodate the arrange- 
 ment used for removing the manure depending on whether or not 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 45 
 
46 DAIRYING 
 
 a manure carrier on a suspended track or a wagon is used for this 
 purpose. 
 
 FEEDING DAIRY COWS. 
 
 733. The importance of suitable feed and plenty of it, IP- 
 now being recognized by the owners of cows much more than form- 
 erly; they realize that as much, if not more, attention should be 
 given to this question than to the testing of the milk, and the 
 selecting of the cows on the basis of such tests. It has been shown 
 that a careful study or even a few observations concerning the 
 food consumption of each cow in a herd is a very profitable use 
 of time, as some cows produce from 10 to 30% more milk and 
 butter fat from a given quantity of feed than do others. The re- 
 lation between feed consumed and milk produced helps to de- 
 termine the value of a cow to any owner. 
 
 734. Maintenance ration. A certain amount of feed is 
 needed to keep any animal alive and when the feed is just suf- 
 ficient to prevent any gain or loss in live weight, it is called a 
 maintenance ration. It is evident therefore that a large cow will 
 require more feed than a small cow to maintain her live weight. 
 An 800 pound cow needs approximately 21 pounds, a 1000 pound 
 cow about 24 pounds, a 1200 pound cow 26 pounds, and a 1500 
 pound cow 30 pounds of dry matter in her feed per day to pro- 
 duce 1 pound butter fat.* This illustrates the influence of the size 
 of the cow on the feed consumed for producing the same amount 
 of butter. 
 
 735. Relation of Feed to milk production. The effect of the 
 amount of milk and butter fat production on feed consumed is 
 shown by the following figures. The dry matter in feed required 
 by an 800 pound cow when dry is about 10 pounds per day ; when 
 producing one-half pound butter fat, 16 pounds ; for 1 pound but- 
 ter fat 18 pounds, and for 2 pounds butter fat, 28 pounds dry matf- 
 ter in feed per day. For heavier cows the feed is increased as 
 shown in the following table. 
 
 The amount of feed given the cow should therefore be regu- 
 lated by the live weight of the cow and the amount of milk and 
 butter fat she is producing. 
 "~*Wis. Bui. 200, p. 9. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 47 
 
 The relation between daily feed and production of butter fat, 
 as well as size of the cow, is approximately shown by the follow- 
 ing figures : 
 
 Weight of Cow 
 
 
 8( 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Butter fat in milk 
 Dry matter, in feed.... 
 Digestible matter in feed 
 protein in feed 
 
 drv 
 10 
 
 6.3 
 .5 
 
 .5 
 16 
 11 
 1.3 
 
 1. 
 
 21 
 J4 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 18 
 2.6 
 
 dry 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 .5 
 19 
 12 
 1.5 
 
 1. 
 
 23 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1.5 
 
 29 
 19 
 2.7 
 
 drv 
 15 
 HI 
 
 .8 
 
 .5 
 21 
 14 
 1.6 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 2.2 
 
 1.5 
 31 
 21 
 
 2.9 
 
 A cow weighing 800 pounds when producing 1 pound butter 
 fat in her milk per day needs 21 pounds total dry matter, which 
 shall contain 14 pounds digestible dry matter and 2 pounds digesti- 
 ble protein in her feed per day. 
 
 Taking the figures in the above table as standards, a calcula- 
 tion of the amount of feed needed for each cow may be made 
 when the amount of dry matter, etc., in the feeds available is 
 known. 
 
 The following table gives the necessary figures for making 
 such a calculation with a few of the most common feeds. 
 
 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE COMMON COXCKXTRATED 
 
 STUFFS 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of feed. 
 
 No. of 
 analyses. 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Protein. 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 | 
 
 D CO 
 
 ** X 
 
 a 
 
 m 
 j 
 
 Market 
 price. 
 
 1 
 
 Wheat bran . . ... . 
 
 348 
 
 11.11 
 
 15.17 
 
 4.67 
 
 10 66 
 
 52 04 
 
 6 35 
 
 $22 63 
 
 9 
 
 Wheat middlings: 
 Flour 
 
 81 
 
 10 58 
 
 17 37 
 
 5.37 
 
 5 40 
 
 57 03 
 
 4 25 
 
 28 43 
 
 3 
 
 Standard 
 
 223 
 
 10.92 
 
 17.12 
 
 5 42 
 
 6.78 
 
 55.11 
 
 4 65 
 
 25 64 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 Red Dog 
 Corn and oats 
 
 54 
 347 
 
 10.61 
 12.74 
 
 16.77 
 9.98 
 
 4.12 
 3.75 
 
 2.22 
 5.47 
 
 63.40 
 65.64 
 
 2.88 
 2.42 
 
 30.25 
 27.30 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Oil meal 
 Cotton seed meal ' 
 Gluten feed 
 
 159 
 13 
 35 
 
 8.59 
 7.32 
 8 08 
 
 33.21 
 42.35 
 23 85 
 
 8.09 
 9.30 
 3 39 
 
 8.73 
 8.69 
 7 91 
 
 35.78 
 25.56 
 54 94 
 
 5.60 
 
 '6.78 
 1 83 
 
 31.61 
 31.81 
 23 69 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 
 Dried distillers' grains. 
 Dried brewers' grains.. 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 27 
 18 
 47 
 
 6.09 
 7.93 
 4.99 
 
 30.49 
 26.59 
 27.13 
 
 12.78 
 7.07 
 1.49 
 
 12.56 
 15.21 
 13.51 
 
 35.52 
 38.84 
 46.54 
 
 2.56 
 4.36 
 6.34 
 
 27.52 
 22.00 
 17.44 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 
 Hominy feed 
 Rye feed 
 Barley feed 
 Buckwheat feed 
 Buckwheat hulls 
 
 39 
 53 
 
 17 
 8 
 3 
 
 9.88 
 11.37 
 8.67 
 12.50 
 13.02 
 
 10.56 
 15.29 
 12.48 
 10.74 
 5.04 
 
 8.55 
 3.47 
 2.80 
 2.75 
 1.05 
 
 4.71 
 5.20 
 7.40 
 31.87 
 40.96 
 
 63.46 
 60.85 
 65.03 
 39.22 
 37.84 
 
 2.84 
 3.82 
 3.62 
 2.92 
 2.09 
 
 22.93 
 23.73 
 19.06 
 19.91 
 12.00 
 
 17 
 
 1 8 
 
 Mixed dairy feeds 
 Calf feeds 
 
 74 
 64 
 
 11.84 
 9 51 
 
 12.83 
 24 72 
 
 4.98 
 7 28 
 
 11.33 
 6 01 
 
 53.66 
 47 52 
 
 5.36 
 4 96 
 
 26.27 
 70 46 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 Animal feeds 
 Poultry feeds 
 
 52 
 218 
 
 8.45 
 10.52 
 
 69.22 
 13.30 
 
 8.31 
 3.66 
 
 'V.25 
 
 5.65 
 59.98 
 
 8.37 
 9.29 
 
 59.61 
 47.44 
 
4 8 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 TOTAL DIV MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE COMPOXKXTS IX 
 100 POUNDS OF FEED 
 
 Digestible 
 
 Dry 
 Matter 
 
 Protein 
 
 C'oiireiit rates. 
 
 Corn Meal 89.1 
 
 Corn-and-Cob Meal 84.9 
 
 Barley 89.1 
 
 Oats 89.0 
 
 Rye - 88.4 
 
 Peas 89.5 
 
 Soy Beans 89.2 
 
 Wheat 89.5 
 
 Mixed Dairy Feeds 88.2 
 
 Buckwheat Feed X7.5 
 
 Buckwheat Hulls 86.9 
 
 Rye Feed 88.6 
 
 Hominy Feed 90.1 
 
 Malt Sprouts j 95.0 
 
 Calf Feeds ! 90.5 
 
 Animal Feeds 91.6 
 
 Poultry Feeds I 89.5 
 
 Barley Feed I 91.3 
 
 Wheat Bran | 88.9 
 
 Wheat Middlings: 
 
 Standard 89.1 
 
 Flour 89.4 
 
 Red Dog- 89.4 
 
 Corn and Oats 87.3 
 
 Oil Meal 91.4 
 
 Cotton Seed Meal 92.7 
 
 Dried Brewers' Grains 92.1 
 
 Dried Distillers' Grains 93.9 
 
 Gluten Feed 91.1 
 
 Wet Brewers' Grains 24.3 
 
 Silage 
 
 Corn 29.5 
 
 Clover 28.0 
 
 Alfalfa 27.5 
 
 KootM 
 
 Sugar Beets 13.5 
 
 Mangels 9.1 
 
 Potatoes ! 21.1 
 
 Fresh Green Feeals 
 
 Fodder Corn , 20.7 
 
 Peas and Oats 16.0 
 
 Sorghum 20.6 
 
 Clover ! 29.2 
 
 Alfalfa | 28.2 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Sugar Beet Leaves , 12.0 
 
 Pumpkins 9.1 
 
 Cured Feeds. Hay, Etc-. 
 
 Alfalfa 91.6 
 
 Clover, medium 84.7 
 
 Clover, mammoth 78.8 
 
 Mixed Hay 91.1 
 
 Alsike Clover 90.3 
 
 Fodder Corn 57.8 
 
 Corn Stover 59.5 
 
 Oat Hay 91.1 
 
 Oat Straw 90.8 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 and Fat 
 
 7.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.9 
 
 16.8 
 
 29.6 
 
 10.2 
 
 9.1 
 
 4.8 
 
 .3 
 
 12.2 
 6.9 
 21.2 
 21.8 
 63.0 
 10.2 
 10.9 
 11.7 
 
 13.2 
 15.3 
 14.4 
 
 7.2 
 29.6 
 35.6 
 21.5 
 22.3 
 20.3 
 
 3 9 
 
 1.2 
 2.0 
 3.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.1 
 0.9 
 
 1.0 
 1.8 
 0.6 
 2.9 
 3.9 
 1.8 
 1.7 
 1.0 
 
 11.0 
 6.8 
 5.7 
 4.7 
 8.4 
 2.5 
 1.4 
 4.3 
 1.2 
 
 76.4 
 66.5 
 
 <:<,>.;_> 
 
 56.8 
 
 70.1 
 53.4 
 54.7 
 73.0 
 59.3 
 38.2 
 20.7 
 60.6 
 78.3 
 40.1 
 58.1 
 20.8 
 64.9 
 63.8 
 47.7 
 
 55.8 
 62.5 
 63.3 
 65.1 
 49.1 
 42.6 
 43.8 
 65.5 
 61.2 
 12.5 
 
 18.1 
 
 15.X 
 12.8 
 
 10.4 
 
 5.6 
 
 16.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 8.9 
 
 13.1 
 
 16.4 
 
 13.8 
 
 9.1 
 
 5.1 
 
 6.5 
 
 42.3 
 39.6 
 36.3 
 48.1 
 48.9 
 37.3 
 32.8 
 49.8 
 40.4 
 
 Total 
 
 DiyestihU 
 
 Matter 
 
DAIRYING 49 
 
 736. The nutritive ratio of the feed is a matter of considera- 
 ble importance and this should be determined as well as the 
 amount and the composition of the feed. 
 
 Many feeding experiments have shown that for cows produc- 
 ing milk the nutritive ratio should be about 1 :7. This means that 
 the daily feed per cow should contain one part digestible protein 
 to seven parts digestible carbohydrates. As an illustration of a 
 nutritive ration calculation take the figures from the table above 
 for corn meal. These are digestible protein 7.9, digestible car- 
 bohydrates 76.4, and dividing 76.4 by 7.9 gives 9.67, showing the 
 nutritive ration of corn meal to be 1 :9.67. 
 
 737. Calculating a ration from the standards given let us 
 as'sume that the cow weighs about 1000 pounds and she is giving 
 milk that contains 1 pound of butter fat per day. The table 
 shows that the daily feed of such a cow should be about 23 pounds 
 of dry matter and this should contain about 16 pounds digestible 
 dry matter and 2 pounds digestible protein. Selecting some of 
 the more common feeds from the table, a ration that nearly satis- 
 fies this requirement will be made up as follows : 
 
 Digestible 
 
 Dry Protein Carbohydrates 
 Matter Ibs. Ibs. 
 
 30 pounds corn silage 8.85 .36 5.43 
 
 8 pounds clover hay 6.78 .54 3.17 
 
 2-4 pounds corn meal 3.56 .32 3.06 
 
 4-6 pounds wheat bran 5.32 .70 2.86 
 
 2 pounds oil meal . . . : 
 
 24.51 1.92 14.52 
 
 Nutritive ratio 1:7.5 or 14.52^1.92. 
 
 738. This ration gives 24.5 pounds dry matter instead of 23 
 pounds ; 1.92 pounds digestible protein instead of 2 pounds, and 
 1.92 + 14. 52 = 16.44 pounds digestible dry matter instead of 16. 
 The nutritive ratio is 1 :7.5 instead of 1 :7. It comes, however, 
 near enough the standards to make a satisfactory feed for cows of 
 this weight and producing 1 pound of butter fat in the milk 
 daily. The important problem to be considered after clearly 
 
50 DAIRYING 
 
 understanding the method of calculation here given is the use of 
 feeds, either those raised or bought, that will cost the least labor 
 and money and provide the combination of nutrients desired. 
 
 In some cases it is more profitable to sell certain feeds grown 
 on the farm and use the money for buying feed more suitable 
 for making the kind of ration needed to produce milk economi- 
 cally ; the market price of oats may warrant the selling of oats 
 from the farm and buying such concentrated, protein feeds as 
 gluten meal, malt sprouts, and some others; the market prices, 
 cost of delivery, and all expenses connected with the buying and 
 selling of such feeds must be taken into consideration in making 
 such a calculation, but it pays well to keep posted about market 
 prices of feeds and to give the matter of economical feeding, as 
 well as balanced ration feeding, constant attention. 
 
 739. The two tables given, contain sufficient data for mak- 
 ing the necessary calculation as to a proper feed for dairy cows in 
 almost any locality, and it is much better to understand the 
 method of using them than it is to have a number of different 
 rations recommended and then make a choice for them. 
 
 740. A feeding rule which requires no calculation as to 
 digestible protein, etc., etc., needed per cow has become quite 
 popular in recent years, as has also the mixing of the grain ration 
 in large quantities and giving each cow the number of pounds of 
 this mixture that her size and milking conditions require. Some 
 of the grain mixtures used at the University of Wisconsin* dairy 
 barn are : 
 
 No. 1. Wheat bran 2 parts, ground oats 2 parts; corn mea) 
 2 parts ; gluten meal 1 part ; oil meal 1 part. 
 
 No. 6. Wheat bran 3 parts; corn meal 4 parts; distiller's 
 grains 3 parts. 
 
 Either one of these grain mixtures "When fed with corn 
 silage and hay or corn stover, will furnish a ration having a nutri- 
 tive ratio of 1 :7. Each cow should receive as much roughage as 
 she will eat up clean, and a portion of this should preferably be 
 of a succulent nature, like grass, silage, soiling crops, or roots. 
 
 *Bul. 200. 
 
DAIRYING 51 
 
 Of concentrates it has been found a good working rule to feed as 
 many pounds of grain feeds per day to each cow as she produces 
 pounds of butter fat a week, or one-fourth to one-third as much 
 grain as she gives pounds of milk daily, the amount depending 
 upon the per cent of butter fat in the milk. In the case of cows 
 producing milk with a low per cent of fat, one-fourth would be 
 required. Care should always be taken to avoid an increase in 
 body weight above the normal for each cow, since the milk secre- 
 tion, as a general rule, is likely to suffer when cows commence to 
 utilize their feed for the formation of body fat." 
 
 741. Palatability and digestibility. It has been stated that 
 a chemical analysis of ground leather will show a percentage of 
 protein and carbohydrates similar to those of a concentrated cat- 
 tle feed, but the ground leather is worthless for feeding stock of 
 any kind. This striking example only illustrates another very 
 important point in feeding dairy cows, which is that all the feeds 
 they receive must be fit to eat and wholesome ; musty, moldy grain 
 or hay, and decayed silage will not give good returns as milk pro- 
 ducers, even though the figures in the table may show them to con- 
 tain percentages of digestible protein. 
 
 742. The important points in feeding dairy cows profitably 
 are first, a cow that w r ill respond w r ith milk when given a liberal 
 ration : second, sound, palatable feed, both coarse feed and grain 
 mixture, and third, give all the coarse feed of some sort the cows 
 will eat, but regulate the amount of grain mixture by the pounds 
 of milk produced daily. 
 
 BEST SEASON OF THE YEAR FOR FRESH COWS. 
 
 743. This question should be considered from the standpoint 
 of the cow, the cost of the feed, and the sale of the products. The 
 advantages to be obtained from fall calving cows have been dis- 
 cussed in Lesson I, under the subject of Winter Dairying. The 
 arguments there given are all favorable to the production of the 
 maximum amount of milk during the winter, but a large per- 
 centage of the cows throughout the country are fresh in the spring 
 
 'Woll and Humphrey in Wis. Expt. Sta. Bui. 200. 
 
52 DAIRYING 
 
 and give the largest flow of milk in May, June and July. 
 spring freshening of the cows is defended by some farmers on the 
 ground that there is usually more help on the farm during the 
 crop raising season than in the winter and this, together with the 
 smaller amount of care required for stabling and feeding the cows 
 in summer as compared with the winter season, is sufficient reason 
 for the widespread adoption of this practice among farmers. 
 
 The question of summer or winter dairying must therefore 
 be largely decided on the basis of the importance of dairying or 
 of milk production in the work of each farm. If a few cows are 
 kept for supplying the family with milk and butter, spring calv 
 ing cows will probably give the least trouble to the farmer, but 
 if cows are kept for the purpose of converting feed and labor into 
 milk which is to be sold at the best price possible, then fall calving 
 cows will be the most profitable. 
 
 RAISING HEIFERS FROM THE BEST COWS. 
 
 744. There is undoubtedly more satisfaction and more profit 
 in raising heifers from the home herd than in buying cows from 
 outside sources for keeping up the herd. This is especially true 
 if a bull of a distinct dairy type and cows with good milk records 
 have already been procured as a foundation for the herd. By rais- 
 ing the heifers of cows with well known characteristics, such as a 
 well balanced udder, easy milkers, persistent milkers, and cows 
 that have a tendency to convert feed into milk rather than into 
 live weight, the owner may have reasonable assurance as to the 
 kind of cows the heifers will make. Such herds are likely to give 
 a much more substantial profit from year to year than a herd 
 made up entirely of strange cows. If a thoroughbred bull is 
 used in the herd, it will be continually improving from year to 
 year, and the improvement will be much faster than many cow 
 owners think. 
 
 745. Heifers need good training and special attention during 
 their first milking period, which is best begun at the age of two 
 years. The most intelligent milker should have charge of the 
 heifers, as they need to be taught' to have no fear of the milker; 
 they should be milked dry at each milking in order to help de- 
 
DAIRYING 53 
 
 vdop the milking habit, and they should be milked up to within 
 about two months of their second milking period. 
 
 In raising a heifer it is advisable to note the state of develop- 
 ment which she has reached at the age of two years, as a too early 
 milking period will tend to stop her development, if she is im- 
 mature at that time, while a too late (after 3 years old) milking 
 period may retard the milk producing tendency and develop a 
 disposition to convert her feed into an increase in live weight 
 rather than into mlik. 
 
 746. If a cow is inclined to be an unprofitable milker it is 
 better to feed her heavily and milk her at the same time, continu- 
 ing this until she is fat enough to sell for beef. This is more 
 profitable than trying to fatten the cow after she is dry, as at- 
 tempting to fatten dry cows is usually a waste of feed. If on the 
 other hand a cow shows a tendency to give milk nearly up to 
 calving time, it is better to continue milking her as long as she 
 gives milk, than to force her to go dry by occasionally omitting a 
 milking or by not milking clean at each milking. 
 
 THE PURE-BRED SIRE. 
 
 747. After the importance of weeding out the unprofitable 
 cows by weighing and testing their milk has made an impression 
 on the dairyman, he often begins to wonder where he can get 
 cows that are worth keeping. Profitable cows are always worth a 
 good price, and one of the surest ways to supply a farm or a 
 neighborhood with such is to use a pure-bred sire. A bull for this 
 purpose must be carefully selected. He should come from a milk- 
 ing strain of cattle or from a family that has shown the dairy 
 temperament for generations. He also ought to have the power 
 to transmit the milk producing capacity of his ancestors to his 
 sons and daughters. This characteristic cannot always be de- 
 termined by external appearances, but it can be assumed that a 
 bull of good milk-producing ancestors and of a dairy type will 
 help to add many valuable cows to a herd or to a community. 
 Farmers do not always seem to realize how fast the blood of the 
 bull may be made to accumulate in a herd, but a calf of the first 
 
54 DAIRYING 
 
 generation will contain 50 per cent of the blood of its sire, one of 
 the second generation 75 per cent ; third generation 87.5 per cent, 
 and fourth generation nearly 94 per cent. This is a fast grading 
 up of a herd and it shows how important it is to watch the breed- 
 ing of the cows, in order that the herd may be on the up grade 
 rather than in the opposite direction. A sire of no dairy breeding 
 or characteristics will produce calves like himself; they will not 
 be any better than he is, and may be worse if the dam has no milk- 
 ing tendency. 
 
 748. A grade sire can never help to build up a herd in the 
 same way as a pure-bred sire. It is true the grade sire may be 
 cheap, but the milking capacity of the cows in the herd does not 
 improve under such breeding. If a half-blood sire is bred to a 
 scrub cow, the calf will have three parts scrub and one part of the 
 better blood. This is no improvement of any consequence, and 
 even if a three-fourths blood sire is bred to a scrub cow, the off- 
 spring will be five parts scrub and only three parts of a possibly 
 higher quality blood. Progress is too slow by this breeding, and 
 many generations will pass before the pure blood begins to show 
 any impression on the scrub stock. When a pure-bred dairy sire 
 is used his daughters may easily produce more milk in their first 
 milking period than the mothers of these daughters ever produced. 
 
 In buying a pure-bred sire an inspection should be made of 
 something more than the pedigree of the animal. The milk 
 records of his ancestors for several generations are of far greater 
 importance and these should be the evidence on which an estimate 
 of his value is placed. 
 
 It is often stated that "The bull is more than half the herd." 
 This is an especially important statement for a milk producer to 
 consider and in thinking about his herd the dairyman should re- 
 member that in building up or improving the milking capacity 
 of his cows, that he can raise good cows from good cows and a 
 pure-bred sire, and that although a high standard of producers 
 has already been reached, this may be raised still higher. An 
 effort should therefore be made to strengthen the constitution and 
 vigor of the breeding animals. Breeding for the purpose of ex- 
 tending an animal's pedigree is of no value, but improving the 
 practical value of the cows as milk producers is worth while. 
 
DAIRYING 55 
 
 749. Observations reported from the Missouri Agricultural 
 College showed that 10 daughters of a dairy sire produced an 
 average of 110 pounds butter fat per cow more than their mothers, 
 while 10 daughters of a scrub sire produced an average of 216 
 pounds butter fat per cow, which was 18 pounds butter fat per 
 cow less than their mothers produced per cow. The Indiana Ex- 
 periment Station reports an average of 64 pounds more butter fat 
 per cow from herds in which pure-bred sires were used than in 
 those not using such sires ; the butter from the improved herd was 
 also produced at a cost of S 1 /^ cents less per pound than in the un- 
 graded herd. 
 
 750. An increase of 100 pounds butter per cow at 30 cents 
 amounts to $30 per year, and this for a herd of even 10 cows means 
 a difference of $300 per year which the pure-bred sire would earn 
 for even a small herd. If such a sire is used in the herds for an 
 association of farmers he would be a profitable investment, even 
 if he cost $1000, while the sire that failed to increase the milk pro- 
 duction in the different generations of cows would not be worth 
 anything as the milk flow from the cows would be constantly 
 diminishing. 
 
 751. In selecting a sire, the records of his ancestors should 
 cover more than a short period of 10 to 30 days, as these may be 
 misleading, but annual records will show a substantial basis on 
 which to base one's judgment of the milk producing qualities of 
 his family. 
 
 The age of a sire is not a safe standard by which to measure 
 his value in a dairy herd. An aged bull whose daughters have 
 satisfactory milking records is better than a young one without 
 a record, and a young bull should not be condemned if he has good 
 ancestors, until the records of his daughters have been obtained. 
 
 The power to transmit characteristics to the offspring is 
 something that must be determined for each individual, as this 
 is not a universal trait in all animals. It is much stronger with 
 some animals than with others, even of the same family. 
 
 COMMUNITY BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 "52. There are many advantages to be obtained by co-opera- 
 
56 DAIRYING 
 
 tion or by uniting the interests of many individuals in one organi- 
 zation. Farmers and dairymen have realized this in the past and 
 have started many co-operative societies that have been helpful 
 to them. One of the more recent of such organizations is the 
 Community Breeders' Association. 
 
 Statistics show that the number of cows in dairy sections of 
 the country is continually increasing. This is encouraging, bur 
 along with this gain there should be some development in indi- 
 vidual production, and the question is now being asked, is the 
 quality of the cows improving as well as the quantity . The amount 
 of milk produced per cow is of as much, if not more, importance 
 than the number of cows milked on each farm, and it is for the 
 purpose of raising the standard of production per cow that these 
 associations are being organized. 
 
 BENEFIT OF THE ASSOCIATION TO ITS MEMBERS. 
 
 753. The Community Breeders' Associations that have al- 
 ready been successfully started have shown : 
 
 1. That the co-operation of owners of cows of a certain 
 breed in a community is much more beneficial to them than is a 
 spirit of rivalry and competition. If a certain community gets the 
 reputation of having a supply of excellent representatives of a 
 given breed of cows, all the cow owners in that neighborhood, 
 profit by it, and the more they do to aid each other, and the more 
 they strive to deserve a high reputation for excellent cows, the 
 greater the benefits derived from such a reputation by all the cow 
 owners in the community. More progress is made by such co- 
 operation than by each farmer working independently of each 
 other. 
 
 2. Such community organization gives an added interest to 
 questions of breeding ; they provide a wider field for observation 
 than the herd of one man supplies, and these more extensive ob- 
 servations make some impression on old fogy and erroneous ideas 
 that may be in existence in the community. 
 
 3. There is better protection from tuberculosis and con- 
 
DAIRYING 57 
 
 tagious diseases when all the cows' owners combine to stamp out' 
 such diseases and the advertising of such a place gives a better 
 chance to sell stock at higher prices than when each farmer works 
 independently of the other. 
 
 4. In buying stock, purchases can be made from each other, 
 and the buyer may be supplied with full information about the 
 various ancestors of the animals bought. A community may also 
 buy a carload or more of stock to better advantage than a single 
 buyer, therefore the advantages of both buying and selling are 
 greatly in favor of the community organization. 
 
 Jersey Island is a good illustration of this idea, and when the 
 well known reputation of that island is extended to various com- 
 munities throughout the land, the breeders located in each com 
 mimity may reap the benefits therefrom. 
 
 5. Such an association may issue an occasional publication 
 or bulletin, giving a list .of the stock available in that community, 
 and in this way a market "may be found much quicker than when 
 each breeder devotes his own time to selling his stock. 
 
 6. The idea of the association is not one of coercion, as no 
 one is obliged to belong to the organization, and a member must 
 not expect a sudden change in the character of his herd or to dis- 
 pose of his stock at a high price at once, but by co-operation to 
 aid and to encourage the improvement of the stock in a neighbor- 
 hood so that it will have a reputation that w r ill be beneficial to all 
 the members. 
 
 754. Too much territory should not be covered by each as- 
 sociation, as members need to see each other and to see the stock 
 on the various farms. Members in good standing will always 
 profit by such an organization to the extent to which they take 
 an interest in its work. The plan of forming such an organization 
 is usually for any leading person in a community to call a meet- 
 ing, and after discussing the matter with possibly the assistance 
 of a representative of some similar association, draw up a consti- 
 tution and by-laws, elect officers and issue certificates of mem- 
 bership. 
 
 The organization and its work may be understood from an 
 outline to be found in Wisconsin Bulletin 189, in which 
 
58 DAIRYING 
 
 state thirty associations have been organized during about tw, 
 years. Each association is composed of 7 to 70 members, the 
 annual dues range from 50 cents to $3.00, and the number of pure 
 bred animals owned by members varies from 4 to 1000. 
 
 THE TUBERCULIN TEST. 
 
 755. There is little if any objection to the tuberculin testing 
 of dairy cattle at the present time. It has been demonstrated in 
 the last few years that the test when properly made has no bad 
 effect on healthy cows, and that one tuberculous animal may 
 spread the disease not only to all the other stock in the stable, but 
 to the hogs kept on the same farm, and in some instances, the 
 poultry have been found to be tuberculous. The disease spreads 
 rapidly, and a tuberculin test of each animal in the herd should 
 be made at least once a year. When cows are bought, these 
 should be kept out of the herd until they have been tested twice 
 and found free from the disease. 
 
 756. Tuberculous cows do not always show symptoms of tlu 
 disease ; they may be as fat and healthy appearing as the sound 
 cattle, and the only way of detecting the condition of each animal 
 is to make the test at least once a year, unless no trace of the 
 disease has ever been found, and no new stock has been brought 
 into the herd. In such cases testing once in two years is often 
 enough. 
 
 757. Tuberculin testing is usually done during the cold sea- 
 son of the year when cows are in the stable. The cows should all 
 be in normal condition when tested, and remain quietly in their 
 stalls during the test. They should not be allowed to drink large 
 quantities of cold water just before the test, and the test should 
 not be made either just before or just after calving, or when a 
 cow shows symptoms of any disorder. 
 
 The test, which is comparatively simple, may be made by the 
 owner of the cows, or by any careful person. The necessary 
 tuberculin may be obtained from the U. S. Department of Agri- 
 culture, and this, together with a clinical thermometer, an injec- 
 tion needle, and a graduated hypodermic syringe, are all that is 
 
DAIRYING 59 
 
 needed for testing the cows. The tuberculin should not be used 
 if it has become turbid, and it should be kept in a cool place, pro- 
 tected from light. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR TUBERCULIN TESTING COWS. 
 
 758. The syringe and needle should be placed in boiling 
 water for at least 5 minutes just before using them. 
 
 The temperature of each animal to be tested should be taken 
 several times (about once in 2 hours) during the 12 hours preced- 
 ing the injection of the tuberculin. The temperatures are all 
 taken by inserting the thermometer into the rectum of the animal, 
 where it should remain for 3 to 5 minutes before removing. The 
 temperature is at once read and recorded. If these preliminary 
 temperatures run as high as 103 F., the tuberculin test of such 
 animals cannot be depended on, and cattle in advanced stages of 
 tuberculosis do not respond to the test. The general appearance 
 of such cattle, however, is usually sufficient evidence of their 
 diseased condition. 
 
 Very few animals are included in these two exceptions, and 
 the preliminary records of temperature nearly always show a 
 normal condition. 
 
 759. After these records have been made through the day, 
 the tuberculin is injected between 8 and 10 p. m. of the same day. 
 About 1.5 cc. tuberculin is a dose for stock under two years old; 
 2 cc. for mature cows, and 3 cc. for bulls and large cows. 
 
 760. The tuberculin is injected by means of the needle and 
 syringe under the skin, either at the side of the neck or just be- 
 hind the shoulder blade. The next morning, temperature records 
 should be made again about once in 2 hours from 6 a. m. until 
 evening. If these show a rise of 2 degrees or more above the 
 temperature of each cow, as recorded before the injection of the 
 tuberculin, this rise in temperature is an indication that the animal 
 has tuberculosis, or it "reacts." Animals that do not show a rise 
 in temperature to 103 F. during the day after the injection of 
 tuberculin are not tuberculous. 
 
60 DAIRYING 
 
 761. Winslow* states that "When the temperature is be- 
 tween 103 and 103.8 the test is doubtful and the animal should 
 be re-tested after 3 months." 
 
 "When the temperature rises gradually to 103.8 F., or over 
 within 15 hours after the injection, the animal may be considered* 
 positively affected with tuberculosis, provided this constitutes a 
 rise of 2 over the maximum temperature recorded before the 
 injection. " 
 
 MILK FEVER. 
 
 762. This disease is said to be more common in cows calving 
 in the spring than in the fall, and it is also claimed that milking 
 the udder dry in the first 24 hours after calving brings on milk 
 fever. 
 
 The disease causes the cow to become very uneasy, and she 
 lays down with her head drawn to one side. 
 
 Relief and cure of the disease is now obtained by forcing air 
 into the udder through the teats. This, it is claimed, has been suc- 
 cessfully done in an emergency by means of a bicycle pump, but 
 a small syringe designed for this purpose should be owned by 
 everyone who keeps cows at the present time. A complete and in 
 expensive outfit for giving this treatment to cows is now adver- 
 tised in nearly all the agricultural and dairy papers. 
 
 ABORTION. 
 
 763. The premature birth of the calf may be caused by an 
 accidental injury, or by bacteria, which are responsible for con-' 
 tagious abortion. The latter are spread by the bull and by germs 
 present in the air or dust of a cow stable. 
 
 An aborting animal should be isolated at once, and all the 
 bedding burned, the floor disinfected with lime or some other 
 
 *Production and Handling of Clean Milk, p. 348. 
 
DAIRYING 61 
 
 germ destroyer, and the walls of the stall or stable washed and 
 whitewashed. Everything possible must be done to destroy the 
 germs which may escape from the discharge of an aborting cow. 
 The sheath of the bull, as well as the uterus, tail and legs of the 
 cow must be thoroughly and repeatedly washed with non-irritating 
 antiseptic liquid. Among the solutions recommended for this 
 purpose are: 
 
 A 2% solution of carbolic acid. 
 
 A solution of bichloride of mercury, 1 part to 400 parts of 
 water. 
 
 A 2% creolin solution, and many others that may be recom- 
 mended by a competent veterinarian. 
 
 Contagious abortion can be cured and the cows become 
 healthy, normal animals, but the herd must be carefully protected 
 from this danger by looking up the records of new cows bought, 
 and of bulls used in the herd. 
 
 A PLAN FOR IMPROVING A CITY MILK SUPPLY. 
 
 764. An unlimited supply of clean, healthy milk is desired 
 by everyone, including the milk producer, the milk dealer, and 
 the consumer. In order to obtain such a milk supply these three 
 classes must unite with the local board of health in a spirit of co- 
 operation that will protect the rights of each one. This has been 
 found to be the most effective way of obtaining the kind of sup- 
 port for this movement that will produce results. 
 
 The producer or the cow owner furnishing clean milk should 
 be protected from the careless, indifferent producer of dirty milk 
 and from the milk of diseased cows. 
 
 The retailer who has contracted to pay a given price for a 
 certain kind of milk has a right to expect such milk from the pro- 
 ducer and the consumer has a right to know that his milk is 
 produced in clean surroundings and neither diluted nor polluted 
 in any way before delivery to his table. 
 
 765. When all persons interested in an enterprise combine to 
 attain the same end a certain amount of pride is taken in the busi- 
 
62 DAIRYING 
 
 ness and this is an incentive to make improvements where needed 
 After the responsibility of all these parties is well understood, 
 the first thing to be done is to require all dealers in milk to procure 
 a license ; this is a protection and a privilege as it gives the citi- 
 zens a means of knowing what dealers are willing to conform* to 
 reasonable regulations and also those who will allow anyone the 
 privilege of visiting either the farm where the milk is produced 
 or the depot from which it is distributed. 
 
 The adoption of a standard or a score card by which each 
 farm and dairy may be measured, or inspected will be the next 
 step towards raising the general condition of the milk supply oi 
 any community, because ignorance on the part of the producer 
 as to what is needed at his dairy to bring it up to the required 
 standard is sometimes the cause of impure milk and there will 
 doubtless always be different grades of clean milk coming from 
 the many farms that produce it. 
 
 766. The dairy farm score card is a standard by which dairy 
 farms may be measured and their standing as to cleanliness, etc., 
 recorded; it is based on a systematic arrangement of the various 
 conditions that have an influence on the purity of milk and these 
 are then given a numerical value. A number of different score 
 cauls have been proposed for the use of inspectors as a means of 
 recording the conditions under which milk is produced at each 
 farm visited. 
 
 777. The following is the one used by the City of New York. 
 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
 The City of New York. 
 
 Division of General Sanitary 
 
 Inspection. Dairy Report. 
 Inspection No Time A. P. M. Date 1912 
 
 1. Dairyman Owner 
 
 2. P. O. Address : P. O. Address 
 
 3. County State. . . . Party Interviewed 
 
 4. Milk delivered to Creamery at Formerly at 
 
 5. Operated by Address 
 
 6. Distance of farm from Creamery Occupied farm since 
 
 7. No. Cows No. Milking. ..... .No. Qts. produced 
 
DAIRYING 63 
 
 8. All persons in the households of those engaged in producing or 
 
 handling milk are free from all infectious disease. Weekly 
 
 reports are being filed 
 
 9. Date and nature of last case on farm 
 
 10. WATER SUPPLY for utensils is from a located 
 
 feet deep and apparently is pure and wholesome 
 
 State any possible contamination located within 200 feet of source 
 of water supply, or if water supply is not protected against surface 
 drainage 
 
 11. Water supply on this farm analyzed 191. .. Result 
 
 12. Style of Cow Barn -.Length. . . . ft. Width. . . . ft. Height 
 
 of ceiling 
 
 13. DAIRY RULES of the Department of Health are 
 
 posted 
 
 1'4. DAIRY HERD examined by on 191. .. 
 
 Report 
 
 Perfect Allow 
 
 EQUIPMENT. 
 
 15. COW STABLE is located on elevated ground with 
 
 no stagnant water hog-pen, privy, uncovered cesspool or 
 manure pit within 100 feet 1 
 
 16. FLOORS, other than cow beds, are of concrete 
 
 or some non-absorbant material 2 
 
 i 
 
 17. Floors are properly graded and water-tight 2 
 
 18. COW beds are of concrete or planks laid on con- 
 crete 2 
 
 19. DROPS are constructed of concrete, stone or some 
 
 non-absorbant material 2 
 
 20. Drops are water-tight and space beneath 
 
 is clean and dry 2 
 
 21. CEILING is constructed of and is 
 
 tight and dust proof 2 
 
 22. WINDOWS No total square feet there is 
 
 2 square feet of window light for each 
 
 600 cu. ft. air space (1 sq. ft. per each 600 cu. ft., 1) . . 2 
 
 23. VENTILATION consists of . . . . sq. ft. muslin covered 
 
 openings or. . . .sq. ft. open chutes in ceiling or 
 
 .which is sufficient 3, fair 2, poor 1, in- 
 sufficient 3 
 
64 DAIRYING 
 
 Perfect Allow 
 
 24. AIR SPACE is . . . . cu. ft. per cow (600 and over-3), 
 (500 to 600-2), (400 to 500-1), (under 400-0) 3 
 
 25. LIVE STOCK, other than cows, are. . . . excluded from 
 rooms in which milch cows are kept 2 
 
 27. Separate quarters are provided for cows when 
 
 calving or sick . 1 
 
 28. COW YARD is ... .properly graded and drained 2 
 
 26. There is 4^ rec t opening from stable into silo or 
 
 grain pit 1 
 
 29. WATER SUPPLY for cows is unpolluted and 
 
 plentiful . . . i 1 
 
 30. MILK HOUSE has direct opening into cow 
 
 barn or other building 1 
 
 31. Milk house has . . . .sufficient light and ventilation. ... 1 
 
 32. Floor is properly graded and water-tight 1 
 
 33. Milk house is ... .properly screened to exclude flies. . . 1 
 
 34. Milk pails are of smoothly tinned metal 
 
 in good repair 1 
 
 35. MILK PAILS have . . . . all seams soldered flush 2 
 
 36. Milk pails are of the small mouthed design, top 
 
 opening not exceeding 8 inches in diameter, Diameter. . 2 
 
 37. Racks are provided to hold milk pails and cans 
 
 when not in use 2 
 
 38. Special milking suits are provided 1 
 
 40 
 METHODS. 
 
 Perfect Allow 
 
 39. STABLE INTERIOR painted or whitewashed on 
 
 which is satisfactory 3, fair 2, unsatisfactory 
 
 1, never 3 
 
 40. FEEDING TROUGHS, platforms or cribs are 
 
 well lighted and clean 1 
 
 41. Ceiling is free from hanging straw, dirt 
 
 or cobwebs 3 .... 
 
 42. Window panes are washed and kept clean 1 .. . . 
 
DAIRYING 65 
 
 Perfect Allow 
 
 43. WALLS AND LEDGES are free from dirt, dust, 
 
 manure and cobwebs 2 
 
 44. FLOORS AND PREMISES are .free from dirt, 
 
 rubbish or decayed animal or vegetable matter 2 
 
 45. COW BEDS are clean, dry and no horse manure 
 
 used thereon 2 
 
 46. Manure is removed to field daily 4, to at least 
 
 100 feet from barn 2, stored less than 100 feet or 
 where cows can get at it 4 
 
 47. Liquid Matter is allowed to saturate ground 
 
 under or around cow barn 2 
 
 48. MILKING STOOLS are clean 1 
 
 49. Cow Yard is clean and free from manure 2 
 
 50. COWS have been tuberculin tested and all 
 
 tuberculous cows removed 7 
 
 51. Cows are all in good flesh and condition 
 
 at time of inspection 2 
 
 52. Cows are all free from clinging manure and 
 
 dirt. (No. dirty ) 4 
 
 53. LONG HAIRS are kept short on belly, 
 
 flanks, udder and tail 1 
 
 54. UDDER AND TEATS of cows are thoroughly 
 
 brushed and wiped with a clean damp cloth before 
 milking 3 
 
 55. ALL FEED is of good quality and distillery 
 
 waste or any substance in a state of putrefaction is 
 fed 2 
 
 56. MILKING is done with dry hands 2 
 
 57. FOREMILK of first few streams from each teat is dis- 
 carded 2 
 
 58. Clothing of milkers is clean 1 
 
 59. Facilities for washing hands of milkers are 
 
 provided in cow barn or milk house 2 
 
 60. Milk is strained at and in clean 
 
 atmosphere 1 
 
 61. Milk is cooled within two hours after milking 
 
 to 50 degrees F. 3, to 55 degrees F. 2, to 60 deg. F. 1 3 
 
 62. Ice is used for cooling milk 1 
 
66 DAIRYING 
 
 Perfect Allow 
 
 63. MILK HOUSE is free from dirt, rubbish and 
 
 all material not used in the handling and storage of 
 milk 1 
 
 64. Milk utensils are rinsed with cold water im- 
 mediately after using and washed clean with hot water 
 and washing solution 2 
 
 65. Utensils are sterilized by steam or boiling water 
 
 after each using 2 
 
 66. Privy is in sanitary condition, with vault 
 
 and seats Covered and protected 1 
 
 60 
 
 Remarks . 
 
 Equipment 40 per cent. Score per cent. 
 
 Methods 60 per cent. Score per cent. 
 
 Perfect Dairy 100 per cent. Score per cent. 
 
 778. A detailed explanation of what constitutes perfect 
 under each head may be prepared from the information already 
 gone over in this lesson. These may be distributed at a meeting 
 of all the milk producers and milk men which should be called if 
 this is feasible. At this meeting the plan of inspection is ex 
 plained and an announcement is made of the public posting in the 
 city hall or in the local papers of the standing of the various 
 dairies as indicated by the* score cards; such public posting is not 
 usually made however until the inspector has visited each farm .a 
 few times and thus given an opportunity for the owners to bring 
 the sanitary conditions up to a higher standard than may exist 
 at some farms. All parties interested are of course left free to 
 join in the movement or not, as they please, but the inspection of 
 a farm usually helps to develop a pride in the dairy with a desire 
 to elevate its reputation, if this is needed. 
 
 779. The next step is to hire an inspector who will devote 
 his time to visiting and scoring the farms and dairies. He should 
 know something about milk, as well as farm conditions and should 
 be able to explain how each farm may be improved. After making 
 the inspection he should give each owner a copy of the score 
 card filled out at his farm. This affords each man a chance to see 
 
DAIRYING 67 
 
 where his dairy stands in the grading and why it may have a 
 high or a low sc'ore, also what it is necessary for him to do to 
 deserve a higher score. Such inspection encourages one to pro- 
 duce clean milk and shows that efforts in this direction are 
 appreciated. 
 
 780. After a few weeks another meeting of all parties direct- 
 ly interested in the milk distribution of the city or the locality is 
 called and the results of the score cards are discussed ; these will 
 show how improvements may be made at the least expense and 
 they may be used as a basis for making different prices for milk 
 from certain groups of dairies for a period of time. 
 
 781. Inspection outside city limits is purely a matter of 
 courtesy but licenses should be granted only to retailers of dairy 
 products from inspected farms. 
 
 782. After a few months of this inspection and scoring ot 
 the dairies and every one has been given an opportunity to avail 
 himself of the benefits of this movement, the last score card or the 
 standing given each dairy by the scoring of all the milk producers 
 and dealers, is published in the local papers or posted in the city 
 hall. This gives the consumer a chance to inform himself con- 
 cerning the milk, etc., sold by each dealer he is patronizing as well 
 as all others. A good inspector's report is a good advertisement 
 for a dairy or a dealer and the plan, if carried out, will induce the 
 owners of cows to seek information rather than to force it upon 
 them; and the poorly kept dairies will be forced to clean up in 
 order to compete with others. Many dairies could raise the score 
 given their farm methods at a very little expense by cleaning up 
 the cows, stables, etc., and by using a plenty of cold water for 
 washing the milk utensils, as well as steam or hot water for scald- 
 ing these. 
 
 783. This plan for improving the milk supply of a com- 
 munity has been tried in hundreds of cities and towns in recent 
 years and has given excellent satisfaction. Some cities have 
 adopted the system of classing as excellent all dairies given a 
 scoring of 90 points or better ; good 80 ; medium 60 and poor below 
 60 points. 
 
68 DAIRYING 
 
 It lias been found that in a very few months a large propor- 
 tion of the dairies will move up from a lower to*a higher class and 
 will nearly all be in the class "Good'' and above or go out of 
 business. 
 
 w 
 
 THE CITY MILK PLANT SCORE CARD, 
 
 784. A score card similar to the one described for dairies 
 has been suggested for giving information concerning the con- 
 dition of city milk plants, creameries, cheese factories, etc. The 
 details of these cards have been worked out for the use of in- 
 spectors or anyone interested in such reports and copies of such 
 score cards may be found in some text books or obtained by 
 writing to the Dairy Division of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
 culture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 SCORING BOTTLED MILK OR CREAM. 
 
 785. The score card system that has been used so many 
 years for recording a judge's opinion of butter and cheese has 
 been applied to milk and cream which is to be delivered to the 
 consumer. 
 
 When entries of bottled milk and cream are competing in aiv 
 exhibit these are scored by the following standard. 
 
 Flavor 40 points 
 
 Composition 25 " 
 
 Bacteria 20 " 
 
 Acidity 5 
 
 Appearance 10 ' ' 
 
 Total 100 " 
 
 786. Each exhibitor is usually required to answer a number 
 (of questions in regard to the milk or cream. Some of these ques- 
 tions are the following: 
 
 1. Date and hour of milking the cows producing the milk 
 entered. 
 
 2. Place, date and hour of shipping the milk. 
 
 3. Is the entry a fair average sample of the milk produced 
 daily? 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 69 
 
 4. Give a detailed statement of the way milk is handled from 
 time of milking to shipping. 
 
 787. In scoring certain classes of milk such as "certified,'' 
 the exhibitor is asked what per cent of butter fat and of total 
 solids as well as the number of bacteria are guaranteed. In 
 judging the "flavor" of milk and cream the samples are heated 
 to 100 F. ; this brings out the flavor and shows very striking 
 differences in the various samples. Some are lacking while others 
 have a rich, pleasant flavor and aroma. The bacteria counts are 
 usually made after five days' incubation. These have shown that 
 expensive stables are not necessary, but that milk containing but 
 few bacteria can be produced in a stable where ordinary clean- 
 liness only is the practice. 
 
 788. The following score card with directions for using it 
 illustrates this method of judging milk and cream: 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR MARKET MILK. 
 Exhibitor: . 
 
 Address: , . 
 
 NUMERICAL SCORE. 
 
 Flavor, 40. 
 
 Composition, 25. 
 
 Bacteria, 20. 
 
 Acidity, 5. 
 
 Appearance of 
 package and 
 
 contents, 10. 
 
 Perfect score, 
 100. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Judge's score. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE SCORE. 
 
 Flavor. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Bacteria. 
 
 Acidity. 
 
 Package and 
 contents. 
 
 Excellent. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Good. 
 
 
 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Fat, per cent. 
 
 Total, . 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Foreign matter. 
 
 Bad. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flat. 
 
 Solids not fat, 
 
 Liquefiers, . 
 
 
 Metal parts. 
 
 Bitter. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 
 
 
 Weedy. 
 
 
 
 
 Unattractive. 
 
 Garlic. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silage. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Manure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Smothered. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other taints. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Remarks: 
 Date: 
 
 -, Judge. 
 
70 DAIRYING 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING. 
 
 FLAVOR. 
 
 If rich, sweet, clean, and pleasant flavor and odor, score perfect 
 (40). Deduct for objectionable flavors and odors according to con- 
 ditions found. 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 
 If 3.25 per cent fat or above and 8.5 per cent solids not fat or 
 above, score perfect (25). Deduct 1 point for each one-fourth per cent 
 fat below 3.25 and 1 point for each one-fourth per cent solids not fat 
 below 8.5. 
 
 BACTERIA. 
 
 Less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter (perfect) . . 2U 
 
 Over 10,000 and less than 25,000 per cubic centimeter 19 
 
 Over 25,000 and less than 50,000 per cubic centimeter 18 
 
 Over 50,000 and less than 75,000 per cubic centimeter 17 
 
 Over 75,000 and less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter 16 
 
 Deduct 1 point for each 25,000 above 100,000. 
 
 When an unusually large number of liquefying bacteria are present, 
 further deduction should be made according to conditions found. 
 
 ACIDITY. 
 
 If 0.2 per cent or below, score perfect (5). Deduct 1 point for 
 each 0.01 per cent above 0.2 per cent. (If Mann's test is used, dis- 
 continue adding indicator on first appearance of a pink color.) 
 
 APPEARANCE OF PACKAGE AND CONTENTS. 
 If package is clean, free from metal parts, and no foreign matter 
 can be detected in the contents, score perfect (10). Make deductions 
 according to conditions found. 
 
 [United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal In- 
 dustry, Dairy Division.] 
 
 CLASSES OF MILK. 
 
 789. A number of different kinds of milk are now offered to 
 the consumer by dealers and dairymen. Some of these were first 
 suggested for advertising purposes as a means of drawing the 
 attention of the public to an exceptionally clean and healthy milk 
 supply. At the present time the following names have been 
 generally adopted as describing certain kinds of milk and their 
 meaning is universally understood. 
 
DAIRYING 71 
 
 790. Market Milk is a term used to distinguish milk sold 
 directly to the consumer either wholesale or retail in cans or in 
 bottles from milk sold in cans to creameries, cheese factories and 
 condensaries. 
 
 Some years ago an estimate was made of the number of cows 
 supplying milk for different purposes in the United States. This 
 estimate divided the milk production as follows: 
 7,600,000 cows produce the market milk. 
 9,700,000 cows produce the milk for butter. 
 800,000 cows produce the milk for. cheese. 
 
 791. Certified Milk. The use of the word "certified" as 
 applied to milk is limited by law in some states to milk from cows 
 and dairies that are regularly inspected by a representative of a 
 board of health or a medical milk commission. A certificate of 
 inspection is given to the owner or manager of a dairy furnishing 
 such milk. 
 
 Milk commissions may be formed for the purpose of supplying 
 milk conforming to certain conditions and the commission may 
 make contracts to supply the consumer with such milk and to find 
 out if each producer has the necessary equipment and is capable 
 of living up to the required conditions ; a certificate is sometimes 
 issued with each bottle of milk sold. 
 
 Some of the conditions under which certified milk must be 
 produced are the following: 
 
 792. The cows, the stable, the feed, and the milkers must 
 always be up to the highest standard of health and cleanliness. 
 
 The water used at the dairy must be examined by a chemist 
 and by a bacteriologist. 
 
 The milk must not be more than twelve hours old when sold 
 and contain less than 10,000 bacteria in one cubic centimeter. 
 
 The milk must be sold in sterilized bottles and kept at 50 F. 
 or lower until delivered to the consumer. 
 
 793. These and other conditions that protect the purity of 
 milk can easily be provided without excessively expensive build- 
 ings and equipment. Some dairymen are now doing this as is 
 shown by a record kept by a man producing 250 quarts of milk 
 
72 DAIRYING 
 
 daily. He estimated that the cost of 29 cow stanchions, cement 
 floor, water supply, milk cans, 1000 bottles, bottle washer, capper, 
 rack, milk cooler, boiler, pump, and milk pails, was $1631.70, and 
 the bacteria content of the milk produced at this dairy was 2500 
 per c. c. as an average of 17 tests made of milk taken from bottles 
 on delivery routes. Six of the 17 tests showed less than 1000 
 bacteria per 1 c. c. 
 
 This good record can be made by any owner of cows if the 
 cows are healthy and clean, the stable has a tight ceiling, no cob- 
 webs or dirt are allowed to accumulate in it, the woodwork is 
 whitewashed, cement fjoors provided, no feed or bedding stored 
 in the stable except that needed daily, wood shavings are used for 
 bedding, 600 cubic ft. space and 4 sq. ft. window space provided 
 per cow stall, cows groomed not less than one hour before milking, 
 udders carefully washed and dried before milking, washstand or 
 sink provided for washing milkers' hands in stable, milk pails 
 .with small openings are used, the first jets of milk always drawn 
 into a separate can and not into the milk pail, clean clothes are 
 worn by the milkers, and the milk removed from the stable and 
 cooled immediately after milking. 
 
 794. Inspected milk is a clean milk from healthy cows that 
 have been tuberculin tested and their general health examined by 
 a veterinarian. The cows are kept in a stable that is well lighted 
 and ventilated and their feed and water in good condition, but 
 not up to the standard of "certified" milk. Milk of this class is 
 delivered to the consumer in sterilized containers, kept at 50 F. 
 or lower until delivered, and it should not contain more than 
 100,000 bacteria per one cubic centimeter. 
 
 795. Pasteurized milk includes milk that has been heated to 
 a temperature ranging from 150 F. to 180 F. for a period of 
 time that varies with the temperature and after heating is then 
 cooled to 50 F. or lower. Milk from dairies that do not comply 
 with the requirements of "certified" and "inspected" milk may 
 be made safer for human consumption by pasteurizing, as this 
 process, if properly carried out, will destroy disease germs that 
 may be present in the milk and prolong the time it will keep sweet. 
 
 All milk of an unknown origin may be placed in this class. 
 
DAIRYING 73 
 
 It should not be allowed to reach a temperature as high as 60 F. 
 before pasteurizing and the equipment for pasteurizing should be 
 under the personal inspection of a board of health officer. 
 
 A sick cow should not be allowed to remain on a farm even 
 if the milk is pasteurized. 
 
 796. The principal advantage of pasteurizing milk comes 
 from the killing of disease germs such as those of tuberculosis, 
 typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever and some of the intestinal 
 diseases of children. 
 
 Some of the objections that have been made to the pasteuriza- 
 tion of milk are that it has a tendency to make people handling 
 milk 011 the farm more careless in keeping it clean, it increases 
 the cost of milk, and that dirty milk ought to be allowed to sour, 
 and no attempt be made to keep it sweet by pasteurization. 
 
 The advantages seem to outweigh the disadvantages, especial- 
 ly when milk is pasteurized in the bottles in which it is delivered 
 to the consumer. 
 
 THE PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM FOR 
 DIRECT CONSUMPTION. 
 
 797. The milk supply of cities and towns ordinarily comes 
 from farms some distance away and during warm weather it is 
 often difficult to deliver this milk in a condition perfectly satis- 
 factory to the consumer. State laws and city ordinances forbid 
 the use of either solid or liquid preservatives in milk and the 
 expense of sufficient refrigeration to keep milk cold enough to 
 prevent its souring is so great that pasteurization has in many 
 cases become a necessity. 
 
 798. Within the past few r years a great many dealers in milk 
 and cream have taken advantage of the improvements made in 
 pasteurizing machines and have fitted up their establishments 
 with the modern apparatus and supplies needed for furnishing 
 the consumer with pasteurized milk and cream in bottles. These 
 products have become popular principally because it has been 
 found that they will keep sweet longer than unpasteurized or raw 
 milk and cream. 
 
74 DAIRYING 
 
 An infinitesimally small proportion of the world's milk sup- 
 ply is produced in the way described under certified milk; the 
 common methods of milking and of caring for milk are such that 
 it becomes thickly seeded with bacteria which may not necessarily 
 be disease germs but by their rapid growth cause milk to sour un- 
 less it is kept sufficiently cold to prevent the development of the 
 souring germs. 
 
 799, It has long been known that boiled milk will keep sweet 
 longer than raw milk, but the flavor of such milk is not a desirable 
 one and the consumer will usually object if anything like a cooked 
 taste in the milk is noticed. This objection has been entirely over- 
 come by the pasteurizing process which means simply that the 
 milk or cream has been heated to a temperature that destroys 
 nearly all the bacteria, but not sufficient to impart a "scalded" 
 or "cooked" taste to it. 
 
 The bacteria in milk are not all of the same kind or character ; 
 some are easily destroyed by a short heating while others are only 
 killed by continued boiling ; this makes it difficult to always obtain 
 uniform results by practically the same treatment. Milk that is 
 fresh from the cow* and has been well cared for, will contain but 
 few bacteria while that which is obtained from cows that are 
 not cleaned, then milked in a dusty stable and the milk strained 
 through a tainted strainer cloth into sour smelling cans will be 
 seeded with a multitude of germs that even the pasteurizing pro- 
 cess cannot completely destroy. 
 
 800. Pasteurization does not add anything to the milk; it 
 simply aids in preserving the good qualities that are there present 
 and on this account it is useless to attempt to pasteurize dirty 
 milk ; the dirt remains in the milk and it usually contains a large 
 number of the bacteria which produce putrefactive fermentations 
 and are also spore forming ; these spores are not easily destroyed 
 and often survive the heat of pasteurization and start to grow 
 when the pasteurized milk and cream are kept at a temperature 
 favorable for their development (above 50 F.). This is the 
 reason why pasteurized milk and cream have such a repulsive 
 odor when decomposition begins, the sour milk (lactic acid) 
 bacteria have been destroyed by the heat but the putrefactive 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 75 
 
 Plate 29. Arrangement of equipment for a pasteurizing plant. 
 
 bacteria spores which were not destroyed have changed the nitro- 
 genous constituents of the milk into products that are quite dif- 
 ferent from those noticed in ordinary sour milk. These same 
 putrefactive changes take place to a certain extent in the normal 
 souring of milk which has not been pasteurized, but the predom- 
 inating odor and taste of such sour milk come from the products 
 of the lactic acid fermentations and they are sufficiently pro- 
 lounced to make the putrefactive odors less noticeable. 
 
 Various names have been given to the process of milk pas- 
 teurization depending on the method used for heating the milk. 
 
 801. Home Pasteurization is done by using the "double 
 toiler." As soon as the water boils in this boiler it is taken off 
 the stove, the milk added and after covering the boiler is al- 
 lowed to stand at least 20 minutes. Milk treated in this way is 
 usually heated to 165 F. It should then be cooled to near 40 F. 
 and kept cold until needed. 
 
 INTERMITTENT OR "HELD" PASTEURIZATION. 
 
 802. When the application of pasteurization was first pro- 
 posed for preserving milk and cream it was deemed necessary to 
 heat these to about 155 F. and hold them at this temperature for 
 15 to 30 minutes. This continued heating was supposed to be 
 needed to destroy all disease germs that might be present and it 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 M/LK 
 OUTLET 
 
 ^THERMOMETER 
 
 M/LK 
 /A/LET 
 
 STEAM 
 /A/LET 
 
 STEAM AND 
 --WATER 
 JACKET 
 
 PEVOLV/NG 
 'PADDLE 
 
 M/LK 
 CHAMBER 
 
 Plate 30. A simple type of pasteurizer. 
 
 is undoubtedly the most effectual of all the methods of heating 
 in so far as destroying the bacteria is concerned. It was found, 
 however, that when milk is heated to so high a temperature for 
 so long a time, the cream will not rise on it in the same way that 
 it rises on raw milk. This made the intermittent method of 
 pasteurizing milk unsatisfactory to dealers because their custom 
 ers will not believe that there is cream in milk unless they can 
 see it, even though a test of the milk shows that it may be of nor- 
 mal richness. Another peculiarity of the intermittent heating 
 is noticed in the body or consistency of cream pasteurized in this 
 way ; cream containing as high as 25 per cent fat often appears 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 77 
 
 TO COOLER 
 
 STEAM 
 
 'CHAMBER 
 
 'A/R-P/PE 
 
 Plate 
 ing tank. 
 
 31. A "Regenerative" pasteurizer for use without hold- 
 
 to be as thin as milk and it is hard to convince the consumer that 
 such cream is as rich as the actual test proves it to be. These 
 two features therefore have made the intermittent process un- 
 popular. 
 
 803. The next step in the use of the pasteurizing process 
 for preserving milk and cream was the suggestion that the tem- 
 perature be reduced from 155 degrees to 145 degrees F. and then 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 Plate 32. Holding tank with automatic emptying device. 
 
 hold the milk or cream at this temperature for about 15 minutes. 
 Investigations proved that this treatment was effectual in de- 
 stroying the disease germs and that a great deal better cream 
 separation took place in bottled milk than was the case when it 
 was heated to 155 degrees F. for 15 minutes or longer. 
 
 This temperature of heating (145 degrees F. for 5 to 15 min- 
 utes) is undoubtedly the most satisfactory one to use in pasteuriz- 
 ing milk and cream when the question is considered from the 
 standpoint of those who wish to guarantee freedom from disease 
 germs of all kinds in the products supplied, but the heating of 
 large quantities of milk or cream in this way is not a rapid process 
 and in some cases it may not be any more efficient than the con- 
 tinuous process, as the thoroughness of the pasteurization depends 
 to a large extent on the condition of the milk handled. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 79 
 
 Plate 33. A type of beer-pasteurizing machine adaptable to the 
 pasteurization of milk in bottles. 
 
 804. If a clean milk from healthy cows is to be pasteurized 
 and there is no danger of its being contaminated with the spores 
 of putrefactive bacteria or the germs of the tuberculosis bacillus, 
 or other disease germs, then the temperature and the length of 
 time of heating may be greatly reduced, as the lactic acid bacteria 
 are destroyed at near 130 degrees F. and heating to this tempera- 
 ture will greatly increase the length of time that such milk will 
 keep sweet. If, however, on the other hand the milk supply is 
 obtained from many farms, that are never inspected and about 
 which little or nothing is known, it may contain many spores of 
 the putrefactive bacteria and an unknown variety of disease 
 germs. Such milk as this may often be rendered less harmful by 
 pasteurization, provided it is heated while the milk is still sweet, 
 but after pasteurization it will only keep sweet a limited length 
 of time because the spores are so numerous that they are not 
 likely to be all destroyed by the heating. The longer the period 
 of heating, the greater will be the number of spores destroyed 
 and on this account the intermittent process of pasteurization is 
 best adapted to the handling of mongrel milk. 
 
8o 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 COLD #** 
 
 HOT 
 
 Plate 35. Sectional view of another type of Regenerative Cooler. 
 
 The machines shown in Lesson V, pp. 62-63-64, are now used 
 for pasteurizing milk and cream by this method. 
 
 THE CONTINUOUS HEATING PROCESS. 
 
 805. In supplying cities with milk the question of pasteuriz- 
 ation is usually considered from a commercial standpoint only. 
 The dealers naturally wish to reduce expenses to the lowest 
 terms but at the same time gain any advantage possible from 
 the improved keeping quality of pasteurized milk. The contin- 
 uous process of pasteurization has therefore appealed to them as 
 better adapted to the handling of large quantities of milk than 
 the intermittent process. The principal thing that has led to the 
 
DAIRYING 81 
 
 approval of continuous pasteurizers by milk dealers is the rapid- 
 ity with which the cream rises on bottled milk. This is a very 
 important point as it appeals'to the eye of the consumer and when 
 milk will keep sweet twelve to twenty-four hours longer than 
 formerly and also shows a satisfactory layer of cream on the sur- 
 face, there is little to be desired besides this on the part of the 
 iverage milk dealer. 
 
 The physician however may know that even if such milk has 
 been pasteurized, the process used has not necessarily made it 
 germ-free because the milk has not been heated long enough to 
 kill all the germs although it may have destroyed over 90 per 
 cent of them. 
 
 806. The number of bacteria found in milk after it has been 
 pasteurized will be influenced by the number present in the raw 
 milk and the length of time it is heated as well as the temperature 
 to which it is exposed during pasteurization. An increase in the 
 time of exposure to a temperature above 145 degrees F. will have 
 a tendency to reduce the likelihood of a satisfactory raising of 
 the cream on the milk and the two desirable qualities of freedom 
 from bacteria and a good cream line are therefore to a certain 
 extent antagonistic, the longer the exposure to a pasteurizing 
 temperature, the less likely will there be a good cream line on the 
 milk and the shorter the exposure, the fewer the bacteria killed. 
 An exposure of one minute even, will destroy more bacteria than 
 the so-called flash heating, and when the length of time of heating 
 is extended without interfering with the cream-raising properties 
 of the milk or the capacity of the machine, a pasteurizer is ac- 
 complishing an important feature of the work it is designed to do. 
 
 COOLING AFTER HEATING. 
 
 807. A sudden cooling of the milk or cream from the pasteur- 
 izing temperature to near 50 degrees F. is a very essential part of 
 the pasteurizing process. A slow cooling not only diminishes the 
 keeping quality, but it retards the cream raising on the milk. 
 
 The spores which are more or less numerous in nearly all 
 
82 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 pasteurized products will begin to develop whenever a tempera- 
 ture favorable for their growth is reached. This should be well 
 understood by everyone handling pasteurized milk or cream. If 
 after heating, the cooling goes on slowly, spores that have not 
 been destroyed by the heat will begin to grow and many of fchern 
 
 
 PIP 
 
 Plate 34. View of anotherjtype of regenerative cooler. 
 
 may have developed sufficiently during the cooling to seriously 
 interfere with the keeping quality of the milk ; this will make the 
 Seating process of no particular value and many failures to suc- 
 ceed in the handling of pasteurized milk or cream have been due 
 to the lack of appreciation of the necessity of keeping the milk 
 .and cream at a low temperature (50 F. or lower) after it is 
 pasteurized. 
 
 APPROVED PASTEURIZATION. 
 
 808. According to a Bulletin issued in January 1912, by the 
 Health Department of the City of New York "Only such milk 
 or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized as has been subjected 
 to a process in which the temperature and exposure conform to 
 one of the following: 
 
DAIRYING 83 
 
 No less than 158 degrees for at least 3 minutes. 
 No less than 155 degrees for at least 5 minutes. 
 No less than 152 degrees for at least 10 minutes. 
 No less than 148 degrees for at least 15 minutes. 
 No less than 145 degrees for at least 18 minutes. 
 No less than 140 degrees for at least 20 minutes. 
 
 STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM. 
 
 809. When milk and cream are sold directly to the consumer 
 either in bottles or in any other way, a uniform richness in these 
 products from day to day is very much desired. Such uniformity 
 is not only a recommendation to the buyer, but it is more profit- 
 able to the dealer to standardize each lot of milk and cream to a 
 certain per cent fat than it is to have no definite knowledge of 
 their richness and run the risk of losses through variations in the 
 per cent of fat. 
 
 Many ways have been suggested for reducing the figuring 
 necessary to determine how many pounds of milk and cream of a 
 given richness must be taken in order to get a mixture of a certain 
 per cent fat. 
 
 Tables of figures have been published and short formulas given 
 for making such calculations but one of the most common methods 
 of calculation recommended is the following : 
 
 810. Place at the left hand corners of a square the tests of 
 the two kinds of milk or cream that will be used for making the 
 standard product. In the center of the square place the test of 
 the milk or cream wanted, then subtract diagonally, placing at 
 the right hand corners of the square the differences between the 
 figure in the center of the square and the figures thus obtained. 
 
 liese latter figures at the right hand corners represent the pro- 
 >rtions in which the milk and cream should be mixed. 
 
 811. Standardizing milk. If milk testing 3.0% fat is wanted 
 id two lots of milk, one testing 2.5% and the other 4% fat are 
 
 available, the proportions in which these two should be mixed 
 may be found as follows. See directions given above. 
 
84 
 
 4 
 
 .5 
 
 2.5 
 
 32 
 
 1.5 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 '30 
 
 H 
 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 This shows that by mixing .5 parts 4.% 
 milk with 1.0 parts 2.5% milk, the mixture 
 will test 3.% fat or 1 part 4% milk added to 2 
 parts 2.5% milk will make 3 parts 3% milk, 
 and if 100 Ibs. of milk testing 3% fat are 
 wanted then 5/15 or 1/3 of 100 = 33 Ibs. milk 
 testing 4% fat should be mixed with 10/15 or 
 2/3 of 100 = 66 Ibs. milk testing 2.5% fat. 
 
 812. Standardizing cream. How much 
 skim milk is needed to reduce cream testing 
 32% fat to cream testing 18% fat. 
 
 This shows that by adding 14 Ibs. skim 
 milk to 18 Ibs. cream testing 32% there will be 
 obtained 32 Ibs. cream testing 18% fat. 
 
 813. ' Substituting milk testing 4% fat for 
 the skim milk and the amount of this needed to 
 reduce the 32% cream to 18% cream may be 
 found. 
 
 In this case mixing equal quantities of 32% 
 cream and 4% milk gives 18% cream and if 
 100 Ibs. 18 per cent, cream are wanted mix 
 14-28 or 1 /o = 50 Ibs. 32 per cent, cream with 
 14-28 or y 2 = 50 Ibs. 4 per cent. milk. 
 
 814. Weight of cream to be added to given 
 weight of milk to make cream of given test. 
 
 If 50 Ibs. milk testing 4 per cent, fat are 
 to be made into cream testing 20 per cent, fat 
 by using 30 per cent, cream according to these 
 figures the milk and cream must be mixed in 
 the proportion of 10-26 milk to 16-26 cream 
 and 50 Ibs. milk will require 10:16: :50:X = 80 
 Ibs. 30 per cent, cream to make a cream test- 
 ing 20 per cent. fat. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 815. Mixing butter and skim milk to make 
 cream. If cream testing 18 per cent, fat is 
 wanted from butter containing 80 per cent, fat 
 which is to be added to skim milk the propor- 
 tions of each needed are as follows: 
 
 Showing that 18 Ibs. butter fat mixed with 
 62 Ibs. skim milk will make 80 Ibs. cream test- 
 ing 18 per cent. 
 
 816. Calculating the Ibs. cream of a given test that can be 
 made from a given weight of butter. How many Ibs. 18% cream 
 will 40 Ibs. butter make if the butter contains 80% fat? This 
 may be calculated from the figures obtained above and gives 
 18:62::40:X = 138 Ibs. skim milk to which 40 Ibs. butter are 
 added making 178 Ibs. 18% cream. 
 
 817. Another simple method of making the necessary cal- 
 culations in standardizing milk or cream is to multiply the weight 
 of cream by its test and divide the product by the figure repre- 
 senting the standard wanted. If 500 Ibs. cream testing 30% fat 
 is to be reduced to cream testing 25% fat the calculation is made 
 as follows: 500X30 = 15000 and 15000-25 = 600 showing that 500 
 Ibs. cream testing 30% fat will make 600 Ibs. of cream testing 
 
 !5'/ fat by adding 100 Ibs. skim milk to the 500 Ibs. 30% cream. 
 
 819. A still shorter way to make the necessary calculations 
 is to subtract the test of the standard cream which in this case 
 is 25% from the test of the cream to be reduced or 30%, then 
 multiply the pounds of cream to be standardized by this dif- 
 ference, 30 25 = 5 and 5 X 500 =2500 which 2500-25 = 100 Ibs. 
 the weight of skim milk that must be added to the 500 Ibs. 30% 
 
 ;rearn to reduce it to cream testing 25% fat. If cream is to be 
 standardized with whole milk of a certain test instead of skim 
 milk the calculation may be made in the same way by dividing 
 the product by the difference between the test of the milk used 
 and the figure representing the standard wanted. In the above 
 calculation if milk testing 4% fat is to be used instead of skim 
 dlk then divide the 2500 by 21 which is 254 = 21 and the 
 imount of 4% milk needed will be 2500-21 = 119 Ibs. which 
 idded to 500 = 619 Ibs. cream testing 25% fat, 
 
 820. Another illustration of this method of calculation may 
 
86 DAIRYING 
 
 help to make it clearer. If 350 Ibs. cream testing 28% fat are 
 to be made into cream testing 18% fat by using skim milk the Ibs. 
 skim milk needed may be found as follows: 
 
 2818 = 10: 350X10 = 3500: 
 
 3500-^18 = 195 showing that 195 Ibs. skim, milk added to 
 350 Ibs. cream testing 28% fat will make 545 Ibs. cream testing 
 18% fat. 
 
 If milk testing 4% fat is used instead of skim milk then 
 2818 = 10 and 350X10 = 3500 and 184 = 14 and 3500^14 = 250 
 therefore 350 Ibs. cream testing 28% fat + 250 Ibs. milk testing 
 4% fat = 600 Ibs. cream testing 18% fat. 
 
 RETAILING MILK IN BOTTLES. 
 
 821. This line of work is now carried on in three different 
 ways: 
 
 1. The owner of the cows distributes his own milk and pos- 
 sibly some of his neighbor's milk directly to customers in a near- 
 by town or city. 
 
 2. City milk dealers ship milk in cans to their city establish- 
 ments where it is bottled and distributed. 
 
 3. City milk dealers build a milk bottling station in the 
 country and ship the bottles of milk to the city in refrigerated 
 cars. 
 
 The object to be attained is the same in each of the above 
 cases and supplies and machinery suitable for equipping both the 
 large and the small milk bottling plant have been designed and 
 described in the circulars and catalogs of dealers who make such 
 supplies a specialty. 
 
 822. The general methods of handling bottled milk are the 
 same for the large and the small . dealers. The milk must be 
 clean and sweet, the bottles washed, sterilized and filled, and then 
 kept cool until distributed. 
 
 As a rule the milk is cooled before bottling, but in some 
 instances the warm milk is filled into bottles directly after milk- 
 ing and these placed in ice water or in a refrigerator where the 
 
DAIRYING 87 
 
 milking takes place after filling. One of the objections to the latter 
 method is the possible lack of uniformity in the composition of 
 the milk in all the bottles filled at one milking. This may be over- 
 come by waiting until all the cows in the herd are milked before 
 bottling of the mixture is begun. If bottled as fast as the cows 
 are milked the difference in the richness of the milk of different 
 cows will be noticed in the various bottles filled during the 
 milking. 
 
 823. There are objections however to holding a large quan- 
 tity of warm fresh milk for any great length of time before cool- 
 ing and the general custom has been adopted to cool the milk at 
 once after milking and bottle the cold, mixed milk of the herd 
 after milking has been completed. 
 
 Any of the efficient and economical milk coolers may be used 
 and the milk should be filled into the bottles as soon as possible 
 after milking and cooling. 
 
 824. Many bottle fillers have been placed on the market and 
 these save time and labor. The simpler the construction the bet- 
 
 Plate 36. Bottle Filler. 
 
88 DAIRYING 
 
 ter and all bottle fillers should be as plain and as smooth as possi 
 ble so as to make the cleaning and sterilizing of the bottle filler 
 easily accomplished. Rubber parts should be avoided because of 
 the tendency of rubber to soften and swell when exposed to' the 
 necessary sterilizing temperature. All bottle fillers should be 
 covered and the cover used when the tank is filled with milk, in 
 order to protect it from dust, flies, and other outside contamina- 
 tion. 
 
 825. A sterilizer for heating empty bottles and all milk 
 utensils and tinware after cleaning them is absolutely necessary. 
 It is true that large, power bottle washing machines rinse the 
 bottles with hot water and this may be made efficient enough to 
 leave the bottles nearly germ-free without heating them in a 
 sterilizing oven, but such ovens are essential wherever milk is 
 handled in quantity as the milk pails, dippers, cans, and all uten- 
 sils need to be heated to a temperature up to or above that of 
 boiling water in order to destroy the germs that sour the milk 
 and the disease germs that grow so easily in milk. 
 
 Sterilizing ovens can be bought of any desired size. They are 
 usually made of galvanized iron and large enough to hold the 
 bottles in crates on a car which may be wheeled into the oven. 
 An oven with two compartments is a great convenience, one for 
 heating th-e crates of glass bottles and the other for heating tin- 
 ware. 
 
 Such ovens are heated by forcing steam into them through 
 perforated pipes laid on the bottom of the oven. A temperature 
 of 212 F. can be obtained in this way and this should be main- 
 tained for one-half hour or more. After heating, the hot bottles 
 should not be removed too suddenly from the oven, but allowed 
 to cool somewhat before the door of the sterilizer is opened. A 
 sudden rush of cold air into the oven chamber may crack the hot 
 bottles. 
 
 826. A higher temperature of heating the bottles may be 
 obtained by using the high pressure sterilizing ovens which are 
 made to stand several pounds of steam pressure. The greater the 
 pressure the higher the temperature and the shorter the time 
 necessary to expose the bottles and utensils in order to destroy all 
 germ life. 
 
DAIRYING 89 
 
 These high-pressure ovens are very expensive and they are 
 unnecessary if the bottles and utensils are well washed and rinsed 
 before the final sterilization. 
 
 The size and the construction of the sterilizer may be adapted 
 to the needs of each place a small one may be made of wood or 
 tin and large sterilizing rooms are sometimes made of cement. 
 These have been very satisfactory in several instances. 
 
 Plate 37. Bottle Sterilizing Oven. 
 
 If shelves or partitions are built into an oven they should be 
 made of perforated metal so that the steam will pass through 
 them and it may be a convenience to have such made movable. 
 
 The sterilizer should be large enough to hold all the bottles 
 an<i utensils needed for one day as it is economical to do this 
 work only once each day. 
 
 Sterilizing ovens of various dimensions can be bought of 
 dealers and the most economical are those built of heavy gal- 
 vanized iron, angle iron, iron bolts and first class material in every 
 respect. We have used what we consider a rather expensive 
 
90 DAIRYING 
 
 sterilizing oven for ten years and it is as good as new now. There 
 is no economy in buying cheap, tin ovens. 
 
 827. The location of the sterilizing oven may save con- 
 siderable work if placed between the wash room and the bcttle 
 filling room. The car of bottles may be run into the oven from 
 the washing end of the room and drawn out at the opposite end 
 where the bottle-filler may be located. 
 
 In a small milk bottling business no special washing ma- 
 chinery is absolutely necessary, but wash sinks are made with 
 partitions for separating the rinsing from the wash water and 
 with over-flow pipe to carry off the fat and oil that comes from 
 the bottle washing. 
 
 828. Very convenient sinks are also made to which a turbine 
 bottle washing brush is attached and a rack for spraying the 
 inside of the bottles with clean water after washing. A small tank 
 filled with water for rinsing the outside of the bottles is also 
 provided. 
 
 829. The empty bottles from customers, are first rinsed with 
 water in one part of the sink, then placed in the second part 
 which is filled with hot water to which a little alkaline washing 
 powder is added. The inside and outside of the bottles are washed 
 with the revolving brush. The bottles are then rinsed with hot 
 water by the spraying device and placed in the racks which are 
 transferred to the sterilizing oven where they are heated by steam 
 to a temperature of 212 F. for at least one-half hour. An iron, 
 angle thermometer should be placed at some point in the oven 
 where it can be easily read and not in danger of being broken. 
 
 The bottles should be in an inverted position in the oven and 
 after heating and partially cooling placed in a metal lined, small 
 room, where they are kept inverted until needed. 
 
 Care must be taken in handling the bottles, the bottling tank 
 and all sterilized utensils to keep ones hands and fingers out of 
 the inside sterilized surface, as this may inoculate them with 
 bacteria and undo all the work of sterilizing. 
 
 830. In bringing the warm milk from the stable, it should be 
 cooled over a sterilized cooler at once and placed in the bottle 
 filler where it is filled into the bottles at once and then capped. 
 
DAIRYING 91 
 
 The pulp caps should be dipped in hot paraffin before placing 
 them in the filled bottles and these placed in ice water and kept at 
 a temperature of 40-50 F. The sudden cooling and keeping the 
 bottles of milk cold by placing broken ice in the delivery boxes 
 will insure the milk keeping sweet and help the formation of a 
 distinct cream line. 
 
 Plate 38. Bottle Washer and Sterilizer. 
 
 All the milk utensils, cans, coolers, pails, bottles, etc., must 
 be cleaned and scalded after using them and then left in the 
 sterilizing oven or the metal lined storeroom where they will be 
 protected from dust until used. The walls and ceiling of the milk 
 bottling and wash room should be carefully cleaned by steaming 
 and washing. 
 
 831. By taking these precautions and protecting the milk at 
 the stable, it is easily possible to keep the germ contents of the 
 milk down to 5000 per cubic centimeter, (1 c. c. 15 drops), even 
 though the cow stable and the milk room are not faced with 
 glazed tile and plate glass.- 
 
 832. In handling the bottles both when empty and after 
 filling it will be found convenient to use crates or carriers holding 
 10 to 20 bottles. These can be placed on a truck and run into the 
 sterilizing oven and after this operation each crate fits under 
 the bottle filler from which after filling they may be transferred 
 to the cold room and later into boxes that fit the delivery wagons. 
 
 833. The shape of the glass bottles is not a matter of much 
 consequence. They should, however, be of a uniform diameter 
 for bottles of the same capacity, and all bottles should hold full 
 measure. This is more easily possible than formerly, as the 
 
92 DAIRYING 
 
 machine-made bottles now on the market are very exact and 
 uniform in shape and in capacity. 
 
 834. The capacity of bottles may be tested by measuring the 
 required amount of water in them when a new lot is received. 
 One quart is equal to 946 c.c. and by using a graduated cylinder 
 the capacity of each bottle may be tested by pouring each bottle 
 filled with water into this cylinder and noting the number of c.c. 
 it contains. 
 
 835. Paper milk bottles are now on the market, but have 
 not come into general use. They cost about %c per quart, and 
 %c per pint, and although paraffined and sterile, their expense is 
 more than the cost of glass bottles, together with the cost of 
 cleaning, transportation, etc. 
 
 836. The life of a glass bottle varies in different establish- 
 ments. The loss from breakage and failure to return them 
 amounts to about one per cent per day. This, however, will de- 
 pend on the carefulness of the delivery men and washers. A 
 record kept in an establishment where 500 bottles were used 
 daily showed a loss of 3 bottles per day from breakage. 
 
 837. The cost of bottling and delivery of milk has been 
 estimated as about equal to the cost of production. A large milk 
 dealer near Duluth estimates the cost of producing the milk as 
 
 '5c per quart, and the cost of distribution as 5c per quart. 
 
 Wiiislow estimates the cost of bottling and retailing milk in 
 the city as follows : 
 
 Freight and cartage 1% cents 
 
 Bottling and icing 1% cents 
 
 Wagon delivery 1 cent 
 
 Office expenses % cent 
 
 Total cost of handling, per quart . . 4 1 / 4 cents 
 
DAIRYING 93 
 
 838. Various estimates have been made of the way in which 
 the cost of milk from the farm to the consumer is divided. 
 
 N. Y.* Boston** 
 cents cents 
 
 Paid the farmer 2.75 4.4 
 
 Cost of transportation 5 .69 
 
 City delivery 4.75 3.20 
 
 Total per quart 8.00 8.30 
 
 839. According to the investigation of prices of transpor- 
 tation and delivering city milk reported by the Secretary of 
 Agriculture for the last week in June, 1910, the average price 
 paid by the consumer for milk in 78 cities was 8 cents per quart, 
 with the following prices in different sections of the country : 
 
 Cents 
 
 North Atlantic and N. Central States 7.5 
 
 Western States 8.9 
 
 South Central States 9.1 
 
 South Atlantic . . 9.3 
 
 CARE OF DAIRY PRODUCTS BY THE CONSUMER. 
 
 840. Much has been written concerning the care of milk 
 on the farm. Printed rules and regulations have been distributed 
 to the producers of milk, calling their attention to the effect 
 which the condition of the cows, the cans, the barnyard, the 
 stable, etc., etc., will have on the purity and the keeping quality 
 of the milk after it leaves their hands. 
 
 Prevention of all kinds of defects in milk is certainly better 
 than any atempts to cure them, but the care and handling of 
 milk by the consumer is a matter that the producer is not re- 
 sponsible for, and he may not therefore be the cause of the sour 
 milk in every case. This is shown by the fact that the same lot 
 of milk may be distributed to a number of families, and some of 
 them complain it does not keep well, while others have no fault 
 
 *Winslow Production and Handling of Clean Milk. 
 **Farmers' Bui. 469, 0. B. S. 
 
94 DAIRYING 
 
 to find; here the trouble is undoubtedly caused by the way in 
 which the milk is used or handled by the customers. The milk 
 man is not always at fault when the milk or cream sours on the 
 consumers' hands, because the milk man cannot be sure of the 
 care it will receive after he delivers it. 
 
 841. The care of milk and cream after it reaches the kitchen 
 is just as important as the farm care of these products. Some 
 of the causes of milk souring after it gets into the hands of the 
 consumer are the following: 
 
 1. Frequent changes in the help employed at the customer's 
 house. 
 
 2. A long time for serving breakfast to different members of 
 the family, when the cream may stand on the breakfast table in 
 a warm room for two hours or more. It may have been taken 
 off the ice at 7 :00 a. m., but by waiting for the last member of 
 the family to have breakfast, which may be 9 :00 a. m., the cream 
 has warmed up to 70 F. before it is returned to the ice box. 
 
 3. Lack of ice in the refrigerator, which may be located 
 near the cook stove in a hot kitchen, and the help or someone 
 else has forgotten to put the ice card in the window and keep 
 the refrigerator supplied with ice. 
 
 4. Placing the bottle of milk and cream in the grass on the 
 shady side of the house instead of in a refrigerator. 
 
 5. Trying to make a small quantity of cream go too far in 
 a large family by diluting it with milk which is slightly sour or 
 tainted. In such a case the milk is at fault, but the cream gets 
 Hie blame. 
 
 6. Diluting milk and cream with rice water in the kitchen 
 before it goes on the table. 
 
 7. Requiring the milk man to take the garbage from the 
 house if. his milk is bought. This pollutes the milk wagon, but 
 the customer expects the milk man to deliver perfectly sweet 
 and clean milk just the same. 
 
 8. Buying dairy products from two firms, one cheap and 
 the other not so cheap, and complaining of defects in milk and 
 cream to the head of one firm, and asking him to exchange some 
 of his high quality goods for spoiled products on hand. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 95 
 
 9. Emptying bottles of milk and cream into poorly washed 
 utensils, such as tomato cans simply rinsed out with cold water. 
 
 10. Taking several bottles of milk, daily, placing them in a 
 refrigerator and overlooking one which may be a week or more 
 old when finally used. This one will be spoiled, but the customer 
 immediately calls up headquarters and wants to know what's the 
 matter with his milk. 
 
 11. Filling several small pitchers with milk or cream for a 
 large family, placing these on the table, and afterwards gathering 
 what is left from each pitcher into a milk bottle, where it is kept 
 in refrigerator. This will usually be sour by the next meal be- 
 cause of the distribution it has had in several .pitchers, and the 
 temperature at which it has been kept while on the table. 
 
 12. Supplying milk and cream to a grocer who delivers' it 
 to customers. Some bottles of old milk will occasionally be over- 
 looked in the back part of his refrigerator, and these will l^ter 
 be delivered to customers. 
 
 13. Dirty house refrigerators where dairy products are/kepe 
 by the customers. 
 
 14. Failing to return clean bottles and using them for all 
 purposes around the house, such as turpentine and coal oil con- 
 tainers. 
 
 THE DAIRY HOUSE OR MILK ROOM. 
 
 842. After milking the cows, the milk is disposed of in 
 v arious ways. First, it may be shipped in cans to a city supply, a 
 oondensary, a cheese factory, or a creamery. Such cans of milk 
 may be held until delivery in cold water as shown in Plate 39 
 where the water pumped from a deep well flows through the milk 
 tanfc: to the stock watering tank. If this water is kept at a 
 temperature near 50 F. the milk will keep sweet, provided the 
 cans are clean, the milk is clean, and is cooled immediately after 
 milking. 
 
 The milk house should be well lighted and ventilated, and 
 not used for any other purpose than for storing or handling milk. 
 If in addition to the tank of cold water described above a place is 
 provided for running the warm milk over a clean cooler into the 
 
96 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 I 
 1 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 97 
 
 cans, and for washing and steaming the empty cans, the milk 
 room will be supplied with all the necessary conveniences for 
 handling milk shipped from the farm in cans. 
 
 Second, milk may be skimmed and butter made from the 
 cream at the farm, o'r the cream may be sold directly to a buyer. 
 In such a case the dairy house should be large enough to accom- 
 modate a cream separator, a cream cooler and a churn and butter 
 worker. A small boiler room at one end may be necessary if hot 
 water and steam are not secured from some other source, and an 
 ice refrigerator provided in which the butter or cream is kept 
 until sold. 
 
 I. 
 
 Plate 40. Floor plans of dairy house, showing general arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 If this equipment is all placed under one roof it may be ar- 
 ranged as shown in Plate 40.* 
 
 Third, milk may be sold to families and buyers near home. 
 
 Such a business is satisfactorily handled in a combination ice 
 house, refrigerator and milk room designed especially for a dairy 
 
 I where milk is bottled on the farm and sold to consumers. 
 843. Some of the essential points in any milk or dairy 
 *Cir. 131, B. A. I. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 Plate 41. Cross section through dairy house. 
 
 OIHEN3ION3 
 
 X 12 
 
 Plate 42. Floor plan showing arrangement of equipment in small 
 dairy house suitable for dairy of thirty cows. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 99 
 
 house are : I. That it is open on all sides and away from any 
 rubbish or bad odors ; 2, that it will be used for no other purpose 
 than a dairy house ; 3, the floor should be cement or tile with good 
 drainage and a trap in all drains. All the windows and doors 
 should fit tightly, but be easily opened and provided with fly 
 screens; 4, a porch and vestibule at the entrance door will 
 furnish a protection from outside weather, and will help to keep 
 some dirt out of the building; 5, the inside walls may be either 
 plaster or wood, and painted so as to be easily washed ; 6, if large 
 enough, the building may be divided into three parts, a boiler 
 and fuel room ; a milk receiving room in which a cold water tank 
 is located, and a separating and wash room. 
 
 COMBINATION MILK HOUSE AND ICE STORAGE. 
 
 844. The combination of the refrigerator and ice storage 
 building here described* is a modification of the Hanahan system. 
 The air circulating around the ice stored in the ice house, comes 
 
 
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 Plate 43. Floor plan of combination ice and dairy house, 
 into the refrigerator through the floor, and out near the ceiling 
 ^Hoard's Dairyman, Jan. 21, 11, p. 1504. 
 
IOO 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 into the ice storage room. This ice is packed closely, no saw- 
 dust is used, but it freezes into one immense block insulated by 
 the walls of the building, but kept away from the walls by 2x6- 
 inch strips ; concrete girders 4x10 inches are built in the concrete 
 floor, and across these girders are laid 2x6-inch timbers on which 
 the block of ice rests. 
 
 
 cm 
 en 
 
 CZ3 
 
 cm 
 
 Plate 44. Elevation of combination ice and dairy house. 
 
 The cold air passes through the space between the girders 
 to the floor of the refrigerator, which is made of narrow plank 
 about 1 inch apart, and so built that it may easily be removed and 
 cleaned. 
 
 In building this or any other arrangement for a dairy house 
 and cold room it is well to have a clear understanding of some 
 of the general principles concerning insulation, weight of ice, 
 dryness of the air, etc., etc., and then work out a plan suitable 
 for each locality. 
 
 845. There are at least three ways of supplying the low 
 temperature for a cold room, which is so necessary for handling 
 dairy products in hot weather: First, by means of an "ice ma- 
 chine ' ' ; second, by using a mixture of ice and salt which is held 
 in a series of cylindrical metal storage tanks at one side of a room, 
 and third, by the use of ice alone. 
 
 The cost of this reduced temperature will depend to a large 
 extent on the location of the dairy. It will be readily understood 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 101 
 
 that in some climates and places, where a body of water is handy, 
 and ice can be easily obtained, the use of natural ice is cheaper 
 than a mechanical refrigerating machine, while in other localities, 
 especially if power is cheap, or can be obtained at a reasonable 
 
 Plate 45. Section through combination ice and dairy house. 
 
 price, and no body of water is convenient for supplying ice, the 
 ice machine may be a more economical investment than the ice 
 house in which natural ice is stored. 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE DESIRED. 
 
 846. In handling bottled milk or cream, and in buttermak- 
 ing, a temperature below freezing is not necessary except in the 
 
102 - DAIRYING 
 
 case of storing butter, which will not be here considered, as this 
 is an industry of the large cold storage establishments. A tem- 
 perature below freezing will, of course, preserve milk and cream 
 a longer time than a higher temperature, but when these ar<> 
 frozen it has been found that the fat, casein and albumen collect 
 in lumps that do not liquify satisfactorily when the frozen milk 
 or cream is thawed. There 'is, therefore, no necessity of provid- 
 ing a freezing temperature in a farm dairy cold room, but for 
 getting the best results in handling dairy products, especially 
 bottled milk and cream, a temperature of 35 to 45 degrees should 
 be available. 
 
 The length of time one wishes to hold milk sweet before de 
 livery to the consumer must also be taken into account in con- 
 sidering the temperature to which these products are to be cooled. 
 Nearly everyone has learned by this time that the sooner milk is 
 cooled after milking or after the heating process in pasteuriza- 
 tion, the better the flavor of the milk and the longer it will keep 
 sweet. No amount of cooling will restore good qualities to oki 
 milk, even though it is still sweet. 
 
 847. Milk should always be cooled as soon as possible after 
 milking. If the products, such as milk and cream, are consumed 
 by customers within twenty-four hours after milking, a tempera- 
 ture of 50 F. may suffice, but if it is desirable to preserve the 
 products for a longer time, a lower temperature is needed. It is 
 not, however, considered good practice to keep milk several days, 
 even if it is sweet, as certain changes take place in milk before 
 it sours, and the sooner it is consumed after milking, the better. 
 
 ICE STORAGE AND COLD ROOM CONNECTED. 
 
 848. A convenient arrangement for a dairy is a construc- 
 tion which provides for the ice storage, the cold room or refrigera- 
 tor and the milk or cream room in one system ; that is to say, an 
 arrangement by which the three rooms are connected. This is 
 much more convenient than to have the ice stored in a separate 
 building some distance from the milk room, as the labor of trans- 
 ferring the ice from the ice house to the refrigerator is thus 
 avoided. 
 
DAIRYING 103 
 
 The construction of the ice storage house and the cold room 
 or refrigerator, however, should be somewhat different because 
 of the purpose for which the two are used. First, the refrigerator 
 should have an insulated concrete floor, while the floor of the ice 
 house should be covered with sawdust or some insulating ma- 
 terial on which the ice is stored. In one case the insulation is 
 above and in the other it is below the floor. 
 
 Second, the construction of the walls of the two buildings 
 must be somewhat different. A thin air space is needed in the in- 
 side wall of the ice storage house next to the ice or the sawdust 
 in order to prevent the dampness of the ice penetrating the insu- 
 lated walls of the ice house. The extra air space is not always 
 necessary in the refrigerator because in this room the air must 
 be dry and the ice is not placed near the walls, consequently they 
 are not exposed to the dampness that comes from contact with 
 ice stored against them as in the ice house. 
 
 849. Dry air is one of the most important things to be 
 secured in a refrigerator. First, because it prevents the growth 
 of moulds which may be responsible for a musty odor in the 
 refrigerator, and second, because it makes the insulation effective. 
 A damp atmosphere will penetrate wooden walls which, when 
 wet, become good conductors of heat, and their insulating value 
 is thus much reduced. 
 
 INSULATING MATERIAL. 
 
 850. The prime object of insulation is to prevent the passage 
 of air currents and protect the space enclosed from changes in 
 the outside temperature. The cold temperature which may be 
 obtained by means of ice is held in the room by the insulation. 
 Protection by insulation is obtained by means of walls varying 
 in thickness, but built in such a way that currents of air cannot 
 pass through them. The construction ordinarily used for this 
 purpose is a board, a brick, or a cement wall on the outside, next 
 to this is a space varying from four to twelve inches, which is 
 filled with some insulating material such as shavings, sawdust, 
 mineral wool, etc., and inside of this a covering or wall built of 
 
104 DAIRYING 
 
 matched lumber; this is then covered with two thicknesses of 
 damp proof paper with edges overlapping at least two inches, 
 and on this paper another layer of matched ^lumber is placed. 
 This last layer gives the inside finish of the room. 
 
 851. The so-called empty, "dead-air space" should be 
 avoided, or no effect made to secure it, as a strictly dead-air 
 space is nearly impossible to obtain. There will necessarily be a 
 difference in the temperature of outside and the inside wall en- 
 closing such an empty space and this difference in temperature 
 will cause the warm air to ascend on one side, and the cold air to 
 descend on the other, thus creating a current in this "dead air" 
 space and interfering with true insulation. It is also about im- 
 possible to get the walls so carefully built that there will not be 
 cracks or nail holes in them which will allow currents of air to 
 pass through the "dead air" space. 
 
 When such an empty space is filled with dry shavings, saw- 
 dust, etc., these currents of air are prevented and the inside room 
 will be insulated and protected from changes of the outside 
 temperature. 
 
 852. It is very essential, first, that all insulating material 
 should be absolutely dry when placed in these dead air spaces; 
 (if shavings, sawdust, etc., are used, these should be spread out 
 in a thin layer and thoroughly dried before using) ; second, that 
 the walls should be built so that cracks or nail holes are few, if 
 any, as both these defects will diminish the effect of insulation; 
 third, the lumber of the walls should be matched boards, and no 
 tar paper should be used because of its odor; fourth, protect the 
 insulation from dampness that may come from melting ice, by a 
 thin air space and the use of damp proof paper. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FLOOR OF REFRIGERATING ROOM. 
 
 853. A wood floor of any kind is not suitable for a farm 
 refrigerator room, because when it is wet it is a good conductor 
 of heat and it decays easily. Dry wood only is suitable for a cold 
 room, and it is not probable that the floor of a dairy refrigerator 
 will be kept dry all the time. 
 
DAIRYING 105 
 
 The floor should be insulated as well as the walls and ceiling. 
 Ruddick, of Canada, made extensive experiments with various 
 kinds of floor construction, including the use of hollow brick, 
 concrete blocks, etc., and got satisfactory results from a floor 
 built as follows: A four-inch layer of concrete covered with 
 eight inches of cinders, on top of which is placed tar paper, and 
 above the paper a two-inch finishing coat of concrete. The tar 
 paper prevents the wet concrete from filling the air spaces in the 
 cinders and spoiling the insulating effect of the cinders. Some 
 other material than tar paper, like roofing pitch, may be spread 
 over the first coating of concrete. The cinders must be kept dry 
 and thus make them an effective insulating layer. A sufficient 
 slope should be given to the floor to drain it, and the opening 
 to the drain provided with a trap to keep out currents of air. 
 
 THE FLOOR OF AN ICE STORAGE HOUSE. 
 
 854. The floor of an ice storage house must be well drained 
 so as to carry away any water from the melting ice. A layer of 
 gravel on top of this drained area can be covered with sawdust 
 ten inches or more deep, and the ice blocks packed close together 
 on this dry sawdust. No sawdust should be allowed to get in be- 
 tween the cakes of ice. The walls of the ice storage room should 
 extend into the ground far enough to prevent circulation of air 
 under the foundation, and a coating of pitch or waterproofing 
 placed on the outside of this wall, especially below the surface of 
 the ground. 
 
 THE WALLS OF THE ICE STORAGE BUILDING. 
 
 855. The outside walls can be built of lumber, brick, con- 
 crete, or cement blocks. All these materials should be given a 
 coating of waterproofing material, either paint, pitch or paraffin, 
 in order to prevent the absorption of moisture which makes the 
 walls a good conductor of heat and reduces the insulating 
 efficiency. If a waterproof covering is not used the inside of 
 
io6 DAIRYING 
 
 concrete, brick or cement walls can be covered with matched 
 lumber by nailing narrow strips of wood to the wall, and after 
 covering these with waterproof paper, nail on the matched 
 boards; this will take the place of an outside waterproof cover- 
 ing of some kind. When paper is used for protecting walls from 
 dampness each layer of paper should lap over several inches, and 
 two layers are better than one. 
 
 The studding are placed against this outside wall, and a 
 space of six to twelve inches is left for filling with dry shavings, 
 sawdust or some insulating material. On the inner side of the 
 wall around the studding space, matched lumber is nailed, then 
 a layer of paper, then narrow strips of furring, to which is nailed 
 the inside layers of matched lumber; the object of this air space 
 furnished by the narrow strips of furring being to protect the 
 shavings or insulating materials from the dampness of the melt- 
 ing ice. 
 
 These directions are given only to illustrate a way of ob- 
 taining the essential features of insulation, which are, the pro- 
 tection of the insulating material from moisture and from cur- 
 rents of air, both of which may come from the outside and from 
 the inside of the building. 
 
 Any suitable material or combination of materials may be 
 used in building the walls. The principal objects to be attained 
 are efficiency and economy of construction that will keep the 
 insulating material dry a* all times. 
 
 856. The walls of a refrigerator do not need the air space 
 provided by the strip of furring mentioned above, as there should 
 be no dampness coming to the wall from the inside of the room. 
 This inside wall in the refrigerator, however, should be built of 
 odorless wood, which may be either oiled, shellacked or white- 
 washed. It is claimed that a little salt added to the whitewash 
 will prevent its rubbing off when touched. The so-called cold 
 water paints may be used, and to these or to the whitewash some 
 disinfectant may be added to kill molds, and if the place is at all 
 damp, formalin or dilute solution of corrosive sublimate may be 
 used. 
 
DAIRYING 107 
 
 THE WEIGHT OF ICE. 
 
 857. A cube of ice one foot square, weighs about 58 pounds 
 when the ice is solid. There will be some variation from 
 this in actual practice, depending on the amount of snow and 
 shale in the ice. An approximation of the amount of ice needed 
 by the user of the plant may be calculated by determining for 
 how many days a given amount of ice will be used during the 
 year. If a space five feet square and five feet deep is packed 
 solid with ice, this is 5x5x5, or 125 cubic feet, which multiplied 
 by 58 Ibs., gives 7250 Ibs. This will supply about fifty pounds of 
 ice per day for 125 days, when a loss is allowed of about eight 
 pounds per cubic foot from waste. Similar calculations may be 
 made for supplying different amounts of ice per day for any 
 number of days. 
 
 The ice house in the plan submitted with this article will hold 
 about 10x14x9, equal to 1260 cubic feet, which multiplied by 58, 
 gives 73,080 pounds, which is about 36 tons of ice. 
 
 CITY MILK ORDINANCES. 
 
 858. In former years very little attention was given to the 
 regulation of anything, but the skimming and the watering of 
 milk. The developments in bacteriology have shown, however, 
 that milk may be the means of spreading many contagious 
 diseases, and on this account it has become necessary to protect 
 the health of the people by means of city ordinances which are 
 designed to make it impossible to sell any unsanitary or diseased 
 milk or cream within the city limits. Such ordinances are 
 usually made to cover the following points at least : 
 
 A license for which $1.00 is paid each year must be obtained 
 by everyone selling milk or cream in the city. 
 
 The location of the dairy or dairies, and the number of cows 
 supplying the milk, as well as permission to inspect the barn and 
 premises where the milk is produced must be submitted. 
 
 Each delivery wagon must have its license number marked 
 on it. 
 
io8 DAIRYING 
 
 All cows must be examined by the tuberculin test at least 
 once each year, and the results of such tests determine how soon 
 a retest should be made. 
 
 The sanitary condition of the cow stable, milk house, ap- 
 paratus, bottles, cans, wagons, etc., etc., must conform to certain 
 regulations. 
 
 The pasteurization of milk or cream must be done at certain 
 prescribed temperatures and held for certain lengths of time at 
 these temperatures. 
 
 A standard bacteria content per 1 c.c. milk and cream may be 
 adopted, together with standards for fat and solids-not-fat in 
 whole milk, skim milk and cream. 
 
 The use of any kind of a preservative in milk or cream is 
 always forbidden, and provision made for making complaints, 
 as well as for inspection and for fines when any of the provisions 
 of the ordinance are violated. 
 
 Experience with city milk ordinances has shown that unless 
 an inspector, who may devote as much of his time as is necessary 
 to this work is provided, the public gets very little protection or 
 benefit from such ordinances. 
 
 STATE DAIRY LAWS. 
 
 859. The laws of a state relating to the sale of dairy pro- 
 ducts may include all the regulations contained in city milk 
 ordinances and many others. 
 
 Strict regulations are usually made concerning the sale of 
 butterine, oleomargarine and filled cheese, the shipping of un- 
 washed, empty milk cans, the location of a farm cream separator, 
 the use of a state brand or stencil or label, the capacity of Bab- 
 cock milk test glassware and the lawful reading and reporting of 
 test results. 
 
 Provisions are also made for prosecuting any violations of 
 these laws, and the enforcement of all penalties. 
 
DAIRYING 109 
 
 Some of the standards contained in state dairy laws are the 
 following, taken from the Wisconsin laws: 
 
 Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the 
 complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and 
 kept, excluding that obtained within eight days before and four 
 days after calving, and contains not less than eight and one-half 
 (8.5) per cent of solids-not-fat, and not less than three (3) per 
 cent of milk fat. 
 
 Modified milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have 
 a definite and stated percentage of one or more of its con- 
 stituents. 
 
 Skim milk is milk from which a part, or all of the cream has 
 been removed, and contains not less than nine (9) per cent or 
 milk solids. 
 
 Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boiling, 
 but sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present, and 
 immediately cooled to fifty (50) degrees Fahrenheit or lower. 
 
 Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated to the tempera- 
 ture of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient to 
 kill all organisms present. 
 
 Evaporated milk is milk from which a considerable portion 
 of water has been evaporated, and contains not less than twenty- 
 eight (28) per cent of milk solids, nor less than eight (8) per 
 cent of milk fat. 
 
 Condensed milk is milk from which a considerable portion of 
 water has been evaporated, and to which sugar (sucrose) has 
 been added, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) per 
 cent of milk solids, nor less than eight (8) per cent of milk fat. 
 
 Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a considerable 
 portion of water has been evaporated. 
 
 Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which rises to 
 the surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it by 
 centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and contains not less than 
 eighteen (18) per cent of milk fat. 
 
 Evaporated cream, clotted cream, is cream from which a 
 considerable portion of water has been evaporated. 
 
no DAIRYING 
 
 .Milk fat, butter fat, is the fat of milk, and has a Reichert- 
 Meissl number not less than twenty-four (24) and a specific 
 gravity of not less than nine hundred five thousandths (0.905) at 
 forty degrees (40) Centrigrade compared with water at the 'same 
 temperature. 
 
 Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering 
 in any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a 
 mass, which also contains a small portion of the other milk 
 constituents, with or without salt or added coloring matter, and 
 contains not less than eighty (80) per cent of milk fat. (Wis. 
 law is now 82.5% fat). 
 
 Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by 
 melting butter and reworking, without the addition or use of 
 chemicals or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, and con- 
 tains not more than sixteen (16) per cent of water, and at least 
 eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk fat. 
 
 Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from 
 milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or 
 
 lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments anc 
 seasoning or added coloring matter and containing, in the water- 
 free substance, not less than fifty (50) per cent of milk fat. 
 
 Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar 
 with or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than 
 fourteen (14) per cent of milk fat. 
 
 Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar 
 and sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less than twelve 
 (12) per cent of milk fat. 
 
 Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar 
 and sound, non-rancid nuts, and contains not less than twelve 
 (12) per cent of milk fat. 
 
DAIRYING in 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 Note to Students These questions are to be answered inde- 
 pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your exam- 
 ination. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the exam- 
 ination. Number the answers the same as the questions, but 
 never repeat the question. Mail answers promptly when com- 
 pleted. 
 
 1. In what way may milk become a dangerous food? 
 
 2. About how much milk is used for making cheese each 
 year in the United States? 
 
 3. About how many pounds of dirt is consumed per year 
 per man by the milk consumers of Chicago? 
 
 4. How does the condition of the milk supply indicate the 
 state of civilization of a community? 
 
 5. About how many germs or bacteria in one drop of com- 
 mon, sweet milk? 
 
 6. What is the usual standard of city ordinances in regard 
 to the bacteria content of milk? 
 
 7. What general names may be given to the bacteria in 
 milk, and how many kinds have been found therein? 
 
ii2 DAIRYING 
 
 8. How many bacteria may grow in one day from one gei 
 and what is meant by a "good" dairy germ? 
 
 9. From what sources do bacteria get into milk? 
 
 10. Is an expensive stable necessary for producing clean 
 milk, and why? 
 
 11. Name at least 10 important points that should be con- 
 sidered in building a cow stable. 
 
 12. How may the cow yard influence the number of flies 
 around the cows? 
 
 13. What kind of a water supply do cows need, and why? 
 
 14. In what 3 ways may cows and milk be seeded with 
 tuberculosis germs? 
 
 15. How may silage be fed so as not to convey the silage 
 odor to milk? 
 
 16. Explain the grooming necessary for a cow before milk- 
 ing. 
 
 17. What effect on milk flow has rough treatment, loud 
 talk and dog chasing of the cows? 
 
 18. What is the least number of days that milk should not 
 be used both before and after calving? 
 
 19. How is milk different than most other food products 
 when consumed? 
 
 20. Why should not a sick person or one with sore hands 
 be allowed to milk or handle milk? 
 
 21. Why should cows be milked with dry hands, and what 
 benefit may come from regularity in milking ? 
 
 22. What effect has lazy milking on the amount of milk 
 produced each year? 
 
 23. Show by an illustration the difference in wages per 
 month that a good milker may earn over a careless milker. 
 
DAIRYING 113 
 
 24. Why should the first jets of "fore" milk be kept 
 separate from the rest of the milk? 
 
 25. What is a covered milk pail, and how much dirt may 
 they keep out of milk? 
 
 26. If milk strainers are used, how should they be made, 
 and how cleaned? 
 
 27. Describe 3 methods of cooling milk, and why should 
 milk be cooled at once after milking? 
 
 28. Is aeration of milk necessary, and when should warm 
 milk be mixed with cold milk? 
 
 29. Into what two classes may the odors in milk be divided, 
 and how may silage be safely fed to cows without contaminating 
 the milk? 
 
 30. What milk flavors cannot be removed by aeration? 
 
 31. Describe a satisfactory washing of milk tinware. 
 
 32. Why should night and morning milk be kept separate, 
 and give directions for transporting milk in cans? 
 
 33. Name some injurious common feeds for dairy cows. 
 
 34. Describe a satisfactory milk house. 
 
 35. Briefly describe two types of dairy barns. 
 
 36. Give 3 points to be considered in locating a cow stable. 
 
 * 
 
 37. How may stable and barnyard construction influence 
 the number of flies in summer ? 
 
 38. Describe several kinds of drinking water supply and 
 methods of watering cows. 
 
 39. How much light is needed in a cow stable and why is it 
 important ? 
 
 40. Give general description of conditions that make 
 ventilation possible. 
 
ii 4 DAIRYING 
 
 41. How much air should a cow be supplied per minute and 
 what influence does bad air have on cows? 
 
 42. What is a good indication of poor ventilation in a cow 
 stable? 
 
 ,43. On what basis may the size of a cow stable be calcu- 
 lated ? 
 
 44. Mention at least 6 important points in barn ventilation. 
 
 45. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each of 2 
 ways, of keeping cows in place in a stable. 
 
 46. Give some of the important details of construction in 
 building a cow stable floor, a gutter and a manger. 
 
 47. About how much more milk and butter fat may one cow 
 produce than another from the same amount of feed ? 
 
 48. ' How much difference between the food required by an 
 800 Ib. cow and a 1500 Ib. cow to produce 1 Ib. butter fat? 
 
 49. Calculate the nutritive ratio for each of the following 
 feeds: Wheat, bran, alfalfa hay, corn silage, potatoes, cabbage, 
 and mixed hay. 
 
 50. Calculate a ration for a cow weighing 1200 Ibs. and 
 producing 1.5 Ibs. butter fat in her milk daily, using the follow- 
 ing feeds: Corn silage, clover hay, corn meal and wheat bran 
 to make up the ration. 
 
 51. If a cow gives 20 Ibs. milk testing 4.0% fat per day, how 
 many Ibs. grain mixture should be fed dail^, and how many when 
 she gives 40 Ibs. milk, testing 3.5% fat; also when giving only 
 8 Ibs. milk, testing 4.5% fat? 
 
 52. What 3 things should be considered in determining the 
 best time of year for cows to freshen? 
 
 53. Give points to be considered in forming an opinion 
 about raising heifer calves. 
 
 54. Give some of the points that make a bull profitable to a 
 dairy herd, and which generation will contain over 90% of the 
 blood of a bull. 
 

 DAIRYING 115 
 
 55. Give some examples illustrating the increase in value 
 of a herd by using a pure bred sire. 
 
 56. Give at least 6 benefits that may be derived from a 
 community breeders' association. 
 
 57. How may tuberculin testing protect both man and 
 beast? What animals are subject to the disease, tuberculosis, and 
 how do they contract it? 
 
 58. How often should tuberculin tests be made, and at what 
 
 season of the year? 
 
 59. Give brief description of tuberculin testing of cows. 
 
 60. Describe a remedy for milk fever, and the treatment of 
 abortion in cows. 
 
 61. How may the people interested in a milk supply be 
 classified, and what is the responsibility of each class? 
 
 62. Give a brief outline of a way to secure the co-operation 
 that will be effective in improving a milk supply. 
 
 63. Give at least 30 observations that should be made in 
 scoring a dairy farm. 
 
 64. How many meetings of the milk men should be held be- 
 fore a score of each dairy is made public? 
 
 65. What score must a dairy have to be classed as "good" 
 and as "poor?" 
 
 66. What is the scale of points on which bottled milk is 
 scored? 
 
 
 67. What is the difference between market milk and certi- 
 fied milk? 
 
 68. What is meant by a milk commission? 
 
 69. What standards must "inspected" milk pass? 
 
 70. What are some of the advantages of pasteurized milk, 
 arid some of the objections to it? 
 
u6 DAIRYING 
 
 71. Why has spoiled, pasteurized milk such an offensive 
 odor, and what effect has pasteurizing on dirty and on clean milk f 
 
 72. Describe "home" pasteurization, giving temperatures. 
 
 73. What has made the "held" method of pasteurization 
 unpopular, and how may this be overcome? 
 
 74. At what temperature are lactic acid or milk-souring 
 bacteria destroyed, and why is a higher temperature needed in 
 pasteurizing ? 
 
 75. How may milk be pasteurized and still retain a cream 
 line in bottled milk? 
 
 76. What advantage is obtained by cooling after heating in 
 pasteurizing milk? 
 
 77. How long a time must milk be heated to 158, to 148 and 
 to 140 degrees F. in order to have it pass as pasteurized? 
 
 78. How many pounds of milk testing 3% fat must be 
 mixed with 250 Ibs. milk testing 5% fat to give a mixture testing 
 4% fat? 
 
 79. How many pounds milk testing 3% fat must be added 
 to 175 Ibs. cream testing 30% fat to give a mixture testing 20% 
 fat? 
 
 80. How many pounds cream testing 25% fat can be made 
 from 60 Ibs. butter containing 82% fat, using skim milk to mix 
 with the butter? 
 
 81. What are the objections to bottling milk from each, 
 cow as soon as she is milked? 
 
 82. What are the objections to rubber parts in any ap- 
 paratus used for handling milk? 
 
 83. Describe some of the important points in a sterilizing 
 oven used by a milk dealer. 
 
 84. Describe the treatment of milk bottles from the time 
 they are received empty until filled with milk and ready for de- 
 livery. 
 
DAIRYING 117 
 
 85. How may the ca r pa"ity of pint milk bottles be tested? 
 
 86. How long will a glass milk bottle last in daily use, and 
 how many will be needed in a year to supply a business of 1000 
 bottles per day? 
 
 87. How much of the money paid by the customer is re- 
 ceived by the dairy man or the milk producer per qt. of milk? 
 
 88. Give at least 10 ways in which the consumer or buyer of 
 milk and cream may be the cause of its spoiling too soon. 
 
 89. Give 5 or more essential points in a milk house. 
 
 90. What are 3 ways in which a dairy refrigerator may be 
 kept cold? 
 
 91. What objection is there to freezing milk in order to 
 keep it sweet? 
 
 92. Describe the making of walls of a refrigerator and of an 
 ice storehouse; how do they differ? 
 
 9:1 Mention 2 ways in which dry air helps a refrigerator. 
 
 94. What is the objection to a dead air space in an insulated 
 wall? 
 
 95. Describe the construction of a concrete floor for a 
 refrigerator and for an ice house. 
 
 96. Describe the construction of the walls of an ice house. 
 
 97. How many pounds of ice may be stored in a room 
 
 . 10x20x9 feet? 
 
 98. Give some of the essential points to be included in a 
 city milk ordinance. 
 
 99. Give some of the regulations that should be included in 
 state dairy laws. 
 
 100. What per cent of fat is required in legal milk, cream, 
 ice cream and cheese? 
 
n8 DAIRYING 
 
 * Vs Write this at the end of your Examination 
 
 I hereby certify that the above questions were answered en- 
 tirely by me. 
 
 Signed - 
 Address 
 
Correspondence College 
 of Agriculture 
 
 DAIRYING Part V 
 
 lHB"Rai^ l 3If=^^=r,r=n^i^nr^^^irim 
 
THE 
 
 Correspondence College 
 
 of Agriculture 
 
 FT. WAYNE, INDIANA 
 
 DAIRYING Part V 
 
 Butter Making 
 
 By EDWARD H. FARRINGTON, M. S. 
 
 Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the University of Wisconsir 
 
 This is the Fifth of a Series of Six Books giving a Complete Course of Instruction 
 
 in Dairying 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1911 
 Zhe CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
NOTE TO STUDENTS 
 
 In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from 
 this paper, you must thoroughly master the text. While 
 it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the 
 text to memory, still there is nothing contained in the text 
 which is not absolutely essential for the intelligent dairy- 
 man to know* For your own good* never refer to the 
 examination questions until you have finished your study 
 of the text* By following this plan, the examination 
 paper will show what you have learned from the text. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 DAIRYING Part V 
 
 BUTTER MAKING. 
 
 370. In a general way the process of butter making is the 
 same "on the farm as it is in the creamery. Cream is churned 
 until the butter separates in the shape of small granules about 
 the size of wheat kernels, the butter milk is then drawn off, a 
 little water added to rinse away the last traces of butter milk, 
 the granular butter salted, then worked, and finally placed into 
 jars or tubs and sold. 
 
 The quality of the butter made at either the farm or the 
 factory depends largely on the condition of the cream when it 
 is churned and on the skill of the butter maker in handling the 
 granular butter after it is churned. The quality of the cream 
 depends to a large extent on the way in which it is skimmed 
 from the milk. A great deal of the farm butter is now made 
 from what we have already described in a previous lesson as 
 gravity cream, and nearly all the creamery butter is made at the 
 present time from cream which has been skimmed from the milk 
 either at the farm or at the creamery by a centrifugal separator. 
 This difference in the kind of cream commonly churned at the 
 farm and at the factory makes the process of butter making 
 somewhat different in the two places. The farm butter is made 
 from milk of one herd and the cream from this milk is therefore 
 more susceptible to conditions that influence churning, such as 
 feed, stripper cows, etc., than is the cream at a creamery which 
 
4 DAIRYING 
 
 is a mixture of cream from many farms. In the creamery the 
 peculiar characteristics of the cream from any one farm are lost 
 in the large quantity of which it is a part in the factory churn. 
 The difference in conditions under which butter is made at the 
 farm and at the creamery require a somewhat different discus- 
 sion of the process as carried on in the two places, but the farm 
 butter maker may gain many useful points that will aid him in 
 improving the quality of the farm butter, by carefully following 
 the discussion of the creamery butter maker's methods, which 
 will be given somewhat in detail after the general description of 
 farm butter making. 
 
 FARM BUTTER MAKING FROM GRAVITY CREAM. 
 
 371. Cream From "Shallow Setting". If cream is obtained 
 by "shallow setting" the milk and this is allowed to stand until 
 the skim milk underneath is sour and thick, such cream is more 
 or less ripe or sour when it is skimmed. This will cause a 
 difference in ripeness of the cream from day to day and make 
 the butter of different churnings very uneven in quality. It is 
 therefore nearly impossible to get a uniform grade of butter from 
 week to week when the cream is obtained in this way. The only 
 satisfactory treatment of such cream is to churn it as often as 
 every other day. After allowing the mixed cream from two to 
 four skimmings to stand for at least 12 hours, this cream should 
 be strained through a cheese cloth placed over a hair sieve into 
 the churn. This will remove the lumps of curd and dried cream 
 that are often responsible for the white specks in butter. 
 
 By churning as often as every other day, the best butter 
 possible to make from such cream will be obtained, provided 
 the cream does not get over-ripe and it is kept in a cool place 
 before churning. If such cream stands longer than two days it 
 may become tainted and sometimes strong from the excessive 
 souring that goes on, especially if it is allowed to stand several 
 days and sometimes a week between churnings. 
 
 372. The losses from low prices in selling such butter be- 
 cause of its defective flavor that comes from the cream several 
 
DAIRYING 5 
 
 days or a week old will be greater than the expense of churning 
 as often as every other day. The only way in which a satisfac- 
 tory grade of butter can be made from "shallow setting" gravity 
 cream is to either churn every other day or to skim the cream 
 before it sours and then keep the sweet cream in a cool, clean 
 place so that it sours very slowly during the days between 
 chu.rnings. There is more danger of making defective butter 
 from over-ripening (see Paragraph 470) than from under-ripen- 
 ing such cream, and the sweeter it is churned the better the 
 quality of the butter obtained from it. 
 
 373. If cream stands so long that the whey separates, this 
 whey should be poured off and not put into the churn with the 
 cream, as the richer the cream in the churn the better the quality 
 of the butter. 
 
 In churning all gravity cream, any handling that will increase 
 its richness will improve the quality of the butter and reduce the 
 length of time necessary to churn the cream to butter or to make 
 the "butter come." 
 
 374. Cream From "Deep Setting" Milk in Cold Water. If 
 cream is obtained by setting milk in cold water in deep cans, 
 it differs from the "shallow setting" cream in two particulars: 
 First, it is sweet when skimmed, and second, it is thin, containing 
 only about 20 per cent. fat. It is therefore possible to make a 
 much more uniform grade of butter from deep than from shallow 
 setting cream because the sweet cream gives an opportunity for 
 controlling the ripening process. This may be done by placing 
 the sweet cream in a can. or vat which is so arranged that its 
 temperature may be controlled. As a rule the cream should be 
 warmed when sweet and after it has soured, cooled and kept cold 
 until churned. 
 
 It is not advisable, however, to hold even sweet cream longer 
 than two days before churning it. The practice of adding a 
 small amount of sweet cream to a can or vat each day for a 
 week and then churning the mixture will never make so good a 
 grade of butter, no matter from what source the cream comes, 
 as churning every other day. 
 
 375. Sweet cream should not stand at a temperature near 
 70 degrees F. for more than ten hours, as a longer time at this 
 
6 DAIRYING 
 
 temperature will make it too sour and the butter will have a 
 strong- flavor. After standing at 70 degrees F. a few hours, or 
 until it has a perceptible sour smell, the cream should be cooled 
 to near 50 degrees F. and held at this cold temperature until 
 churned. (See Paragraph 479.) 
 
 376. "Deep setting" cream can be made richer than it usual- 
 ly is when first skimmed by allowing- it to stand in a tall, narrow 
 can having- a faucet at the bottom, and after 12 hours or more, 
 draw off the skim milk or whey that may have collected at the 
 bottom of the can. 
 
 Plate 1 The Barrel Churn 
 
 377. The Farm Churn. The common barrel churn with no 
 dasher or other works inside is the best farm churn to use. Sev- 
 eral thousand patent churns have been recorded in the U. S. pat- 
 ent office and new ones are still being added to the list nearly 
 every year, but no churn has yet been made that is superior to 
 the barrel churn. The "lightning," "one minute" and other 
 fancy named churns have no real advantage over the barrel churn 
 as the churning of cream is a process which requires agitation 
 or concussion of the cream at a temperature that will leave the 
 smallest amount of butter fat in the butter milk and give a gran- 
 ular butter that has a firm body and from which the butter milk 
 drains without leaving much of it adhering to the butter gran- 
 ules. 
 
DAIRYING 7 
 
 Another advantage which the barrel churn has is that it is 
 easy to clean ; the cover opening is large so that the butter may 
 be easily removed and when not in use the drying of the wood 
 does not make cracks that can not be repaired, as the hoops of 
 the churn may be easily tightened by driving them down a little. 
 
 378. Churns for which startling claims are made as to the 
 quickness with which cream is churned by them into butter are 
 inferior to the barrel churn because they contain dashers, discs, 
 or some contrivance inside the churn that is hard to clean, or it 
 easily gets out of repair or cracks and does not make the butter 
 come any sooner than a barrel churn if the latter is used under 
 exactly the same conditions as the wonderful new churn. 
 
 379. Among the types of churns commonly used on the 
 farm are the stationary churns with a dasher that is worked up 
 and down by hand, the revolving churn and the swinging churn. 
 Many modifications of these three types of churns have been 
 proposed, the difference between them being principally in the 
 construction of the interior works which may be dashers or discs 
 revolving at different speeds.' Some of the important qualifica- 
 tions of a churn are the following: 
 
 1. It must be of simple and solid construction, with a tight 
 fitting cover that is easily put on and taken off. A narrow strip 
 of cork around the edge of the cover that fits on a metal rim 
 around the opening in the churn is better than a large rubber 
 band or washer for making a tight joint to prevent leaking 
 around the cover. 
 
 2. The churn must be easy to clean. The dashers and discs 
 in some churns are not only hard to clean but they may be the 
 cause of considerable loss from cream and granular butter that 
 sticks to them. The churn should have a large opening or cover, 
 not only for the purpose of taking out the butter easily, but to 
 give plenty of room to ventilate and sweeten the churn when it 
 is not in use. 
 
 3. The churn should require a minimum amount of power 
 to run it and give a complete churning of the cream, leaving 
 very little fat in the butter milk. The claims of the maker of 
 the churn concerning the efficiency of its churning may easily be 
 
8 DAIRYING 
 
 tested by following the directions for using the churn and then 
 testing the butter milk with the Babcock test. 
 
 If the richness and temperature of the cream are satisfactory 
 the butter milk should not test over 0.3 per cent, fat when the 
 butter granules are about the size of wheat grains. 
 
 4. The churn should not in any way contaminate the cream 
 by grease or particles mixing with it during the churning process. 
 
 380. Claims for a certain churn that it will make a larger 
 amount of butter from the same cream than a barrel churn, may 
 get the user of such churns into trouble, as an excessive amount 
 of butter is only obtained by incorporating an illegal amount of 
 water or butter milk in the butter. Legal butter must not hold 
 more than 16 per cent, water. A seller of butter containing 
 more than 16 per cent, water must pay a tax of lOc per pound 
 for all such butter sold, and he must also obtain a license for the 
 privilege of making it. Such butter is classed as adulterated 
 butter by the U. S. laws. 
 
 381. Preparing the Churn For Use. Just before using a 
 churn it should be scalded with hot water to sweeten it and to 
 close the pores of the wood so that the butter does not stick 
 to it. By placing the cover on the churn and revolving it a few 
 times when about one-half filled with hot water the steam and 
 hot water will penetrate all the seams and destroy any ferments 
 that may have started in the wood or in the cracks of the churn. 
 
 After drawing off the hot water, fill the churn nearly full 
 with cold water and let it stand until the wood has become thor- 
 oughly cold before adding the cream. 
 
 382. A new churn or one having any kind of a disagreeable 
 odor should be allowed to soak several hours after filling it with 
 hot water to which a little soda or alkali or lime has been added. 
 This water may be changed several times, and finally sour skim 
 milk or butter milk revolved in the churn for some time. 
 
 383. Never forget to draw the ventilating plug after the 
 first or second revolution of the churn, as this will let the steam 
 escape and prevent an explosion. After churning sour milk, 
 rinse with cold water and repeat this treatment until the odor 
 of the churn is entirely satisfactory. 
 
DAIRYING 9 
 
 384. Filling the Churn. When the churn has become cold 
 the cream may be added, but it should always be strained through 
 a hair sieve or some other fine sieve. This will remove lumps of 
 curd, dried cream or butter granules that will make white specks 
 in the butter if not removed. 
 
 385. The churn should never be filled more than one-half 
 full, and one-fourth full is better. A churn that seems to be too 
 large is better than one too small for the dairy for which it is 
 bought. 
 
 386. The butter color is added to the cream just after 
 filling, using the amount of color desired by the customers to 
 whom the butter is sold. Vegetable butter colors are now used 
 almost exclusively, as most of the pure food laws of the various 
 states forbid the use of aniline or coal tar colors. 
 
 Butter color should be fresh and have no rancid odor as well 
 as no sediment in the bottom of the bottle. 
 
 BUTTER COLOR. 
 
 387. A uniform color is one of the desired qualities of com- 
 mercial butter. The natural color of milk fat from which butter 
 is made varies considerably during different seasons of the year. 
 Some of the causes of these variations are the feed, the breed, 
 and the period of lactation of the cows giving the milk. Butter 
 made when cows are on full pasture feed is of a deeper yellow 
 color than when the cows are given dry feed in the stable. The 
 milk of fresh cows often makes a more highly colored butter 
 than that of strippers, and the characteristic yellow color of the 
 butter of Guernsey cows is well known to most dairymen. 
 
 388. All these factors influence the natural color of butter 
 fat to such an extent that a collection of samples of butter from 
 different herds of cows may show as many shades of yellow as 
 there are packages of butter. Some markets prefer a more highly 
 colored butter than others, but all demand that the particular 
 standard preferred shall be a uniform color. These peculiarities 
 of the markets and of the cows have led to a nearly universal 
 
io DAIRYING 
 
 custom of adding- artificial coloring matter to butter in order to 
 satisfy the demands of the trade. 
 
 389. The addition of coloring matter to butter is, therefore, 
 not a deception, but is the result of a desire to cater to the popu- 
 lar demand for a uniform yellow color in butter at all seasons 
 of the year. The brands of butter color now on the market may 
 be divided into two general classes : 
 
 1. Those made from anatto seed by the use of some oil as 
 a solvent, commonly called vegetable butter colors. 
 
 2. The aniline or coal-tar color, sometimes called mineral 
 colors. 
 
 In former years aniline butter colors have been more exten- 
 sively used than vegetable colors. There seems to be some un- 
 certainty in the popular mind whether or not aniline butter color 
 is harmless as used in the manufacture of butter. On account of 
 this doubt, which with some amounts to prejudice against the 
 use of coal-tar coloring matter in any article of food, manufac- 
 turers of butter color have of late made an effort to meet this 
 demand for vegetable or anatto butter color. 
 
 390. The vegetable or anatto butter colors are not so strong 
 as the aniline colors and a larger quantity of anatto color is 
 therefore needed to give butter the same depth of color as aniline 
 colors would give. The anatto color will fade when exposed to 
 direct sunlight, but this does not diminish its value as a butter 
 color, since butter is not often kept in direct sunlight for any 
 length of time. Experiments have shown that butter colored 
 with vegetable color held in cold storage for one year did not 
 fade. 
 
 391. Aniline butter color is a fast color. Butter colored with 
 it will not fade, even when exposed to direct sunlight. It is a 
 strong coloring agent, a small quantity only being necessary, and 
 when properly made, imparts no flavor to the butter. The prin- 
 cipal objection to it is the uncertainty as to its harmlessness and 
 the popular demand that everything used in food products should 
 be above suspicion. 
 
 392. Amount of Color Needed. The amount of butter color 
 to use will vary with the season of the year and the strength of 
 
DAIRYING ii 
 
 the color. A good basis on which to calculate this amount is the 
 number of c. c. per 100 pounds of butter fat in the cream of the 
 churning, to which it is to be added. This will vary from about 
 25 c. c. in summer to 50 c. c. in winter per 100 pounds butter fat 
 in the cream. If butter color costs $2.00 per gallon and 25 c. c of 
 it per 100 pounds of butter fat are used, the cost of this 25 c. c. 
 is about one and one-third cents. If one gallon of color weighs 
 8 pounds and this costs $2.00, then the color cost 25 cents per 
 pound, and as butter usually sells for at least 25 cents per pound, 
 this color added to the butter, sells for about the same price as 
 is paid for it. 
 
 393. The color is usually added to the cream in the churn 
 just before churning. If this should be forgotten, the color may 
 be stirred into the salt and this mixture added to the granular 
 butter when it is ready to be salted. The color will then be dis- 
 tributed through the butter when it is worked in the usual way. 
 
 The butter color should be kept in a cool place, and small 
 bottles of it that have stood in a grocery store for some time 
 should always be examined before used, as a rancid odor some- 
 times develops in butter color, and this may be imparted to the 
 butter. 
 
 394. Salt deepens the shade of color in butter, and different 
 amounts of the same color must be added to salted and to un- 
 salted butter in order to get approximately the same shade of 
 color in both kinds of butter. 
 
 If the cream contains lumps of butter before churning, these 
 will not take the color added at first, but such butter becomes 
 evenly colored by standing. 
 
 395. After placing the tight-fitting and securely-fastened 
 cover on the churn, revolve slowly a few times, then stop it and 
 pull the plug or ventilate the churn in order that the gases and 
 compressed air may escape. This should be done at least twice 
 during the first ten revolutions of the churn. It is a good plan 
 also to take the temperature of the cream in the churn after the 
 first few revolutions and if this is not near the temperature de- 
 sired, warm or cold water may be added to the cream until such 
 a temperature is reached. 
 
12 DAIRYING 
 
 The churning is continued at a uniform speed until the sound 
 of the cream in the churn indicates that it is becoming milky and 
 the butter is coming. 
 
 CHURNING. 
 
 396. Cream is churned for the purpose of separating the fat 
 globules from the serum of the cream. This is done by solidify- 
 ing the liquid fat globules and then sticking them together into 
 sufficiently large lumps or granules to float on the serum. The 
 object of churning is to accomplish this separation exhaustively 
 and within a reasonable time. 
 
 Butter fat itself is not a simple or an elementary substance, 
 but is composed of several so-called "glycerides of the fatty 
 acids." These, component parts have different properties ; some 
 of them are hard, like tallow, while others are soft like lard, and 
 the proportion in which the hard and the soft parts are present 
 is somewhat variable. This lack of uniformity in hardness is due 
 principally to the breed of the cow and to the part of the period 
 of lactation in which the milk is produced. Jersey butter fat as 
 a rule contains more of the harder, tallowy parts than is com- 
 monly found in average butter on the market, while Holstein but- 
 ter fat is below the average in this particular, and contains a 
 large proportion of the softer parts. This difference in the com- 
 position of butter fat is one cause of the variation in temperature 
 at which cream churns satisfactorily at different times. By 
 churning, the fat globules are made to adhere to each other, be- 
 ginning with the microscopic drops which gradually accumulate 
 and stick together until the mass becomes large enough to be 
 seen, and finally to form granular butter. The point at which the 
 fat globules begin to stick together varies according to the com- 
 position of the fat and its temperature; pieces of tallow need to 
 be warmer than pieces of lard in order to make them stick to 
 each other, and if both are heated so high as to melt and become 
 oily, such particles would break apart and fail to stick together 
 when brought into contact with each other by churning. This 
 property of tallow and lard to become sticky and adhesive at 
 different temperatures illustrates the differences in churning that 
 
DAIRYING 13 
 
 are often observed in butter-making. When butter fat contains 
 a large proportion of the harder component parts, the globules 
 will stick together, or churn, at a higher temperature than is the 
 case with fat which has more of the softer component parts. A 
 Jersey cream will therefore churn in a satisfactory way at a 
 higher temperature than a Holstein cream. These two breeds 
 represent the extremes in this particular, and between them are 
 found the great majority of cows. 
 
 Temperature of Churning. 
 
 397. The churning temperature of cream is the temperature 
 of the butter-milk when churning is completed. This is not nec- 
 essarily the temperature of the cream when it is put into the 
 churn, because the room where the churning is done may be 
 colder or warmer than the cream, and will change the cream 
 temperature before churning is completed. 
 
 398. In considering the question of churning, it is well to 
 remember the objects to be attained by churning, which are: (1) 
 To complete the churning in a reasonable length of time; (2) to 
 have the butter come in a firm, waxy condition, and (3) to churn 
 out all the *butter there is in the cream. The efficiency with 
 which these three things are accomplished depends largely on the 
 temperature of the cream when it is churned. 
 
 399. No fixed temperature can be adopted as a standard to 
 be used in all churnings, but a few general statements regarding 
 churning temperatures may be made as applying to normal con- 
 ditions of cream: 
 
 1. A thin, sweet cream. 
 
 2. A thin, sour cream. 
 
 3. A rich, sweet cream. 
 
 4. A rich, sour cream. 
 
 These statements are intended to apply to the mixed cream 
 of several cows or herds where the influences of breed character- 
 istics and the lactation period are eliminated by the numbers and 
 variety of the cows producing the cream. 
 
14 DAIRYING 
 
 1. A thin, sweet cream containing less than 25 per cent, fat 
 and under 0.3 per cent, acid will not as a rule churn exhaustively 
 at any temperature. If churned at a temperature high enough to 
 bring the butter, which will be near 60 degrees F., a rich "but- 
 termilk will be obtained and considerable butter lost in this way; 
 if churned at a sufficiently low temperature, near 50 degrees F., 
 to reduce the richness of the buttermilk, the butter will not come, 
 because thin cream churned at so low a temperature as 50 degrees 
 F. will swell up and fill the churn without separating into butter 
 and buttermilk. Cream of this kind is not often churned, but 
 when it is attempted the churning must be done at 60 degrees F. 
 or above, and the rich buttermilk so obtained may be run through 
 a cream separator in order to recover the butter left in the 
 buttermilk. 
 
 2. A thin, sour cream having an acidity of 0.5 to 0.6 per 
 cent, and containing less than 35 per cent, fat will churn exhaust- 
 ively at about 62 degrees F. This is the old temperature rec- 
 ommended for churning farm cream. It is marked on many of 
 the so-called "dairy thermometers" as the "churning tempera- 
 ture," and it has proved to be a very satisfactory temperature for 
 certain kinds of cream. A lower temperature will often prolong 
 the time of churning beyond a practical limit for churning and a 
 higher temperature will reduce the length of churning time, but 
 it will increase the richness of the buttermilk. The butter will 
 also be soft and lacking in body. The best temperature, then, for 
 churning this sour cream is near 62 degrees F. 
 
 3. A rich, sweet cream containing about 40 per cent, fat and 
 0.3 per cent, acid may be churned satisfactorily at a temperature 
 between 50 and 55 degrees F. If warmed up much above 55 de- 
 grees F. such cream will churn in a few minutes, but the butter- 
 milk will be very rich. A temperature near 50 degrees F. is most 
 appropriate for making an exhaustive churning of this kind of 
 cream. Sweet cream butter may be made by churning a rich 
 cream at a low temperature. 
 
 4. A rich, sour cream of 40 per cent, fat and 0.5 per cent, 
 acid will churn at a very low temperature, the nearer 50 degrees 
 F. the better. It will, however, often churn unevenly because of 
 its thickness and its tendency to stick to" the sides of the churn, 
 
DAIRYING 15 
 
 which may make the churning of such cream impracticable. A 
 rich cream may be skimmed by the separator, but it is usually 
 diluted with the starter*, and this thins it sufficiently so that it 
 may not test over 30 per cent, fat when churned. This is the 
 condition of most factory cream, and it represents as nearly ideal 
 conditions of cream for churning as any practice now commonly 
 in use. : 
 
 400. The skimming of a rich cream is one step in the pro- 
 cess of overcoming the faults in milk by reducing the amount of 
 tainted serum or skim milk in the cream. Such a thick cream 
 will not, however, churn well, and it is therefore thinned by add- 
 ing a sufficient amount of selected starter and the whole milk to 
 make it contain near 30 per cent. fat. This cream is then ripened 
 to about 0.6 per cent, acid and churned at 50 to 54 de- 
 grees F. When churned at a much higher temperature than this, 
 there is too much loss of butter in the buttermilk, and the body 
 of the butter may lack the firmness which is so much desired in 
 that of a fancy, extra quality. 
 
 When to Stop Churning. 
 
 401. Butter is supposed to be sufficiently churned when the 
 granules have attained the size of kernels of wheat. This has 
 been the universal rule for many years, and it answers the pur- 
 pose of a guide for beginners at the present time. Experienced 
 butter-makers are not so particular about the exact size of the 
 granules when churning stops, as they are about the temperature 
 of the granules. When butter has come soft in the churn, the 
 granules will stick together and make larger lumps of butter than 
 is the case when the granules are cold and hard at churning 
 ' time. 
 
 402. The churning of soft butter should be stopped as soon 
 
 " as possible after the cream "breaks" and the butter granules be- 
 
 gin to show distinctly ; for if it is continued beyond this point, 
 
 the butter will quickly f.orm large lumps in which more or less 
 
 buttermilk will be enclosed. This is hard to wash out, and if 
 
 *The cream ripening starter will be described in Les s 
 
 son 
 
16 DAIRYING 
 
 left in the butter, it makes a milky brine and a butter that will 
 keep but a short time. Buttermilk changes so rapidly that it 
 helps to produce the old, rancid flavors which characterize 
 "strong" butter. This is one of the common difficulties met with 
 in farm butter; the cream being churned too warm and too much, 
 and the butter holding an excess of buttermilk which ferments 
 quickly and produces the objectionable qualities that are frequent- 
 ly characteristic of farm butter. 
 
 403. When a thin cream is churned at a low temperature, 
 such as cream containing 25 per cent, fat churned at 55 degrees 
 F., the butter usually comes in round shot-like granules that are 
 hard and firm. It is often difficult to get such butter to stick to- 
 gether to form granules large enough to be held by the strainer, 
 but it may be done by warming the cream. Granular butter for 
 exhibition purposes may be made in this way ; the shot-like gran 
 
 Plate 2 Large and Small Butter Granules 
 
 ules churned from thin, cold cream are washed with cold water 
 and added to brine in glass jars or bottles, the colder the cream 
 the more nearly round and the harder are the butter granules. 
 
 404. The ideal size of granules may be easily obtained by 
 churning ripe cream containing about 30 per cent, fat at near 52 
 degrees F. The butter when it comes will first show pin -head 
 granules which will quickly grow to the size of wheat kernels, 
 
DAIRYING 17 
 
 and at about this size the buttermilk will usually drain away 
 thoroughly from the butter without any of the granules being 
 lost through the buttermilk or the hair sieve strainer, which is 
 ordinarily used in drawing off the buttermilk from the churn. 
 
 Exhaustiveness of the Churning. 
 
 405. The amount of fat left in the buttermilk or its richness 
 is influenced by the temperature of the churning, the richness 
 of the cream, its acidity and the length of a churning. 
 
 Short churnings give a rich buttermilk and a soft butter, as 
 the cream is churned too warm. Long churnings of fine butter 
 granules give a thin buttermilk because the cream is thin and cold. 
 
 406. The richness of the buttermilk is usually influenced by 
 the same conditions that affect the length of churning. Churn- 
 ings will be uniform in time and in richness of the buttermilk 
 when cream of about the same richness is ripened uniformly and 
 churned at the same temperature, but mixtures of lots of sweet 
 and sour cream will give a rich buttermilk. 
 
 407. Over-churning injures the body or grain of butter and 
 reduces its keeping quality as too much buttermilk is enclosed in 
 the large lumps of over-churned butter. 
 
 408. A quick churning may be made by warming the cream 
 to about 70 degrees F., but at this temperature a large portion 
 of the butter is left in the buttermilk and is therefore not an eco- 
 nomical churning. The butter is also too soft to handle well 
 when the cream is churned at this high temperature and on ac- 
 count of the law concerning the amount of water that butter 
 shall contain, as well as the losses of butter in the buttermilk, 
 the temperature of churning should not be higher than 62 de- 
 grees F. 
 
 Cause of Long Churning. 
 
 409. Excessively long churnings are caused by one or more 
 of the following conditions : 
 
18 DAIRYING 
 
 1. The cream is from the milk of a stripper cow or from 
 cows whose milk flow is drying up. This difficulty may be over- 
 come by so arranging- the herd that fresh cow's milk or milk 
 trom cows early in their milking period are distributed through- 
 out the year and the cows do not all "dry up" at the same time. 
 The particular condition of the milk of stripper cows, that causes 
 long churnings may be somewhat overcome by adding cold water 
 to such milk and separating the cream from it by the water 
 dilution process. This will cause a somewhat excessive loss of 
 fat in the skim milk as has already been described in the lesson 
 on cream separation, but when butter is made from a small herd 
 of cows and the majority of them are strippers, it may be an 
 economy of time in churning to use the dilution method of 
 creaming the milk of such cows. The cream so obtained may be 
 mixed with that from other cows' milk and a satisfactory churn- 
 ing made. 
 
 The cream is too thm. This is especially the conditior 
 of cream from deep setting of milk in cold water. Such cream 
 may not contain more than 15 per cent, fat, and this is very diffi- 
 cult to churn, especially in cold weather. Cream having a rich- 
 ness of about 30 per cent, fat gives satisfactory churning results 
 and if it is thinner than this an effort should be made to con- 
 centrate the cream either by taking more skim milk when skim- 
 ming or by allowing the cream to stand 12 hours or more and 
 then draw off the skim milk that may separate from it at the 
 bottom. 
 
 3. The cream is too cold. Churning on the farm should not 
 be attempted until the cream has been brought to a temperature 
 of about 60 degrees F., and some check should be made on the 
 accuracy of the thermometer used. These sometimes vary from 
 2 to 10 degrees and unless one knows by comparing the ther- 
 mometer used with some other one that is accurate, the ther- 
 mometer may be the cause of a long churning. In taking tem- 
 perature observations the thermometer should be allowed to re- 
 main in the cream at least five minutes before reading it. 
 
 4. The churn is too full. The cream should not fill the 
 churn more than one-half full, and one-fourth full is better when 
 churning begins; if an attempt is made to churn more than this 
 amount of cream the time of churning may be abnormally long. 
 
DAIRYING , 19 
 
 A combination of these causes of long churning may easily 
 occur at any one farm, viz. : stripper cows, thin cream and too 
 cold cream, but by overcoming them the time of churning may 
 be reduced to about 45 minutes, which is a reasonable time for 
 churning cream. 
 
 Remedy to Be Applied. 
 
 410. When a churning on acount of some of the causes men- 
 tioned above has been going on for several hours and there is no 
 indication of the butter coming because the cream has swelled and 
 foamed until it revolves around with the churn without falling 
 from end to end, as the churn revolves, the best thing to do in 
 such a case is first to add a handful of salt to the cream in the 
 churn. If after churning a few minutes longer the cream does 
 riot break or change its condition, a quart or two of water either 
 hot or cold, depending on the temperature of the cream, may be 
 added. The water should bring the temperature to near 70 de- 
 grees F., and then the churning should continue. 
 
 411. If neither salt or water added to the cream is of any 
 aid in making the butter come, the cream may be taken from the 
 churn and mixed with the next churning of fresh cream which 
 should be rich and warmed to near 60 degrees F. when put into 
 the churn. In this way the butter may be saved from the cream 
 that seemed to have "witches" in it and failed to churn. 
 
 Drawing Off the Buttermilk. 
 
 412. As soon as the butter granules have reached the de- 
 sired size the buttermilk is drawn off through a hair sieve or a 
 buttermilk strainer. This catches the granular butter that comes 
 through the draining plug of the churn and separates it from the 
 buttermilk. 
 
 413. The granular butter should be allowed to stand for at 
 least 15 minutes after the buttermilk has all drained off in order 
 that the last traces of buttermilk may drain away. If the butter 
 
20 DAIRYING 
 
 is soft, a few pieces of clean ice may be placed on it in the chum 
 during the draining- of the last of the buttermilk. 
 
 Washing the Butter. 
 
 414. After all the buttermilk is removed, cold water having 
 a temperature of about 55 degrees F. is added to the granular 
 butter until the churn is about one-half rilled. The cover is then 
 put on and after standing until the granular butter has hardened 
 cr reached a temperature of about 55 degrees F., the churn is 
 then slowly revolved from five to ten times so as to rinse all the 
 buttermilk from the butter granules. This wash water is then 
 drawn off. Another washing with cold water may be given the 
 granules if they seem to show a milky or curdy appearance. This 
 second washing is seldom necessary, but it is sometimes bene- 
 ficial, especially if the cream was a little too ripe when churned 
 or the butter granules too soft. 
 
 415. The wash water should be absolutely pure and whole- 
 some, as defects may easily be started in the butter by using an 
 unclean wash water or ice, as these may introduce putrefactive 
 germs into the butter. Nothing but the purest drinking water 
 should be used for washing the butter, soaking the churn and all 
 other utensils used in butter making. 
 
 416. The temperature of the wash water is very important, 
 as churning the granular butter in water that is warmer than the 
 butter tends to soften the granules and to make an excessive 
 amount of water stick to the butter fat. By excessive churning 
 of the granular butter in warm water or in warm buttermilk, the 
 water content of the final butter may easily exceed the legal limit 
 of 16 per cent. This may be avoided, however, by washing the 
 fine granules of butter with water cold enough to harden them 
 and not leave the butter in a soft, mushy mass. 
 
 417. Under certain conditions of churning the granular but- 
 ter needs no washing. If a ripe, rich cream is churned at a low 
 temperature so that the buttermilk is about 50 degrees F. when 
 drawn off, it will be noticed that the last drainings of buttermilk 
 are watery and the granular butter shows no milky buttermilk 
 
DAIRYING 21 
 
 in the churn. Such butter, when salted and worked without wash- 
 ing usually has a high flavor and if consumed within a few days 
 is a very satisfactory product. It does not have good keeping 
 qualities, and this practice is not followed very often at the pres- 
 ent time. 
 
 418. The market demands for butter are now different than 
 some years ago. A mild, clean flavor is more satisfactory than a 
 pronounced butter flavor which is likely to change soon to a 
 strong, nearly rancid flavor. Under such market demands the 
 washing of butter' once or twice with cold water does not remove 
 the desirable flavor of the butter. The amount of washing but- 
 ter needs depends on: (1) The temperature of the churning; (2) 
 the amount and kind of acidity in the cream ; (3) the size of the 
 butter granules. 
 
 419. Butter from over-ripe or from tainted cream may some- 
 times be improved by excessive washing, and butter containing 
 white specks of curd from over-ripe cream may be improved by 
 repeated washings, as the curd is heavier than the butter and 
 may sink to the bottom and be drawn off in the wash water. 
 
 Salting the Butter. 
 
 420. The old rule for salting butter is to use one ounce of 
 salt for each pound of butter. The expression, "an ounce to the 
 pound" is a very common one. This is a good standard, but the 
 amount of salt that remains in the finished butter is not always 
 the same when this rule is followed. More or less salt is wasted 
 in all churnings. The amount retained in the butter depends 
 principally (1) on the amount of water in the granular butter 
 when the salt is added; (2) the fineness of the salt crystals and 
 their solubility, and (3) the amount of working the butter gets 
 after salting. 
 
 421. Several ways of salting butter are more or less com- 
 mon among farm butter-makers. 
 
 First. Brine salting, which consists simply in adding brine 
 or salt dissolved in water, to the granular butter after drawing of. 
 
22 DAIRYING 
 
 the wash water. This method of salting requires considerable 
 more salt than dry salting and gives a very mild salted butter 
 because the brine does not stick to the butter in such quantities 
 as the dry salt. Brine salting gives an even distribution of salt 
 through the butter and is therefore a sure prevention of "mottles" 
 in butter. 
 
 Second. Dry salting in the churn is a good way of mix- 
 ing salt with butter. This is an economical use of salt, but the 
 uneven mixing it receives in the churn and the uncertainty of the 
 weight of butter and necessary weight of salt to use are two oi 
 the objections to this method. Good results are obtained by add- 
 ing a part of the salt to the granular butter in the churn, then 
 swing it back and forth a few times until well mixed ; after this 
 let the butter stand for at least one-half hour for the salt to dis- 
 solve. It may then be taken from the churn, placed on the 
 worker where the remainder of the salt is added and the work- 
 ing completed. 
 
 Thjrd. Dry salting on the butter worker is a method by 
 which the salting may be most easily controlled. After the gran- 
 ular butter has thoroughly drained in the churn and while it is 
 still in granules, the butter is taken from the churn with wooden 
 ladles. (A good butter-maker never puts his or her hands in the 
 butter), weighed, and then spread in a layer on the butter worker. 
 About o.ne-half of the weighed salt is sprinkled or sifted over it, 
 being careful to use a fine sieve so as to take out all lumps, 
 sticks, etc., from the salt. The butter is then mixed with this 
 salt by folding layers of butter over and over with a wooden 
 ladle. It may then be worked a few times with the lever of the 
 worker and left standing for the- salt to dissolve. 
 
 This standing after salting is always desirable, but it neces- 
 sitates doing the working in a clean, cool room, where the tem- 
 perature does not go above 60 degrees F.. as the butter may be 
 injured by the warming up and softening during working. 
 
 After standing awhile, the remainder of the salt is added and 
 the working completed by pressing the lever into the butter and 
 folding the butter over and over. A little working at a time and 
 waiting about ten minutes between workings will help to evenly 
 distribute the salt through the butter as fast as it dissolves. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 This will prevent mottles in the butter and remove the gritty 
 taste that is so objectionable in finished butter. 
 
 Fourth. Dampen the salt with about as much water as 
 there is salt, using from one-eighth to one-tenth as much salt as 
 there is butter, or about one and one-half oz. salt per pound of 
 butter. This damp salt is then sprinkled over the granular butter 
 and worked into it a little at a time, allowing the butter to stand 
 between workings. 
 
 m 
 
 1) term ortrf Crystal 
 
 Plate 3 Types of Butter Salt Crystal* all Magnified the Same 
 
24 DAIRYING 
 
 The Butter Salt. 
 
 Many brands of butter salt are now on the market. They 
 vary from fine to coarse grained. They also vary in the shape 
 of the salt crystals. 
 
 When a butter-maker is accustomed to the use of one size 
 of salt crystal it is sometimes difficult for him to get the same 
 results in his butter with a radically different salt crystal. It 
 will take some time to adjust his practice to the change in salt. 
 The coarse grained salts dissolve more slowly than the fine, and 
 the working of the butter should be regulated to fit the grain of 
 the salt used. More fine than coarse salt is usually wasted in 
 butter-making, and as a rule the fine grained salts are cheaper 
 than the coarse. 
 
 423. Before any salt is used, a tablespoonful of it should be 
 added to a glass of clean water and the solution of the salt 
 noticed. If it has a muddy color or a fine sediment that will not 
 dissolve, another lot of salt that gives a clear brine should be 
 used. 
 
 424. Analyses of samples of the principal brands of butter 
 salt on the market have shown them to contain from 97.8 to 99.2 
 per cent, sodium chloride. The difference between these figures 
 and 100 per cent, is principally made up of calcium sulphate. 
 
 425. The difference between the fine and the coarse grained 
 salts is shown by measuring the space filled by the same weight 
 of each salt. Comparing weights with volumes on the basis of 
 one pint weighing one pound, then one pound of the finest 
 grained salt will just about fill a pint measure, while one pound 
 of the coarse grained salt will fill approximately one and one-half 
 pints, or 385 grams fine salt equal 400 c. c., and 385 grams coarse 
 salt equal 550 c. c. 
 
 426. The length of time required to dissolve the coarse and 
 the fine salts is shown by the following figures : A given quan- 
 tity of coarse salt dissolved in 45 seconds, of medium salt in 30 
 seconds, and of fine salt in 25 seconds. The coarse salt required 
 nearly twice the time to dissolve it as the fine salt. The form, 
 as well as the size of the salt crystals has, however, some in- 
 fluence on the rate of its solubility. A cube of salt does not dis- 
 
DAIRYING 25 
 
 solve so rapidly as a flaky crystal, and these facts are of some 
 importance in getting the salt dissolved and evenly distributed 
 through the butter. 
 
 427. The amount of added salt that is retained in butter 
 after working varies from one-fourth to one-half. If butter is 
 salted at the rate of "one ounce to the pound," this is using about 
 6 per cent, of salt and since the finished butter contains all the 
 way from two to four per cent, salt, more than one-half the salt 
 used is sometimes washed out during the working. 
 
 Plate 4 Bricks of Butter which have been kept (3) in dry air aad (5) in moist 
 air, showing salt crystals on (3) and drops of brine on (5). 
 
 428. The appearance of salted butter is usually quite differ- 
 ent from that of unsalted. Salt "draws out the moisture*' which 
 is in the form of microscopic drops too small to be seen in the 
 fresh butter, into "beads of brine" that are easily visible in the 
 salted butter. This makes salted butter look as if it contained 
 more water than unsalted, which is not always the case. An- 
 other way in which salt sometimes affects the appearance of but- 
 ter is in the formation of white crystals on its surface. These 
 
26 DAIRYING 
 
 crystals sometimes accumulate in such quantities as to form a 
 white incrustation nearly covering the entire exposed surface of 
 the butter. At other times only occasional patches of white 
 crystals are formed. These white spots are seen most frequent- 
 ly in winter and on one pound prints or bricks of butter that have 
 stood in a refrigerator. They often appear within 12 hours after 
 butter is made and increase in size so long as the butter remains 
 under conditions favorable for their formation. Such spots are 
 not an indication of defective salt, bad butter, or poor work- 
 manship ; they simply show that the butter has been kept in a 
 cold place which at the same time has been so dry that the water 
 of the brine evaporated, leaving the salt on the surface of the 
 butter. This appearance of salt on the surface of butter may be 
 prevented by moistening the air of the room or the box in which 
 the butter is held. 
 
 429. Salt will absorb odors, and before adding any salt to 
 butter, its odor should be noticed ; it should also be kept in a 
 clean, dry place where there are no bad odors, but plenty of 
 fresh, dry air. 
 
 Working Butter. 
 
 430. The three operations of washing, salting and working 
 butter are so intimately connected that directions for carrying 
 out each one of these cannot be given without some repetition. 
 In discussing this part of the butter making process an attempt 
 has been made to cover the ground under the three heads, rather 
 than to give all the information possible under each one of them ; 
 it will be necessary therefore to read the preceding pages on 
 washing and salting butter in order to get all the instructions 
 that may have been mentioned in regard to any one of these 
 processes. 
 
 431. The appropriate working of butter will be influenced 
 to some extent by the washing and salting it has previously re- 
 ceived. It would be an easy matter to describe a number of 
 possible variations in the amount and kind of working butter 
 should have, when washed and salted in different ways, but this 
 
DAIRYING 27 
 
 is not of such fundamental importance as an understanding of 
 the reasons for working butter. When a butter maker is familiar 
 Hh them it is comparatively easy to work butter in a way best 
 suited to accomplish the desired results. 
 
 432. The purposes of working butter are (1) to remove the 
 buttermilk and surplus water; (2) to distribute the salt, and (3) 
 to unite the granules so as to obtain the desired butter consist- 
 ency. 
 
 There is no hard and fast rule by which these three things 
 may be always accomplished in an entirely satisfactory way by 
 the same treatment ; the different working must be varied to 
 suit the different conditions of the butter, and the butter-maker 
 should know what influence each particular condition may have 
 on the three objects to be attained. 
 
 1. To remove the buttermilk and surplus water will require 
 different amounts of working according to the hardness and the. 
 size of the butter granules, as well as the amount of water they 
 contain, which is influenced to some extent by the length of time 
 the butter is allowed to drain in the churn. 
 
 The hard, small granules of butter which are usually ob- 
 tained by churning at a low temperature will need but little 
 working to remove the buttermilk and surplus water, and such 
 butter can stand a great deal of working without injuring its 
 grain. A rather soft, sticky butter does not drain freely, because 
 both the buttermilk and the water stick to it and in this condi- 
 tion butter will not stand much working without injury to its 
 grain and body. 
 
 Betwen these two extremes is the medium granule, about the 
 size of wheat kernels which is firm, but neither soft nor hard and 
 which will drain as dry as necessary in about fifteen minutes after 
 the water is drawn from it. Such butter will not be injured by a 
 fair amount of working. 
 
 2. Working butter to distribute the salt is best accomp- 
 lished by repeated workings, allowing it to stand between each 
 working as long as practicable, the longer the time the better the 
 salt is dissolved. After a few revolutions of the worker, the but- 
 ter may be tested to see if it contains the right amount of salt. 
 
 
28 DAIRYING 
 
 If too fresh, add more salt and if too salty, add water to wash 
 out the surplus salt; do not wash it too much, as the subsequent 
 working will remove some of this extra salt. If the working is 
 all to be done at one time the butter should be allowed to stand 
 one-half hour at least between the first and the last portions of 
 the working. 
 
 Two or more workings are surer than one, of evenly distrib- 
 uting the salt without injury to the grain of the butter. This is 
 especially the case when a coarse salt is used. 
 
 When twice working is practiced, the butter is taken from 
 the worker and the salt is well mixed, then put into tubs which 
 are placed in the refrigerator and left a number of hours, usually 
 over night. During this time the butter has hardened and the 
 salt dissolved so that when taken out and worked a second time, 
 the desired results may be obtained with less working than 
 when it is all done at one time. 
 
 Repeated working of cold, hard butter presses out more or 
 less brine at each working and an excessively dry butter with 
 too much loss in weight occurs if the butter is not warmed up at 
 the time of working it. Salt attracts the fine drops of moisture 
 in the butter into larger drops of brine and these are easily ex- 
 pelled by excessive workings. 
 
 3. The mixing of butter granules into a firm and waxy mass 
 is best accomplished by pressure rather than by grinding. The 
 perfect grain or body of butter is obtained by working the wheat- 
 like granules until a broken surface of the butter resembles a 
 piece of broken steel ; the fracture is distinct and not sticky ; the 
 butter has a velvety, springy feeling that is hard to describe, but 
 easily recognized by careful observation and practice. 
 
 433. The butter working should be stopped before the but- 
 ter shows a tendency to be stringy and to pull apart like grease 
 with thread-like connections between the t.vo parts. Overwork- 
 ing has a tendency to give the butter a greasy appearance like 
 lard, which is not attractive to the consumer. If the butter is 
 cold and hard when worked, there may be a great loss of weight 
 by the expelling ot both salt and water from the butter, and on 
 the other hand working at a too high temperature has a tendency 
 to incorporate instead of removing 1 water. 
 
DAIRYING 29 
 
 Many successful butter-makers work their butter by the 
 watch or by counting the number of revolutions of the worker 
 or rollers of the worker. This is a safe practice to follow, as it 
 aids in producing a uniform body in the butter of different 
 churnings. 
 
 434. The amount of working to give butter will be in- 
 fluenced by: (1) The amount of butter worked at one time; (2) 
 the temperature of the butter; (3) the size of the butter gran- 
 ules when salted ; (4) the richness of the cream and the tem- 
 prature of churning; (5) the feed and the freshness of the cows; 
 (6) the solubility of the salt and the size or shape of the salt 
 crystals ; (7) the time butter stands during the working. 
 
 435. The working of butter may be stopped: (1) When no 
 gritty salt is noticeable; (2) when streaks of light or whitish 
 
 Plate 5 The L,ever Butter Worker 
 
 color caused by salt all disappear; (3) when mottles do not ap- 
 pear after butter stands about six hours ; (4) when the surface of 
 butter cut with a string or wire shows a uniform color; (5) when 
 the brine that drips from the worker is no longer milky. 
 
 436. The lever butter worker is always satisfactory for farm 
 butter making. It should be scrubbed and scalded with hot 
 water and then cooled with cold or ice water just before using 
 it, and this same treatment should be given to all the wooden 
 ladles and paddles as well as the butter worker lever, before 
 
30 DAIRYING 
 
 / 
 
 using them in the butter. This scalding and then cooling closes 
 the pores of the wood so that butter does not stick to it. Work- 
 ing butter in a wooden bowl with one's hands is a practice of 
 former times that has been abandoned by all modern farm butter 
 makers. It is unsanitary and it fails to make butter with a sat- 
 isfactory salt content or texture. 
 
 Washing the Churn and the Butter Worker. 
 
 437. After removing all the butter from the churn it should 
 be partly rilled with scalding hot water, the cover put on and 
 churn revolved a few times, taking the precaution to ventilate 
 the churn to prevent an explosion. If the water is hot enough, 
 the churn may be left uncovered in a clean place after drawing 
 
 Plate 6 Butter Paddles 
 
 off the hot water and the steam and heat will dry the wood so 
 that it will be in good condition for use next time. 
 
 If the churn is left to stand for weeks and months it should 
 be filled with lime water or slaked lime. This will prevent it 
 from drying out and the wood will be kept in a sweet condition. 
 
 The same scalding process used on the churn should also be 
 given to the worker and butter paddles. It is claimed that a coat-- 
 ing of whitewash or slaked lime is also beneficial for keeping 
 these implements in good condition between churnings. 
 
DAIRYING 31 
 
 The Yield of Butter. 
 
 438. The amount of butter obtained in the churn will de- 
 pend principally on the amount of butter fat in the milk and 
 cream churned. The butter, however, when ready for the jnar- 
 ket, contains something else besides the butter fat of the milk 
 and cream. Some water and salt are mixed with the fat and a 
 small amount of the curd of the buttermilk always stays in the 
 butter. This is shown by the difference in the taste of butter 
 fat and of butter. The pure butter fat oil as it exists in the milk 
 and cream is tasteless, while butter has more or less taste, due 
 to some extent, to the salt and the curd tha't have been mixed 
 with the pure butter fat. It is evident therefore that if all the 
 fat of the milk and cream is recovered in the butter there should 
 be obtained considerable more butter than there was butter fat. 
 The amount of this increase of butter over butter fat will de- 
 pend on the extent to which these so-called foreign substances 
 have been added to the fat. Butter usually contains about 83.00 
 per cent, butter fat, 14.00 per cent, water, 2.00 per cent, salt and 
 1.00 per cent. curd. There will be some variation in these fig- 
 ures from one churning to another, as it is impossible to make 
 each churning of butter contain exactly the same per cent, of fat, 
 water, salt and curd. 
 
 439. The law in regard to butter at the present time is 
 that it must not contain over 16.00 per cent, water and the 
 buttermaker should be sure that his practice of churning, work- 
 ing, and salting butter from day to day will make legal butter. This 
 is not a difficult matter and if the methods described in this 
 lesson are followed, there is little danger of making butter con- 
 taining over 16.00 per cent, water. The average per cent, of water 
 in butter is about 14.00 as already stated. 
 
 The Butter Overrun. 
 
 440. Since butter is not all butter fat, but a mixture of 
 salt, curd, water and fat, the amount of butter that may be 
 made from either milk or cream can be approximately calculated 
 by finding out how much fat there is in the milk or the cream 
 
32 DAIRYING 
 
 and adding to it the increase that will come from the water, 
 salt and curd when the butter is made. This increase is called 
 the overrun and it is usually expressed as a per cent, of the fat 
 in the milk or cream skimmed and churned. If 1000 Ibs. of 'milk 
 testing 3.5 per cent, fat is made into butter there will be a slight 
 loss of fat in the skim milk and in the buttermilk. Nearly all the 
 remainder of the fat of the milk should be recovered in the butter 
 and when the water, salt and curd are added to this butter fat, 
 the net increase in weight will be about 16 per cent, of the fat in 
 the milk. In this case 1000 Ibs. milk multiplied by its test, 3.5 
 per cent, fat gives 35 Ibs. butter fat and the approximate amount 
 of butter that may be made from it is found by adding 16 per cent. 
 lo the pounds of butter fat or 35 pounds x 1.1 6- 40.6 pounds butter- 
 This weight of butter may be reduced by greater losses in the skim 
 milk and butter milk than are included in this calculation, also by 
 incorporating less water in the butter and from excessive losses 
 by waste of milk, cream and butter that sticks to the cans, vats, 
 churn, etc., during the skimming and churning of the milk and 
 cream. 
 
 441. The overrun or yield of butter from milk and cream 
 is influenced by: (1) The losses in skimming; (2) the losses in 
 churning; (3) the losses from waste; (4) the accuracy of weigh- 
 ing, sampling and testing the milk, cream and butter; (5) the 
 amount of water, salt and curd incorporated in the butter. 
 
 When a practice is adopted that gives a uniform skimming and 
 churning and accurate weights and tests are made of the milk, 
 cream and butter, the yield of butter or the overrun will be uniform 
 from day to day. 
 
 CALCULATING THE OVERRUN. 
 
 442. The overrun is calculated by first multiplying the weight 
 of milk or cream by its test. This gives the pounds of butter fat 
 handled ; second, weigh the butter and from it subtract the pounds 
 of butter fat found by the first calculation; third, find what per 
 cent, the difference between the weight of butter and of butter 
 
DAIRYING 33 
 
 fat is of the pounds of butter fat in the milk or cream started with. 
 If 1000 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent, fat gives 40.6 pounds 
 butter then the overrun is calculated as follows: 1000 X 3.5%=35 
 pounds butter fat. Then if 40.6 pounds butter is made the increase 
 is 40.6 35=5.6 pounds and this 5.6 pounds is what pen cent of 
 35 pounds (35 :5.6::100:x=16%.) 
 
 443. The overrun from, cream is a few per cent, more than 
 from milk because the losses in skimming are not considered in 
 the cream overrun. If 100 pounds cream testing 35 per cent, fat 
 gives 42 pounds. butter the overrun is calculated as follows: 100 * 
 35%=35 pounds butter fat and this subtracted from the 42 pounds 
 butter leaves 7 Ibs., which is a certain per cent, of the 35 pounds 
 fat in the cream. This may be found in the following way 
 
 Plate 7 Paper Butter Package 
 
 (35:7::io:x=2O%.) An overrun calculation may be made from data 
 obtained in any churning, but it is always necessary to know the 
 pounds of butter fat in the milk or the cream and the pounds of 
 butter made from this butter fat. Unless these two figures are 
 known, the overrun cannot be calculated. 
 
 FARM DAIRY BUTTER PACKAGES. 
 
 444. Wood or paper packages of various shapes and sizes are 
 more satisfactory than any other material used for this purpose. 
 Tin rusts and glass or crocks are generally too heavy for eco- 
 nomical transportation. Crocks make a clean, attractive package 
 so long as no cracks or scars are found on them, but as soon 
 
34 DAIRYING 
 
 as they are nicked or the glazing broken the rough surface is 
 hard to keep clean enough for a butter package. 
 
 445. The paper boxes made of various sizes for selling butter 
 in small quantities are light but firm enough to make a satisfactory 
 package. They are usually lined with parchment paper and are 
 made substantial enough to be shipped by express or by freight 
 if crated. These boxes require no soaking or other preparation 
 before using and the butter may be packed directly into them 
 after churning. 
 
 Piates 8 and 9 Butter Tubs 
 
 446. Among the wooden butter packages are the bail box and 
 the small tub ; both must be thoroughly scrubbed and then soaked 
 in first hot and then cold water. The soaking in cold water 
 should continue several hours. Steaming such packages is helpful 
 in killing any mold spore that may be present and in removing 
 woody flavor, although these are generally made of wood selected 
 especially for this purpose and do not often impart a woody flavor 
 to the butter. 
 
 447. All wooden packages should be lined with parchment 
 paper after both the wood and the paper have been thoroughly 
 steamed and soaked. Strips of parchment cut to fit the sides and 
 circles for the top and bottom of the package are commonly fur- 
 nished with the box or tub. 
 
 448. All boxes and tubs should be filled solid by packing the 
 butter a little at a time and pressing it firmly into the package be- 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 35 
 
 fore more butter is added. Any holes or cavities in the butter 
 reduce its attractiveness to the buyer. When the package is filled 
 the butter should be cut off by drawing a wire or string across the 
 top. This gives a smooth, even surface on which the cloth circle 
 may be placed. A thin sprinkling of salt sifted on the top of the 
 cloth makes an attractive finish. The parchment paper side-lining 
 is sometimes large enough to come up about an inch above the 
 top of the package and this is folded neatly over the smooth cut 
 surface of the butter before putting on the cloth circle. The top 
 of the butter should not show any finger prints and the exact net 
 weight of the butter in each package should be recorded. An 
 occasional test or comparison of the scales should also be made 
 to insure accurate weighing as this is important to both the 
 buyer and to the seller of the butter. 
 
 Plates 10 and 11 Butter Printers 
 
 449. One pound prints or bricks of butter are coming more 
 and more into favor. Hand printers of various types may be 
 bought for this purpose and one side of the printer carved with 
 a trade mark or ornamental design which should not be too elabor- 
 ate as this increases the difficulty in keeping it clean, but such a 
 brand may be helpful in selling the butter, especially if the quality 
 is uniform and characteristic. 
 
 Each print or brick should have square edges, no cavities 
 and always weigh 16 ounces. A butter maker should never neglect 
 
36 DAIRYING 
 
 to weigh a few prints at every churning as this insures full 
 weight and it also prevents losses from overweight which may 
 amount to considerable money in a year. 
 
 Each print or brick of butter should be wrapped in parch- 
 ment paper which can be bought of the right size and on which 
 the trade mark of the maker' as well as his name may be printed. 
 
 450. A paraffined paper carton or wrapper for each print 
 of butter is now used a good deal as this protects the butter in 
 handling, especially in delivery from house to house. It is custom- 
 
 Plate 12 Butter Package tor 1 Pound Bricks 
 
 ary to have the maker's name printed on this carton and also a 
 sentence or two concerning the best way to keep the butter after 
 it is delivered to the customer, such as the following: 
 
 451. To preserve the fine qualities of this butter which is 
 fresh from the churn keep it cool and keep it away from fruits, 
 vegetables, cooked meats or other materials having odors. The 
 quality of butter is often spoiled in the house refrigerators after 
 leaving the dairy or creamery where it is made. 
 
 452. A favorite way of shipping print butter to customers 
 buying a certain amount each week is to pack 2, 4 or 6 or more 
 of the prints in a wooden box. These boxes may be "knocked 
 down," of any size desired and when nailed together will exactly 
 fit the number of prints each customer wants. This makes a 
 convenient package for shipping by express or by parcels post. 
 
 453. In order to be up to the times some sort of a package 
 should always be used as the old way of molding butter into 
 cakes, balls or rolls of varying sizes is now out' of date. The 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 37 
 
 appearance of the butter is nearly as important as its flavor and 
 butter simply rolled up in a cloth is not so salable as the same 
 butte in a neat package or in a well-made one-pound brick. 
 
 454. Wooden packages should not be jused a second time as 
 it is impossible to keep them clean enough and most of them 
 ar cheaply made with the expectation that they will be used 
 but once. 
 
 Plates 13 and 14 Crates of Butter Packages 
 
 MARKETING FARM BUTTER. 
 
 455. Selling butter to the country store or a grocer in a city 
 is generally unsatisfactory as the price paid at the store must 
 be below the market price unless some particular customer has 
 taken a fancy to a certain make of dairy butter and is willing to 
 pay an advanced price for it. The only advantage a store sale 
 has over private customers is the saving of time in delivery. 
 
 456. Supplying special customers with butter by shipping 
 or delivering directly to them is the most profitable way of dis- 
 posing of farm butter. In order to do this in such a way. as to 
 command a fancy price it is necessary to make butter of a uniform 
 quality and to deliver it regularly and promptly. 
 
38 DAIRYING 
 
 457. When customers of this kind are once obtained they 
 will soon become attached to the butter and notice the difference, 
 between their butter and all other butter. The butter of each dairy 
 has its own* characteristics and it is because of this fact that some 
 customers are willing to pay $1.00 per pound and more for butter 
 of a certain dairy. The price of farm dairy butter in general is 
 not so high as that of creamery butter, but a higher price is paid 
 for some farm dairy butter than for any creamery butter. This 
 shows the opportunity there may be for selling farm butter for 
 fancy prices, but in order to do this, considerable time must be 
 given to the farm butter making and it is generally more profitable 
 for a farmer to devote his time to economical milk production and 
 sell his milk or cream to a creamery than it is to make small 
 quantities of butter to sell at the best price he can get. 
 
 BUTTER MAKING FROM SEPARATOR CREAM. 
 
 458. The making of butter from separator cream has many 
 advantages over the making of butter from gravity cream. The 
 richness of separator cream can easily be controlled and when 
 skimmed from perfectly sweet milk the cream should be in the 
 same condition from day to day and give an opportunity for making 
 butter of a uniform quality. Such an opportunity is more within 
 the grasp of a farm butter maker than a creamery butter maker 
 because the former has the cream from his own separator only, 
 while the latter receives either milk or cream from many farms. 
 
 459. The process of making butter from separator cream has 
 been studied and developed to a high degree of efficiency during 
 the past fifteen years. Many different machines and methods have 
 been tried and certain ones of these have stood the test of time 
 and proved their fundamental importance to the industry. These 
 methods and general principles apply to farm as well as to factory 
 butter making and some of them will be given more in detail than 
 already described in the preceding pages. 
 
DAIRYING 39 
 
 COOLING THE CREAM 
 
 460. It is admitted by all buttermakers that cream should be 
 cooled before it is churned (1) to aid in giving the butter a de- 
 sirable body and grain ; (2) to obtain an exhaustive churning, and 
 (3) to check the souring process. 
 
 461- The cream as it comes from the separator has a temper- 
 ature of about 75 to 85 degrees F. Some good authorities advise 
 that it should be run from the separator over a cooler into the 
 ripening vat as a cooling of 20 degrees or more and the aeration 
 it gets by the cooling are beneficial to the flavor of both cream 
 and butter. This treatment, it is claimed, removes some taint 
 from cream and gives it and the butter a cleaner flavor and bet- 
 ter keeping qualities than is the case when cream is ripened with- 
 out this cooling or aerating. This practice is recommended and 
 followed in Danish dairies and in other European butter-making 
 establishments. In America, however, the common custom of 
 butter makers is to allow the cream to flow from the separators 
 directly into the cream ripening vat without an intermediate cool- 
 ing; it being claimed that cooling after ripening answers every 
 purpose and that unnecessary work and a waste of water or other 
 cooling material is thereby avoided. 
 
 462. The fat in cream hardens and crystallizes slowly, not 
 entirely on account of its failing to reach the same temperature 
 as the cream serum in a given time, but because fat changes from 
 a liquid to a solid condition less readily than the serum cools. 
 Stirring or any sort of agitation, will aid in hastening the crystal- 
 lization of the fat, and the solidifying point of butter fat. A thor- 
 ough cooling of the fat requires the maintainance of a tem- 
 perature near 50 degrees F. for two hours, or more. This is usually 
 done in the ripening vat before churning. 
 
 463. Cooling cream by placing large blocks of clean ice in 
 obtained. The cream immediately surrounding the cake of ice is 
 
 necessarily chilled to a much lower temperature than that a little 
 distance from it, unless the ice is kept in constant motion. This 
 may cause an uneven ripening as well as an unsatisfactory cooling 
 of the cream -and should therefore be avoided whenever possible. 
 
40 DAIRYING 
 
 Ice broken in small pieces and added to cream in a vat or to the 
 churn is less objectionable and this is sometimes done with good 
 results in an emergency. If continued as a constant practice, how- 
 ever, there is danger of injuring the churn, as broken lumps of ice 
 will deface the wood somewhat by scratching it during the churn- 
 ing. 
 
 CREAM RIPENING 
 
 464. The principal reasons for ripening cream before it is 
 churned are: (1) To give flavor to the butter; (2) to aid in 
 churning within a reasonable time and (3), to improve the keeping 
 quality of the butter. 
 
 465. When cream sours a certain part of the milk sugar 
 (lactose) is changed to lactic acid. This and other changes that 
 take place are caused by the growth of bacteria, which are sup- 
 posed to be responsible for much of the flavor in butter. A great 
 deal has been learned about these microscopic plants, but there 
 still remains so much to be found out concerning the part they 
 play in the development of butter flavor that their relation to it 
 will not be extensively discussed at this time. 
 
 466. In a general way it may be said that the milk and cream 
 bacteria may be divided into two classes: (1) Lactic acid bacteria 
 which sour milk and cream by the production of lactic acid, and 
 (2), putrefactive bacteria which change the nitrogenous consti- 
 tuents, such as the casein and curd of milk and cream, into products 
 having an offensive odor and a disagreeable taste. 
 
 467. Both classes are usually present in large numbers in the 
 milk which comes from many herds. The putrefactive bacteria, 
 however, are usually more numerous in the winter season than 
 in the summer, because of the stable milking and the house care 
 of the milk and cream. 
 
 468. The lactic acid bacteria are the ones which the butter- 
 maker should try to cultivate in the cream ripening, and the 
 putrefactive bacteria are not so easily destroyed as many of the 
 other germs in milk and cream. They will survive a temperature 
 
DAIRYING 41 
 
 that kills the lactic acid bacteria, and on this account are very 
 troublesome, especially at the seasons of the year when they are 
 likely to get into the milk in large numbers. 
 
 470. In making raw cream butter the buttermaker can best 
 deal with these undesirable bacteria by ripening a very rich cream 
 with a starter which contains a sufficiently large number of the 
 acid-producing bacteria to suppress the growth of the purefactive 
 organisms. The safest way, however, is to so care for the milk 
 and cream at the farm that it is kept free from these undesirable 
 bacteria. 
 
 1, Effect of Ripening on Butter Flavor. It is a well known 
 fact that pure butter fat is nearly tasteless. This shows that most 
 of the butter flavor is the result of a more or less complex mixture 
 of butter fat, cream-serum, curd and salt. The fat is not the single 
 source of taste in butter, but by the ripening of the cream, products 
 are formed from the fat, the casein, and the cream serum which 
 are partially absorbed by the butter fat, and give the butter its 
 characteristic flavor. 
 
 When the ripening process goes too far the fat itself is changed 
 somewhat and objectionable flavors are produced. If the butter 
 is not properly cared for after being made, the ripening process 
 may continue to go on to such an extent that the butter fat be- 
 comes rancid and gives the peculiar flavor of "strong" butter. 
 
 The characteristic difference in taste between sweet cream 
 butter and that made from sour or ripened cream shows the effect 
 which the ripening process has on butter. Sweet cream butter 
 has a flat, sweetish taste with very little aroma, while butter from 
 ripened cream has the characteristic "butter" taste and aroma 
 which is more or- less pronounced, depending on the extent to 
 which the cream is ripened before churning. 
 
 The opinions of scientists differ somewhat as to the kind of 
 bacteria or ferments that are best fitted to ripen cream and produce 
 a desirable flavor in the butter. All agree however that lactic acid 
 ferments are always beneficial, but some claim that -a mixture of 
 certain other ferments with the lactic acid bacteria produces equally 
 as good and sometimes a better flavor and aroma in the butter 
 than lactic acid alone. 
 
42 DAIRYING 
 
 The presence of air is not necessary for cream ripening as the 
 lactic acid bacteria grow in the presence and in the absence of air. 
 Aeration and stirring are beneficial during cream ripening, as they 
 prevent a musty smell in the butter and distribute the ferments 
 uniformly through the mass of the cream. 
 
 RELATION BETWEEN HARDNESS OF THE FAT AND 
 THE BUTTER FLAVOR 
 
 471. Butter fat is a very complex compound, but for the pur- 
 pose of butter-making it may be considered as made up of the hard 
 and the soft fats. The relative proportion of these components 
 affects the body and texture of the butter. The proportion is in- 
 fluenced by the cow's feed and by her period of lactation. When 
 cows are fresh and when they receive a liberal supply of green feed 
 the relative proportion of the soft fats is greater and the butter is 
 often much softer and melts at a lower temperature than is the 
 case in' the latter part of the lactation period or when cows receive 
 dry feed exclusively. 
 
 The hardness of butter may be an indication of its flavor. 
 High flavored butter is usually softer than low flavored butter and 
 hard, tallowy butter is inclined to be tasteless. 
 
 The relation between the amount of hard and of soft fats in 
 butter is not changed, however, by the cream ripening process. It 
 is either a breed or an individual characteristic of the cow or it is 
 subject to the changes already mentioned in the period of lactation 
 and the feed that the cows receive. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the fermentations which take place 
 during the ripening of the cream are not the only source of butter 
 flavor. These ferments are however of great importance, and 
 their propagation and control is discussed under the head of Start- 
 ers in lesson VI. 
 
 2. The Effect of Ripening on Churning. It has already been 
 stated that one of the reasons for ripening cream is to aid in churn- 
 ing the cream in a reasonable length of time. A well ripened 
 cream will churn under ordinary circumstances in about 45 minutes, 
 
DAIRYING 43 
 
 and very Trifle butter fat will be left in the buttermilk if the churn- 
 ing temperature is an appropriate one. The effect of ripening on* 
 the churniiTig of cream may be demonstrated by dividing a lot of 
 cream imtto two parts, one of which is held at a temperature cold 
 enough tto prevent ripening and the other ripened at temperatures 
 fitted to give the best results. When both lots are churned at the 
 proper temperature for churning ripe cream and in churns of the 
 same size, it will be found that the ripened cream churns first and 
 gives more butter than is obtained from the sweet or unripened 
 cream. The ripening has had some effect on the curd of the cream 
 and aids the separation of butter fat from the serum. There are 
 other things, such as the temperature and the richness of the 
 cream that have an influence on churning, but these are discussed 
 in another place, par. 399, and are only outlined here to call atten- 
 tion to the fact that cream ripening is one of the important factors 
 in churning. 
 
 3. Effect of Ripening on Keeping Quality. One of the strik- 
 ing differences between sweet cream butter and ripened cream 
 butter is the way in which they hold their fresh flavor. When but- 
 ter is kept at the ordinary temperature of butter cellars and house 
 or store refrigerators near 50 F. the fermentations character- 
 istic of cream and butter are not materially checked ; they continue 
 to develop in the curd of the butter and may often have a marked 
 effect on its flavor in a short time. Sweet cream butter usually 
 contains more curd than, that made from ripened cream, because 
 the curd does not wash out so thoroughly during the butter making 
 process. The sweet cream butter therefore goes "off" flavor much 
 more quickly than the other butter, because of the accumulation 
 of these fermentation products. The continued ripening of the 
 curd in butter, after it is made, may improve the sweet cream 
 butter flavor for awhile, but when the fermentations are not stop- 
 ped by cooling the butter, the butter fat absorbs the fermentation 
 products formed, and their accumulation, as well as the changes 
 which take place in the fat itself, produce the old and rancid flavor 
 which is so objectionable in butter. 
 
 472. The ripened cream butter will, as a rule, keep in a fresh 
 and acceptable condition under the same conditions of temperature 
 
44 DAIRYING 
 
 for a longer time than the sweet cream butter, because the ripening 
 before churning has reduced the amount of curd left in the butter. 
 
 The expression is often heard that butter which is once good is 
 always good, meaning that high scoring butter will retain its good 
 qualities better than butter which has never been exceptionally 
 fine. This is undoubtedly true in many cases, but exceptions are 
 so common that it can hardly be accepted as a foundation principle 
 in buttermaking. Cases have frequently been known in which 
 prize butter has gone "off" flavor in a short time after it was 
 scored; and while such instances may not be so common as those 
 in which high scoring butter has retained its good qualities longer 
 than poorer butter, still the exceptional case is of sufficiently fre- 
 quent occurrence to make it unsafe to predict the future of any 
 piece of butter with certainty. 
 
 473. Many opinions and more or less positive statements re- 
 garding butter flavors are sometimes advanced which cannot be 
 proved, but they receive a certain amount of respectful attention 
 because of the inability of the listener to contradict them. Such 
 statements are often based on a few observations made without the 
 support of scientific investigation, which up to the present time has 
 not revealed the principles or laws on which butter flavor and its 
 keeping quality is founded. If these laws were known it would 
 be possible so to formulate them that men of ordinary intelligence 
 could follow their directions and obtain uniformly good results. 
 
 474. The part which bacteria, lactic acid and curd play in 
 butter making is not thoroughly understood by the best author- 
 ities, but the ripening of cream with a pure culture of lactic acid 
 bacteria either alone or with some of the so-called flavor-producing 
 bacteria is recommended as good practice. The results obtained 
 will be influenced by the cleanliness, and the sweetness of the 
 cream started with, and the ability of the butter maker to judge 
 when to check the ripening process and when to churn the cream. 
 
 LENGTH OF RIPENING PROCESS 
 
 475. The rate or rapidity with which cream ripens may be in- 
 fluenced by a variety of conditions. Some of these conditions are : 
 
DAIRYING 45 
 
 1. The richness of the cream. 
 
 2. The condition of the miik. 
 
 3. The weather conditions. 
 
 4. The number of bacteria present, whether added by a 
 
 starter or from other sources. 
 
 5. The temperature at which the cream is held. 
 
 1. EFFECT OF RICHNESS OF CREAM ON RIPENING 
 
 Some idea of the rate at which cream is ripening in the early 
 stages of the process may be gained by using the tests for acidity 
 which are employed for this purpose. Both Mann's acid test and 
 Farrington's Alkaline Tablets are capable of giving satisfactory 
 results. These tests do not necessarily measure the ripeness of 
 cream, but they may in the early stages of the process serve as a 
 guide to show how fast the acidity is progressing. Cream reaches 
 the limit of its acidity at a lower percentage of acid than milk. 
 
 The fat in cream is neutral, and since the acidity must be de- 
 veloped entirely in the cream serum, the amount of serum present 
 will be governed by the percentage of fat in the cream. A cream 
 testing 20 per cent, fat contains 80 per cent, serum and one testing 
 50 per cent, fat contains only 50 per cent, serum. The amount of 
 acid that may be developed in the thinner cream will therefore be 
 considerably larger than it is possible to obtain in the richer cream. 
 The serum present may contain the same percentage of acidity in 
 both cases, but on account of there being so much more serum in 
 the thin than in the rich cream, the fat in the thin cream is mixed 
 with a larger quantity of the acid serum than is the 1 case with the 
 rich cream. This doubtless has ,some influence not only on the 
 rate at which cream ripens, but on the extent to which the butter 
 flavor is developed by the ripening. 
 
 476. A simple calculation will show the serum acidity of 
 cream of any richness corresponding to a standard acidity for 
 cream containing a certain percentage of fat. If, for example, 0.6 
 per cent, acid in cream testing 25 per cent, fat may be accepted as 
 a standard, then the corresponding serum acidity of cream testing 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 other percentages of fat may be found as follows: Cream testing 
 25 per cent, fat contains 75 per cent, serum; and since the fat is a 
 neutral substance the 0.6 per cent, acid is held in the 75 per cent, 
 serum. If we have .6 Ib. acid in 75 pounds serum, there is .6 divided 
 by 75 or .008 Ibs. acid in 1 pound of serum. This .008 pounds acid 
 is then the standard acidity per pound of serum, and the pounds 
 of serum in cream of any per cent, fat should be multiplied by this 
 figure in order to determine the serum acidity, which will corres- 
 pond to .6 per cent, acid in cream testing 25 per cent. fat. 
 
 The results of a few such calculations are given in the follow- 
 ing table: 
 
 Acidity of cream corresponding to .6 per cent, in cream testing 25 
 
 per cent. fat. 
 
 Cream fat per cent . . 
 
 70 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 Serum, per cent 
 
 80 
 
 7S 
 
 70 
 
 6S 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 Aciditv, per cent. 
 
 .64 
 
 .60 
 
 .56 
 
 .52 
 
 .48 
 
 .44 
 
 .40 
 
 An acidity of any other standard may be calculated by the 
 same method. 
 
 LIMIT OF ACIDITY 
 
 477. It will be explained under the discussion of starters that 
 there is a limit to the percentage of acidity that will develop in 
 either skim milk, milk, or cream. In skim milk this point is 
 reached at about 0.8 per cent, acid ; in cream it will be reached at 
 a lower per cent, acid, depending on the richness of the cream. 
 
 A series of trials have shown that by allowing samples of 
 cream containing from 25 to 50 per cent, fat, to sour several days 
 or until no more acid in quantity would develop, that the limit 
 of acidity obtained was the following: 
 
 Showing the extreme acidity which developed in skim milk and in 
 cream testing different per cents, fat. 
 
 Fresh 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 .11 
 
 24 hours . . . 
 
 55 
 
 SO 
 
 .38 
 
 .35 
 
 34 
 
 3 I 
 
 * 
 
 48 hours . . . 
 
 64 
 
 S7 
 
 .47 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 * 
 
 
 72 hours . . 
 
 76 
 
 60 
 
 53 
 
 SO 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 96 hours 
 
 78 
 
 6? 
 
 54 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 
 108 hours . 
 
 .78 
 
 .TO 
 
 .55 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Too thick to draw into pipette. 
 
DAIRYING 47 
 
 478. These tests show that the acidity of the different 
 samples reached a maximum beyond which it did not develop even 
 though they were held under favorable conditions for souring. 
 They also show that buttermakers should not expect cream con- 
 taining 25 and up to 50 per cent, fat to develop an acidity beyond 
 the figures given in the table. A cream containing 25 per cent, 
 fat may reach 0.6 per cent, acid, but a richer cream such as a 40 
 per cent, fat cream will not sour much beyond 0.5 per cent acid. 
 
 2. CONDITION OF THE MILK 
 
 The cream from a perfectly sweet, clean milk will ripen more 
 slowly and in a much more satisfactory way than cream skimmed 
 from milk in which the ripening has already started. Milk that 
 has not been .properly cooled after milking and has begun to sour 
 from age or impurities will not supply a cream free from taints. 
 The defects of the milk are carried into the cream, and they are 
 often the cause of an abnormal ripening of the cream. 
 
 When the milk is pure and free from all foreign matter as 
 well as taints the cream skimmed from it will be in such a satis- 
 factory condition that the buttermaker may be able to control the 
 ripening process and make an excellent quality of butter. This 
 is not to be depended on, however, if a great variety of bacteria is 
 carried to the cream from the impure milk. 
 
 A large churning of butter may be injured by one lot of im- 
 pure milk and the entire quantity of milk or cream to which it is 
 added suffer a loss in butter price on that account. This does not 
 seem fair when a reasonable amount of care will keep milk and 
 cream sweet and pure. 
 
 3. THE WEATHER CONDITIONS 
 
 During hot, sultry weather bacteria- thrive and multiply rapid- 
 ly, but in a cool, clear atmosphere the growth of these ferments is 
 somewhat retarded. The effect of changes in the weather is often 
 noticed in cream which is ripened in open vats. Damp, dark, and 
 
48 DAIRYING 
 
 warm days are favorable for a vigorous bacterial growth and when 
 cream is exposed to such weather it should be watched closely in 
 order to prevent the ripening process from going too fast. This 
 may be checked by cooling the cream to 50 F. and lower, but even 
 at this temperature the cream may continue to ripen in muggy, 
 warm weather faster than in bright, dry days. 
 
 This tendency of the cream ripening to be influenced by the 
 weather should receive due consideration from day to day by the 
 buttermaker. 
 
 4. NUMBER OF BACTERIA IN CREAM 
 
 The number of bacteria present in cream at the time ripening 
 begins has an important influence on the rapidity of its ripening. 
 The supply of bacteria in each lot of cream should therefore be 
 controlled by the use of more or less starter depending on the rate 
 at which it is desired to have the cream ripen. This is similar to 
 the growth of vegetation in well prepared soil. The ground may 
 be covered with a luxuriant crop if a liberal amount of seed has 
 been planted, but with a scant seeding very little growth will be 
 seen even if the soil and other conditions are favorable. 
 
 5. THE TEMPERATURE OF RIPENING 
 
 A large number of the bacteria which ripen cream grow rapidly 
 at a temperature between 70 and 90 F. Both the activity and 
 the ripening of cream are hastened at these temperatures. In 
 practice, however, it is not customary to warm cream much above 
 70 F. when one wishes to hasten the ripening; and it progresses 
 so rapidly at this point that a few hours is usually sufficient to 
 bring about the desired effect. 
 
 Checking the ripening is not such an easy matter as hastening 
 it. The growth and development of bacteria may be retarded by 
 cooling the cream to near 50 F., but some changes continue to 
 take place even at this temperature. The ripening goes on ex- 
 tremely slowly, however, and cooling to as low a temperature as 
 
DAIRYING 49 
 
 possible and as suddenly as possible is about the only safe means 
 the buttermaker has at his disposal for checking the progress of the 
 ripening. 
 
 *RAW CREAM BUTTER 
 
 479. Quick Ripening. The point to which cream is ripened 
 before churning may be reached in a comparatively short time 
 after separation if the buttermaker so desires. When quick ripen- 
 ing is practiced a large starter is added to the sweet cream and it 
 is then held at a temperature of 70 to 75 F. from two to four 
 hours, or until the cream has reached about 0.5 per cent. acid. 
 The cream is then cooled to near 50 F. and held at this tem- 
 perature at least two hours or until it is churned. Some butter- 
 makers of long experience profess to be able to get the best quality 
 of butter by churning immediately after the cream has been 
 brought to the proper stage of ripeness and then cooled sufficiently 
 for churning. This method it is claimed will produce a more highly 
 flavored butter than that made when the ripened cream is held at 
 a temperature near 55 F. for 12 hours or more after ripening, or 
 until the morning churning. The butter intended for competition 
 in prize contests is sometimes made in this way, the buttermaker 
 watching the cream and churning it in the night when it is "just 
 right" rather than running the risk of loss in quality by allowing 
 the ripened cream to stand until the next morning and then churn- 
 ing it. 
 
 480. No satisfactory theoretical explanation for the immedi- 
 ate churning after quick ripening has yet been offered, and the 
 success of such a practice depends largely on the ability of the 
 buttermaker to detect the point at which the cream is in the proper 
 stage of ripeness for obtaining the desired quality of butter. The 
 acid tests will not do this, as they measure only the amount of 
 acid developed by the ripening. After a certain point has been 
 reached the acidity fails to increase, but the ripening changes con- 
 
 *Raw cream butter is understood to be butter made from 
 cream which has not been heated above the usual separating 
 temperature of milk that is about 85 F. 
 
50 DAIRYING 
 
 tinue to go on, and usually the butter flavor is more or less affected 
 by their progress. In many cases the butter is injured by allowing 
 the cream to stand very long after a quick ripening, and this makes 
 the practice rather an unsafe one for inexperienced buttermakers. 
 The safer practice to follow until one becomes expert in detecting 
 the proper point to which cream should be ripened, is to hold the 
 cream at a lower temperature and allow the ripening process to 
 develop slowly. 
 
 481. Slow Ripening. The ripening of cream from 20 to 40 
 hours is far more common than is a quicker ripening. The usual 
 practice where milk or cream is handled daily during the entire 
 year is to run the sweet cream from the separators directly into 
 the ripening-vat to which a starter may have been added at the 
 beginning of the separation. If the cream is all separated at about 
 eleven o'clock, it is then thoroughly stirred and its temperature 
 may be about 70 F., while the acidity is near .2 per cent. The 
 cream is held at this temperature until its acidity has reached about 
 0.4 per cent. This may be attained at about 4 p. m., depending on 
 the conditions already mentioned (par. 475). At this point the 
 cooling of the cream is begun and continued until its temperature 
 has reached 50-55 F. This temperature is maintained until the 
 next morning, when the cream churned is of moderate richness. 
 Cream should not be held many hours after it has reached 0.6 per 
 cent, acidity, as the butter loses its fresh, clean flavor by continu- 
 ing the ripening after this point. 
 
 482. When milk is separated every other day, as is often the 
 case in winter and the colder seasons of the year, the cream is held 
 for two days before churning. Under such conditions the tem- 
 perature of the cream should not be allowed to go much above 
 56 F. It is kept near this temperature until the acidity has 
 reached about 0.4 per cent. This will require some time, as the 
 ripening process goes on slowly at 56 F. under normal conditions. 
 If the milk when separated is partially ripened the cream will ripen 
 quickly and so high a temperature as 56 F. may not be a safe one 
 at which to hold the cream, but with sweet cream /and a moderate 
 amount of starter there is not much danger of over-ripening the 
 cream by holding it from 6 to 12 hours at 56 F. Frequent acid 
 
DAIRYING 51 
 
 tests of the cream will show the progress of the ripening, and when 
 .4 to .5 per cent, acid has been reached the cream should be cooled 
 to near 50 F. and held at that temperature until it is churned. The 
 acidity at churning time should not exceed 0.6 per cent. 
 
 483. The so-called "48 hour" or slow ripening of cream is 
 practiced and recommended by some buttermakers who produce 
 an extra quality of butter, even when milk is skimmed daily. The 
 body of the butter may be firmer, than that made from cream 
 ripened a shorter time at a higher temperature. The practice is a 
 safer one to follow with perfectly pure and clean milk than with 
 milk of uncertain sweetness from day to day. Milk from one or 
 a few large herds well cared for and in prime condition each day 
 will furnish cream which may be much more safely ripened for 
 48 hours than that supplied by a number of more or less careless 
 patrons. 
 
 UNCERTAINTY OF RIPENING BY RULE 
 
 484. The foregoing discussion of cream ripening is intended 
 to apply to the ordinary conditions at the present time where either 
 milk or cream or both are made into butter. The conditions of 
 this supply may vary from day to day according to the weather, 
 the season, and the extent to which the milk producers are dairy 
 farmers. Some butter is made from milk and cream from many 
 small farmers who keep a few cows as a side issue and do not 
 give the cows or the milk much attention. At other places the milk 
 and cream is produced by men who make a business of dairy 
 farming; they keep good-sized herds of dairy cows and provide 
 the necessary arrangements for taking excellent care of the milk 
 and cream. These differences in the supply have an important 
 bearing on the cream ripening and the butter quality. On account 
 of this variety in condition, it is impossible to give directions for 
 cream ripening that may be followed in the same routine way each 
 day and at all places. 
 
 485. A definite knowledge of the reasons for ripening cream 
 and the influence which temperature, acidity, etc., have on the 
 
52 DAIRYING 
 
 process should be possessed by the buttermaker, and these with 
 his experience and his own careful observations should be his guide 
 in ripening each lot of cream. He cannot successfully follow any 
 set form of directions as to the number of hours that the cream 
 should be held at certain temperatures each day, or the amount 
 and best kind of starter to use. He must understand thoroughly 
 the cause and the effect of the various tests and manipulations em- 
 ployed in cream ripening, and govern his work by this knowledge. 
 
 PASTEURIZED CREAM BUTTER 
 
 486. Nearly all the desirable and the objectionable flavors ex- 
 cept food flavors found in milk, cream and butter, come from 
 fermentations that are started in these products by bacteria. The 
 souring of cream is an illustration of the growth of ferments in 
 cream that help to develop in the butter. If these are of the 
 right kind a good butter flavor is obtained, if not of the right 
 kind an objectionable flavor is noticed. It is evident there- 
 fore that a control of the fermentations that occur in all dairy 
 products is a very important matter. One of the ways in which 
 an attempt has been made to control the fermentation in butter 
 making is to heat the cream to a temperature ranging between 150 
 and 180 F. then cool it to near 50 F. Such a heating is called 
 pasteurization. If the heating has been thorough, nearly all the 
 bacteria that cause the fermentation or souring of cream will be 
 destroyed and if a carefully selected starter which contains the 
 right kind of bacteria is then added ; this seeds the cream with 
 ferments that develop the desirable flavors in the butter. 
 
 UNIFORMITY IN QUALITY OF PASTEURIZED CREAM 
 
 BUTTER 
 
 487. The secret of success in butter making is to make an 
 article of uniform quality. Consumers from day to day like to 
 recognize the taste that they have become accustomed to in their 
 butter, and an introduction of a new taste arouses suspicion and 
 provokes expressions of dislike. These may not always mean that 
 
DAIRYING 53 
 
 the butter is inferior in quality ; but that the familiar taste is lack- 
 ing. 
 
 488. A uniformity in the salt, the color and the texture of 
 butter is the result of careful and uniform workmanship, which is 
 largely mechanical ; but to make butter which shall have a uniform 
 flavor throughout the year requires a certain amount of expertness 
 and good judgment, that is something more than mechanical. Uni- 
 formity in flavor cannot always be obtained by following fixed 
 rules. This is especially true of raw cream butter where the 
 fermentations which take place in the cream are subject to the 
 varying conditions of milk, cream and weather that influence 
 their growth. When the cows receive sound, wholesome feed and 
 are milked in a clean way, as is generally the case after a rain 
 in June, milk often has a different taste from that produced only a 
 few months later by the same cows, which may be standing all 
 day in stagnant water fighting flies in a pasture that has become 
 barren of feed in consequence of a continued drought. There is 
 a great difference in the purity of the milk produced under these 
 two conditions and in the variety of bacteria found in the cream 
 obtained from it. 
 
 489. The butter made from such milk will naturally vary in 
 flavor under the opposite conditions, especially when churned 
 from raw cream, because in this case nothing has been done to re- 
 duce the number of bacteria usually present in such cream. This 
 difficulty may be overcome by destroying the bacteria present and 
 by introducing a pure culture of selected bacteria. The butter 
 maker has therefore much better chances of making butter that is 
 uniform in quality during the entire year, when he pasteurizes 
 either the milk or cream and ripens the cream with a carefully 
 prepared starter. So long as the pasteurizing is well done and 
 the starter is uniformly good, the butter will possess the same mild 
 and sweet flavor which, though not so high and pronounced as is 
 sometimes obtained in raw cream butter, will yet be more satis- 
 factory to the trade because of its uniformity in flavor and its good 
 keeping qualities. 
 
 490. The objections that have been made to pasteurized 
 cream butter in America as the result of a few widely scattered 
 
54 DAIRYING 
 
 trials at creameries and experiment stations, are the mild flavor, 
 the salvey texture and the diminished yield. Recent work in this 
 direction has demonstrated that these defects were largely due jto 
 the lack of experience which the butter makers have had in making 
 this kind of butter and to the machines and appliances used for 
 pasteurizing the cream. 
 
 491. Within the past few years an interest in starter-making 
 has become widespread among American butter makers, and the 
 knowledge gained from this work has taught them how to produce 
 a desirable and sufficiently-pronounced flavor in pasteurized cream 
 butter to entirely overcome the old prejudice against such butter 
 on account of its flat and mild taste. 
 
 The other objections relating to the salvey body or texture 
 and the diminished yield of butter from pasteurized milk or cream 
 have now been overcome by the modern machines used for heating 
 the cream to a pasteurizing temperature. An important point in 
 pasteurizing seems to be the immediate and sudden cooling of the 
 cream after it has been raised to a pasteurizing temperature. This 
 coling, apparently, helps to restore the proper texture which has 
 been made more or less salvey by the. melting of the butter fat 
 when the cream is heated. It also helps to prevent losses in yield 
 of butter, although the exhaustiveness of the churning is also in- 
 fluenced by the temperature of churning (see par. 399). 
 
 492. A series of experiments made at the Wisconsin Dairy 
 School showed that there is no necessity for a loss in yield, and 
 comparative scorings of pasteurized cream butter have shown 
 that it may be made equal in flavor and texture to that made from 
 raw cream. The advantages gained by pasteurizing cream in 
 keeping quality and in the uniformity of the butter are of sufficient 
 importance to justify a widespread adoption of this method of 
 butter making. The theory of the practice is sound in every par- 
 ticular, and the successful application of it is within the reach of 
 buttermakers of average intelligence. 
 
 493. It is not however an automatic process of cream ripening 
 and buttermaking, but requires careful attention to the details of 
 pasteurizing the cream, making the starter, and ripening the 
 
DAIRYING 55 
 
 cream. When these details are mastered the careful and intelligent 
 butter maker is more surely rewarded by uniform success by 
 making butter from pasteurized cream than he can hope to attain 
 from the churning of the ripened raw cream. 
 
 494. Pasteurizing the cream must not be expected to remove 
 all the taints which may be present in the milk from which the 
 cream is skimmed, but it will preserve the good qualities that are 
 present in the milk and will prevent the development of some de- 
 fects that would become prominent when the raw cream is ripened. 
 Pasteurizing also gives the pure-culture starter but little to con- 
 tend with besides its own bacteria, and thus affords the butter 
 maker a safer foundation for obtaining the benefits of his expert- 
 ness in selecting a starter than it is possible for him to obtain with 
 raw cream in which there is always present an unknown variety 
 of good and bad germs. 
 
 495. High flavors are likely to be irregular because of the 
 extreme difficulty butter-makers have in controlling the milk and 
 cream supply and in determining the exact point at which to check 
 the ripening_process when it has reached the delicate stage where 
 the high and short-lived flavors attain their maximum development. 
 The element of luck enters largely into the making of such butter, 
 and records show that these extremely high flavors are not lasting. 
 Such butter does not keep well ; the flavor is so delicate that it 
 passes away quickly, and a taste of "strong butter" takes its place 
 in a much shorter time than is the case with butter which has a 
 less pronounced flavor when-it is freshly made. 
 
 RIPENING PASTEURIZED CREAM 
 
 496. On account of the destruction of nearly all germ life in 
 pasteurized cream by the heating which it has received, a generous 
 amount of starter must be used to complete the ripening process 
 within the usual time. The cream passes from the separator to the 
 pasteurizer, where it is first heated to 160 or 185 F. and then 
 cooled to near 70 F. It enters the ripener at this temperature 
 70 F. and is there mixed with about 10 to 20 per cent, starter, 
 depending on the richness of the cream. If the cream contains 
 
56 DAIRYING 
 
 about 30 per cent, fat, 10 per cent, starter is usually sufficient. The 
 cream and starter are thoroughly mixed and held at nearly 70 F. 
 for four to six hours, or until about .5 per cent, acid has developed. 
 At this point the ripening may be carried further than is safe in 
 raw cream, because in the pasteurized cream the starter is supposed 
 to contain nothing but desirable bacteria, and hence the products 
 they will form by continued ripening should not be so injurious 
 to the butter flavor as is the case with raw cream, because of the 
 variety of bacteria present and the uncertainty as to what products 
 will be formed and taken up by the butter during the ripening 
 process. 
 
 497. When the cream has reached 0-5 per cent, acid it should 
 be cooled to near 50 F. and held at this temperature for two hours 
 at least, or until churned. It is often held from eight to ten hours 
 after cooling begins. 
 
 While cooling, the cream should be thoroughly mixed, and 
 when the cooling has once begun it should progress rapidly until 
 the lowest possible temperature is reached. If the cream* is not 
 cooled to a temperature that will check the growth of bacteria, the 
 ripening process will continue and may go so far as to spoil the 
 butter. It is therefore important that the cooling should be done 
 quickly and the cream kept cold until churned. The ripening of 
 pasteurized cream is subject to the same influences, such as rich- 
 ness and temperature of the cream and condition of the starter, as 
 is described under raw cream ripening. These points need to be 
 watched and provided for as carefully in one case as in the other, 
 but the pasteurized cream ripening has the advantage of being more 
 under the control of the butter-maker than is usually the case with 
 raw cream. 
 
 PASTEURIZING GATHERED CREAM 
 
 498. The cream churned at a gathered cream factory is very 
 often tainted and more or less sour when it is received. This con- 
 dition is usually due to the lack of proper care at the farms and to 
 the age of the cream when collected. It is rarely gathered daily, 
 
DAIRYING 57 
 
 the common practice being to make trips every other day in sum- 
 mer and twice a week in winter. When cream is kept for so long a 
 time as this it is often sour before it leaves the farm. This, in many 
 cases, is caused by carelessness or because no great effort has been 
 made to keep the cream cool until it is delivered to the haulers. A 
 certain amount of such tainted cream is usually gathered on each 
 route, and when no precautions are taken by the gatherers to keep 
 the inferior cream separated from the sweet cream, that has been 
 well cared for, the bad qualities of the former are transmitted to 
 the entire lot and the butter suffers a loss in quality on this ac- 
 count. Such inferior cream is not always found on every route ; but 
 even when the many patrons deliver a perfectly sweet cream to 
 the gatherers, there will be a great variety in the flavors and in the 
 freshness of the different lots; and this lack of uniformity in the 
 cream will necessarily have its influence on the quality of the 
 butter. Some of the defects of gathered cream butter are often be- 
 yond the control of the butter-maker, and he is obliged to do the 
 best he can with that which is brought to him. 
 
 499. In hot summer weather an acidity of 0.6 per cent, is 
 often developed in the cream w r hen it is delivered to the factory; 
 such cream is sour enough to churn, but since it is usually very 
 warm, it could not be churned at once without suffering a large 
 loss in the butter milk; the sourest lots would churn first and 
 leave some of the less ripened cream in the butter milk. This loss 
 may be avoided by stopping the ripening immediately, either by 
 cooling or by heating the cream to a temperature that will check 
 the growth of the bacteria which are responsible for the cream 
 souring. 
 
 500. The course sometimes adopted in handling this cream 
 is to place large pieces of ice in the cream as soon as it arrives 
 at the factory; usually about 6 p. m. The vats of cream are left 
 to cool as best they may during the night, with an occasional stir- 
 ring of the floating pieces of ice through the evening. The next 
 morning it will be noticed that the acidity of the cream has not 
 increased much; but the ripening has continued, and the tem- 
 perature of the cream may be near 60 deg. F. At this temperature 
 the cream is churned, and the butter obtained is of a more or less 
 
58 DAIRYING 
 
 inferior quality on account of the excessive and uneven ripening 
 of the cream. 
 
 The principal objection to this practice is the slowness with, 
 which the cream is cooled. This delay permits a continual de- 
 velopment of the undesirable fermentations which the cream may 
 contain and thus increases the chances of producing an inferior 
 butter. 
 
 501. An improvement on this practice has been made, by cool- 
 ing the cream as quickly as possible, after it is all received in the 
 evening. The cream is then churned at about ten o'clock at night, 
 and the butter obtained is of much better quality than when the 
 cream is held over night and churned the next morning. In this 
 way the only defects the cream contains are those present at the 
 time it arrived at the factory. 
 
 502. A much quicker and more efficient way of stopping the 
 development of undesirable fermentations in such cream is to pas- 
 teurize it at the factory as soon as it arrives. All that is needed 
 is steam, a good water supply, and a continuous pasteurizer and 
 cooler. Sour cream may be heated to a temperature of 160 F. and 
 cooled to 60 F., or lower, in one of these machines. This treatment 
 will stop the fermentations that may be present in the cream and 
 remove some of the taints which have already developed in it. 
 
 503. The necessity of further ripening after pasteurizing will 
 depend on the sourness of the cream when it is received. If the 
 acidity when the cream is pasteurized is near 0.5 per cent, no 
 further ripening is necessary ; but a sweeter cream may be warmed 
 and held until about this amount of acid has developed. When 
 sufficiently ripened, the cream should be cooled and held at as cold 
 a temperature as possible, near 50 F., until it is churned. The 
 quality of the butter made will be influenced by the amount and 
 kind of ferments in the cream-before it was pasteurized. 
 
 504. No great benefit can be obtained from the use of a starter 
 in such cream, because in most cases it is already too sour, and a 
 starter would not have much chance to exert any great influence 
 over the fermentation products that are already formed. The 
 curdling and separation of whey from sour ceram when it is 
 pasteurized need not be feared, as this is caused by carelessness 
 in heating, either by allowing the temperature to run too high or by 
 
DAIRYING 59 
 
 failing to keep the cream in motion while it is being heated. When 
 the cream curd is cooked into hard lumps these may cause con- 
 siderable annoyance, but they may be removed by straining the 
 cream into the churn and by washing the granular butter several 
 times. The curd specks are heavier than water and will sink when 
 the churn is half filled with water and allowed to stand. These may 
 then be drawn off with the wash water and the operation repeated 
 until most of them are removed. 
 
 SWEET CREAM BUTTER 
 
 505. A somewhat limited demand for sweet cream butter 
 is usually found in large cities. Such butter is churned a short 
 time after the cream is separated from the milk, and for most 
 people it has what would be designated as a flat, insipid taste. 
 None of the flavor due to cream ripening and souring is present, 
 and the characteristic butter flavor sought for by the general 
 market is almost entirely lacking when such butter is freshly 
 made. 
 
 506. Sweet cream butter does not always keep well, and it 
 must be shipped to customers frequently and in small quantities in 
 order to keep them supplied with a fresh and agreeable article. 
 Perfect cleanliness is absolutely necessary in making this butter, 
 as the introduction of foreign flavors by means of dust, dirt, or by 
 the absorption of surrounding odors is very quickly noticed on 
 account of the uniformity in taste of fresh butter; the best grades 
 have such a delicate flavor that slight taints are very easily 
 noticed. 
 
 507. Sweet cream butter may be made by skimming a rich 
 cream testing about 40 per cent, fat; then, by letting this stand 
 at near 40 F. for two or three hours to harden the fat, the cream 
 may be churned in a reasonable length of time, and practically all 
 the butter churned out. If the cream is much thinner than this, 
 the churning may require several hours, and if the temperature is 
 allowed to rise much above 50 there will be a large loss of butter 
 in the butter-milk. 
 
60 DAIRYING 
 
 Sweet cream butter is made in all other respects like ripened 
 or sour cream butter, except that it is sometimes wanted with 
 neither color nor salt added to it. 
 
 "Sweet Butter" in the New York market is the term applied 
 to unsalted butter, but this is not necessarily sweet cream butter. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CREAM RIPENING METHODS 
 
 1. Hold sweet cream testing about 30 per cent fat at a tem- 
 perature of 70 F. until .5 per cent acid develops, then cool to 50 
 F. and hold at this temperature until churned, usually the next 
 morning after skimming the cream. 
 
 2. Ripen sweet cheam as fast as possible at a temperature of 
 70 to 75 F. until .6 per cent, acid is developed in the cream, 
 then cool to 50 F. and after one to two hours holding at this 
 temperature churn at once. 
 
 3. Hold the sweet cream at 55 F. for about two days and 
 then churn. 
 
 4. Add 10 to 20 per cent, of a carefully prepared starter to 
 sweet cream containing 35 to 40 per cent, fat and continue as in 1. 
 
 5. Add 5 to 10 per cent, starter to sweet cream and churn at 
 once. 
 
 6. Pasteurize sweet cream, add a starter and continue as in 1. 
 
 7. Pasteurize sour cream after neutralizing the acidity with 
 lime and churn after holding about two hours at 50 F. 
 
 8. Tainted cream may be diluted with either sweet milk or 
 water and run through a separator, then ripened with a starter as 
 in 4. 
 
 CREAM RIPENING VATS 
 
 508. In most American creameries and farms where butter 
 is made the separator cream passes directly into the ripening vat 
 where it is held for a number of hours before churning. At the 
 present time there are many kinds of cream ripening-vats in use. 
 
DAIRYING 61 
 
 They are a'll made with the same object in view that is to protect 
 the cream from the surrounding air temperatures and to change 
 the temperature of the cream as desired. 
 
 509. The Channel Bottom Open Vat is the oldest cream 
 ripening-vat in common use. A space of several inches between 
 the tin and the wood sides of the vat is rilled with water, and in 
 some of them an ice box is built at one end. In this vat the cream 
 must be stirred by hand with a tin dipper or a wooden stirrer when 
 the butter maker wishes to change the cream temperature. On 
 
 Plate 15---The Boyd Cream Ripener 
 
 account of the small porportion of the cream touching the tin sides 
 of these vats, changes in temperature are made rather slowly when 
 large quantities are ripened at one time. These vats have been 
 used extensively in the past, and many dairies and creameries are 
 fitted up with them, as no other vats were proposed for a number 
 of years. 
 
 510. The Twin Cream Vat is made on the same plan as the 
 open vats, except that it is composed of two long narrow tin vats 
 placed inside one wooden box. Both the vats are surrounded by the 
 same water and must consequently be held at the same tern- 
 
62 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 perature. This may be a disadvantage, especially when one may 
 be filled with ripe cream and the other with sweet cream. It is not 
 often that these two kinds of cream are intentionally held at the 
 same temperature, but when a twin vat is used there is no help for 
 it, for when the temperature of one is changed that of the other 
 will necessarily be changed also. The only advantage the twin 
 vat has over two separate vats is that it occupies less space and is 
 cheaper. 
 
 All open cream vats should be provided with a clean light 
 cover ; this is usually a wooden frame covered with wire netting 
 and light oil cloth. Such a cover is necessary to potect the cream 
 from flies, floating dust and dirt which may be blown into the vat 
 or drop into it from above. 
 
 Plate 16---Farring-ton Cream Ripener 
 
 511. The Boyd Cream Ripener. The Boyd vat as it is com- 
 monly called, is an insulated box provided with a cover which is 
 also insulated. Inside the box, a coil of tinned iron pipe is sus- 
 pended in the vat and may be moved back and forth by turning 
 a pulley connected with the coil. Either cool water or brine may 
 be forced through the coil and this by being moved back and 
 forth will change the temperature of the cream and mix it at the 
 same time. 
 
DAIRYING 63 
 
 The special point of advantage claimed for this vat is the 
 opportunity it gives the butter maker to maintain a uniform 
 temperature after the cream has been brought to such a tempera- 
 ture as he wishes to hold it. The insulation of the walls with 
 several thicknesses of suitable material is supposed to protect the 
 cream from changes in temperature of the outside air. 
 
 512. The Farrington Cream Ripener. The Farrington ripener 
 consists of two horizontal cylinders revolving on a common center, 
 the inner one of tin and the outer of wood with a space between. 
 
 Plate 17 The Wizard Agitate r 
 
 Through this space either hot or cold water or brine may be forced 
 for the purpose of changing the temperature of the cream which is 
 in the inner cylinder. The ripener is revolved by means of a belt 
 attached to a pulley. This revolving motion keeps the cream 
 thoroughly mixed and brings it into contract with the tin sides of 
 the cylinder, thus giving the butter maker a ready control of the 
 temperature. This control of the temperature is most important. 
 Every butter maker knows that no one temperature should be 
 maintained during the entire time of ripening, but that a change is 
 
64 DAIRYING 
 
 often imperative owing to certain weather conditions, or the 
 rapidity with which the ripening is progressing. 
 
 This ripener is completely closed with the exception of a 
 brass tube which connects the inner cylinder with the outside air 
 by passing through one of the gudgeons or bearings of the ripener. 
 In this way the cream is protected from outside odors and dust, 
 and at the same time it is provided with a circulation of air between 
 it and the outside even when the ripener is revolving. 
 
 513. When ready for churning the cream may be forced 
 from the ripener into the churn by means of a pump which is oper- 
 ated by a belt connecting with some shaft in the creamery. This 
 pump forces air into the ripener and this pushes the cream from 
 it into the churn through an iron pipe connecting the two machines. 
 
 Plate 18 The Simplex Cream Ripener 
 
 Cream may be pasteurized in the Farrington Ripener by opening 
 the steam valve and heating the water surrounding the 
 cream. By revolving the ripener during the heating the cream 
 may be uniformly heated and it does not burn on the tin while 
 being warmed to the desired temperature. 
 
DAIRYING 65 
 
 514. The Wizard Agitator is a rectangular wooden vat the 
 inside of which is lined with tinned copper. A spiral coil of tinned 
 copper resembling a series of discs extends through the vat and 
 by turning this at a speed of 60 revolutions per minute the cream 
 is stirred or mixed and its temperature changed by pumping either 
 warm or ice water which is held in a box at one end of the vat, 
 through the inside of this spiral coil. The water pump is attached 
 to one end of the vat and may be used or not as desired. 
 
 The vat is covered and made in sizes of 300 to 1000 gallons. 
 
 Plate 19 Eclipse Cream Ripener 
 
 515. The Simplex Cream Ripener is somewhat like the Boyd 
 ripener. The interior is tinned copper and the outside sheet steel, 
 some insulating material being placed between the two. Several 
 rows of pipes are suspended in the vat and these swing back and 
 forth through the cream changing its temperature according as the 
 pipes are warmed or cooled by water passing through them. 
 
 516. The Eclipse Cream Ripener contains a coil of pipe run- 
 ning from one end to the other of the vat and this stirs the cream 
 as well as changes its temperature when it revolves at a low speed. 
 
 Several other modifications of these types of cream ripening 
 vats are on the market, the essential features of them being some 
 
66 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 mechanical means of stirring and cooling the cream when desired 
 during the ripening process. All cream vats should be so made that 
 cleaning is a reasonably easy operation and the cream does not 
 get into the bearings of the stirring arrangement. 
 
DAIRYING 67 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 Note to Students These questions are to be answered inde- 
 pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your examina- 
 tion. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the examination. 
 Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat 
 the question. Mail answers promptly when completed. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LESSON V. 
 
 1. What are some of the differences between farm and factory 
 
 butter-making ? 
 
 2. Why is the quality of butter made from "shallow setting" 
 
 cream likely to vary and how often should such cream be 
 churned? 
 
 3. What, is the best way of handling "shallow setting" cream for 
 
 butter-making? 
 
 4. What are the advantages of deep over shallow setting cream 
 
 for butter-making? 
 
 5. How may thin gravity cream be made richer and what effect 
 
 will this have on churning such cream? 
 
68 DAIRYING 
 
 6. What are some objections to churns with revolving dashers 
 
 or discs? 
 
 7. Which is the best farm churn, and why? 
 
 8. Give four or more important points to be considered in select- 
 
 ing a churn. 
 
 9. How may a new churn be prepared for use? 
 
 10. How should a churn be treated before and after each churning? 
 
 11. When is the butter color usually added in butter-making and 
 
 at what other time may it be added, if necessary? 
 
 12. What are some things that may cause a variation in the natural 
 
 color of milk fat? 
 
 13. What are the two types of butter colors and how do they 
 
 differ from each other? 
 
 14. How may the butter color used influence the change that may 
 
 occur in butter when it is exposed to sunlight? 
 
 15. If butter color costs $1.50 per gallon and weighs 8 pounds, 
 
 how much more is received for the color when butter sells 
 for 30 cents per pound than is paid for it? 
 
 16. What effect does the salt in butter have on the butter color? 
 
 17. What happens when cream is churned and what conditions 
 
 of the milk fat influence churning? 
 
 18. When should the churning temperature be taken? 
 ""Q. What are at least three of the objects of churning? 
 
 20. Describe the different temperatures to be used in churning 
 
 sweet and in churning sour cream. 
 
 21. When should churning be stopped and why? 
 
DAIRYING 69 
 
 22. What conditions give a rich buttermilk? 
 
 23. How may small, shot-like granular butter be made for ex- 
 
 hibition ? 
 
 24. What is over-churning and what objections may be made to it? 
 
 25. What does a quick churning indicate? 
 
 26. What are some of the causes of long churning and how may 
 
 they be prevented? 
 
 27. If the cream swells and fills the churn so that the butter does 
 
 not come, what may be done to such a churning of cream? 
 
 28. How and when should the butermilk be drawn off from a 
 
 churn? 
 
 29. On what does the amount of washing of batter depend? 
 
 30. What temperature of wash water should be used and how 
 
 many washings are advisable? 
 
 31. What effect may too warm wash water have on the butter? 
 
 32. What influences the amount of salt held by the finished butter? 
 
 33. What advantages has brine salting butter? 
 
 34. How may dry salt influence the water content of butter? 
 
 35. How do butter salts differ from each other? 
 
 36. How may salt be tested and how should it be kept? 
 
 37. What per cent, of sodium chloride in butter salt and what are 
 
 the usual impurities? 
 
 38. Which occupies the most space, a given weight of coarse or of 
 
 fine salt? 
 
70 DAIRYING 
 
 39. How much longer does it take to dissolve a coarse than a 
 
 fine salt? 
 
 40. What per cent, of salt is added to butter when it is salted 1 oz. 
 
 to 1 lb.? 
 
 41. What effect does salt have on the appearance of moisture in 
 
 butter? 
 
 42. How may the white crystals sometimes seen on the surface of 
 
 butter be prevented? 
 
 43. How may the working of butter be regulated, and when has 
 
 butter been worked enough? 
 
 44. What is the object of working butter, and what objections 
 
 are there to using a butter bowl? 
 
 45. How should the churn, worker, ladles and all butter-making 
 
 utensils be kept betwen churnings? 
 
 46. What conditions influence the amount of working butter needs 
 
 and how may one know when butter is worked enough? 
 
 47. What is the butter overrun? 
 
 48. What is the difference between butter and the butter fat in 
 
 milk? 
 
 49. Mention some things that will cause a high overrun and a low 
 
 overrun. 
 
 50. What makes the difference between the milk and the cream 
 
 overrun ? 
 
 51. What is the greatest possible overrun when butter containing 
 
 82.5 per cent, fat is made? 
 
 52. If 32 pounds butter are made from 1000 pounds milk testing 
 
 2.8 per cent, fat, what is the overrun? 
 
DAIRYING 71 
 
 53. If 720 pounds butter are made from 2000 pounds cream test- 
 
 ing 30 per cent, fat, what is the overrun? 
 
 54. Describe some of the packages in which butter is sold and 
 
 their advantages. 
 
 55. How should all wooden butter packages be treated before fill- 
 
 ing them with butter? 
 
 56. How may butter in one pound bricks be prepared for market 
 
 and how shipped? 
 
 57. What is the minimum express charge on butter at your sta- 
 
 tion? 
 
 58. What objections are there to selling butter to a grocer or to 
 
 a general store? 
 
 59. Why is the highest priced butter made at farm dairy? 
 
 60. What advantages has separator over gravity cream for but- 
 
 ter-making? 
 
 61. Why should cream be cooled as it comes from the separator? 
 
 62. What objections are there to cooling cream with lumps of ice? 
 
 63. How long should cream be held at a cool temperature before 
 
 churning? 
 
 64. For what purposes is cream ripened? 
 
 65. What effect does the ripening of cream have on the quality 
 
 of butter? 
 
 66. Is there any relation between the flavor of butter and its 
 
 hardness? 
 
 67. How does ripening the cream influence its churning? 
 
72 DAIRYING 
 
 68. If cream testing 30 per cent, fat has an acidity of .5 per cent, 
 
 what would be the coresponding acidity of cream testing 
 20 per cent, fat? 
 
 69. To what per cent, acidity may skim milk be soured and how 
 
 does this differ from cream testing 40 per cent, fat? 
 
 70. How does the weather affect the ripening of cream? 
 
 71. How do changes in temperature influence the ripening of 
 
 cream ? 
 
 72. Give temperatures and hours of holding cream for quick 
 
 ripening and for slow ripening. 
 
 73. What is pasteurized butter and what are some of its char- 
 
 acteristics? 
 
 74. How may sour cream be pasteurized and churned? 
 
 75. How may sweet cream butter be made? 
 
 Write this at the End of Your Examination 
 
 I hereby certify that the above questions were answered entirely 
 by me. 
 
 Signed - 
 Address 
 

 = Correspondence College 
 of Agriculture 
 
 DAIRYING Part VI 
 
OF THE 
 COLLEGE OF 
 
 THE 
 
 Correspondence College 
 
 of Agriculture 
 
 FT. WAYNE, INDIANA 
 
 DAIRYING-Part VI 
 
 Butter-making (Continued) 
 
 By E. H. FARRINGTON M, S., 
 
 Professor of Dairy Husbandry 
 
 in the University 
 
 of \Visconsin. 
 
 This is the Sixth of a Series of Lessons giving a Complete Course of Instruction 
 
 in Dairying. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1912 
 Vh* CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
NOTE TO STUDENTS 
 
 In order to derive the the utmost possible benefit from 
 this paper, you must thoroughly master the text. While 
 it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the 
 text to memory* still there is nothing contained in the text 
 which is not absoltuely essential for the intelligent dairy- 
 man to know. For your own good, never refer to the 
 examination questions until you have finished your study 
 of the text. By following this plan, the examination 
 paper will show what you have learned from the text. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 DAIRYING--VI 
 
 BUTTER-MAKING. CON T. 
 
 517. The flavor and keeping quality of butter is largely 
 influenced by the way in which the cream is treated before 
 churning it. There are often certain variations in the results 
 obtained even when apparently the same method of treatment 
 is followed from day to day, but the general characteristics 
 of the three kinds of butter commonly made in American 
 creameries may be illustrated by a series of experiments made at 
 the Wisconsin Dairy School. 
 
 The general plan of the experiments was to mix ten to 
 fifteen hundred pounds of sweet cream from the separators in 
 a large vat. This cream was then divided into three lots, A, B, 
 and C. Some of the details of one experiment are given below; 
 these will serve to illustrate the course pursued in all the 
 others. 
 
 518. Lot A, was cooled to about 50 F. and churned 
 sweet. The acidity of the cream was about 0.3 per cent, and 
 its test 30.0 per cent fat. This churning required about one 
 hour; the temperature of the buttermilk being 52 F. and its test 
 0.1 per cent fat. The granular butter was washed twice, the 
 temperature of the water being 50 F. The bulk of the 
 butter was packed in tubs and four ten-pound packages were 
 
4 DAIRYING 
 
 also filled. The latter packages were numbered and placed in 
 the refrigerator having a temperature of 45 to 50 degrees F. 
 One package was sent to a commercial butter judge who was 
 requested to score the butter when first received and to hold 
 all packages in his cellar where the temperature ranges from 
 40 to 50 F., and then to score them a second time in order 
 to test the keeping quality of the butter. 
 
 519. Lot B. was taken from the large vat and heated to 
 185 to 190 F. in a continuous pasteurizer. The hot cream was 
 run over a water cooler and cooled to 54 F. It was, then placed 
 in a ripening vat, about 15 per cant starter added, and warmed 
 up to 75 F. After the starter was added the cream tested 28 per 
 cent fat and 0.3 per cent acid. Five hours later the cream had 
 a temperature of 70 F. and 0.46 per cent acid. It was then 
 cooled arid held over night and was churned the next morning 
 at about 7 o'clock. The temperature of the buttermilk was 56 
 F. and its test 0.1 per cent fat. Packages of this butter were 
 saved as in the case of Lot A. 
 
 520. Lot C, the raw cream, was ripened with the same 
 starter as was used in lot B. Lot C was held at about 75 F. 
 for three hours and at 70 for two hours when it had reached 
 0.5 per cent acid. It was then cooled and left to stand over 
 night. The next morning this cream churned in 40 minutes ; the 
 temperature of the buttermilk was 54 F., and its test 0.1 per 
 cent fat. Packages of the butter were held in the refrigerator 
 as mentioned under Lot A. 
 
 521. The washing, salting and working of the three churn- 
 ings from each day's cream were made as uniformly as possible, 
 the point in the investigation being to note the differences there 
 might be between sweet-cream butter, pasteurized-cream butter 
 and raw-cream butter, all made from the same cream. 
 
 The packages of butter were examined every few days at 
 the dairy school, and scorings were also received from the com- 
 mercial judges. The following comments made by the writer 
 about one set will illustrate the general quality of all the butter 
 made in these three ways. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 Comments on the Sweet-Cream Butter. 
 
 522. When one day old it had almost no aroma but a 
 fresh, sweet-cream taste. Its texture was more like the pas- 
 teurized than the raw-cream butter; very little moisture showed 
 on the surface and it had a close solid body. After three days 
 this butter had a suggestion of age in its aroma, but the taste 
 was still sweet. The butter remained in this condition for 
 three weeks, gradually getting a little more defective in aroma, 
 but still sweet to the taste. At that time the flavor was de- 
 cidedly strong, like that of old butter. The flavor did not 
 improve after the first day, but gradually showed its advancing 
 age by becoming a trifle rancid rather than by developing a 
 clean, sour taste. 
 
 Comments on the Pasteurized-Cream Butter. 
 
 523. When this butter was one day old it had a clean taste, 
 but not much aroma; it was rather flat but resembled the raw, 
 sour-cream butter more than that made from sweet cream. 
 
 After three days, more aroma developed and this continued 
 to increase until the butter was three weeks old when the 
 aroma changed somewhat, becoming a trifle sour. No other 
 indication of age was shown until the butter was five weeks old, 
 when a slightly old taste began to be noticed. The texture of 
 this butter was close, but not smeary, and fully equal to that 
 of the raw ripened cream. The butter surface, however, showed 
 almost no brine but looked dry and smooth, quite different from 
 that of the raw-cream butter 
 
 Comments on the Raw-Cream Butter. 
 
 524. The day after churning the flavor of the raw-cream 
 butter was the highest of the three. The butttr aroma in- 
 creased a trifle each day for about two weeks when the butter 
 began to show age, and in three weeks it was decidedly strong, 
 almost rancid. The texture of this butter was coarser and more 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 open than either that from the sweet or the pasteurized cream- 
 butter, and considerable brine showed in drops on the surface, 
 making the appearance as well as the flavor of this butter 
 decidedly different from that of the others. 
 
 CREAM RIPENING STARTERS. 
 
 525. The use of a starter in cream ripening is becoming 
 more common among butter makers every year. It is nearly 
 always made of skim milk which has been carefully soured 
 and in which the butter maker has attempted to propagate a 
 more or less pure culture of bacteria. 
 
 526. The purpose of a starter is to supply cream with a 
 large excess of the ferments or bacteria which will control the 
 souring process and thus aid in developing good flavors in the 
 butter. Butter fat absorbs odors or flavors produced by the sour- 
 of cream and it is therefore essential that only such fermenta- 
 tions as will give butter its peculiar flavor are permitted to 
 grow in cream while it is ripening. Butter fat absorbs objec- 
 tionable as well as desirable products formed during the souring 
 process and the flavor of the butter is therefore influenced by 
 the kind of fermentation that takes place in the cream. 
 
 527. The addition of selected sour milk to sweet cream 
 is something like adding yeast to bread, it "starts" the desired 
 fermentation in the cream. There are many becteria in milk 
 and cream, but the starter is used to control and to multiply the 
 good ones whose growth forms products that give butter a de- 
 sirable flavor. Milk and cream usually contain a great many 
 kinds of bacteria ; some of them are beneficial, others are in- 
 different, and still others are positively detrimental to the good 
 qualities of butter. 
 
 528. It is generally believed that the lactic acid bacteria 
 are among the most desirable germs* for cream ripening, as 
 they convert milk sugar into lactic acid and produce the normal 
 sourmg of milk and cream. If there were no other kinds of 
 bacteria in cream, the butter made from day to day would 
 
 * As a rule, the words bacteria and germs have the same meaning, and 
 they are therefore here used synonymously. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 undoubtedly have a uniformly good flavor. Other kinds of 
 bacteria may also be beneficial for cream ripening, but little 
 definite information on this point is available at the present 
 time. Besides the beneficial and the indifferent bacteria, there 
 are other kinds which are directly responsible for defects in 
 butter, among these are the "digesters" and the "gas producers." 
 These may be present in such large numbers as to control the 
 fermentation of the cream and overcome the growth of those 
 bacteria which produce its normal souring. The buttermaker 
 should therefore make an effort to suppress the injurious bac- 
 teria and cultivate the beneficial ones. In order to do this suc- 
 cessfully an acquaintance with the conditions both favorable and 
 unfavorable to the growth of bacteria will be helpful. It is not, 
 however, the purpose of this description to discuss the subject 
 of bacteriology, but simply to give brief directions for the dairy- 
 man to follow in making a starter. 
 
 529. In order to get good results in starter making, a butter 
 maker should understand that bacteria are microscopic forms of 
 life which are present nearly everywhere. The air of the barn 
 and dairy is full of them, and the milk utensil-s, which have not 
 been heated to the temperature of boiling water are "lined" with 
 germs. It is also claimed that 50,000 germs have been found on 
 one house fly. Bacteria multiply very rapidly and cause milk or 
 cream to sour by changing the milk sugar into lactic acid ; some 
 bacteria produce what are called spores and others do not. 
 These spores are not so easily destroyed ; it being necessary to 
 repeatedly or continuously heat milk containing some kinds of 
 spores in order to kill them. Spore-bearing bacteria are usually 
 most plentiful around dirty barns and other filthy places ; they 
 are the cause of a great many defects in dairy products. It is 
 necessary, therefore, in preparing skim milk for starter making, 
 to heat the milk to a high temperature, near the boiling point, 
 for one-half hour or more, in order to kill the spore-bearing bac- 
 teria present, which if not destroyed will grow and spoil the 
 starter. The effect of the putrifactive and other objectionable 
 products formed by the spore-producing bacteria may be largely 
 neutralized by getting the acid-forming bacteria to grow in the 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 starter as soon as possible. The spore-bearing bacteria do not 
 grow well in milk containing a large number of lactic acid bac- 
 teria. 
 
 Making the Starter. 
 
 530. The common method of making a starter as practiced 
 by butter makers is about as follows : For the foundation, or 
 soil in which to grow the bacteria, sweet skim milk* is selected 
 from the separator or gravity skimming when the cleanest milk 
 is being skimmed. This is pasteurized** by heating it in either 
 the modern starter-can or by setting a can of it into a larger 
 can or tank of hot water. While being heated, the milk is 
 stirred occasionally to prevent its burning onto the tin. The 
 temperature to which the milk is heated will depend somewhat 
 on its purity and cleanliness. When exceptionally clean, the 
 few bacteria which the milk may contain will be destroyed by 
 heating to 150 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 This is a sufficiently high temperature to kill a large number 
 of the fully developed bacteria, but if the milk has been more or 
 less contaminated, by careless milking and dirty handling at the 
 farms, a large number of spores from the spore-making bacteria 
 will survive this temperature and make it necessary to heat the 
 milk higher. Heating to 185- degrees Fahrenheit for one-half 
 hour is the temperature usually recommended for preparing the 
 seed bed or foundation skim milk in which the pure culture of 
 bacteria is to be grown. 
 
 531. Necessity of Thorough Heating. It is very essential 
 that the foundation skim milk should be nearly germ-free, as any 
 undesirable bacteria that may have been left alive in it after 
 heating will grow and multiply as fast as the desirable ones 
 whic^t have been added in the form of a pure cculture ; the pr,od- 
 ucts formed by the growth of these undesirable bacteria may be 
 
 * Besides skim milk, whole milk, and thin cream, such milk product* 
 us unsweetened condensed milk and milk powder may be used for th 
 foundation material in starter making. 
 
 .Sterilizing and Pasteurizing. The proper use of the words "steril- 
 izing" and "pasteurizing" is not understood by all butter makers. They 
 are likely to use either word as a name for heating milk to some temper- 
 ature near scalding. This is not correct, as each word has a meaning of 
 Us own and should indicate a different treatment of milk. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 the cause of some defects in the butter. If, on the other hand, 
 the skim milk is very clean, heating to a temperature of 150 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit is sufficient to kill all the bacteria in it. Re- 
 peated heating to a high temperature will aid in reducing the 
 number of bacteria and of spores. Some of the spores will sur- 
 vive one heating. This is especially true of the putrifactive 
 bacteria which may be the cause of serious defects in butter if 
 they are not held in check. 
 
 532. When the foundation skim milk (or milk free from 
 weeds) is made as nearly germ-free as possible by heating, it is 
 covered with an over-lapping cover and left to cool. 
 
 Cooling the Skim Milk. The cooling is done in any conveni- 
 ent way, either by allowing cold water to run around the hot 
 can or by setting the can in a refrigerator ; stirring while cooling 
 will hasten matters, and the more quickly the cooling is done 
 
 Plate 1 Covered Milk Bottle for Propagating Starter 
 the better it will be for the starter, as sudden cooling checks the 
 development of the spores which may have lived through the 
 heating. 
 
 When the skim milk has cooled to 80 degrees Fahrenheit, 
 the pure culture is added to it. This pure culture may be a small 
 quantity of some sour milk which has been selected and allowed 
 
10 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 to sour naturally, or it may be a bottle of solid or liquid com- 
 mercial culture which has been prepared for this purpose. 
 The prepared seed or pure culture grown in a small quantity of 
 sour milk which is to be added to this carefully prepared soil or 
 pasteurized skim milk is often called the "mother" starter or 
 startoline. 
 
 534. Preparation of "Mother" Starter or Startoline. In 
 order to get the best results in making the "mother" starter, or 
 startoline, there should be provided : (1) Several quart bottles 
 each equipped with a glass tumbler cover, and a long-handled, 
 silver-plated spoon. (Fig. 1.) A glass vessel is better than any 
 other for this purpose, as it enables one to see the way in which 
 the milk is souring, and whether the curd is solid or wheyed off 
 and gassey. Tin, crockery, or earthen ware are more or less 
 
 Plate 2 A Small Steam Sterilizer for Starter Bottles. 
 
 porous, or cracked, and are not so easily kept clean and germ- 
 free as glass. 
 
 2. A galvanized iron can, with cover and steam connection 
 at the bottom, as shown in Plate 2. A perforated shelf is placed 
 on strips so as not to stand directly on the bottom of the can, 
 and it also helps to distribute the heat from the steam. When 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 n 
 
 steam is not available this can, with its bottles, may be heated 
 by means of hot water, which should not be filled above the top 
 of the bottles inside. 
 
 3. An Incubator. (Plate 3.) This is simply a box in 
 which a fairly uniform temperature may be kept by providing 
 walls, bottom and cover filled with felt, paper, hay or any in- 
 sulating materials, and is used in the same way as a fireless 
 cooker in the kitchen. The pail is filled with warm water and 
 when the cover is closed the bottles are kept at a temperature 
 which hastens the souring of the milk, and they are protected 
 from changes of the outside temperature. It may be necessary 
 
 Plate 3 An Insulated Box for Incubating Starters. 
 
 to change the water in the pail occasionally, but water at a 
 temperature of about 90 degrees Fahrenheit will hold a tem- 
 perature of about 70 degrees Fahrenheit in the box for several 
 hours. 
 
 535. The clean milk bottle, tumbler and spoon must be 
 sterilized by dipping in hot water just before using them; each 
 
12 DAIRYING 
 
 bottle is then two-thirds filled with clean, sweet, fresh, whole 
 milk and two or more of these bottles are placed in the gal- 
 vanized iron can, or sterilizer. Steam or hot water is then 
 turned into the can carefully, so as not to break the bottles, and 
 the heat gradually raised to about 180 degrees Fahrenheit, which 
 temperature is held for at least 15 minutes. The entire heating 
 process may take one-half hour. This heating kills all the bac- 
 teria in the milk, except some spores, and provides a nearly 
 germ-free soil in which to develop the pure culture. The bottles 
 of milk are allowed to cool without removing the glass tumblers 
 used as a cover; when cool they may be used as needed for 
 building up a starter. 
 
 Adding the Pure Culture. 
 
 536. When small bottles or packages of pure culture of bac- 
 teria are bought for starter-making, the cork or wrappings should 
 be carefully removed, in order to prevent any outside contami- 
 nation. All the liquid, or the powder, should be added to one 
 of the bottles of sterile milk previously prepared. (See par. 535.) 
 The glass tumbler cover is then placed on the bottle and the 
 contents mixed by occasional shaking. It is then placed in the 
 incubator and a pail of water added to the box, so as to bring 
 the temperature up to about 80 or 90 degrees Fahrenheit. At 
 this temperature the pure culture bacteria will soon begin to 
 grow and the sterile milk in the bottle will coagulate in a few 
 hours. It is then rilled with millions of the bacteria needed for 
 making the starter, and after transferring a spoonful of the 
 coagulated milk from this bottle to another bottle of sterile milk, 
 which is then put in the incubator for the next day, the con- 
 tents of the first bottle is added to a larger quantity of pasteur- 
 ized skim milk. This is then thoroughly mixed and when the 
 laiger amount has been held at a temperature of about 80 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit for a long enough time to coagulate it. this 
 sour milk is added to the cream, which is to be ripened. 
 
 537. By this process there is added to the cream many 
 millions of bacteria like those in the pure culture bought. The 
 
DAIRYING 13 
 
 success in developing them depends largely on the care used in 
 all the various steps of the process and the prevention of con- 
 tamination of the starter during the making. The starter should 
 be carefully covered and protected from dust and currents of 
 air; such protection is one of the most essential elements of 
 success in starter-making, as the slightest exposure after heat- 
 ing, to the air, drops of water, or the use of a cover or stirrer, 
 which has not been sterilized immediately before using it, may 
 introduce injurious bacteria into the starter, and by contamina- 
 tion impair its efficiency. 
 
 538. Developing the Pure Cultures. The commercial cul- 
 tures, if active bacteria are present, will soon begin to grow in 
 skim milk when held at 80 degrees Fahrenheit. If maintained 
 until the milk begins to thicken, this will require from 18 to 36 
 hours. This sour milk may then be added to a larger quantity 
 of skim milk which has been previously heated to 185 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. This second transfer, or second generation of the 
 starter, may then be held at any temperature between 50 degrees 
 Fahrenheit and 90 degrees Fahrenheit, which will promote the 
 rapidity of growth desired. This will depend on the time when 
 it is needed for the cream. The souring process goes on rapidly 
 at 90 degress Fahrenheit, but is nearly checked at 50 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. The temperature of the starter must, therefore, be 
 regulated to accommodate the cream in which it is to be used; 
 warming or cooling the starter to any temperature between 
 the points mentioned that may be deemed necessary to hasten 
 or to check the souring process. 
 
 Natural and Commercial Starters. 
 
 The starters now in use for ripening or souring cream may 
 be divided into two general classes. 
 
 First: The Natural Starters. 
 
 539. This name is sometimes given to sour whole milk, 
 skim milk, butter milk, or thin cream which has soured without 
 the addition of an artificial pure culture of any kind. The fer- 
 
14 DAIRYING 
 
 mentations they contain have developed from the bacteria that 
 get into milk, cream, etc., during the usual handling of these, 
 products. Excellent starters are often made from selected whole 
 milk. Several sterilized milk bottles, provided with covers, as 
 previously described, are two-thirds filled with milk from differ- 
 ent cows, or from different herds; each bottle is labeled and 
 placed in the incubator at a temperature of about 80 degrees 
 Fahrenheit until the milk sours. The sour milk in each bottle 
 is then carefully inspected, and those in which the curd is solid 
 with no holes and have a pleasant, but acid, taste*, are the safest 
 ones to use for making a starter. This kind of a starter pos- 
 sesses the advantage of being easily changed in case the butter 
 flavor becomes unsatisfactory. In some places bottles of milk 
 are collected daily for the purpose of selecting a new starter 
 from them whenever wanted. 
 
 540. It is claimed that milk from a fresh cow, or early in 
 the milking period, is much better for starter-making than the 
 milk of a stripper. If the udder of such a cow is carefully 
 washed and dried just before milking, and the first few jets of 
 milk kept separate from the remainder of her milk, which is 
 then milked directly into sterilized bottles, a very satisfactory 
 starter may be built up by setting such bottles of milk in the in- 
 cubator to sour, and then adding this sour milk to a larger quan- 
 tity of pasteurized skim milk. Three to four pounds of sour 
 milk, added to 100 pounds of pasteurized skim milk, will gener- 
 ally become sour enough to add to cream, if kept at about 65 
 degrees Fahrenheit for twenty-four hours. 
 
 541. Buttermilk or sour cream are not usually recommended 
 as starters for ripening cream, because a churning of cream may 
 
 * Milk is sterilized when all bacteria and spores in it are killed. This 
 Is a very difficult thing to do, and is only accomplished in laboratories 
 where facilities are provided for repeated boiling's for periods of at least 
 one-half hour long. Between boilings at least twenty minutes should 
 elapse and the milk allowed to cool to about 80 degrees Fahrenheit in order 
 to develop those spores which have lived through the first boiling. When 
 these have matured they will be killed by the subsequent boiling. From 
 three to five days are generally needed to sterilize milk completely. 
 
 It is not possible for butter makers with the ordinary dairy or cream- 
 ery appliances to sterilize milk. They may pasteurize it, however; and 
 this is the name that should properly be given to the ordinary heating 
 f milk for starter making. The temperatures used in pasteurizing are 
 not sufficiently high or prolonged to destroy all germs and spores in milk, 
 but in many cases, over ninety-nine per cent, of the bacteria may be kill 
 by pasteurization. 
 
DAIRYING 15 
 
 become over-ripe, or tainted, and if some of it, or of the butter 
 milk from it, is added to the next lot of sweet cream, these 
 defects may be transferred from one churning to another. The 
 sour cream and the buttermilk starter should not, however, be 
 altogether condemned. They may sometimes be used with good 
 results, as they are not always bad. The principal objection to 
 such a starter lies in the fact that the butter maker has no choice 
 in selecting his starter, but must use the same thing each day. 
 Sour cream and buttermilk are not safe sources of new starters, 
 but after a good one has been obtained from some other source, 
 its good qualities may be carried along from one churning to 
 another, for a while, by saving some of the cream or the butter- 
 milk for ripening the next lot of sweet cream. 
 
 542. When a desirable starter has been obtained, an attempt 
 is usually made to retain the bacteria it contains as long as 
 possible. This is done by saving a small quantity of it each day 
 and adding this as seed to a new lot of pasteurized skim milk. 
 In this way the good butter qualities, which are due to these 
 bacteria, are transferred from one churning to another. 
 
 543. Best Condition of Starter for Use. The starter ought 
 to be used before there is a separation of whey from the curd, 
 as a coagulated starter is too sour for producing the best results 
 in cream. The object of a starter is to propagate the largest 
 possible number of selected bacteria in a vigorously growing 
 condition ; and from our present knowledge it is supposed that 
 this point is reached just as the milk coagulates and before the 
 whey separates from the curd. 
 
 The method of controlling butter flavor by means of a 
 starter may seem to be an easy one to follow, but in general 
 dairy and creamery practice it has been found that there are 
 many ways in which the starter or the pure culture becomes 
 contaminated with undesirable bacteria. These are introduced 
 so easily by careless handling from day to day and by a lack of 
 knowledge regarding the propagation of starters that it is im- 
 portant for the buttermaker to understand not only the mechani- 
 cal manipulations, or how to make a starter, but he ought also 
 to be familiar with the reasons for each step taken in their propa- 
 
r6 DAIRYING 
 
 gation. 
 
 Second: The Artificial or Commercial Starters. 
 
 544. These are of two kinds, the liquid, such as the O/ 
 Douglas Boston Butter Cultures, and S. C. Kieth, Jr., Baccillus 
 Lactis Acidi, which is shipped in four small glass vials in one 
 mailing case, and the solid cultures of Hansen, Ericsson and 
 Parke, Davis & Co. The commercial starter is designed to 
 supply a pure culture of bacteria, which may be transplanted 
 into skim milk and built up to a large starter. It was formerly 
 claimed that the buttermaker could be supplied with different 
 kinds of bacteria, and he could order the particular one wanted, 
 such as acid bacteria, neutral bacteria, and several other kinds. 
 At the present time it is very generally believed that some 
 variety of the lactic acid bacteria is more beneficial to both the 
 buttermaker and the cheese maker than any other kind, and the 
 manufacturers are dealing in this one only. 
 
 545. The liquid cultures are short lived, but each package 
 is dated to show when the culture must be used. They also, 
 when fresh, begin to work quickly after being added to pas- 
 teurized skim milk. The solid cultures keep a year or more, but 
 are weakened by age and several generations must be propa- 
 gated* before they are used, as they improve with each transfer. 
 
 546. The directions for using these cultures given by the 
 manufacturers are essentially the same in principle, but differ 
 somewhat in detail. A few of the more important instructions 
 regarding each culture are given in the following table. 
 
 *The manufacturers of Hansen's lactic ferment recommend the propo 
 gation of three generations of the skim milk before using it as a starter in 
 cream. The dry powder is added to pasteurized skim milk which is allowed 
 to stand at 80 degrees F. until it begins to thicken. This is called startoline and 
 is added to a fresh lot of pasteurized milk to make a second startoline. This 
 second generation is propagated in a third lot of pasteurized skim milk; and 
 when this third generation has soured it is ready to be used in cream. A 
 small quantity of startoline is saved each day to make a new starter as it is 
 claimed that the germs in the dry powder are somewhat dormant and are 
 not aroused to their full activity until several transfers of them have been 
 made in skim milk. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 A brief outline of the manufacturers instructions for using 
 commercial butter culture: 
 
 KIND OF CULTURE 
 
 Details of 
 Preparation 
 
 Hansen's 
 Lactic 
 Ferment 
 
 Douglas 
 Cultures 
 
 Keith's 
 Cultures 
 
 Errisson's 
 Butter 
 Culture 
 
 Flavorone 
 
 Foundation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 or mother 
 
 175 deg. F. 
 
 180 deg. F. 
 
 180 deg. F. 
 
 185-200 deg. 
 
 180 deg. F. 
 
 skim milk is 
 
 for 1 hr. 
 
 30 min. 
 
 30 min. 
 
 30 min. 
 
 30 min. 
 
 heated to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This skim 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 milk is cool- 
 ed to tem- 
 
 75-80 F. 
 
 85-90 F. 
 
 90 F. 
 
 58-70 F. 
 
 90 F. 
 
 perature 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Amount of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 culture to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 use. 1 oz. 
 
 
 8 qts. 
 
 8 qts. 
 
 Iqt. 
 
 1 qt. 
 
 culture in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 skim milk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 small 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 package in 
 
 4 Ibs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 skim milk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 large 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 package in 
 
 20 Ibs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 skim milk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hold for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 first growth 
 of cultures 
 
 75-80 F. 
 
 80-90 F. 
 
 70-75 F. 
 
 Even temp. 
 
 80-90 F. 
 
 at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length- of 
 time, hrs. 
 
 18-24 
 
 24 
 
 36-48 
 
 16-18 
 
 18-20 
 
 To propa- 
 
 3% -5% and 
 
 
 
 1-2 pints to 
 
 
 gate from 
 
 hold at 60-65 
 
 
 
 25 gal. past. 
 
 
 day to day, 
 
 F. Gradu- 
 
 
 8 qts. to 
 
 skim milk 
 
 
 add to pas- 
 teurized 
 skim milk 
 about 
 
 ally dimin- 
 ish amount 
 of startoline 
 as germs 
 "regain vi- 
 tality" by 
 
 About 7% 
 holding at 
 75-80 F. 
 about 24 
 hours until 
 thick 
 
 10-20 gal. 
 past, milk 
 holding at 
 70-75 F. 
 about 18 
 hours until 
 
 holding at 
 65-67 F. in 
 summer, 
 70-72 in win- 
 ter and let 
 stand from 
 
 One part 
 "starter" to 
 50 parts 
 "sterilized" 
 milk. 
 
 
 the trans- 
 
 
 coagulated. 
 
 noon till 
 
 
 
 fers from 
 
 
 
 next morn- 
 
 
 
 day to day 
 
 
 
 ing. 
 
 
 Amount of 
 
 
 5-10% in 
 
 
 
 
 starter to 
 use in 
 
 5-6% 
 
 summer and 
 10-20% in 
 
 5-10% 
 
 "The more 
 the better" 
 
 10-20% 
 
 cream 
 
 
 winter 
 
 
 
 
 Tern, of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ripening 
 
 65-75 F. 
 
 70 F. 
 
 
 60-68 F. 
 
 70 F. 
 
 cream 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Use fresh 
 bottle of 
 culture 
 
 Every 2 
 weeks 
 
 Each 
 
 week 
 
 Each 
 
 week 
 
 Each 
 week 
 
 Each 
 week 
 
18 DAIRYING 
 
 549. Selecting the Starter. The first thing for a butter- 
 maker to learn about starter-making is how to transplant de- 
 sirable ferments from one day to another into the sweet cream* 
 without introducing a great many undesirable bacteria at the 
 same time. 
 
 Another important point in starter-making is the skillful 
 selection of a desirable starter. This knowledge is obtained by 
 close observation and by training the senses of taste and smell 
 to distinguish a good starter from a poor one. The ability to 
 detect the peculiar odor which experience has shown to be char- 
 acteristic of a good starter and to determine whether or not it 
 will injure or improve the butter is more easily acquired by 
 some people than by others. Some people have a very acute 
 taste and a keen sense of smell ; they can tell instantly whether 
 a starter will give good or bad results if used to ripen cream. 
 This acuteness is often a natural gift, but nearly all persons may 
 cultivate it by a systematic training obtained from daily obser- 
 vations regarding the effect which certain starters have had on 
 butter flavor. Some peculiar odor of a starter may often be 
 noticed in butter made from cream in which the starter was 
 used, and by repeated comparisons, the buttermakers may, after 
 a while, be able to state before a starter is used whether it will 
 produce a good, a bad, or an indifferent flavor in the butter. 
 
 A sharp, clean, acid taste with no trace of an offensive odor 
 is about all that can be given in the way of description of the 
 desirable flavor to be sought for in selecting a starter. 
 
 548. Vigor of the Starter. Another thing to be considered 
 in starter-making, besides the purity of the culture, is the vigor 
 and the thriftiness of the ferments which have been selected. 
 A weak or enfeebled growth of even a desirable culture may not 
 produce good results in the cream, and an effort should be made 
 to provide conditions favorable for a vigorous development of 
 the bacteria wanted. The growth of bacteria in a starter may be 
 compared with that of vegetation. When plants are transplanted 
 in a greenhouse or garden, the strong and thrifty ones get 
 started more quickly and grow better than those which are weak 
 
DAIRYING 19 
 
 and feeble. The same thing- is true of bacteria; the healthy, 
 vigorous germs develop quickly, and bring about the changes 
 in milk which are peculiar to them much more rapidly than is 
 the case with wilted and enfeebled bacteria. The garden plants 
 may be sorted over and the vigorous specimens selected for 
 transplanting, but there is no similar means of detecting the 
 hardy bacteria. The buttermaker must form his opinion of them 
 from the acidity and age of the starter, as well as the tempera- 
 ture at which it has been kept and the rapidity with which it 
 has soured. 
 
 549. Acidity of the Starter. It is a well known fact that the 
 vigor of bacteria is diminished by an accumulation of their own 
 products, one of which in the case of milk and cream is lactic 
 acid. When the acidity of milk has reached 0.8 per cent, the 
 bacteria cease to multiply rapidly, and those present in such a 
 strongly acid liquid are greatly reduced in strength and vigor. 
 The starter is therefore supposed to be in its best condition for 
 use before the acidity has reached 0.8 per cent; about 0.6 per 
 cent acid is probably a more favorable stage of acidity than 0.8 
 per cent. This amount of acid (0.6 per cent) is often developed 
 before milk coagulates ; better results will therefore be obtained 
 by using the starter just before rather than after it has curdled 
 or wheyed off. 
 
 Thus, as we see, the two things most needed in a starter 
 are, first, a large excess of some desirable kind of bacteria, and, 
 second, a vigorous and healthy growth of the bacteria which 
 have been selected. 
 
 550. Amount of Starter to Use. No fixed rule can be given 
 for determining the quantity of starter that ought to be used in 
 each lot of cream. The condition of the milk and cream and of 
 the starter must be considered in estimating the amount needed. 
 A quick ripening of the cream is aided by a large starter and a 
 slow ripening is obtained by using a small quantity ; a thin cream 
 needs less starter than a thick cream, and the sourness of the 
 starter itself is of importance. In a general way it may be said 
 that the amount of starter to be recommended in the summer, 
 
20 DAIRYING 
 
 when the cows are on grass, is from five to ten pounds of starter 
 per 100 pounds of cream. This amount is usually added to cream 
 testing about 30 per cent. fat. In the winter, when cows are 
 milked in the stable and receive dry feed, good results have been* 
 obtained by skimming a cream testing 50 to 60 per cent fat and 
 using at least 25 per cent of starter. The flavor of the butter 
 may also be benefited by the addition of clean and sweet morn- 
 ing's milk to the cream. 
 
 551. The starter is sometimes added to cream immediately 
 after the first cream is obtained. It is often placed in the cream 
 vat the first thing in the morning and the cream from the 
 separator run directly into it. When this is done the butter- 
 maker should know beforehand approximately how much milk 
 will be skimmed and the quantity of cream that will be obtained. 
 This will give the necessary information for calculating the 
 pounds of starter needed. No great exactness in this particular 
 is necessary, however, as a few pounds more or less of starter 
 will not seriously change the ripening process. 
 
 552. Stirring the Starter. In the early stages of the starter 
 it is often necessary to stir the skim milk in order to aid in uni- 
 formly heating it and also to mix the pure culture thoroughly 
 with it. No harm -will come from this early stirring before the 
 starter has soured, but when all the necessary mixing and heat- 
 ing has been done, the starter should not be disturbed. It should 
 be allowed to coagulate quietly, and the soft, sour curd added to 
 the cream. This curd is often run through a hair sieve to remove 
 any hard lumps that may be present. Curd lumps in a starter 
 are often caused by stirring it after souring, and on this account 
 directions are usually given to omit stirring after the first neces- 
 sary mixing of the pure culture with the skim milk. 
 
 553. Starters and Food Flavors. The principal use of a 
 starter is to improve the butter flavor. Some starters undoubt- 
 edly are injurious to the flavor because of the undesirable fer- 
 ments they introduce into the cream, but the fundamental idea 
 of a starter is either to increase or to improve the butter flavor. 
 The starter is not, however, responsible for all butter flavors; 
 some of them, both good and bad, are produced by the cow's 
 
DAIRYING 21 
 
 feed. The "J une " flavor, which is so much desired by consumers 
 of butter, has not been propagated during the entire year by 
 using a "June" starter ; nor have the germs been isolated that 
 are responsible for the onion, the garlic, and the weedy flavors 
 that sometimes are noticed in butter. These flavors come directly 
 from the cow's feed. Luxuriant pasture feed in the spring and 
 summer, and weeds eaten at any time of the year, impart charac- 
 teristic flavors to both milk and butter. The effects of these 
 feeds on butter flavor are familiar to many buttermakers, and 
 are known to be entirely independent of the starters used in 
 ripening the cream. 
 
 554. Overcoming Food Taints with Starters. The objecc- 
 tionable food flavors, such as the onion and weedy flavors, may, 
 however, be somewhat surpressed, if not entirely overcome, by 
 skimming a very rich cream, containing 50 per cent fat and 
 diluting this with 15 to 30 per cent of a starter which does not 
 contain these flavors. Milk for this purpose may sometimes be 
 difficult to obtain, but it is useless to try to overcome the weedy 
 and onion flavors by using starters tainted with these flavors. 
 The heating which skim milk receives in starter-making cannot 
 be depended on to remove such taints. The starter must always 
 be made from milk entirely free from taints of any kind. It has 
 been suggested that the cream from weedy milk may be mixed 
 with hot water or with skim milk and run through the separator 
 a second time as a means of purifying it from onion and garlic 
 flavors. Goodrich has recommended adding one teaspoonful of 
 saltpetre to each gallon of the hot water used. The purpose of 
 this dilution is to remove the objectionable flavors by washing 
 them out with hot water or with a weak solution of saltpetre. 
 
 Sterilizing Utensils, Care of Starters, Etc. 
 
 555. On account of the wide distribution of bacteria in the 
 air, water, and flying dust, it is extremely important that all the 
 utensils used in starter-making should be completely sterilized. 
 The time and attention given to starter-making may be entirely 
 
22 DAIRYING 
 
 thrown away and the starter ruined by any neglect in this 
 direction. 
 
 The cans, buckets, dippers, stirrers, cloths, covers and every- 
 thing used in the preparation of a starter should be thoroughly 
 steamed after they have been washed and rinsed with clean 
 water. A steaming box or oven may be provided for this pur- 
 pose and the tinware should be heated in it to a boiling tempera- 
 ture for at least one-half hour. An exposure of the starter or 
 of the cans to the air, by leaving them uncovered, or by rinsing 
 the cans with water which has not been boiled, may spoil the 
 work already done, and it is therefore very important that every 
 precaution possible should be taken to prevent the contamina- 
 tion of the pure culture with undesirable bacteria. Even the but- 
 termaker's hands should be rinsed in water which has been 
 boiled and he should also avoid putting his hands inside the 
 cans, pails, etc. After these utensils have been sterilized, the 
 cans used for holding the starter ought to have covers made with 
 overlapping sides that fit outside instead of inside the can walls. 
 
 Bacteria are so numerous and so widely distributed that in 
 starter-making it is safe to assume that they are always growing 
 on anything which has not been previously heated to a suffi- 
 ciently high temperature to destroy them. On account of the 
 susceptibility of a starter to outside contamination, it is always 
 safest to skim off and throw away the top layer of an inch or 
 more.. This often contains some undesirable bacteria that have 
 found their way into the can in spite of all precautions to keep 
 them out. 
 
 General Precautions Regarding Starters. 
 
 556. Strict rules in regard to temperatures and the length 
 of time that the starters must be kept at definite temperatures 
 cannot be safely followed from day to day. The maker must 
 use his judgment in regard to the best conditions necessary for 
 the starter in each case. 
 
DAIRYING 23 
 
 1. If the starter is not wanted for immediate use, and it has 
 already become sour, it may be kept a few hours by cooling to a 
 temperature of 50 degrees Fahrenheit, or lower, and if the milk 
 does not sour fast enough it should be warmed in order to hasten 
 the souring process. 
 
 2. If the starter is spongy and gassy, the skim milk has not 
 been properly pasteurized, or else it was obtained from tainted 
 milk. Such a starter should be thrown away and a new one 
 made from perfect milk. 
 
 3. Whole milk may be used for starter-making instead of 
 skim milk, and the milk from fresh cows or those in the early 
 stages of their milking period is preferable to that of strippers. 
 
 4. Nothing need be feared from a cooked flavor by heating 
 the foundation skim milk to a high temperature. This will dis- 
 appear before the starter is ready to use. 
 
 5. Do not let the starter get over ripe, and remember to 
 save a bottle of mother starter or startoline each day for seeding 
 the fresh lot of pasteurized milk which makes the starter for the 
 next day. 
 
 6. More benefit will usually be obtained from a starter in 
 pasteurized cream than in raw or unheated cream. 
 
 7. The bottles or packages of pure culture should be kept 
 in a cool place protected from strong light until they are used, 
 and not opened until everything is ready for emptying the con- 
 tents into the pasteurized or sterile skim milk in which the cul- 
 ture is to be grown. 
 
 8. By careful handling, a pure culture may be carried along 
 and used daily for weeks and months, but until one becomes 
 expert in handling starters it is best to begin a new one each 
 week, as the starter may degenerate from the impurities which 
 get into it from day to day. 
 
 9. In developing a starter the bottles of milk should be 
 kept at a constant temperature until soured sufficiently; then 
 cooled and kept cold until added to the pasteurized milk. Too 
 
24 DAIRYING 
 
 high a heat, about 130 degrees Fahrenheit, will kill the lactic 
 acid germs in the starter, but cold does them no harm. 
 
 10. Always pour out some of the starter into a cup for 
 examination, and never place a thermometer, pipette, or spoon 
 in the starter after it is made, although these must be used in 
 the early stages of the process. 
 
 11. Every effort possible should be made to protect the 
 carefully soured milk from contamination after the pure cultures 
 have been added and a good growth of lactic acid germs is ob- 
 tained. 
 
 JUDGING THE QUALITY OF BUTTER. 
 
 557. The various qualities of butter are classified under the 
 following heads : Flavor, texture, color, salt and package. 
 
 When an expert butter judge, or a butter buyer, gives his 
 opinion of butter it is generally expressed with figures. The 
 American commercial standards for perfect butter are the follow- 
 ing: Flavor 45, texture 25, color 15, salt 10, package 5; total 
 100 points. 
 
 558. It is not customary to give any butter a score of 100 
 and thereby acknowledge it to be perfect in all its qualities. 
 Scores of 98 are, however, sometimes reached, although in ex- 
 hibits of butter entered for prizes there are not often more than 
 one or two entries out of one hundred with a score of over 97 
 points. Only about one-third of the total number will score 93 
 points or better. The proportion of the total number of entries 
 exhibited that score above 93 will vary in different exhibits and 
 in different seasons of the year. 
 
 Butter that scores 93 or better is usually marked perfect on 
 at least two qualities and sometimes on three, but almost never 
 on flavor. (See par. 569.) Defective flavor is the most common 
 fault found in butter. Such qualities as texture, color, salt and 
 package are more under the control of the buttermaker than 
 is the flavor. 
 
DAIRYING 25 
 
 It has become customary to express one's opinion of differ- 
 ent butter samples by fractions of points, such as 41, 41^4, or 
 41 1/> on flavor. Many tubs of butter are scored about the same 
 figure, there often being no greater variation than one-half point 
 between them. 
 
 559. In scoring a large number of different lots of butter, 
 the judges usually go through the entire lot first and then give 
 careful attention to a few of the best tubs that they have picked 
 out as superior in quality. There is so little difference in these 
 best lots that they are carefully studied in order to detect some 
 difference in them. The final test may be narrowed down to two 
 tubs between which the judges often find considerable difficulty 
 in deciding which is the better one; the final decision placing 
 only a difference of a small fraction of a point between the two 
 lots of butter. 
 
 The finer points of butter scoring are difficult to explain 
 and errors of juudgment may frequently be made. These can, 
 however, be largely eliminated by having three or more judges 
 work independently, each one recording his opinion of each lot 
 of butter and then submitting the different judges' reports to 
 either the buttermaker or to another judge, who may further in- 
 spect such samples as show a wide variation in the scores sub- 
 mitted by the different judges. 
 
 560. The best judges of butter as a rule are men who are 
 constantly buying and selling butter. They may know very 
 little about butter making, but they have become familiar with 
 the demands of the market and can quickly distinguish between 
 salable and unsalable butter from the market standpoint. The 
 constant training which butter buyers get fits them for detecting 
 the fine points that wsuld not be noticed by a person less familiar 
 with the great variety of butter that conies under their notice. 
 Anyone having a sensitive nose and tongue can by training dis- 
 tinguish slight differences in the quality of various packages of 
 butter. If the butter judge has an ideal standard in mind, he 
 can easily determine how near this standard each package of 
 butter approaches, and give his reasons for such an opinion in 
 each case. 
 
26 DAIRYING 
 
 Judging Dairy Butter. 
 
 561. Foreign judges of butter distinguish between flavor, 
 and aroma, the former refers to taste and the latter to smell. In 
 the United States the single term "flavor" is used and the ideal 
 flavor is one that has a mild, rich, creamy and dean butter 
 taste. 
 
 Some of the defects in butter flavor are designated by the 
 following terms : Flat, light, cheesy, rancid, briney, fishy, weedy, 
 bkter, feverish, etc. 
 
 562. In most cases the word used gives a sufficient ex- 
 planation of what is meant by the defect ; feverish flavor, is a 
 term that has been applied to a disagreeable, sickening taste 
 sometimes noticed in butter when cows first go to pasture in 
 the spring, and is possibly caused by an unhealthy condition of 
 the cow because of the sudden change of feed. 
 
 563. Fishy flavor has been found to occur mostly in butter 
 made from excessively ripe cream, and into which considerable 
 air has bee worked by over-working. It is supposed to be due 
 to an oxidation process, rather than to bacterial growth. The 
 bitter flavor usually comes from holding cream too long at a 
 low temperature. This defect is seldom noticed in butter made 
 during the summer reason. 
 
 Butter Texture. 
 
 564. Under this head is usually included the "body," con- 
 sistency, firmness, and the "grain," or appearance of a broken 
 surface of butter ; also the condition of the brine in the butter 
 as to whether it is clear or milky. The texture may be desig- 
 nated as greasy, tallowy, spongy^ or sticky, with a cloudy or an 
 excess of brine. A judgment of the texture is made by noticing 
 the feeling of butter on one's tongue and by pressing it with 
 the finger. 
 
 565. The texture may be iajured or spoiled by over-churn- 
 ing, over-working", and by under-working, which latter may leave 
 too much brine in the butter. The feed of the cows and the 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 27 
 
 character of the butter fat also have an important influence on 
 butter texture. When cows first go to pastuure from dry feed 
 the butter usually has what is called a "weak body." 
 
 Judging Butter Color, Salt and Package. 
 
 566. The greatest and most common defect in color is 
 "mottles" but objections are also made as to the amount of 
 color such as "too high" or "too low." The color should be 
 bright and even with no streaks or white specks in the butter. 
 Unless some market wants a particular shade, the color of 
 natural June grass butter is a good color standard. 
 
 567. The salt in butter must be all dissolved and evenly 
 distributed, a "gritty" salt or defective flavor from impure salt 
 are the most common of objections to butter on account of the 
 salt. 
 
 568. The butter package should be clean with no finger 
 marks on it or rounded corners on square bricks. Solid packing 
 will leare no holes or pockets in the butter and a towel should 
 never be used to cover the top of the package. 
 
 569. The following illustration of a score card gives an idea 
 of the way in which the quality of butter may be expressed 
 by figures : 
 
 
 Flavor 
 
 Texture 
 
 Color 
 
 Salt 
 
 Package 
 
 Total 
 
 Standard 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 "Extras" 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 93 
 
 "Firsts" 
 
 39 
 
 22 
 
 i4# 
 
 9^ 
 
 5 
 
 90 
 
 "Seconds" 
 
 35 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 W 
 
 W 
 
 87 
 
 Selling Butter on Basis of Its Quality. 
 
 570. Selling butter according to its quality is a practice 
 that has been discussed to some extent in recent years. It 
 seems only fair that butter scoring 96 points should sell at a 
 higher price than butter scoring 93 and 93 butter should sell 
 
28 DAIRYING 
 
 for more than that scoring 90. No great progress has ever 
 been made in putting this plan into practice, but certain market 
 terms have been used instead of figures to designate the quality 
 of the butter, such as ''Extras" which means butter scoring 
 93 points, and "Firsts" which means butter scoring between 90 
 and 93 on the Chicago market, or between 87 and 93, on the 
 New York City market. 
 
 571. "Seconds" includes on the Chicago market butter scor- 
 ing between 90 and 87 and on the New York market between 
 87 and 80 points. "Thirds" is a grade of butter which on the 
 New York market scores from 80 to 75 points. 
 
 The following statement made by a commission merchant 
 of many years' experience in buying and selling butter, gives 
 some information concerning the system used by such mer- 
 chants. 
 
 MARKET TERMS AND DEMANDS. 
 
 572. "The highest grade of butter is termed "extras," and to 
 pass inspection as such they 'must be of the very highest for 
 that season : That is, during the winter months, it is not expected 
 that butter will have quite the high flavor or aroma of butter 
 made when the grass is in its most perfect state in spring and 
 summer, but in all other respects it must be equal to the best 
 June goods the year around. 
 
 The flavor must be quick, fine, fresh and clean. 
 
 The body must be firm and solid with a perfect grain or 
 texture, free from salviness. 
 
 The color must be uniform, neither too light nor too high. 
 
 The salt must be well dissolved, thoroughly worked in, not 
 too high nor too light salted. 
 
 Packages must be a standard five-hoop, white ash tub, 
 holding sixty pounds of butter. 
 
 Should there be a failure to meet any one of these specifica- 
 tions it lowers the grade of the butter. 
 
DAIRYING 29 
 
 573. The next grade is called "firsts," and must be below 
 "extras," lacking somewhat in flavor, which, however, must be 
 good, sweet and clean. 
 
 All other requirements being the same as in "extras." 
 
 574. "Seconds" consist of a grade just below "firsts," and 
 the flavor must be fairly good and sweet. 
 
 The body must be sound and smooth boring. 
 
 The color must be fairly good, although it may be somewhat 
 irregular. 
 
 There may be some defects in salting, it being high or light 
 salted. 
 
 575. "Thirds" consist of butter below "seconds," defec- 
 tive in flavor, showing strong tops or sides; it may not be 
 smooth boring, may be mixed or streaked in color, irregular in 
 salting and put up in miscellaneous packages. 
 
 576. "Grease" butter consists of all grades of poor rancid 
 butter below "thirds." 
 
 The above classification holds good for dairy butter, with 
 the exception of the package which may be of reduced size. 
 
 A very small package is not desirable even for dairy butter, 
 and tubs for dairy butter holding 30, 40 or 50 pounds net are 
 recommended. 
 
 577. Today the buyer accepts nothing as first-class except 
 it be of a very high grade, every hoop in place, every cover 
 perfect, the tub evenly filled, covered first with a cloth neatly 
 cut and sprinkled with a very light covering of butter salt. 
 
 In shipping, a small stencil should be used, and the package 
 marked on the top where it may be easily erased in case the 
 goods are sold to a dealer for reshipment or for storage. 
 
 The cover must be secured with three or four neat tin 
 strips, the smaller number is preferred, and no dealer ever wants 
 to see the wire hooks used for this purpose. 
 
30 DAIRYING 
 
 578. Do not overload butter with brine. No man wishes 
 to buy butter and then find that he has paid for one or more 
 pounds of brine, and if he be a shrewd buyer he would not buy 
 such butter a second time except at a greatly reduced price. Of 
 course, there are tricks that work for a few times, but they lose 
 the trickster money in the end. 
 
 Pack the butter solidly in the tub so that there will be no 
 vacant spots when the butter is turned out on the testing board 
 for examination. 
 
 Do not put salt in the bottom of the tub." 
 
 Honests Weights in Selling Butter. 
 
 579. Market quotations on butter are usually made daily or 
 weekly in the largest cities. Such quotations are approximately 
 the same figure each week in different localities except that 
 prices in the eastern, Atlantic coast cities are often one cent or 
 more higher than those in the central-west section of the United 
 States. 
 
 580. Butter sold on the general market must as a rule 
 possess better qualities to bring top prices than butter sold to 
 regular customers as the latter will overlook occasionally defects 
 that a general buyer will object to. 
 
 581. A great many different arrangements are made for 
 selling butter; some ship to a commission merchant who sells at 
 a certain figure above or below the market price and who 
 charges the creamery 5 per cent commission for doing the busi- 
 ness. Other merchants do not charge any commission but agree 
 to pay a certain market price f. o. b. the city to which it was 
 shipped. 
 
 582. The diffeent agreements between seller and buyer are 
 numerous and may be for a longer or a shorter time than one 
 season. Such agreements are a matter of business between the 
 buyer and the seller and require no particular discussion, but 
 there is one point in selling butter that every butter seller should 
 insist on and that is honest weights. No agreement should be 
 
DAIRYING 31 
 
 made with a buyer except on the basis of the net weight of 
 butter contained in each tub or package as determined by the 
 weights obtained when each tub is filled at the factory. It is 
 possible that oi.e-half pound or so on each 60-pound tub of 
 butter should be allowed for shrinkage in weight, but the net 
 weight of butter in each tub should be known and the butter 
 paid for on the basis of the net weights of all the tubs of butter 
 in each lot sold. 
 
 583. A creamery can often afford to sell, its butter at a 
 lower prict per pound on the basis of honest weights than at 
 a higher price per pound with no agreement as to weights. The 
 net amount of money received for the butter churned at the 
 creamery and for which the patrons should be paid according 
 to the butter fat delivered in milk and cream is much more 
 important than an offer of one-half cent or more above the 
 market quotations for the butter f. o. b. the factory shipping 
 station. The price per pound is of some importance, but payment 
 
 x for the actual number of pounds of butter delivered is of much 
 greater importance. 
 
 584. In order to get accurate weights of the butter shipped 
 from a creamery the tubs should be paraffined then weighed with 
 cover, and this empty weight marked on the side of the tub. 
 After the tub is filled with butter and the cover nailed on, 
 the gross weight may be marked on the side of the tub ; the 
 difference between the 'two weights will show the net weight 
 of butter in the tub. If the net weight is then reduced one-half 
 pound per 60 pound tub this reduction, together with the cost 
 of the tub, amounts to more than one-half cent per pound of 
 butter in the tub, so that instead of receiving 25 cents per 
 pound for the butter as stated in the invoice the creamery will 
 actually receive something less than 24*/ cents per pound of 
 butter, assuming that it was sold at the market price, which 
 happened to be 25 cents at the time. A statement of the net 
 and the gross weights should be sent with each shipment of 
 butter to market and if the creamery is sure of its weights and 
 the buyer complains of any shipment that the weights do not 
 "hold out" such a shipment should be transferred to another 
 
32 DAIRYING 
 
 buyer or returned to the creamery and reweighed. This will 
 show whether the creamery or the buyers weights are correct. 
 
 Moldy Butter. 
 
 585. The selling price of butter is sometimes reduced by 
 the appearance of a green or white mold on the butter package 
 and sometimes noticed on the butter itself. This mold may grow 
 after the butter has left the point from which it is shipped or 
 it may have started in the package, when this was filled at the 
 time the butter was made. 
 
 Mold spores are omnipresent and they will begin to grow as 
 soon as conditions favorable for their growth are provided. 
 Dampness promotes the growth of mold and dryness retards 
 such growth ; so long as the butter packages are kept in dry air, 
 there is little danger of the mold spores starting to grow although 
 there may be millions of them present. 
 
 586. It is evident therefore that to prevent butter or the 
 butter package from molding, it is necessary to either destroy 
 all the mold spores present in the package and its lining and on 
 the walls of the refrigerator, or other room where the butter may 
 be kept; or the butter must be held and transported in a room, 
 car, and storage where the air is always dry. The greatest losses 
 from moldy butter are suffered by creameries. The butter 
 from these factories is usually shipped to market in 60 pound 
 tubs. 
 
 587. The so-called Elgin butter tub is a 5 hoop, asn tub 
 holding from 58 to 63 pounds butter. These tubs cost from 
 18 to 26 cents each and the freight varies according to the 
 distance shipped; \ l / 2 cents per tub is about the average freight 
 charge that must be added to the cost of the tubs. 
 
 In buying tubs those should be selected that have no dark 
 colored staves, but the wood is smooth and free from knots ; 
 the covers should fit well and when received the tubs should be 
 stored in a dry place and kept upside down so that the hoops 
 
DAIRYING 33 
 
 do not drop off as the tub dries in the store room before it is 
 used. 
 
 Preparing Butter Tubs for Use. 
 
 588. Many suggestions have been made concerning the 
 best way to treat both tubs and other packages before filling 
 them. It is evident that they must be perfectly clean, as near 
 water-tight as possible, and free from mold spores. These con- 
 ditions can be brought about in a more or less satisfactory way 
 by any one of the following treatments. 
 
 1. The day before the tub is to be used it may be filled 
 with saturated brine and allowed to stand twenty-four hours. 
 After this brine-soaking, which should be given to the parch- 
 ment paper tub lining also, the tubs are washed and steamed, 
 then filled with cold water and held in this way until filled with 
 butter. During the brine soaking the covers may be kept on 
 the tubs to prevent warping. The time of soaking in brine may 
 be reduced to two hours if hot brine is used and a steaming 
 box may be made for heating the tubs after soaking and thus 
 reduce the cost of steam used for this purpose. 
 
 2. The tubs may be immersed in scalding hot water for 
 one-half hour when sprinkled inside with salt and allowed to 
 stand over night empty. In the morning place them for about 
 three minutes over a steam jet, after which each tub is filled with 
 cold water and stands this way until filled. 
 
 3. Soak the tubs in brine containing 5 per cent formalde- 
 hyde and the parchment paper linings in brine to which 1^ 
 ounce formaldehyde has been added per gallon. 
 
 4. Place each tub over a steam jet long enough to heat it 
 thoroughly, then coat the inside with hot paraffin. This may be 
 done either with a brush or by pouring hot paraffin into each 
 tub, which is then rotated until the inside is all coated. 
 
 589. The hot paraffin destroys all mold spores, and as they 
 do not get nourishment from paraffin, those that may fall on its 
 surface later will not grow. The paraffin melts at a temperature 
 
34 DAIRYING 
 
 of 250 to 260 degrees Fahrenheit, and the cost of paraffin is 
 about 2 cents per tub on the basis of using 3 ounces of paraffin 
 costing 8 cents per pound. Paraffining the tubs need not cost 
 more than the usual brine soaking process. Coating the inside of 
 each tub is better than dipping the entire tub in hot paraffin, as 
 the latter method requires more paraffin and the paraffin tub 
 cannot be marked with a pencil. Paraffined tubs are usually 
 1 to 2 pounds lighter than brine or water-soaked tubs, and this 
 should be watched to prevent loss in selling the butter. 
 
 590. The net weight of butter obtained by actually weigh- 
 ing each tub before and after filling with butter should be 
 marked on the tub and- a record kept of such weights. 
 
 Paraffining butter tubs is the most satisfactory way of treat- 
 ing them, as it prevents mold from growing on the tub and on 
 the butter, it protects the butter from taking any flavor from 
 the wood, it gives the tub a neat appearance, and it reduces the 
 loss by shrinkage in weight when butter is shipped to market. 
 
 591. In addition to the treatment of the tubs mentioned, 
 the butter and the tub should be protected from mold by keeping 
 the factory refrigerator and the shipping car refrigerator dry. 
 Butter often becomes moldy after it leaves the creamery, be- 
 cause it is transported in a damp refrigerator car, or held some 
 days in a damp sales room. The growth of mold in a refriger- 
 ator may be retarded by occasionally wiping the walls with a 
 cloth moistened with a 5 per cent glycerin solution of corrosive 
 sublimate. 
 
 Mottled Butter. 
 
 592. The unevenly colored or mottled appearance of the 
 smoothly cut surface of butter is a defect which shows a lack of 
 knowledge or of skill on the part of the butter maker. Mottled 
 butter never grades as "extras" in quality, and butter judges as 
 well as buyers do not hesitate to reduce its score or its price on 
 account of this imperfection. Mottles are caused by an uneven 
 distribution of the salt throughout the butter too much salt in 
 
DAIRYING 35 
 
 one place and not enough in another. Unsalted butter is never 
 mottled ; it has a uniform color which is somewhat lighter yellow 
 in color than the same butter has when salted. Salt deepens the 
 color of butter to which no color has been added, as well as that 
 which has been artificially colored. The darker and the lighter 
 colored places consequently show an uneven mixing of the salt. 
 Uncolored butter may therefore be mottled, as well as colored 
 butter. 
 
 593. Continual working will remove mottles, as this eventu- 
 ally causes the salt to be evenly distributed, but there is danger 
 of injuring the body or texture of butter by an excessive work- 
 ing and the salvey, greasy appearance which over-working pro- 
 duces may be as objectionable as the mottles. In order to pre- 
 vent mottles without injuring other qualities of the butter the 
 butter maker must understand the conditions which aid and 
 those which interfere with a uniform mixing of salt with butter. 
 Salt is more evenly dissolved and more quickly distributed in 
 soft than in hard butter, but soft butter will not stand so much 
 working without injury to its body as will hard butter. These 
 facts indicate the necessity of varying the amount of working 
 according to the consistency of the butter. 
 
 594. When butter comes in small hard granules that are 
 allowed to drain rather dry before the salt is added, an even 
 distribution of the salt is much more difficult to obtain than 
 when the granules are softer ; such hard butter is therefore often 
 mottled unless it is worked a great deal. Mottles are also rather 
 difficult to prevent in butter which has been over-churned until 
 the granules are excessively large. In such cases the butter 
 working should be extended over a considerable length of time, 
 allowing the butter to stand about thirty minutes between each 
 three or four revolutions of the worker. The same amount of 
 working does not always have an equal effect on both hard and 
 soft butter, and it cannot safely be assumed that when different 
 churnings of butter are worked for the same length of time that 
 mottles will or will not appear. The amount of working neces- 
 sary to prevent mottles becomes, therefore, a matter of judg- 
 ment based on observations which are made from day to day. 
 
36 DAIRYING 
 
 595. Butter which is worked but little at a time and allowed 
 to stand between workings is much less likely to be mottled that* 
 that which may be given the same amount of working at one 
 time without stopping. Dry, hard butter to which dry salt is 
 added is more often mottled than that which is soft and some- 
 what moist, or has been salted with damp salt. Any condition 
 of the butter that will aid or retard the solution or distribution 
 of the salt, such as its water content, its hardness and the size 
 of its granules, will have an influence on the mottled appear- 
 ance of the butter, and an uneven distribution of water in the 
 granular butter may be the cause of mottles by dissolving dif- 
 ferent amounts of salt in various parts of the same churning. 
 
 596. Hard and soft granules, as well as small and large 
 ones, will hold different amounts of water, which in some parts 
 of the churning may be so plentiful as to dissolve the salt read- 
 ily, while in other parts there is less water and the solvent ac- 
 tion on the salt is slower. The presence or absence of mottles 
 is therefore entirely within the control of the butter maker and 
 he should not be satisfied until he is capable of making perfectly 
 even colored butter in which there is no suggestion of mottles. 
 
 When butter is freshly made the salt may not have had 
 sufficient time to show the effect which it will have later on the 
 color of the butter. This makes it difficult to determine whether 
 or not the butter will be mottled after it has stood long enough 
 to harden, and a positive statement in regard to the future ap- 
 pearance of mottles in the butter cannot be safely made without 
 a knowledge of the details of both the salting and the working of 
 the butter. 
 
 597. It has been claimed that too cold wash water will 
 cause mottled butter, and this is undoubtedly sometimes the 
 case, but the effect it will have depends on the extent to which 
 the butter is cooled, to the temperature of the water. If only the 
 surface of the granules are cooled by the water standing on 
 them a short time the salt will not be uniformly 'dissolved by 
 the butter and this may cause mottles, but if the granular butter 
 is thoroughly and uniformly hardened by the cold water there 
 
DAIRYING 37 
 
 is not much danger of mottles appearing- on account of the cold 
 wash water. 
 
 598. When salt is added to butter, it should be of about 
 the same temperature as that of the butter and contain no 
 lumps. It ought also to be evenly distributed over the granular 
 butter, as the churn cannot do this when the salt is all thrown 
 in at one place in a heap. 
 
 The amount of working necessary to prevent mottles varies 
 with different seasons of the year, as the butter varies from soft 
 grass butter in the spring, to hard, dry-feed and dry-cow butter 
 in the winter, and the butter maker should change his practice 
 of working to suit the conditions during the different seasons 
 of the year. 
 
 Streaked, Spotted or Speckled Butter. 
 
 599. These are imperfections in color that are different 
 from mottles; they are caused first by lumps or specks of curd 
 or dried cream which have not been removed, and second, by 
 small lumps of butter that are floating in the cream before 
 churning and failed to take the color when it is added. These 
 defects in butter may be prevented by carefully straining the 
 cream when it is put into the churn. 
 
 The hard lumps of white curd sometimes noted in cream 
 are usually caused by over-ripeness of the cream, or by failing 
 to stir it sufficiently during ripening. When sour cream is 
 allowed to stand without stirring, the curd and whey separate, 
 and the longer such cream stands the tougher the curd becomes. 
 If these white specks are so small as to pass through the cream 
 strainer, they may be removed as described under Washing But- 
 ter, but they are ordinarily caught in the strainer at the time 
 the cream is put into the churn. 
 
 The lumps of dried cream sometimes noticed usually come 
 from scraping off the sides of the vat where the cream has 
 splashed up above its surface and dried onto the sides of the vat. 
 
38 DAIRYING 
 
 This dried cream is better left on the vat than scraped off and 
 put into the churn, as the defects it may cause in the butter are 
 worse than the loss sustained by not saving- them. 
 
 600. Lumps of butter are sometimes noticed in cream be- 
 fore churning. They are caused either by the separator not 
 skimming smoothly, or by agitation from stirring, or during the 
 transporting of the cream. They are often too large to be pene- 
 trated clear through by the butter color that may be added to 
 the cream. In this way the inside of these lumps being of a 
 different color than their surface, an unevenness in the color of 
 the butter is caused. If these lumps are strained out, they are 
 of no injurv to the butter, and it is claimed that even when 
 allowed to mix with the butter, the color will spread through 
 them so that no serious defect comes from their presence in the 
 cream. 
 
 The Water Content of Butter. 
 
 601. The difference between the amount of butter fat shown 
 by the Babcock test in milk and cream and the weight of butter 
 made therefrom may vary from 10 to 20 per cent ; this variation 
 is caused by the difference in the loss of butter fat by skimming 
 and churning during each operation and the amounts of salt, 
 curd and water, which may have been incorporated in each 
 churning of butter. 
 
 Butter is a mixture of butter fat, salt, curd and water, and 
 it is not easily made to contain exactly the same amounts of 
 these constituents in every churning. 
 
 602. The difference between the weight of butter fat in 
 milk or cream and that in butter made from them, is called the" 
 "overrun." This subject is discussed in detail in par. 440, but 
 one of the factors which has an influence on the amount of 
 "overrun" obtained in each churning, is the water content of the 
 butter. The same amount of water is seldom mixed with each 
 lot of butter, but the average variation is not sufficient to be 
 
DAIRYING 39 
 
 generally noticed by the consumer and in fact appearance may 
 be deceitful in regard to this point. 
 
 In so far as the water is concerned, the consumer is equally 
 well pleased with any good butter that contains from 10 to 15 
 per cent of water, but to manufacturers this difference of 5 per 
 cent between extremes given is a very important matter. He 
 would naturally prefer 15 to 10 per cent of water in his product 
 if one sells as well as the other. 
 
 603. Butter makers and consumers generally form their 
 opinions regarding the amount of water that any given lot of 
 butter contains by the brine that leaks from the package, or by 
 the amount of moisture on the butter surface. 
 
 It is perfectly natural to conclude that butter which shows 
 drops of brine on its freshly cut surface contains more water 
 than that on which no drops are visible, and this difference in 
 the appearance of butter has been frequently noticed and com- 
 mented upon. It was plainly shown by the American and for- 
 eign butter exhibited at one of the conventions of the "National 
 Creamery Buttermakers' Association." 
 
 604. American butter was represented in that exhibit by 
 entries of 600 30-pound tubs of butter from 600 different cream- 
 eries and foreign butter by about 30 packages of butter purchased 
 in London by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Among 
 these foreign butters were packages from Denmark, Sweden, 
 France, England, -Ireland, Australia and several other countries. 
 Some of the foreign butter showed as much moisture on its sur- 
 face as was noticed on American butter, but one package of but- 
 ter appeared so dry and mealy as immediately to attract atten- 
 tion to this particular point. One-pound samples from each of 
 the foreign butters and also from the three prize-winning 
 packages of American butter were obtained at that time for 
 analyses. These analyses later showed that the particularly dry 
 appearing sample of foreign butter contained 15.10 per cent 
 water, which is 3.66 per cent higher than the average analysis 
 of American creamery butter, which was 11.44 per cent of water 
 in the average of 473 samples of butter, as reported in Bulletin 
 No. 74, Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
 
40 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 605. A complete analysis of this dry appearing, foreign 
 butter and of the American prize creamery butter gave the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 
 Water 
 Per Cent 
 
 Fat 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Ash (Salt) 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Curd 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 15.00 
 
 82.94 
 
 .44 
 
 1.52 
 
 American 
 
 12.46 
 
 83.31 
 
 2.68 
 
 1.55 
 
 These figures show that the foreign butter contained nearly 
 3 per cent more water and over 2 per cent less salt than was 
 found in the American butter. The foreign butter probably was 
 but very slightly salted, and a considerable portion of this 0.44 
 per cent of ash doubtless came from the mineral matter of the 
 buttermilk and curd which the butter contained. 
 
 The unusual high water content of this apparently dry 
 butter was very striking, and it led the writer to try to find an 
 explanation for the apparent contradiction. 
 
 606. A series of experiments was therefore made by salting 
 one-half the butter from a lot of cream and by making the other* 
 half in exactly the same way except that no salt was added to it. 
 During the working of each lot of butter the dry appearance of 
 the unsalted butter was very noticeable, while moisture and 
 brine showed distinctly on the salted butter. This difference 
 in apparent dryriess was so plain that either lot of butter could 
 be accurately selected without consulting th'e numbers of the 
 packages and the record book. Considerable brine also leaked 
 from the salted butter, but the unsalted butter was very dry. 
 An analysis of the two lots of butter showed that although both 
 were made from the same cream, churned and worked in ex- 
 actly the same way, the salted butter always contained less 
 water than the unsalted. 
 
 607. It should not be inferred from these results that all 
 salted butter will contain less wateer than unsalted butter, but 
 rather that when all other conditions, such as cream ripening, 
 churning, washing, working, etc., are the same and the cream of 
 one ripening is made into two lots of butter in the same way, 
 
DAIRYING 41 
 
 that the salted butter will contain less water and show more 
 drops of moisture or brine on a cut surface than will be the case 
 with the unsalted butter. 
 
 The total yield of salted and unsalted butter from the same 
 lot of cream in these experiments was about the same, as the 
 salt replaced the water and it was shown that an increase of 
 water in the unsalted butter does not necessarily mean an 
 increased yield from a given amount of butter fat. 
 
 608. In a number of trials the butter was worked twice, 
 each lot being about half worked on the day it was churned, 
 then placed in tubs and set in the refrigerator until the next 
 morning, when the working was completed. At the second 
 working it was noticed that considerable brine had collected in 
 the bottom of the tubs containing the salted butter. This leak- 
 ing of the brine doubtless accounts for the generally low per 
 cent of water found in the salted butter worked twice, as com- 
 pared with that which was worked once. 
 
 609. Considerable more attention has been given to the 
 water content of butter during the past ten years, and since the 
 observations just mentioned were made. In 1898 butter on the 
 general market contained approximately 11.00 per cent water. 
 At about that time butter makers began to note the importance 
 of uniformity in the water content of butter and of keeping up 
 the percentage to a figure that will not diminish the yield 
 sufficiently to cause excessive losses in weight and consequently 
 in profit from the manufacture of butter. In 1902 the average 
 water of 800 samples of creamery butter was 11.78 per cent. In 
 1907 the average of 658 samples of butter from as many cream- 
 eries was 13.56 per cent water. This shows an increase of about 
 2 1-2 per cent in the water content in about ten years. In 1906 
 the average water content of 2.786 samples of Danish butter was 
 14.29 per cent, showing that our butter was then one per cent 
 lower in water than Danish butter. A uniform water content in 
 butter from day to day means a great deal to the maker and to 
 the farmers who produce the milk and the cream from which it 
 is made. 
 
42 DAIRYING 
 
 610. If butter contains 12.00 per cent water one day and 
 15.00 per cent water the next day, the difference between the 
 two lots amounts to 3 pounds in every 100 pounds of butter 
 made. This 3 pounds is worth 90 cents, if butter is 30 cents per- 
 pound and if 300 pounds are made daily, the difference is worth 
 $2.70, which is more than the buttermaker's wages in some 
 cases. 
 
 611. Water is held by butter as a film around each granule 
 and in the pockets between the granules. The smaller the 
 granules the greater the amount of butter surface and conse- 
 quently the larger the amount of adhering water. On the other 
 hand the larger and the more irregular the granules, the more 
 and the larger are the pockets to be filled with water. The 
 amount of water held by the butter is influenced therefore by 
 certain conditions which the buttermaker should understand. 
 Some of these are the following: 
 
 A rich cream churned warm in a churn filled to its full 
 capacity brings butter in waxy granules which contain an excess 
 of water. 
 
 Effect of Size of Butter Granules on Water Content of Butter. 
 
 612. It has been shown in previous pages that salts helps to 
 expel the moisture in butter and since the salt will be more thor- 
 oughly and uniformly mixed with small than with large butter 
 granules, it seems fair to infer that the water contents of 
 butter will be increased by churning to large granules and 
 decreased by churning to small granules before the salt is 
 added to them. 
 
 The standard size of butter granules is that of wheat 
 kernels, as it has been found that the curd can be more easily 
 washed out, and the salt more uniformly worked into such 
 butter than is the case when it is gathered in larger lumps. 
 The objection to stopping the churn when the butter granules 
 are still finer than wheat comes from the possibility of 
 mechanical loss of those fine granules in the buttermilk. 
 
DAIRYING 43 
 
 In order to obtain some evidence on the influence of size 
 of the butter granules on the water content of the finished butter, 
 a series of 22 churnings were made : a one-half of the churnings 
 were stopped when the granules were about the, size of a 
 clover seed, and the other half were about the size of corn 
 kernels. The butter made in each case was analyzed and the 
 average per cent of water was found to be 1.74 higher in the 
 butter churned to the large than to the small granules when 
 all other conditions were the same. 
 
 it is to be expected that more water will be squeezed 
 out of the fine than out of the coarse granular butter by a given 
 amount of working, because as compared with the large granules 
 the small ones hold more water between the granules and this 
 water is more easily pressed out by the working, than is that held 
 within the mass of larger granules, provided the butter has 
 a solid, firm body. 
 
 Effect of Temperature of Wash Water on Water Content of 
 
 Butter. 
 
 613. Of all the factors that influence the water content of 
 butter, the most important are undoubtedly the temperature 
 of the wash water and the amount of churning the butter is 
 given in the wash water. 
 
 It is usually recommended to churn cream at as low a 
 temperature as possible in order tc get an exhaustive churning. 
 This is undoubtedly good practice, but if the granular butter 
 is then washed with cold water the yield may be abnormally 
 low even though an exhaustive churning as indicated by the 
 test of the buttermilk has been obtained. 
 
 When churnings are made at a low temperature, the gran- 
 ular butter should be washed with warmer water so that it will 
 retain the normal amount of water and churning the fine 
 granules into larger ones in this warm wash water will increase 
 the water contents of the butter. 
 
44 DAIRYING 
 
 Any agitation of the butter in water while it is warm 
 and sticky will tend to incorporate water with it, while the 
 opposite treatment such as hardening the granules with very 
 cold water will tend to expel water from the butter. 
 
 614. A uniform and normal amount of water in butter 
 may be obtained by churning at a temperature that will give a 
 low testing buttermilk; then washing the granular butter with 
 water having a temperature a little above that of the buttermilk, 
 but not sufficiently warm to injure the body of the butter. 
 It is further necessary to increase the size of the butter granules 
 a trifle by churning in the wash water then salt and work the 
 butter sufficiently to prevent mottles and give it a waxy 
 body. 
 
 The fine, sound, hard granules repel water and make a dry 
 body, as the softer the butter fat the more water it holds. The 
 less viscous the cream, such as sour as compared with sweet 
 cream, the easier the water slips away from the granules ; sweet 
 cream butter therefore contains less water than sour cream 
 butter, because the sweet cream butter needs more working to 
 remove the buttermilk and milky brine, which stick to it more 
 tenaciously than to sour cream butter. 
 
 Overchurning causes an excess of water in the butter, as 
 does also the working of butter in warm wash water and damp- 
 ening the salt before" adding it to the butter. 
 
 Churning to fine granules and working but little afterwards 
 gives butter with much water. 
 
 615. Butter worked in water a short time loses water, but 
 continued working in water incorporates an excess of water in 
 the butter. This is shown by the following figures, which illus- 
 trate also the effect which more or less water has on the quality 
 *f butter. 
 
 Churning in 
 Water 
 
 Water 
 Per Cent 
 
 Score of 
 Butter 
 
 10 minutes 
 
 15.03 
 
 93.9 
 
 15 minutes 
 
 17.44 
 
 92.4 
 
 20 minutes 
 
 18.81 
 
 93.1 
 
DAIRYING 45 
 
 Relation Between Water Content and Quality of Butter. 
 
 616. As a general rule the conditions that favor an increase 
 in the water content of butter are detrimental to its quality. 
 Some of these conditions are over-churning, which leaves too 
 much buttermilk in the butter, churning too warm cream, which 
 causes excessive losses in the buttermilk, churning too rich 
 cream, which gives an uneven churning, and working in warm 
 wash water, which tends to make a greasy texture. These and 
 other conditions have a somewhat contradictory value in butter 
 making. They may increase the yield at the expense of the 
 butter quality. Although this relation may exist, it has been 
 repeatedly shown that there is no direct relation between quality 
 and water content in all butter, as both high and low scoring 
 butter may have either a high or a low water content. 
 
 In 1902 the Dairy Division of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
 culture took samples from 802 tubs of creamery butter exhibited 
 at a National Convention and found that the five tubs of butter 
 receiving the highest score contained 11.03 per cent water and 
 the five receiving the lowest score contained 10.06 per cent water. 
 It has further been noticed in butter exhibits that eight tubs 
 marked by the judges as having "too much water" contained an 
 average of 12.67 per cent water and two tubs marked "full of 
 water" contained 11.11 per cent, water, while two tubs marked 
 "worked too dry" contained 12.27 per cent water. These and 
 many other observations have shown that the quality of butter 
 does not regularly follow the water content. 
 
 617. A uniformity in water content is obtained by uni- 
 formity in the following- churning operations : 
 
 1. The amount of cream in the churn. 
 
 2. The richness and the ripeness of the cream. 
 
 3. The temperature of the cream and of the buttermilk. 
 
 4. The size of the butter granules. 
 
 5. The amount of draining before salting. 
 
 6. The temperature of the wash water. 
 
 7. The amount of working the butter receives. 
 
4 6 DAIRYING 
 
 The Butter Workers. 
 
 618. The implements and machines used for working butter 
 are the farm dairy lever-worker, the power table-worker and 
 the combined churn and worker. 
 
 The amount of working that butter should be given with 
 each of these workers must be determined by observations made 
 during the buttermakers' daily work, either by allowing a cer- 
 tain number of minutes working with a lever worker, or a num- 
 ber of revolutions through the rollers of the other workers. 
 
 The table workers are usually allowed to make from 25 to 
 30 revolutions and the combined churn workers about 16 revo- 
 lutions. 
 
 These figures cannot be adooted as sure guides to inevitable 
 success artd no figures cai be authoritatively given as the un- 
 varying standard for this purpose, but those mentioned may 
 aid beginners in establishing uniform methods of working which 
 are best suited to the condition of the butter in each case. 
 
 Plate 4 Type of Combined Churn and Worker 
 
 The Combination Churn and Worker. 
 
 619. Nearly all creameries have now replaced the two 
 pieces of machinery formerly used in butter making, the box 
 churn and the table butter worker, by the combined churn and 
 worker, in which both operations of churning and werking are 
 carried on in one machine. The introduction of the combined 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 47 
 
 churn was con>paratively slow. It was claimed by some that 
 the new machine was expensive, hard to clean, the butter maker 
 could not see the butter during the working process, butter 
 would get into the bearings, and that the salt would not be 
 evenly distributed through the butter. 
 
 All these objections seem to have been overcome during the 
 years of development which this machine has undergone. Two 
 distinct types of combined churns are now on the market and 
 both are extensively used in factory butter making. One type 
 is represented by the Simplex churn, in which the worker is 
 removable. It may be placed in the churn after the cream is 
 churned. The other type includes the cylindrical churns in which 
 the working rollers are always left in the churn and never 
 removed during the churning. 
 
 620. Among the advantages claimed for the modern com- 
 bined churn and worker are': 
 
 Plate 5 Showing Working of Butter in Combined Churn and Worker 
 
 1. The butter is not handled or taken from the churn until 
 it is ready to be placed in the finished package. 
 
 2. It is a saving of labor. 
 
 3. The butter is protected from the air, dust, flies and heat 
 of the room in which the work is done. 
 
 4. It requires less space than the two machines formerly 
 used for this work. 
 
 5. Large amounts of cream may be churned at once. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 6. The extent to which the churn is filled has no particular 
 influence on the churning. 
 
 7. The working of butter is nearly automatic and uniform 
 results may be obtained by counting the number of revolutions 
 in working each lot of butter. 
 
 8. The details of construction have been carefully worked 
 out so that the modern machine is durable and can be satis- 
 factorily cleaned. 
 
 The amount of working which each combined churn gives 
 butter varies with the number of rollers in the churn and their 
 location, so that the same directions do not apply to all churns, 
 but in a general way the following practice may be found satis- 
 factorv. 
 
 Plate 6 The Simplex Combined Churn and Worker 
 
 621. After the buttermilk is drawn from the granular butter, 
 fill the churn one-half full with water, having a temperature 
 about 2 degrees warmer than the buttermilk. Revolve the churn 
 about four times on the slow gear, then allow the butter to pass 
 through the rollers about six times. Draw off the wash water, 
 
DAIRYING 49 
 
 after which the salt containing no lumps is added ; then revolve 
 the churn six times and let it stand a few minutes to drain off 
 the surplus water; revolve again four times and let stand five 
 minutes, then repeat this working, with short intervals of drain- 
 ing, until the salt is dissolved and evenly distributed through 
 the butter. A little practice and careful observation of results 
 will soon determine the number of revolutions and intervals best 
 adapted to give satisfactory results with each churn. 
 
 It is not, however, a machine that can be successfully used 
 by a careless workman, as it is more complicated than a table 
 worker and requires judgment in running it and some knowledge 
 in arithmetic for calculating the amount of salt and color to be 
 used in each churning. 
 
 622. It is true that different lots of butter varying in salt 
 content can not be easily obtained from one churning for different 
 customers, but the total amount of butter in each case can be 
 calculated from the weight and test of the milk or cream and 
 sufficiently accurate figures obtained for determining the amount 
 of salt and color used for each churning of butter. 
 
 The combined churn is not an automatic machine that will 
 do satisfactory work by simply pulling the lever or shifting a 
 belt and then leaving it to run, but its operation must be watched 
 and regulated. One thing that is especially necessary to be sure 
 of and that is to see that all the butter passes through the rollers 
 the same number of times, and that some of it does not escape 
 them. When this is the case the butter will be unevenly worked 
 and may be mottled. Such a possibility may be easily avoided 
 by not attempting to work more butter than the churn is built 
 to handle and by inspecting it occasionally during the working. 
 
 623. In warm weather when the butter is apt to be soft, ice 
 may be placed on the rollers and the door closed, thus confining 
 the cold from the ice in the churn until the butter has hardened 
 when the ice may be removed and the working finished. 
 
50 DAIRYING 
 
 THE CREAMERY INDUSTRY. 
 I. Benefits of a Creamery to Farmers. 
 
 624. A Better Price for Butter. In many farming communi- 
 ties there are often found localities where the butter made on 
 one farm is selling for ten cents, while that from the adjoining 
 farm brings twenty cents per pound. This difference in price 
 may be continuous throughout the year, even though the cows 
 and the feed are of about the same quality on both farms. When 
 a creamery is established in such a community, the farm on 
 which poor butter is made will naturally receive more benefit 
 from the factory than the one which supplies private customers 
 at fancy prices. The latter class of farmers will, however, be 
 glad to patronize the creamery, because they will continue to 
 receive the highest market price for their butter without the 
 trouble of making it. The reason for this is apparent. All the 
 principles of manufacturing, such as reducing expense and waste, 
 by operating one factory instead of several, apply to the cream- 
 ery as well as to other manufactories. 
 
 625. Cost of Making Butter Reduced. The creamery sub- 
 stitutes one churn and other dairy utensils for the fifty or more 
 farm churns. This is an enormous saving, as the time of one or 
 more men at a creamery and one fire under the boiler is much 
 more economical than the time and. fuel used at each of the 
 farms in making the same amount of butter. There is also much 
 less waste by the factory operations than is the case when the 
 fifty or more lots of butter are made at the fifty farms. This 
 saving of both cream and butter, which is necessarily lost by 
 distributing it over fifty or more small cans, vats, and churns, 
 is shared by all the patrons. The difference in the expense and 
 amount of energy used in operating a creamery as compared 
 with the usual number of farm dairies which it supplants may be 
 illustrated by the contrast in economy of moving one thousand 
 people across a river by row boats as compared with trans- 
 porting them by means of one steamer. The work is much more 
 economically, quickly, and safely done by the steamer than by 
 the row boats ; and when the comfort of the one thousand people 
 is considered the two methods of transportation are not in the 
 
DAIRYING 51 
 
 same class. A well managed creamery brings the same kind of 
 satisfaction to the one thousand or more people interested in it as 
 is felt by the one thousand passengers. 
 
 626. Butter of Uniform Quality. The creamery produces 
 a much more uniform article of butter than can possibly be made 
 at the different farms. In the matter of color and salt in butter, 
 to say nothing of the variety of flavors obtained in the farm 
 butter, the creamery product has a great advantage. The quality 
 of creamery butter is also, as a rule, far superior to that of farm 
 butter, the market quotation always placing extra creamery but- 
 ter at the top of the list. The milk therefore which was formerly 
 used in making the dairy butter may thus be converted into a 
 higher-priced article at the creamery than at the farm. The 
 creamery will also market more butter from the same amount 
 of milk than it is possible for a number of farm dairies to make. 
 The churning will be more exhaustive and the general waste 
 will be less. 
 
 627. Economy of Time in Marketing the Butter. The time 
 spent in delivering farm butter to private customers and the 
 annoyance of collecting and of waiting for them to pay bufcfcer 
 bills is entirely avoided by patronizing a creamery. Much less 
 machinery and supplies are also needed at the farm when milk 
 is sent to a creamery than when it is made into butter at home. 
 
 628. More Cows on Each Farm. A large number of cows 
 may be kept on the farm when they have to be fed and milked 
 only and the farmer's time is not occupied with butter making. 
 This will enable him to concentrate his thoughts on the produc- 
 tion of milk, and he will find that the reducing of its cost to the 
 lowest terms will be a most profitable study for him. 
 
 629. The Farm Women Relieved From Some Extra Work. 
 The benefits of a creamerv to farmers would not be completely 
 enumerated if we failed to mention the relief it brings to the 
 farm women. They have many duties about the home each day, 
 and although there are excellent butter makers among them, 
 churning is extra work, and in some cases a heavy tax upon a 
 woman's strength. All good American farmers are glad to 
 
52 DAIRYING 
 
 relieve the women of the household from this task, and the start- 
 ing of a creamery in a community usually has no stronger ad- 
 vocates than the farmers' wives and daughters. 
 
 630. Monthly Cash Payment. From a business standpoint 
 the creamery is beneficial because of the monthly cash income 
 which it brings to each patron. A definite amount of cash in 
 hand at regular intervals places the farmer in a position to plan 
 his work advantageously, and his whole family is cheered by the 
 anticipation and the realization of the benefits from the monthly 
 milk or crearn check 
 
 II. Development of the Creamery. 
 
 631. The creamery as commonly referred to at the present 
 time is a modern institution. In the past butter was made in a 
 room or small building at the farm, where milk was kept and all 
 kinds of dairy work was done. The creamery now takes the 
 place of the farm dairy, and is equipped with machinery and ap- 
 paratus for making butter of the milk and cream brought to it 
 by a number of farmers. 
 
 632. Amount of Butter Made in Creameries. The first 
 American creameries were built in New York state between 
 1860 and 1870. The industry gradually spread to the West, until 
 at the present time there are about 10,000 in the United States. 
 Even now, however, only a little over one-third of the total 
 amount of butter made in the United States is creamery butter. 
 According to the United States census of 1900, there was made 
 in the United States 1,492,700,000 pounds of butter; only 420,- 
 950,000 pounds of .which was creamery butter, while 1,070,700,000 
 pounds was made on the farm. 
 
 633. In some parts of the United States the creamery in- 
 dustry is growing rapidly at the present time, and the amount 
 of butter made in these factories will undoubtedly continue to 
 increase in the future. A movement has already begun among 
 creamery patrons towards the improvement of their herds by 
 keeping a record of the performance of each cow and disposing of 
 the unprofitable ones. This kind of work will not only make 
 
DAIRYING 53 
 
 the farmers more prosperous, but it will increase the creamery 
 products in localities where factories have been in operation for 
 
 some time. 
 
 634. The Milk and Cream Supply of a Creamery. The 
 
 butter made at creameries under present conditions is churned 
 from cream which is either separated at the factory from milk 
 delivered by the patrons or skimmed at the farm and gathered 
 by teams which deliver it to the factory. 
 
 These two methods of skimming milk have given rise to 
 two distinct kinds of creameries, the whole milk creamery and 
 the gathered cream factory. A rather sharp distinction between 
 these factories has existed in the past, but it is becoming less 
 marked in recent years. Formerly the whole milk creamery re- 
 ceived nothing but milk and the gathered cream factory nothing 
 but cream; but at the present time the hand separators are so 
 extensively used by farmers that many whole milk creameries 
 now receive farm cream as well, and the exclusively whole milk 
 creameries are consequently diminishing in number. The gath- 
 ered cream factories on, the other hand are still without separa- 
 tors and are equipped and operated on about the same plan as 
 when first started. Each of the two kinds of creameries has its 
 peculiar fitness for butter making and for accommodating the 
 farmers who patronize them. The gathered cream factories 
 were the first ones started. They formerly were supplied en- 
 tirely with gravity cream, most of which was obtained at the 
 farms by deep setting the milk in cold water. At the present 
 time such factories are -receiving more or less hand separator 
 cream, as well as gravity cream, and the change from gravity 
 to hand separator skimming is rapidly being made in many 
 localities. 
 
 635. Advantages of the Gathered Cream Factory. When 
 cream instead of milk is gathered from the farms, a larger terri- 
 tory can be economically drawn from because of the difference 
 in weight between the cream and the milk. The cream is only 
 about 15 per cent of the milk, and its transportation is less ex- 
 pensive, not only on account of its smaller weight, but because 
 there is no skim milk to be returned to the farms. The time and 
 
54 DAIRYING 
 
 teams of many farmers is therefore saved by the one man and 
 team which does the drawing for a large number of farms. A 
 saving in the cost of milk-carrying cans is also made when 
 cream only is sent to a factory. 
 
 The danger of spreading disease from one farm to another 
 by means of the factory skim milk is also avoided. Cases have 
 been known in which tuberculosis has been conveyed to a herd 
 by the factory skim milk being fed to calves ; and although this 
 may be prevented by a thorough pasteurization of the skim milk 
 at the factory, such a mode of protection is not equal to keeping 
 the skim milk on the farm where it is produced and receiving 
 none from other places. 
 
 But the greatest of all the benefits of this kind of creamery 
 to the farmer is derived from the perfect feeding condition of 
 the skim milk when it is separated from the cream with the 
 farm separator at milking time. The food value of this pure, 
 warm skim milk is not always fully appreciated. When it comes 
 from a separator it is cleaner than before skimming. It is un- 
 diluted, and is a wholesome, nutritious food for both man and 
 beast. In fact, a glass of warm skim milk from the separator 
 will not be distinguished by the majority of people from a glass 
 of new milk taken directly from the cow. 
 
 636. Advantages of the Whole Milk Creamery. The whole 
 milk or power separator creameries began nearly twenty years 
 after the gathered cream factories started, and it was the superior 
 skimming of the power separators that led to the introduction 
 of the separator creameries. The old methods of farm skimming 
 by the gravity system, left from one-half to one and one-fourth 
 pounds of fat in every one hundred pounds of skim milk, and 
 this butter fat, even though it was kept on the farm and fed 
 to stock was extravagant feed. When the power separators 
 were introduced, the farmers were soon convinced that they 
 could save this loss by drawing their milk to creameries sup- 
 plied with power machines. They also found the losses in 
 churning to be less at the factory than at the farm, and the 
 quality of the butter was superior to that made at the gathered 
 cream factories. 
 
DAIRYING 55 
 
 These two punus of economy in skimming and churning and 
 the improvements in quality of the butter made, are the strongest 
 ones in favor of the separator creameries. It was soon found, 
 however, that farmers would not draw milk much more than five 
 miles to creameries, and in order to cover a larger territory, the 
 owners of separator creameries in some cases built and equipped 
 
 skimming stations. 
 
 
 
 637. The Skimming Station. This is usually a building 
 
 erected only for the purpose of skimming milk. Its equipment 
 includes the weigh-can, platform scales, milk sample jars and 
 sampler, a large milk vat, cans for holding the cream, a skim 
 milk weigher, a power separator, and some kind of power for 
 operating it. In some cases turbine separators are used and a 
 boiler only is needed to run such a separator. Some power will 
 be needed, however, to operate the water pump and the milk 
 pumps. When a belt separator is used at these stations an 
 engine must be provided as well as a boiler. A good water 
 supply is also needed. This equipment, it will be seen, is nearly 
 equal to that of a creamery, the only difference being in the 
 size of the building, and a few additional fittings, such as the 
 cream vat, the churn, butter worker, and refrigerator. The boiler 
 of a skimming station may also be considerably smaller than is 
 needed at the creamery, especially when a gasoline engine or 
 possibly a tread power is used to run the separator. A tread 
 power is economical in cases where the horses which operate 
 it are used to draw the cream to the creamery after the skimming 
 is done. A small boiler can be so arranged that danger from 
 freezing in cold weather may be avoided by draining it, together 
 with all steam and water pipes when the day's work is done. It 
 can be filled, when needed to begin work, by the pump, which is 
 operated by the gasoline engine or tread power. 
 
 638. Economy of Gasoline Engine. When a skimming sta- 
 tion is located some distance from the fuel supply, the gasoline 
 engine is a very economical power, as it has been demonstrated 
 that the cost of the gasoline necessary to operate the engine 
 which skimmed eight thousand pounds of milk per day at a 
 station, was no greater than the cost of drawing the coal eight 
 
56 DAIRYING 
 
 miles to this station, if a steam engine had been used to do the 
 same work. In this calculation the use of gasoline, however, 
 saved the first cost of the coal, as the cost of drawing the gaso- 
 line is not included, because it was drawn by the cream hauler. 
 The gasoline bill only amounted to the price of drawing the 
 ioal.* 
 
 These and other suggestions in the line of economy in build- 
 ing and running a skimming station should be carefully con- 
 sidered when the subject is under discussion, for while there are 
 localities where they are undoubtedly profitable, this is not uni- 
 versally true. The conditions of any locality must be studied 
 by themselves, as it is not s*afe to conclude that when a skim- 
 ming station is a success in one place it will be so everywhere. 
 
 III. Directions for Starting a Whole Milk Creamery. 
 
 639. When a number of farmers become convinced that a 
 creamery will be beneficial to the neighborhood in which they 
 live, the first thing to be done is to make a careful canvass of the 
 surrounding country for the purpose of ascertaining the number 
 of cows that can be depended on to furnish milk to the factory. 
 The best way to- accomplish this is to circulate a paper which 
 must be signed by each farmer, pledging himself to send milk to 
 the creamery from a certain number of cows. In order to assure 
 the success of the enterprise there should be found at least three 
 hundred cows within five miles of the factory. In some cases 
 creameries have been started with less than this number of cows 
 in sight, but unless there is good reason to expect the number 
 to increase to three hundred or more in the near future, the 
 creamery cannot be expected to prove a paying investment. 
 
 640. The Milk Supply and Cost of Operating. The milk 
 supply from three hundred rows will range from three thousand 
 to six thousand pounds per day during the year, depending on 
 the kind of cows kept. In a new territory, where the creamery 
 is usually started, not much more than four thousand pounds 
 of milk per day during the vear can be depended on from three 
 hundred cows. Assuming that this will test 4.0 per cent fat and 
 
 make 4.5 pounds of butter per hundred pounds of milk, the 
 
 \ 
 * Private Communication from H. B. Gurler. 
 
DAIRYING 57 
 
 average daily product of the factory will be about 180 pounds 
 of butter. If 3 cents per pound is charged the patrons for mak- 
 ing the butter, this will amount to $5.40 per day, which sum is 
 available for paying running expenses. This $5.40 may be used 
 in the following way : The buttermaker's wages should be at 
 least $1.66 per day, the butter tubs, salt, color, and supplies will 
 cost about $1.00, fuel $1.00, taxes and insurance 15 cents, and 
 interest on investment 42 cents per day. The sum of these items 
 is $4.23, leaving 77 cents as the fund from which the depreciation 
 of machinery and building mut be kept up. 
 
 641. These figures show that a creamery will be operated 
 at a loss if less than 4,000 pounds of milk, or the cream from 
 it, as an average per day is supplied to it during the entire year. 
 In some localities this amount of milk may be produced by less 
 than 300 cows, but the probabilities are that it will take more 
 than this number, as these figures mean a production of over 
 200 pounds of butter per cow per year, and the statistics of the 
 last census show that the average cow does not produce over 
 150 pounds of butter per year. If the creamery is started in a 
 locality where the average cow is not producing more than 150 
 pounds of butter per year, there should be at least 400 cows 
 pledged for the enterprise. These figures represent the mini- 
 mum volume of business that the promoters of the enterprise 
 should expect to carry on without doing it at a loss, unless local 
 conditions are such that some of the items may be reduced, or 
 the products sold at a greater margin. 
 
 642. After it has been found that there are enough cows 
 within a reasonable distance to support a creamery, the building 
 and machinery must be provided. This is done in several ways: 
 
 1. The Proprietary Creamery. An individual or a firm 
 may erect and equip the creamery and operate it entirely in- 
 dependent of the patrons, charging a certain price per pound for 
 making the butter. 
 
 2. The Joint Stock Creamery. The creamery may be built 
 and operated by a joint stock company, the stock of which may 
 be bought by patrons of the creamery, by business men, or by 
 any one wishing to invest in such an enterprise. The butter 
 
58 DAIRYING 
 
 is made for a stated price per pound, and any profit or loss in 
 the business is divided among the stockholders. 
 
 3. The Cooperative Creamery. There are many different , 
 ways of organizing cooperative creameries, but the general un- 
 derstanding i regard to them is that the entire business, factory, 
 and machinery, is owned by the patrons supplying the milk, and 
 that instead of charging a certain price per pound for making 
 butter, the running expenses of the factory are deducted each 
 month from the gross receipts. The balance is divided among 
 the patrons according to the amount of butter fat contributed by 
 each one in the milk or cream sent to the facory. 
 
 643. Organizing. The organization of such a creamery is 
 usually started by calling a meeting of those persons interested 
 in the enterprise. Officers and directors are elected, a constitu- 
 tion and by-laws are adopted* and the association incorporated 
 according to the laws of the state. A competent lawyer should 
 be employed to draw up the articles of incorporation and attend 
 to other legal matters connected with the organization. Without 
 going into details regarding the constitution and by-laws of such 
 an organization a few suggestions may be helpful in this direc- 
 tion. The usual officers, such as president, vice-president, secre- 
 tary, treasurer, and general manager, with a board of directors, 
 which is sometimes composed of the officers named, are elected 
 annually by the stockholders. The duties of these officers are 
 those usually performed by such officials. 
 
 644. The only one of these officials who receives pay for his 
 services, as a rule, is the secretary, who is also general manager; 
 and the amount paid him is determined by the board of directors. 
 His duties are to look after the general welfare of the business, 
 and he should be a man in whom the stockholders have uni- 
 versal confidence. He should be permitted to manage the busi- 
 ness as seems best to him, after consulting the directors, and 
 any criticism of his work should be in a spirit of helpfulness and 
 of promoting the best interests of all concerned. The success 
 of the creamery depends, in a large measure, not only on the 
 business ability of this official, but on the attitude of the stock- 
 holders towards him. His annual report to the stockholders 
 
 * A sample constitution and by-laws is given at the end of this lesson. 
 
DAIRYING 59 
 
 should contairra statement in detail of the receipts and expendi- 
 tures for the year, with a record of all meetings and transactions 
 authorized by the directors. A copy of this report should be 
 supplied to all stockholders. 
 
 645. Raising Funds. The money needed for building and 
 equipping the creamery is raised in different ways, each locality 
 determining for itself how this may best be done. In some cases 
 a sufficient number of shares of stock at ten dollars or one hur> 
 dred dollars per share are issued, and this stock is bought by the 
 farmers who expect to patronize the creamery. Another way ot 
 raising the money is to let two or more of the responsible patrons 
 borrow a sum of money (probably $3,000) on a joint note. This 
 note with interest is paid by deducting a sum of money, five 
 cents, more or less, per hundred pounds of milk, as previously 
 agreed upon, from the monthly dividends of the different patrons. 
 When the payment is completed, stock is issued to the patrons 
 in proportion to the amount each one has contributed towards 
 this fund. 
 
 646. Assessment of New Patrons. The acquisition of new 
 patrons to the creamery after the original stock is all paid for 
 will be beneficial to the stockholders by reducing the cost per 
 .pound of making the butter, as it is a well known fact that oper- 
 ating expenses diminish as the amount of milk increases. When 
 patrons own stock in proportion to the amount of milk they are 
 furnishing the factory there is no necessity of taking into con- 
 sideration the item of interest on the stock, as the patrons are 
 receiving the benefits of the creamery in proportion to their 
 separate investments ; but in the case of new patrons who are 
 not stockholders, it is only just that a reasonable interest on 
 the stock should be added to their monthly expense account. 
 This will be an assessment on all patrons, but it will be returned 
 to the stockholders as interest on their stock. 
 
 647. Sinking Fund. In addition to the item of interest 
 which is sometimes ignored, it is wise and just to create a sink- 
 ing fund. This fund is used to pay for the necessary wear and 
 tear of the machinery and building, and to distribute this ex- 
 
60 DAIRYING 
 
 pense uniformly over a number of years or dufing the life of 
 the machinery. When a creamery is new there is little expense 
 for new machinery and very few repairs are needed, but as time 
 passes some of the short-lived apparatus, such as vats, churns, 
 butter workers, and tinware, will wear out and must be re- 
 placed. On this account the cost of operating the factory will 
 increase, and if no sinking- fund has been accumulated, the cost 
 of the new apparatus will fall on the farmers patronizing the 
 creamery at that time. This is not fair to these patrons, if others 
 have dropped out and taken advantage of the smaller cost of 
 operation while the factory was new. An assessment of the 
 patrons for this sinking fund should be made every month in 
 order to permit those who may bring milk for a short time to pay 
 their share of these expenses. The amount of this fund may be 
 estimated by assuming that the vats, churns, workers, tinware, 
 etc., will depreciate 20 per cent of their original cost each year; 
 all other machinery 10 per cent; and the building 2 per cent. 
 This depreciation of a creamery costing about $3,000 will 
 amount to about $200 per year. 
 
 648. Estimate of Monthly Expenses. It has already been 
 stated that the milk checks or monthly dividends of a cooperative 
 creamery are paid from the money left after deducting the run- 
 ning expenses from the gross receipts of the creamery for the 
 month. Some idea of the items which should be included in this 
 monthly expense account may be obtained from the following 
 list which, it is estimated, will be the legitimate expenses of a 
 creamery costing about $3,000 and receiving an average of 4,000 
 pounds of milk, or the cream from it, per day during the year: 
 
 Buttermaker's wages $50.00 
 
 Secretary 5.00 
 
 90 60-pound butter tubs, 25c each 22.50 
 
 Tub fasteners, parch paper, etc 2.00 
 
 360 pounds salt 3.50 
 
 \Y-2 gal. butter color 2.00 
 
 4 gallons oil 1.00 
 
 Fuel at $1.00 per day 30.00 
 
 Taxes 1.25 
 
DAIRYING 61 
 
 Insurance 3.00 
 
 Interest 12.50 
 
 Sinking fund 16.66 
 
 $147.41 
 
 649. Though the sum of $147.41 per month may seen to be 
 a large figure to people who have not had experience in this 
 business, it will be found that the items are legitimate and must 
 be paid for directly or indirectly, sooner or later, by every 
 creamery. On the other hand, the figures given are estimated 
 and may be made greater or less at different factories. 
 
 650. By carrying the calculation still further, we find that 
 if 180 pounds of butter are made daily from the 4,000 pounds of 
 milk, the cost of making this butter for the month is nearly 2.8c 
 per pound. This it will be seen is very nearly 3 cents per pound, 
 which is a rather common charge among creameries. This illus- 
 tration should not be understood as a recommendation of 3 cents 
 per pound, as the standard creamery price for making butter, for 
 the reason that there are localities in which a creamery cannot 
 be successfully operated for 3 cents per pound commission; but 
 even in such cases it may be for the best interest of the farmers 
 to have a creamery in operation at such a price per pound for 
 making as will give it a living profit. 
 
 IV. The Creamery Building. 
 
 651. Drainage. In selecting the site for a creamery build- 
 ing, the matter of drainage should be given careful considera- 
 tion, not only because a great deal of water is used about the 
 factory, but because of the nature of the drainage which comes 
 from a creamery. The daily washings contain more or less 
 milk, grease, etc., which decompose easily and makes the drain- 
 age a public nuisance unless properly disposed of. They may 
 also accumulate in the drain pipe until this is entirely closed up. 
 
62 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 For this reason in choosing a location these two possibilities 
 should be kept in mind and provision made to overcome or pre- 
 vent them. 
 
 Drainage through an 8-inch tile into a running stream of 
 water or a town sewer is to be preferred whenever possible. 
 When the creamery is located in the country, where this cannot 
 be done, this tile drainage should be conducted at least 40 rods 
 from the building before it is allowed to come to the surface; 
 and the outlet should be placed at some point where the natural 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION 
 
 Plate 7 Side Hill Creamery 
 
 elevation of the land is such that the drainage is satisfactorily 
 distributed. There are some localities where it is impossible to 
 secure the outlets mentioned, and in such cases it may be sug- 
 gested that the drainage be conducted into a cess-pool. This 
 way of disposal should be adopted only as a last resort and never 
 attempted except when these cesspools can be located in a gravel 
 or porous sub-soil. More than one cesspool is to be recom- 
 mended, as by using them alternately one may be undergoing 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 purification, while the other is receiving the drainage. If cess- 
 pools are used, they should be so placed that the drainage from 
 them will not contaminate a well or other water supply. 
 
 652. Side Hill and One-Floor Plans. In locating a creamery 
 the elevation of the land leads to the consideration of two general 
 plans of creameries, the side hill plan and the level-ground plan. 
 When built on sloping land, the machinery may be placed on 
 three different levels; the milk being delivered at the receiving 
 
 Plate 8 Creamery all under One Roof 
 
 room, which is on the highest level. From the weigh can it 
 flows to the milk vat and separator, which are on the second 
 level ; while the churn, butter workers, and refrigerator are on 
 the lowest level. The boiler and engine may be placed on the 
 same level as the separator, and the cream vat on either the 
 second or third elevation. The principal object in distributing 
 the machinery in this way on different levels is to avoid the use 
 of milk and cream pumps. There are, however, at the present 
 time, pumps which may be teken apart each day and so thor- 
 
6 4 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 oughly cleaned that no objection can be made to their use; and 
 the extra effort of going up and down stairs in a sidehill cream- 
 ery makes the plan a rather undesirable one. Taking every- 
 thing into consideration the creamery built so as to accommodate 
 all the machinery on one ground floor is to be recommended. 
 The milk-receiving room, however, should be elevated sufficiently 
 to permit the flow of milk by gravity from the weigh can to 
 the milk vat. 
 
 653. Plans of creameries are here given to show the general 
 appearance and arrangements of such factories as now built. One 
 of these (Plate 6) is the plan of a side-hill creamery; the other 
 
 Plate 9 Creamery with Wing for Boiler and Engine 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 two are plans of creameries built on level ground. Of these 
 latter two, one (Plate 7), is a plain rectangular building, with 
 everything under one roof; and the other (Plate 8), is made to 
 accommodate the boiler, fuel, etc., in a wing at one side of the 
 main building. (Plate 9). 
 
 The location of a creamery so as to accommodate the great- 
 est number of its patrons is an important matter, which should 
 be given careful consideration. If located in town, there are 
 some advantages in having it on a railroad side-track, especially 
 if fuel, tubs, and other supplies are bought in car-load lots. 
 
 Plate 10 Exterior of a common type of Creamery Building'. 
 
 654. Partitions in the Creamery. Many modifications of 
 these plans may be made to suit the localities in which they are 
 built, and the ideas of people for whom they are built. On 
 account of the dust from ashes and fuel around the boiler it is 
 well to place a partition through the building, so as to separate 
 the boiler from all other machinery, especially the engine, which 
 may be placed in the room with the separator. Another parti- 
 tion which will separate the churning and butter working from 
 the main creamery room is advisable, and when it is so placed 
 
66 DAIRYING 
 
 that the refrigerator door opens into this butter room its tem- 
 perature may thus be advantageously cooled while churning and 
 working the butter in summer weather. A clean, dry room* 
 should be provided for storing butter tubs and salt. Salt will 
 absorb odors and may easily spoil the butter if this point is 
 not watched. 
 
 655. The Refrigerator must be provided with a good circu- 
 lation of air and perfect drainage, as a damp refrigerator may be 
 the cause of serious losses from mouldy butter. 
 
 656. The Milk Receiving Room. This should be built large 
 enough to give the buttermaker plenty of room to inspect the 
 milk and cream before it is poured into the weighing can. A 
 serious mistake in the construction of some creameries has been 
 made by building the milk receiving room so small that the 
 buttermaker does not pretend to get into it, but takes the milk 
 which patrons pour through a spout connected .with the weigh 
 can, which is placed in a box-like attachment to the outside of 
 the building. This is a very poor arrangement. The milk re- 
 ceiving room ought to be built to accommodate the patrons when 
 unloading cans from their wagons to the platform and permit the 
 buttermaker to take off the can covers handily, if he chooses to 
 do so. The room ought also to be provided with an arrange- 
 ment by which two conductor spouts may be connected with the 
 weighing can. This will give the buttermaker a convenient 
 means of conveying the milk or cream to two vats, if he wishes 
 to separate some lots from others on account of their good or 
 Dad qualities. 
 
 657. The Creamery Floor. The question often arises as to 
 the advisability of laying a wood or a cement floor in a creamery. 
 The first cost of a cement floor is approximately one-third more 
 than that of a two-inch matched wood floor, but the cement 
 floor can be so laid that i^ will not crack if the foundation is 
 made firm enough to prevent uneven settling, while from a sani- 
 tary standpoint it is far superior to the wooden floor. The 
 cement floor should also wear three times as long as the wooden 
 floor. 
 
DAIRYING 67 
 
 658. Making a Cement Floor. A solid foundation is first 
 provided, then concrete is laid on this to a depth of about 4 
 inches and a cement facing of about ^-inch thickness spread 
 over the concrete. 
 
 The concrete is made by mixing two sizes of hard rock with 
 clean sharp sand and Portland cement; the following propor- 
 tions may be used as a guide: 
 
 Crushed rock 57 per cent or 12.7 parts 
 
 Gravel or screenings. . .27 per cent or 6 parts 
 
 Sand 11.5 per cent of 2.5 parts 
 
 Portland Cement 4.5 per cent or 1 part 
 
 After mixing the dry sand, gravel and cement, enough water 
 is added to make the mixture pasty; the thoroughly wet, 
 crushed rock is then added and the whole intimately mixed. 
 
 The floor should be laid in blocks to prevent cracking, and 
 the mixture of stone, sand and cement laid as fast as mixed. 
 The finishing surface made of two parts sand and one part 
 cement is spread over the concrete after this has been pounded 
 sufficiently to bring fine cement to the surface, but before the 
 concrete has set. The finishing surface is smoothed by trowel- 
 ing, then wet with a whitewash brush and pure, dry cement 
 sprinkled over it. The surface is then troweled until smooth 
 and hard. 
 
 In making this concrete, the rocks and gravel should be 
 carefully cleaned from adhering dirt before using in the mix- 
 ture. Any adhering dirt forms a coating over the surface that 
 prevents the cement from firmly sticking the pieces of rock 
 together. 
 
 A proper pitch of the floor to the gutters and drains should 
 be provided for when laying the foundation for the concrete. 
 
 659. If a wooden floor is laid it is a good plan to fill in 
 between the joints with cinders until the flooring rests on the 
 cinders. This will help to preserve the wood from decay. A 
 double floor accumulates moisture and rots out sooner than a 
 single floor. The application of > two coats of boiled oil to the 
 floor before it has been wet will fill the pores of the wood and 
 
68 DAIRYING 
 
 help to preserve it from decay. Whatever the material used, the 
 floor should be given a pitch of about one inch in four to five 
 feet to the gutters. 
 
 660. Trap in floor drain. A trap should alawys be built in 
 the floor drain or gutter. One placed inside the building is espe- 
 cially convenient for cleaning. It may be made by placing under 
 the floor at some point a simple box so that the gutter forms 
 a part of the cover. This cover can be easily taken off and 
 the dirt which collects in the trap removed. 
 
 661. Painting. Painting inside the factory may be done 
 satisfactorily with the cold water paints, which have no odor 
 and can be used at any time without danger of injuring the 
 quality of either milk, cream, or butter in the room painted. The 
 outside painting of a creamery ought to be given careful attention 
 and a fresh coat put on every two years at least. A newly 
 painted, neat-looking creamery, is an ornament to any locality 
 and reflects the quality of the milk and cream received and 
 the butter sold from it. 
 
 662. The smoke stack. The smoke stack or chimney for 
 the boiler should be at least 30 feet high and extend 10 or more 
 feet above the roof. A good draft through the grate is important 
 for the most economical use of fuel. In this connection it may 
 be added that constantly poking the fire to keep up steam is a 
 great waste of fuel ; it will pay therefore to provide a good 
 draft for the fire. In some places this may be done by connecting 
 the exhaust steam from the engine with the smoke stack or 
 chimney; this steam, however, will shorten the life of either 
 chimney or stack by rusting the iron and disintegrating the 
 mortar and brick. A chimney will last longer than an iron stack 
 of the same height, but it will cost more and will not give 
 so good a draft on account of the two turns necessary to make 
 connections with the boiler, the iron stack being placed directly 
 on the boiler. 
 
 663. Windows and ventilators. The creamery windows 
 should be loose fitting, as steam swells them. They ought to 
 be made to open at the top for ventilation, as well as at the 
 bottom. There should be a ventilator in the roof to carry off 
 
DAIRYING 69 
 
 heat in summer and steam in winter; and at least one large 
 door or window should be provided for getting large churns 
 and other machinery into the building. 
 
 664. Skim milk platform. The arrangements for delivering 
 skim milk to the patrons at a creamery should receive careful 
 consideration. The hose through which the patrons fill their 
 cans should lie on a platform when not in use. This platform 
 is built water-tight with a raised strip around the outside to 
 prevent milk and water running over its sides. A sewer con- 
 nection is made with it, and the platform together with the 
 skim milk and buttermilk tanks should be cleaned daily. Some 
 such arrangement as this will help to overcome the foul odor 
 which surrounds some creameries, where the skim milk hose 
 is allowed to drain on the ground outside the building. 
 
 665. Roof of the creamery. Whenever metal roofing is 
 used it must be covered with paint to preserve it^ otherwise 
 it will soon rust out. It is not advisable to use a metal roof 
 at any place where steam comes in contact with the underside, 
 as this will soon rust out even if painted when put on, because 
 the paint cannot be renewed on such places. 
 
 666. The creamery equipment. An estimate of the fittings 
 and machinery ordinarily needed in a creamery which will handle 
 from 3 to 8 thousand pounds of milk per day is included in 
 the following list. The prices of these fittings will vary so 
 much from year to year that no attempt to give them is made, 
 but quotations may be obtained from creamery supply firms 
 by persons wishing for this information. It would be well to 
 get quotations from several dealers. 
 
 This list may not contain everything that every creamery 
 should have, but it will give a general idea of a whole milk 
 creamery equipment and it may be changed to suit the require- 
 ments of different localities and buildings. 
 
 1 15 H. P. Tubular boiler complete with stack; 1 injector 
 or boiler feed pump; 1 10 H. P. horizontal engine including sight 
 feed lubricator; 2 milk pumps; 1 separator, capacity 2500 to 3000 
 pounds; 1 milk heater; 1 cream cooler; 1 80-gal. weigh can with 
 
70 DAIRYING 
 
 3-inch perfection gate; 1 500-gal. milk receiving vat; 1 300-gal. 
 cream vat ; 1 churn and butter worker or combined churn and 
 worker, capacity 400 Ibs. or more of butter; 1 wash sink with 
 draining board ; 1 cream strainer ; 1 hair sieve for straining 
 starter ; 1 buttermilk strainer ; 1 20 bottle turbine Babcock milk 
 tester, with glassware complete ; 1 starter can ; 1 butter printer ; 
 1 conductor head and 6 ft. pipe; 2 200-gal. galvanized steel vats 
 for skim milk and buttermilk; 1 skim milk weigher; 1 noiseless 
 water heater; 3 rubbed mops, 14 in.; 1 100-patron milk ledger; 
 1 dozen milk record sheets; 5 dozen quart jars with top and 
 tag for composite milk samples ; 1 8-oz. graduate (for butter 
 color) ; 6 floating thermometers ; 1 butter packer ; 2 butter pad- 
 dles ; 1 canvas apron; 100 butter tubs and parchment liners; 1 
 6oolb. double beam platform scale; I butter salting scale; i well 
 water pump ; shafting and belts ; pulleys and iron piping, wren- 
 ches and other tools. If the creamery is to receive cream only, 
 there is no necessity of buying the separator, skim milk weigher 
 and a few of the other items which may easily be omitted from 
 this list. 
 
 Suggestions for Operating a Co-Operative Creamery. 
 
 667. A co-operative creamery may draw up its constitution 
 and by-laws to suit the parties interested in the organization. 
 The following suggestions are given to guide the members in 
 selecting such regulations as they may choose to adopt: 
 
 1. The undersigned residents of 
 
 hereby agree to become members of the Co- 
 operative Association formed for the purpose of manufacturing 
 butter from whole milk and cream. 
 
 We agree to furnish milk or cream from the following 
 number of cows: 
 
 Names Cows 
 
 This paper should be preserved for future reference. 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 After securing signatures to the above paper a meeting 
 should be called of all those signing the paper and others in- 
 terested in the creamery. At this meeting the Constitution and 
 By-Laws may be discussed, adopted and signed by all the 
 stockholders of the association. 
 
 Officers of the Association. 
 
 1. The Officers of his association shall be a president, 
 v^ice-president, secretary and treasurer. These with three other 
 members of the association shall constitute the board of direc- 
 tors. 
 
 2. Election of these six officials shall be made at the annual 
 meeting and they shall hold office until their successors are 
 elected and qualified. 
 
 3. The President shall preside at all meetings of the asso- 
 ciation or of the board of directors. He shall call special 
 meetings of the association or of the board of directors when 
 deemed necessary. 
 
 4. The Vice-President shall act as president in the absence 
 
 or on request of the president. 
 
 5. The Secretary shall keep all records and send notices for 
 all meetings of both the directors and of the association and of 
 appointments on committees, etc. 
 
 He shall sign all orders on the treasurer and other official 
 papers of the association, conduct the business of the asso- 
 ciation as required by the directors and certify to the correct- 
 ness of monthly milk and cream pay sheet, showing the details 
 of weights, tests, etc., and amounts due from or to each patron. 
 
 6. The Treasurer shall give a receipt for all money passing 
 into his possession and belonging to the association, pay out 
 this money on orders given by the secretary or president or 
 both, as provided and give such bond as the board of directors 
 may require. At the expiration of his term of office he shall 
 turn over to his successor in office upon demand all the money 
 and records in his hands belonging to the association. 
 
72 DAIRYING 
 
 7. The Board of Directors shall have full management of 
 the business of the association. They may borrow a sum of 
 
 money not to exceed thousand dollars, purchase a site, 
 
 adopt a plan, erect necessary buildings, buy machinery and other 
 equipment and supplies as needed. 
 
 They shall audit all just claims against the association and 
 from details furnished by the secretary determine the amount to 
 be paid to each patron each month. They shall require of the 
 secretary each month a complete report of receipts and dis- 
 bursements and determine the amount to be deducted for a 
 sinking fund. 
 
 The balance left each month after all just claims are al- 
 lowed shall be divided among the patrons according to the 
 amount of butter fat in the milk and cream furnished by each 
 patron. 
 
 The board of directors shall be responsible for making and 
 enforcing such regulations as may be for the general good of 
 the association. 
 
 Among these regulations may be included the following: 
 
 Milk Supply. 
 
 (a.) Each stockholder shall furnish all the milk and cream 
 from his cows except such as is needed for his family. Any 
 stockholder failing to furnish all the milk and cream for the 
 month or more shall forfeit his share of the dividends on his 
 stock unless relieved by the board of directors. 
 
 (b.) The time of delivering milk and cream to the factory 
 each day will be determined by the board of directors. 
 
 (c.) All milk must be sweet, fresh and unadulterated. No 
 milk shall be received from cows not in good health, and not 
 until the third day after calving. 
 
 (d) All milk patrons shall receive 80 pounds of skim milk 
 for each 100 pounds of whole milk delivered to the factory. 
 
 (e.) No milk will be received at the factory on Sunday. 
 
 (f.) The foreman in charge of the factory is authorized to 
 reject any lot of milk which is tainted, sour, or in any way de- 
 fective. The board of directors is authorized to impose such 
 
DAIRYING 73 
 
 penalty as they may deem wise to enable the enforcement of 
 these regulations. The following- may serve as an illustration 
 of such penalty : Any patron of the association convicted of 
 skimming, watering, or in any way adulterating milk or cream, 
 or of sending bloody milk or impure milk to the creamery, or 
 by taking more skim milk than he is entitled to, shall be liable 
 for the first offense to a fine of five dollars, for the second fif- 
 teen dollars, and for the third offense he shall forfeit all interest 
 he may have in the association, including stock and dividends 
 which may be due or which may become due. 
 
 (g.) All stockholders must own, rent or control cows pro- 
 ducing milk or cream to furnish to the factory, and any stock- 
 holder failing to furnish milk or cream to the factory for two 
 months during any year shall not receive the dividend on his 
 stock. 
 
 (h.) A patron's premises may be visited by the board of 
 directors or their authorized agent for the purpose of suggesting 
 improvements in the caring for the milk, cream or cows, and of 
 the proper drainage and general cleanliness of the premises. 
 Such agent is also authorized to secure samples of milk from the 
 cows at the farm when it is deemed necessary. 
 
 (i.) The milk and cream of each patron shall be tested 
 as often as three times per month and more frequently if deemed 
 wise by the directors. 
 
 The board of directors are authorized to suspend the oper- 
 ation of any of these by-laws as they deem expedient for the 
 best interests of the association. 
 
 Selling Cows. Any stockholder, selling or disposing of his 
 cows shall thereafter cease to receive any dividends on his stock, 
 but he can sell or dispose of his stock only to person or persons 
 eligible to purchase the same, and then only to such as may 
 be acceptable to the board of directors. 
 
 The board of directors may purchase the same from such 
 person or persons for the association on such terms as may be 
 agreed upon. 
 
74 DAIRYING 
 
 Transferring Stock. After stock has been issued, the same 
 can only be disposed of by such stockholders upon the approval 
 of the board of directors, to the end that the board of directors 
 shall have the sole right to determine to whom the said stock 
 shall be sold. 
 
 The board of directors shall not issue to any one member 
 a greater number of shares of stocks than the number of cows 
 owned and listed by him for the creamery. 
 
 Filling Vacancies. Any vacancies in any office of the asso- 
 ciation shall be filled by appointment by the board of directors. 
 
 Quorum and Powers of Amending By-laws. A quorum to 
 do business shall consist of a majority of all the stockholders, 
 and these by-laws can be altered and amended only by a two- 
 thirds vote of the members present at a duly constituted 
 meeting. 
 
 Special Meetings. The president or a majority of the board 
 of directors are hereby authorized to call special meetings, but 
 can do so only upon giving, at least, ten days's notice of the 
 time and object of any such special meeting to the stockholders. 
 
 In case the said special meeting shall be for the purpose of 
 amending the by-laws, it shall be the duty of the secretary to 
 notify each stockholder at least ten days before such special 
 meeting that the same is called for the purpose of amending the 
 by-laws and the general character of the proposed amendment 
 shall be inserted in said notice. 
 
 Warning. 
 
 Professional creamery promoters are often useful to farmers 
 in awakening an interest in the enterprise and in giving vlauable 
 suggestions concerning equipment, etc. Such persons should 
 be paid a reasonable sum for their services, but the so-called 
 creamery "shark" is a promoter who attempts to swindle 
 farmers by inducing them to raise money for building and equip- 
 ping creameries in localities where there are not 300 cows 
 within three miles of a given point. He also charges excessive 
 
DAIRYING 75 
 
 prices for building and machinery. Among the tricks of the 
 creamery shark are the following: 
 
 1. Treating a few leading farmers to a trip, with all ex- 
 penses paid, to some creamery which is similar to a "salted" 
 gold mine, in that a few of its patrons tell extravagant stories 
 of their receipts and give an excessive figure as the cost of their 
 creamery and its machinery. 
 
 2. Making a present of shares of stock to some of the pro- 
 spective patrons of the proposed creamery, with the understand- 
 ing that their "influence" pays for the stock. 
 
 3. Securing signatures before definite specifications are 
 written in the contract. 
 
 4. Supplying old, out-of-date machinery and failing to in- 
 clude all that is essential for successfully operating a creamery. 
 
 Protection from such swindlers may be obtained by sub- 
 mitting the local creamery proposition to an expert and then 
 by dealing with firms having an established reputation for fur- 
 nishing building and equipment at the lowest cost consistent 
 with good material and workmanship. 
 
 Investigate thoroughly, know of whom you are purchasing, 
 and look up the reputation of a firm before signing any contract. 
 
;6 DAIRYING 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 Note to Students These questions are to be answered inde- 
 pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your examina- 
 tion. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the examination. 
 Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat 
 the question. Mail answers promptly when completed. 
 
 QUESTIONS OF LESSON V. 
 
 1. Give a brief outline of sweet cream butter making. 
 
 2. What is the appearance, flavor and keeping quality of 
 sweet cream butter? 
 
 3. How may pasteurized cream butter be made? 
 
 4. How does pasteurized differ from other butter? 
 
 5. What is the process of making ripened cream butter? 
 
 6. What are some of the characteristics of sour cream 
 butter? 
 
 7. What is the purpose of a "starter?" 
 
 8. How and in what way may a starter affect the flavor 
 of butter? 
 
 9. Into what three general classes may the bacteria in 
 cream be divided? 
 
 10. Which bacteria are beneficial and which injurious to 
 butter quality? 
 
 11. What is the source of most of the injurious bacteria? 
 
 12. How may the injurious bacteria be suppressed? 
 
 13. What is the foundation or soil of a starter and what 
 may be used for this purpose? 
 
DAIRYING 77 
 
 14. What is the difference between pasteurizing and steri- 
 lizing? 
 
 15. To what temperature and how long should the founda- 
 tion part of the starter be heated? 
 
 16. To what temperature should the foundation of the 
 starter be cooled? 
 
 17. When should the pure culture be added in making a 
 starter? 
 
 18. What is meant by "mother" starter and by "starto- 
 line?" 
 
 19. What is the best kind of container for the startoline 
 and why? 
 
 20. What must be included in a complete equipment for 
 making mother starter? 
 
 21. Mention the various steps in making a starter and on 
 what points does success depend? 
 
 22. What temperatures hasten and what retard starter 
 growth ? 
 
 23. How may the best natural starter be made? 
 
 24. Is there any objection to using buttermilk or sour 
 cream for building up a new starter? 
 
 25. When is a starter in best condition for adding to 
 cream ? 
 
 26. What is an artificial or commercial culture and what 
 two general kinds of them are on the market? 
 
 27. What is meant by a "generation" in starter making? 
 
 28. How do the solid and the liquid cultures differ from 
 each other? 
 
 29. How do the directions of starter culture manufacturers 
 differ from each other? 
 
 30. When is a starter in the best condition for use? 
 
 31. What acidity is favorable for a good starter? 
 
 32. How much and when should starter be added to cream? 
 
 33. What precautions should be taken in stirring a starter? 
 
 34. How are food flavors affected by a starter? 
 
 35. Mention some of the precautions that should be taken 
 in handling starter utensils. 
 
78 DAIRYING 
 
 36. Mention some important points in starter making. 
 
 37. What is the standard butter score? 
 
 38. What is the cause of "fishy" and of ''bitter" butter? 
 
 39. What are some of the defects in butter flavor? 
 
 40. Under what butter quality of butter is an excess of 
 brine scored? 
 
 41. How is the texture of butter determined? 
 
 42. What are some of the defects caused by salt in butter? 
 
 43. What is the score of butter called "seconds?" 
 
 44. If butter scores 88, 91, 96, what is the name of the 
 grade to which each one belongs? 
 
 45. In what way do "firsts" differ from "extras" and from 
 "seconds?" 
 
 46. What weights should be made in filling butter tubs 
 for market? 
 
 47. Which is the more critical of butter quality, regular 
 customers or the general market? 
 
 48. What is one of the very important points in selling 
 butter? 
 
 49. What two factors tend to reduce the net receipts for 
 butter? 
 
 50. How may moldy butter be prevented and how de- 
 veloped? 
 
 51. Describe two good ways of preparing butter tubs for 
 fil'.ing. 
 
 52. What amount of paraffin is commonly used for one tub ? 
 
 53. What are some of the advantages of paraffining butter 
 tubs ? 
 
 54. What is an important condition of a refrigerator car 
 for shipping butter? 
 
 55. What are some of the causes of mottled butter and 
 how may they be prevented? 
 
 56. In what way does soft butter affect mottles? 
 
 57. Do mottles appear in butter immediately after mak- 
 ing it? 
 
 58. How does the temperature of the wash water affect 
 mottles? 
 
DAIRYING 79 
 
 59. What may be the causes of streaked butter? 
 
 60. Which has the dryer appearance, salted or unsalted 
 butter ? 
 
 61. How does the amount of salt affect the water in butter? 
 
 62. If 400 pounds of butter contains 10 per cent water and 
 5 per cent water is worked into it, how much more is the 400 
 pounds then worth to the maker if butter is 25 cents per pound? 
 
 63. What is about the average water content of Danish 
 and of American butter? 
 
 64. What is the difference in yield between salted and un- 
 salted butter ? 
 
 65. If 400 pounds of butter contain 12 per cent water one 
 day and 15 per cent water the next day, how much wages would 
 the buttermaker receive if he was paid the difference in yield 
 at 30 cents per pound? 
 
 66. In what ways is water held by butter? 
 
 67. Which contains more water, butter from large or from 
 small granules? 
 
 68. How does a warm wash water affect the amount of 
 water in butter? 
 
 69. How do methods of increasing the water content of 
 butter affect its quality? 
 
 70. Mention at least 5 conditions in butter making that have 
 an influence on the water content of butter. 
 
 71. How does the Simplex butter worker differ from 
 others? 
 
 72. What objections have been raised to combined churns 
 and butter workers? 
 
 73. Mention at least 5 points in favor of combined churns 
 and butter workers. 
 
 74. Give a brief outline of butter working with a combined 
 churn and worker. 
 
 75. Explain how a creamery may benefit the makers of 
 both poor and good farm butter. 
 
 76. Give at least 7 advantages which a creamery has over 
 farm butter making to the farmer. 
 
 77. About what proportion of the total butter is made on 
 farms in the United States? 
 
8o DAIRYING 
 
 78. Give at least five advantages of a gathered cream fac- 
 tory. 
 
 79. What led to the building of whole milk creameries?* 
 
 80. What is needed to equip a skimming station? 
 
 81. Show by a calculation that the milk from 200 cows will 
 not be enough to make a creamery profitable. 
 
 82. Explain three methods of organizing and operating a 
 creamery. 
 
 83. How may funds be raised for starting a creamery? 
 
 84. How may new patrons be added to the cooperative 
 creamery and on what terms? 
 
 85. What is the "sinking fund" and how is it raised? 
 
 86. What are some of the items that should be included 
 in the monthly running expenses of a creamery? 
 
 87. Why is the location of a creamery important and what 
 are some of the advantages of a level ground location? 
 
 88. Mention some important points in planning a creamery 
 building. 
 
 89. Give details of constructing a cement floor. 
 
 90. Mention some important points in building a wooden 
 floor. 
 
 Write this at the end of your Examination 
 
 I hereby certify that the above questions were answered entirely 
 by me. 
 
 Signed - 
 Address 
 

 
 
 
 
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