REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL
'EFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
"Vesterdahl"
Refrigerating
and Ice Making
Machinery
Pipe Work in
all its branches
Steam Driven Machine
Ammonia, Chloride
of Calcium, Am-
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General Supplies
KARL VESTERDAHL & COMPANY
NEW YORK
Works : Hoboken, N. J. Office : 90 West Sf,
Manufacturers of the "Veslerdahl" machine the most
efficient and economical of modern machines.
Our
special
valve
motion
for
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driven
machines
of smaller
sizes
saves 25
per cent.
in con-
sumption
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other
makes.
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Catalog
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REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
ICE MAKING and
REFRIGERATING
MACHINERY
and SUPPLIES
The Ruemmeli-Dawley Mfg. Co.
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REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
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REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS 1 POCKET MANUAL.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
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REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
York Manufacturing
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YORK, PA.
We manufacture all the machinery and parts needed to equip
A COMPLETE ICE
OR REFRIGERATING PLANT
Single Acting Machines, Double Acting
Machines, Absorption Machines, Con-
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THE
REFRIGERATING ENGINEER'S
POCKET MANUAL
An Indispensable Companion for Every Engineer and Student
Interested in Mechanical Refrigeration
By OSWALD GUETH, M. E.
Member Am. Soc'y Refr. Eng'rs
NEW YORK;
1908
Copyright, 1908
By OSWALD GTJE3TH
-"*' * *
" *
PREFACE
When the author decided to christen his book a "Pocket
Manual" he was moved to do so by the words of Kent, that
"every engineer should make his own pocketbook." Un-
fortunately not every engineer has the opportunity or ability
to gather useful information without paying dearly for it.
This "long-felt want" is intended to be filled by the "Pocket
Manual," a digest of the rules and data of every branch of
mechanical refrigeration, embodying the opinions of the fore-
most men in the field, together with the practical experience
of the author, a receptacle for further research and enlarge-
ment, a pocketbook in the very sense of the word, which the
author trusts will soon find its way into the pocket of every
progressive refrigerating engineer.
CONTENTS
Part I. Principles and Properties.
THERMODYNAMICS
Definitions
Laws
Expansion and Compression.
Page.
1
1
1
2
Specific Heat, tables 2
Thermometer Scales 3
WATER 4
Properties 4
Tests for Purity 4
AIR 5
Humidity 5
Tage.
Equation of pipes 6
Standard Table of pipes 6
REFRIGERATING MEDIA ... 7
Boiling points 7
Latent heat 8
Ammonia 7
Aqua ammonia 9
Carbonic Acid, etc 11
BRINE 12
Chroride of Sodium 12
Chloride of Calcium 13
Part II. Refrigerating Machinery.
HISTORY Freezing Mixtures. 15
COLD AIR MACHINES
16
VACUUM MACHINES
19
COMP
Ref
ABSORPTION MACHINES ..
Management
. 22
24
Hor
Ecoi
Economy
25
Dry
COMPRESSION MACHINES .
Ether Machines
28
28
COND
Con
Sulphur Dioxide Machines...
28
Var
Carbonic Acid Machines 29
Ammonia Machines 31
SOR 33
Refrig. Capacity 33
sver 34
Economy 35
Dry vs. Wet Compression .... 37
SR 39
Condenser Surface 39
Amount of Cooling Water.... 39
Various Types of Condensers. 40
Part III. Applications of Mechanical Refrigeration,
INSULATION 44
Fireproof Construction 44
Tank Insulation 47
Heat Transmission through
pipes 48
Heat Transmission through
various Insulations 48
Relative Value of Non-Con-
ductors 49
Details of Insulation 49
GENERAL COLD STORAGE... 54
Cold Storage Temperatures. . . 54
Refrigeration Required 54
Piping 56
Brine Cooling System 58
Forced Air Circulation 58
BREWERY REFRIGERATION 60
Beer Cooler 60
Attemporators 62
Piping of Cellars 62
Brine vs. Direct Expansion.. 64
PACKING HOUSE REFRIG-
ERATION 66
Refrigeration Required 67
Piping 67
CONTENTS.
Page.
CAN ICE PLANTS 68
Time of Freezing G8
Freezing Tanks 68
Ice Storage 70
Cost of Ice 70
Coal Consumption 71
Water Consumption 71
DISTILLING APPARATUS ... 72
Grease Separator 72
Steam Condenser
Skimmer and Reboiler....
Water Regulator
Condensed Water Cooler . .
Filter
Storage Tank
Page.
Evaporator System 87
Multiple Effect Evaporators. 88
Space Required for Can Ice
Plants 90
PLATE ICE PLANTS 99
Direct Expansion Plate 99
Brine Coil Plate 100
American Linde Plate 101
Plate Ice vs. Can Ice 103
Space Required 104
PIPE LINE REFRIGERATION 107
AUTOMATIC REFRIGERAT-
ING MACHINES 109
Part IV. Operation of Compression Plant.
ERECTION AND MANAGE-
MENT Ill
Foundation Ill
Testing Plant Ill
Charging Plant 112
Pumping Out Connections.... 112
EFFICIENCY TEST 116
Indicator Diagram 116
Record of a Test 117
Rules for Testing Refrig.
Machines ... , . 118
Part V. The Steam Plant.
STEAM ENGINES 123
Horse Power 123
Valve Setting of Corliss En-
gine 124
Steam Engine Indicator 126
Taking Care of Corliss En-
gine 128
Air Pumps 128
Standard Corliss Engines
(table) 129
STEAM BOILERS 130
Horse Power 130
Heating Surface 131
Standard Tubular Boilers... 131
Fuel 131
Size of Chimney 132
Water for Feeding Boilers.. 132
Feed Water Heaters... . 133
Steam 134
Care of Boilers 136
Rules for Conducting Boiler
Test 137
PUMPS 143
Pressure and Head 143
Horse Power 144
Capacity 144
Efficiency 145
Directions for Connecting
and Running Pumps 146
Duty Trials of Pumping En-
gines 147
MISCELLANEOUS 151
Belt Transmission 151
Electrical and Mechanical
Units 152
Cooling Towers 153
Topical Index.
Page.
Absolute Zero 3
Absorption Machines 22
Air, Properties 5
Circulation 58
Pump 128
Humidity 5
Ammonia, Anhydrous 7
Liquor 9
Refrigerating Effect 33
Attemporators 62
Automatic Refrigerating Ma-
chines 109
B.
Beer Coolers 60
Belt Transmission 151
Brewery Refrigeration 60
Brine, Properties 12
System 58
By-Pass 112
C.
Can Ice Plants 68
Capacity of Compressor 33
Ice plant 68
Condensed Water Cooler 81
Carbonic Acid, Properties 11
Machines 29
Cold Air Machines 16
Cold Storage 54
Compression Machines 28
Compressor 33
Condenser, Ammonia 39
Steam 72
Cooling Towers 153
Coke Filter 82
D.
Distilling Apparatus 72
Dry TS. Wet Compression 37
E.
Efficiency Test 116
Erection of Plant Ill
Equation of Pipes 6
Ether Machines 28
Ethyl Chloride Machines 11
Evaporator System 87
Economy of Absorption Ma-
chine 25
Compression Machine 35
F.
Feed Water Heater 133
Filter ; 82
Forced Air Circulation 58
Freezing Mixtures 15
Freezing Tanks 68
Foundations Ill
Fuel 131
Grease Separator
G.
72
H.
Heat Transmission Through
Pipes 48
Horse Power of Compressor 34
Steam Engine 123
Steam Boiler 130
Pump 144
Shafting 151
Humidity of Air 5
I.
Page.
Ice Cans 68
Storage 70
Thickness 68
Indicator Diagram of Com-
pressor H6
Steam Engine 126
Insulation 44
L.
Latent Heat 8
M.
Management of
Absorption Machine 24
Compression Machine Ill
Mean Effective Pressure of
Compressor 116
Steam Engine 123
P.
Packinghouse Refrigeration ... 66
Pipe Standard Table 6
Pipe Line Refrigeration 107
Plate Ice Plants 99
Pumps 143
Pictet Fluid 11
R.
Reboiler 76
Refrigeration required for
Breweries 60
General Cold Storage 54
Packinghouses 67
Refrigerating Media 7
Capacity of Compressor 33
Effect of Ammonia 33
S.
Specific Heat of
Various Solids 2
Cold Storage Goods 3
Steam, Properties 135
Engines 123
Boilers 130
Condensers 72
Skimmer and Reboiler 76
Storage Tank 83
Sulphur Dioxide Machines 28
T.
Thermometer Scales 3
Thermodynamic Laws 1
Temperatures, Cold Storage 54
Ice Storage 70
Testing, Ammonia 8
Water "4
Refrigerating Machines 116
Steam Boilers 137
Pumps 147
TT.
Units, Electrical and Mechan-
ical 152
British Thermal 1
V.
Vacuum Machines 19
Valve Setting of Engine 124
W.
Water, Properties 4
Tests 4
Boiler Feed 132
Regulator 80
Wet and Dry Compression 37
PART I PRINCIPLES AND PROPERTIES
Thermodynamics
A "British Thermal Unit"
Is the heat necessary to raise one pound of water 1 F. at
temperature of greatest density which is 39 to 40.
In mechanical energy or work, a heat unit is equivalent to rais-
ing a weight of one pound to a height of 778 feet or, 778 pounds
to a height of one foot. The mechanical equivalent of heat then is
778 foot-pounds.
"Sensible Heat."
is that which is measured by a thermometer or is apparent in
change of temperature, and for ordinary calculation each degree
that water is heated may be considered one unit of heat for each
pound of water, so< that the weight of water multiplied by the
increase of temperature equals the heat units absorbed.
"Latent Heat."
is that which is absorbed by a body in causing change of structure
without increase of temperature. One pound of Ice with a tempera-
ture of 32, when melted will give one pound of water at a tem-
perature of 32, but to melt the ice heat is absorbed ; this heat does
not increase the temperature, although 142 units are necessary.
Water boils at a temperature of 212. Each pound of water re-
quires 966 units of heat to convert it into steam ; the 212 is sensible
heat, the 966 latent heat, these added together give the total heat
of steam when, water is evaporated in an open vessel = 1178 units
sufficient to heat 1178 pounds of water 1.
When water is evaporated 1 under pressure the sensible heat in-
creases while the latent heat decreases. At 100 pounds pressure
the boiling water has a temperature of 338, the latent heat is
879, the total heat 1217 units.
"Specific Heat."
The ratio of heat required to raise the temperature of a given
substance one degree to that required to raise the temperature of
the same weight of water one degree (from 39.1 Fahr., the tem-
perature of maximum density) is called the specific heat of the
substance.
Thermodynamic Laws.
The following laws relating to a perfect gas may be safely ap-
plied to all gases :
A. The pressure varies inversely as the volume when the tem-
perature is constant (Boyle).
V P'
= VP Constant.
V P
B. The pressure varies directly as the absolute temperature
when the volume is constant (Charles).
P T + 461
P' T' -f 461
C. The volume varies directly as the absolute temperature when
the pressure is constant.
V T + 461
V = T + 461
2 : ,. THERMODYNAMICS.
D. The product of the pressure and volume varies directly aa
the absolute temperature.
p y / T + 461 P V (T + 461)
P' V' T' + 461 ' P' V (T + 461)
Taking the volume of one pound of air at 14.7 Ibs. abs press
and at 32 = 12,387 cb ft., absolute temp. = 32 + 461 = 493.
12.387 X 14.7 1
- = .36935 or -----
493 2,7074
This fraction is a constant "a" which when multiplied by the
weight and temperature of the gas, and divided by the pressure
will give the volume.
VP - a (T + 461)
Expansion and Compression.
Under the first law of thermodynamics V P is a constant, that
is, the curve which represents the variation of the pressure through-
out the stroke of a piston, is a hyperbola and the operation Is
termed "isothermal" compression or expansion, the curve of equal
temperatures.
Under the fourth rule D we have to add to the pressures at
every successive stage during compression the heat units which are
equivalent to such work, and we obtain instead an isothermal
compression an "adiabatic" compression, and instead of V P being
constant, V P is raised to such power as is appropriate to the par-
ticular gas in question. In the case of ammonia the pressure
varies inversely as the volume raised to the 1.298 power
P' v 1 - 298
(See tables I and II, page 117, by Voorheis.)
SPECIFIC HEAT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.
SOLIDS.
Antimony 0.0508
Copper 0. 09pl
Gold - 0.0374
Wrought iron 0.1138
Glass 0.1937
Cast iron 0.1398
Lead 0.0314
Platinum 0.0324
Silver O.OaTO
Tiu .. .. 0.0502
Steel (soft)... 0.1165
Sieel (hard) 01175
Zinc , 00956
Brass 0.0939
Ice 0-5040
Sulphur 0.203ft
C'harcoal 0.2410
Alumina 0.1970
Phosphorus , 0.1887
LIQUIDS.
Water 1.0000
Lead (melted): 0.0402
Sulphur " 0.2340
Bismuth " 00308
Tin " 0.0637
Sulphuric acid 0.3350
Mercury
Alcohol (absolute) 0.7000
Fusel oil 0.5540
Benzine. 0.4500
Ether ... 0.5034
GASES.
Constant Pressure. Constant Volume.
Air 0.2$751 0.16847
Oxygen 0.21?51 0.15507
Hydrogen 3.40900 2.41226
Niirogen 0.24380 0.17273
Superheated steam 0.4805 0.346
Carbonic acid 0217 0.1535
Olefiant Gas (CH 2 ) 0.404 173
Carbonic oxide 0.2479 01758
Ammonia 0503 0.299
Ether 0.4797 0.3411
Alcohol 0.4534 0.3200
Acetic acid 0.4125
Chloroform. ..... .. 0.1567
SPECIFIC HEAT OF COLD STORAGE GOODS.
Composition.
3 c
|||
Composition.
a <=
x '?
s j'w'i
it!
s-o'jj-
5 S r
s-e's-
5 ITS 3 EJJs
Water.
Solids.
8. x
!^
***
Water. Solids. '"^.jj
}I]IJ;1
Beef, lean
72.00
28.00
0.77
0.41
102
Cream . . .
59.25j30.75 0.68
0.38
84
Heef , fat. .
51. OC
49.00
.60
.34
72
Milk. ..
87.5012.50
.90
.47
124
Veal
63.00
37.00
.70
.39
90
Oysters...
80.3819.02
.84
.44
114
Pork, fat .
39.00
61.00
.51
.30
55
Whitefish,
78.0022.00
.82
.43
111
Eggs
70.00,30.00
.76
.40
100
Eels
62.0737.93
.69*
.38
88
Potatoes . .
74.00
26.00
.80
.42
105
Lobster . .
76.62|23.38
.81
.42
108
Cabbage..
91.00
9.00
.93
.48
129
Pigeon . . .
72.4027.60
.78
.41
102
Carrots..
83. 00117. 00
.87-
.45
118
Chicken..
73.7020.30
.80
.42
105
The figures in the last co umn, showing the latent heat of freezing, have been obtained by multiplying
the latent heat of freezing water, which is 142 heat un ts, by the per cent, of water contained in the differen
materials considered, for as the solid constituents remain in their original condition only the liquid or watery
portion of these materials is concerned in the solidification or f reezin| of them.
THERMOMETER SCALES.
Cent.
Reau.
Fahr.
Cent.
Reau.
Fahr.
Cent-
Reau.
Fahr.
-40
&*
320
30.4
40.0
-36 4
Si
22
16.8
17 6
69.8
71.6
62
63
49.6
50.4
143 6
143.4
-36
28 8
32 8
23
18.4
73.4
64
51.2
147. 2
34
.27.2
-29.2
24
19.2
73 *2
65
52.0
149.0
3-2
25
25 6
25
20.0
77
66
52.8
no. 8
=8
-24.0
-22.4
22.
18.4
26
27
20.8
21.8
73 8
80.6
67
68
53.6
54.4
152.6
154.4
2tt
-20.8
14.8
28
22.4
82.4
69
55.2
156.2
24
-22
20
19.2
17.6
16.0
11.2
7.6
40
29
1?
23.2
24.0
21.3
84.2
86.0
87.8
fj
56.0
56.8
57.6
158.0
159.8
161.6
18
14.4
-0.4
32
25.6
89.6
73
58.4
163.4
10
12.8
+3.2
33
26.4
91.4
-74
59 2
165.2
14
11.2
6.S
34
27 2
93.2
75
60.0 167.0
I -i
9.6
10.4
35
2s!o
95.0
76
60.8
103.3
10 . 8.0
14 o
30
28.8
96.8
77
61.6
170.6
-8 -6.4
17.6
37
29.6
93.6
73
62.4
172.4
-0
4.8
21.2
33
30.4
100.4
79.
63.2
174.2
4
3.2
24.8
39
31.2
102.2
80
64.0
176.0
2
1.6
28.4
40
320
104 o
81
64.8
177.8
0.0
32 o
41
32.8
105 8
82
65.6
179.0
+1
+0.8
33.8
42
33. ti
107.6
83
66.4
131.4
2
1.6
33.6
43
34.4
109.4
84
67.2
133/2
3
2.4
37.4
44
35.2
111.2
85
(53.0
135.0
4
3.2
39.2
45
36.0
113.0
8(3
68.3
186.3
5
4.0
41.0
46
86.8
114.8
87
69.6
133.6
6
4.8
42.8
47
37.6
116.6
83
70.4
190.4
7
5.6
44.6
48
38.4
113.4
39
71.3
19i.2
8
6.4
46.4
49
39.2
120.2
90
72.0
104.0
. 9
7.2
48.2
So
40.0
122.0
91
72.8 ' 1J3.3
10
8.0
50.0
51
40.8
123.8
92
73. G ! 197.6
11
8.8
51.8
52
41.6
125,6
93
74.4
199.4
12
9.6
53 6
53
42.4
127.4
94
75.2
201.2
13
10.4
55.5
54
43.2
129.2
95
76.0
203.0
14
11.2
57.2
55
44.0
131.0
96
76.8
.'04. 3
15
12.0
59.0
56
44.8
132.8
97
77.6
200 . 6
16
12.8
60 8
57
45.6
134.6
98
78.4
203.4
17
13.6
62.6
5S
46.4
136.4
99
79.2
210.2
18
14.4
64.4
59
47.2
133.2
100
8o.O
2I2-.O
19
15.2
66.2
60
48.0
140.0
2O
16 o
68.0
61
43.8
141.8
t.
The "Absolute Zero" of temperature denotes that condition of matter at which heai
ceases to exist. At this point a body would be wholly deprived of heat and a gas would
exert no pressure.
The Absolute Zero on the Fahrenheit scale is about 461 below Zero.
' " Centigrade " " 274 "
Reamur " 219 "
Water
Water (H 2 O) is a combination of one atom of oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen.
A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8 1-3 Ibs. and con-
tains 231 cu. inches. A cu. ft. of water weighs 62.4 Ibs. and con-
tains 1728 cubic inches, or 7.48 gallons.
A gallon of water evaporated at atmospheric pressure will pro-
duce about 200 cu. ft. of steam.
A gallon of water evaporated under a 27-inch vacuum will pro-
duce about 2000 cu. ft. of vapor.
Water containing substances in solution has its boiling point
raised.
Pure water is of the first importance in an ice factory both
for feeding boilers and ice-making.
Water is the greatest natural solvent known, hence is rarely
found to be pure. It is capable of absorbing every gas and vapor
with which it comes in contact.
Solids in Water.
Animal life, organic matters, such as sewage, decayed vegetable
and animal matter, poisonous metals, magnesia, lime, carbonates,
sulphates, alkalies, earthy salts, chlorine and bromide combina-
tions, etc., are found in quantity.
Rules for Testing Water.
Water turning blue litmus paper red before boiling, which after
boiling will not do so ; and if the blue color can be restored by
warming, then it is varbonated (containing carbonic acid).
If it has a sickening odor, giving a black precipitate with acetate
of lead, it is sulphurous (containing sulphuretted hydrogen).
If it gives a blue precipitate with yellow or red prussiate of
potash by adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, it is chalybeate
(carbonate of iron).
If it restores blue color to litmus paper after boiling, it i
alkaline.
If it has none of the above properties in a marked degree and
leaves a large residue after boiling, it is saline water (containing
salts).
Testing by Re-Agents.
Water is not pure if it becomes turbid or opaque by the use of
the following agents :
Baryta water indicates the presence of carbonic acid 1 .
Chloride of barium indicates the presence of sulphates.
Nitrate of silver indicates the presence of chlorides.
Oxalate of ammonia indicates the presence of lime salts.
Sulphide of hydrogen slightly acid indicates the presence of
either antimony, arsenic, tin, copper, gold, platinum, mercury, sil-
ver, lead, bismuth or cadmium.
Sulphide of ammonia, alkaloid by ammonia, indicates the pres-
ence of nickel, cobalt, manganese, iron, zinc, alumina or chromium.
Chloride of mercury or gold, or sulphate of zinc, indicates the
presence of organic matter.
Water may be found which will pass the tests above described
a^id yet be unfit for use, or, as it is commonly called, "not potable."
Distillation is the only method to produce purity in water, whereby
all deleterious acids, gases, organic and mineral, and disease germs
can be eliminated 1 . The solid and organic matter held in suspense
may be removed by filtration.
AIR.
Condensing Water for Machinery.
Water for use in the ammonia condensing apparatus is preferred
when taken from springs or deep wells, for the reason that water
from below the surface is much colder than surface water, hence
much less is required. Water from considerable depths is almost
constant in temperature, and is generally from 50 to 56 degrees
the year round, while water from rivers, ponds and streams ranges
from 32 degrees in winter to 95 degrees in midsummer. The colder
the water used in the condenser, the less power it requires to
drive the machinery.
For refrigerating machines allow about 1% gallons per ton refrig-
erating capacity, and on ice plants 3 to 4 gallons per ton, cUpend-
nt upon the temperature.
Air
Air is a mechanical mixture of 20.7 parts oxygen and 79.3 parts
nitrogen by volume.
The weight of pure air at 32 F. and atmospheric pressure Is
0.081 Ibs. per cubic foot. Volume of 1 Ib. = 12,387 cu. ft. Air ex-
pands 1-491.2 of its volume at 32 F. for every increase of 1 P.
At the sea-level its pressure is 14.7 Ibs. per sq. inch. At one
mile above 12.02, at 2 miles 9.8 Ibs. Roughly, the pressure de-
creases 1/2 Ib. for every 1,000 feet.
Moisture in Atmosphere.
MOISTURE CONTAINED IN ONE CUB. FT. OF SATURATED AIR.
Temp.
4
5
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Grains.
0.5
0.55
0.73
0.91
1.05
1.14
1.23
1.32
1.41
1.55
Temp.
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
Grains.
1.69
1.83
1.97
2.13
2.32
2.51
2.7
2.89
3.08
3.34
Temp.
46
48
50
52
62
72
82
92
102
112
Grains.
3.6
3.85
4.12
4.4
6.17
8.55
11.67
15.75
21
27.6
REEXTIVE HUMIDITY, PER CENT.
Difference between the Dry and Wet Thermometers, Deg. F.
vvta
& G
fr'Sg
^ *" Q
a ~
I
2
3
5
6
6
,0
11
13
14
15
16
K
18
V.
20
21
22
23
Q4
20
28
Relative Humidity, Saturation being 100. (Barometer = 30 ins.)
32
40
50
60
70
80
00
100
110
120
140
89
92
93
94
95
90
90
JO
97
97
97
79
88
s,
S9
90
91
32
93
93
94
95
39
75
SI!
S3
SO
87
S!)
S9
90
91
92
59
OS
7-1
7S
81
S3
S5
SO
87
ss
89
49
(50
(37
73
77
79
81
S3
SI
sr,
87
39
52
61
OS
72
75
30
45
55
63
OS
20
37
49
58
01
f,s
11
29
43
53
59
61
2
3S
48
55
61
15
3"
43
51
57
01
65
67
09
73
27
39
4S
54
5S
t;-2
15
67
70
81
34
55
59
ii
If,
30
s
:->2
56
BO
62
66
11
26
36
44
-19
54
57
50
04
21
33
r
4<
51
55
5S
G2
17
29
38
44
49
53
-.:,
10
13
25
35
41
46
-.0
53
58
9
22
33
39
44
48
51
5G
5
19
29
36
41
46
49
54
1
15
26
34
i9
44
47
53
12
23
31
37
42
45
51
9
20
29
35
40
43
49
G
18
JO
33
38
41
4',
12
22
28
3)
44
r-
17
24
30
34
41
so
81
83
84
78
SO
S2
, 1
73
77
79
68
70
73
74
os
70
75
EQUATION OF PIPES.
The relative humidity of the air is the percentage of moisture
contained in it as compared with the amount it is capable of
holding at the same temperature. It is determined by the use of
the d'ry and wet bulb thermometer.
Equation of Pipes.
At the same velocity of flow the volume delivered by two pipes
of different sizes is proportional to the squares of their diameters ;
thus, one 4-inch pipe will deliver the same volume as four 2-inch
pipes.
With the same head, however, the velocity is less in the smaller
pipe, and the volume delivered varies about as the square root of
the fifth power. The following table has been calculated on this
basis. Thus, one 4-inch pipe is equal to 5.7 pipes of 2-inch diameter.
c3 d
1
2
3
4
5
7
;s
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
2
5.7
1
3
15.6
2.8
1
4
32
5.7
2.1
1
5
55.9
9.9
3.6
1.7
1
6
88.2
15.6
5 7
2.8
1.6
1
7
130
22.9
'8.3
4.1
2.3
1.5
1
8
181
32
11.'
5.7
3.2
2.1
1.4
1
9
243
43.
15.0
7.6
4.3
2.8
1.9
1.8
1
10
316
55.9
20.3
9.9
5.7
3.6
2.4
1.7
1.3
1
11
401
70.9
25.7
12,5
7.2
4.6
3.1
2.2
1.7
1.3
12
499
88.2
32
15.6
8.9
5.7
3.8
2.8
2.1
1.6
1
13
609-
108
39.1
19
10.9
7."1
4.7
3.4
2.5
1.9
1.2
14
733
130
47
22.9
13. 1
8.3
5.7
4.1
3.0
2.3
1.5
15
871
154
55.9
27.2
15.6
9.9
6.7
4.8
3.6
2 8
1.7
16
181
65.7
32
18.3
11.7
r- (
5.7
4.2
3.2
!?.!
'A
17
211
76.4
37.2
21 .3
13.5
9i2
6.6
4.9
3.8
2.4
.6
o
18
_;
243
88.2
43
24.6
15.6
10 6
7.0
5.7
4.3
2.8
.9
\3
1
19
278
101
49.1
28.1
17.8
12.1
8.7
6.5
5
3.2
2.1
.5
1.1
20
316
115
55.9
32
20.3
13.8
9.9
7.4
5.7
3.6
2.4
.7
1.3
1
22
401
146
70.9
40.6
25.7
17.5
12.5
9.3
7.2
4.6
3.1
2.2
1.7
1.3
24
499
81
88.2
30.5
32.
21 -.8
15.6
11.6
8.9
5.7
3.8
2.8
2.1
1.6
1
26
i.
609
221
108
61.7
39.1
26.6
19.
14.2
10.9
7.1
4.7
3.4
2.5
1.9
1.2
28
733
266
130
74.2
47
32
22.917.1
13.1
8.3
5.7
4.1
3
2.3
1.5
30
36
871
316
499
154
243
88.2
130
55.938
88.260
27.2
43
20.3
32
15.6
24.6
9.9
15.6
6.7
10.6
4.8
7.6
3.6
5.7
2.8
4.3
1.7
2.8
42
.". .j'
733
357
205
130 88.2
63.2
47
36.2
19
15.6
11.2
8.3
6.4
4.1
48
/
499
286
181 123
88.262.7
50.5
32
21.8
15.6
11.6
8.9
5.7
54
CO
'
:
''*'
070
871
383
499
243 165
316 1215
118 88.267.8
154 Jll5 188.2
43
55.9
23.2
38
20.9
27.2
15.6
20.3
12 7.8
15.6! 9.9
Table of Standard Steam, Gas or Brine Pipe v
twtdc
iSSSTr
Cireunifer-
SR&
Iol*ml
Elenul
P ^f
n&
orrRSSi
Con'CDK
ntiftmf
wag
r
nBE*
,
Sr
Incbel
Inct'i
C.SfcJoo,
HSS b -
.5VSS
pt Koo*
w
*
.40
.54
1.272
1.696
44
075
.0572
.1041
.129
.229
2500.
1385.
24
.42
27
18
.0006
.0028
.005
021
./
.67
2.121
.657
.1916
.358
751.5
.56
18
.0057
.047
C
.84
2.652
55
.3048
.554
472.4
.84
14
.0102
.085^
^
1.05
3.299
.637
.533
.866
270.
1.12
14
0230
.190
.
1.31
4.134-
.903
.862
357
166.9
1.67 '
UK
.0408
' .349
i if
1.66
5.215
.301
1.496
184
96.25
2.25
.0638
.527 i
IK
i.O
5.969
.01
2.038
835
70.65
2.69
HH
.0918
.760
3
2.3t
f.481
.611
3.355
430
42.9
3.66
l X
.1632
1.356
2.87
9032
.328
783
491
30.11
5.77
.2550
2.116
.
3.5
.10.996
.091
388
621
1 49
754
.3673
3.049
3tf
12.566
.955
887
1 566
1 66
905
.4998
4.155
*
4.5
14.137 .
.849
1 73
1 904
1 31
1072
.6528
5.405
..*
5.
1S.7CS
.765
1 96
19.635
03
12.34
.8263
6.851
5
5.56
17 475
.69
1 99
24.299
20
14.56
020
8.500
6.63
20.813
.577
28.889
34.471
.98
18.76
.489
12.312
762
23954
.505
38.737
45.663
72
23.41
999
16.662
8.62
27096
.444
50.039
58.426
88
28.34
.611
21 750
9,
968
30433
.394
63.633
73.715
26
34.67
.300
27500
10
ia?5
13.772
355
.78.838
90.762
.80
40.64
.081
34.000
Refrigerating Media
The efficiency of a gas depends on three properties:
First, a low boiling point, upon which depends the degree of
cold that can be produced.
Second, a high latent heat of evaporation, upon which depends
the total number of heat units, which will be abstracted by the
evaporation of a given weight of the medium.
The following diagrams are reproduced from N. Selfe.
TEMPERATURE AT BOIUNC POINTS
Third, a low specific heat, upon which depends the amount of
refrigeration produced which can be actually utilized.
Ammonia.
Ammonia, H 8 N, is composed of one part of nitrogen and three
parts hydrogen. It can be obtained from the air, from sal-ammo-
niac, nitrogenous constituents of plants and animals by process of
distillation as a matter of fact, there are very few substances free
from it. At the present day almost all the sal-ammoniac and
ammonia liquors are prepared from ammoniacal liquid, a by-product
obtained in the manufacture of coal gas.
Pure ammonia liquid is colorless, having a peculiar alkaline
odor and caustic taste. It turns red litmus paper blue.
Its boiling point depends on its purity, and is about 28 6-10
degrees below zero at atmospheric pressure.
Compared with water, its weight or specific gravity at 32 dtegreei
F. is about 5-8 of water, or 0.6364.
One cubic foot of liquid ammonia, weighing 39.73 pounds, one
gallon weighs and 3-10 pounds, one pound of the liquid at 32, will
occupy 21.017 cubic feet of space when evaporated at atmospheric
pressure.
Its latent heat of evaporation is not far from 560 thermal units
at 32 degrees, at which temperature one pound of liquid, evap-
orated under a pressure of fifteen pounds per square Inch, will
occupy twenty-one cubic feet.
8 AMMONIA.
Ammonia liquid should be pure. Its purity may be tested by
the following simple methods recommended by the Frick Co. and
other build'ers :
Testing for Water "by Evaporation.
Screw into the ammonia flask a piece of bent one-quarter inch
pipe, which will allow a small bottle to be placed so as to receive
the discharge from it. Fill the bottle about one-third
.zo
2
uj-o
LATENT HEAT or VAPORIZATION
= Per Pound of Medium
IN BRITISH THERMAL UNITS
With pKiVicifrAl Media. Used m Qefvige*dT\r\q Machines
full, and throw sample out in order to purge valve, pipe
and bottle. Quickly wipe off the moisture which has accumulated
on the pipe, replace the bottle and open valve gently, filling the
bottle about half full. This last operation should not occupy more
than one minute. Remove the bottle at once and insert in its neck
a stopper with a vent hole for the escape of the gas. Procure a
piece of solid iron that should weigh not less than 8 or 10 pounds,
pour a little water on this and place the bottle on the wet place.
The ammonia will at once begin to boil, and in warm weather will-
ammonia will at once begin to boil, and in warm weather will
soon evaporate. If it shows any residluum, pour it out gently,
counting the drops carefully. Eighteen drops are about equal to
one cubic centimeter, and if the sample taken amounted to 100
cubic centimeters, you can readily approximate the percentage of
the liquid remaining.
Test for Inflammable Oases.
Take a pail of water, submerge the bent end of quarter-Inch
pipe therein, open the valve on flask slightly, and allow a small
quantity of gas to flow into the water. If inflammable gases ar*
AMMONIA. 9
present, they will rise in bubbles to the surface of the water, and
may be proved by igniting the bubbles by means of a lighted
cand'le or match. As water has a strong affinity for ammonia, it
will be readily absorbed, while air or other gases will show only
in the form of bubbles.
Test for Specific Gravity.
The specific gravities of liquid ammonia by Beaume scale are
given in table below ; by drawing off some of the liquid in a tall
test tube, the Beaume Hydrometer (light) may be inserted and the
specific gravity read upon, the scale. If water is present, the
liquid will show a density proportionate to the percentage of the
water present.
Specific gravity of pure anhydrous ammonia is .623.
Test for Boiling Point.
By inserting a special low temperature standardized chemical
thermometer into liquid drawn into the 8-oz. test jar, readings
can be obtained through the side of the jar without removing the
instrument. Hold the thermometer in such position that only the
bulb is immersed. This test will give you the boiling point of
ammonia at atmospheric pressure, and_Jt is well to know that the
state of the barometer affects the temperature of the boiling point.
With the barometer at 29.92 inches, the boiling point is nearly
28 6-10 degrees below zero. If the ammonia is impure, the boiling
point is raised in proportion.
To Test Brine or Water for Ammonia.
"Nessler's Reagent" is used extensively. It is prepared as fol-
lows : Dissolve 17 grams of mercuric chloride in cubic centimeters
of distilled water; disserve 35 grams of potassium iodide in 100
cubic centimeters of water ; stir the latter solution into the first
until a red precipitate is thrown down. Then dissolve 120 grams
of potassium hydrate- in 200 cubic centimeters of water and allow
the solution to cool, then add to the other solution, and add
sufficient water to make one litre. Then add mercuric chloride
solution until a precipitate forms. Let this settle and decant off
a clear solution.
Keep the solution, in glass stoppered blue bottles. A few drops
of this solution added to a sample of brine or water will cause the
brine or water to turn yellow if a small percentage of ammonia
is present and turn to a full brown if the percentage of ammonia
is large.
Impurities Test.
When testing ammonia for impurities, it is diluted! with twice
its volume of distilled water. It is then made acid with hydro-
chloric acid. Then to detect the presence of sulphates, add a
solution of chloride of barium. If sulphates are present, a white
precipitate will be formed. To detect the presence of chlorides
the solution of ammonia and water is acidulated with nitric acid
instead of hydrochloric, and the white precipitate is formed by
the addition of a nitrate of silver solution. But if, in this case,
red appears, there is evidence of organic matter.
Aqua Ammonia.
16 aqua ammonia, often called" by druggists F.F.F., containing a
little more than 10 per cent of pure anhydrous ammonia, 18*
aqua ammonia (F.F.F.F.) containing nearly 14 per cent of anhy-
drous ammonia. 26 aqua ammonia ("stronger aqua ammonia")
containing 29% per cent of pure anhydrous ammonia. This is
generally used in absorption plants for the start.
10 AMMONIA.
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED AMMONIA.
1
p
isU
W
ill
b
I
i
Absolute Temp.
Degrees P.
,atent Heal of
Evaporation in
Thermal Units.
-1
"o
III
'5>' J '
fy
o.s
!!
|u>
4
qJ
PI
l-Su
|1
y
in
4.01
2.39
0.57
+1.47
3.75
1069
12.31
14.13
16.17
1845
40
35
30
25
20
420.CG
425.CG
430.06
435. GO
440. GG
57967
576.68
573. G9
570.08
567.67
24.38
21 32
1869
16.44
14.51
04iO
.0469
.0535
.0008
.0690
.0234
.0230
0237
0238
02-10
42 589
42337
42.123
41 858
41.615
C29
0.10
12.22
15.C7
1946
20.99
?380
'2692
3037
3416
IX
10
5
s
445:66
450. GC
45566
46066
4G5G6
504.64
561.61
558.56
555 50
552.43
12.83
11.38
10.12
9.03
8.07
.0779
.0878
.0988
.1107
.1240
.0241
.0243
.0244
.0240
0247
41.374
41 135
40 900
40 650
40 404
23 G4
28.24
8325
38.73
4472
38.34
42 94
47 95
53.43
59.42
10
15
20
25
30
470. GG
475.GG
480.66
485 C6
490 66
54935
540.26
543.15
540.03
536.91
723
6.49
584
5.27
4 76
.1383
.1541
.1711
.1897
.2099
.0249
.0250
.0252
.0253
.0255
40 100
39.020
39G32
39 432
39.200 ,
51.22
58.29
65.96
7426
83.22
6592
7299
8066
88.96
97.92
35
40
45
50
55
495 GG
500.66
505 C6
510. GO
515.66
533.78
530.63
527 47
524.30
521.12
431
3.91
3.56
3 24
2.9G
.2318
2554
.2809
.3084
.3380
.0250
.0258
.0200
.02C1
.0263
38 940
38684
3B4G1
38 226
37 994
92.89
103.33
11449
126.52
139.40
107.59
118.03
129.19
141.22
154.10
60
65
70
75
80
520.66
525.66
530.66
535.66
540. GG
51793
514.73
511.52
508.29
505.05
2.70
248
2 27
209
1 92
.3097
.4039
4401
4791
.5205
.0265
.0266
.0268
.0270
.0272
37 736
37481
37 t:iO
36 993
56 751
153.18
167.92
183.65
200.42
218.28
167.88
182.62
198.35
215.12
232.98
85
90
95
100
105
545.G6
55066
555.06
500.66
5G5.GG
501 81
498.55
495.29
49201
488.72
1 77
1 64
1 51
1 39
1.289
504 9
.6120
.6622
7153
7757
.0273
.027o
0277
0279
.0281
36 509
3G.2o8
36 O2.'f
35 778
23727
258 7
251.97
272 14
110
115
570. CG
575 GG
485.42
48 41
1.203
1 121
.8312
891
.0283
0285
275.79
SOI .46
825.72
293.49
31616
340 42
120
125
130
580. CG
585 06
590.06
478.79
475.45
472.11
1.041
.9G99
.9051
.9608
0310
1048
.0287
0289
0291
350.46
37752
405 19
435.5
46684
49970
53434
365.16
392.22
420.49
450.20
481.54
514.50
54904
135
140
M5
150
155
160
165
59566
600.66
605. GG
610 66
615 GG
62066
625. GG
46875
465.39
462.01
45862
45522
451 81
448.39
.8457
.7910
.7408
.6946
.6511
.6128
.5705.
.1824
2G42
'3497
4 390
5358
0318
7344
.0-^93
.0295
0297
.0299
0302
0304
.0306
STRENGTH OP AMMONIA LIQUOR.
H
o
vi)
d
<j
MJ
ES
BO
E
BO
^ o|>
d,S
|&
fe
*o o ^
c^-
^
? u
03 <U
*!*
W fc
ttd
P
|
d
M fc
<D.2i
?l
I
.0.
1.000
10
20
0.925
21.7
11.2
1
0.993
11
1
22
0.919
22.8
12.3
2
0.986
12
2
24
0.913
23.9
13.2
4
0.979
13
3
26
0.907
24.8
14.3
6
0.972
14
4
28
0.902
25.7
15.2
8
0.966
15
5
30
0.897
26.6
16.2
10
0.960
16
6
32
0.892
27.5
17.3
12
0.953
17.1
T
34
0.888
28.4
18.2
14
0.945
18.3
8.2
36
0.884
29.3
19.1
16
0.938
19.5
9.2
38
0.880
30.2
20.0
18
0.931
20.7
10.3
CARBONIC ACID. n
Carbonic Acid.
Carbonic anhydride, or carbonic acid as it is usually called 1 , has
the chemical designation Carbon Dioxide, CO 2 , and consists of two
atoms of oxygen and one atom of carbon.
The chief characteristics of the gas are absence of odor, neutral-
ity towards materials and food products, the fact that it cannot
be decomposed under pressure and its cheapness. It has a specific
gravity of 1.529 (air is 1) at atmospheric pressure and becomes a
liquid at 124 degrees below zero, Fahr., or 156 degrees below the
freezing point at that pressure.
Atmosphere containing 8 per cent of carbonic anhydride can be
inhaled without causing inconvenience or leaving any deleterious
effects upon the human system. Carbonic anhydride will fall to
the floor by reason of its greater specific weight, and even in the
event of a serious leak occurring, the air will not become suffi-
ciently saturated to cause any harm.
Fifteen per cent (15%) of carbonic anhydride in the atmosphere
will extinguish fire.
Carbonic anhydride is artificially produced in pure form by
means of combustion of chalks and magnesite, or by means of the
decomposition of marble with sulphuric or nitric 'acid.
The so-called Pistet fluid is a mixture of carbonic acid and sul-
phur dioxide, which according to Pictet is expressed by the chem-
ical symbol CO^S. The pressure of this mixture at higher tem-
perature is said to be less than the law of corresponding pressures
and temperatures would indicate. According to this there would be
less work required of the compressor.
Ethyl chloride (C 2 H 5 C1) has been used during the last few years
as a refrigerating medium, although to very little extent. Its
boiling point at atmospheric pressure is about 54 F. In order,
therefore, to produce cold, the machine has to work under vacuum,
while the condenser pressure hardly ever exceeds 15 Ibs. The gas
is neutral towards metals, its critical temperature is at 365 F.
It is more expensive than any of the other media, but it is claimed,
that on account of the low pressure there will hardly be any loss
of gas.
Methyl chloride machines are comparatively new and not In
practical use to any extent so far.
Certain hydrocarbons, naphtha, gasoline,, etc., have also been
experimented with as refrigerating media. All these liquids possess
the same great inflammability as ether, but they are cheaper.
Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ), the once heralded illuminating agent of the
future, has also been mentioned as a possible medium. It is
highly inflammable. It liquifies at 32 F. under a pressure of
48 atmospheres.
Liquid air has also been prominently spoken of as a refrigerat-
ing medium. But under present conditions its production is too
expensive to render it available for ordinary refrigeration. Its
usefulness is limited to produce extremely low temperatures, which
may be required for special purposes in the laboratory.
Brine
Until recent years brine was made by dissolving common salt,
NaCl (chloride of sodium) in water. Later chloride of magne-
sium was used instead. The latter was neutral to iron and did" not
freeze at extremely low temperatures. Later still, because of the
high cost of chloride of magnesium, chloride of calcium, Cads,
having nearly the same properties as choloride of magnesium, was
used either direct or in combination with chloride of magnesium.
Chloride of Sodium.
When using common salt, buy in bags, containing medium ground
pure salt. Allow about three Ibs. per gallon of water. Continue to
dissolve the salt in the brine tank until it reaches a density of 85
to 90 degrees by salt gauge. The stronger the brine the lower
temperatures can be obtained without freezing.
In making the brine it is well to use a water-tight box, say 4ft.
wide, 8 ft. long, and 2 ft. high, with a perforated false bottom and
compartment at end.
Locate the brine maker at a point above the brine tank. Con-
Salt Gauge
Salt
FIG. 1 METHOD OF MAKING BRINE.
nect the space under the false bottom with your water supply,
extending the pipe lengthways of the box and perforated at each
side to insure an equal distribution of water over the entire bot-
tom surface, use a valve in water supply pipe. Near the top of
the brine maker at end compartment, put in an overflow- with
large strainer to keep back the dirt and salt, and connect with
this a pipe, say 3 ins. diameter, with salt catcher at bottom leading
into the brine tank. Use a hoe or shovel to stir the contents.
When all is ready partly fill the box with water, dump the salt from
the bags on the floor alongside and shovel into brine maker, or
dump direct from the bags into brine maker as fast as it will dis-
solve ; regulate the water supply to always insure the brine being
of the right strength as it runs into the brine tank : this point must
be carefully noticed.
Filling the brine tank with water and attempting to dissolve the
salt directly therein is not satisfactory, as quantities of salt settle
on the tank bottom coils, forming a hard cake.
When desired to strengthen the brine, suspend bags of salt in
the tank, the salt dissolving from the bags as fast as required,
or the return brine from the pumps may be allowed to circulate
through the brine maker, keeping same supplied with salt.
BRINE. 13
Chloride of Calcium.
Fused Calcium. Commercial calcium is made by melting the
crystals at 400 F., thus driving off the water of crystallization,
leaving the remainder 75 per cent calcium and 25 per cent water.
This solution, while hot, is poured into iron drums and sealed up
air tight. This calcium comes in 600 to 700 pound iron drums,
which should be painted with asphalt varnish, so that they can be
stored away in damp and cold rooms without danger of rusting.
When making brine, the calcium should be broken up into pieces
and placed in a barrel or tank with perforated bottom. Then the
water or brine should be pumped over it until the brine is of the
required strength. To break up the calcium, hit the drums a num-
ber of heavy blows with a sledge hammer, the iron cover can then
be removed with a cold chisel and the calcium will be found to
be broken up as desired.
Heat is generated as the calcium dissolves and, if possible to do
so, it will be found more convenient to dissolve the calcium when
the brine is not being refrigerated. It dissolves more rapidly in
warm or hot than in cold brine. Steam can be used to advantage
for the rapid dissolving of large quantities of chloride of calcium.
Fluid Calcium : This is of 1400 specific gravity (weighing 11.66
pounds per gallon), and contains about 40 per cent of anhydrous
chloride of calcium in solution ; it is water white and clear. It is
shipped in tank cars of 4,500 gallons. When diluted with an
equal volume of water, it gives a solution of 1,200 specific gravity,
which is strong enough for most purposes.. Calcium fluid of spe-
cific gravity of 1600 (weighing 13.32 pounds per gallon), contain-
ing up to 60 per cent of anhydrous chloride of calcium in solution
crystallizes into a semi-solid mass in cool weather, and it is neces-
sary to warm it up to 60 Fahr., which makes it rather difficult
to handle during cool weather, unless steam is conveniently at
hand. The 1,600 specific gravity, or 60 per cent solution, when
diluted with two parts of water, gives a brine of 1,200 specific
gravity.
A solution of chloride of sodium brine, twenty-five per cent by
weight, is saturated and will freeze at F., but will tend to
separate the salt and begin to freeze at 5 F. A solution of
chloride of calcium, twenty-five per cent by weight, freezes at
22 F. In can ice making the brine is usually carried at 10 to
16 F., which requires ammonia at from 5 F. to 5 F. At these
temperatures salt will separate out and! ice will form on the ex-
pansion coils, thereby insulating them and requiring a lower back
pressure.
Chloride of calcium brine of 1.22 specific gravity has twenty-
four per cent of calcium chloride by weight, or four pounds to the
gallon. This brine freezes at 17 F., and in can ice making can
be diluted with thirty per cent of water before it will freeze, as
will a saturated salt brine solution. Chloride of calcium brine hav-
ing two and one-half to three pounds to the gallon is all right for
ice making. In brine tanks the salt brine freezes on the coils and
insulates them, or in brine coolers freezes in the coils and breaks
them. Salt brine loses in evaporation, some of the salt being car-
ried away, while calcium brine does not.
Aside from its stability to stand lower temperatures, calcium
chloride has the advantage over sodium chlorid'e or salt brine of
having ' absolutely no action upon iron, thus materially increasing
the life of brine tanks and brine coils. While the cost of calcium
chloride is somewhat greater than salt, this is offset to some extent
by the fact that 25 per cent less calcium than salt is required.
BRINE.
TABLE OF CALCIUM BRINK SOLUTION.
Deg.
Baumg
00 F.
Deg.
Salom-
eter.
60 F.
Per Cent
Calcium
by Weight
Lbs. per
Cu. Ft.
Sol.
Lbs.
per
Gallon
Specific
. Gravity
Specific
Heat
.Point F.
Amm.
Gauge
Pressure
.
' 1
1
82
47.31
1
4
.943
1.25
J
1.007
.996
31.1
46.14
2
8
1.886
2.5
|
.014
.988
3033
45-14
3
12
2.829
375
1
.021
.98
29.48
44.06
4
16
3.772
5
I
.028
.972
28.58
43
5
20
4.715
6.25
1
.036
.964
27.82
42.08
6
24
5.658
7.5
1
1.043
.955
27.05
41.17.
7
28
6.601
8.75
JJ
1.051
.946
26.28
4025
8
82
7.544
10
u
1.058
.936
25.52
39.35.
9
36
8.487
11 25
1*
.066
.925
24.26
37.9
10
40
9.43
12.5
.074
.911
22.8
36.3
11
44
10.373 '
13.75
11
1.082
.896
21.3
34.67
12
48
11 316
15
2
1.09
.89
19.7
32.93
13
52
12.259
16.25
2|
1.098
.884
18.1
31.33
14
56
1320?
17.5
2*
1.107
.878
16.61
29.63
15
60
14.145
18.75
1.115
.872
.15.14
28.35
16
64
15.088
20
2|
1.124
.866
13:67
27.04
17
68
16031
21.25
1.133
.86
12.2
25.78
18
72
16974
22.5
3
1.142
.854
10
2385
19
76
17917
23.75
3}
1.151
.849
7.5
21.8
20
80
18.86
25
8*
1.16
.844
4.6
19.43
21
84
19803
26.25
3J
1.169
.839
1.7
17.
22
88
20.746
27.5
31
1.179
.834
1.4
14.7
23
92
21.689
28.75
8f
1.188
.825
4.9
12.2
24
96
22.632
30
4
1.198
.817
8.6
9.96
25
100
23.575
31.25
4i
1.208
.808
11.6
8.19
26
24.518
32.5
4j
1.218
.799
^17.1
5.22
27
25.461
33.75
4i
1.229
.79
21.8
2.94
28
26.404
35
41
1.239
.778
27.
.65
29
27347
36.25
1.25
.769
32.6
T'Vac.
30
28.29
37.5
5
1.261
.757
-39.2
8.5""
TABLE QF CHLORIDE OF SODIUM (SALT) BRINE.
Degrees
on
Salom.
Percent-
age Salt
by Weight
Pounds
Saltper
Cu. Ft.
Poun3s
Saltper
Gallon
' Specific
Gravity
Specific
Heat
Freezing
Point F.
Ammonia
Gauge
Pressure
P
1
1
32
47.83
5
1.25
.785
.105
1.009
.99
303
45.1
10
2.5
1.586
.212
1.0181
.98
286
43.03
15
3.75
2.401
.321
1.0271
.97
26.9
41
20
5
3.239,
.433
1.0362
.96
25.2
88.96
25
6.25
4.099
.548
.0455
.943
23.6
87.19
80
7.5
4.967
.664
10547
.926
22
8544
85
875
5.834
.78
.064
.909
204
83.69
40
10
6709
.897
.0733
.892
18.7
81 98
45
11.25
7.622
1.019
.0828
.883
17.1
80.33
50
125
8.542
1.142
0923
.874
15.5
28.73
65
13.75
9.462
.265
1018
.864
13.9
27.24
60
15
10.389
.889
.1114
.855
122
2576
65
16.25
11.384
.522
..1213
.848
10.7
24.46
70
175
12 87
.656
.1312
.842
9.2
23.16
75
18.75
13396
791
.1411
.835
7.7
21 82
80
20
14421
928
.1511
.829
61
2043
85
21 25
15.461
2.067
1614
.818
4.6
1916
90
22.5
16508
2.207
1717
.806
3.1
182
95
23.75
17555
2.347
.182
795
1.6
16.88
100
25
18.61
2.488
1923
.783
1567
PART II REFRIGERATING MACHINERY
Looking back in history we read in the Songs of Solomon that
in ancient times snow was used for the cooling of food and drink.
The Kalif Mahdi (775) is said to have received shipments of snow
by camels at Mecca, also the Sultan in the year 10UO had ice
shipped continuously from Syria for his kitchen.
The cooling of water by means of mixtures of snow and salpeter
was known to the Chinese already in the twelfth century.
Freezing mixtures of different salts with ice or snow appeared
in Europe in the year 1550 in various compositions. This method!
of producing cold, however old, is still in every day use for such
purposes as freezing ice cream.
FREEZING MIXTURES.
Ammonium nitrate. . .
Water
Ammonium chloride. .
Potassium nitrate. . . .
Water
Ammonium chloride..!
Potassium nitrate....
Sodium sulphate
1
[ From-|-40 to + 4
j- From+50 to + 10
L From + 50 to + 4
Snow or pounded Ice . .
Sodium chloride .'
Snow or pounded Ice. .
Sodium chloride
Ammonium chloride..
Snow or pounded Ice. .
Sodium chloride
Ammonium chloride. .
4
6
2
t
24
10
.
| From + BO'to 5
! From + 50 to 12
f- From + 50 to 18*
Sodium nitrate !
Nitric acid, diluted... 1
Sod i u m carbonate . '. '. '.
Water
[ From + 60" to 3
t From+50 to 7
Snow or pounded Ice.
Sodium chloride. ...-.,
Snow
12
6
6
8
( From 4- 50" to 25
[ From + 32 to 23"
Sodium phosphate.-. . .
Nitric acid, diluted...
Sodium sulphate
Sulphuric acid, diluted.
Sodium sulphate .
Ammonium chloride..'
Potassium nitrate
Nitric acid, diluted...
Sodium sulphate
[ From + 50" to 12
1 From + 50" to-t-3
f- From-)- 50 to 10
Hydrochloric ' acid.' '. '. '.
Snow ' '.;..;
Nitric arid, diluted. . .
Snow
Calcium chloride.....
Snow ;
Calcium chloride, cryst
Snow ..........
5
4
4
5
2
1 From + 32 to 27"
| From + 32 to 30"
[ From + 32 to 40
From-K32 to 50
Nitric acid, diluted...
1 om+60 t0 ~ 4 J
Potash ..-..;.
4
In India it has been the custom from ancient times to make ice
by the quick evaporation of water, for which purpose the Indian
puts flat dishes filled one-half inch with water in a box twenty
inches deep filled with straw. In dry nights part of the water
evaporates, and being well insulated against the outer air, causes
the rest of the water to freeze. The Compression and Absorption
Machines are based on this principle of evaporation.
Ice made under vacuum was first done by Leslie, born 1766, at
Largo, in Scotland. Leslie placed 1 a shallow dish filled with con-
centrated sulphuric acid, and a few inches above that a small
glass dish with water under the receptacle of an air pump. Under
the vacuum water vapors were formed, which, however, were
quickly absorbed by the acid, so that the evaporation of the water
proceeded very rapidly. Through this quick evaporation on the
surface of the water the heat of the water below was removed,
until it was frozen. This is the principle of the Vacuum Machine.
At the beginning of the last century Hutton constructed a spe-
cial machine in which compressed air was cooled and allowed to
expand. He obtained in this way such low temperatures that al-
cohol was made to freeze. This is the principle of the Cold Air
Machine.
These different methods of producing cold have passed through
various stages of development and have led to constructions of
types of machines, of which the compression machine has become
the most prominent one. A description of these systems will b
given in the following order :
A. Cold Air Machines. C. Absorption Machines.
B. Vacuum Machines. D. Compression Machines.
Cold Air Machines
The cold air machine has long been regarded as a thing of the
past on account of its low efficiency and enormous size, and no
machine of this type can be found any more in use on terra
firma. But, strange to say, the cold" air machine is still being
built and has been installed in a large number of vessels. The
specifications for bids for several U. S. warships provide that the
refrigerating apparatus shall be of the "Cold Air Machine" type.
Principle of Cold Air Machine. When air is compressed in a
cylinder by mechanical means, its temperature rises. The heat of
compression can be removed by injecting a spray of cold water
into the cylinder or by passing the compressed air through a heat
exchanger, where the temperature of the air will be lowered to
nearly that of the cooling water.
When the air is now allowed to expand while doing work in
an air engine, the temperature will be reduced considerably helow
Engine
FIG. 2 DIAGRAM OF COLD AIR MACHINE.
the initial temperature and 1 the expanding air is capable of absorb-
ing the iieat of the rooms to be cooled. For example : air of
68 F. under atmospheric pressure will be heated up to 185 - F.
when subjected to a pressure of two atmospheres. If we cool this
hot air down to about 86 F. by means of cooling water and let
it then expand to its initial pressure, its temperature will be low-
ered to 13 below zoro. After the air has done the work of cooling
It may reenter the compressor, thus performing a continuous cycle
of operation.
This operation is illustrated in Fig. 2.
The air enters the compressor, is compressed and forced through
a cooling coil submerged in cold water, where the heat of com-
pression is removed. So cooled, it enters the expand'er. By ex-
panding, its temperature is again lowered and the now cold air is
discharged into the rooms to be cooled.
Historical Facts. In 1850 Dr. Gorrie, an American, constructed
the first cold air machine. In his machine the heat of compression
was removed by a spray of cold water which was injected into
COLD AIR MACHINES.
the compressor. By expanding the cooled air a second spray of
water was turned into ice.
A similar machine was constructed two years later by Nesmond 1 .
The compressor was provided with a water jacket and the air was
compressed to twenty atmospheres. In a second cylinder the air
was allowed to expand, whereby liquids were cooled or water was
frozen.
About this time the Windhausen cold air machine was brought
into the market and met with sojne success. About one hundred
of these machines were built and several were in active operation
up to the year 1883.
The Bell-Coleman machine found undoubtedly the largest market,
although the machine did not differ in principle from Windhausen's
design, but it was superior in the construction.
Of later constructions we only mention those by Menck and Ham-
brock, Lightfoot, Haslam Foundry Co., and the Leicester Allen
machine.
Quite a number of government vessels, private yachts and steam-
ers plying in South American waters are fitted with this latter
type of machine.
The "Allen" Machine.
The Allen cold air machine, Fig. 3, is working on a continuous
cycle of operation. The air is taken in by the air compressor B,
under 60 to 70 pounds pressure and compressed to 210 to 240
pounds. The hot air is passed through a copper coil C immersed*
FI G. 3 DIAGRAM OF ALLEN MACHINE.
in circulating cold water, where the temperature is reduced to
nearly that of the water.
The now cooled air enters the valve-chest of the expander D,
which is constructed like a steam engine with a cut off valve.
The valves admit the highly compressed air upon the piston to a
certain point of the stroke and then shut it off. The piston con-
tinues to travel to the end of the stroke under the expanding force
of the compressed air, assisting in this way the engine in doing the
work of compression.
i8 COLD AIR MACHINES.
The result of the expansion is a very low temperature of the air
at the end of the stroke. By the return stroke of the piston the
air is pushed out to such places as are to be refrigerated.
On its way to the ice-making box the air passes through a trap,
where the oil is separated 1 which is used in the compressor and
expanded. The trap contains a steam jacket in order to melt the
frozen contents when they are to be blown out.
Pump F circulates the cooling water through the cooling tank
and through the water jacket around the compressor B.
A small air compressing pump, G, takes air from the atmosphere
and charges the system with the required air pressure, which it
maintains.
This air contains the usual atmospheric moisture and to expel
this the air is first forced through the trap H, where the air is
cooled by coming in close contact with the cold head of the reser-
voir. It is claimed that about 80 per cent of the moisture is in
this way deposited out of the air and drained off by pet-cocks.
This is of great importance, as the large amounts of latent heat
in the water vapor would produce serious losses in the result of
the machine if the air contained water, this being subject to the
heating and freezing processes which occur in the machine.
By comparing the cold 1 air machine with compression machines,
it is evident that machines which do not liquefy the refrigerating
medium cannot be as economical as those which do. The com-
pression and expansion cylinders of the cold air machine have to
be very large, which increases the friction considerably. Besides
this there is excessive clearance and this together with the unavoid-
able moisture contained in the air reduces the actual efficiency to
less than 33 per cent of the theoretical efficiency.
The reason for still using the cold air machine on board ship
is all and alone the harmless character of the refrigerating medium
air.
NOTES ON COLD AIR MACHINES:
Vacuum Machines
The vacuum machine is, strictly speaking, based on the same
principle as the absorption machine, which we will discuss in our
next article. Water is the evaporating medium and sulphuric acid
is used for absorbing the vapors.
Principle of Vacuum Machine. The evaporation of the water
at a low temperature in order to produce refrigeration is brought
about by forming a vacuum by means of a vacuum pump. Such a
vacuum is now produced in a closed vessel. In this the water is
injected, part of which quickly evaporates, whereby the 'necessary
latent heat is removed from the remaining water, which will be
cooled and finally frozen. Theoretically about six times the amount
of water can thus be frozen by the evaporation of one part of
water, as the latent heat of the water is about 940, that is, about
six times the latent heat of ice, viz., 142.
If the vacuum should be maintained solely by a pump, this
pump would have to be of an enormous size on account of the
low tension of the water vapor at the temperature of the refrig-
erator. In ordter to avoid excessively large pumps an absorbent
was looked for to release the work of the air pump, and this has
led to the introduction of sulphuric acid, by which the vapors are
quickly absorbed and removed by the air pump.
The acid in the course of time becomes weak and has to be
concentrated again by distillation.
The operation is illustrated in Fig. 4. The vacuum pump is con-
nected to the absorber, a long cylindrical vessel filled to two-
Alr Punp
FIG. 4 DIAGRAM OF VACUUM MACHINE.
thirds with concentrated sulphuric acid, which is kept in motion
by paddles to facilitate the absorption of the water vapors coming
from the water. The absorber is encased! in a cold water jacket.
In the cooler, which is well insulated, the refrigerating work takes
place, whereupon it is connected to coils through which the cold
liquid circulates.
The other apparatus shown in the illustration serves for the
concentration of the sulphuric acid. The cold weak acid Is
pumped through an exchanger into the distiller, where part of the
absorbed water is evaporated and removed by a small air pump.
The strong acid leaves at the bottom and flows through the still
back to the distiller in a superheated state. When concentrated
the acid leaves at the highest points, parts with its heat and re-
enters the absorber.
Historical facts. In 1810 Leslie constructed a small vacuum
machine. He was followed 1 by quite a number of others, among
20
VACUUM MACHINES.
whom was Carre, whose machine was exhibited at the World's Fair
in Paris in 1867. Windhausen was the first to build a vacuum
machine in Germany 11878). His machine is illustrated in diagra-
matic form in Fig. 4. The vacuum maintained by the pump is
1-1500 atm. = 1-50 inch .abs. press.
Of later inventions those by Lange, Southby and Blyth and
Patten may be mentioned.
The tatter type is of American origin and of recent date.
Patten Vacuum Machine.
The apparatus starts with the evaporator or freezing chamber,
as it is called here, Fig. 5, as only ice is produced. A vacuum
of about 30 inches is maintained in the freezing chamber by the
air pump, which will cause the temperature to drop down to
FIG. 5 DIAGRAM OF PATTEN MACHINE.
26 F. The water, generally city water, which has previously been
filtered, is fed by a hose from the feed water tank to a spraying
device, by means of which it is sprayed against the ice-forms in
the freezing chamber. By means of special mechanism a rotary
reciprocating motion is imparted to the sprayer. In this way
cylinders of ice are formed, having an outside diameter of six to
eight feet, and a height of four to eight feet. The thickness may
be, of course, varied, and depends on the quantity of water fed. A
cylinder of about seven feet outside diameter and thirteen inches
thick, having a length of three feet and over, weighs about 3,200
pounds and takes about one hour to freeze.
When harvesting the ice, the cover is raised and the cylinder is
withdrawn from the freezing chamber and transferred to the cut-
ting table, where it is reduced to blocks of commercial size.
It is claimed that about 86 per cent of the water is instantly
frozen in touching the sides of the ice forms. The other 14 per
cent of vapor from the freezing chamber are led to the absorber,
where they come in contact with the sulphuric acid which is trick-
ling over 'lead coils, through which cold water is circulated. The
vapors are drawn through the absorber by means of the vapor ex-
hauster, where they are compressed and forced into a large pipe
leading to the vapor condenser.
VACUUM MACHINES. 21
The weak acid J eaves the absorber and is pumped through a
d'ouble pipe heat-exchanger in counter current, where it takes up
part of the heat of the strong acid before entering the concentrator.
Steam from the boiler is supplied "to the lead-lined steam pipes of
the concentrator and th weak acid of about 45 Beaume is con-
verted to strong acid of about 60 Beaume.
The strong acid leaves the concentrator, gives up part of its
heat to the weak acid in the heat exchanger and in a special cooler
receives a final cooling, sufficient to be used again in the absorber.
The vacuum in the concentrator being about 27 inches,, the over-
flow of the condenser must have a head of at least thirty-three feet
above the hot well.
The first plant, which Patten erected, did not use any chemical
absorber. It was erected in Baltimore at a cost of over three
hundred thousand dollars, but has proved a failure. Other plants
using sulphuric acid have successively been erected in Baltimore,
New York, San Francisco and Porto Rico.
There are many reasons why the vacuum machine is preA'ented
from being more adapted. The ice frozen by this process is not
transparent, but opaque and resembles chalk. The vessels and
pipes containing the sulphuric acid must be of lead or lead-lined on
account of the corrosive properties of the acid. The necessity for
distilling the sulphuric acid represents one of the principle ex-
penses, while the handling of this liquid is of considerable incon-
venience. These reasons besides the difficulties to keep the sys-
tem perfectly tight will necessarily put the vacuum machine behind
other systems, or at least will confine its use to special cases.
NOTE 8 ON VACUUM MACHINES:
Absorption Machines
The absorption machine is operated in a similar manner as the
vacuum machine, only that ammonia is used instead of water.
Ammonia has a great affinity for water, so much in fact that one
part of water at 32 F. will absorb about 1,000 parts of ammonia
at atmospheric pressure. This fact is utilized in the following
way :
Principle of Absorption Machine. Liquid ammonia under an
average pressure of 150 Ibs. per square inch is admitted to the ex-
pansion coils, where it rapidly evaporates. In doing this it produces
a refrigerating effect equal to its latent heat of vaporization. The
expanded gas is subjected to a stream of cold water in the ab-
sorber, where it is quickly absorbed, forming aqua ammonia. This
liquor is pumped through a heat exchanger into the liquor still,
commonly called the generator, where it is heated up by means
of steam coils and the ammonia driven off as gas. The hot gas
being confined produces pressure much as steam does in a boiler.
It passes from the still to the condenser, where it is reduced 1 to a
liquid again under the influence of pressure and cold water.
The weak hot liquor leaves at the bottom of the still and gives
up part of its heat in the exchanger to the incoming strong liquor,
before being able to absorb anew the ammonia vapors in the
absorber.
Historical Facts. The inventor of the absorption machine with
a continuous cycle of operation is F. Carre, of Paris (1860). His
machine was improved by many others, notably Vass and Littman,
FIG. 6 PONTIFEX (CARBONDALE) ABSORPTION MACHINE.
Nicolle and Pontifex. The latter type is of English origin, but is,
with slight alterations, extensively built in this country, where it
has become one of the leading absorption systems.
Pontifex (Carbondale) Absorption Machine.
The illustration, Fig. 6, shows the generator with the analyzer
and 1 exchanger mounted on top. The first charge of aqua ammonia
is placed in the generator, where it is heated by means of steam
ABSORPTION MACHINES.
coils in the usual manner. The liberated gas passes upward
through the analyzer where some of the water still left in suspen-
sion in the gas is removed by a series of baffle plates. Thence
the gas enters the lower coil of the rectifier, where the remaining
water is condtensed, much in the same way, as ammonia is liquefied
in the De La Vergne counter current ammonia condenser. The
condensed water collects in a manifold and returns automatically
to the generator.
Thence the gas passes to the condenser, where it is liquefied.
The condenser serves also as a liquid receiver, from where the
liquid is fed to the expansion coils in the brine cooler.
The expanding gas is absorbed in the absorber by ' the weak
liquor coming from the exchanger and the resulting strong liquor is
returned by the ammonia pump through the coils in the exchanger
to the generator.
Condenser, cooler and absorber are of the coil and shell type,
the coils are wound' concentrically and project through stuffing
boxes in the heads and are manifolded outside of the shells.
Vogt Absorption Machine.
The generator, Fig. 7, consists of a main casting, divided into
four compartments, communicating with each other, and four
horizontal pipes, connected to the main casting, which contain the
*. I.
FIG. 7 VOGT ABSORPTION MACHINE.
steam heating coils. On top of the main casting is mounted a
stand pipe containing an analyzer and rectifying coil for dry-
ing the gas before leaving the still. The strong liquor is admitted 1
to the top of the stand pipe, passes through the rectifying coils
and analyzer to the upper compartment, flowing thence over the
steam coil in the horizontal pipes from one to the other until the
lower compartment is reached.
The gas generated passes through the opening in each compart-
ment to the stand pipe, where the moisture is deposited, and the
dry gas passes to the condenser, which is of the atmospheric hori-
zontal zig-zag coil pattern.
The absorber is constructed like an upright tubular boiler open
at the top. Tubes are distributed uniformly and arranged 1 in such
24 ABSORPTION MACHINES.
manner that they can be cleaned while the machine is in operation.
The cooling water enters at the bottom and discharges at the top!
The return gas from the expansion coils enters at the bottom and
the weak liquor at the top, the flow of the latter being controlled
by an automatic regulator.
The ammonia pump is of the double-acting horizontal fly-wheel
pattern, its speed is 25 revolutions per minute.
The exchanger is of the double pipe pattern. The strong liquor
enters at the bottom, while the weak liquor from the still enters
the exchanger at the top.
Management of Absorption Machine.
The first thing to be looked after in a new plant is that the
apparatus is thoroughly freed from air before it is charged and
that it is properly tested. The manufacturers are generally sup-
posed to do this, but even if they do, the process should be care-
fully looked after by the engineer in order to avoid complications.
Two ways are recommended for forcing out the air, the most effect-
ive of which is to use a vacuum pump. If the pump is not avail-
able, the apparatus may be filled with steam, all valves being open,
one being open to the atmosphere. The steam forces the air out
and then when the valve is closed and the machine cools down,
the steam condenses, leaving a vacuum in the apparatus. The
pumping method is much more desirable, since the steam method
sometimes softens the joints, if they are made up with rubber es-
pecially, and it is seldom that the boiler pump is not available.
When the air has been expelled, the apparatus is ready to re-
ceive the ammonia and the charge pipe is connected to a drum of
ammonia and then with another until the ammonia ceases to flow
in because the vacuum has been destroyed, as shown by the vacuum
gauge. Nearly all the ammonia can be put in in this way, but an
amount nearly sufficient to make up the proper charge will be put
in by the ammonia pump. In making the connections to the am-
monia drums and to the pump, particular care must he taken to
not allow any air to enter the machine along with the ammonia.
The ammonia is now warmed up by allowing steam to flow
through the coils of the heater, and this is continued until the.
pressure on the system rises to about 100 pounds in most cases.
A piece of hose is then attached to the purge cock, which 1s
opened', and the end of the hose placed in some vessel containing
water. This allows any remaining air to come out, appearing
in the form of bubbles on the surface of the water, but preventing
any flow of the ammonia. The condensing water is then turned on,
and also the steam, until the liquid ammonia shows in the gauge.
Then turn on the cooling water wherever it is used and let the
steam into the generator coils, and open up the connection to let
the poor liquor into the absorber. When the liquid shows in the
receiver gauge, open up the expansion valve a little and' the valve
on the pipe between absorber and cooler. The ammonia -pump
will have to be started directly, if everything works all right. If
air develops, it must be eliminated through the purge cock on
the absorber. If insufficient pressure develops, the charge must be
increased by connecting a drum of liquid ammonia to the cooler
and allowing it to flow in. Before doing this the expansion valve
should be shut.
The ammonia pump should be lower than the supply when
pumping ammonia. The proportionate strength of the weak to the
strong liquor should be about 17 to 28. When this is not the case
it is probably due to leaks.
Ammonia will cause the rubber packing on pump rods to swell,
therefore the glands must not be screwed down too tight.
"Priming" has been a frequent cause of shut-downs. This is a
case of all the ammonia going over into the condenser, including the
ABSORPTION MACHINES. 25
aqua ammonia. It may even get into the expansion coils if they
are not protected by a check valve. This is indicated by the
height of the liquid in the still, by a drop in pressure on the
cooler, and the melting off of the ice on the expansion valve air
pipe. The liquor in the still should always cover the steam coils.
The "boiling over" may not extend further than from the generator
to the absorber, but may extend to the condenser, as stated above.
If the liquid is at the right level in the liquid receiver, the proper
level is likely to be maintained' in the generator unless too much
is coming from the absorber. The pressure behind the expansion
valve should maintain the proper height of liquid in the generator.
To provide against this trouble, a valve is placed on the poor liquor
line at the absorber, so that the ammonia can be kept at the
proper height. When the ammonia has gone over into the expan-
sion coils, the expansion valve can be almost closed and a vacuum
pumped on the absorber. The gas is then blown through the coils
and this will generally take it all back to the absorber. This
trouble may be avoided when the expansion coils are built In
sections connected to manifolds with separate valves. In such
case each section can be cleared separately.
James Cooper, in Power, recommends in a case of priming that
the pump be kept going to get a good vacuum on the absorber.
Then to open the expansion valve so as to get all the weak liquor
out of the receiver and condenser into the cooler, and 1 if the pres-
sure is still below that of the absorber, and they both show a
vacuum at this time, shut the expansion valve and open the anhy-
drous charging valve. This will let the air run in from outside
and cause the cooler to show atmospheric pressure, which will be
greater than the pressure in the absorber, and then be pumped to
the generator again. This operation to be kept up until the machine
is normal. The cause of this condition may be that the charge is
too weak or the machine is working too fast and the generator is
dirty. The weak liquor will have to go through the purge line at
the bottom of the cooler, and to keep a greater pressure on the
cooler than on. the absorber the gas . line will have to be closed
between the cooler and the absorber. This will force the liquid out
faster. This is recommended in case there is no pipe from the
receiver to the cooler.
The management of an absorption system mainly depends on the
regulation of pressures and temperatures. If, for instance, there
is too high a pressure in the absorber and consequently too high
a temperature in the cooler, the cause may be either too little or
too warm cooling water or too much liquid in the system or the
presence of foreign gases and air in the system. These latter are
eliminated through the purge cock at the top of the absorber.
One reason for the failure of an absorption machine not to
work to its full capacity at times is because the steam coils in the
generator become air locked. By putting on a small vacuum
pump the efficiency of the still may he considerably increased.
Leaks in rectifying pans are indicated when a sample of liquid
from the liquid receiver shows a high percentage of water.
iA leak in the exchanger is indicated by the cooling of the pipe
connecting the exchanger with the weak liquor at the bottom of
the still. There is also likely to be a hissing sound produced by
the leak. The leak can usually be traced by noting the tem-
perature of the pipe.
Economy of Absorption Machine.
The absorption machine, once a favorite, was largely replaced 1 by
the compression system, but is now coming into considerable use
under certain conditions. The economy has been greatly increased
since the manufacturers are able to produce an almost perfect
anhydrous gas from the generator and since it is possible to use
26 ABSORPTION MACHINES.
the exhaust steam from the auxiliary machinery to evaporate the
ammonia in the generator.
According to Torrance, in a paper before the Eastern Ice
Association the best absorption machines of the present time use,
in the generator, about 30 pounds of steam per hour per ton of
refrigerating effect under can ice conditions, some use 35, and
many machines recently erected, but of poor design, use 50 pounds
or more. A theoretically perfect absorption machine would require
for the generator about 24 pounds per hour per ton with 10 pound's
steam pressure for can ice conditions, this quantity being practi-
cally independent of the temperature of the condensing water.
If a machine uses 26 pounds of steam per hour per ton, then we
could freeze ice on the can system out of 60 F. raw water with
the following steam consumption per hour per ton of ice :
POUNDS.
Cooling water from 60 to 32 F 5
Freezing water at 32 F 26
Cooling ice from 32 to 15 F 1.5
Cooling 300-lb. cans from 60 to 15 F 2
Radiation and losses 7.3
Meltage loss 3% of total 1.2
Total pounds steam per hour 41.2
A horizontal tubular boiler, semi-bituminous coal, under careful
firing will evaporate 10.3 pounds of water per pound of coal from
and at 212 or 10 pounds into steam at 70 pounds pressure with
212 feed water. Hence, coal per hour would be 4.12 pounds per
ton of ice, or 99 pounds per day per ton of ice, or 20 pounds of ice
per pound of coal.
Practical Ice Plants of the Present. If we have a horizontal
tubular boiler with above mentioned evaporation, from feed water
at 212 (which is quite easily obtained with a slight pressure on
the exhaust), we should be able to make 10 pounds of ice per
pound of coal provided we have no losses.
If the plant is designed properly there would be five losses.
(1) Condensed steam caused by radiation of pipes and 1 pump
cylinders which forms an emulsion with the lubricating oil and is
trapped out in the oil separator. There is no cut-off on these pumps
and the condensation is practically limited to the radiation of the
exposed surfaces and should not exceed 5 per cent.
(2) Direct leakage of steam from stuffing boxes and joints. This
is too small to be considered.
(3) Reboiling loss. The condensed steam from the generator
discharges at 10 pounds pressure into the reboiler and immediately
drops in temperature from 240 to 212 F., causing 1 per cent to
evaporate, which produces all the reboiling generally necessary.
(4) Skimming loss under these conditions should not exceed
% per cent.
(5) Meltage at ice cans, 3 per cent.
Total losses 9% per cent.
The boiler evaporation being 10 :1 under the above conditions
this would ma"ke the economy 9 pounds of ice per pound of coal,
which is about the result actually obtained in practice.
NOTES ON ABSORPTION MACHINES:
ABSORPTION MACHINES. 27
Compression Machines
Principle of Compression Machines. The compression machine
is based on the evaporation of liquids, which have a low boiling
point. The latent heat of evaporation represents the amount of
cold that can be produced in precisely the same way as in the ab-
sorption machine. The former system, however, differs from the
latter in so far, as the expanded gas after having done the work
of cooling in the expansion coil, instead of being absorbed, enters
the suction of a strong air compressor, where the necessary pres-
sure is applied to reduce the gas to a liquid again.
The principal refrigerating media used in the compression ma-
chine are ether, sulphur dioxide, carbonic acid and ammonia.
The systems are all based on the same principle and the machines
differ only in points of construction.
A compression machine comprises the three fundamental parts :
(1) The compressor, which withdraws the gas from the refrig-
erator coil and compresses it into the condenser.
(2) The condenser, where the heat of compression is removed
by cooling water and the gas becomes liquefied.
(3) The refrifferator, where the liquid evaporates into a gas and
does the refrigerating work.
These principles are generally the same for the various liquids
employed, amplified, of course, by different appliances for lubricat-
ing the piston and stuffing box, by special devices for separating oil
and foreign matters from the medium, etc.
Ether Machines.
In 1834, Perkins employed already the vapors of Ether (Ethyl
Ether) whose boiling point is at above 100 degs. F., for his com-
pression machines and the construction and arrangement of his
system were similar to the modern compression machines.
It consisted principally of a compressor, refrigerator and con-
denser with regulating valve between the two last mentioned.
In 1867, Teller used! first Methyl Ether, which has a lower boil-
ing point, and in 1878 Vincent employed Chlormethyl Ether.
Ether machines were never y^ery popular, chiefly on account of
their great danger in case of fire and the relative large compressors,
for which reason we do not want to go any deeper into the con-
structive details of this type of machine.
Sulphur Dioxide Machines.
These machines have lately come more and more into the fore-
ground. Though the latent heat of the medium is lower than am-
monia besides having a higher boiling point which requires larger
compressors, this machine has certain advantages. The pressures
corresponding to the required temperatures are low; they go up to
sixty pounds at the highest during compression and down to seven
to fifteen pounds in the refrigerator.
Lubrication is entirely superfluous, as the liquid SO 2 is a first-
class lubricating medium. Another advantage is its non-corrosive
action toward metals, which allows the use of brass, copper and
other metals besides iron. But great care has to be taken to main-
tain tight joints as any leakage might produce sulphuric acid, which
would become detrimental to any metal.
Teltier was the first in 1865, to recognize the importance of sul-
phur dioxide as a refrigerating medium, and in 1876, Pictet made
use of the same in his machine. His machines have since then
been built extensively.
The principles of the compression machines are also applied to
the sulphur dioxide machines, although the whole arrangement Is
COMPRESSION MACHINES. 29
simpler, as the apparatus for separating the oil from the gas and
everything herewith connected are not needed.
Carbonic Acid Machines.
Carbonic acid (CO 2 ) has besides ammonia and sulphur dioxide
found the greatest use in compression machines. This machine was
first built In 1883, by the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg, but became
more known through Windhaussen in 1889, who succeeded In bring-
ing an efficient design in the market.
In his machine the clearance was filled out with glycerine. This
brought some disadvantages. Part of the glycerine could pass
through the valves into the pipes and apparatus and reduce the
efficiency. This loss again increased the clearance.
Sedlacek built his machine so, that the sealing liquid was kept
under pressure and the loss made up automatically by a small
pump. Later constructions have done away with glycerine and 1 use
oil instead.
It will be found that machines working with dry gas are capahle
of performing a refrigerating duty which exceeds that of the wet
system by about ten per cent. (Goosmann, A. S. R. E. Trans.,
1906.) When manufacturers, nevertheless, adhere to the wet sys-
tem in preference, it is simply the logical outcome of practical
considerations. The packing of the piston consists of leather cups ;
fftis material does not withstand temperatures above 200 F. and
in order to keep them pliable, it is necessary to remove the heat
of compression by means of wet gases from the evaporator. Me-
tallic packing with its consequent greater piston leakage and dry
gas compression, offers no gain in comparison with the wet sys-
tem and its slight loss of evaporation which Is offset by the ad-
vantage of using a tight piston packed with cupped leathers.
The fact that during compression the gas is in a superheated
state, occasioning considerable changes in its entropy with tem-
peratures and 1 pressures above the critical, explains the peculiarity
that the refrigerating work of this system does not cease with
high condenser temperatures.
Constructional Details. The cylinders are made of soft forged
steel, as it seems impossible, here as well as in England, to secure
sound castings that will withstand the high internal pressures.
These cylinders require considerable lathe and drill work for the
bore, canals and other openings. When finished, however, it is
hardly necessary to subject them to tests.
The bore should be about one-fourth of the stroke, for instance,
a machine of 20 tons capacity having a bore of four inches should
have a stroke not less than sixteen inches. A machine of five-inch
bore by 20-inch stroke will easily have a capacity of 40 tons, which
shows the influence of a slight increase in the size upon the
capacity.
A long piston is of great advantage. The relation of diameter
and length of piston is about 1 :2.5. These valves are usually
placed in the horizontal position, but as they are comparatively
small and of light weight, it does not require a very heavy spring
to close them. The discharge valves are placed vertically and are
therefore always in the centrical position. The area of the dis-
charge and of the suction valve is one-seventh of the piston area
for the former and one-half for the latter. On the piston rod
end two suction valves are frequently used, as there is hardly
sufficient room for one valve having the required area. The width
of the seat should not exceed 0.1 to 0.12 of the valve disc diameter,
and 1 an angle of 70 to 90 for the discharge valve seat and 60
to 75 for the suction valve are considered good practice. A valve
life of 0.33 diameter for the suction valve and 0.28 diameter for
the discharge valve are the right proportions. A spring tension of
30 COMPRESSION MACHINES.
8 to 9 Ibs. for the suction valve and 10 to 11 Ibs. for the discharge
valve will be found ample.
The most essential point is the stuffing box. Owing to the high
internal pressure, as well as to the comparatively large piston rod,
it is necessary to divide the stuffing box into several chambers,
consisting of removable lanterns, which are so arranged that the
pressure is reduced by steps. The chamber next to the cylinder
bore takes care of the leakage ; a controlling device is usually con-
nected to this chamber by means of which the gas is returned* to
the suction side at a pressure higher than that of the evaporation
and lower than the condenser pressure. The next chamber is kept
under oil by a force pump, which forces the oil into it at a pres-
sure slightly above that of the suction. An oil outlet, controlled
by a ball valve, leads from this chamber to the suction canal of
the compressor, so that a small amount of oil together with an
occasional bubble of gas enters the compressor at this point. Gar-
lock or any other soft packing is used at the outer end merely as a
wiper of the lubricating material, preventing oil leakage at that
point.
Leather cups are used almost exclusively as the packing material,
they having given much better satisfaction than any other known
method of packing. In packing the stuffing box with this material,
the glands must be drawn up tight, as no provision for expansion
of the material need be made in this case ; only the outer nut, which
holds the Garlock packing in place, is left comparatively loose.
The life time of this packing is a season or more with ordinary
care. A trap to separate the oil from the gas is connected in the
discharge pipe between compressor and 1 condenser.
Safety valves are always used. The location of this valve on the
compressor is in the discharge canal. They also serve the pur-
pose of protecting the compressor in the case of careless starting,
without opening the delivery stop valve. This valve is usually
provided with a cast iron disc, proportioned to break at a pressure
of about 150 atmospheres.
When condenser water of temperatures above 74 F. is used it is
advisable to provide a special liquid cooler for the purpose of reduc-
ing .the temperature of the liquid before it passes the expansion
valve. Submerged, atmospheric and double-pipe condensers are used 1 ;
the customary rules prevail regarding the surface of the evaporator
pipe, with this difference, that the evaporating temperatures may
readily be dropped much below zero F. without changing materially
the ratio of compression, which ordinarily is 1 :3.
While it is true that the theoretical efficiency of the carbonic
acid system is not equal to that of the ammonia machine, owing
to the greater percentage which the specific heat of the liquid
carbonic acid bears to the latent heat of evaporation, yet the prac-
tical efficiency of the machine, owing to compensating features,
makes up for the above loss. These consist in less piston leakage,
a smaller depression of the suction line, and slightly smaller losses
through clearance.
Ammonia Compression Machines
In 1870 Linde built the first ammonia compression machine,
which has become the standard for modern refrigerating machines.
About the same time Boyle constructed a similar machine.
The Linde machine in its principle is operated on the compres-
HEAD"
g "SAFETY
COMPRESSOR.
FIG.
'LINDE."
FIG. 10 "OIL"
COMPRESSOR.
sion cycle, which we have described above. Almost all later de-
signers have constructed their machines after the Linde and
Boyle patterns with slight variation.
The leading compressor types as built in this country are
illustrated in. Figs. 8 to 10, and may be briefly enumerated here.
The Linde compressor, Fig. 9, is worth careful study by both
the student and engineer, as it is a good example of how efficiency
may be combined with simplicity. The cylinder is one plain
cylindrical bushing. Both heads, holding the valves, as well as
the piston, are turned spherical and fit snugly against each other.
There is hardly any clearance, the piston at extreme end of the
FIG. 11 "DB LA VERGNE" COMPRESSION SYSTEM.
COMPRESSION MACHINES.
stroke being only 1-32 inch from the cylinder head. The com-
pressor is double-acting and may be horizontal or vertical.
The safety-head compressor, Fig. 8, is also put on the market
by a great number of builders.
The advantage of the safety head is the security it guarantees
against the breaking of the head in case of accidental breaking
of valves or any other part of the machine, as well as an over-
charge of liquid ammonia getting in the compressor, in which
case the head lifts and allows the obstruction to pass through.
The oil compressor, Fig. 10, was, some ten years ago, con-
sidered the foremost machine in the market, and is still one
of the most efficient ones; but owing to its expensive construction
it is only built when there is a special demand for it.
Cycle of Operation.
The cycle of operation is illustrated in Figs. 11 and 12.
These cuts show plainly every detail, and as drawings sometimes
speak plainer than words, especially to the trained engineer, we
will try to save space by omitting the descriptions.
^ - - " - - '
FIG. 12 "LINDE" COMPRESSION SYSTEM:
Compressor
Capacity of Compressor.
The refrigerating capacity of a compressor per minute is the
product of the number of cubic feet that can be discharged by
the compressor per minute and the refrigerating effect of one
cubic foot of gas. Thus we have to consider the following two
points:
1. The cuMo capacity of the compressor.
2. TJie refrigerating effect of the medium employed.
Cubic Capacity.
The theoretical displacement is ascertained by multiplying the
piston area by the stroke, and the number of revolutions per
minute, and, in case of a double-acting compressor, by doubling
the result (deduct area of piston rod).
3.14d 2
C = 2 - In
4
where d = dia. of piston, 1 =: stroke, n = number of rev. p. mln.
The actual displacement depends on the efficiency of the com-
pressor. The greater the ratio of compression, the greater is the
loss with a given amount of clearance. Assuming a condenser
pressure of 160 pounds and a back pressure of 20 pounds, or a
compression ratio of 1:8, with a clearance of % inch, the gas
would re-expand from 160 pounds to 20 pounds, and occupy 1
inch space, before fresh gas could be admitted into the com-
pressor. This 1 inch would be deducted from the effective stroke
and by assuming a compressor having a 10-inch stroke, would
mean a loss of 10 per cent.
Refrigerating Effect of Medium.
The refrigerating effect of 1 cb. ft. of gas is represented by the
latent heat of 1 Ib. of gas, divided by the volume of 1 lb. of gas.
From the latent heat, however, we have to deduct the amount
of refrigeration, which is required to reduce the temperature of
the liquid from the condenser temperature to the refrigerator
temperature. This amount is the difference in temp, multiplied
by the spec, heat of the medium.
hi - (t - t x ) s
v
t = condens. temp., ti = refr. temp., s = spec, heat of medium,
hi = latent heat at temp, ti, v = volume of 1 lb. of gas in cub.
ft. at refr. temp. (See ammonia table.)
Example. What is the refr. capacity of a double-acting am-
monia compressor 9 X 15, 70 rev. p. min., temp, in refr. = 0,
temp, in condenser = 85.
By assuming an efficiency of 90%, the actual displacement
3.14 X 0.75 2
would be 2 - X 1.25 X 70 X 0.9 = 69.3 cb. ft. p. min.
4
555.5 (85 0) 1
The refr. effect per cb. ft. = -- = 52.3 units p. min.
9.1
Capacity of compressor = 69.3 X 52.3 = 3624.4 units per min., or
3624.4 X 60 X 24
in tons of refr. = -- = 18.4 tons in 24 hrs.
284,000
Cubic capacity of compressors per ton per min. =
= 4.18 cub. ft.
0.9 X 18.4
34
COMPRESSOR.
REFRIGERATING EFFECT (B. T. U.) OF ONE CU. FT. OF AMMONIA
GAS PER MIN.
o .
A
1 Temperature of the Liquid in Degrees F.
o
*- u
11*
65 70 0/ 75 80 J 85 J 90 95 100 105
2&
pu
Q.
~
Corresponding Condenser Pressure (gauge). Ibs. per sq. in
-
<3j3
103 115 127 139 153 168 184 200 218
H
\
G.Pres.
-27
1
27.30
27.01
26.73
"26.44
26.16
25.87
25.59
25.30
25.02
-20
4
33.74
33.40
33.04
32.70
32.34
31.99
31.64
31.30
30.94
6
36.36
36.48
36.10
35.72
35.34
34.96
34.58
34.20
33.82
-10
9
42.28
41.84
41.41
40.97
40.54
40.10
39.67
39.23
38.80
- 5
13
48.31
47.81
47.32
46.82
46.33
45.83
45.34
44.84
44.35
16
54.88
54.32
53.76
53.20
52.64
52.08
51.52
50.96
50.40
5
20
61.50
60.87
60.25
59.62
59.00
58.37
57.75
57.12.
56.50
10
24
68.66
67.97
67.27
66.58
65.88
65.19
64.49
63.80
63.10
15
28
75.88
75.12
74.35
73.59
72.82
72.06
71.29
70.53
69.76
20'
33
85,15
84.30
83.44
82.59
81.73
80.88
80.02
79.17
78.31
25
39
95.50
94.54
93.59
92.63
91.68
90.72
89.97
88.81
87.86
30
45
106.21
105.15
104.09
103.03
101.97
100.91
99.85
98.79
97.73
35
51
115.69
114.54
123.39
112.24
111.09
109.94
108.79
107.64
106.49
CUBIC CAPACITY OF COMPRESSOR (PER MIN.) PER TON OF REFR.
(IN 24 HRS.)
1-
&
Temperature of the Gas in Degrees F.
2s
IB
65 70 75 80 ; 85* 90 95 100 105
*f
e a
Q
o'fjS
Corresponding Condenser Pressure (gauge), Ibs. per $q. in.
H
UjH
103 115 127 139 153 168 184 200 218
-27
G.Pres.
1
7.22
7.3
7.37
7.46
7.54
7.62
7.70
7.79
7.88
-20
4
5.84
5.9
5.96
6.03
6.09
6.16
6.23
6.30
6.43
-15
6
5.35
5.4
5.46
5.52
5.58
5.64
5.70
5.77
5.83
-10
9
4.66
4.73
4.76
4.81
4.86
4.91
4.97
5.05
5.08
- 5
13
4.09
4.12
4.17
4.21
4.25
4.30
4.35
4.40
4.44
O 9
16
3.59
3.63
3.66
3.70
3.74
3.78
3.83
3.87
3.91
5
20
U20
3.24
3.27
3.30
3.34
3.38
3.41
3.45
3.49
10
24
2.87
2.9
2.93
2.96
2.99
3.02
3.06
3.09
3.12
15
28
2.59
2.61
2.65
2.68
2.71
2.73
2.76
2.80
2.82
20
33
2.31
2.34
236
2.38
2.41
2.44
2.46
2.49
2.51
25
39
2.06
2.08
2.10
2.12
2.15
2.17
2.20
2.22
2.2-4
30
45
1.85
1.87
1.89
1.91
1.93
1.95
1.97
2.00
2.01
35
51
1.70
1.72
1.74
1.76
177
1.79
1.81
1.83
1.85
Horse Power Required.
The worfc required from the compressor for every Ib. of liquid
consists in lifting the latent heat through the range of refr. temp.
to condens. temp.
W =
hi (T = abs. refr. temp. =ti + 460)
The amount of liquid per minute is the product of the cubic
capacity and the weight of 1 cb. ft. of gas at refr. temp.
Example continued : The work for above compressor would 1 be
t ti 85 X 555.5 X 69.3 X 0.11
- hi Ci a = -- = 782.5 units per min.
T 460
COMPRESSOR.
35
782.5 X 778
= 18.5 H. P.
33,000
The actual horse-power required to operate the compressor must
necessarily be larger on account of the friction of piston, stuffing
box, etc., which varies with the size of the compressor and the
method of transmission of power. For safe calculations assume
the actual horse-power to be at least 1.4 times the theoretical.
18.5 X 1.4 = rd. 26 h. p.
H. P. BASED ON 27 LBg. BACK PRESS. AND 156 LBS. CONDENSING
PRESS.
Tons refr. .. 5 10 15 20 30 50 75 100 150 200 300 500
H. P 10 15 20 25 37 60 90 120 1-80 240 350 580
HORSE POWER PER CU. FT. OF AMMONIA PER MINUTE.
CONDENSER PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE.
P
9
P
103
"5
127
139
153
168
184
200
218
105'
2661
.2796
.2971
Te,,
65"
70'
75
80
85
90 "
95"
100"
20
15
10
.1809
.1864
.1937
.1916
.1980
.2067
.2022
.2097
.2196
.2128
.2214
.2325
2235
2330
2454
.2342
2447
2583
2448
2563
2712
.2554
2679
2842
:i
20
5
5
.2001
.2048
.2083
.2144
.2206
.2257
.2287
.2363
.2430
.2430
.2521
2604
2573
.2679
.2778
.271C
.2836
.2952
2859
.2994
.3125
.3002
.3151
.3299
.3145
.3309
.3473
3
33
10
15"
20
.2096
.2089
.2054
.2286
.2298
.2282
2477
.2506
.2510
.2667
.2715
.2738
.2858
.2924
.2966
.3048
.3133
.3195
.3239
.3342
.3423
.3429
.3551
.3651
3620
.3760
3879
39
45
5*
25
30
35"
.1992
.1897
.1768
.2240
.2169
.2062
.2489
.2440
. 2357
.2738
.2711
.2651
.2987
.2982
.2946
.323fi
.3253
.3241
.3485
.3524
.3535
.3734
.3795
.3830
3983
.406(5
.4124
Economy of Compression Machine.
The economy depends mainly upon the back pressure. Maxi-
mum economy is obtained at 28 Ibs. suction pressure and about
150 Ibs. condensing pressure. Under these conditions, for a non-
CAPACITY OF COMPRESSOR IN TONS OF REFR. UNDER DIFFERENT
BACK PRESSURES.
Diameter [
Suction or Back Pressure Gauge
Com- 1 Dnmeter
Stroke
pressors
Inches
Engine
Inches
Inches
5
Pounds
10
Pounds
15.C7 j 20
Pounds 1 Pounds
25
Pounds
' 30
Pounds
7>^
H 1 A
10
6
8 1 10 ii
'3
*5
9
\$y<z
12
13
16
,2O
23
26
29
1 1
16
15
1 9
24
30
34 | 39
44
12^*2
18
18
26
33
40 , 4 6 | 52
59
14
20
21
39
49
60
69 78
88
16
.24
24
58
73
90 | 103
118 132
18
26
28
81
102
125 i 143
163 [ 184
20
28^
32
114
142
175 j 200
229
258
22^
32
36
146
I8 3
22 5
257
294
33 *
25
36
42
194
244
300
343
392
442
30
44
48
324
407
500
571
654,
736 v
COMPRESSOR.
condensing steam engine, consuming coal at the rate of 3 Ibs.
per hour per I. H. P. of steam cylinders, 24 Ibs. of ice-refriger-
ating effect are obtained per Ib. of coal consumed. For the same
condensing pressure, and with 7 Ibs. suction pressure, which
affords temperatures of degrees F., the possible economy falls
to about 14 Ibs. of "refrigerating effect" per Ib. of coal consumed.
The above table, compiled by the York Mfg. Co., gives the
sizes of compressors and their capacity under different back pres-
sures, based on 60 condensing water. The condensing pressiire
is determined by the amount of condensing water supplied to
liquefy the ammonia in the condenser. If the latter is about 1
gallon per minute per ton of refrigerating effect per 24 hours,
a condensing pressure of 150 results, if the initial temperature
of the water is about 56 degrees F. Twenty-five per cent, less
water causes the condensing pressure to increase to 190 Ibs.
The work of compression is thereby increased about 20 per
cent., and the resulting "economy" is reduced to about 181 Ibs.
of "ice effect" per Ib. of coal at 28 Ibs. suction pressure, and
11.5 at 71 Ibs. If, on the other hand, the supply of water is
made 3 gallons per minute, the condensing pressure may be con-
fined to about 105 Ibs. The work of compression is thereby re-
duced about 25 per cent., and a proportional increase of economy
results.
If the engine may use a condenser to secure a vacuum an
increase of economy of 25 per cent, is available over the above
figures, making the Ibs. of "ice effect" per Ib. of coal for 150
ibs. condensing pressure and 28 Ibs. suction pressure 30.0, and
for 71 Ibs. suction pressure, 17.5. In this case it may be assumed
that water will also be available for condensing the ammonia to
obtain as low a condensing pressure as about 100 Ibs., and the
economy of the refrigerating machine becomes for 28 Ibs. back
pressure, 43.0 Ibs. of "ice effect" per Ib. of coal, or for 71 Ibs.
back pressure, 27.5 Ibs. of ice effect per Ib. of coal. If a
compound condensing engine can be used with a steam con-
DIAGRAM SHOWING ECONOMY AT DIFFERENT BACK PRESSURES.
25
20
10
20
15
10
40* 35 30 25 20* 15 10* 5 -5 -10* -15*
8 SI 45 39 33 2# 24- 19 16 13 9 6
REFRIGERATOR PRESSURE 4 TEMPERATURE.
COMPRESSOR. 37
sumption per hour per horse-power of 161 Ibs. of water, the
economy of the refrigerating machine may be 25 per cent, higher
than the figures last named, making for 28 Ibs. back pressure a
refrigerating effect of 54.0 Ibs. per Ib. of coal, and for 7 Ibs. back
pressure a refrigerating effect of 34.0 Ibs. per Ib. of coal. (Prof.
J. A. Denton.)
In the above diagram the line marked capacity of machine
shows tho diminished capacity as the back pressure is reduced.
If the machine has a capacity of 10 tons at a return pressure
of 28 pounds, as shown by vertical height of the curve, it has a
capacity of 5 tons only with a return pressure of _ 6 pounds.
Under the same circumstances the cost of fuel per ton is in-
creased in the ratio of the vertical heights to the curve marked
cost of fuel, namely, from 14.5 to 25. In other words the cost
per ton is nearly doubled while the capacity is halved. The
work as seen by the curve marked work required diminishes very
slowly. (De La Vergne Co.)
Dry vs. Wet Compression.
A dry compression plant will need, with an expansion evaporat-
ing system: A medium size compressor; a large size evaporating
system; a small amount of ammonia.
A dry compression plant will need, with a flooded evaporating
system: A small size compressor; a small size evaporating sys-
tem; a large amount of ammonia.
A wet compression plant will need, with a wet compression
evaporating system: A large size compressor; a medium size evap-
orating system; a medium amount of ammonia.
According to C. Vollmann, the wet compression system has the
following advantages over the dry compression system:
First. By letting the ammonia vapors return to the com-
pressor in a partially wet state, we are enabled to work with a
higher back pressure, thereby having the ammonia gas in the
refrigerator pipes of a higher density than if the vapors were
perfectly dry. Furthermore, we are enabled to keep the refrigera-
tor pipes partially filled with liquid ammonia, in consequence of
which the surface of the refrigerator can be materially reduced.
Second. By keeping the compressor parts at a cool tempera-
ture, the compressor draws in a greater amount of vapors than
where the parts are highly overheated. With a dry compressor,
although the cylinder is water jacketed, the internal parts are
kept at a yery high temperature, and when the dry ammonia
vapors are drawn into the compressor, they immediately get heated
up, and by expanding prevent the compressor from drawing in its
full amount of vapors.
Third. By keeping the compressor at a cool temperature, the
compressor oil which is taken into the compressor through the
stuffing box cannot evaporate, but is kept in its liquid state, and
as such deposited in the oil collector.
Fourth. With the wet compression system, the engineer in
charge knows if sufficient ammonia is circulated through the sys-
tem or not, by placing his hand on the delivery pipe. If this
keeps fairly warm, a sufficient amount of ammonia is passed
through the system.
In regard to Vollmann's theory (No. 2) that a larger volume of
vapor could be handled by the wet compressor at each stroke,
we must not overlook the fact that the interchange of heat be-
tween the ammonia and the walls of the compressor cylinder is
evidently much greater than anticipated by many, as was proved
in the tests made, at the test plant of the York Mfg. Co. Six-
teen of these tests were made in four series of four runs each,
the speeds used being 40, 60, 80 and 100 revolutions per minute
COMPRESSOR.
in each series. The results proved that while the liquid handled
is slightly less with dry compression, the cooPng done was about
fifteen per cent, more with dry than with wet compression, and
further that the cooling decreases rapidly toward the lower
speeds with wet compression.
Tests made with the horizontal double-acting compressor indi-
cated that the results were even more in favor of the dry com-
pression than those obtained previously with the vertical com-
pressor. All the tests were made at the standard head pressure
of 185 pounds, gauge, and it was observed that in comparing the
tonnage made at a given back pressure for the two conditions
that the difference increases rapidly as the suction pressure de-
creases. The tonnage made with five pounds suction pressure was
nearly three times that made with wet compression at the same
suction pressure, while at twenty-five pounds the difference was
only about one-half more in favor of dry compression.
In a series of tests made in 1904, the results showed that the
higher the temperature of the discharge gas, the more cooling
was done per unit of piston displacement and per unit of
power expended.
In tables I and II a comparison is made between three machines.
The vertical single-acting machine of 100 tons refrigerating capacity
is taken as the basis.
The wet compression machines are assumed to have 70%
rolumetric efficiency when operating under dry compression con-
ditions.
TABLE NO. I.
Comparative Amount of Work that can be gotten out of 18-inch by 28-inch
Compressors, under the conditions stated, and the Size and Horse Power of*the '
Engine needed to drive each machine.
Condition
Type
Machine
COMPRESSOR
ENGINE
No.
Size
Volir
metric
Effi-
ciency
Tons
Refrigr
Size
I. H. !.
H. P.
Ton
Bry Comp.
ry Comp.
Wet Comp.
Vertical S. A.
Horiz. D. A.
Horiz. D. A.
2
1
1
18x28
18x28
18x28
80*
70*
100
88
64
'26x28
26 x28
251x28
170
171.6
167
1 7
1 95
261
TABLE NO. II.
Comparative Size of Compressor required to do 100 tons refrigration under the
conditions stated, also the Size and Horse Power of Engine needed to drive each
machine.
COMPRESSOR
ENGINE^
Condition
Type
Machine
No.
Size
Volu-
metric
Effi-
||
Size
I. H. P.
H.P.
per
ciency
H c*
Ton
Dry Comp.
Dry Comp.
Wet Comp.
Vertical S. A.
Horiz D. A.
Horiz. D. A.
2
1
1
18 x28
19ix28
224x28
80*
70 <
100
100
100
26 x28
28x28
32ix28
170
195
261
1.7
1.95
2.61
Conditions: 15.67 Ibs. suction pressure; 185 Ibs. discharge pressure: no liquid
cooling: one-quarter cut-off in steam cylinder; 90 Ibs. steam pressure: and 59
revolutions per minute.
The Condenser
A large condenser surface will greatly assist the economical
working of the machine. The amount of pipe depends on the
temperature of the cooling water, as with warmer water a higher
latent heat of the medium has to be transferred to the cooling
water.
Condenser Surface.
The condenser surface equals the product of the latent heat and
the amount of liquid passing the compressor per minute, divided
by the heat transmission.
Example continued : How large is the surface of an atmospheric
condenser for an 18-ton refrigerating machine?
hk
F =
m (t ti)
Where h = latent heat of ammonia at 85 = 500; k = amount
of ammonia passing the compressor p. min. (which is the product
of the cubic capacity of the compressor and the weight of 1 cb.
ft. of gas at the refr. temp. = 69.3 X 0.11 = 7.6); m = number
of heat units transferred per minute per sq. ft. of iron pipe per
degree of difference (m = 1 for atm. condensers, 0.8 for sub-
merged condensers) ; t = temp, of ammonia in coils = 85 P. ; t t =
temp, of water (mean between initial of 70 and final of 80
75
500 X 7.6
F =
= 380 sq. ft.
1 (85 75)
= 21 sq. ft. per ton of refrigeration.
For safe calculations employ for atm. condensers the following
values :
Initial temp, of water ..... 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85'
Condensing surface in sq. ft.
per ton of refr .......... 19 20.5 22 24 26 28 30.534.5
In case of submerged condensers we have to add 20 per cent, to
the above amount of surface, as the heat transmission is 0.8
instead of 1.
Amount of Cooling Water.
By calculating the amount of cooling for above condenser we
have to divide the latent heat of the liquid passing the com-
pressor per minute (which is 7.6 Ibs.) by the amount of heat which
has been taken up by the cooling water (difference between the
final and initial temperature of the water).
500 X 7.6
A = -- = 380 Ibs. per minute.
80 70
= 2.6 gal. per minute per ton of refr.
For safe calculations use the values given in the following
table, based on a final temperature of water of 95 F. :
COOLING WATER TEB TON OF REFRIGERATION.
Initial temperature of water 50 % gal. per minute.
55 %
60 %
65 1
70 1H
75 1%
80 2
85 2%
For submerged condensers allow at least 20 per cent, more
water.
CONDENSER.
d
FIG. 13 VARIOUS TYPES OF AMMONIA CONDENSERS.
a, Standard top fed. c, top fed, continuous wound coil, c, bottom
fed ("De La Vergne"). d, "American Linde." e, "Prick." f and g,
double pipe, h, submerged condenser, i, shell and coil condenser.
CONDENSER.
Where local conditions are favorable to allow the condenser
to be put on the roof and exposed to the winds, the same cooling
water may be used over and over again, provided the atmospheric
condenser is built sufficiently high, as it is done in Germany.
Another method to economize is by employing a cooling tower.
(See notes on cooling towers.)
Builders of refrigerating machines rate the atmospheric am-
monia condensers for average conditions as follows:
The Fred W. Wolf do. : 22.5 sq. ft. per ton of refrigeration ;
condensers are 242" pipes high by 20 fet. long.
The De La Vergne Machine Co. : 13 sq. ft. per ton of refrigera-
tion ; condensers are 18 2" pipes high by 20 ft. long:
The Linde Co. of Germany : Submerged condensers have 3'2 sq. ft.
for small machines of 10 to 25 tons down to 19.5 sq. ft. for
machines of 100-ton refr. capacity ; atmospheric condensers are
48 1%" pipes high (2" centers) by 16' 7" long.
Double pipe condensers have of late come more to the foreground.
Their high efficiency is due to the perfect heat exchange, which
is obtained through observing the counter-current principle. They
are rated on a basis of about 14% foot of pipe per ton of re-
frigeration.
Most commonly we find 2-in. pipe inside of 3-in. pipe or 1*4 -in.
pipe inside of 2-in. pipe. Some manufacturers prefer to circulate
the cooling water through the inner pipe, some through the outer
Tables No. Ill and No. IV give the capacities and horse power per ton refrig-
eration of one section counter-current double-pipe condenser, li-inch and 2-inch
pipe. 12 pipes high. 19 feet outside water bends, for water velocities 100 feet to
400 feet per minute; initial temperature of condensing water 70 degrees.
TABLE NO. Ill -High Pressure Constant.
CONDENSING WATER
t\
J3
o
c
HORSE POWER PER TON
REFRIGERATION
111
i
re o>
Utf
Condensing
Pressure.
Lbs. per square
Velocity
through ll-inch
pipe.
Feet per min.
Total Gallons
used per min.
Gallons per
min, per ton
refrigeration
"Sufi
W .S
g-S
'C 3- rt
fes^
00
Engine
driving
compressor
Circulating
water through
condenser
Total engine
and water
Circulation
100
7.77
.16
2.28
,6.7
185
1.71
0.0016
7116
150
. 11.65
.165
5.75
10.
185
1.71
0.004
.714
200
15.54
.165
9.98
13.4
185
1.71
0.007
.717
250
19.42
.18
15.
16.4
185
1.71
0.011
.721
300
23.31
.24
21.6
18.8
185
1.71
0.016
.726
400
.31 .08
1.30
37.8
24.
185
1.71
0.030
.74
pipe. The double pipe condensers are built 18 ft. long and from
2 to 12 pipes high. For large machines take several sections, but
not over 12 pipes high.
Tests made at York determined the value of a square foot of
condensing surface under different conditions.
The data relate only to 70 condensing water, and the ralues
given will not be true for any other temperature or condition than
those stated.
The following tables show the effect of increasing the con-
densing water passing through a double-pipe condenser, to do cer-
tain work. If "capacity" is the requirement, table No. Ill shows
what can be done and what the cost in power will be. If a
"re-duction in horse-power" is the requirement, table No. IV
shows how to obtain it and at what expense.
TABLE NO. Ft Capacity* Constant.
100
7.77
0.777
2.28
10.
225
2i04
0.001
?.041
150
11.65
1.165
5.75
10.
185
.71
0.004
.714
200
15.54
1.554
9.98
.10.
165
.54
0.009
.549
250
19.42
1.942
15.
10.
155
.46
0.018,
.478
300
23.31
2.331
21.6
10.
148
.40
0.030
.43
400
31.08
3.108
37.8
10.
140
.33
0.071
.401
NOTES Above tables are based on the heat transmission obtained for various,
velocities of water, as averaged up from York Manufacturing Company's tests on
double-pipe condensers.
The horse power per ton is for single-acting compressor and 15.67 Ibs. suction
pressure.
The friction in water pump and connections should be added to water horse
power and to total horse power.
saqaat m j)aarat(j|
jojBjBdas no P" B 2 2 2 2 2-2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 i2 2 * (
JBdas |!O Ptru
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jaaj ui sadtj
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paj;nba H a*
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>000000WOS90Of0>0<eOSO500<
saqonj
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89333
^gllll
SJnOH K -"ad , aQ ia oo
CjlOBdBO 8CIJB I rlrlTl
ja8ijjaa sooj, |
Sf P
g 1 1
ii
II!
: *i
1 -t
HI
iif
III
si
2 is
d on condensing water
o. 8, No. 10 and No. 10A
!!2A, No. 23A and No. 24
ed is b
e.
with
E, N
^2
it!
li
g|?l
II
NOTES ON COMPRESSION MACHINES. 43
CAPACITY OF SMALL COMPRESSORS. (VERTICAL SINGLE ACTING.)
If
j
1
"x
= 2
*
'U
f
* .
5 "3
1
1
II
"x
So
11
7.
3.S
1 B
aS.
if
if
c^ 3
II
11
s
I
o
Height
floor to
Mac hi ii
i *yi 6
,
140
i
^Tor
^Ton
B"5"
2' 6"
' 6
1 }'A 7
4 8
(
t IO
3
'K '
>i "
^ "
2' 5"
3'
: ' 6
3' 2*
'8
5'# to
6 10
5^ 10
6 m
2
2
too
IOO
90
90
10
12
3
4
6
8
i>2 "
2
3
4
3' 6"
3't"
4' 4"
4' 4"
' 4
' 4
' 6
' 6
. 4' S' .
4' 8"
48'
4' S"
' 3
3
3
3
NOTES ON COMPRESSION MACHINES:
PART III APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL
REFRIGERATION
Insulation
The insulation of cold storage rooms is a matter of vital im-
portance when viewed from an economic standpoint. A large
percentage of the actual work of a refrigerating machine is re-
quired to make up for transfer of heat through the walls, floor*
and ceilings occasioned by improper insulation.
The general rule applied to all insulation is: An air-tight sur-
face towards the source of heat and insulating strata towards
the cold side of the wall.
Attention may be called to the following points:
(1) Air is one of the best non-conductors of heat, but it must
be kept still; if it is allowed room to form currents it will
convey a large quantity of heat from the outer wall to the inner
wall by convection, since rapid currents are formed when air
is free to move between walls differing only a few degrees in
temperature.
(2) Filling in with loose non-conducting material must be done
with great care, since it is liable to settle in places.
(3 The penetration of air and moisture are to be specially
guarded against by the use of pitch in connection with brick or
stone, or paper when wood is used.
(4) Materials should be selected for insulation that are free
from unpleasant odor and non-absorbent; in wood, spruce i*
preferred, since it is free from knots, has little or no odor, and
is, at the same time, comparatively cheap.
(5) In applying wooden insulation all the joints between the
boards should be laid in white lead, and triangular wooden strips
with paper behind should be put in every corner in the room.
The paper between the layers of boards must be carefully folded
in the corners so as not to break, and laid so that the edges of
the paper overlap each other.
(6) The flow of heat is nearly proportional to the difference
of temperature between the inside and the outside wall; this
circumstance must be taken into consideration in arranging in-
sulation; what would be sufficient in a cold storage room to be
kept at 36 degrees would be totally inadequate in a case of a
freezing room to have a temperature of 5 to 10 degrees. It is a
good plan to locate a freezing room inside of a cold storage room
so that the difference of temperature between its inside and
outside walls may be more moderate.
(7) The best insulation is none too good, and is by tar tha
cheapest in the end.
Fireproof Cold Storage Warehouse Construction.
(J. E. Starr, A. S. R. B. Trans. 1907. Abridged.)
Three classes of fireproof construction :
Class A. Cold storage buildings erected with outer and inner
walls of tile, the outer wall not carrying any weight but its own,
and the floors a combination of concrete and tile, weights carried
on the inner walls and 1 partitions. Insulation between inside and
outside wall a continuous fill.
Class B. Cold storage warehouse containing an inside building,
with reinforced concrete columns and girders, and with floors of
either reinforced concrete or combination of reinforced concrete and
tile, all weights carried on columns. Outside walls either of brick
INSULATION. 45
or tile, or a combination of both. Inside walls of vitrified tile. In-
sulation between inside and outside walls a continuous fill.
Class C. Cold storage building with iron framework with weights
carried partially on columns and 1 partially on outside brick walls,
all ironwork covered with fireproofing. Inside wall of vitrified tile
Insulation between inside and outside walls a continuous fill.
Of Class A (all tile) one example may be quoted of a three-story
house in Washington Court House, Ohio.
This house consisted of an outside wall of two 4-inch hollow
vitrified tile, an inside wall of one course of 4-inch vitrified tile
standing eight inches away from the outside wall. The floors rested
on the inside wall and on the partitions which later divided the
house into three sections.
The space between inner and outer walls was filled with granu-
lated cork, making an unbroken fill from bottom to the small garret,
or a circulating air space between the top floor of the cold rooms
and the roof. The top of this filled space was closed with tile which
could be easily taken off, so that if any settling occurred it might
be observed and filled in.
Experience of four years has shown, however, that little, if any,
settling occurs. Experience in filling an 8-inch space showed that
the cork would not "bridge" and leave voids in the 8-inch space
even when filled from a height of twenty or thirty feet.
The inside wall was therefore entirely surrounded by insulation
and no heat could pass through it without first passing through the
cork, except at the very small areas where the inside and outside
wall were tied by extending the partions through to the outside wall.
The tile was laid up in cement mortar and panels of outside wall
surface 25 feet wide and 33 feet high, have successfully withstood
wind pressure and all outside influence.
In this particular building the floors were of the well known
Johnson type. This consists of a reinforced concrete tension mem-
ber, about one inch thick, covering the entire span or "bay." On
top of these two courses of 6-inch tile was laid a finished cement
wearing floor.
It will be observed that this method of construction places the
tile in compression while the thin concrete with its strengthening
rods and web are in tension.
Long spans can thus be successfully built to carry far in excess
of the maximum cold storage load 1 of 400 pounds per square foot.
Partitions were made with double 4-inch tile with from six to
eight inches of cork filled space between.
The first building of Class B was nine stories high and was built
in St. Paul, Minn.
The building proper was entirely carried on columns very much
as our present skyscrapers are built, excepting that the columns
were all of reinforced concrete, and the outer skin was not car-
ried on the outside girders as in the case of office buildings, but
was entirely independent of the main structure and standing about
eight feet away from it at all points.
The outside wall was only 12 inches thick from bottom to top,
but was reinforced by an imbedded "I" beam framework.
There was only about a square inch of conducting material be-
tween the outside wall and the inside structure at the head of each
column and its conducting effect practically nil as compared to the
total.
As the floors and outside columns and girders were thus about
eight inches from the outside wall it was only necessary to build
from floor to ceiling a 4-inch vitrified tile wall and fill the 8-inch
space with the non-conducting material giving the same continuous
insulation as at first described in case of Class A.
The outsid'e wall was thoroughly waterproofed by a thick odor-
46 INSULATION.
less coating on the inside (which may be in time followed up by
an outside water proofing).
The floors in this building were 6-inch reinforced concrete or
reinforced concrete girders and beams in spans.
The insulation of floors was made on top, using either Lith or
cork board from two to four inches thick, depending on conditions.
These insulating boards were laid on the floor slap, well "doped,"
with odorless pitch and waterproofed on top. Over this a two-
inch concrete floor was laid, reinforced* with a wire web and the
whole finished off with a %-inch wearing floor of cement and sand
rendered waterproof.
Partitions were of double 4-inch hollow tile with insulating filled
space between from four to eight inches.
Under the Class G of construction comes the cold storage build*-
ing of the Murphy Storage & Ice Co., of Detroit. This was a ten-
story building constructed with built-up steel columns and with
steel girders running longitudinally with the greatest dimension of
the building, the end of girders resting on the walls, and with "I"
beams running between the giroTers and from the girders to the
walls on a spacing of a little over four feet. The walls therefore
carried their share of the weight of the outside spans. The floors
were of a combination tile and concrete.
Four-inch tile walls were built from floor to ceiling flush with
the edge of this floor, leaving, therefore, a continuous fill from
top to bottom eight inches thfck, excepting where the "I" beams
ran into the wall at each story on centers of a little over four
feet.
The ends of the "I" beams which projected through the 8-inch
space between the edge of the floor and the outside wall were care-
fully wrapped with hair felt dipped in an odorless compound and
made a tight joint with the outside wall.
The inner surfaces of the outside wall were coated continuously
from top to bottom with a thick coat of odorless waterproofing
material and the inside 4-inch wall was built up in the same man-
ner as described for Classes A and B and the space between filled
with granulated cork.
The columns and "I" beams, wherever exposed, were covered
with a hollow tile fireproofing, plastered on the outside. The
partitions were constructed of double walls of hollow tile with a
fill of from four to eight inches of insulating material between, as
in the case of the other houses described. The floors were also
Insulated, as before described, by laying from two to four inches
of lith board on the floors, thoroughly "doped"' and waterproofed
with a 2-inch course of concrete on top, reinforced with wire netting
and a finishing course of %-inch of well troweled cement and sand.
The floors on all three classes of these buildings were finally
waterproofed by a concrete filler and a concrete paint presenting
a glassy surface, and impervious to water.
All of the storage rooms in these buildings were singularly free
from odor, and the air was unusually keen and sweet as com-
pared with buildings constructed with wooden insulation, as all of
the surfaces were either of vitrified tile or waterproofed concrete,
neither of which absorb or give out odors. It may also be pointed
out that the continual passing of the air over the calcium brine
surfacers greatly purified the air, as it has been proven that
chloride of calcium is quite effective as a germicide. The re-
searches on this subject conducted* by Dr. O. Profe, Dr. Hesse and
other German authorities show conclusive results on this point.
All doors throughout all of these buildings were covered with
either galvanized iron or tin in accordance with the underwriters'
specifications.
It was ascertained that where buildings were divided into sepa-
INSULATION.
47
rate fire risks, the conduction from one floor risk to the other
through the continuous girders could be best avoided by placing
the skeleton framework of each fire risk entirely on its own col-
umn, instead of using a common column between, the two fire
risks. This allows a continuous fill of insulating material between
each fire risk.
It has been proven conclusively that almost any of the insulating
materials in common use when put up between, fireproof walls of
tile or brick do not contain sufficient air to support combustion in
case of fire playing on the inner or outer wall. Tests have been
made by making an opening of good! size in outer wall, exposing
the insulation, and building a hot bonfire on the outside imme-
diately against the opening, and* continuing the test for several
hours. At the end of the test it was found that the insulation was
only charred a few inches hack from the opening.
In a general way it may be stated that'the cost of the buildings
per cubic foot, fully insulated, will run, if anything, less than the
cost of a wooden building whether of the ordinary girder or floor
beam type, or of mill construction, or of a combination of iron,
and wood, and that the general method here described of prac-
tically constructing the inside of a building with a continuous
course of insulation all around has entirely obviated many of the
difficulties which might be apprehended in the use of these ma-
terials.
The fire risk is also a very important feature as the first asking
rate on these buildings was only 40c. on contents, which is only
about 1-3 the average rate on wooden or mill constructed buildings,
and in some cases % the rate. As to the buildings themselves, the
owners as a rule feel that they are practically indestructible and
carry their own insurance.
A comparison of the fire risk in a fireproof cold storage ware-
house with the average so-called fireproof building is not a fair one
on account of the fact that there are practically no openings into
the main part of the warehouse, while the average fireproof office
building is vulnerable in a general conflagration, owing to the fact
that a very large percentage of its outside surface is made up of
window openings, and that it is divided into small rooms containing
in the doors, trim and other woodwork a large amount of in-
flammable material.
TANK INSULATION.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION.
TRANSVERSE SECTION,
FIG. 14.
48 INSULATION.
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT THROUGH 1%" TO 2" IRON PIPES PER
SQ. FT. PER HOUR PER DEGREE OF DIFF. IN TEMP.
Mode of Operation B. T. U. Example.
Ammonia gas inside, water out-
side 50 Submerged Condenser.
Ammonia gas inside, running
water outside 60 Atmospheric Condenser.
Ammonia gas inside, brine out-
side 25 Brine Tank.
Ammonia gas inside, wort out-
side (counter current) ....... 60 Dir. exp. beer cooler.
Ammonia gas inside, air out-
side 2-8 Direct expansion.
Cold >brine inside, water out-
side 80 Water Cooler.
Cold brine inside, water out-
side 60 Distilled Water Cooler.
Cold brine inside, wort outside 70 Brine Beer Cooler.
Cold 1 brine inside, wort outside
(counter current) 75 Baudelot Cooler with brine.
Am. liquor inside, water outside
(counter current) 60 Absorber.
Am. liquor inside and outside
(counter current) 50 Exchanger.
Water inside and outside (count-
er current) 50 Exchanger.
Steam inside, water outside
(counter current) 500 Steam Condenser.
Steam inside, water or am.
liquor outside 300 Am. Liquor Still.
Steam insid'e, air outside 2-3 Steam pipes.
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT THROUGH VARIOUS INSULATIONS PER
SQ. FT. IN 24 HOURS PER DEGREE OF DIFF. IN TEMP. B.T.U.
2 boards with paper, 1 inch air space, 5 inches Nonpareil
sheet cork, paper, board 0.9
1 board with paper 3 inches Nonpareil sheet cork, paper,
board 2.1
1 board with paper, 2 inches Nonpareil sheet cork, 2 boards
with paper 3
2 boards with paper, 4 inches granulated cork, 2 boards
with paper 1.7
1 board, 2% inches mineral wool, paper, board 3.62
1 board, paper, 1 inch mineral wool, paper, board 4.6
2 boards with paper, 8 inches mill shavings, paper, 2 boards
with paper, dry 1.35
Same, damp 2.1
1 board, 2 inches air space, board, 2 inches "Lath," paper,
board 1.8
4 boards, 1 inch flax sheet lining, 2 papers 2.3
1 board, 6 inches silicated strawboard (air cell), layer of
cement 2.5
4 boards, 4 quilts of hair 2.52
2 double boards with 2 papers, 1 inch hair felt 3.32
1 board, paper, 2 inches calcined pumice, paper, board 3.4
1 board, 2 inches pitch, board 4.25
4 double boards with paper (8 boards) and three % inches
air spaces 2.7
2 double boards with paper (4 boards) and 1 inch air space.. 3.71
4 boards with 2 papers, solid, no air space 4.28
Brickwall, 3 inches, hollow tile, 4 inches mineral wool, 3
inches hollow tile, cement plaster 0.7
Concrete floor, 3 inches book tiles, 6 inches dry underpiling,
double space hollow tile arches, cement plaster 0.8
INSULATION.
49
TABLE OF RELATIVE VALUE OF NON-CONDUCTING MATERIALS.
Geese Feathers 1.08
Felt, Hair or Wool . . . t.
Carded Cotton i.
Charcoal from Cork ., . 4 -8?
Sawdust 68
Paste of Fossil Meal and
Ha.r 63
Wood Ashes 61
Asbestos, ribrous . . . . , . .36
Plaster of Paris, dry ... .34
Clay, with vegetable fibre . .34
Anthracite Coal, powdered . .29
Fossil Meal 79
Straw Rope, wound spirally 77
Rice Chaff, loose .... 76
Carbonate Magnesia . . . .76
Charcoal from Wood . . ., 75
Loam, dry and open . . . . 5;
Chalk, ground .Spanish white ."
Coal Ashes ^
Gas-house Carbon . . . Y ', 47
Air Spare, undivided .' . . .at
Sand / ..17
Baked Clay, Brick . . .. ,.07
Glass . , . ..05
CEILING & FLOOR INSULATION
\\V 2''X 4" STUDDING
-V'BOARD
- 2''CORKBOARD
-CEMENT FINISH
1 CEMENT
2"CONCRETE
2 'CORKBOARD
CONCRETE
HOLLOW TILE
CEMENT FINISH
WALL INSULATION
2 LAYERS OF PAPER
3 "CORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
-CEMENT
- 3"CORKBOARD
> CEMENT FINISH
\V 2 LAYERS OF PAPER
V 2'/5 CORKBOARD
-CEMENT FINISH
CEMENT
2ya" CORKBOARD
NT FINISH
\\Y CEMENT
A\\ 2"CORKBOARD
) 2 LAYERS OF PAPER
- 2 CORKBOARD
-CEMENT FINISH
CEMENT
2"CORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
308 A
CEMENT
1V 2 " CORKBOARD
2 LAYERS OF PAPER
1W CORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
FIG. 15 DETAILS OF INSULATION.
INSULATION.
1 BOARDS
2 LAYERS OF PAPER
3"CORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
T. A G. BOARDS
1 LAYER OF PAPER
3 'CORKBOARD
1 LAYER OF PAPER
T. & G. BOARDS
1 X 3 STUDDING
CROSSHATCHED
I LAYER OF PAPER
S"CORKBOARD
1 LAYER OF PAPER
T. A G. BOARDS
1 X 3 STUDDING CROSSHATCHED
3''CORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
PORTLAND CEMENT
3"CONCRETE
3"CORKBOARD
1 LAYER OF PAPER
//^"BOARDS
PORTLAND CEMENT
3"CONCRETE
3"CORKBOARD
1 LAYtR OF PAPER
T. & G. BOARDS
PARTITION INSULATION
CEMENT FINISH
2'CORKBOARD
1"BOARD
2"X 4"STU0DING
1 LAYER OF PAPCR
2"CORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
\\Y CEMENT FINISH
\\ V \yi CORKBOARD
PITCH CEMENT
2'CORKBOARD
2 LAYERS OF PAPER
1 V2 CORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
T. A G. BOARDS
1 LAYER OF PAPER
1 1/2 CORKBOARD
1 LAYER OF PAPER
2 CORKBOARD
T. & G. BOARDS
s CEMENT FINISH
V'CORKBOARD
1 ''BOARD
2 X 4 STUDDING
1 LAYER OF PAPER
TCORKBOARD
CEMENT FINISH
309 A
FIG. 16 DETAILS OP INSULATION.
-16
X
DETAIL OF SQUARE SHELVING
NOTE: VERTICAL PIECES TO BE
NAILED UP WELL THEN DIP ENDS
OF HORIZONTAL PIECES IN PITCH
AND TAR MIXED AND DRIVE IN TIGHT
FOR GROUND FLOORS.
T.A. G.BOARDS 1 THICKNESS
V'X 2"SQUARE SHELVING
FOR INTERMEDIATE FLOORS.
T.A G. BOARDS 1 THICKNESS '
1"X 2"SQUARE SHELVING
HEAVY COAT OF PITCH
4* DRY FILLING
COMMON BOARDS 1 THICKNESS
AVY COAT OF ODORLESS P.ITCR
X 2" SQUARE SHELVING
T.A G.BOARDS 2 THICKNESSES
LAYER INSULATING PAPER 2 PLY
FOR PARTITION WALLS.
^-T. A G.BOARDS 1 THICKNESS
~1 LAYER INSULATING PAPER 2 PLY
-1"X 2"SQUARE SHELVING
HEAVY COAT OF ODORLESS PITCH
COMMON BOARDS 1 THICKNESS
4-" DRY FILLING
PLAN OF BRICK WALL AND
PARTITION INSULATION.
FIG. 17 DETAILS OF INSULATION.
ICE HOUSE FLOORS
INCLINE TOWARD CENTER S"
GROUND
FOR WALLS OF FRAME BUILDING
SECTION THROUGH DOOR
2 PLY
V'X 2"SQUARE SHELVING
=- HEAVY COAT OF ODORLESS PITCH
;= COMMON BOARDS 1 THICKNESS
6"TO 8 "OF DRY FILLING
INSULATION OF END JOISTS.
SECTION THROUGH WINDOW
TEMP.35TO 30 C
INSULATION OF BRICK WALLS.
TEMP.30TO 25
FOR FREEZING ROOMS
;
=- HEAVY COAT OF
ii^
^ HEAVY COAT OF
ODORLESS PITCH
.-^
ODORLESS PITCH
:=" COMMON BOARDS
1"X 2" SQUARE
'4-
1 THICKNESS
SHELVING
S"OF DRY FILLING J % / <,
COMMON BOARDS
SHELVING.
'^r
8"OF DRY FILLIN
* T.A G. BOARDS
- '-
1 THICKNESS
COMMON. BOARDS
1 THICKNESS
* T.4 G.BOARDS
;
1 THICKNESS
;-'";-.
f;
:
;-'-:
j
YM
-'-
,
\
1
-HEAVY COAT OF
ODORLESS PITCH
COMMON BOARDS
2 THICKNESSES
-T.4 G.BOARDS
2 THICKNESSES
1 LAYER OF IN-
SULATING PAPER
2 PLY
"OF DRY FILL
'X2"SOUARE
SECTION THROUGH
PARTITION
DOOR.
FIG. IS DETAILS OF INSULATION.
INSULATION. 53
NOTES ON INSULATION:
General Cold Storage
Cold storage comprises the preservation of perishable articles
by means of low temperature. Refrigeration is produced by
direct or indirect expansion or forced air circulation.
COLD STORAGE TEMPERATURES.
ARTICLES
c Fahr
FRUIT
FISH J
VEGETABLES
Apples ,.
Bananas
34-36
Fresh Fish ....
After Freezing
25-30
18-20
Asparagus .-
Cabbage
.33-35
7 - 1 A
Berries, fresh
Cranberries
Cantaloupes
Dates, Figs, etc
Fruits, dried
Grapes
36-40
33-34
33-40
35-40
34 - 36
Dried Fish
Oysters in shell
Oysters in tubs
CANNED GOODS
Sardines ..:
35-40
35-40
30-35
35-4
Carrots .'.,.
Celery ., , M ^ '
Dried Beans>. *,..
Dried Corn ,...'-... '
Dried Peas .. ..Jl^.,. I
Onions
j * 34
33-34
32-34
35-45
35-45
3"S-45
Lemons , . ...
Oranges ~
36-io
34-36
Fruits
Meats
5-4 Parsnips":;*." ""i:..
35-4 Potatoes.. *..
3 2 33
32-33
34-36
Peaches ...-.
p
32-33
BUTTER, EGGS. ETC.
Sauerkraut
35-33
Watermelons
MEATS
32-33
Butter . .
2-18
0-35
o-34
MISCELLANEOUS
Cigars. Tobacco '
Furs. Woolens, etc
35-42
25*35
Butterinc
Cheese...-
Brined .. .-
35-40
Eggs
9 -S 2
Honey
36-40
Beef, fresh _
33-35
LIQUIDS
Hops ....
32-34
Beef, dried
36-40
Beer. Ale, etc., bbl'd..
33-42
Maple Syrup, Sugar .
40-45
Hams, Ribs'. Shoulders,
(not brined)'
Hogs
Lard _ -
3-34
35-40
Beer, etc., bottled ..
Cider t ...
Ginger Ale
Wines ..'.,
45-50
30- o
35- o
Oils -
Poultry dressed, iced
Poultry, dry picked
Poultry, scalded. ..
Game, to freeze
35-45
28 - 30
26- 28
20 - 26
o 5
Livers .
33 - 34
FLOUR AND MEAL
Game after frozen... .<
10 28
Sheep, Lambs -. .
32-33
Buckwheat Flour . .,
3j- o
Poultry fo freeze,
'5
Ox-tails
Snusage casings
30-32 Corn Meal .'
3 8 -45 ; Oat Meal :......,.
36-40)
Poultry after frozen
Nuts, in shell
35 4
Tenderloins, Butts, etc..
33 - 34 Wheat Flour .. ...
36-40 Chestnuts , .'
33 35
Refrigeration Required.
For rough estimates the following table by Siebel, based on
an outside temperature of 80 to 90 F., is of good practical use:
CUBIC FEET PER TON OF REFR. IN 24 HOURS.
Size of
Building in Temperature.
Cubic Feet.
1,600
6,000
9,000
13,000
100 150
1,000 600
10,000 700
30,000 1,000
100,000 1,500
10
600
2,500
3,000
5,000
7,500
20
800
3,000
4,000
6,000
9,000
30
1,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
14,000
20,000
50'
3,000
12,000
18,000
25,000
40,000
This table is based on first-class insulation; when insulation
poor, double amount of refrigeration.
For accurate estimates the required refrigeration has to bo
calculated as follows:
Calculated Refrigeration,
By calculating the required refrigeration in a given case, we
must consider the following points:
(a) To cool the goods from the temperature at which they
enter the storage room down to the desired temperature. Ex-
ample, to cool 30,000 Ibs. of fresh meat a day from 95 to 35, with
an outside temperature of 85.
RI = P (t ti) s s = spec, heat (on an average = 0.8)
30,000 (95 35) 0.8
24
= 60,000 units per hour.
GENERAL COLD STORAGE. 55
If the goods are cooled below 32 F., that is, frozen, the specific
heat changes. (See table on Specific Heat.)
(b) To offset radiation through walls and floors.
The loss of cold is the total exposed area multiplied with the
difference in temperature and the respective factors of heat
transmission, which for average insulation can be taken as 3
units per degree of difference in temperature in 24 hrs. (See
chapter on Insulation.)
Example: Chill room, 40 X 50 X 10 = 20,000 cb. ft.
Side walls of room = 1,800 sq. ft.
Ceiling and floor = 4,000 sq. ft.
Total surface = 5,800 sq. ft.
5,800 (85 35) 3
R a = A (t ti) 3 =
24
36,250 units per hour.
(c) To offset loss of cold through opening of doors, etc.
Calculation is approximately 5 to 8% of totai refrigeration
(small boxes considerably more). Provide ante-rooms or gang-
ways.
R 3 =1 approx. 7,850 units per hour.
Loss through lights and the presence of persons may be calcu-
lated as follows:
Heat developed in one hour:
One workingman 500 units.
One gas light = 3,600 units.
One incandescent light of 16 c. p. = 160 units.
One ordinary caudle = 450 units.
Electric light preferable, as well as being convenient for turning
on and off.
(d) An extra amout of refrigeration is required, where forced
air circulation is used and the total air is renewed about 4 to
6 times daily. To maintain the conditions in the room as uni-
formly as possible, the renewal of the air should be continuous.
The loss of cold through air renewal depends upon the difference
of in and outside temperature, frequency of air renewal and
percentage of humidity of inner and outer air.
Example :
(1) Refrigr. r^ to precipitate the difference in moisture.
The air leaves at 35 and 70% humidity and new air enters at
85 and 80% humidity.
One cb. ft. of air at 85 and 80% hum. contains 13 X 0.8 = 10.4
grains of moisture.
One cb. ft. of air at 35 and 70% hum. contains 2.44 X 0.7 = 1.7
grains of moisture.
As one pound of vapor contains 7,000 grains, the latent heat of
one grain of moisture
1090
= = 0.15576 units.
7000
If the air is changed 6 times daily, it means
20,000 X 6
= 5000 cb. ft. of air in one hour.
24
Refrigeration FI = 5000 X 0.15576 (10.4 1.7)
= 6780 units.
(2) Refrig. r 2 to cool the air from 85 to 35.
Weight of 1 cb. ft. dry air at 35 and atm. press. = 0.087.
Spec, heat of air at constant press. = 0.2375.
56 GENERAL COLD STORAGE.
r 2 = 5000 X 0.087 X 0.2375 (85 35)
= 5000 units.
R* = i-i + r 2
= 11,780 units per hour.
This loss of cold is reduced to about 50% by providing a heat
exchanger between the outgoing and incoming air, consisting of
air ducts separated by thin sheet metal partitions.
R 4 = 5900 units per hour.
Total amount of refrigeration = R x + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 =:
R = 110,000 units per hour.
If air at 35 and 70% humidity shall be reduced in the cooler
to 21 and 70%, the reduction of temperature requires per cb. ft.
= 0.02 (35 21) = 0.28 units.
And to dry the air:
= 0.15576(2.44 X 0.7 1.36 X 0.7) = 0.117 units.
A total of 0.28 + 0.117 = 0.4 units per cb. ft.
110,000
Consequently - = 275,000 cb. ft. must pass every hour
0.4
275,000
through the cooler, what would correspond to - = nearly
20,000
14 air circulations of total cubic contents every hour.
The area of main air ducts will be, by assuming a velocity of
15 ft. per second
275,000
= = about 5 sq. ft.
15 X 3,600
The fan will require, assuming that 0.25 H. P. takes care of
35,000 cb. ft.
275,000
X 0.25 = about 2 H. P.
35,000
As one H. P. is equivalent to 2,565 units, which are directly in-
troduced into the circulated air, we have to correct the total
amount of refrigeration by 2 X 2,565 = 5,130 units.
110,000 + 5,130 = 115,130 units per hour.
115,130 X 24
284,000
= about 9.4 tons of refrigeration in 24 hrs.
Piping.
The pipes should be so arranged as to induce air circulation (see
Fig. 19). Gutters and drip pans provided where necessary.
CUBIC FEET PER FOOT OF 2" DIE. BXP. PIPE.
Size
Bldg. in Temperature.
Cub. Ft. 10 20 30 40 9 50*
100 0.5 2.3 3.6 4.5 6.5 9
1,000 1.8 7 10.6 14 20 33
10,000 3 10.5 17 22 30 48
30,000 3.5 14 23 30 42 68
100,000 4.5 17 28 37 56 100
These ratios are based on first-class insulation; when insulation
Fig. 19). Gutters and drip pans provided where necessary.
No more than 1,200 feet 2" pipe in one expansion.
For 1" pipe use 1.8 times amount of 2" pipe.
For 1*4" pipe use 1.44 times amount of 2" pipe.
When using disks, multiply amount of pipe with 4/7.
GENERAL COLD STORAGE.
57
c
[';-->
P
-> ' *
//
FIG. 19 ARRANGEMENT OF COOLING PIPES AND AIR DUCTS TO
INDUCE AIR CIRCULATION.
a, b, pipes on ceiling; c, d, e, pipes on wall; f, h, pipes in overhead lofts;
g, i, j, forced air circulation.
58 GENERAL COLD STORAGE.
Brine Cooling System,
For indirect expansion (brine cooling) use 1% times amount of
pipe.
Brine Tank. The size of the brine tank is calculated by allowing
about 60 cb. ft. of brine per ton of refr.
The amount of expansion pipe in the tank is often taken equal
to the amount of a submerged condenser. For safe calculation
allow 120 to 150 ft. of 2-inch pipe (or its equivalent in other
sizes) per ton of refrigeration in 24 hrs. In case of ice-making,
double amount.)
The coil and shell brine cooler is based on 15 sq. ft. of pipe
surface per ton of refr.
Brine Pump. Velocity about 60 ft. per min. Builders usually
figure the area of brine main by assuming one sq. inch per ton
of refr. and a discharge of the pump = 4 gals, per min. per ton
of refr.
For general cold storage purposes the direct expansion system
may be well recommended, provided that the temperatures of the
different rooms are almost the same and that the pipe runs are
short. Long runs are liable to leak and, by discharging ammonia
in the room, spoil the goods. Great care, therefore, must be taken
by having only first-class pipe work and fittings used. The flanges
must be soldered on the pipes, so as to make solid joints, and
should be made male and female, so as to prevent the lead gasket
from being blown out. If, however, the rooms are kept at widely
different temperatures, it is difficult to regulate the ammonia so
that it will flow evenly through all the rooms. The reason of
this is found in the fact that ammonia tries to settle down in the
coldest place it can find. If, for example, one room is kept at
20 degrees and the other at 40 degrees and both to be cooled in
the same time by the same machine, the ammonia has the disposi-
tion to collect in the pipes of the coldest room. If the engineer
in charge does not watch carefully, the pipes in the coldest room
will fill with liquid ammonia, and hardly any ammonia is left in
circulation.
Forced Air Circulation.
The cooling pipes (direct or indirect exp.) are calculated as
above. They are arranged in a special chamber, which is con-
nected with the rooms to be cooled by wooden air ducts. A fan
or blower is provided which draws the air from the highest part
of the room and forcing it through the cooler, brings it in con-
tact with the cold coils, where it is cooled and dried. The cooled
air leaves the cooler and is discharged back into the rooms from
which it was taken.
The necessity of having two series of coils for successful, con-
Mnued operation, and the trouble of thawing off one of them and
removing the drip-water, led to the construction of the "wot
cooler." The refrigerating coils are arranged vertically with a
gutter provided on the top of each to hold the brine. The brine
is showered over the pipes and collects in a pan, from which it
is drawn by a small centrifugal pump and returned to the gutter
to be showered again over the pipes. The whole apparatus, which
usually stands over the cold room, is enclosed in a well insulatad
chamber.
Instead of pumping brine over the expansion coils, Madison
Cooper places Calcium Chloride in the gutters above the pipe coils.
This Calcium, being highly hygroscopic, absorbs the moisture of
the air and forms a strong brine, which trickles over the pipes.
The construction of air coolers must be so that a duct from
the open air to the suction side of the fan is provided, through
which fresh air can be drawn and led into the cool room when
GENERAL COLD STORAGE. 59
required. This duct can also be made use of if the cold room is
needed in winter, when cold air from outside alone is blown into it.
In order to be able to warm the air in severe winter weather a
series of steam coils is arranged on the delivery side of the fan.
This method has not been found to answer well in very cold
weather, because the air blown into the cold room through the
lower air duct rises quickly upward and is led away by the upper
duct without producing much effect, and the air remains almost
unchanged in the lower part of the room. To obtain a sufficient
supply of air for a very cold winter day there must be a third air
duct laid on the floor of the cold room for carrying off the warm
air at the same time that some passes out through the suction
duct.
The air ducts are generally made of galvanized iron, which
have to be, where the ducts run through the engine house or other
warm places, properly insulated or they are made of tongued
and grooved boards, saturated with chloride of zinc or protosul-
phate of iron. The American Linde Company gives the following
rules:
The boards are planed smooth and laid close together and are
supported by knee frames about 2" X 1" every 10 feet and fillets
attached to the side wall and ceiling. The inside of the ducts
is left perfectly smooth to avoid friction and eddy currents. The
air is admitted and discharged through 10" X 6" openings, con-
veniently spaced along the ducts, the deliveries being in the bot-
tom of the supply ducts and the suction duct holes on the side.
The openings are fitted with hardwood doors, sliding in rebated
runners, and afford an opportunity for regulating the amount of
air and consequently the degree of cold in any room, irrespectire
of another, without the necessity of altering the speed of the
fans or the temperature of th brine.
NOTES ON GENERAL COLD STORAGE:
Brewery Refrigeration
The process of making beer briefly consist of malting and
brewing. Malting consists of :
1. Steeping the barley in water to supply moisture enough to
cause it to germinate, when it is called "malt."
2. Drying the malt on a kiln by hot air.
Brewing consists of :
1. Mashing or mixing the malt, after it is ground, with water,
the mixture being called "wort."
2. Boiling the wort in the brew kettle.
3. Cooling the hot wort in the beer cooler.
4. Fermenting the same in the fermenting tubs.
5. Racking and storing.
The boiling beer wort, coming from the brew kettle, Fig. 20,
ZLffl
FIG. 20 DIAGRAM OF BREWING BEER.
is pumped into the settling tank, from where it flows into a
cooling vat, exposed to the atmosphere (usually on the roof),
where the wort is cooled down to about 110 F.
Being cooled to 40 F. (ale to 55) in the beer cooler, ic enters
the fermenting tubs, where the heat developed by the fermenta-
tion of the wort is withdrawn by ATTEMPORATORS.
Refrigeration is applied! to, (a) beer cooler, (b) attemp orators,
(c) cellars and hop room.
Beer Cooler.
The beer cooler (Baudelot cooler) consists of two sections, the
upper section, through which well or hydrant water flows, which
cools the wort down to 70 or 60 Fahr., and the lower section,
which cools the wort down to 40 Fahr. by means of cooled brine
or direct expansion pipes (sometimes ice water).
Pipes are of 2-inch polished iron pipe. The cooling which is
imparted to them by the wort prevents rusting. Pipes covered
with copper are sometimes rendered non-conducting by lack of
contact between pipe and copper covering.
BREWERY REFRIGERATION.
61
DIMENSIONS OF LOWER SECTION OF BEER COOLER USING
DIRECT EXPANSION.
Final Temperature of Wort 40 Fahr.
Twenty-four pipes Initial temp, of wort 90
20 ft. long for 100 bbls. per hour require 120 ton refr.
1G " " " 80 " " " " 95 "
12 " " " 60 " " " " 70 "
Twenty pipes Initial temp, of wort 80
20 ft. long for 100 bbls. per hour require 100 ton refr.
16 " " " 80 " " " " 75 "
12 " " " 60 " " " " 58 " " "
Sixteen pipes Initial temp, of wort 70
20 ft. long for 100 bbls. per hour require 70 ton refr.
16 "' " " 80 " " " " 57 "
12 " " " 60 " " " " 43 "
Twelve pipes Initial temp, of wort 60
20 ft. long for 100 bbls. per hour require 48 ton refr.
16 " " " 80 " " " " 39 "
12 " " " 60 " " " " 30 "
These figures are based on five barrels of wort per hour per
foot of pipe.
If the cooling, as usually, is to be done in three hours, allow
only one-third of the pipe.
One barrel equals 32 gallons, or 265 Ibs.
In case of brine, add 20 per cent, pipe surface.
UPPER PORTION OP
BAUDELOT COOLED BY WELL,
OR HYDRANT WATER
Baudelot Cooling for Beer Wort
BRINE SYSTEM..
FIG. 21.
One hundred barrels of wort require 125 Ibs. of cooling water
at 56 on upper section.
One ton refrigeration required for twenty-five barrels of beer.
62
BREWERY REFRIGERATION .
Attemporators.
The attemporator coils are suspended (mostly with swivel joints)
in the fermenting tubs. They
are made of iron, brass or
copper, and of IVi, 1% or 2-
inch size. Diameter of coil,
abovit two thirds of tub.
Attemporators in cylinder
form are usually made in two
/ftternfora/or Tank.
/Itttmporator Pumft
FIG. 22 ATTEMPERATOR SYSTEM.
18" diam. X 18" high, cooling surface, 14% sq. ft.
36" diam. X 30" high, cooling surface, 47 sq. ft.
100 barrels of wort require 12 square feet of pipe surface
(19 feet 2-inch pipe).
The refrigeration is produced by means of cooled fresh water
(safer in case of leaks) or brine (cheaper) circulated through the
attemporators at about 34 Fahr.
Expansion pipe in attemperator tank about 12 square feet of
pipe surface per 100 barrels ivort.
Provide standpipe and pump regulator.
Piping of Cellars and Hop Room.
RATIOS FOR ALB BREWERIES.
2" pipe direct expansion with 14" disks per foot.
Temp, of
Room. Room.
Fermenting 50 6O
Vat or Ale Stor. . 45 50
Ale Chip 45 50
Ale Chip and
Carbonating . .. 33 35
Carbonating 32 35
Stock Ale 50 55
Racking 32 34
Size of Room in Cubic Feet.
10,000 15,000 20,000 30,000
1:50
1:40
1:40
1:30
1:25
1:50
1:20
1:50
1:40
1:45
1:55
1:42
1:50
1:60
1:45
1:55
1:32
1:28
1:50
1:23
Starting
Yeast .
50 55
32
NO DISKS.
1,000 2,000
1:15 1:16
1:6 1:7
1:35
1:30
1:55
1:25
3,000
1:18
1:8
1:40
1:35
1:58
1:28
4,000
1:20
1:10
40,000
1:70
1:50
1:60
1:45
1:3-8
1:60
1:30
5,000
1:22
1:12
BREWER Y REFRIGERA T10N.
PIG. 23 MODERN BREWERY EQUIPPED WITH REFRIGERATING
PLANT.
RATIOS FOR LAGER BEER BREWERIES.
2" pipe direct expansion with 14" disks per foot.
Temp, of
Size of Room in Cubic Feet.
Room.
Room.
10,000
15,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
Starting tub
34 36
1:23
1:24
1:25
1:25
1:25
Fermenting
34 36
1:23
1:24
1:25
1:25
1:2;>
Storage (Rime). .
32 33
1:38
1:40
1:43
1:45
1:47
Chip Cask (Spa).
32 34
1:40
1:43
1:45
1:47
1:50
Racking
34 36
1:23
1:24
1:25
1:28
1:80
Mop Storage.
32'
3,000
1 :20
4,000
1 :22
5,000
1.23
6,000 8,000
1 :24 1 :25
64 BREWERY REFRIGERATION.
Example: Ratio, 1:23 means 1 foot of pipe for 23 cubic feet
of room.
Add 75% more pipe if without disks.
Weight of 1 foot 2 inch pipe, with disk and ice, about 75 pounds,
length = 20 feet.
No more than 1,200 feet 2 inch pipe in one expansion (approx.).
One ton refrigeration for 120 feet 2 inch expansion pipe.
Wherever convenient, place piping on the ceiling.
Storage and Chip Cask. Piping may be placed on the ceiling.
Fermenting Room. Place piping over aisles or passageways, so
as not to drip into the fermenting tubs.
Racking Room. Piping may be placed on the ceiling and as much
as possible about the door, to take up the outside heat as it enters.
Hop Storage.- Piping must be placed in a bank at the side of
the room, so that all moisture can be easily drained away (forced
air cooling preferred).
Brine vs. Direct Expansion.
It is customary to shut off all rooms from the pipe line during the
short period of time, usually 3 hours, that the wort is cooled.
Since this represents the maximum amount of work required from
the refrigerating machine, its capacity is usually figured on the
amount of work done in cooling a given quantity of hot beer wort
within 3 hours.
Hettinger claims that, in case the wort is cooled by the brine
system, only one-eighth of the refrigerating capacity is needed
against that required in the case of direct expansion, because the
cooling of the brine itself is extended over the entire 24 hours.
No regulation of the expansion valves is required, since the tem-
prature of the brine in the tank will only be raised 7.3 degrees
F. during the entire period of cooling the wort, the capacity of
the brine tank, being four times as great as the amount of the
beer cooled.
A refrigerating machine using the brine system has to have
double the capacity to a day's work in 12 hours that would be
required to do the work in 24 hours.
Hettinger tries to disprove this by an example. He assumes a
brewery plant, equipped with a 250-barrel beer kettle, the output
being half lager and half stock and lively ale and the brewing
of ale and lager beer being done alternately. Total space of the
different rooms = 106,801 cubic feet. Allowing 7,000 cubic feet
for 1 ton of refrigeration in 21 hours, the required number of
tons of refr. = 15.26 tons. Heat of fermentation in 21 hours =
8 tons.
Cooling the beer through a racking cooler, allowing 6 in 8
hours = 4 tons. This means that the refrigerating machine will
do 52 tons of refr. during 3 hours, and about 26 tons during tho
remaining 21 hours on the day lager beer is brewed. The next
day when ale is brewed, the refrigeration required for cellars,
fermenting room and racking room will be the same, that is, 26
tons in 21 hours. The ale storage does not require any refrigera-
tion whatsoever.
The required capacity of the refrigerating machine, assuming
that the ale will be cooled down 14 degrees in less than 2.5 hours
and the wort having a strength of 15 per cent Balling: (259 X
250 X 14 X 10 X 1.0614 X 0.9) -h 284,000 = 30.49 tons of re-
frigeration.
By doing the same amount of work with the brine system, in 24
hours, the calculation in tons will be as follows:
Cooling 125 barrels of wort for lager 3.25
Cooling cellars and rooms 13.35
Developing heat of 250 barrels of ale and lager 7.00
BREWERY REFRIGERATION. 65
Chilling 125 barrels lager beer for racking 1.34
Cooling 125 barrels of wort for ale 1.50
Total 26.44
So that a machine of 26.44 tons is required to perform this
amount of work in 24 hours, or a machine of 52.88 tons to do the
work in 12 hours.
250 barrels is substituted for 125 barrels of ale and 125 barrels
of lager because the work of the refrigerating machine, owing
to the brine system, is extended over 48 hours, figuring one-half
brew of ale and one-half brew of lager, the machine being cal-
culated to run at the same speed and back pressure during the
brewing of lager and ale.
NOTES ON BREWERY REFRIGERATION:
Packing House Refrigeration
MODERN PACKING HOUSE EQUIPPED WITH FORCED AIR
CIRCULATION.
Refrigeration should be produced by cold, dry air, which cir-
culates freely around the meats, especially in the chill rooms,
where the steam from the fresh killed animals and the foul gases
have to be removed, so as not to affect the goods and the in-
sulation.
Forced air circulation may cause a little more loss in weight
in meat, but it is the soundest when viewed bacteriologically.
Recently a store room with direct expansion became invaded
with phosphorescent bacteria. These bacteria produced a brilliant
phosphorescence on a great many quarters of beef and carcases
of mutton. The temperature of the room ranged about 35 to 40
degrees F. The germs can grow even at much lower temperatures,
and they produce poisonous properties in meat.
To exterminate this bacillus from a room, the doors must be
open, all ice and snow scraped away, and the pipes and the walls,
floor and ceiling washed with solutions of lime, containing chloride
of zinc. This zinc should exist in the wash in the proportion of
1 to 1,000. All meat that has become infected should be destroyed,
as it is unfit for food.
Almost all European and Australian packing houses are re-
PACKING HOUSE REFRIGERATION. 67
frigerated on the forced air cooling system with wet air coolers,
which provides for the continuous ventilation of the chambers,
and the purification of the air contained in them. Under these
conditions there is no chance of the growth of bacteria which
would be detrimental to health.
Refrigeration Required.
A. Storage rooms, which is estimated like "General Cold Storage."
B. Chilling rooms, either calculated like General Cold Storage
or roughly estimated.
One ton rep'. (24 hrs.) for each of the following duties:
15 to 24 hogs of 250 pounds each.
5 to 7 beeves of 700 pounds each.
45 to 55 calves of 90 pounds each.
50 to 70 sheep of 75 pounds each.
Hog chill rooms to be reduced to 32 F. in 24 hrs.
Beef chill rooms to be reduced to 32 F. in 36 hrs.
Chilling rooms to have ventilators on ceiling to allow steam and
gases to escape, after which same have to be closed.
Space required. Nine sq. f. per beef, 12 ft. high. Two sq. ft.
per sheep, 8 ft. high. Meat rails about 27" apart.
Piping to be estimated like General Cold Storage, with an
addition of 13 ft. 2" direct cxpans. per ox, and 6 ft. 2" pipe per
hog.
Piping to be arranged in overhead lofts.
C. Freezing Rooms. (Temperature 10 F. and below.)
Refrigeration is calculated like General Cold Storage with an
addition of one ton refr. per ton of meat.
Piping estimated like General Cold Storage, with an addition of
30 ft. 2" direct expans. pipe per ox, and 15 ft. 2" per hog.
NOTES ON PACKING HOUSE REFRIGERATION:
Can Ice Plants
Capacity of Plant. The ice making capacity is far below the
refrigerating capacity, as we have to cool the water first from
the ordinary temperature to 32, and from there to the tempera-
ture of the brine. An allowance of 6 to 12 per cent, loss has to
be made, due to radiation in freezing tank, pipes, etc. This
would leave 60 per cent, of the refrigerating capacity.
Ref r. tons 5 10 20 35 50 75 100 150 220 300 500
Ice, tons 21/2 5 12 20 30 45 60 90 130 180 300
Time of Freezing.
The time of freezing depends on the temperature of the brine
and the thickness of the ice. The following table is calculated
by A. Siebert, on the assumption that the time of freezing is
proportional to the square of the thickness.
FREEZING TIMES FOR DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND THICK-
NESSES OF CAN ICE.
Thickn'ss.
1 in.
2 In.
1.28
1.40
1.56
1.75
2.00
2.32
2 80
3 50
3 in.
4 in.
Sin.
6 in.
7 in.
8 in.
9 in.
10 in.
11 in.
38.5
42.3
47
53.0
60 ft
70.5
84 7
106.0
12 in.
Temp. 10
, 12
14
16
18
20
5
0.32
0.35
0.39
0.44
0.50
0.58
0.70
0.88
2.86
3.15
3 50
3.94
4.50
5.26
6.30
7.86
5.10
5 60
6 22
7.00
8.00
9.30
11.2
14.0
8 00
8 7n
9 70
11
12.6
14 6
17.6
21,0
11.5
12 6
14.0
!5.8
18.0
21.0
25.2
31 5
15.6
17 3
19.0
21.5
24.5
28.5
34.3
42.8
20.4
25
2ft
32
37.3
44.8
560
25.8
28 4
31-. s
35 6
40.5
47.2
5ft 7
71.0
31.8
35-0
390
43 7
50.0
58 3
70
87.6
45.8
50.4
56
63
720
84.0
100
12i>.
The sizes of the cans, most in use, are given as follows :
-
Weight of
c blocks.
Thickn
Time of freezing.
Nominal.
Actual.
Sides.
Bottom.
15 brine t8 brine.
6 12 x 26"
50
56
20"
20'
tS hrs 20 hrs.
8 16 x 32
100
110
18"
16
30 " 36 "
8 16x42"
150
165
18"
16
30 " j6 "
11 J32x32"
200
220
18'
14
5 " 60 "
11 22x44"
300
315
16"
14
50 " 60 "
11 22x57"
400
415
16
14"
50 " 60 "
The temperature of the brine is about 10 higher than the am-
monia in the expansion coils. By maintaining a good brine agita-
tion, the temperature may be lowered a few degrees.
Back pressure, Ibs. (gauge) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Brine temperature F 5 10 15 20 25
Freezing Tanks.
Expansion Pipe. By good brine agitation and short expansions
about 85 to 100 square feet of pipe per ton of ice will be sufficient.
With a low back pressure the amount of pipe may be reduced.
The greatest efficiency is obtained with horizontal coils. In the
case of vertical coils, top expansion is given the preference.
Amount of pipe per ton of ice.
15 brine. 18 brine.
400 ft. of 1" pipe 450 ft. of 1" pipe
320 ft. of 1%" pipe 360 ft. of 1%" pipe
270 ft. of iy 2 " pipe 310 ft. of iy a " pipe
210 ft. of 2" pipe 240 ft. of 2" pipe
Greatest length of one expansion is 1,200 ft.
Brine Circulation. The brine is generally kept in motion by a
propeller, driven by belt or direct connected to electric motor.
CAN ICE PLANTS.
FKJ. 24.
I
'l
1
I
1 o
IE
r T
I a
.
\ \
5 l -U1
CAN ICE PLANTS.
In tanks up to 10 tons use a 12" propeller at 225 rev. per minute;
in tanks from 10 to 25 tons use an 18" propeller. In larger tanks
use two propellers, or, still better, a centrifugal pump.
Allow 7^4 IDS. of salt per cb. ft. of tank. (See chapter on brine.)
Size. The size of the tank depends on the size of the cans, time
of freezing and size of expansion pipe.
The following table is based on 18 brine and 2" expansion pipe:
5-TON TANK.
Weight
of blocks.
100 Ibs.
150 "
300 "
150 Ibs.
300 "
150 Ibs.
200 "
300 "
200 Ibs.
300 "
Number of cans.
19 X 8 = 152
13 X 8 = 104
14 X 6 = 84
10-TON TANK.
20 X 10 = 200
22 X 8 = 176
15-TON TANK.
30 X 10 = 300
38 X 10 = 380
25 X 10 = 250
20-TON TANK.
42 X 12 = 504
34 X 10 = 340
Size of tank.
37'- X 10'-4 X 36"
26'- X 10' -4 X 46"
34'- 2 X 9'-8 X 4'-0
40'- 4 X 12'-6 X 46"
49'-10 X 12' -S X 4'-0
58'- X 12'-6 X 46"
87'- 7 X 15'-0 X 36"
58'- 7 X 15'-0 X 4'-0
96'- 4 X 17'-8 X 36"
78'- 7 X 15'-0 X 4'-0
Ice Storage.
By calculating the size of the ice storage room we assume that
50 cubic feet of ice, as usually stored, equal one ton.
Storage and ante-room have to be piped. The refrigeration and
amount of piping can be calculated after the rules applying for
General Cold Storage. Frequently a ratio of 1 :14 to 1 :20 is taken
for 2" direct expansion and a,bout one-third to one-half more
for brine piping. Pipes to be placed on ceiling.
The room should be well insulated and be provided with proper
ventilation from the highest point and have thorough drainage.
SLIDE DOOR ON TANK ROOM
SIDE OF PARTITION
.IDING PU<JK .^* / ,->' %
. \ (^ . ->^l C E D U M P T ANJfrvOO*
5fe_
ELEVATION
FIG. 25 DETAILS OF SLIDE DOOR ON TANK ROOM.
Cost of Ice.
The cost of ice varies considerably with the size of the plant,
the price of coal and other items.
The following table gives an approximate estimate. But necessary
alterations for price of coal and addition for cost of delivery, in-
terest and other things must be made in each case, which may
increase the total cost of ice from 20 per cent, in small plants
to 50 per cent, in large plants.
CAN ICE PLANTS.
The table shows cost of ice put in the ice house ready to sell.
APPROXIMATE COST OF OPERATING ICE FACTORIES
1
>;
si.
fe
S
it
get
tter or
ist $2.50
day.
h*
H
'5 ,
I!
n
a
1*
||-o
So
W S^
35 .
II 1
ol
~|!
5*
tf
1
^
2'
IS
elf
1
O be
&
1
i
l
$1.50
j
$1.00
900
$1.35
.$0.50
$4.35
$4.35
2
i
1 50
i
1 00
1,500
2.25
0.50
5.25
2.63
3
2.00
i
1 00
1,800
2.70
0.50
6^20
2.10
5
2.00
1
$1.50
2
2.00
2,500
3.75
.00
10.25
2.05
74
2. CO
1
1.50
1
$1.50
2
2.00
.
3,200
4.80
.25
13.05
1.74
10
2.50
1
.50
2
3.00
2
2.00
3,600
5.40
.25
15.65
1.57
15
2.50
1
.50
2
3.00
3
3.00
5,000
7.50
.50
19.00
1.27
18
i
2.75
1
.50
2
3.00
3
3.00
5,500
8.25
.80
20.30
1.15
20
2
4.50
1
.50
2
3.00
3
3.00
6,000
9.00
2.00
23.00
1.15
25
2
5.00
]
.50
o
3.00
4
4.00
.
7,500
11.25
2.50
27.25
1.09
30
2
5.00
2
3.00
2
3.00
4
4.00
9,000
13.50
3.00
31.50
1.05
35
2
6.00
2
3.00
2
3.00
5
5.00
10,500
15.75
3.50
36.25
1.03
40
50
2
2
6.00 2
6.50 2
3.00
3.00
2
3
3.00
4.50
5
6
5.00
6.00
[ $2 50
12.COO
15,000
18.00
22.50
4.00
5.00
39.00
50.00
1.00
1.00
60
2
7.00 2
3.00
4
6.00
7
7.00
2 50
18,000
27.00
6.00
58.50
1.00
70
2
7.50 2
3.00
5
7.50
8
8.00
2.50
21,000
31.50
7.00
67.00
.99
80
2
9.00 2
3.00
5
7.50
10
10.00
1 5.00
24,000
36.00
8.00
78.50
.98
90
3
10.00 2
3.00
6
9.00
11
11.00
} 5.00
27,00040.50
9.00
87.50
.96
100
3
lO.OOl 2
3.00
7
10.50
12
12.00
! 5.00
30,000(45.00
10.00
95.50
.95
Coal Consumption.
The coal consumption depends on the size of plant, kind of
engine, temperature of feedwater and quality of coal. The fol-
lowing table is based on an evaporative capacity of steam boilers
of 10 Ibs. of water per Ib. of coal. For other ratios the coal con-
sumption changes in direct proportion.
f 4 tons of ice in a 1 ton ice plant.
One ton
of coal for
10
25
50
100
large plants using evaporators.
Water Consumption.
Water is greatly economized in a can ice plant, as the same
water is used first over the ammonia condensers, then in the steam
condenser and, if it is of good quality, as feed water for the steam
boilers. It leaves the boilers in the form of live steam to drive
the engines, the exhaust steam of which is condensed, purified
and used as the water from which the ice is made.
It is evident that the colder the water the less will be needed.
An ice plant should always have a reliable supply of four to six
gallons of water per minute for every ton, of ice.
WATER CONSUMPTION PER TON OF ICE.
Temperature of Water.
Over ammonia condensers 55
Entering steam condensers 80
Leaving steam condensers '. 125
60
125 C
70
90
125
80
95 J
125
Gallons per minute 4 4.5 5.15 6
Note. For every 5 degrees increase in temperature of the cooling
water the coal consumption increases 8 per cent., if the quantity
of the water remains the same.
Distilling Apparatus.
The exhaust steam from the engine and pumps is generally used
to supply the distilled water. The deficiency in supply, which
increases with the size of the plants, is taken direct from the
boiler.
The steam has to be deprived of the oil and, after being con-
densed, is subjected to a purifying process before it is allowed
to go into the cans. It is impossible to give any rules for size
and number of filters required on different plants, as it may be
necessary to treat the water specially according to the quality
of the water in the locality.
The usual course of distilling and filtering is as follows : Engine,
grease separator, steam condenser, skimmer and reboiler, charcoal
filter, storage tank.
Grease Separator.
These work on the principle that the steam strikes with great
force against surfaces and deposits the oil.
Linde's grease separator consists of a vertical cylindrical tank
with an upright spiral partition in the interior. The steam enters
near the bottom and strikes against this baffle plate where its
speed is reduced to one-fifteenth of the initial speed. The oil
collects at the bottom and is drawn off.
Baldwin's grease separator is a cylindrical tank, either hori-
zontal or vertical, filled to about one-fourth with water. The
steam strikes against the water surface and deposits the oil.
Baffle plates assist this process. These separators have proved
very efficient.
"York's" grease separator is placed in the exhaust steam pipe
in line with the pipe. The inlet nozzle is surrounded by corru-
gated baffle plates through which the steam must pass and whicn
effectually separate the oil.
In the coke filter the steam has to pass through a large mass of
coke, which is well adapted for extracting the oil from the steam.
"De Lot Very-Mr C, Ate ft /far
im
Aojtrf-
21 "/3.
/f
31
ZO
&/''*
30
30
6.0
9o
10
9/
36
tt'/l
130
10
Steam Condenser.
1. Amount of Cooling Water per ton of distilled water in
24 hrs.
2000 X 960
P =
t-ti
ti = initial temp, of water, t = final temp, of water.
960 = latent heat of steam.
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
73
Example : ti = 85 F., t = 125 F.
2000 X 960
P = = 48,000 Ibs. in 24 hrs.
125 85
48,000
= 4 gals, per min.
24 X 60 X 8.3
2. Cooling Surface in sq. ft. per ton of water in 24 hrs.
2000 X 960
S =
(ti t) n X 24
t = mean temp, of cooling water,
ti = average temp, in condenser (about 210 F.).
n heat transmission per sq. ft. per hour per degree of differ-
ence in temp, (about 200 to 500).
Example (continued) :
2000 X 960
S = = about 4 sq. ft.
(210 105) 200 X 24
For practical calculations allow :
10 sq. ft. of pipe for one ton in Open Air condensers.
6 sq. ft. of pipe for one ton in Surface condensers.
14 sq. ft. of pipe for one ton in Submerged condensers.
Constructional Details.
Every condenser must be provided with a back pressure or
relief valve, which acts as a safety valve in case not all of the
steam can be condensed on account of lack of condensing water,
or for any other reason.
Fig. A illustrates an atmospheric condenser, a number of inde-
pendent coils connected to two headers. Bach coil is provided
with a stop valve on inlet and outlet, and a live steam and
purging connection, so that any coil can be cleaned while the
balance is in operation.
For large plants this type is also made as shown in Fig. B,
The object of this arrangement is the division of the area of the
large main exhaust pipe into the many small areas of the coils
as close as possible to the main inlet, without spacing the coils
too close, which would prevent the cleaning of the outside sur-
faces of the pipes.
Where a very hard condensing water must be used and much
cleaning of the outside surfaces of the pipes is necessary,
submerged coils, as shown in Fig. C, have been used successfully.
The area of the main exhaust pipe is divided into two branches,
and the size of the pipes can be gradually reduced toward the
outlet in proportion of the amount of steam condensed in each
pipe while passing through the coil.
74
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
Submerged condensers can be well drained by giving all the
pipes some slope toward the outlet.
The condenser in Fig. D is similar to to the De La Vergne am-
monia condenser, having a number of outlets through which the
water of condensation is drained off.
The York double pipe condenser is illustrated in Fig. E. Each
section consists of two coils which are connected by return bends
at both ends. At the center of each coil is a vertical header,
one of which is for the steam inlet and the other for the water
outlet. The exhaust steam enters the header on top. On its way
D
SL
3X
3L
to the water header it has to pass but one return bend, all of
which bends have a slope toward the water header for a perfect
drainage.
The standard atmospheric condenser of the York Mfg. Go. is
illustrated in Fig. F. These coils are made up with headers which
are connected with straight pipes. The steam is admitted to all
pipes at the same time and has not to pass through cramped
passages or to change its direction. If placed horizontally, the
coils could be used in a submerged condenser.
The Triumph condenser, Fig. G, uses as the condensing surface
sheet metal instead of pipes, in the form of V-shaped boxes. The
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
75
condensing water can be used economically and the flat surfaces
can be cleaned very easily while the condenser is in operation.
For special purposes and local condition the shell condenser,
Fig. H, is used, both horizontally and vertically. It consists of
a shell, within which are a great number of small sized seamless
brass or copper tubes, through which the condensing water passes,
the shell being filled with the exhaust steam.
FIG. 26 A to H.
This type is very efficient, takes little space and can be placed
anywhere inside the building.
DIMENSIONS OF SURFACE CONDENSER "H."
Cooling
too
?00
300
400
500
600
700
$00
IOOO
I?QO
lt>00
I A 00
2000
/ooo
2000
3000
Vono
000
6000
7OOO
S(WO
10 OOO
13000
MOOO
,5oao
'6000
16000
20000
H P
t 2oll
50
100
ZOO
rso
300
350
400
SCO
bOO
7OO
7SO
600
900
IOOO
82*
4 10
99
/04
22
'90
2500
4260
5S90
6390
7060
7450
7920
66oO
9360
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
Skimmer and Reboiler.
During the condensation of the exhaust steam more or less air
or gas is absorbed by the water. The reboiling drives the im-
purities to the surface where they are skimmed off, while the air
and gases escape through a vent into the outer atmosphere. The
water should enter at the highest possible temperature (about
110 to 112) so as to economize in steam for reboiling.
The steam coil is either closed or open. In the open coil the
steam pressure is reduced to a few pounds and the condensation
passes through the perforations and mixes with the water. The
closed coil needs no regulation and is supplied with high pressure
steam. The condensation is either carried back to the boiler
by gravity, or is discharged into the steam condenser by a steam
trap.
Mostly used are the cylindrical tanks and the rectangular shal-
low pans. The advantages claimed ior the former, greater body
of water, large skimming line, small floor space and simple con-
struction; for the latter, large surface and small depth of boil-
ing water, which are said to better assist the escape of the air
and foul gases, constant current of water toward skimmer, pos-
sible division of surface into parts of decreasing ebullition.
Leading builders use from two to four square feet of W. I. pipe
surface per ton of ice making capacity (less for brass or copper
tubing).
Constructional Details.
The De La Vergne Re-
boiler, A, has the boiling
tank placed centrally
within a larger tank, the
annular space between
both forming the skim-
ming tank. Being placed
at the same level with
a hot water storage
tank, the water level is
always kept full, and the
ebullition is confined to
the boil tank, leaving
skimmer in a state of
rest. The steam coil is
closed and provided with
a steam trap.
The Triumph Reboiler,
B, is also cylindrical,
the skimmer being a V-
shaped annular trough
within the reboiler. The
steam coil is open, dis-
charging the condensa-
tion near the surface of
the water,
used by Fred W. Wolf
is
Another cylindrical type, Pig
and a number of other builders. It has no automatic regulator.
The water level in the skimmer and the boil tank is kept constant
by goose neck outlets.
The York reboiler, D, is of the rectangular shape with open steam
coil. The oil and impurities are carried by the water current
into the skimming chamber, where they are skimmed by means
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
77
of V-shaped openings in the end of tank into a trough at the
end of the reboiler. The pure water is discharged from the bot-
tom of this chamber.
The Frick reboiler, B, is divided lengthwise by a partition,
SKIMMCK
SKOUNO PLMI.
which not only lengthens the travel of the water, but brings
same in a counter-current to the flow of steam which is doubled
3e/i. TANK
r
II
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
by this division. The pipes of the open steam coil ire not per-
forated, but are closed with caps, each of which ha* ;< small hole
for the discharge of condensation. The skimming umi discharge
of the pure water are similar to those of the York id-oiler.
The Wingrove reboiler, F, is a combination with u filter for
the outgoing pure water. The steam coil is open and p L "f orated
at the end of the pipes. The oil and floating impuritic-s are car-
ried into the skimming chamber over a special shaped plate above
the filter.
The Bertsch reboiler. I, is a combination with a heater in-
serted in the exhaust line in front of the condenser, the purpose
of which is to deliver the condensed water to the reboiler at
the temperature of the exhaust steam.
The condensed water from the condenser passes on its way
to the reboiler through the coil of the heater. The condensation
from the heater can be drained into the reboiler or float tank.
In connection with a condensing engine and a vacuum steam
condenser, a vacuum reboiler saves steam, because the boiling
point is much lower, and it saves cooling water, because the
boiling temperature corresponding to the vacuum is not above
140 F.
In the De La Vergne vacuum reboiler, G, the water from the
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
79
vacuum steam condenser enters the reboiler by gravity near the
bottom, and is removed and delivered to the hot water storage
tank by a pump which is regulated by a float within the re-
boiler, raised or lowered by the variation of the water level.
The air and gases are drawn into the steam condenser and re-
moved by the air pump creating the vacuum. The closed steam
coil discharges *be condensation into a pot, from which it is
siphoned into th^ reboiler through the water inlet line whenever
the float within the pot opens the valve.
The York vacuum reboiler, H, contains within an air tight
shell a series of shallow pans, each of which has 'an overflow
and a dam to maintain a certain depth of water. The water
n PUMP
FIG. 27 A to H.
drops from one pan to the other and circulates through each pan.
The top-most pan is provided with a closed steam coil for boiling.
At the bottom of the shell is a float tank for the accumulation of
the pure water which is removed by a pump. The float in the
float tank regulates the steam for the water pump, which forces
the pure water through the cooler and filters. At the top of
the shell is the air outlet, which is either direct connected to an
air pump, or to a vacuum steam condenser.
Frick Reboiler, IS in. high, 30 in. wide.
Length : 1 to 6 ton plants =3 ft. 6 in.
8 to 12 " " =7 ft.
15 " " 10 ft. 6 in.
25 " " = 13 ft. 9 in.
50 " " =20 ft. 6 in.
100 " " =23 ft. 9 in.
De La Vergne Reboiler.
2 to 15 ton plants = 3 ft. dia., 4 ft. high.
20 to 30 " " =3 ft. 6 in. dia., 4 ft. 8% in. high.
40 to 60 " " .4 ft. dia., 5 ft. high.
Frick Steam Condenser, 8 pipes high.
5 ton plant=l coil, 15 ft. long.
10 " " =2 coils, 15 ft. long.
20 " " =4 colls, 15 ft. long.
50 " " =9 coils, 15 ft. long.
100 " " =17 coils, 15 ft. long.
8o
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
Water Regulator.
The flow of the water leaving the reboiler must be automatically
regulated before entering the cooler. The principle of such
regulators is the automatic opening and closing of a valve (butter-
fly or quick opening) in the distilled water line.
A good regulator must allow a great variation in the quantity
of water passing at each operation, as well as in the number of
operations.
tor, A, consists of an open
cylinder with a float and Is
operated by the waste water
of the steam condenser. It
can be placed anywhere near
the distilled water supply
pipe.
The operation Is as follows:
As long as the water lerel
In the hot water storage tank
is at normal height the but-
terfly valve in the waste
water line is open and admits
water to the regulator, there-
by raising the float whicli
opens the butterfly valve in
the pure water line and al-
lows the water to pass to the
freezing tank. When the
water In the hot water stor-
age tank is low, both butter
fly valves close and stay closed until the pure water in the storage
tank reaches again the normal height, when the same operation is
repeated.
The York regulator, B, consists of a cylinder with a plunger to
which two valves are attached, one for the pure water and one for
the waste water. The water from the skimmer is used for operat-
ing the regulators, and the operation is as follows :
Whenever the reboiler is
skimming, the mixture of
oil and water fills the pipe
connecting the skimmer
with the regulator. As
soon as the water column
in this pipe is of sufficient
height, the pressure so
created elevates the plun-
ger, whereby both valves
are opened. The pure
water then passes from the
filter to the storage tank,
and the skimming water
drains through the waste
pipe. The skimming in
the reboiler stops and the
water in the regulator and
its supply pipe drains out,
causing the plunger to
lower and both valves to
close, until the reboiler
skims again. For the re-
lief of the air which might
get Into the cylinder, a
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
81
vent Is provided, which,
opens when the plunger
Is in its highest position.
By the use of the skim-
ming water the plunger is
always well lubricated.
The Wingrove regulator,
C, differs from the York
regulator only in the me-
chanical means, and the
principle is exactly the
same in both and covered
by the same description.
The FricTc regulator, D,
consists of two principal
parts, the receiving tank
and the counterbalanced
bucket which operates the
pure water valve. When
the water in the reboiler
reaches the overflow tube
by which the skimming is regulated, the receiving tank begins to
fill to the top of the siphon, after which the water passes through
the siphon to the bucket.
As soon as the weight of the water overcomes the balance weight,
the bucket lowers and the pure water valve opens, allowing the
pure water to pass to the storage tank. After the bucket is filled
to the top of its own siphon, it begins to empty its contents into
the float tank from which the water is pumped back to the reboiler.
When the water in the reboiler is lowered below the top of the
overflow tube, the supply to the receiving tank and 1 the bucket
stops, and the bucket is siphoned empty and becomes lighter than
the balance weight, which raises the bucket and closes the pure
water valve.
Bertsoh's regulator, E, is a combination of the float and siphon
types. The water pressure against the valve seat is counterbal-
anced by an adjustable weight. As soon as the reboiler is skimming,
the float tank fills, the float
rises and relieves the valve,
allowing the water to pass to
the storage or freezing tank.
When the float reaches a cer-
tain height, the lever opens
the drain pipe and starts the
siphon which empties the
float tank in the desired time,
and this is regulated by the
drain valve.
Condensed Water Cooler.
Its purpose is to cool the
boiling hot water, as it comes
from the rehoiler, as nearly as
possible to the temperature of
the cooling water, after which
any further cooling must be
done by mechanical refrigera-
tion.
Each cooling coil should be
provided with a drain or
washout connection at the
bottom, and a steam connec-
tion at the top, as during the
82
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
cooling of the water ,some of
the oil contained therein Is
separated and forms a coating
on the inside surface of the
pipes, which can only be re-
moved by a blow of live steam.
The cooler is of the double
pipe and 1 more commonly of
the atmospheric type. Its con-
struction is sufficiently illus-
trated in the various arrange-
ments of the different builders
below.
Filter.
The cooled water receives a
final filtration, in order to free
it from any odors and foreign
matters still contained there-
in. The most common place
for the filters is after the
cooling coils, and, again, right
FIG. 28. A TO E. before the can filler. As the
filtering media are mostly used 1 sand, crushed quartz, maple char-
coal, bone black (animal charcoal), pulp and felt or cotton cloth.
All of these materials have a purely mechanical action upon
the water, with the exception of the wood and animal charcoal,
which combine with the mechanical action also a chemical one,
inasmuch as they have power to absorb any kind of odor. The
charcoal filters are therefore also called "deodorizers."
The method of filtering differs. Some filter from bottom to
top, for which method It is claimed that the heavy particles in
the water tend to fall to the bottom instead of clogging the fil-
tering material. Others filter from top to bottom and the claim
is that the oily substance contained in the water remains floating
on top instead of being forced down through the filtering ma-
terial. To cleanse these filters, the flow of the water is reversed
in order to loosen the packet material and to wash the same.
Where steam is used for cleansing, the content of the filter is
first blown with live steam, and afterwards washed in the way
as before stated.
edfTSer/er foo/ers
/o
/S
30
40
/o
/
Sff.
/Of*
/*/*
/Z
/&
40
ISfr.
*
10
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
i3ZOf*3 of Cttarcoat
30
40
Jfo
36
30'
tte&t
46'
60'
Bo
60'
17
26
17
Jfo.
Jta.
Jo
36
36
36-
60'
7 I*
60'
72'
T'Z
te
38
21 '/Z
Storage Tank.
The storage tank serves for the purpose of storing up a large
amount of distilled water. A wooden float generally covers the
whole area of the water to prevent any reabsorption of air.
Many builders use the storage also as a fore cooler, having
ammonia coils in the inside. The tanks are made either cylin-
drical or rectangular, of wood or of iron, and the cooling pipes
are either an independent coil or simply an expansion of the
ammonia suction pipe. The latter method is used in all plants
where the machine can not work with backfrost, and the storage
tank is used as much for preventing back-frost as for cooling the
distilled water. The temperature of the water can be regulated
at will where an independent coil is used for cooling. Where the
return from the freezing tank is used for cooling, the temperature
of the water depends entirely on the amount of heat the returning
vapor can take up, which in many cases is very little.
Bach can is filled separately by means of hose and can filler,
which delivers the water to the bottom of the can, so that the
water does not absorb more air as it rushes in.
DIMENSIONS OF CYLINDRICAL TANKS (NO OOILS).
Tons ice. Dia. Height.
5 2V 2 ift. 31/2 ft.
10 3 ft. 4 ft.
20 3V 2 ft. 5 ft.
40 4 ft. Q ft.
DIMENSIONS OF SQUARE TANKS (EXP. OOILS).
Tons
ice.
10
20
30
40
50
75
100
200
Length.
10 ft.
11 ft.
12 ft.
12 ft.
14y 2 ft.
25 ft.
17 ft.
24 ft.
Width.
2y 2 ft.
31/2 ft.
4y 2 ft.
41/2 ft.
41/2 ft.
4y 2 ft.
7y 2 ft.
91/2 ft.
Height.
sy 2 ft.
4 ft.
4y 2 ft.
sy 2 ft.
5% ft.
5y 2 ft.
sy 2 ft.
2 in.
Pipe.
58ft.
145 ft.
218 ft.
290ft.
363 ft.
544 ft.
725 ft.
1,450 ft.
Size of
water pipe.
1 in.
1 in.
1% in.
1% in.
1% ft.
2 In.
2^ in.
3 ft.
8 4
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
86
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
The Evaporator System.
The economy of ice production depends upon the efficiency of
the boiler. If the boiler evaporates 8 Ibs. of water per pound of
coal and we lose 25 per cent, by steam cylinder condensation,
condensation in exhaust pipe and loss by reboiling and skimming,
we may produce 6 tons of ice per ton of coal.
Efforts were made to improve the economy and the use of com-
pound condensing engines in connection with an evaporator in
which the exhaust steam is used to produce additional distilled
water was resorted to.
In all ice making plants with evaporators now in operation, the
Lillie evaporator has been used. It consists of a cast-iron shell
and is provided with copper tubes. Near one end is the tube
head which divides the evaporator into two parts, the steam
space and the vapor space. One end of the copper tubes is ex
panded in the tube head, the other end is closed, but the closed
FIG. 32. DIAGRAM OF EVAPORATOR SYSTEM.
ends are each provided with a very small air vent hole. Under
the evaporator a centrifugal pump is placed which serves to cir-
culate the water over the tubes, a float in the float box keeps
the water at a pre-determined level.
The exhaust steam from the low pressure cylinder, usually
under a vacuum of 18" and a temperature of 169 Fahr., enters
the steam space of the evaporator and thence the copper tubes,
the water which is showered over the tubes evaporates owing to
the lower vacuum, 25" or 26", which, by means of the condenser
and air pump is maintained in this space. The temperature of
vapor under a vacuum of 26" is 126, and the difference between
126 and 169 is quite sufficient to produce boiling and consequently
evaporation. The steam which enters the copper tubes is con-
densed, drops to the bottom of the steam space and from there is
periodically discharged into the steam condenser.
The vapor is, of course, pure, clean and free from any odor
owing to the fact that it is distilled at a low temperature ; the
steam, however, which has done its work in both the high and
low pressure cylinders of the engine, contains all the impurities
which such steam is subject to in any ice plant, viz., oil, oxide
of iron and free ammonia. In order to free it from the oil and
oxide of iron it must be washed or passed through a coke scrubber
in the usual way except that in this case the oil extractor or coke
88 DISTILLING APPARATUS.
scrubber must be operated under the same vacuum which is main-
tained in the steam space of the evaporator.
The vapor after it leaves the evaporator enters the top of the
steam condenser, the air pump by taking away the air and most
of the ammoniacal gases which have not yet been re-absorbed by
the distilled water maintains a vacuum of from 25 to 2t>".
The condensed steam leaves at the bottom of tlie condenser and
flows over to the reboiler, whose vacuum is maintained through a
by-pass with the vacuum part of the steam condenser. It enters
the reboiler under a vacuum of 26" and a temperature of
120 and needs only to be heated to 126 in order to boil.
When the water level witirtn has risen to a certain height,
a float inside will act upon the steam valve of the pump, which
will commence to pump the water away up to the storage tank
on the next floor, from which it passes through the usual course
of cooling and filtering before entering the cans.
With the Lillie evaporator seven-eighths of a pound of
vapor can be produced for every pound of steam. To produce
100 tons of distilled water would required fifty-five tons of ex-
haust steam, but in order to have that quantity enter the evap-
orator seventy-three or seventy-four tons must have entered the
high pressure steam cylinder and this determines the economy of
the plant.
In practice, 10 to 11 tons of distilled water can ice can be made
per ton of coal if the latter evaporates eight tons of water under
the working pressure in the boiler per ton of coal.
The exhaust steam from auxiliary machinery and pumps is used
for heating the boiler feed water, and the water for the evap-
orator, if it is suitable, is heated by using it for cooling the
distilled water.
The operation of such a plant is extremely simple, and it is
not difficult for the operating engineer to understand it, in fact it
requires no more attention than an ice plant with compressors
driven by compound condensing steam engine. (L. Block, Trans.
A. S. R. E. 19U6, Abridged.)
Multiple Effect Evaporators.
Very large plants are enabled to use highly economical engines
by having a double or triple effect evaporator. In this way the
exhaust steam may be able to produce almost 3 times as much dis-
tilled water as exhaust steam is condensed, as we will see from the
following calculation:
Assumed steam consumption = 2,000 Ibs. per hour.
Distilled water required = 4,500 Ibs. per hour.
The exhaust steam enters the first evaporator under a back pres-
sure of 5 Ibs. above the atmosphere. The last evaporator is In
connection with a surface condenser with air pump, and a high
vacuum is maintained in its vapor end. A moderate vacuum is
maintained in No. II and a low vacuum in No. I.
Let us assume that the supply of water (which may be used
first in the steam condenser) enters No. I at a temperature of 120.
1. The first operation will be to raise the 4,500 Ibs. of water
from 120 to 203 F. (temp, of vaporization in No. I).
4,500 (203 120) = 373,500 units, which requires an equivalent
373,500
of = 3SO Ibs. steam, condensed. (952 = lat. heat at 6 Ibs.
952
G. Press.) Deducting this from 2,000 Ibs. initial steam, leaves
1,610 Ibs. of steam, the condensation of which will cause a certain
amount of water being evaporated; 952 being the latent heat of
the steam in No. I, and 972 that of the water at 203, the amount
DISTILLING APPARATUS.
of vapor formed by the condensation of 1,610 Ibs. of steam will be
1610 X 952
. = 1,580 Ibs. of vapor passing to No. II. Deducting
972
this weight from the total of 4,500 Ibs. = 4,500 1,580 = 2,920
Ibs. of water passing to No. II.
2. This water enters at 203. But as the temperature in No.
II, due to the better vacuum is only 181", it will, in falling
203 181 = 22, give off vapor as follows:
FIG. 33. TRIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR.
2920 X 22
= 63 Ibs. of vapor.
992 (lat. heat)
As the 1,580 Ibs. of vapor from No. I are condensed in No. II,
it will under the better vacuum and lower temperature evaporate
nearly the same weight of water. Adding 1,580 to 63 gives a
total = 1,643 Ibs. of vapor passing to No. III. Deducting this
weight from 2,920 = 1,643 2,920 =1,277 Ibs. of water passing
to No. III.
3. Evaporator No. Ill has a vacuum of 24" and a corresponding
temperature of 145.
The water in falling 181 145 = 36, will give off vapor as
follows: 1277 X 36
= 45 Ibs. of vapor.
1012 (lat. heat)
As in No. II, taking the evaporation in No. Ill equal in weight
to the condensation, or 1,643 Ibs., the total will be 1,643 + 45
= 1,688 Ibs.
This is far in excess of what is actually left to evaporate,
namely, 1,277 Ibs. It shows that the capacity of the triple effect
is too great, or in other words, that less steam was needed to
evaporate the initial amount of water.
The sum of the different weights of vapor passing out of the
three vessels to be condensed for the supply of the ice cans is:
1,580 + 1,643 + 1,277 = 4,500 Ibs.
By calculations we find out that only about 1,860 Ibs. of exhaust
steam are required to distill that amount of water from an initial
temperature of 120.
4,500
This gives a ratio of -
1,860
= 2.42 Ibs. of distilled water for each Ib. of exhaust steam.
SPACE FOR CAN ICE PLANTS.
If the water is heated up to 200 before entering No. I, the
ratio will be about 3 Ibs. of water per Ib. of steam.
The condensed steam, not being required for ice maMng, ivill
60 returned to the boiler as boiler feed water.
The vapor pipes are increased in size so as to make the fall of
the temperature between the vessels as slight as possible.
Space Required for Can Ice Plants.
The illustrations below give an approximate idea of the space
required for a given size plant. Of course, these dimensions can
be varied greatly to suit local conditions.
T~T
FIG. 34. HORIZONTAL D. A. MACHINE (WOLF).
Capacity tons . . 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100
A in ft 30 35 37 40 42 42 49 49 54 59 73
B in ft 56 73 78 85 95 107 120 135 150 154 160
FIG. 35. VERTICAL S. A. MACHINE (YORK).
Capacity tons . . 6 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100
A in ft 40 44 47 50 53 56 60 64 69 72 70
B in ft 53 64 75 87 97 108 121 135 150 163 174
SPACE FOR CAN ICE PLANTS.
Through the courtesy of the Frick Co. we are enabled to show
in the following pages complete lay-outs of ice plants ranging
from a daily capacity of 6 tons to 60 tons.
J. $
92
SPACE FOR CAN ICE PLANTS.
| ML
i i : '.i Hllilll t
"
--^1-0--
1
FIG. ST.
SPACE FOR CAN ICE PLANTS.
93
01
-H
O
o
-H
O
SPACE FOR CAN ICE PLANTS.
FIG. 41.
t-8-2^
*
I 7->
'-- rf
-c
t |
BOILERS ,i a
1,
, wooa
ONmnsia
1
r
">
JIIIH f =
*- 33i5 ^-rl
2 J^ JJ
SPACE FOR CAN ICE PLANTS.
FIG. 43.
Plate Ice Plants
Plato ice having its growth in thickness from one side only,
the formation of ice proceeds from the freezing plate outward,
and certain undesirable properties of the water held in solution
or mechanically suspended or other than chemically fixed, are
separated and rejected by the slowly freezing water. The residual
or unfrozen water, at the termination of the freezing period, is
drained off, the tanks then being refilled with fresh water.
V///A
FIG. 44. DIRECT EXPANSION PLATE PLANT.
IOO
PLATE ICE PLANTS.
Plate ice is made by the following methods : The direct expan-
sion plate; the direct expansion plate, icith still 'brine, known as
the "Smith" plate; the brine cell plate; the brine coil plate, and
the block system with either direct expansion or brine coils.
The direct expansion plate is the simplest in construction and
consists of direct expansion zigzag coils with %-inch plates of
iron bolted or riveted in place. The thawing off of the face of
ice is accomplished by turning the hot ammonia gas from the
machine direct into the tank coils.
The direct expansion plate u'ith still brine, known as the
"Smith" plate, is similar in construction, excepting that the coil
Is immersed in a brine solution contained in a water and brine
tight cell. Thawing off is accomplished by turning hot gas into
the coils.
The brine cell plate consists of a tightly caulked and riveted
cell or tank about four inches thick, provided with proper bulk-
heads or distributing pipes, to give an even distribution of brine
throughout the plate. The thawing off of the face of the ice is
accomplished by circulating warm brine through the plate.
The brine coil plate is similar to the direct expansion plate,
excepting that brine is circulated through the coil instead of
ammonia. Thawing off is accomplished by means of warm brine
circulated through the coils.
FIG. 45. BRINE COIL PLATE PLANT.
In the block system the ice is formed directly on the coils,
through which either ammonia or brine is circulated. After tem-
pering, the ice is cut off in blocks the full depth of the plate
by means of steam cutters, which are guided through the ice
close to the coils.
The method of harvesting is similar in all of the foregoing sys-
tems, excepting that in use for harvesting block ice. Some use
hollow lifting rods and thaw them out with steam; others use
solid rods and cut them out when cutting up the ice; and others
again use chains which are slipped around the cake when it floats
up in the tank.
Cutting up the plate is accomplished by means of steam cut-
ters, power saws and hand plows. In the block system, however,
where the ice is cut off the plate in the tank, it only remains
to remove the cakes by means of a light crane and hoist and
divide them into the required sizes with an axe or bar.
101
Agitation is accomplished by means of air jets located midway
between the plates, sometimes in the center, sometimes three or
four feet from one end and sometimes at both ends of the plates.
In well designed plants the production of a square top has been
fairly well solved and it only remains for the owner to see to it
that a constant water level is maintained in the tank while the
ice is in process of formation.
From an economic standpoint, it is immaterial whether the ice
as harvested from the tank has round or square ends, unless the
tank be so designed that no ice is formed between thaw pipes or
in back of tha\^ planks. This is especially true if the scrap ice
can be utilized.
A thawing system has been designed requiring for its proper
operation iron freezing tanks. The ice is formed up to the bottom
and sides of the tank and on the outside of the tank around each
cell consisting of two plates of ice, a hollow space is formed by
means of studding and sheathing. In this space are steam coils
which heat the outside of the iron tank and thus loosen the ice
from the bottom and ends.
American Linde Plate System. The freezing plates are con-
structed of square pipes, which, lying closely together, make a
perfect sheet. They consist of two zig-zag coils, which interlock-
in each other. Through one of these coils (having the larger
area) cold ammonia vapors are passed and through the smaller
one brine is passed.
The working of these freezing plates is as follows:
When the cold ammonia vapors are passed through the ammonia
coil, the cold is evenly transmitted through the whole surface of
the pipes, and the brine coil, which is surrounded on two sides by
the cold ammonia coil, will have nearly the same temperature as
the ammonia coil, so that the freezing along the whole plate will
take place just as fast as if the plate consisted entirely of one
ammonia coil. When we want to loosen the plate of ice from
FIG. 46. AMERICAN LINDB PLATE SYSTEM.
the freezing plate, shut off the supply of liquid ammonia and
open the valve which allows warm brine to pass through the
brine coil.
After the plate is loosened, close the brine valve and open the
valve which lets the liquid ammonia pass through the ammonia coil.
To get the ice plates square the brine pipes are covered with
sheet iron. The plate of ice forms inside this sheet and when it
has formd thick enough and needs to be loosened, the same valve
102 PLATE ICE PLANTS.
which lets warm brine pass through the brine coil interlocked
with the freezing coil also lets brine pass through these coils,
so that the ice is loosened from the plate.
An absorption machine under the right conditions should produce
up to 12 tons of ice per ton of coal burned.
This figure includes all of the coal burned to provide steam for
the water pump, ammonia pump, condensed steam pump, agitating
apparatus, crane operation and so forth. Actual results on a sea-
son's business show 10 tons of ice sold per ton of coal bought.
Another advantage of such a plant is that cheap coal can be
burned, providing a proper boiler plant has been installed.
The following costs per ton for operating a 50-ton plant may
be interesting:
Coal at $2.20 per ton $0.22
Labor 34
Ammonia 06
Incidentals and repairs 24
Interest on investment 25
Taxes and insurance .11
Total to produce 1 ton of ice $1.26
The factory cost of the ice is 86 cents per ton, including repairs.
A compression machine wth compound condensing engine and
with all pumps, etc., driven by the compressor engine would re-
quire at least 130 H. P. for a 50-ton ice-making plant and with
an evaporation of 7-1 in the boiler plant, it would require the
burning of 4% tons of coal per day which would be equivalent
to the making of 11 tons of ice per ton of coal burned. It Is
safe to say that not over ten tons of ice per ton of coal burned
would be sold. So that from the standpoint of coal economy the
tico plants would be practically equal.
The cost per ton for operating a 50-ton compression plant would
be about as follows:
Coal at $3.20 per ton $0.32
Labor 34
Ammonia 03
Incidentals and repairs 18
Interest on the investment 25
Taxes and insurance 11
Total to produce 1 ton of ice $1.23
In this case the factory cost of the ice is 87 cents, including
repairs.
The difference in factory cost per ton is so small that the whole
matter resolves itself into the question as to which type of machine
is best adapted to the particular conditions existing in the im-
mediate vicinity in which the plant is to be erected.
A stll greater economy in the production of plate ice may be
attained by a combination of the absorption and compression
machines. The steam consumption of both typos of machines is
a well known quantity. If, then, the combination plant be so
proportioned that all of the steam required to operate a simple
Corliss engine be utilized in an absorption machine at, say, ten
pounds pressure, either the absorption machine or the compres-
sion machine will be operated at no cost for coal.
Assume that a 100-ton plate plant be so designed. Then a 30-
ton compression ice-making machine will drive a 70-ton absorp-
tion ice-making machine with its exhaust steam after the steam
has done its work in the compressor engine. A plant designed on
PLATE ICE PLANTS. 103
these lines would turn out 14 tons of ice per ton of coal burned
and the cost per ton for operation would be about as follows:
Coal at $2.20 per ton $0.16
Labor 30
Ammonia 05
Incidentals and repairs 21
Interest on investment 25
Taxes and insurance 11
Total to produce 1 ton of ice $1.08
The factory cost per ton of ice is in this instance reduced to 72
cents and the difference in the cost of production in favor of
the combined plant is 15 cents per ton, which on a yearly output
of 20,000 tons, gives the substantial sum of $3,000 per annum
saved. (K. Wegeman, Trans. West. Ice Ass'n. 1907. Abridged.)
About 250 square feet of freezing surface will be required per
ton per 24 hours on a brine plant and in a direct expansion plant
about 275. The brine plants are more easy to operate than the
direct expansion plants, for the reason that the plant can he
operated more continuously under the same conditions. That
is, the condition does not fluctuate so easily, and the ice can be
made of a more uniform thickness for the reason that the
temperature of the freezing surface is more uniform.
In a direct expansion plant the freezing surface that is not
backed with the liquid ammonia will have one temperature, and
the freezing surface that has gas inside of it will have an entirely
different temperature, and the range is considerable.
The cbiffioulty with the brine plants is the impossibility of mak-
ing plates that won't leak. The displacement per ton for the
compressors of a brine plant is less than the direct expansion
plants.
If the expansion coils can be kept very nearly flooded with
liquid we obtain a higher efficiency and a more uniform tem-
perature.
The difficulty with the direct expansion plant is the ammonia
leaks; the expansion coils being subject to such a range of
temperatures. The loss of ammonia on a direct expansion plant
is considerably more than on a brine plant.
If we use brine, we will have to use a slightly lower back pres-
sure than if we use direct expansion. Few brine plants are running
at much better than 10 or 12 pounds back pressure, whereas the
direct expansion plant will run higher. The accumulator system
will run as high as 14 or 16 pounds.
Plate ice can be made as pure as any can ice ever produced.
There are two means at hand to accomplish this end:
Sterlization and Ozonization. Where plenty of exhaust steam
is at hand, sterilization is the best means, but in most plants
ozonization will be found the more convenient method.
Treatment by ozone will reduce the number of bacteria from
3,000 to 7 per cubic centimeter, and the 7 remaining bacteria
are of the harmless kind. The investment runs from $12 to $20
per ton of ice-making capacity, including filters; the power re-
quired is about one H. P. per hr. The German standard for
pure potable water is 100 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The
treatment would therefore more than meet the requirements of
the health board.
A sterilizing equipment is both higher in first cost and cost
of operation, and has the added disadvantage of sending the water
to the forecooler at a considerably higher temperature.
Plate System vs. Can System.
The principal elements in the selection of "plate" system and
"can" system contrasted:
PLATE JCE PLANTS.
END EtP'
FIG. 47. 20-TON PLATE ICE PLANT.
Quality of Ice. Both systems under intelligent management
will produce ice of good quality, but the "can" system depends
upon a complicated arrangement of distilling and filtering appara-
tus which permits rapid deterioration in quality if not carefully
watched and kept in effective working condition.
Power. Water, gas, electricity or any cheap motive power can
be used for producing plate ice, but when distilled water is
required, the "can" system must use steam.
Water. Where water is highly impregnated with lime, etc.,
or gaseous products capable of vaporization and condensation,
the "plate" system can be used if operated at a slow rate of
freezing, as, for instance, sea water can be frozen on the "plate"
system while very opaque and difficult to handle on the "can"
system.
PLATE ICE PLANTS.
105
Investment or First Cost. For producing ice 12 to 14 inches
thick, the investment is greater in the "plate" than in the
"can" system, where steam is used, by 33 to 75 per cent. This
is due largely to the increased area of buildings required, high
pressure compound condensing steam engines, power traveling
cranes, expensive construction of freezing tanks and cells, etc.
Cash Available. Given a limited cash capital you are enabled
for one-half the money to buy and equip a "can" system of same;
tonnage capacity, occupying but one-half the space..
Ice for Cooling Cars. When crushed ice is required! solely for
cooling purposes, the "can" system is by all means the cheapest
END ELEVATION
FIG. 48. 50-TON PLATE ICE PL<ANT,
io6 PLATE ICE PLANTS.
to operate, as the ice may be made in thin, quick-freezing moulds,
the distilling system and steam boiler dispensed with, and any
motive power used for driving the compressor.
To secure best economy in large "plate" system installation,
the equipment should include power hoisting crane for lifting
ice from tanks; automatic machinery for sawing large cakes into
blocks; power ice handlers and conveyors; ample, well insulated
ice storage rooms; the main tank freezing cells, plates or coils
thoroughly well made with a view to long life and avoiding leak-
age; abundant fore-cooling water storage. Where steam must be
used, adopt high pressure water tube boiler and best make of
compound condensing engine, preferably of the Corliss type.
(Penny. Trans. A. S. R. E. 1906. Abridged.)
NOTES ON ICE PLANTS :
Pipe Lime Refrigeration
(J. EJ. Starr, A. S. R. E. Trans. 1906. Abridged.)
Pipe lines are laid, by virtue of public franchise, under the streets
and public places of cities for supplying refrigeration to individual
consumers. Two methods have been employed for distribution :
(a) Brine Circulation; (b) Direct Expansion.
The relation of income and length of main ison an average
$12,000 gross income per mile. The various installations range
from one mile of mains to seventeen miles.
Brine lines have the usual two pipe flow and return system with
refrigerator coils connected in multiple. The brine is cooled in
brine coolers of the shell and coil type. Brine pumps are of the
triplex type driven by direct connected engines.
The power required for distributing the brine varies directly
with the head and the range of the brine. Assuming a range of
5 deg. between the outgoing and incoming brine and a head of 120
200 X 120
feet we have - - = 0.14 H. P. per ton of refrigeration
5 X 33,000
delivered to the brine as measured by the brine. This will call
for from 0.23 to 0.28 H. P. at the motor per ton of refrigeration.
The insulation of the mains is effected by laying the pipe in a
wooden box and covering with an insulating material soaked in
some moisture resisting compound. (Hair felt soaked with a mixture
of rosin and paraffin oil or granulated cork soaked in pitch.) Above
ground all service lines must, of course, be insulated to and* from
the wall of the refrigerator.
The loss of refrigerating power by reception of heat coming
through the insulation of mains is constant on a given length of
main for each division of temperature of the atmosphere, but varies
directly : as to percentage of total load, with the load that is, the
greater the load the less the percentage of loss accurate ther-
mometer readings of brine temperature in the mains at the station
and at various points on the line are needed to establish this point.
Ammonia lines have been laid under the three-pipe system, con-
sisting of a liquid line carrying the liquid ammonia under pressure
by main and branch to the expansion valves at the refrigerators ;
a return or vapor line carrying back the gas ; and a third line called
the vacuum line.
The expansion coils in the refrigerators are connected in multiple
between the liquid! and the vapor line. The vacuum line is con-
nected at each expansion coil on the coil side of the stop valves on
the liquid and vapor lines. Repairs at any refrigerator can thus
be made without disturbing the balance of the system. The vacuum
line is also connected at manholes for repair purposes on the main
lines. It can be used as a bridge line to carry liquid over a block
where there may be a leak on the liquid line. Its use is also imper-
ative in extensions of existing lines to carry air or ammonia to test
out new lines without disturbing the operation of old ones. The
ammonia lines are laid in a condxiit of vitrified or salt glazed split
sewer pipe. The lower half of the conduit being first laid in con-
crete, then the ammonia lines are run and tested, then the top half
of the conduit is laid on and cemented. Manholes are provided at
street intersections in the usual manner of all street service work.
The expansion piping is rather liberally installed, the idea being
to have enough piping to superheat the gas to nearly the tempera-
ture of the box and prevent frosting out into the return main.
In small refrigerators it is very difficult to prevent frosting out,
and wherever possible such boxes are connected in series with other
boxes. Where a number of small boxes are grouped as in a hotel
io8 PIPE LINE REFRIGERATION.
or restaurant, a brine cooler is installed, fed from the street lines,
and brine circulation is used locally.
Laying out the central station as to tonnage of machinery and
provision for increase involves a study of average weather condi-
tions. The annual output must be divided into periods showing
average demands by periods and of course the plant must be ma-
chined for the highest daily load and for the absolute peak. By
taking the average mean monthly temperatures and subtracting
from each monthly mean the figure 30 (a little below freezing) the
remainders will represent the distribution of the load by months.
Working these figures into percentages of the total we have our
monthly load curve.
For laying out piping for the distribution of liquid, a drop in
pressure between the condenser pressure and the pressure due to
the highest temperature likely to exist at any point on the liquid
line is to be taken as basis for friction head. As most installations
so far are on comparatively level ground, static pressure has not
figured extensively, but it carries a limitation if liquid lines running
to the upper stories of high buildings are involved. Such lines can
not be carried to a height where the loss of head would involve a
pressure below the boiling point of the liquid at the temperature
surrounding the pipe.
The temperature of the mains in the conduit seldom rises above
75 in the summer. This corresponds to an ammonia pressure of
126.5 Ibs. With a condensing temperature of 150 Ibs. the distribu-
tion of a given tonnage or its corresponding amount of liquid could
be calculated on a d"rop of 23.5 Ibs. In practice a drop of 15 Ibs.
has been considered about the outside allowance for friction head.
There always remains in case of change of conditions the alternative
of raising the condenser pressure to keep the ammonia in liquid
form up to the expansion valves.
It is desirable to hold the back pressure at the station as low as
possible in order to obtain the greatest available friction head, thus
keeping down the cost of line and also retaining the ability to give
low temperatures at refrigerators far from the station and to keep
down the cost of expansion piping. For this reason the absorption
type of machine has been used largely for pipe line systems as it
possesses the advantage of working with economy at low back
pressures.
Avoiding freezing business all other classes of refrigeration, say
from 28 up, can be carried on the basis of 25 pounds for the high-
est pressure on the return line and 1 5 to 10 Ibs. at the station, giving
a friction head of from 15 to 20 Ibs.
In July and August one ton of refrigeration takes care of 2,800
cubic feet of space. One cubic foot of space requires .07 ton per
annum. One square foot of insulation requires .204 ton per annum.
The most important question in direct expansion pipe line work
is that of leakage of ammonia. In fact, experience has shown that
the financial success of the system must stand or fall on this item.
Various methods have been tried ; finally a system was adopted of
anchoring the pipes at definite intervals with expansion joints at
definite distance from each anchor, confining the expansion and con-
traction to definite distances and to calculable limits. The later
developments include welding the pipes in a continuous length from
manhole to manhole and putting expansion joints at the manhole
or U bends on the run.
Of late, apparently successful attempts have been made to weld 1
the pipes in situ by the thermit welding process. This process
consists in thoroughly cleaning the ends of the pipes and butting
them together. Strong clamps hold the ends firmly one to the other.
An iron mould is then clamped around the pipe having an annular
opening all around! the joint. The thermit is then poured into the
mould from a hand crucible. The lighter slag first pours out of the
AUTOMATIC MACHINES.
109
mould, followed by thermit steel, which sinks to the bottom, filling
the mould about half way up with steel, and the displaced slag fills
the balance of the mould. The great heat of the thermit brings the
metal of the pipe to a welding heat. The clamps are d*rawn towards
each other, compressing the butted ends of the pipe, and the weld
is complete.
While undoubtedly the major cause of loss from leakage has re-
sulted from worn out or badly put together joints in the line, as a
result of expansion and contraction, there will always remain a
certain amount of what might be termed insensible leakage. While
this will doubtless always exist, its aggregate will not be sufficient
to cut a large figure in line expense.
Automatic Refrigerating Machines
In the last few years a machine has been put on the market
which is said to be automatic and which may be adapted to any
small compressor. The accompanying diagram shows the arrange-
ments of these parts.
The switchboard is equipped, with the motor-controlling rheostat,
switches, voltmeter, ammeter and scale light, with terminal con-
FIG. 49. AUTOMATIC REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
tacts for all wire connections on the back of this panel. The ther-
mostat in the refrigerator is adjusted to operate at any two tem-
peratures : one, above which the temperature in the box must be
allowed to rise ; and the other, below which it must not fall.
After the plant has been started it will operate until the lower
or cold limit of temperature has been reached in the
refrigerator. Electric contact is then made in the thermostat,
automatically opening the switch so as to stop the motor. The
stopping of the process of refrigeration results in the gradual rise
of temperature in the refrigerator to the higher limit, when electric
contact is made in the thermostat automatically closing the switch
and starting the motor again.
As a rule the thermostat is adjusted so that the plant will operate
and produce refrigeration within a range of 3 to 4 of variation in
the refrigerator ; in other words, if the minimum of 36 is desired
the plant will operate until this temperature is obtained, when it
no AUTOMATIC MACHINES.
will stop and not operate again until the temperature rises to 39
or 40, according to the adjustment of the thermostat.
While in operation the motor and compressor are 'both working
at full load and highest efficiency, and when stopped all expense of
operation ceases.
The Automatic Expansion Valve is regulated in the following
manner :
Within the valve chamber is fitted 1 an accurately constructed
valve mechanism which will only allow a feed of the liquid from
the compression side of the system into the expansion side, when
the vapor pressure of the expansion side is less tban an adjustable
and opposed pressure. The proper proportion of feed to meet the
requirements of refrigeration in each specific plant can always be
determined and regulated by the adjustment provision.
Perfect regulation by this automatic valve is insured by the
thermostat control of the motive power, stopping the plant when
the temperature has fallen to the desired limit.
The Automatic Water Regulator allows the pressure in the con-
denser pipes to act against a flexible diaphragm, which in turn
actuates the valve stem or plunger in the chamber of this regu-
lator ; the reverse action being that of a tension spring adjusted*
to prevent a flow of water when the pressure in the condenser is
reduced below the normal, that is, when the plant has been
stopped.
The water circuit is provided with a by-pass connection, hand
controlled, to permit a flow of water at other times, for example,
to flush the water circuit when the plant has been out of service
for a long period as it might be during cold weather.
The Automatic High-pressure Cut-off is attached to the high-
pressure gauge and is so arranged that if the pressure of the con-
denser, as indicated by the gauge, should for any cause rise far
above its normal, then the thermostat circuit is automatically in-
terrupted so as to open the motor switch and* stop the operation of
compression.
When the pressure falls to the normal or predetermined level,
the mechanism restores the control of the plant to the thermostat,
which in turn will start or stop the motor-driven compressor in
accordance with the temperature conditions in the refrigerator.
When the pressure cut-off operates to shut down the plant a special
signal gong is automatically sounded to indicate the cause as being
abnormal, and an auxiliary bell, on a primary battery circuit, can
be placed at a distance so as to indicate each stopping of the plant
from this cause, if the water supply should be irregular.
The compressor shown in the present illustrations is built by the
Automatic Refrigerating Company of Hartford, Conn.
PART IV OPERATION OF COMPRESSION
PLANT
Erection and Management
The installation of the plant comprises the proper erection of
machine and apparatus, testing the different parts under air pres-
sure and charging the system, after which an efficiency test is
made.
Foundation.
The foundation for engine and compressor must be finished at
least two weeks before setting the machines. The icllowing rules
should be strictly observed:
Digging. Dig down to a good, solid bottom, which is never to
be less than called for on drawing. Break and remove adjacent
rocks, to avoid vibration. Depth of foundation varies from 5 to
8 ft. for small and medium sized machines. As a general rule,
the foundation shall weigh approximately 5 times as much as
machine.
Concrete. For the concrete, only Portland cement, sharp and
clean stones and sand are to be used. It is to consist of 1 part
cement, 3 parts sand, 5 parts stone.
The concrete is to be well rammed down and is to have a level
surface. The template should set square and approximately level.
The bolts must firmly fit the washers and are then blocked up
and adjusted with the nuts, until the bolt ends are level with
each other and at the right height above engine house floor.
Around the bolts, beginning within 12 inches from the anchor
plates, a space 4 X 4 is to be left clear of mortar and other
material, or the bolts are encased in a pipe about 4 inches diam.,
which is removed before machine is put in place.
Surrounding Buildings or Posts. The concrete should not touch
any surrounding parts of the building or post foundations, should
not bind on any pipes or other structure, and the contractor has
to make sure that no damage can be done by vibration of machine.
Grouting. After machine is in place, grout with either cement,
sulphur or iron rust. For cement, mix equal parts of Portland 1
cement and sharp sand. Add water to make a thin, freely run-
ning grout. Build up one layer of bricks around bed plate and
foot of machine, then pour in cement, until it sets solid underneath
and about half or one inch up on the casting. It will be dry and
set properly in two or three days. When using sulphur, make a
stiff clay around bed plate, melt sulphur in a large pot over a
slow fire and pour quickly with the hand ladle (boils at 239).
Pipe Connections. They are usually laid out carefully in the
drawing and made up in the shop, measuring not over 4 ft. one
way and 20 ft. the other way. All joints on ammonia pipes are
screwed and soldered except on some final connections, which
must be fitted on job. Suitable hangers must be provided accord-
ing to character of walls and ceiling.
Testing Plant.
It is important, before introducing the charge of gas into the
machine system, to carefully test every part of the apparatus,
and make it thoroughly tight under at least 300 pounds air pres-
sure, which pressure may be obtained by working the ammonia
compressor and allowing free air to flow into suction side of
pump by opening special valves provided for this purpose, the
entire system being thus filled with compressed air at the desired
H2 OPERATION OF COMPRESSION PLANT.
pressure. While this pressure is being maintained, a search Is
instituted for leaks, every pipe, joint, and square inch of surface
being tediously scrutinized. One method is to cover all surfaces
with a thick lather of soap, leaks showing themselves by forma-
tion of soap bubbles. In the case of condenser and brine tank
coils,' the tanks are allowed to fill with water, the bubbles of air
escaping through the water locating the leak. It is important
that the apparatus be thoroughly tight, and while each separate
piece is carefully tested in the works, transportation and handling
may damage, besides a few joints are made on the premises, and
it is necessary to go over the entire surface to be sure. While
the machine is engaged in pumping air into the system, advantage
should always be taken of this opportunity to purge the system, of
all dirt and moisture. To do this properly, valves are provided so
the apparatus may be blown out by sections, removing valve
bonnets, loosening joints for this purpose, so that it is positively
known that each pipe, valve and space is strictly clean and
purged of all dirt and traces of moisure.
A final test may then be had by pumping a pressure of 300
pounds upon the entire system, and allowing the apparatus to
stand for some hours, estimating the leakage, if any, by noting
the degrees of pressure as shown by the pressure gauge connected
to system. The air pressure will shrink somewhat at first, by
reason of losing heat gained during compression by the pumps
As soon as the air parts with its heat and returns to its normal
temperature, the gauge will come to a standstill and remain at a
fixed point (depending upon the barometer and changing tempera
ture of the room), if the system is tight.
Do not cJiarge the system until it is well cleansed, purged
and tight.
After machinery has been made perfectly tight, air must be ex-
hausted from the entire system by working the pumps and 1 dis-
charging the air through the valves provided for this purpose.
When the escape of air ceases and the pressure gauges show a
full vacuum, it is well to close all outlets and allow the machinery
to stand for some time, to test the capacity of the apparatus
to withstand external pressure without leakage; in some cases it
has been discovered that parts while tight from internal pressure,
owing to loose particles lodging over leaks and acting as plugs
to prevent escape, these same points, when subjected to an external
pressure, give way and disclose the leakage.
Charging Plant.
Connect the flask of ammonia to the charging valve, the gauge
still showing a vacuum, close the expansion valve in main liquid
pipe connecting receiver to brine tanks. Then open valve on
FIG 50.
Position of the tank should be as in Fig 50, the outlet valve pointing
upwards and the other end of the tank raised 12" to 15". The connection
between the outlet valve of the tank and the inlet valve of the system
should be a %" pipe.
OPERATION OF COMPRESSION PLANT. 113
ammonia flask and! allow the liquid to be exhausted into the system.
We recommend placing the flask on small platform scales, in order
to weigh the contents and know positively wh&n cask is exhausted.
Eiach standard tank contains from 100 to 110 Ibs. of ammonia.
The machine may be run all this time at a slow speed, with
discharge and suction valves wide open. As one flask is exhausted,
place another on scales, and continue until the liquid receiver
Is shown to be partly full, by the glass gauge thereon. Then
shut the charging valve and open and regulate the main expansion
valve; the machine is then sufficiently charged to do work, as
shown by the pressure gauges and gradual cooling of the brine
and frosting of expansion pipe leading to brine tank colls.
While the system is being charged, water is allowed to flow over
the condenser, and time diligently employed in searching further
for leaks, which can readily be detected by sense of smell, each
point being again gone over.
Ammonia is a great solvent, and in some cases leaks may be
opened up by reason of the gas dissolving substances that may
have stopped defective places and withstood the air test.
Amount of liquid in system :
Tons of refr. in 24 hrs. . 5 10 15 20 25 50 100 150 200
Lbs. of liquid 150 200 250 350 375 425 500 550 750
Add to the above one-third Ib. for 1 ft. of 2-inch expansion
pipe. Sulphur dioxide machines use about 3 to 4 times, and
carbonic acid machines 5 to 6 times as much liquid.
Air in the System. -Negligence in regulating the expansion valve
and needlessly pumping a vacuum on the brine tank, carelessly
allowing leaky stuffing boxes, may allow air to got into the sys-
tem, as will also taking the apparatus apart without expelling the
air, before the re-introduction of the ammonia gas.
The presence of air in considerable quantity is readily noticed
by an expert, by the intermittent action of the expansion valve
and singing noise, rise of condensing pressure, loss of efficiency
in the condenser, etc. Purging valves are provided on the con-
denser and other points to allow the imprisoned air to escape,
and restore the apparatus to its normal condition of pressure and
efficiency.
Pumping Out Connections.
Every compressor should be provided with a by-pass, which
enables the engineer to exhaust the ammonia from any part of the
system, and temporarily store it in any other part until the re-
pairs or examinations are made.
The by-pass is also used for exhausting the compressors them-
selves before the heads are removed for examination. By these
means we are able to reverse the action of the pumps and exhaust
the ammonia from the condenser, storing it in the expansion coils.
In each case, after the examination of any part, the air may
be exhausted therefrom and the charge of ammonia re-introduced
without the admixture of air.
While the same rules apply to all compressors, we append here
some directions governing specific makes, as given by their
builders.
Directions for Safety Head Compressors.
To pump out compressor B. All valves closed. Open main
discharge stop valve Al and by-pass valves 2 and 3. Run machine
slowly until compressor cylinder is exhausted, then close by-
pass valve 3 and cylinder head may be removed. After replacing
cylinder head the air may be expelled by closing main stop valve
Al and discharging through purging valve on head of cylinder A.
H4 OPERATION OF COMPRESSION PLANT.
MmSpFK^^^
/i' U ^ --" V "'CHARGE ' <
FIG 51 BY-PASS OF SAFETY HEAD COMPRESSOR.
To pump out compressor A, proceed in same manner, using
opposite set of valves.
To pump oiit ammonia condenser and store in evaporating coils
or low-pressure side: Open main discharge stop valve Ai, by-
pass valves 1 and 4, thus connecting to suction of cylinder B,
and expelling gas by opening by-pass valves, 2, 5 and 7 into main
suction pipe. Run machine slowly.
By using oposite set of valves the other cylinder may be used,
as one is used to exhaust ' the gas from the discharge through
by-pass, while the others expels it through the other portion of
by-pass into the suction pipe and low-pressure side.
Directions for "Oil" Compressors.
To Pump Out a Condenser. Close cocks 4, 5, 6 and 8 of
those condensers which you don't want to pump out. Close cocks
40 and 44 of those condensers you want to pump out, the other
condensers w r orking during all this time. Open cock 1 and then
close main liquid cock 36 and main return cock 42 and run at
FIG 52 PUMPING-OUT CONNECTIONS OF OIL COMPRESSOR.
OPERATION OF COMPRESSION PLANT. 115
reduced speed. Now lower your back pressure to Ibs. and keep
it there until there is no more frost on the condensers you want
to pump out. Don't cut off the water from the condenser you want
to pump out. Now close cock 8 of the condenser in question ;
furthermore, cock 1, and open cocks 4, 5, 6 and cock 8 of the
other condensers. You can now break any joint of the condenser
in question.
When the joints of the condenser have been made again, open
cock 44 of the condenser in question a little, allowing the air to
escape at joint of cocks near condenser. When you srnell am-
monia strongly close this joint and open cock 44 fully; further,
cocks 8 and 40 and your condenser is in proper working order.
To pump out main liquid line. Close cock 36 and also all the
expansion cocks but one. Also close all the return cocks except
the one corresponding with the expansion cock that was left
open, and reduce the back pressure to Ibs., and keep it there
as long as the pipe shows frost. Then close the last expansion
cock and stop the machine. You can now break any joint of this
pipe, but you must not touch any cock connecting with it. When
all the joints have been made tight again, open cock 36 a little
and allow the air confined in the pipe to escape at the farthest
joint broken until you smell ammonia strongly. Then close the
joint, and you are ready to start the machine.
To Pump Out Brine Cooler, Beer Cooler, Etc. Close expansion
cock leading to the cooler or cellar you want to pump out and see
that the corresponding return cock is open. Close main liquid
cock 36 and all other 2-inch return cocks, and then reduce your
back pressure to pounds, until it will not go up again when
you stop the machine or when you run the machine at its slowest
speed. Then close the return cock mentioned before, and you can
now break any joint of the cooler or cellar expansion, not touch-
ing the cocks. The machine may be working during this time
and doing work in the other cellars or coolers. If you want it
to do this, open all 2-inch return cocks except the one belonging
to cooler or cellar you wish to repair, and open cock 36 again,
allowing the back pressure to go up to its usual height. When all
your joints have been made again, open the expansion cock, before
closed, a little, so as to allow some ammonia to enter the cooler
or cellar, and then close it again, allowing the air to escape ac
the joint of the respective cooler or cellar near return cock until
you smell ammonia strongly. Then close the joint and open
the respective return cock. You can now expand again in this
cooler or cellar.
Pumping out storage tank, separating tank, etc., is done in
similar manner and no further instructions are required.
Efficiency Test of Refrigerating Plant
The purpose of the test is to determine how the refrigeration
produced compares with the amount of work expended and! the
amount of coal consumed.
Getting ready for test :
1. Engine and compressor have to be provided with indicators.
2. Condensing water and circulated brine have to be connected
with a meter.
3. Temperature of in and outgoing brine and condensing water-
is to be measured by thermometers.
4. Also temperature of ammonia gas, by placing mercury wells
In the suction and discharge pipe near the compressor.
Indicator Diagram.
The diagram shows:
(a) The actual work done by (engine) or applied to (compressor)
a piston during each stroke. H. P. of compressor Is product of
mean pressure, piston area and piston speed divided by 33,000.
The mean pressure in the compressor may, in the absence of an
indicator diagram, be found approximately in the following table.
MEAN PRESSURE IN COMPRESSOR.
Cocdenaer Pressure.
103
115
127
139
153
168
184
200.
218
Condenser Tem-
perature.
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
Pmiun
=
41.46
43 91
46 34
48 77
51.23
63.68
56.11
58 64
60 99
4
-20
6
-15
42.72
45 38
47 90
iO 74
53.40
5608
5886
61 40
64 08
9
44.40
47 38
50.33
5329
56.25
59.20
62.16
65.14
68 09
13
5
45 86
49 15
52 42
55 70
5R.97
62.25
65.53
68 81
72.08
16
46 94
50 56
54 16
57 78
61 40
65 00
68.62
'72.22
75 84
20
5
47 74*
51 73
55 70
69 68
63 67
67 66
71 62
75 61
79 61
|
24 10
48 04
5240
56 77
61 13
65 51
69 86
74.24
78 59
82 97
28 15
47 88
52 67
57 44
62.23
67 02
71 81
76 60
81 39
86.18
33
20
47 08
52 30
57 53
62 75
67.98
73.23
78.46
83 68
88 91
39
25
45 06
ii.34
57 05
62 75
68.46
74 17
79.88
85 58
91 29
45
309
43.16
49,71
55.92
62 14
68 35
74 56
80.77
86 98
93 19
51
55
40 52
47 '26
54.02
60.76
67.52
74.28
81 02
87 78
94.52
(b) The conditions of pressure at the different positions of the
piston, the working of the valves and the changes of temperature.
Figs. 1 to 6 show defective cards.
Figs. 7 and 8 show good cards.
Fig. 9 shows how to plot the isothermal and adiabatic lines by
means of the two tables below.
To plot the adiabatic line by means of Table I; Find in the
horizontal line with p the number corresponding to the absolute
back pressure on your card. Then in the same vertical column
that contains your absolute back pressure, and opposite p, find
the value of p 9 . Lay this off on line 9 (Fig. 53, No. 9), from btobi,
to the same scale as that of your indicator spring. Do the same
for p 8 , p 7 to pi. You then have a series of points through which
you draw the smooth curve a, b, c. This curve is the adiabatic.
To plot the isothermal line by means of Table II proceed the
same as explained in regard to the adiabatic line.
EFFICIENCY TEST OF PLANT. 117
CVrate Good Carets
ry Goj
tt.
TABLE I.
TABLE II.
ADlABATlC CON
40J
41.3
110.8 113.2 115.8
148.0 1513 154.6
215.0 220.0 224.8
.r
227.8 235.8 244.0
4X,;|
234.2 239.0 243.8 248.6
398.0 407.0 414.0
(Mi il
39.0
45.4
54.0
66.2
83.8
111.8
162.5
276.3
680.0
85.5
108.3
144.7
213.0
357.8
880.0
72.1
H5 8
105.0
133.0
177.6
P-
P..
P..
P.I
P.I
P.I
P.,
P.s
P.I
1?
18.
21 4
25.0
30 (
37 f
50 1
75 (
I50.(
16
17 h
20.1
22 i-
26 '
32 (
40 f
53 4
80 I
(ill I
ir
18 9
2-1 L
24 I
27 3
34
42 f
56 7
85 (
170 (
1*
20 I
22 r
30 (
86 1
45 (
dd 1
90
1X0 (
ffdff,
23.7 25 G
27 1 28 6
31 7 33 4
38 40
47 5 50 U
63 4 66.7
95.0100
190 olaOO-.fl
2:1 . ;
26.1.
30 (
35 (
42 (
52. f
70 1
105 (
210 (
"Wj 3
24.5 25 6
27 5 28 7
31 4 32.8
3d 7 38.4
44 01 46
55.0) 57 6
73 4 76 7
HO. 01 15
220 0|230 (1
30 O
34.3
40
48.0
0.0
80 1
120.0
MO.O
P.
P..
P.,
P-7
P..
fit
I
27 8
31 2
35 ."
41.7
50
(,2 f
83.4
125
JMi (
28 <
32 f
37 1
43 4
52 (
65 (
8(1 7
30 (
260.1
30 (
83 -
38 t
45 (
('- '
BO 1
135
27(1. (
31 1
35 (
40 I
46 7
Mi (
70 (
93 4
110 (
280 (
32 L
41
48 :
58 (
72 '.
96 7
145 (
291) (
37 ;
42 8
50 f
60 (
7.5 (
100 1
150.0
((HI I
34 (
44 :
51 "
62 (
77 f
103 -1
155 (
(1(1 (
35 (
40 (
45 7
53 4
64 (
80 (
106 ~
1(10.1
32(1 (
3H
36 '
41 2
47 '2
55 (
66.0
82..'
1)0.1
165 (
33(1 (
37 8
42.5
48 e
50.7
68.0
85
113 4
170.0
1340
1
]>"
]>"
I
5?
43 7
50 i
58.4
70 (
16 7
75 (
i.SO.(
40 (
45
51 4
60. (
72 (
HO (
20 1
80. (
60 (
4? 2
4 2
52 8
61 7
74
92 5
23 4
85
170
42 3
47 5
54 8
03 4
7(1
<5
126 7
'HI '1
wo.o
43 4
48 7
55 7
(if.
78
97 5
130.1
195.0
I!IO I
44 ,.
50 (
57 L.
80 1
00 I
33 4
200 (
400.0
45 d
51 ...
58 (
68 4
82 (
102 :
136 -
205 I
110. 1
46
52
(in i
70 (
84 (
105 (
140.1
210 I
120 1
47 8 48 9
53 7 55
61 4 62.8
71 7 73 4
86 88
107 5'llO
143 4(146 7
215 0|220
430.0'440.0
I
1
1
I
I
1
P
50
56. L
(14 .'
75 (
90 (
12 f
50 I
225 (
450 (
51 2
57 5
65 7
76 -
15 1
53 4
30 (
60. f
52 3
r,8 7
67 2
78 .4
94 (
17.5
56 7
235.0
170.0
53 4
60
68 5
80
(Hi
20 (1
60
240
480.0
54 r
6) L
TO
81 7
98 (
122.:
163.4
245 (
(90 (
5,5 (
62 f
71 4
83 4
no (
2;> (
tit. "
250. (
.00.0
63 -
72 8
85 (
102 .
127. f
J70
255
.III I
5?,
65 I
74 :
86 '
104 (
130 (
260 (
,20. (
58 <
(1(1 L
75 7
88 4
106 (
132.1
176 7
265 1
530. (
60
67 6
77 2
90.0
108.0
135.0
1800
270
-.40.0
I
1
.1
I
I
\
P., "
61 2
68 7
78 f
91 7
10 (
37.5!
83 4
750
80.01
62. 3
70 (
80
93.4
12.0
40.0
180 7
280.0
5GO.O
57
63.4
71 2
81.4
96.0
14
42.5
89 H
70.0
64 5
72 5
K2 8
96 7
16
45
93 . 4
290 (1
SO
65 fi
73 7
84.3
<M 4
118
S!
SJ
66 7
75
85 7
00
20
50
JIKI 1
)00.0
.110
i
RECORD OF A TEST MADE WITH A "DE LA VERGNE" 32-TON
MACHINE AT THE PACKINGHOUSE OF RICHARD WEBBER.
Readings were made every hour for 12 hrs. In succession and
the average taken.
Brine meter, 660 cb. ft. p. hr.; water meter, 235 cb. ft. p. hr.;
steam gauge, 90 Ibs. ; back pressure, 22 Ibs. ; cond. pressure, 140
ii8 EFFICIENCY TEST OF PLANT.
Ibs. ; number of rev., 2,880 p. hr. -- 48 p. min.; temp, of feed
water, 165; brine temp., initial 17, final 27.
Spec, gravity of brine at 60 = 1.1 in ; spec, heat = 0.8326 ; weight
of 1 cb. ft. = 69.83 Ibs.; coal used = 3,988 Ibs.
Actual refr. capacity R = P X s X (t to -~ 284,000.
P = Ibs. of brine circulated in 24 hrs. = 660 X 69.83 X 24 =
1,106,000 Ibs. ; t = final temp, of brine = 27 ; ti = initial temp.
= 17; s = spec, heat of brine = 0.8326.
R - 1,106,000 X 0.8326 (27 17) -4- 284,000 = 32.3 tons in 24
hrs.
Condensing water used per minute = 235 X 7.5 -T- 60 = 29.3
gallons. (I cb. ft. = 7.5 gallons.)
Rules for Testing Refrigerating Machines.
(Abridged 1 from Preliminary Report to A. S. M. E.)
The unit to measure the cooling effect or the refrigeration is the
heat required to melt 1 pound of ice, which is 144 British thermal
units, and by dividing the refrigeration measured in British thermal
units by 144, the ice melting capacity in pounds is obtained. The
unit for a ton of 2,000 pounds of ice melting capacity is therefore
288,000 British thermal units. The tonnage capacity is the re-
frigerating capacity expressed in tons of ice-melting capacity in
24 hours, and is equivalent to the abstraction of 288,000 British
thermal units in 24 hours, or to 12,000 British thermal units per
hour, or 200 British thermal units per minute.
The unit for measuring the commercial tonnage capacity is
based upon the actual weight of refrigerating fluid circulated be-
tween the condenser and the refrigerator, and actually evaporated
in the refrigerator.
The actual refrigerating capacity of a machine may be determined
from the quantity and range of temperature of the brine, water,
or other secondary refrigerating liquid circulated as a refrigerant,
and the actual refrigerating capacity under the standard set of
conditions should correspond closely to the commercial tonnage
capacity.
The standard set of conditions are those which often exist in ice
making, namely that the temperature of the saturated vapor at the
point of liquefaction in the condenser is 90 degrees F. and the
temperature of the evaporation of the liquid in the refrigerator
degrees F. This corresponds for ammonia to a condenser pres-
sure of about 168 pounds gauge pressure, and to a gauge pressure
of about 15 pounds in the refrigerator.
In the case of air machines, the actual tonnage capacity for a
specified set of conditions is obtained by basing the refrigeration on
the amount of air cooled and tae amount which it is lowered in
temperature.
In the Code of Rules the primary refrigerating fluid is consid-
ered to be ammonia, out the rules will apply no matter what the
refrigerating fluid may be.
In a brine circulating system where brine coils are made use of
to produce the refrigerating the capacity of these coils is not there-
fore taken into account. A test made with a brine heater gives
correctly the capacities herein specified.
Calibration of Thermometers.
All the thermometers used should be carefully calibrated before
employing them in a test. The 32 degree point may be determined
by noting their readings when surrounded by melting ice, and other
points by comparing with a standard thermometer which should
also be calibrated at its ice point in order to make sure that it
is correct.
Thermometers having the graduations marked directly on the
glass stems should be used, and these should be placed in wells
EFFICIENCY TEST OF PLANT. 119
containing brine or mercury, the wells to extend for at least 2
Inches into the space whore the fluid circulates. The mercury in
the stem of the thermometer should stand a little higher than, the
top of the well, in order that the readings may 'be obtained without
moving the thermometer. Where the range of temperature through
which the refrigerating fluid is cooled is measured in order to de-
termine the capacity of the machine, it is often necessary to
measure this range with the highest degree of refinement. For ex-
ample, if a refrigerating machine cools brine through a range of 5
degrees, one-tenth of a degree will be equivalent to 2 per cent, of
the range of temperature, and it is therefore essential that the
range should be determined wita as great accuracy as possible. In
general, it is well to interchange the thermometers which are used
for measuring the temperatures of the inlet and outlet brine several
times during a test, making note of such changes on the record of
the test.
Calibration of Water and Brine Meters.
Where meters are used for determining the amount of refrigerat-
ing fluid which is circulated they should he carefully calibrated,
both before and after a test, and in some cases, where long tests
are made, they should also be calibrated during the test.
In calibrating a meter the measurements should be made with
the meter in the position in which it is installed in the test. This
is especially necessary where the liquid which is measured is cir-
culated by means of a pump which produces pulsations in the pres-
sure, because the pulsations, as well as the total pressure, must be
the same in calibrating the meter as exist in the actual test. In
calibrating a meter with either water or brine the temperature of
the fluid should be about the same as exists in the test.
Duration of Test.
The duration of a test depends upon its character. If a test is
made of an ice making plant, and it is desired to obtain the
actual amount of ice made per pound of steam consumed, it may
be necessary to make tests of a week or more in duration in order
to eliminate as far as possible any error in estimating the amount
of ice and cold stored in the freezing tank, which should be made
as nearly as possible the same at the end as at the beginning of the
test.
Where the refrigerating capacity is measured, the conditions
should be made as nearly the same as possible at the beginning
and the ending of a test. By making the test of a long enough
duration, any error involved through irregularities will be prac-
tically eliminated and in most cases all tests should be of at least
8 hours duration.
It is essential that the average temperature of that part of the
brine between the points where its temperature is measured and
where it is cooled by the evaporation of the ammonia, as well as
the quantity of this part of the brine, be the same at the end as
at the start of the test. If there is much difference in tempera-
ture or quantity, a correction should he applied.
Conditions Existing in, Tests.
Where a machine is guaranteed to develop a certain capacity with
a certain quantity of condensing water at a certain temperature, it
is often necessary to heat the condensing water to the tempera-
ture specified in the contract (circulating the water through a
heater in which steam is admitted).
All conditions specified in a contract should be followed as closely
as possible in making a test.
I2O
EFFICIENCY TEST OF PLANT.
Amount of Anvmonia Circulated and Evaporated.
The anhydrous ammonia must necessarily be measured under pres-
sure. The best method is actually to weigh it, employing two tanks
having flexible metallic pipe connections for the purpose.
The arrangement of the two ammonia cylinders for measuring
FIG 54 MEASURING ANHYDROUS AMMONIA.
the anhydrous ammonia is shown in diagram. The ammonia re-
ceiver installed with the machine is marked A, and one of the two
tanks for weighing the anhydrous ammonia B and the other K.
In using the tanks for weighing anhydrous ammonia the valve D
is closed. In filling the tank R, the valves E and F are opened
and the valve G is closed. After the tank B is filled, the valve E
is closed and the weight determined, after which the valve O is
opened, and the anhydrous ammonia is allowed to flow from the
tank through the throttle valve or cock H into the refrigerator.
During the time that the anhydrous ammonia is allowed to flow
from the tank B through the throttle valve or cock H, the second
tank, K, similar in construction 'to 5, which is connected to the
pipes I and J, is being filled.
In setting up the apparatus, care must be taken that the hori-
zontal pipes. G, K, I and J leading to the two tanks, are long
enough to allow sufficient flexibility to insure the proper working
of the scales. Care must be taken also that the pipes / and K
are so connected that no liquid ammonia can enter them, while the
tanks for weighing the ammonia are being emptied. The liquid
ammonia receiver must be large enough to allow the level of the
liquid to be carried at all times well below the inlets of the pipes
/ and K. The tanks B and K may be covered with a nonconductlve
covering to diminish the heating or cooling effect of the atmosphere
on them. There should be little or no tendency to evaporate the
liquid ammonia or to condense the ammonia vapor in the tanks B
and ZT, and that such is the case may be determined by allowing
them to stand for some time with the vent pipes open to the am-
monia receiver A, and noting whether they gain or lose in weight.
Actual Refrigerating Capacity. In determining the actual re-
frigerating capacity of the machine the conditions must be those
specified in the contract. For example, if a machine is guaranteed
to produce a certain tonnage of refrigeration in cooling a storehouse
in summer weather, the test should be made in the summer, if
possible, or the capacity of the coils, which are used for refrigerat-
ing the various rooms, may be tested by employing relatively
warmer brine. If the heat given to the brine is then not sufficient,
EFFICIENCY TEST OF PLANT. 121
a heater may be readily constructed 1 of a coil through which the
brine passes, which is immersed in steam, so that the required
amount of heat is sdded to the brine.
Specific Heat of Brine Used. In all cases where the actual re-
frigerating effect is measured by the cooling produced in the brine
circulated, the specific heat of the brine should be determined.
Temperature and Pressure of Ammonia Gas Leaving Refrigerating
Coils. It is necessary in computing the commercial refrigerating
capacity from the weight of anhydrous ammonia circulated that
the pressure and the temperature of the gas leaving the refrigerator
be known. As the pressure of the gas leaving the refrigerator is
nearly that existing in the refrigerator, it may be taken as such
without sensible error. Unless the gas leaving the refrigerator is
superheated, there may be some liquid anhydrous ammonia leaving
the refrigerator coils along with the gas. A thermometer at this
point is necessary in all tests, because if any liquid ammonia leaves
the refrigerator the calculated results will be too great and the
machine will be doing less refrigeration than indicated by the
measured amount of ammonia circulated.
Temperature of A-mw.onia at the Expansion Valve. It Is neces-
sary in computing the commercial tonnage capacity that the tem-
perature of the anhydrous ammonia be known on the high pres-
sure side of the expansion valve. A thermometer well should be
inserted in the pipe for this purpose.
Commercial Tonnage Capacity. The commercial tonnage capac-
ity should be computed from the formula :
W
R = [Iv q + cp ! *)] (1)
12,000
Where R = the commercial tonnage capacity or the tons of ice
melting capacity per 24 hours.
W = the weight of anhydrous ammonia evaporated in the refrig-
erating coils in pounds per hour.
1/2 = the total heat above 32 degrees F. of 1 pound of the
saturated ammonia gas at the pressure of the refrigerator.
q the sensible heat above 32 degrees F. contained in 1 pound
of the liquid ammonia at the temperature observed before it passes
through the expansion valve.
cp = the specific heat of ammonia gas at constant pressure
of 0.51.
ti the temperature of the superheated ammonia gas leaving
the refrigerator in degrees F.
t = the temperature corresponding to the pressure at which the
ammonia gas leaves the refrigerator in degrees F.
The specific heat of liquid anhydrous ammonia is very nearly
unity, and if taken at this figure, we obtain (2) :
W
R = [H 2 (7\ T 2 ) + op (*! *) ] (2)
12,000
Where H 2 = the latent heat of evaporation of 1 pound of an-
hydrous ammonia at the pressure of the refrigerator.
TI = the temperature of anhydrous ammonia observed just be-
fore it passes through the expansion valve in degrees F.
T 2 the temperature corresponding to the pressure of the am-
monia gas in the refrigerator in degrees F., and the remainder of
the notation is the same as in equation (1).
In determining the commercial tonnage capacity it is necessary
to make sure that the anhydrous ammonia is pure. In the case of
absorption machines, there is usually some water present in the
ammonia. The quantity of water should be determined.
122 EFFICIENCY TEST OF PLANT.
Actual Refrigerating Capacity. The actual refrigerating capac-
ity should be computed from the formula :
WiC
Rl - - - (t 2 t 3 ) (3)
12,000
Where RI = the actual tonnage capacity, or the tons of Ice
melting capacity per 24 hours.
Wi = the weight of refrigerating fluid circulated per hour.
o = the specific heat of the refrigerating fluid for the range of
temperature existing in the tests.
t 2 = the temperature of refrigerating fluid returned to the ma-
chine, and 1
t s the temperature of refrigerating fluid leaving the machine.
Indicator Cards, etc. Indicator cards should be taken from the
steam and ammonia cylinders of a compression machine. Thermom-
eter wells should be placed in the inlet and exit ammonia pipes of a
compressor, and the temperatures observed.
Strength of Liquors in Absorption Macliine. The density of the
strong and weak liquors should be determined in testing an ab-
sorption machine. It is essential in doing this that no gas be
allowed to escape from the liquids on drawing from the machine.
The liquors should be drawn off through a pipe which is surrounded
with cold brine or some other refrigerant, and the density should
be determined at a temperature at which there is practically no
evaporation.
Heat Balance. A balance should be made of the various quan-
tities of heat received, and rejected by a machine. This Is Import-
ant as proving the accuracy of a test. The following table gives
the essential data and results for a test to determine the com-
mercial tonnage capacity :
1. Duration of test hours
2. Anhydrous ammonia evaporated 1 per hour in the refrigerating
coils (W) Ibs.
3. Average condenser pressure above atmosphere, or gauge, pres-
sure (made as near 168 Ibs. a square inch above the atmos-
phere as possible) Ibs. per sq. in.
4. Average refrigerator pressure above atmosphere or gauge pres-
sure (made as near 15 Ibs. a square inch above the atmos-
phere as possible) Ibs. per sq. in.
5. Average temperature of liquid ammonia on high pressure side
of the throttling valve or cock (TO deg. F
6. Average temperature of ammonia gas leaving the refrigerator
(ti) deg. F.
7. Temperature of saturated ammonia gas corresponding to the
average refrigerator pressure (T 2 ) dfg- F.
8. Total heat above 32 degrees F. of 1 pound of saturated am-
monia gas at the average refrigerator pressure (L 2 ) . . . B. t. u.
9. Sensible heat above 32 degrees F. contained in 1 pound of
liquid ammonia at the temperature observed* before it passes
through the throttle valve or cock (q) B. t. u.
10. Commercial tonnage capacity = R as figured by equations
(1) and (2).
PART V THE STEAM PLANT
Steam Engines
Horse-Power.
The indicated horse-power is found! by the following formula:
I. H. P. = a s p -f- 33,000.
a = piston area in inches (deduct area of rod).
s piston speed in ft. per min. = 2 X stroke X' rev. p. min.
p = mean effective pressure in Ibs. p. sq. inch of piston.
The Actual or Brake Horse-Power equals the indicated horse-
power less the power required to run the engine itself, which Is
ordinarily 25% of the total power. The ratio between the indicated
and brake horse-power is called Mechanical Efficiency.
The Mean Effective Pressure is computed from an indicator dia-
gram, or may be obtained approximately from table below.
MEAN EFFECTIVE STEAM PRESSURE.
Cut-off at
A
*
*
I
*
*
t
ft
*
f
1
Apparent Ratio of
Expansion.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3.33
3
2 5
2
M E.P. perLb.
Initial Pressure.
-.330
.355
.385
.421
465
.523
.596
.661
,699
.770
.846
Initial Pressure.
Me.
m Eff
>ctive
Pressur
: from 1
~ull Ar
saof Id
eal Diaj
jram.
Gauge | Absolute.
40
54.7
18 07
19.42,21.06
tt.03
25.44
28.55
32.63
30 15
33.26
41.93
46 31
45
59.7
19 72
21.19,22.98
25.12
27.76
31.16
35.62
39.46
41 "<6
45.76
50.54
50
64.7
21 37
22.9724.91
27.23
30.09
33.77
38.60
42.76
45.26
49.59
54.77
55
69.7
23.02
24.74
26.83
29.34
32 31
36.38
41.58
46.07
48.76
53.43
59.00
60
74.7
24.67
<>6 5?
98 75
31.45
34.74
38.99
44 56
49.37
52 26
57.26
63.24
65
79 7
26.32
*8
30.68
W 55
37 06
41.59
47.55
52 67
55.75
61.09
67.47
70
84.7
>7 97
30 07
3?, 60
15,66
39.39
44.20
50.53
55.98
59.85
64.92
71.70
75
89.7
29.62
31.84
34.53
37 76
41.71
46.81
53.51
59.28
62 75
68.76
75.94
80
94.7
31.28
33.62
36.45
19 87
44.04
49.42
56.50
62.59
66.25
72.59
80.17
85
99.7
32.93
35.39
W 38
41 91
46.36
52.03
59. 4S
65.89
66.74
76.42
84.40
90
95
104.7
109.7
34.5837.17
36.2338.94
40.30
42.23
44.08
46.18
48.69
51.01
54.64
57.25
62.46
65.44
69.20
72.50
73.24
76.74
80.26
84.09
88.63
92.87
100
114.7
37 88
40.72
44.15
48 ?0
53.34
59.86
68.43
75.81
80.24
87.92
97.10
110
124.7
41.18
44 37
48 00
53 50
57.98
65.08
74.39
82.41
87.23
95.59
105.26
120
134.7
44.49|47.82
51 85
56.71
62.64
70.30
80.36
89.02
94.23
103.25
114.04
130
144.7
47.7951.37
33.70
00.92
67.29
75.52
86.32
95.63
101.22110.91
122.50
140-
154.7
51.0954.92
59.55
65 13
71.94
80.74
93.29
102.24
108.22
118.58
130.96
150
164.7
54.39iJ8.47
63,40
69.34
76.59
85.96
98.26108.85
115 21
126.26
139.43
160
170
174.7
184 7
57.70
61.00
61.02
65.57
67.25
71.10
73.55
77.76
81.24
85.89
91.17
96 39
104. 221115. 46
110.19122 07
122.21
129.20
133.91
141 90
147.89
156.36
180
194.7
64 80
fl9.1?
74.95
81,97
90.54
101.61
116.15128.68
136 20
149.24
164.83
190
204.7 67 60
72.67
78. 79186.18
95.19
106.83
122.12 135.29
143.19
156.91
173.29
200
214.7 70.91
76.22
82.6490.39
99.84|112 05
128.08141.90
150.19
164.57
181.85
210
224.7 74.2!
79 78
86.4994.60:104.491117.27
134 05 148.51
157.19
172.24
190.22
1
1
1
To find the highest M. E. P. realized in practice, subtract from the ideal values given in
table, 7 Ibs. for condensing engines, and 20 Ibs. in the case of non-condensing engines.
The ideal M. E. P. for any initial gauge pressure not given in table is found by multi-
plying your absolute pressure by the M. E. P. per pound of initial, as given in third line
of table.
124
STEAM ENGINES.
PISTON SPEED IN FEET PER MINUTE.
Ordinary direct-acting pumping engines (non-rotative) 90 to 130
Ordinary horizontal engines 200 to 400
Horiz. comp. and triple-expans. mill engines 400 to 800
Ordinary marine engines 400 to 650
Engines for large high-speed steamships 700 to 900
Locomotive engines (express) 800 to 1,000
Engines for torpedo-boats 1,000 to 1,200
STEAM PER HORSE-POWER PER HOUR.
Plain slide valve engine 60 to 70 Ibs.
High speed automatic engine 30 to 50 Ibs.
Corliss simple non-cond 25 to 28 Ibs.
Corliss comp. non-cond 23 to 26 Ibs.
Corliss simple condensing 19 to 21 Ibs.
Corliss comp. condensing 13 to 15 Ibs.
Valve Setting of Corliss Engine.
The following instructions are given by the Frick Co. and apply
to all Corliss engines:
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
STEAM VALVE
FIG 56 VALVE SETTING OF CORLISS ENGINE.
The Steam and Exhaust Valves. Take off the back valve chest
cover and upon the bore of the seats you will find a mark which
coincides with the closing edge of the port. (See Figs. 3 and 4.)
Look upon the end of the valve and find a mark running towards
the center of valve; this line coincides with the closing edge of
valve. Note that in case of the exhaust valve the valve controls
the part leading Into the exhaust passage and not the opening
from the cylinder downward. The upper edge of the exhaust
port Is the closing edge, and the outer edges of the steam ports
are the closing edges.
The Wrist Plate. You will find a mark upon the hub and cor-
responding marks upon the hub of the wrist plate, when It i
STEAM ENGINES. 125
moved back and forth by the eccentric. The wrist plate should
be located exactly central between the four valves.
To test the marks on wrist plate hub connect the eccentric
rods and engage or drop the carrier rod upon the wrist plate
stud; then rotate the eccentric upon the shaft the full extent
of its throw or movement each way, and observe if the marks
upon the hub of wrist plate at full throw agree with the marks
upon the bracket; if not, disconnect the box trap of eccentric
rod at carrier arm and adjust the screw on stub end by lengthen-
ing or shortening (as required), until the marks do agree on both
extremes of movement.
To Set the Valves. Place the wrist plate in a vertical position
(at the central mark); turn the valves around in their seats until
the steam valves show by the closing edge marks upon their
ends by comparison with the port line marks in the seats that the
steam valve edges lap over or cover the ports % of an inch for
18-inch T)ore of engine cylinder, % for 24-inch cylinder, and
7/16 for 80-inch cylinder. The exhaust valves should show from
1/16 to y& opening, according to size of cylinder.
In connecting the wrist plate see first that the cut-off latch is
hooked on the stud or is engaged. Connect the wrist plate and
steam and exhaust valve arms so the wrist plate stands at the
central mark or vertical, and the steam and exhaust valve have
the proper lap and opening as instructed, the proper amount of
steam lap and exhaust opening being determined as above by the
size of engine.
To Make Final Adjustments. Now with the carrier rod hooked
upon the wrist plate stud, place the engine upon the center, know-
ing which way the engine shaft is to run, turn the eccentric
upon the shaft (it being loose) in the same direction in which
shaft is run, a little more than at right angles ahead of the
crank or until the steam valve on the same end as the piston Is
just beginning to open, say 1/32 of an inch; in this position secure
the eccentric on the shaft by means of the set screws in the hub
(see in all cases that the steam valves are hooked up or engaged
t)y the cut-off mechanism), then turn the engine on the opposite
center and see if the steam valve on that end has the same
amount of opening; if not, you can make the adjustment by
lengthening or shortening the wrist plate rod attached to this
valve.
To Adjust the Cut-off. See that the governor and connections
are put together properly, and block the governor about halfway
in the slot ; then fasten the reach or cam rod lever so it stands
about at right angles to a line drawn midway between the reach
rods; then lengthen or shorten the reach rods until the cam or
trip levers stand vertical or plumb. The governor and connections
now occupy the proper relative positions, and it remains to
make the exact adjustment and to equalize the cut-off, so as the
same amount of steam is admitted at each end of the stroke.
Also, lower the governor and observe when the governor is down
that the cut-off mechanism does not unhook, but allows steam
to be taken full stroke, after which place the engine at 1-5 of the
stroke, which can be done by measuring upon the engine bed
guides from each end 1 and turning the engine (with all parts
connected up) until crosshead is fair -with the mark, then slowly
raise the governor until the cut-off on the end taking steam
trips or unhooks, and to ensure this point being accurately de-
termined it is well to stand by with the hand pressing down
upon the dash pot rod; now block the governor in this position
;md try the cut-off on the other stroke same distance from the
end. After a few trials back and forth, and adjusting the length
of the cam rods, the cut-off can be made to drop at precisely the
126
STEAM ENGINES.
same point of stroke. Take care to secure everything perma-
nently when done.
Note : on Automatic Safety Attachment. As most engines are
fitted with safety automatic cams, designed to act only when
governor has fallen to bottom of slot in the governor column,
before finishing your adjustment see that when the governor is
at its proper height it will trip the cut-off. When resting on
the high part of the slotted safety collar, the valve gear will
follow full stroke, and when safety collar has been turned to
bring the notch opposite slot, the governor will drop low enough
to allow the safety cams or knock-off lever to be brought into
play so as not to permit the valves to be opened.
The dash pot rod should! be adjusted in length so the steam
valve arm, resting thereon, when the dash-pot plunger is home, or
at the bottom of the pot, is in such a position that the latch is
sure to hook over the latch stud and the stud lies midway between
the latch die and the closing shoulder. This will insure on the
one hand the positive engagement of the latch, and on the other
hand prevent the shoulder from jamming down upon the latch
atud. If the dash-pot rod is too short, the latch will not hook on.
The regular gag pot is used on Corliss Engines to prevent over-
sensitiveness of the governor and its response to trivial changes.
Use only coal or kerosene oil in this pot, and regulate the screw
In the piston if required to give greater freedom of motion.
See that all parts of the governor move freely.
If the latch dies have a tendency to slip, the latch spring may
be at fault. It can be made stronger by twisting the spring
stud, bringing more tension against the latch. If the stoppage
comes from wear, take out the latch or stud die and turn it,
thus presenting a new wearing surface, or sharpen edge by ap-
plying to a grindstone. Do not bring any more pressure on the
spring than necessary, as when steel dies are in good condition
the tension of spring can be very light. Keep the cushion leathers
in good order and your valve gear working noiseless and smooth.
Using a Steam Engine Indicator
to test the correctness of valve setting is the most approved
method known, and should be applied in cases where an indicator
can be obtained. Recollect that to adjust the point of cut-off
\Cross-pipe connection.
FIG 57.
Indicator and reducing-wheeL
PIG 58.
to take same amount of steam at each end, adjust the cam or
reach rods. To give more or less steam lead adjust the wrist
plate rods. Lengthening them increases the lap and shortening
them gives more lead. The same with the exhaust valves, the
cushion or release being effected thereby. If the eccentric is
properly set, it is not necessary to disturb it in ordinary cases.
STEAM ENGINES.
127
FIG 59.
The lines of a perfect diagram are
as follows:
A to B is the "admission line,"
showing that ports and clear-
ance space are filled with steam.
B to C is the "steam line/' show-
ing that sufficient steam is ad-
mitted to the cylinder up to the
point of cut-off at C.
C to D is the "expansion line/'
showing the work done by the
expansion of the steam while
piston travels from point of cut-
off to point of release at D.
D to B is the "release line/'
where the exhaust valve opening
lets the steam escape from the
cylinder.
E to F is the tack pressure line,
showing the amount of pressure
on the back of the piston.
At P occurs the exhaust closure,
and P to A is the coompression
line, showing how the pressure
is raised.
ADMISSION LINE.
a. Normal, b. Not sufficient lead.
c. Not sufficient lead (slide valve).
d. Steam admitted too late.
e. Exhaust valve closing too late,
f and g. Too much compression for
late steam opening,
h and i. Too much compression
(slide valve),
j and k. Too much lead.
STEAM LINE,
a. Normal, b. Steam ports or steam
pipe too small.
c. Too large steam chest area.
d. No load on engine.
e. Piston speed too great (slide
valve).
POINT OF RELEASE,
a. Normal, b. Release too late.
c. Counterpressure at moment of
normal release.
d. Release too early.
e. Release too late (condensing),
f and h. Light load or early cut-off,
g. Late cut-off.
BACK PRESSURE LINE,
a. Normal, b, c and! d. Insufficient
exhaust area.
e. Small exhaust ports.
f. Continuous diagram with vary-
ing load.
g. Early closure of valve.
COMPRESSION LINE,
a. Normal, b. Excess, compression,
c and d. Leakage in valves or pis-
ton,
e. Leakage in piston.
128
STEAM ENGINES.
Taking Care of Corliss Engine.
Before starting your engine, see that all the water is blown
out of the steam pipe by means of the drip valve provided on
steam valve elbow; then open the steam valve a little and allow
the steam to blow through the cylinder, first one end, then the
other, by moving the wrist plate by hand sufficient to let the
steam pass through the valves. The cylinder soon becomes warm,
and all water is expelled into the exhaust pipe, the exhaust drain
cock having been left open to allow it to run off. When ready
to start, let the engine move slowly until you are satisfied every-
thing is all right, then open stop-valve wide, and leave same
open at all times.
Don't work the wrist plate motion by hand and run engine
backward and forward; the carrier rod is provided with a de-
tachable hook so wrist plate may be worked for the purpose of
warming up steam cylinder and blowing through.
When machine is stopped, wipe it down clean, and examine all
bearings and parts. Before starting again, see that all oil cups
are properly filled and in working order, and all oil holes clear.
Use none but the best oil, and use no more of it than is required
to keep bearings in good working condition.
Air Pumps.
For a jet-condensing engine the capacity of the vertical single-
acting pump varies from 1/5 to 1/10 of the capacity of the low-
pressure cylinder, and from 1/8 to 1/16 in case of a horizontal
double-acting pump.
For a surface-condensing engine the capacity of the s. a. pump
would 1 be from 1/10 to 1/8, and of a d. a. pump 1/15 to 1/25 of
that of the low-pressure cylinder.
The above proportions are for pumps having the same number
of strokes as the piston of the low-pressure cylinder.
PIG 60 SURFACE CONDENSER WITH AIR AND CIRCULATING PUMP.
STEAM ENGINES.
129
o. 5
il? * i
OOOOOOOOCOOOC1OOOOO
|s
^-.^iOiOO C^ COCO-tSOOO Cl~OiO
1 O 'X) O 3O O O i-O i!*5~-c v 3O^*OO-*COO
' CM * O< r Tf C^ >* C* OJ C 1 * C( C^ Ot O* CO C*> *>< CO
>ooooo%a?J3a;
C V. O O O O O -< ^"'
;^^^5ss^
>oooc5OOO-^ eicdnco-r-rrTiOioioooo
- ^- i- MCJ?(MC?Oo : 5COCr:CoKM?lO
J j?i9iuE((3 \.-*'*> * O -z> T> -r> c> r> -r ir. -o o T, -r> T> v> T> T> T> -y> -r -f -* -r
?
Vl ?t w w -r 2p' ? o in o 3 t- S o oo ^
3
II
u
nos H ~ f? ?
jsistasiQ ' ^
* 2 2 2 !2 * *
SSS3?JS?;3SiSSSSSS^??^
Steam Boilers
Horse Power.
The standard rating is as follows : One horse-power equals 30
Its. of water evaporated p. hr. f from feed water, at 100 F. into
dry steam of 70 Ibs. gauge pressure.
' Internal fired, cylindrical tub- j
ular boiler.
-Sterling water-tube boder. 'BABCOCK & W. LCOX WATEK-TUBI BOILER
FIG 61 VARIOUS TYPES OF STEAM BOILERS.
This is equivalent to the evaporation of 34.5 Ibs. of water from
a feed water temp, of 212 F. into dry steam at the same temp,
and under atm. press.
STEAM BOILERS.
APPROXIMATE PROPORTION OP HEATING-SURFACE AND GRATE-SURFACI*
PER HORSE-POWER, ETC., OF VARIOUS TYPES OF" BOILERS.
Coal
1
TYP or BOILER.
Square feet
of heating-
surface per
per
foot of
heat-
Rela-
tive
econ-
Rela-
tive
rapid-
ity of
Heating-
surface per
square foot
Pounds of
coal per
square foot
Pounds of]
water perl
pound i
horse-power.
ing-
omy.
steam-
of grate.
of grate.
of owl.
sur-
ing.
I
face.
\
Water-tube
10 to 12
.3
1.00
1.00
35 to 50
12 to 20
9 to 10
Cylind'l tubular.
14 16
.25
..91
.60
25 35
10 15
8 : "' 11
Vertical tube
15 20
.25
.80
.60
25 30
10 15
8 " 10|
Locomotive
12 16
.275
.85
.55
50 100
20 40
8 " llj
Flue
5 12
.4
.79
.25
20 25
10 20
8 " 10
Plain cylindrical .
6 10
.5
.69
.20
15 20
15 25
7 " P
Mortzortt-ol Yubut a r Boi
Ice
No H.P.
FirtMTCf T*tl
75
90
too-i
ISO
200*>
2-i
4-S
/(?
/5"
20
2S-
30
40
SO
60
73
90
/OO
/2.O
60
24
48
52
66
66
Iff
/32
/02
/32
/32
7670
&77O
3S400
to ooo
'ifoo
ZOooo
26800
24000
.14000
3BOOO
.T3000
56000
4-00/
500
600
700
750
doo
/OOO
//OO
/3oo
2OOO
2200
Z600
3000
3300
60
221 92* 103
.118
" Art
eacK boiler to k Urn\*ht4 wi\ inoLependtnt shack.
n all e**e <V *vtt boiler iKaw ajxti-f ie4.
Fuel.
The value of fuel is measured by the number of heat units
which its combustion will generate. The fuel is composed of
carbon and hydrogen, and ash, with sometimes small quantities
of other substances not materially affecting its value.
"Combustible" is that portion which will burn; the ash or
residue varying from 2 to 36 per cent, in different fuels.
"Slack" or the screenings from coal, when properly mixed
anthracite and bituminous and burned by means of a blower is-
nearly equal in value of combustible to coal, but its percentage of
refuse is greater.
Petroleum has a heating capacity, when fully burned, equal
to from 21,000 to 22,000 B. T. TJ. per pound, or say 50 per cent,
more than coal. But owing to the ability to burn it with less-
losses, it has been found that it is equal to 1.8 pounds of coal.
A gallon of petroleum is equivalent to twelve pounds of coal,
and 190 gallons are equal to a gross ton of coal. It is very easy
with these data to determine the relative cost.
It has been estimated that on an average one pound of coal is
equal, for steam-making purposes, to 2 Ibs. dry peat, 2% to 2%
Ibs. dry wood, 2-.y 2 to 3 Ibs. dried tanbark, 2% to 3 Ibs. sun-
dried bagasse, 2% to 3 Ibs. cotton stalks, 3% to 3% Ibs. wheat
or barley straw, 5 to 6 Ibs. wet bagasse, and 6 to 8 pounds wet
tan-bark.
Natural gas varies in quality, but is usually worth 2 to 2%
times the same weight of coal, or about 30,000 cubic feet are
equal to a ton of coal.
132
STEAM BOILERS.
TABLE OF COMBUSTIBLES.
m.
1 Charcoal.
Carbon \ Coke,
| Anthracite Coal,
Coal Cumberland
" Coking Bituminous...
ing B
Cannel
" Lignite...
Peat-Kiln dri5d
Air dried 25 per cent, water. .
Wood Kiln dried
Air dried 20 percent, water.
AMERICAN COALS.
j
Theoretical Value.
M
Theoretical Value
COAL.
M
in Heat
Units.
Pounds
of water
COAL.
j!l
n Heat
Units.
Pounds
of water
STATE. KIND OF COAL.
o
evap.
STATE. KIND OF COAL.
P.'o
evap.
Penn. Anthracite ....
3-49
14.199
14.70
111. Bureau Co
5.20
3,025
3.48
' ** ....
13.535
" Mercer Co......
5.60
3.123
3-53
il U
2.90
14,22 <
14.72
" Montauk
5-5
2,659
3.IO-
" Cannel
3.M3
13-60
Ind. Block
2.50
3.588
4-38
Connellsville..
6 50
3,368
13-84
" Caking
5-66
4146
Semi-bit'nous..
10.70
3.155
13.62
" Cannel
6.00
3,097
, eg
" Stone's Gas ..
5.00
4,021
Md. Cumberland....
'13.88
2.226
2.65
Youghiogheny
** Brown
5.60
9.50
4.265
2,324
i*'76
12.75
Ark. Lignite
Col. ^
5.00
9.25
13^562
9-54
4.04
Kentucky Caking....
2-75
4.39'
14-89
4.50
13,866
4-35
|| Cannel....
16.76
Texas "
4-5
12,962
3.41
Lignite
7.00
9.326
13-84
9-65.
Wash. Ter. Lignite..
Penn. Petroleum....
3-40
11.551
20,746
..96
1-47
SIZES OF CHIMNEYS WITH APPROPRIATE HORSE-POWER BOILERS.
HEIGHT OF CHIMNEYS.
V :
.j
ITS
*f
5oftJ6oft|7oft|8oft.
90 ft |iooft.|noft.
.25 ft-
150 ft.
'75 ft.
200 ft.
f is
"< 3
1 J si
C.S
Commercial Horse-Power.
S < |
< o-
53 3_I
18
*3
H
= 7
4'
1
0.97
1.47
2-41
16
'9
34
49
54
62
2.08
3.14
21
37
65
72
78
83
2.78
3-98
24
30
84
92
00
107
"3
3.58
4-91
27
33
'"5
25
'33
141
4-47
5-94
3
36
141
52
'63
'73
182
5 47
7.07
32
39
42
1
196
231
208
$
271
657
7.76
8.30
9.62
11
48
3"
33
348
365
389
10.44
12.57
43
54
363
427
449
472
55 !
13.51
15.90
48
60
55
565
593
632
692
748
16.98
19.64
54
66
658
694
728
776
849
918
98l
20.83
23.76
59
7*
793
835
876
934
1105
25.08
28.27
64
84
995
1163
1038
1214
1794
418
1531
'637
34.76
38.48
7
75
90
^
'344
1415
1496
639
1770
1893
40.19
44-18
80
96
1
"537
1616
876
2l6 7
46 01
50 27
86
Water for Feeding Boilers.
should be soft, and deposit no sediment in the boiler. When it con-
tains a large amount of scale-forming material it is usually ad-
visable to purify it before allowing it to enter the boiler, instead 1
of attempting the prevention of scale by the introduction of chem-
icals into the boiler.
Carbonates of lime and magnesia may be removed to a consider-
STEAM BOILERS.
133
able extent by simply heating the water in an exhaust-steam feed
water heater or still better by a live-steam heater.
When the water is very bad, it is best treated with chemicals
lime, soda-ash, caustic soda, etc.
TREATMENT OF BOILER PEED WATER.
Cause of trouble.
Incrustation.
Treatment of water.
Carbonate of lime
Soft scale
Slaked lime, sal-soda.
Sulphate of lime.
Hard scale
Sal-soda, caustic soda.
Slaked lime and sal-soda.
Corrosion
Sal-soda, or caustic soda.
Sediment of sand, clay, and mud |
Precipitation,
or soft scale .
Foaming and
\ Alum, and filter.
Slaked lime, sal-soda, or caustic
corrosion
Foaming ....-<
soda.
Frequent blowing off from boiler,
or neutralize with hydrochloric
Corrosion . . .
acid.
Slaked lime, sal-soda.
Feed Water Heaters.
Cookson heater, purifier
and oil-separator.
Hoppes feed-water beater.
FIG 62 VARIOUS TYPES OF FEED WATER HEATERS.
134
STEAM BOILERS.
PERCENTAGE OF SAVING IN FUEL BY HEATING FEED- WATER.
AT 70 POUXDS GAUGE-PRESSURE.
STEAM
ft
I
TEMPERATURE TO WH
ca FEED is HEATED.
i ,
is
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180 190 200
210
220
250
300
3S B
5.53
6 38
7.24
8.09
8.95
9.89
10.66
11.52
'
12.3813.24 14.09
14.95
15.81
19.40
29.34
40
5 12
5 97
fi 84
7 69
8 66
9 42
10.28
11.14
12.00jl2.87 13.73
14.53
15.45J18.89
28 78
45
4.71
5.57
6 44
7,30
8,16
9 03
9.90
10.76
11.62:12.49 13.36
14.22
15.09I18.37
2S.22
50^
55
60
1$
3.47
5.16
4.75
4.34
t:%
5.21
6.89
6.49
6.08
7.76
7.37
6.96
8.64
8.24
7.84
9.51
10. 38 11. 24:i2.11 '12. 98
9. 99J10. 85,11. 73:12.60
9.6010.47ill.34 12.22
13.85
13.48
13.10
14.72,17 87j27.67
14.35-|17.38'27 12
13.98:16.86126.56
65 3.05
3.92
4.80
.67
6.56
7.44
8.32
10.08 10.96 11.84
12.72
13.60
16.35
26.02
70 12.62
3.. SO
4.38
.26
6.15
7 03
7.92
8 80
9.68 10.57.11.45
12.34
13.22 15.84:25.47
75 J2.19
3.07
3.96
.84
5.73
6.62
7.51
8 40
9.2810.17:11 06
11 95
12.84.15.33 24.92
80 1.76
2.65
3.54
.42-
5.32
6.21
7.11
8.00
8.8 9.78!l0.67
11.57
12.46;14.81 24.37
85 1.30
2.22
3.11
.00
4.90
5.80
6.70
7 59
8.48 9.38:10.28
11.18
12.07 14.32 23.82
90 0.89 1.78
-^5 0.45 1.34
2.68
2.25
'15
4.48
4.05
5.38
4.96
6. 28
5 86
7.18
8.07 8.98! 9.88
7.66 8.57' 9.47
10.78
10.38
11.68
11.29
13.82
13.31
23.27
22.73
100 0.00 0.90
1.81
2.71
3.62
4.53
5.44
.35
7.25 8.16| 9.07
9.98
10.88
12.80 22.18
Steam.
"Saturated Steam" is steam of the temperature due to Its pres-
BUre not superheated. "Superheated Steam" is steam heated to
a temperature above that due to its pressure.
"Dry Steam" is steam which contains no moisture. It may be
either saturated or superheated.
"Wet Steam" is steam containing intermingled moisture, mist
or spray. It has the same temperature as dry saturated steam of
the same pressure.
Flow of Steam in Pipes.
The flow of steam through pipes la calculated after the following
formula :
W = weight of steam in Ibs., which will flow per minute through
a pipe of the length L in feet and the diameter d in inches ; PI =s
initial pressure ; P a = pressure at end of pipe ; D = weight per
cubic foot of the steam.
Steam at atmospheric pressure flows into a vacuum at the ratt
of about 1,550 feet per second, and flows into the atmosphere at
the rate of 650 feet per second.
Heating ty Steam
One square foot radiating surface, with steam at 212, will heat
100 cubic feet of air per hour from zero to 150, or 300 cubic
feet from zero to 100 in the same time.
Where the condensed water is returned to the boiler, or where
low pressure of steam is used, the diameter of mains leading from
the boiler to the radiating surface should be equal, in inches, to
one-tenth the square root of the radiating surface, mains included,
in square feet. Thus a 1-inch pipe will supply 100 square feet of
surface, itself included. Return pipes should be at least % inch in
diameter, and never less than one-half the diameter of the main-
longer returns requiring larger pipe.
One square foot of boiler surface will supply from 7 to 10
square feet of radiating surface. Small boilers for house use
should be much larger proportionately than large plants. Each
horse-power of boiler will supply from 240 to 360 feet of 1-inch
steam pipe, or 80 to 120 square feet of radiating surface.
STEAM BOILERS.
135
Under ordinary conditions one horse-power will heat, approxi-
mately, in
Brick dwellings, in blocks, as in cities.... 15,000 to 20,000 cub ft
'
v ' to 15 '0 cub ft.
Brick dwellings, exposed all round ........ 10,000 to 15,000 cub. ft
Brick mills, shops, factories, etc ......... 7,000 to 10,000 cub ft
Wooden dwelling, exposed ............... 7,000 to 10,000 cub. ft'
Foundries and wooden shops ............. 6,000 to 10,000 cub. ft.
Exhibition buildings, largely glass, etc... 4,000 to 15,000 cub ft
In heating buildings care should be taken to supply the neces-
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.
25
ft
jfc.
in
il
/> O .3
<!>.flCL
D.
Temperature 1
in Degrees
Fahrenheit.
Totil Heat in
Heat Units at
32" I*.
3c
1
'2 B a
Z&x
a
i,
'i 1 !
2.2Si
X
c
ill
3 S- 3
S*o
a
i i
3S*
ill
3 O
> .s
Factor of equiv-
alent Evapor-
ation at 212
Fahrenheit.
( > <
1
101.99
1113.1
70.0
10430
0.00299
334 50
0.9661
2
120 27
1120.5
94.4
1026 1
00570
173.60
.9738
', .
3
141 02
1125.1
109.8
1015.3
00844
118 50
.9780
t . *
. 4
15309
11280
1214
1007 2
o o; 107
90.33
.9822
.5
162 34
1131.5
1307
1000.8
001300
73.21
.9853
..
17014
11338
138.0
093 2
001C-22
61 05
9870
7
176.80
1135.9
145.4
O'JO 5
0.01874
5339
9897
8
182.92
1137.7
151.5
980.2
002125
47.00
9916
' ^'. . .
9
188.33
1139.4
1569
98-2.5
02374
42.12
.9934
?.-.-
i 10
193.25
1140.9
1619
9790
0.02621
33.15
.9949
14.7
21200
1146.6
1807
9600
003793
2078
I 0000
, Q3
15
21303
1146.9
181.8
965 1
0.03820
20.14
10003
5.3
20
22795
1151.5
1969
954.6
0.050-23
l!).01
10051
10.3
25
24004
1155.1
209.1
9400
0.06199
1013
1.0099
15.3
30
25027
1158.3
219.4
9389
0.073CO
13.59
1.0129
20.3
35
259.19
11010
228.4
932.6
0.0350S
11.75
10157
25.3
40
207.13
11034
236.4
9270
0.09044
1037
10183
30.3
45
27429
1105.0
243.6
9220
0.1077
9.235
1.0205
35.3
50
280 85
11070
250.2
9174
0.1188
8.418
10225
40.3
55
28(5.89
11794
2563
913.1
0.1299
7098
1.0245
45.3
60
29251
1171.2
261.9
9093
0.1409
7.097
1.0263
60.3
65
29777
1172.7
267.2
9059
0.1519
6.583
1.0280
55.3
70
302 71
1174.3
272.2
902.1
0.1028
6143
10295
CO. 3
75
30738
11757
276.9
8988
01736
5.700
1.0309
65.3
80
311 80
11770
281.4
8950
0.1S43
5426
1.0323
70.3
85
31602
11783
2858
8925
1951
5.126
1.0337
75.3
90
320.04
11796
2900
8896
2058
4.859
1.0350
80.3
95
323 89
1180.7
294.0
8807
0.2105
4.019
10363
W.3
100
32758
1181.9
297.9
884.0
0.2271
4.40?-
10374
0.3
105
331.13
1182.9
301.6
881 3
2378
4205
10385
95.3
110
334.50
11840
305.2
878.8
0.2484
4 026
1.0396
100.3
115
337.80
11850
308.7
8763
0.2589
3.862
10406
105.3
120
34105
1186.0
3120
8740
02695
3 711
1.0416
110.3
125
344.13
11869
3152
871 7
0.2800
3.571
10426
115 3
130
347.12
1187.8
3184
809.4
02904
3.444
1.0435
125.3
140
352.85
11895
324.4
865.1
0.3113
3.213
10453
135.3
150
358 26
1191.2
3300
861.2
03321
3.011
1.0470
145.3
160
36340
11928
3354
8574
03530
2833
1.0486
155.3
170
303.29
11943
340.5
853.8
0.3737
2076
1.0503
165.3
180
372.07
1195.7
3454
8503
0.3945
2.535
1.0517
175,3
190
377.44
1197.1
350.1
847.0
04153
2.408
1.0531
185.3
200
381.73
1198.4
8546
843.8
04359
2.294
1.0545
210.3
225
391.79
1201.4
365.1
8363
0.4870
2.051
1.0576
235.3
250
40099
1204 2
3747
829.5
0.5393
1.854
1.0605
260.3
275
409 50
12068
3836
823.2
05913
1.691
1 0633
285.3
300
41742
12093
3919
817.4
0.044
1.553
10657
310.3
325
42482
1211.5
3996
811.9
0096
1.437
1.0680
335.3
350
431 90
12137
4069
806 8
0728
1.8:J7
1.0703
360.3
375
43840
1215.7
414.2
801.5
0800
1 250
1.0724
385.3
400
445 15
1217.7
4214
796.3
0.853
M72
1.0745
.485.3
500
466 57
1224 2
4443
7799
1 005
0939
1 0313
136 STEAM BOILERS.
ary moisture to keep the air from becoming "dry" and uncom-
fortable. For comfort, air should be kept at about "50 per cent,
aturated." This would require one pound of vapor to be added
each 2,500 cubic feet heated from 32 to 70.
Care of Boilers.
1. Safety Valves. Great care should be exercised to see that
these valves are ample in size and in working order. Overloading
or neglect frequently lead to the most disastrous results. Safety
valves should be tried at least once every day to see that they
will act freely.
2. Pressure Gauge. The steam gauge should stand at zero when
the pressure is off, and it should show same pressure as the safety
valve when that is blowing off. If not, then one is wrong, and
the gauge should be tested by one known to be correct.
3. Water Level. The first duty of an engineer before starting
or at the beginning of his watch, is to see that the water is at
the proper height. Do not rely on glass gauges, floats or water
alarms, but try the gauge cocks. If they do not agree with water
gauge, learn the cause and correct it.
4. Gauge Cocks and Water Gauges must be kept clean. Water
gauge should be blown out frequently, and the glasses and pas-
sages to gauge kept clean.
5. Feed Pump or Injector. These should be kept in perfect
order, and be of ample size. It is always safe to have two meana
of feeding a boiler. Check valves, and self-acting feed valves
should be frequently examined and cleaned. Satisfy yourself fre-
quently that the valve is acting when the feed pump is at work.
6. Low Water. In case of low water, immediately cover the
fire with ashes (wet if possible) or any earth that may be at
hand . If nothing else is handy use fresh coal. Draw fire as soon
as it can be done without increasing the heat. Neither turn on
the feed, start or stop engine, or lift safety valve until fires are
out, and the boiler cooled down.
7. Blisters and Cracks. These are liable to occur in the best
plate iron. When the first indication appears there must be no
delay in having it carefully examined and properly cared for.
8. Fusible Plugs, when used, must be examined when the
boiler is cleaned, and carefully scraped clean on both the water
and fire sides, or they are liable not to act.
9. Firing. Fire evenly and regularly, a little at a time. Mod-
erately thick fires are most economical, but thin firing must be
used where the draught is poor. Take care to keep grates evenly
covered, and allow no air-holes in the fire. Do not "clean" fires
oftener than necessary. With bituminous coal, a "coking fire,"
1. e., firing in front, shoving back when coked, gives best results
if properly managed.
10. Cleaning. All heating surfaces must be kept clean outside
and in, or there will be a serious waste of fuel. Never allow
over 1/16 inch scale or soot to collect on surfaces between
cleanings. Handholes should be frequently removed and surfaces
examined, particularly in case of a new boiler, until proper inter-
vals have been established by experience.
The exterior of tubes can be kept clean by the use of blowing
pipe and hose. In using smoky fuel, it is best to occasionally
brush the surfaces when steam is off.
11. Hot Feed Water. Cold water should never be fed into any
boiler when it can be avoided, but when necessary it should be
caused to mix with the heated water before coming in contact
with any portion of the boiler.
12. Foaming. When foaming occurs in a boiler, checking
the outflow of steam will usually stop it. If caused by dirty
STEAM BOILERS. 137
water, blowing down and pumping up will generally cure it. In
cases of violent foaming, check the draft and fires.
13. Air Leaks. Be sure that all openings for admission of air
to boiler or flues, except through the fire, are carefully stopped.
This is frequently an unsuspected cause of serious waste.
14. Blowing Off. If feed-water is muddy or salt, blow off a
portion frequently, according to condition of water. Empty the
boiler every week or two, and fill up afresh. When surface blow-
cocks are used, they should be often opened for a few minutes at
a time. Make sure no water is escaping from the blow-off cock
when it is supposed to be closed. Blow-off cocks and check-valves
should be examined every time the boiler is cleaned.
15. Leaks. When leaks are discovered, they should be repaired
as soon as possible.
16. Blowing Off. Never empty the boiler while the brick-work
is hot.
17. Dampness. Take care that no water comes in contact with
the exterior of the boiler from any cause, as it tends to corrode
and weaken the boiler. Beware of all dampness in seatings or
coverings.
18. Galvanic Action. Examine frequently parts in contact with
copper or brass, where water is present, for signs of corrosion.
If water is salt or acid, some metallic zinc placed in the boiler
will usually prevent corrosion, but it will need attention and re-
newal from time to time.
19. Rapid Firing. In boilers with thick plates or seams ex-
posed to the fire, steam should be raised slowly, and rapid or
intense firing avoided.
20. Standing Unused. If a boiler is not required for some time,
empty and dry it thoroughly. If this is impracticable, fill It quite
full of water, and put in a quantity of common washing soda.
External parts exposed to dampness should receive a coating of
linseed oil.
21. General Cleanliness. All things about the boiler room
should be kept clean and in good order. Negligence tends to
waste and decay.
Rules for Conducting Boiler Test.
The Committee of the A. S. M. E. on Boiler Tests, consisting of
Wm. Kent (chairman), J. C. Hoadley, R. H. Thurston, Chas. E 1 .
Emery, and Chas. T. Porter, recommended the following code of
rules for boiler tests (Trans., vol. vi., p. 256) :
Preliminaries to a Test.
I. In preparing for and conducting trials of steam boilers the
specific object of the proposed trial should be clearly defined and
steadily kept in view.
II. Measure and record the dimensions, position, etc., of grate
and heating surfaces, flues and chimneys, proportion of air space
in the grate surface, kind of draught, natural or forced 1 .
III. Put the boiler in good condition. Have heating surface clean
inside and out, grate bars and sides of furnace free from clinkers,
dust and ashes removed from back connections, leaks in masonry
stopped, and all obstructions to draught removed. See that the
damper will open to full extent, and that it may be closed when
desired. Test for leaks in masonry by firing a little smoky fuel and
immediately closing damper. The smoke will then escape through
the leaks.
IV. Have an understanding with the parties In whose interest
the test is to be made as to the character of the coal to be used.
The coal must be dry, or, if wet, a sample must be dried carefully
and a determination of the amount of moisture in the coal made,
138 STEAM BOILERS.
and the calculation of the results of the test corrected accordingly.
Wherever possible, the test should be made with standard coal of
a known quality. For that portion of the country east of the Al-
legheny Mountains good anthracite egg coal or Cumberland semi-
bituminous coal may be taken as the standard for making tests.
West of the Allegheny Mountains and east of the Missouri River,
Pittsburg lump coal may be used. *
V. In all important tests a sample of coal should be selected for
chemical analysis.
VI. Establish the correctness of all apparatus used in the teat
for weighing and measuring. These are : 1. Scales for weighing
coal, ashes, and water. 2. Tanks, or water meters for measuring
water. Water-meters, as a rule, should only be used as a check on
other measurements. For accurate work the water should be
weighed or measured in a tank. 3. Thermometers and pyrometers
for taking temperatures of air, steam, feed water, waste gases, etc.
4. Pressure gauges, draught gauges, etc.
VII. Before beginning a test, the boiler and chimney should be
thoroughly heated to their usual working temperature. If the boiler
is new, it should be in continuous use at least a week before testing,
so as to dry the mortar thoroughly and heat the walls.
VIII. Before beginning a test, the boiler and connections should 1 be
free from leaks, and all water connections, including blow and
extra feed pipes, should be disconnected or stopped with blank
flanges, except the particular pipe through which water is to be fed
to the boiler during the trial. In locations where the reliability of
the power is so important that an extra feed pipe must be kept in
position, and in general when for any other reason water pipes
other than the feed pipes cannot be disconnected, such pipes may
be drilled so as to leave openings in their lower sides, which should
be kept open throughout the test as a means of detecting leaks, or
accidental or unauthorized opening of valves. During the test the
blow-off pipe should remain exposed.
If an injector is used it must receive steam directly from the
boiler being tested, and not from a steam pipe or from any other
boiler.
See that the steam pipe is so arranged that water of condensation
cannot run back into the boiler. If the steam pipe has such an in-
clination that the water of condensation from any portion of the
steam pipe system may run back into the boiler, it must be trapped
so as to prevent this water getting into the boiler without being
measured.
Starting and Stopping a Test.
A test should last at least ten hours of continuous running, and
twenty-four hours whenever practicable. The conditions of the
boiler and furnace in all respects should be, as nearly as possible,
the same at the end as at the beginning of the test. The steam
pressure should be the same, the water level the same, the fire
upon the grates should be the same in quantity and condition, and
the walls, flues, etc., should be of the same temperature. To secure
as near an approximation to exact uniformity as possible in condi-
tions of the fire and in temperatures of the walls and flues, the fol-
lowing method of starting and stopping a test should be adopted :
X. Standard Method. Steam being raised to the working pres-
sure, remove rapidly all the fire from the grate, close the damper,
clean the ash pit, and as quickly as possible start a new flre with
weighed wood and coal, noting the time of starting the test and the
* These coals are selected because they are about the only eoali
which contain the essentials of excellence of quality, adaptability
to various kinds of furnaces, grates, boilers, and methods of firing,
and wide distribution and general accessibility in the markets.
STEAM BOILERS. 139
height of the water level while the water Is in a quiescent state,
just before lighting the fire.
At the end of the test remove the whole fire, clean the grates and
ash pit, and 1 note the water level when the water is in a quiescent
state ; record the time of hauling the fire as the end of the test.
The water level should be as nearly as possible the same as at the
beginning of the test. If it is not the same, a correction should be
made by computation, and not by operating pump after test is com-
pleted. It will generally be necessary to regulate the discharge of
steam from the boiler tested by means of the stop-valve for a time
while fires are being hauled at the beginning and at the end of the
test, in order to keep the steam pressure in the boiler at those times
up to the average during the test.
XI. Alternate Method. Instead of the Standard Method above
described, the following may be employed! where local conditions
render it necessary :
At the regular time for slicing and cleaning fires have them burned
rather low, as is usual before cleaning, and then thoroughly cleaned ;
note the amount of coal left on the grate as nearly as it can be
estimated ; note the pressure of steam and the height of the water
level which should be at the medium height to be carried through-
out the test at the same time ; and note this time as the time of
starting the test. Fresh coal, which has been weighed, should now
be fired. The ash pits should be thoroughly cleaned at once after
starting. Before the end of the test the fires should be burned low,
just as before the start, and the fires cleaned in such a manner as
to leave the same amount of fire, and in the same condition, on
the grates as at the start. The water level and steam pressure
should be brought to the same point as at the start, and the time
of the ending of the test should he noted just before fresh coal is
fired.
During the Test.
XII. Keep the Conditions Uniform. The boiler should be run con-
tinuously, without stopping for meal times or for rise or fall of pres-
sure of steam due to change of demand for steam. The draught
being adjusted to the rate of evaporation or combustion desired be-
fore the test is begun, it should be retained constant during the test
by means of the damper.
If the boiler is not connected to the same steam pipe with other
boilers, an extra outlet for steam with valve in same should be
provided, so that in case the pressure should rise to that at which
the safety valve is set it may be reduced to the desired point by
opening the extra outlet, without checking the fires.
If the boiler is connected to a main steam pipe with other boilers,
the safety valve on the boiler being tested should be set a few
pounds higher than those of the other boilers, so that in case of a
rise in pressure the other boilers may blow off, and the pressure
be reduced by closing their dampers, allowing the damper of the
boiler being tested to remain open, and firing as usual.
All the conditions should be kept as nearly uniform as possible,
such as force of draught, pressure of steam, and height of water.
The time of cleaning the fires will depend upon the character of the
fuel, the rapidity of combustion, and the kind of grates. When very
good coal is used, and the combustion not too rapid, a ten-hour test
may be run without any cleaning of the grates, other than just
before the beginning and just before the end of the test. But in
case the grates have to be cleaned during the test, the intervals be-
tween one cleaning and another should be uniform.
XIII. Keeping the Records. The coal should be weighed and de-
livered to the firemen in equal portions, each sufficient for about
140
STEAM BOILERS.
one hour's run, and a fresh portion should not be delivered until
the previous one has all been fired. The time required to consume
each portion should be noted, the time being recorded at the instant
of firing the first of each new portion. It is desirable that at the
same time the amount of water fed into the boiler should "be
accurately noted' and recorded, including the height of the water in
the boiler and the average pressure of steam and temperature of feed
during the time. By thus recording the amount of water evaporated
by successive portions of coal, the record of the test may be divided
into several divisions, if desired, at the end of the test, to discover
the degree of uniformity of combustion, evaporation, and economy
at different stages of the test.
XIV. Priming Tests. In all tests in which accuracy of results
is important, calorimeter tests should be made of the percentage
of moisture in the steam, or of the degree of superheating. At
least ten such tests should* be made during the trial of the boiler,
or so many as to reduce the probable average error to less than one
per cent., and the final records of the boiler test corrected according
to the average results of the calorimeter tests.
On account of the difficulty of securing accuracy in these tests,
the greatest care should be taken in the measurements of weights
and temperatures. The thermometers should be accurate within a.
tenth, of a degree, and the scales on which the water is weighed to
within one hundredth of a pound.
Analyses of Gases. Measurement of Air-Supply, Etc.
XV. In tests for purposes of scientific research, in which the de-
termination of all the variables entering into the test is desired,
certain observations should be made which are in general not neces-
sary in tests for commercial purposes. These are the measurement
of the air supply, the determination of its contained! moisture, tht
measurement and analysis of the flue gases, the determination of
the amount of heat lost by radiation, of the amount of infiltration
of air through the setting, the direct determination by calorimeter
experiments of the absolute heating value of the fuel, and (by
condensation of all the steam made by the boiler) of the total
heat imparted to the water.
The analysis of the flue gases is an especially valuable method of
determining the relative value of different methods of firing, or of
different kinds of furnaces. In making these analysis great care
should be taken to procure average samples since the composition
is apt to vary at different points of the flue.
Record of the Test.
XVI. A "log" of the test should be kept on properly prepared
Wanks, containing headings as follows :
Pressures.
Temperatures.
Fuel.
Feed
\vatei~
Time.
Barome-
ter.
It
Praught-
gauge.
"3
c
u
Boiler-
room
2
u
Steam.
V
e
3
H
^t
STEAM BOILERS.
141
1. Date of trial
2. Duration of trial hours.
DIMENSIONS AND PROPORTIONS.
ipave space for complete description.
3. Grate-surface wide. ...long area sq.ft.
4. Water-heating surface sq. f t.
5. Superheating surface. sq. ft.
; 6. Ratio of water-heating surface to grate-stir
face... ,
AVERAGE PRESSURES.
7. ' Steam-pressure in boiler, by gauge. Ibs.
8. Absolute steam-pressure Ibs.
9. Atmospheric pressure, per barometer in.
10. Force of draught in inches of water. in.
AVERAGE TEMPERATURES.
11. Of external air. ..,..-,"... deg.
12. Of fire-room ,. deg.
J3. Of steam ........ ".,'. deg.
14. Of escaping gases.... deg.
15. Of feed-water. . . . .^. ..... ....... . - de
FUEL.
16. Total amount of coal consumed Ibs.
1 7." Moisture in coal per cent.
18. Dry coal consumed. .'...' *** . Ibs.
19. Total refuse, dry pounds = per cent.
20. Total combustible (dry weight of coal, Item
18; less refuse. Item 19) Ibs.
21. Dry coal consumed per hour. 1 Jbs.
22. Combustible consumed per hour. . . . . , ....
RESULTS OP CALORIMETRIC TESTS.
.23. Quality of steam, dry steam being taken as
unity :
24. Percentage of moisture in steam. .'..,....,... per cent
25. Number of degrees superheated.. ............ deg.
WATER.
26. Total weight of water pumped into boiler and
apparently evaporated ................ ... Ibs.
27. "Water actually evaporated, corrected for
quality of steam .........,...'.' Ibs.
8. Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam
from and at 212 F
29. Equivalent total heat derived from fuel in
British thermal units ...;....., ....- i. B.T.U
30. Equivalent water evaporated into dry stenn
from and at 21:2 F. ner lioiir . .- . . . Ibs.
ECONOMIC EVAPORATION. ,
31. Water actually evaporated per pound of dry
coal, from actual pressure and tempera-
ture V....-,...,, i.^.;,,;;,,. v. Ibs
^i. Equivalent water evaporated per pound of
dry coal from and at 212 F. Ibs
33. Equivalent water evaporated per pound of
combustible from and at 212 F.
-COMMERCIAL EVAPORATION.
Equivalent water evaporated per pound of
dry coal with one sixth refuse, at 70 pounds
gauge-pressure, from temperature of 100
F. = Item 33 X 0.7249 ,. .' '.
Ibs
142
STEAM BOILERS.
RATE OP COMBUSTION.
35LDry coal actually burned per square foot of
grate^Rurface per hour. . . . . .
Ibs.
Its.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs,
Ibs,
Ibs.
ii)s'
H.P
H.P.
per cent
p -' _"..'- ^ Per sq. ft. of grate-
/ I Consumption of dry | surface......
,o"' ! coal per hour. . Coal ( Persq. ft. of watei-
oo' 1 assumed with one f heating surface..
' 1 sixth refuse. ' ] Per sq. ft. of feast
I J: area for draught.
RATE OP EVAPORATION.
89. Water evaporated from and at 212 F. per
sq. ft. of heating-surface per hour......
f Water evaporated! ^^e of *?^
40. i per hour from tenv r ff ' jVl'*;
;41. \ perature of 100 F^ i^JSiSSuffiST
. Jinto st.am of 70 Ibs. ,4 Jq t l or le^s.'
{ gau K e-pressure. / ao?a ?f or draught.
COMMERCIAL HORSE-POWKR. -^
43. On basis of thirty pounds of water per hour
evaporated from temperature of 100 F.
into steam of TO pomulS Kauge-pressure
( 3U- Ibs from and at 212')
?4i Horse powei 1 , builders' j-aring, at square
feet per hoi-se power.-,
4r>. Per cent developed above, or below, rating.
Reporting the Trial.
XVII. The final results should be recorded upon a properly pre-
pared blank, and should include as many of the following Items as
are adopted for the specific object for which the trial is made.
Results of the trial of a
Boiler at
To determine
NOTES ON STEAM BOILERS:
Pumps
Pressure and Head.
To find the pressure in Ibs. per square inch of a column of
water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .433.
To find the height of a column of water in feet, the pressure
being known, multiply the pressure shown on gauge by 2.309.
The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at
14.7 Ibs. per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it will
ustain a column of mercury 29.9 inches, or a column of water
83.9 feet high, at sea level.
PRESSURE AND HEAD.
Fret
*d.
Square Inch.
Feet
Head.
Pressure per
Square Inch.
Feet
Head.
Pressure per
Square Inch.
Feel
Head.
Pressure per
Feet
Head.
Pressure per
Square Inch.
1
0.43
64
. 27.72
127
55.01
190
82.30
253
109.50
9
0.86
65
28.15
128
55.44
191
82.73
254
110.03
3
1.30
66
28.58
129
55.88
192
83.17
255
110.46
4
1.73
67
130
56.31
193
83.60
256
110.80
.*
2.16
68
29^45
131
56.74
194
84.03
257
111.88
B
2.59
69
29.88
132
57.18
195
84.47
258
111.78
7
3.03
70
30.32
133
57.61
196
84.90
259
112.19
8 .
3.46
71
30.75
134
58.04
197
85.33
260
112.02
B
3.89
72
31.18
135
58.48
198
85.76
261
' 113.06
10
4.33
73
31.62
136
58.91
199
86.20
113.49
11
4.76
74
32.05
137
59.34
200
86.63
263
113.93
12
5.20
75-
138
59.77
201
87.07
264
114.36"
13
5.63
76
32!92
139
60.21
202 .
87.50
265
114.79
14
6.06
77
140
6064
203
87.93
266
115.22
16
6.49
78
88)78
141
61 07
201
88.36
267
116.66
16
6.93
79
34.21
142
61.51
205
88.80
268
116.09
17
7.36
80
34.65
143
61.94
206
89.23
289
116.62
18
7.79
81
35.08
144
62.37
207
89.66
270
116.96
19
8.22
82
35.52
145
62.81
208
90.10
271
117.39
20
8.66
83
SS.HS
146
68.24
209
90.53
272
117.82
21
9.09
84
36.39
147
63.67
210
90.96
273
118.26
22
9.53
85
36.82
148
64.10
211
91.39
274
118.69
23
9.96
37.25
149
64.54
212
91.83
273
119.12
24
10.39
87
37.68
150
64.97
213
92.26
276
119.56
25
10.82
88
38.12
151
65.40
214
92.69
277
119.99
26
11.26
89
38.55
152
65.84
215
93.13
278
120.42
27
11.69.
90
38.98
153
66.27
216
93.56
279
120.85
28
12.12
91
39.42
154
66.70
.217
93.99
280
121.29
29
12.55
92
39.85
155
67.14
218
94.43
281
121.72
30
12.99
93
40.28
156
67.57
219
94.86
282
122.15
31
13.42
94
40.72
157
68.00
220
95.30
283
122.59
32
13.86
95
41.15
158
68.43
221
95.73
284
123.02
33
14.29
96
41.58
159
68.87
96.16
285
123.45
34
14.72
97
42.01
160
69.31
223
96.60
286
123.89
35
15.16
98
42.45
161
69.74
224
97.03
287
124.32
36
15.59
99
42.88
162
70.17
225
97.46
288
124.75
37
16.02
100
43.31
163
70.61
226
97.90
289
125.18
38
16.45
101
43.75
164
71.04
227
98.a3
290
125.62
39
16.89
102
44.18
165
71.47
228
98.76
291
126.06
40
17.32
103
44.61
166
71.91
229
99.20
292
126.48
41
17.75
104
45.05
167
72.34
230
99.63
293
126.92
42
18.19
105
45.48
168
72.77
231
100.06
294
127.35
43
106
45.91
73.20
232
100.49'
295
127.78
44
mo5
107
46.34
170
73.64
233
100.93
296
128.22
45
19.49
108
46.78
171
74.07
234
101 36
297
128.65
46
19.92
109
47.21
172
74.50
235
101 79
298
129.08
47
20.35
110
47.64
173
74.94
236
10223
299
12051
48
20.79
111
48.08
1 4
75.37
237
102 66
300
129.95
49
21.22
112
48.51
1 5
75.8C
238
103.09
310
134.28
50
21.65
48.94
1-6
76.23
239
103.53
320
138.62
51
22.09
114
49.38
177
76.67
240
103.96
330
142.96
52
22.52
115
49.81
1~8
77.10
241
10439
340
147.28
53
22.95
116
50.24
1-9
77.53
242
10483
350
151.61
54
2330
117
50.68
180
77.97
243
10526
360 '
155.94
55
23.82
118
51.11
181
78.40
244
10569
370
160.27
56
24.26
119
51.54
182
78.84
245
106.13
380
"" 164.61
57
24.69
120
51.98
183
79.27
246
10656
390
168.94
58
25.12
' 121
52.41
184
79.70
247
10699
400
173.27
59
25.55
122
52.84
185
8014
218
107.43
500 .
216.58
60
25.99
123
53.28
106
80.57
249
107.86
600
259.90
61
26.42
124
53.71
187
81 00
250
10829
700
303.22
62
26'a5
125
54.15
188
8143
251
108.73
800
346.54
63
27.29
126
54.58
18!)
81.87
252
10916
100
38986
1000
43318
144 PUMPS.
Horse-Power.
The theoretical horse-power required to elevate water to a
glren height is found by multiplying the total weight of water
in Ibs. by the height in ft. and dividing by 33,000; or, by multi-
plying the gallons per minute by the height in ft. and dividing
by 4,000. (Allowance of 25 per cent, should be added for friction.)
PUMP HORSE POWER REQUIRED TO RAISE WATER.
.'.06
012
019
.025
M/
lOO 7
ia'
is<y
5
10
15
20
.012
.025
.037
.050
.019
.037
.056
.075
.025
.050
.075
.100,
031
'062
.094
.125
.037
.075
.112
.150
.044
.087
.131
.175
.05
.10
.15
.20
M
.11
.17
.22
.06
.12
.19
.25
.07
.15
.22
.30
.09
.19
.28
.37
.11
.22
.34
.45
.12
.25
.37
.50
16
.31
.47
62
.19.
.37
.56i
.75<
25
30
35
40
.031
.037
048
05IJ
.062
.075
.087
.100
.093
.112
.131
.150
.125
.150
.175
.200
.156
.187
.219
.250
.187
.225
.262
.300
.219
.262
306
.350
.25
.30
.35
.40
.28
.34
.39
.45
.31
.37
,44
.50
.37
.45
.52
.60
.47
.56
.66
.75
.56
.67
.79
.90
.62
.75
.87
1.00
78
.94
1.08
1.25
.94
1.12
1.31
1.50
45
50
60
75
.056
.002
075
093
.112
125
.150
.187
.168
.187
.225
.281
.225
.250
.300
.375
.281
.312
.375
.469
.337
.375
.450
.562
.394
.437
.525
.656
.45
.50
.00
.75
.51
M
.67
.84
.50
.62
.75
.94
.67
.75
.90
1.12
.84
.94
1.12
1.40
1.01
1.12
1 35
1.69
1.12
1.25
1.50
1.87
1.41
1.56
J.87
2.34
1.69!
1.871
2.25,
2.81)
90
100
125
150
.112
,125
.156
.187
.225
.250
312
.375
.837
.375
.469
.562
.450
.500
.625
.750
.562
.625
.781
.937
.675
.750
.937
1.125
.787
.875
1.094
1.312
.90
LOO
1.25
1.50
1.01
1.12
1.41
1.69
1.12
1.25
1.56
1.87
1.35
1.50
1.87
2.25
1.68
1.87
2.34
2.81
2.02
2.25
2.81
3.37
2.25
2.50
3.12
3.75
2.81
3.12
3.91
4.69
337 1
3.75 1
4.9>
5.621
175
200
250
300
.219
.250
.312
.375
.437
.500
.625
-.750
.656
.750
.937
1.125
,875
1.000
1.250
1.500
1.0931.312
1.25011.500
1.56311.875
1.8752.250
1.531
1.750
2.187
2.625
1.75
2 do
2.50
3.00
1.97
2.25
2.81
3.37
2.19
2.50
3.12
3.75
2.62
3.00
3.75
4.50
3.28
3.75
4.69
5.62
3.94
4.50
5.62
6,75
4.37
5.00
6.25
7.50
5.47
6.25
781
9.37
6.56
7.50
^.37)
1L25!
350
400
500
.437
500
625
.875 1.312
I 000 1.500
1.250 1.875
1.750
2.000
2.500
2.1872.625
2.5003.000
3.1253.750
3.062
3.500
4.375
3.50
400
5.00
3.94
4.50
5.62
4.37
5.00
6.25
5.25
6.00
7.50
6., 56
750
9.37
7.87
9.00
11.25
8.75
10.00
12.50
10.94
12.50
15.62
18.12'
15.00
18.75
The actual horse-poicer for 100 ft. lift is 1.7 times the theoretical
horse-power, for a 200 ft. lift 1.45 times, and for a 300 ft. lift
1.25 times.
It is estimated that it requires approximately one horse-power,
including friction,, to raise sixty gallon* of water per minute
thirty-three feet high.
Capacity of Pump.
To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons, multiply the area
in inches by the length of stroke in inches; divide this amount
by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a gallon of water), and
the quotient is the capacity in gallons.
A U. S. gallon of water weighs 8% Ibs. and contains 231 cubic
inches. A cub. ft. of water weighs 62.4 Ibs. and contains 1,728
cb. inches, or 7.48 gallons.
To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 100
feet of piston speed per minute, square the diameter of water
cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example: Capacity of a
five-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the diameter Co
inches) is 25, and multiplied by 4 gives 100, which is gallons per
minute (approximately).
To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quan-
tity of water per minute (100 feet of piston travel being the
speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square
root, which will be the required diameter in inches.
PUMPS.
145
TABLE OF EFFICIENCY OF PUMPING MACHINES.
DESCRIPTION.
Duty in Million
Foot Pounds per no
Its. Coal.
Per Centage of Ther-
mal Value of
Steam Used.
Equivalent in Coal
per Hourly Horse-
power.
1 Pumping Engines 1
Steam pumps, large size.l
Steam pumps, small size,
Vacuum pumps _
Injectors, lifting water only.
30 to i to
15 to 30*
8 to 15
3 to 10
to 5
3.89 .0 13.25
1.94 3.89
1.04 " 1.94
0.39 " 1.30
0.26 " 0.61;
6.68 to 1.95 '
13-4 " 6.68
z |.oo ; 13.40
66.6 " 75.00
100 " 66.60
TATsK OR LIGHT-SERVICE DUPLEX PUMP (WORKING PRESSURE
OF 75 LBS.)
PLUNGER AND RING PATTERN PISTON PATTERN WATER EN
FIG. 63. DUPLEX PUMP.
Sizes.
jg
Capacity
to
Sizes of Pipes.
.
2
per min.
at Given
V
0}
<v
1
09
fe
Speed.
P
o
c
J2
i ">
|
'"* ^
P,
CO
n
BO
.5
r|
a
1
i
2|>
11
1
0)
P
^o
"S)
C
,g
S
i
1 :
_
CJ
1
JS
CO
?
(3
O
1
O
3
t
02
W
^
s
4
4
5
.27
130
35
33
9J/
K
%
2
1J4
5
4
7
.38
125
48
45^
15
3
2J4
gi/
5V6
7
.72
125
90
15
%
3
2V6
r-|2
71^
10
1.91
110
210
' 58
17
i
L<J
5
4
8
6
12
1.46
100
146
67
i
V*>
4
4
6
7
12
2.00
100
200
66
17 "
3/
4
4
8
7
12
2.00
100
200
67
1
/^
5
4
8
8
12
2.61
100
261
68
30
1
U:
5
5
10
8
12
2.61
100
201
68^
30
1 V^
2
5
5
8
10
12
4.08
100
408
68
20^
1
\\
8
8
10
10
12
4.08
100
408
68^
30
2
8
8
J2_ J
10
4.^8
JOO.
408
64
_24._
2
2}
8
8
SINGLE ACTING TRIPLEX PUMP.
Diameter,
Pump
Plungers,
Stroke
Plunders.''
Caps
. gallot
revolu
Cranl
icity,
: Shaft.
Gallons, per
min., 40 rev.
of drank
Shaft.
Size
Suction
Pipe,
Inches.
Size
Delivery
in P cn!s.
4
6
I .
00
49
2^2
2
S
6
I.
5
60'
3
2/4
5
8
2.
00
80
3
2 l /4
6
8
.2,
93
"7
4
3
7
8
4
,00
160
5
4
8
8
y<
, 20
208
6
5
8
10
6
50
260
6
5
Ratio
of
Gearing.
7/4 tO I
to i
tO I
to i
tO I
tO I
tO I
146 PUMPS.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS (FOR LIFTS FROM 15 to 35 FT.)
FIG 64 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.
If
il
||
Economical
Capacity,
gals, per
inin;
^. *C
si*'
!*
ft
Jl
Suction,
pipe, in.
Discharpe-
pipe, in.
Economical
Capacity,
gals, per
in in.
H.P. for
each foot
of lift.
jfj
1
j
1
li
25
70
-.028
.05
65
230
10
12
10
12
10
12
3000
4200
I. GO
2.15
3000 f
6800
a
2J*>
2
100
.08
265
15
15
15
7000
3.50
8840
3
3J4
3
250
.15
500
18
18
18
10000
5.00
10000
4
4^
4
450
.27
680
24
24
24
18000
7.60
9000*
6
6.
5
700
.36
1032
30
30
30
25000
10.50
20000*
6
8
6
8
6
8
1200
2000
.65
1. 10
1260
2460
36
36
36
35000
14.75
22000*.
Directions for Connecting and Running Pumps.
The suction pipe of a pump should be perfectly air-tight. A
leak In the suction pipe will destroy the vacuum, and prevent
the water rising in the pipe.
The suction and discharging pipes should be run with as fe\r
bends and elbows as possible, to avoid water-hammer i.nd undue
friction. The diameters should never be less than called for by
the openings on the pumps.
When drawing or forcing water long distances or at high speeds,
the diameters of the pipes should be greater than called for by
the openings on pumps, and should be large enough to convey the
fluids with the minimum of friction. This is particularly essen-
tial for the suction pipe, which has only the atmospheric pressure
to force the water from the source of supply to the pumps.
A strainer should be attached to suction pipe to prevent the
entrance of foreign substances, and the total area of the strainer
holes should be -from, two to five times the area of the pipe.
A large vacuum chamber on suction pipe near the pump is
advantageous, and when high speeds are desired without noise,
becomes a necessity.
Hot water cannot be lifted by suction any desirable height,
and the difficulty increases with the temperature. To handle
hot water efficiently it should gravitate to the pump.
During cold weather, if in an exposed situation, the pump and
pipes should be thoroughly drained after stopping, to insure
safety against frost.
PUMPS. 14?
The steam and exhaust pipes should be connected so that they
may be drained of their water of condensation. When a steam
pump is not to be used for some time, the steam cylinder and
valve gear should be well oiled before stopping.
The stuffing-boxes should be kept clean and carefully packed,
to avoid excessive friction by being screwed down too tight.
Short Rule for Piping a Pump. To find the size of steam pipe,
divide the cross-sectional area of steam piston by 64. To find
the size of exhaust pipe divide the cross-sectional area of steam
piston by 32. To find the size of the discharge pipe divide the
cross-sectional area of plunger by 3. To find the size of suction
pipe, divide the cross-sectional area of plunger by 2. Give th
water valves the same area of opening as the suction pipe.
Duty Trials of Pumping Engines.
(Abridged from Trans. A. S. M. E., XII, 530.)
The new unit chosen, foot pounds of work per million heat
units furnished by the boiler is the equivalent of 100 Ibs. of
coal in cases where each pound of coal imparts 10,000 heat units
to the water in the boiler, or where the evaporation is 10,000 :
965.7 = 10,355 Ibs. of water from and at 212 per pound of fuel.
The work done is determined by plunger displacement, after
making a test for leakage, instead of by measurement of flow by
weirs, which, however, may help to obtain additional data.
The necessary data having been obtained, the duty of an en-
gine may be computed* by the use of the following formulae :
. Foot-pounds of work done __ v 1000 000
1. Duty - Total number of heat- units consumed
.pounds).
2. Percentage of leakage = ^T^N X 10 <P er cent) '
3. Capacity = number of gallons of water discharged in 24 hours
_ AXLXNX 7.4805X24 = A X L X N X 1.24675
D X 144 &
4. Percentage of total frictions,
TTTTP A(P *> + s > x ^* ^1
" 0X60X33,000 10ft
L - "I.H.P. ~~"J X
becomes: r A(Tt * -i
Percentage of total frictions = [l - l^Sp/J X 100 (per cent);
In these formulae the letters refer to the following quantities:
A = Area, in square inches, of pump plunger or piston, corrected
for area of piston rod or rods.
P = Pressure, in pounds per square Inch, Indicated by the gauge
on the force main.
p = Pressure, in pounds per square Inch, corresponding to in-
dication of the vacuum gauge on suction main (or pressurer gauge,
if the suction pipe is under a head). The indication of the vacuum
gauge, In inches of mercuBy, may be converted into pounds by di-
viding It by 2.035.
148 PUMPS.
8 = Pressure, in pounds per square Inch, corresponding to dis-
tance between the centres of the two gauges. The computation
for this pressure is made by multiplying the distance, expressed In
feet, by the weight of one cubic foot of water at the temperature
of the pump well, and dividing the product by 144.
L = Average length of stroke of pump plunger, in feet.
N = Total number of single strokes of pump plunger made dur-
ing the trial.
As = Area of steam cylinder, in square inches, corrected for
area of piston rod. The quantity As X M.E.P., in an engine having
more than one cylinder, is the sum of the various quantities re-
lating to the respective cylinders.
Ls = Average length of stroke of steam piston, in feet.
Ns = Total number of single strokes of steam piston during
trial.
M.E.P. = Average mean effective pressure, in pounds per square
inch, measured from the indicator diagrams taken from the steam
cylinder.
I.H.P. = Indicated horse power developed 1 by the steam cylinder.
G = Total number of cubic feet of water which leaked by the
pump plunger during the trial, estimated from the results of the
leakage test.
D = Duration of trial in hours.
H = Total number of heat units (B. T. U.) consumed by engine
= weight of water supplied to boiler by main feed-pump X total
heat of steam of boiler pressure reckoned from temperature of
main feed water -f- weight of water supplied by jacket pump X
total heat of steam of boiler pressure reckoned from temperature
of jacket water + weight of any other water supplied X total heat
of steam reckoned from its temperature of supply. The total
heat of the steam is corrected for the moisture or superheat which
the steam may contain. No allowance is made for water added to
the feed water, which is derived from any source, except the engine
or some accessory of the engine. Heat added to the water by the
use of a flue heater at the boiler is not to be deducted. Should 1
heat be abstracted from the flue by means of a steam reheater
connected with the intermediate receiver of the engine, this heat
must be included in the total quantity supplied by the boiler.
Leakage Test of Pump.
The leakage of an inside plunger (the only type which requires
testing) is most satisfactorily determined by making the test with
the cylinder head removed. A wide board" or plank may be tem-
porarily bolted to the lower part of the end of the cylinder, so as
to hold back the water in the manner of a dam, and an opening
made in the temporary head thus provided for the reception of an
overflow pipe. The plunger is blocked at some intermediate point
in the stroke (or, if this position is not practicable, at the end
of the stroke), and the water from the force main is admitted at
full pressure behind it. The leakage escapes through the over-
flow pipe, and 1 it is collected in barrels and measured. The test
should be made, if possible, with the plunger in various positions.
In the case of a pump so planned that it is difficult to remove
the cylinder head, it may be desirable to take the leakage from
one of the openings which are provided for the inspection of the
suction valves, the head being allowed to remain in place.
It is assumed that there is a practical absence of valve leakage.
Examination for such leakage should be made, and if it occurs,
and it is found to be due to disordered valves, it should 1 be remedied
before making the plunger test. Leakage of the discharge valves
will be shown by water passing down into the empty cylinder at
either end when they are under pressure. Leakage of the suction
PUMPS. 149
valves will be shown by the disappearance of water which covers
them.
If valve leakage is found which cannot be remedied the quantity
of water thus lost should also be tested. One method is to meas-
ure the amount of water required to maintain a certain pressure
in the pump cylinder when this is introduced! through a pipe tem-
porarily erected, no water being allowed to enter through the dis-
charge valves of the pump.
Table of Data and Results.
In order that uniformity may be secured, it is suggested that
the data and results, worked out in accordance with the standard
method, be tabulated in the manner indicated in the following
scheme :
DUTY TRIAL OF ENGINE.
DIMENSIONS.
1. Number of steam cylinders
2. Diameter of steam cylinders ins.
3. Diameter of piston rods of steam cylinders ins.
4. Nominal stroke of steam pistons ft.
5. Number of water plungers
6. Diameter of plungers ins.
7. Diameter of piston rods of water cylinders ins.
8. Nominal stroke of plungers ft.
9. Net area of steam pistons sq. ins.
10. Net area of plungers sq. ins.
11. Average length of stroke of steam pistons during trial ft.
12. Average length of stroke of plungers during trial.... ft.
(Give also complete description of plant.)
TEMPERATURES.
13. Temperature of water in pump well degs.
14. Temperature of water supplied to boiler by main feed
pump degs.
15. Temperature of water supplied to boiler from various
other sources degs.
FEED WATER.
16. Weight of water supplied to boiler by main feed pump Ibs.
17. Weight of water supplied 1 to boiler from various
other sources Ibs.
18. Total weight of feed water supplied from all sources. . Ibs.
PRESSURES.
19. Boiler pressure indicated by gauge Ibs.
20. Pressure indicated by gauge on force main Ibs.
21. Vacuum indicated by gauge on suction main ins.
22. Pressure corresponding to vacuum given in preceding
line Ibs.
23. Vertical distance between the centres of the two
gauges ins.
24. Pressure equivalent to distance between the two gauges. Ibs.
MISCELLANEOUS DATA.
25. Duration of trial hrs.
26. Total number of single strokes during trial
27. Percentage of moisture in steam supplied to engine, or
number of degrees of superheating % or dcg.
28. Total leakage of pump during trial, determined from
results of leakage test Ibs.
29. Mean effective pressure, measured from diagrams
taken from steam cylinders M.E.P.
150 PUMPS.
PRINCIPAL RESULTS.
30. Duty ft. Ibs.
81. Percentage of leakage %
32. Capacity gals.
33. Percentage of total friction %
ADDITIONAL RESULTS.
34. Number of double strokes of steam piston per minute .
35. Indicated horse power developed by the various steam
cylinders I.H.P.
36. Feed water consumed by the plant per hour Ibs.
37. Feed water consumed by the plant per Indicated horse-
power per hour, corrected for moisture in steam .... Ibs.
38. Number of beat units consumed per indicated horse-
power per hour B.T.U.
39. Number of heat units consumed per indicated horse
power per minute B.T.U.
40. Steam accounted for by indicator at cut-off and release
in the various steam cylinders Ibs.
41. Proportion which steam accounted for by indicator
bears to the feed water consumption
42. Number of double strokes of pump per minute....
43. Mean effective pressure, measured from pump dia-
grams M.E.P.
44. Indicated borse power exerted in pump cylinders.... I.H.P.
45. Work done (or duty) per 100 Ibs. of coal ft. Ibs.
SAMPLE DIAGRAM TAKEN FROM STEAM CYLINDERS.
(Also, if possible, full measurement of the diagrams, embracing
pressures at the initial point, cut-off, release, and compression ; also
back pressure, and the proportions of the stroke completed at the
various points noted.)
SAMPLE DIAGRAM TAKEN FROM PUMP CYLINDERS.
These are not necessary to the main object, but it is desirable to
give them.
NOTE 8 ON PUMPS:
Miscellaneous
Belt Transmission.
HORSE POWER OF SHAFTING.
Diameter of Shaft
in Inches.
REVOLUTIONS PKR MINUTE.
100
125
150
175
200
b.p.
b. p.
b, P.
h. p.
b.p.
15-16
1.2
1.4
1.7
2.1
2.4
1 3-16
2.4
3.1
3.7
4.3
4.9
1 7-16
4.3
5.3
6.4
7.4
8 5
1 11-16
6.7
8.4
10.1
11.7
13.'4
I 15-16
io.a
12.5
16.0
17-. 5'
20.0
2 3-16
14.3
17.8
21.4
24.9
28 5
2 .7-16
19.5
24.4
29.3
34.1
39.0
2 11-16
26.0
32.5
39.0
43.5
52.0
2 15-16
33.8
42.2
,50.6
59.1
67.5
3 3-16
43.0
53.6
64.4
75.1
85 8
3 7-16
3 11-16
53.6
65.9
67.0
82.4
79.4
97.9
93.8
115.4
107.2
121.8
315-16-
80.0
100.0
120.0
140.0
160^0
4 7-16
113,9
142.4
170. 8 1
199.8
227.8
4 15-16
156! 3
195.3
234.4.
273.4
312.5
HORSE POWER OF BELTING.
TABLE FOR SINGLE LEATHER, 4-PLY RUBBER AND 4-pLT COTTON
BELTING, BELTS NOT OVERLOADED. (ONE INCH WIDE, 800
FEET PER MINUTE = I-HORSE POWER.)
Speed in Ft.
WIDTH OP BELTS IN INCHES.
fer Minute.
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
12-
14
16
18
20
h.p
h.p
h.p
h.p
h.p
h.p
h.p
h.p
h.p
hTp
h.p.
h.p."
400
1
14
2
24
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
600
14
44
6
74
g
104
12
134
15
800
24
3*
4
6*
6^
8
10
12
16
18
20
1,000
1,200
2
3
3%
5
6
6^
74
3
124
15
15
18
i
20
24
1*
25
30
1,500
1,800-
3%
454
5%
6%,
S*
94
114
134
15
18
18%
224
8*
264
314
30
36
33%
404
45*
2,000
5
10
124
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
2.400
6
9 *
12
15
18
24
30
36
42
48
54
60
2,800
7
104
14
174
21
28
35
42
49
56
63
70
3,000
74
11*
15
18%
224
30
374
45
624
60
674
75
3,500
8%
13
174
26
35
44
524
61
70
79
88
4,000
10
15
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
4,500
17
224
28
34
45
57
69
78
90
102
114
5.000
124
19
25
31
374
50
624
75
874
100
112
125
Double leather, 6-ply rubber or 6-ply cotton belting will transmit
50 to 75 per cent, more power than is shown in this table.
A simple rule for ascertaining transmitting power of belting,
without first computing speed per minute that it travels, is as
follows: Multiply diameter of pulley in inches by its number of
revolutions per minute, and this product by width of the belt in
Inches ; divide this product by 3,300 for single belting, or by 2,100
for double belting, and the quotient will be the amount of horse
power that can be safely transmitted.
152 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL UNITS
Equivalent Values.
COOLING TOWERS.
153
Cooling Towers.
Cooling towers possess operative advantages of considerable im-
portance. There is, of course, a certain loss of water by evap-
oration, but this rarely exceeds 10 per cent, of the water coooled,
while under favorable conditions of the air it does not exceed
5 per cent.
It is advisable to have separate towers for steam condenser and
ammonia condenser, as the results are better in each case. The
efficiency of the cooling tower is lowered very fast, ' when the
water for the ammonia condenser is much above 80, whereas for
steam condenser, if the water be reduced to 100 the tower will
be fairly efficient.
FIG 55 FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER.
The following data show the results in cooling obtained by
the use of cooling towers:
For ammonia condensers, with the air at 95 F. and 37 per cent,
humidity:
Initial temperature of water entering cooling tower 100 F.
Final temperature of water leaving cooling tower 71 F.
Result in cooling 29 F.
For steam condensers, with the air at 95 F. and 44 per cent,
humidity:
Initial temperature of water entering cooling tower 160 F.
Final temperature of water leaving cooling tower 81 F.
Result in cooling 79* F.
As the forced draft tower seems to have met with general favor,
we append a few tables, stating general dimensions and capacity.
154
COOLING TOWERS.
Size and Weight of Goblin? Towers.
No, of
MAIN DIMENSIONS.
Weight
Tower.
A
B
C
D | E
f
G
H
inlbi.
I
8'11J4*
8' 654"
J> ft.
9- r-
24' 9"
22'
18'11}4"
19" 6/2"
25,0(X>
II
9 1 954"
6 ft.
9 1 3"
24' 9"
32'
19 1 954"
19-11J4"
28,500
HI
W 2YS
9'95-r
6 ft.
9'10"
24' 9"
32*
20* 2#"
20' 9/ a "
32,000
IV
11' 5J4"
10' 7J4"
7 ft
10' 4"
24' 9"
32*
21' 554"
22* 714'
39,000
V
13' 354*
12' 5}4"
7 ft.
11' 4*
24, 9"
23' 354"
24' 554"
46.000
VI
14' 6&."
13' 354*'
7 ft.
12* 6"
25' 8"
32* '9*
24' 6H"
25' 354"
53,000
VII
16' 4&"I15' 1J4"
7 ft.
13' 4"
25' 8"
32' 9"
26' 4^"
27' 1-4"
59,000
VIII
8 ft.
14' 9
27' 4"
34' 7*
27' 7J4"
29-454"
65,700
IX
18'10J4"|17' 254"
8 ft.
15' 3" 1 2?' 4"
34' 7"
28'1(W"
71.700
Cooling Capacity of Cooline Towers and Size of Fans.
No. of
Tower
Coding Capacity
la Gallon* lo
84 houra for:
H.P. of comp.
cond. engine
Supplied with
condens. watef.
||
1
08
a
M
Size'of Pulley.
( Revol. of Pulley
per minute.
M
j>
0.
X
Ammonia 1 Steam
CONDENSERS
' I
II
III
IV
V
&
S"
50,000
.75,000
100,000
150.000
200,000
250,000
300.000
400.000
500,000
100.000
150,000
200.000
300,000
400.000
500,000
600.000
800.000
uxw.ooo
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
6ft
6ft
7ft
8ft
9ft
10ft
10ft.
-12ft.
l-J2ft.
15"x 8*
15"x 8"
18"x 9"
24"x 9
28"xlO"
30"xll"
30"xll"
36"xir
36"xl2"
100 1 25
150170
140150
140150
130140
130140
145150
110120
140150
i iy,
V/2-2
2 -2J4
3J44
5-6
7 -9
10 12
13 IS
16 20
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:
DOORS.
155
Doors
Doors are a weak point in all storage rooms. Their Insulation
is important, but their tightness and quick operation is
vastly more so. A leak is an endless expense. Slow moving
doors are hardly less so. Doors that bind and 1 work badly are
shut only when the workman can find no excuse for leaving them
open, which is seldom, if ever. ,
The following sketches show a construction which is patented,
and which is especially contrived to avoid these troubles.
The door makes an overlapping contact, with a soft hemp gasket
in the joint, and is held to its seat against the front of the door
frame by powerful elas-
tic hard*ware. The
thick portion of the
door fits loosely, so
that considerable
change of size, form
and position, due to
wear, swelling, etc.,
does not make it leak
or bind.
Where all old style
doors, when they work
badly or leak, must be
eased, thus forever de-
stroying their fit, a
slight readjustment of
the door frame of these doors restores them to their original per-
fection of fit and* freedom in a minute at no expense.
As these doors do not stand in the doorway when open, it can
be six inches less in width than old style doorways an important
economy in refrigeration.
As constructed in this year. 1908, the opening in wall
to receive these door frames should be 3% inches wider,
and 4 inches higher, than the size of the doorway in the
clear. Follow construction numbered 1 and 2. For over-
head 1 track doors this rough opening should extend 13
inches above the lower edge of track. Door frames are
secured with lag screws, %x4 inches, through front
casing, inserted at A.
Figure B shows
wooden beveled thres-
hold, 1% inches thick,
which connects lower-
ends of door frame and
JIPX forms a part of it, let
down into floor. No
feather edge, no jolt, no splinters. For warehouses. Accommo-
dates trucks.
Figure C, cement floor, shows lower end's of door frame extend-
ing down into the door a distance of three inches, and connected
by angle irons extending across doorway from one side to the other
below the surface.
Figure S shows door frame with full standard sill and head used
on all sizes of door frames. Suited! only to walking through.
Special doors on a modified plan for intermittent or continuous
freezers, as well as for general purposes, perfectly tight and per-
fectly free, regardless of temperature, moisture or accumulation of
ice in any degree.
Metal covered fireproof doors.
Combined self-closing ice door and chute of three styles.
Ice counters.
Patents on every valuable feature of this work are granted to
or applied for by the STEVENSON CO., CHESTER', PA.
156 ABSORPTION MACHINES.
Absorption Machines.
Since going to press the author's attention has been called to
the latest design of the Vogt Absorption Machine, which differs in
some respects from the one given on page 23. In order to bring the
book up to date the following brief description is here appended :
The strong liquor is drawn from the absorber and pumped into
the upper end of the rectifier and 1 passes down through the small
pipes and out from the bottom of rectifier to the bottom pipes of
the exchanger, where it passes upward through the inner pipes
and out from the top of exchanger to top of analyzer, where the
liquid falls in a spray from one pan to another until it reaches
the top compartment of the generator.
The gas generated passes upward in the analyzer and is cooled
and deprived of a portion of its moisture by coming in contact
with the liquid trickling down from pan to pan in the analyzer.
The gas passes on and enters the rectifier at bottom and' completely
surrounds the tubes through which the rich aqua is flowing, and as
VOGT ABSORPTION MACHINE.
the rich aqua is comparatively cool as against the gas, the moisture
in the gas will condense and deposit itself on the tubes as the gas
is forced upward, allowing the gas to pass over dry to the con-
denser. The moisture withdrawn and adhering to the tubes will
drain out at the bottom of the rectifier and back into the top com-
partment of the generator.
The gas from the rectifier is ad'mitted to the top of the con-
densing coils, where it quickly liquefies and is conducted from the
bottom of the condenser to the liquid ammonia receiver.
The weak liquid having in the meantime passed from bottom of
generator to top of exchanger, and down through the outer pipes
of same, is conducted to the weak liquid cooler to be further re-
duced 1 in temperature, and is finally conducted to the absorber,
where the gas from the refrigerating coils is rapidly absorbed, and
the double cycle of circulation is thus completed.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS 3 POCKET MANUAL.
GREAT Ml HE1G
DETROIT, MICHIGAN
We have the EQUIPMENT and the ORGAN-
IZATION for successfully building and install-
ing "ECONOMICAL" ICE MAKING and RE-
FRIGERATING PLANTS.
._*-
25 TO 50 TON REFRIGERATING MACHINE
"GREAT LAKES MACHINES" have Sym-
metrical Proportions and present a NEAT and
ATTRACTIVE APPEARANCE.
YOU GET RESULTS FROM
OUR PLANTS.
WRITE \/S TO'R TA.'RTICVLA.'RS'
NOTES
NOTES.
NOTES.
NOTES .
NOTES.
NOTES.
NOTES.
NOTES.
NOTES.
NOTES.
NOTES.
NO TES.
NOTES.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
The Linde Machine
FOR ALL
ICE AND REFRIGERATING
SERVICE
Simple, Durable, Economical
Best advertised by the
number of its pleased users
... 6500
Throughout the World
Ammonia' Fittings, Pipe
and Tank Work; Ice and
Refrigerating Supplies.
CATALOGS GLADLY SENT ON REQL7EST
The Fred W. Wolf Company
(Established 1867)
Main Office and Works, 139-143 Rees St., Chicago
Atlanta Kansas City Port Worth Seattle
REFRIGERATING EXCIXEERS' POCKET MAXUAL.
ABSORPTION
Ice and Refrigerating
Machinery
HENRY VOdl MACHINE (0.
Incorporated
LOUISVILLE, KY., U.S.A.
AsK for Catalog'
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
The National Ammonia Co.
MainOificej .- , , , ST, LOUIS
Eastern Office * . . , PHILADELPHIA
Export Office j 30 PI att Street, NEW YORK
Factories : St. Louis and Philadelphia
AND
Peerless Aqua
Ammonia, 26 c
Tlese Ufdofc (jive Ifloy, (s^
-NATIONAL ORIGINALITY:"
Standard of quality for over 30 years,
Prompt shipments or deliveries,
Ammonia manufacture our exclusive business.
Quality guarantee full and unreserved.
A guarantee that is reliable and responsible,
(For list of stocks see current trade papers)
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
AUTOMATIC
REFRIGERATION
Our Automatic Systems furnish Re-
frigeration at a lower operating cost
than any other system on the market.
THE AUTOMATIC REFRIGERATING CO.
HARTFORD, CONN
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
HART
* SECTIONAL
COOLING
TOWER
(PATENTS PENDING.)
A new form of water
cooling apparatus where
the cooling surface is made
up of sections arranged so
that the cooling air cur-
rents are brought in con-
tact with the interior por-
tions of the falling water,
thus creating an increased
efficiency over present
types. The heated water
is discharged to the top of
. the tower, where it is dis-
tributed through a special
device to the upper deck of
Cooling Trays, from whence
it falls by gravity from
dock to deck, and its descent is turned over and over, reaching the
collecting pan at the bottom, cooled, and ready for use again.
YOU are not getting the best results have Hart Sectional
Cooling Trays placed in your tower and get them.
YOUR tower is too small, let us increase its capacity at a
low cost.
YOU have spray troubles, Hart Adjustable Spray Preventer
will cure them.
With the use of the Hart Spray Preventer, there is no loss of
water beyond that due to evaporation.
If
H
AVE YOU A COOLING PROBLEM?
ARE YOU SATISFIED WITH YOUR PRESENT
COOLING FACILITIES?
D ESULTS TELL OUR STORY.
TFE COST IS SMALL WHEN COMPARED WITH
THE SAVING.
The above applies to Steam Power Plants, Breweries, Ice and
Refrigeration Plants. Gas Engine' Plants, Packing Houses and all
industries where cold water is required.
Oi
MTJR
RIGINAL
FFER.
B. FRANKLIN HART, JR., & CO.
Main Office: 143 Liberty St., New York City.
Branches: Morris & Co., Dallas, Texas,
Walter A. Taylor, New Orleans, La.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
THE SAFETY REFRIGERATING MACHINE
Established 1872 Manutactured by Incorporated 1894
THE HUETTEMAN & CRAMER CO.
Refrigerating and Brewers' Machinery
Office and Works Contractor* for Hntire Plant
Mack Ave. & Beit Line R. R. t Detroit, Mich
Buffalo Refrigerating Machine Co.
Manufacturers of
REFRIGERATING AND
ICE MACHINERY
126 Liberty Street,
NEW YORK
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
Remington
Machine Company
WILMINGTON, DELAWARE
Ice Making
and
Refrigerating
Machines
- The Remington
Ice Machine is the
Standard Machine
of small capacity.
VORHEES' PATENTED
SPECIALTIES
SHELL TYPE BRINE COOLERS
DOUBLE PIPE APPARATUS
MULTIPLE EFFECT COMPRESSORS
GAS TRAPS
OIL SEPARATORS
AIR COOLERS
AUTOMATIC GAUGE COCKS
ICE FREEZING APPARATUS
GARDNER T. VOORHEES
53 STATE ST. BOSTON, MASS.
REFRIGERATIXG EXGIXEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
Cold Storage,
Warehouse and
Power House
Containing
Refrigerating
Machinery for
Warehouse,
Ice Making
and Street
Pipe Line
Installed at
Murphy
Storage &
Ice Co.
Detroit, Mich.
BY
STARR ENGINEERING CO.
JOHN E. STARR, Pres't
KARL WEQEMANN, Sec'y
Consulting and Supervising
Engineers and Architects
Complete Cold Storage Plants,
Ice Plants, Abattoirs,
Street Pipe Lines, Tests,
Expert Advice and Testimony.
Hudson Terminal Bldg. 50 Church St.
NEW YORK, N. Y.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL
Theo. Kolischer
Engineering Bureau
SPECIALISTS IN MECHANICAL
REFRIGERATION
20 Years' Experience in All Its Applications
Members American Society of
Refrigerating Engineers
CONSULTATION. SPECIFICATIONS
AND PLANS PREPARED. SUPERVISION
EXERCISED DURING INSTALLATION
1 218 Chestnut St., PHILADELPHIA
COLD STORAGE
Construction Plans, Specifications and
Estimates Furnished
We use up-to-date methods
and give results.
Hot and Cold Pipe Covering
JOHN R. LIVEZEY
1933 Market Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA,
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS 3 POCKET MANUAL.
WATER EXPERT
I Analyses of water for ice-making purposes,
condenser water, oils and other materials
used in refrigerating systems.
JOHN C SPARKS, B. Su F. C S.
Consulting and Analytical Chemist
No. 16 BEAVER STREET, NEW YORK
EDWARD N + FRIEDMANN
CONSULTING AND SUPERVISING ENGINEER
for all applications of mechanical refrigeration
90 WEST STREET, NEW YORK CITY
Mcmbor American Society of Refrigerating Engineers.
AMMONIA AMMONIA FITTINGS CALCIUM
T. R. WINGROVE
Refrigerating 6ngsneer
ICE MAKING AND REFRIGERATING MACHINERY
65 Gunther Building
C. & P. Phone, St. Paul 3955 BALTIMORE, MD.
WALDEMAR H. MORTENSEN, C. E. GUSTAVE F. GEIBELT.
ADOLPH G. KOENIG, M. E.
MORTENSEN & CO.
Engineers and Contractors
401 W. 24th Street, NEW YORK
Designers and Contractors of
Breweries, Abattoirs, Ice Factories, Power Plants and
Manufacturing Building's in General
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
W. EVERETT PARSONS, M.E.
CONSULTING ENGINEER
Expert in Ice Making and Refrigeration and
Business Management of Ice Plants
Plans for Refrigerating and Ice Making Plants,
Existing Plants Remodeled and Improved,
Operating Expenses Reduced
Graduate of Stevens Institute of Technology, 1887
Member: Am. Soc. Refrig. Engineers.
Am. Soc. Mech. Engineers.
Cold Storage & Ice Association of London, Eng.
18 Years Experience as a Specialist
12 Bridge St., - - NEW YORK CITY
GARDNER L VOORHEES, S. B.
Refrigerating engineer
and Hrcbiteet / / /
Graduate of Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1890.
Member Am. Soc. Ref. Engs.
Member Am. Soc. Mech. Engs.
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
in all its applications as Compression Plants, Absorption Plants,
Cold Storage Warehouses. Ice Plants, Street Pipe Line Refri-
geration, Breweries, Cooling Rooms or building for comfort of
man. Skating Rinks, etc., etc.
EXPERT WORK, TEST, REPORTS,
APPRAISING, ETC,
53 STATE ST. BOSTON, MASS.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
Empire State Engineering Company
ENGINEERS
MANUFACTURERS
Builders of
Empire State
Refrigerating Machines
Leyland Automatic Lubricator, Maxfield
Steam Engines, Fans, Blowers, Etc.
CATALOGUES MAILED ON APPLICATION
General Offices: Singer Bldg., N.Y. City, N.Y.
Works: ROME, M. Y.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
GUARANTEED
Strictly Wrought Iron Pipe
FOR
Refrigeration
Apparatus,
Pipe Bends
and
Coils Iff Valves,
Fittings
i Supplies
for Steam,
Water, Gas, Oil
OFFICES and SHOPS
446 to 454 Water Street
187-189 Cherry Street
NEW YORK
REFRIGERATING ENGIN KIMS' POCKET MANUAL.
THE WHITLOCH COIL PIPE CO.
MANUFACTURERS OF
WROUGHT IRON AMMONIA
COILS
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION
ALSO
BENT and FLANGED PIPE
FOR
HIGH PRESSURE POWER PLANTS
THE WHITLOCK COIL PIPE CO.
Hartford, Conn.
New York Office: Singer Building
ESTABLISHED i860
T. R. McMannCo.
Wrought Pipe, Plumbers
and
Engineers* Supplies
Pipe Cut to Sketch
56-58-60 GOLD STREET
New YorK City
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
LILLIE EVAPORATORS
Single and Multiple Effects
For the production of
DISTILLED WATER
for Ice Making Plants and other purposes.
The Lillie Evaporators are used for the production
of distilled water in many ice plants, in connection
with compound condensing engines, taking the
steam from the latter under a pressure of about
sixteen inches vacuum.
A Lillie 1904-1905 Model Triple-Effect distiller
with surface condenser in the works of the Con-
sumers' Ice and Cold Storage Company, Key
West, Fla. It is employed in manufacturing dis-
tilled water from sea water. In this triple-effect is
embodied a patented construction for reversing the
direction of the vapors, which has proven very suc-
cessful in keeping down incrustations.
The Sugar Apparatus Mfg. Co.
S. MORRIS LILLIE. President Makers LEWIS C. LILLIK. Sec'y-Treas.
Philadelphia, U. S. A.
REFRIGERATING' ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
The Linde British
Refrigeration Co., Ltd.
of Canada
Coristine Building MONTREAL, P. Q,
Manufacturers of
Refrigerating
and
Ice Making
Machinery
For All Purposes
Sole Manufacturers of the
LINDE PATENT DRY AIR
CIRCULATION SYSTEM
SHIPS REFRIGERATION
A SPECIALTY
The American Linde
Refrigeration Co., Ltd.
346 BROADWAY NEW YORK
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
Ice and Refrigerating Machinery
1 TO 100 TONS
Vertical and Horizontal Compressors
Double Pipe Condensers and
Brine Coolers
Carbonic System
Efficient, Odorless, Safe, Economical
Lowest Temperatures
LAND AND MARINE
INSTALLATIONS COMPLETE
THE BROWN - COCHRAN Co.
LORAINE, OHIO
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
THE IMPROVED BARBER
Refrigerating and Ice Making Machines
build refrigerating machines for all
purposes and in all sizes from.l^
tons to 500 tons capacity. We have
over 1,400 machines in successful operation
Jan. 1, 1908. Our machines can be used
with any kind of power, the smaller sizes
being especially designed for belt drive.
The above cut represents our horizontal,
double-acting compressor, connected tan-
dem, which we build in sizes of 30 tons and
upward. It has fewer parts, fewer bearings
and runs with less power, less oil and less
attendance, and is consequently more eco-
nomical.
C. P. M. Co. Ammonia Fittings are stand-
ard. Specify them in your next order for
repairs.
Write for catalogues, estimates or any de-
sired information.
CREAMERY PACKAGE MFG. COMPANY
Refrigerating Machinery Department
182-188 KINZIE STREET, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Works, DeKalb, Ills.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL
Horizontal Machine.
Air at about
65 Ibs. pres-
sure, circula-
ting in com-
mon smallcon-
veying and
refrigerating
pipes, is refri-
gerated by the
machine to 33
below zero
when the sea-
water is at 90.
There are no
auxiliary parts
outside of the machine. It is placed in the engine room, ice-
making box and meat-room forward as usual.
HALF TON VERTICAL (3'-6 n x 3') furnishes ice and
refrigerates meat-rooms, etc., for steam yachts of 200 feet
length, including " Kanawha."
ONE TON VERTICAL (4 1 x V) or Horizontal (7' x 3'-
6") for steam yachts 250' length, including " Nourmahal " and
"Atalanta."
TWO TON VERTICAL (5' x 5'). or Horizontal (9' x
4' -6") for larger yachts, including "Josephine."
15he Allen Dense
Air Ice Machine
uses no chemicals, only air.
It refrigerates the meat-stores
and furnishes the ice and
cold drinking water on all
large U. S r Men-of-War,
since many years.
H. B. ROEEKER
41 Maiden Lane
NEW YORK
Vertical Machine.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL.
THE ARCTIC ICE
MACHINE CO.
The name ARCTIC as applied to Ice Making and
Refrigerating equipment stands for
QUALITY
SIMPLICITY, DURABILITY and EFFICIENCY
as embodied in apparatus of our manufacture brings
BEST RESULTS
ARCTIC USERS are our best FRIENDS
The Arctic Ice Machine Go.
Write us. CANTON, OHIO
14 DAY USE
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.
This book is due on the last date stamped below, or
on the date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.
jn 'fiiuT
HEI3" US
JANS 46!
'
, ttl *
REC'D LD
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HtTtJ w *
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General Library
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Berkeley
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New York
CARBONDALE, PA,
Boston Baltimore Chicago
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SNEERS' POCKET MA.
REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS' POCKET MANUAL
Time's Triumphal Test
319865
Cc
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
ments with best design and construction.
OPERATING UNIFORMLY SUC-
CESSFUL in the torrid and temperate
countries of the world, whether for produc-
ing ICE OF ABSOLUTE PURITY or in
the most severe requirements of
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION.
BUILT BY
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Write for Red Book K., giving us particulars of your re-
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