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UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 A STUDY IN THE ETHICS OF THE 
 
 EARLY ROMANTIC SCHOOL 
 
 IN GERMANY 
 
 BY 
 
 HARRY SPENCER BLACKISTON 
 
 A THESIS 
 
 PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN 
 
 PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 
 
 THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 INTERNATIONAL PRINTING COMPANY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 1920 
 
'!!*\C*"'*.'^'r?''S 
 
AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED 
 
 TO 
 
 MY PARENTS 
 
 
 I 
 
Since the writers of the Early Romantic School in Germany 
 are so often censured and even deemed as being apart from their 
 times simply because of their behavior, the desire awoke in me 
 to seek out the motives which caused the actions of this group 
 to become the bfe^i^oi merciless criticism. In this endeavor I 
 feel greatly indebted to Dr. Daniel B. Shumway for his untir- 
 ing efforts and kindly advice, and also to Dr. Emil Doemenburg 
 for his helpful criticism. 
 
 Philadelphia, May, 1920. 
 
A STUDY IN THE ETHICS OE THE EARLY ROMANTIC 
 SCHOOL IN GERMANY. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 It is very probable that any writer or group of writers will 
 be subjected to the pen of the critic, whether they abound in 
 deficiencies or not. But, should the ethics of the individual or 
 group diverge somewhat from the line drawn by society, there 
 is no limit to the untold severity of merciless criticism, no ele- 
 ment of defense in the many comments. Still it must be remem- 
 bered that no one can calculate the depth of a body of water 
 by merely scanning the surface; nor can anyone fully realize 
 the profundity of any situation by viewing it superficially. In 
 other words, it is absolutely necessary that the critic resort to 
 detailed investigation. He must go below the surface to solve 
 the complicated problems which may be presented. Thereby 
 he will acquaint himself with the factors that mould the pattern 
 for the times. 
 
 Then again, the average human being does or says as he or 
 she sees fit, and can very often furnish justifiable reasons there- 
 for. Everyone reserves for oneself the privileged right of per- 
 sonal opinion and belief. But herein lies a decisive difiference. 
 Some people are lovers of the truth, and therefore speak candidly 
 and act openly ; others are prone to lose courage and try to hide 
 behind a transparent veil of false modesty. Those, who can be 
 included within this latter category, are only reticent and untrue 
 to themselves, simply because they are in the majority. If the 
 proportion be reversed, they would be more than glad to feel 
 the relief from the pressure removed. But those poor unfortu- 
 nates, who are forced by their nature and spurred on by their 
 immediate environment to be outspoken, become down-trodden 
 social outcasts. If we ask ourselves why this is so, the answer 
 is: primarily because they are in the minority, as all persecuted 
 classes are. No credit or encouragement is given them for their 
 originality. Yet they are as determined as ever in their aim, 
 and proceed with the innovations that are criteria for their own 
 development. Such testimony figured in the case of the Early 
 
 (7) 
 
8 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 Romantic School, which flourished at the close of the eighteenth 
 century and at the beginning of the nineteenth. Like other 
 human beings they were susceptible to psychic influences; they 
 were in harmony with the prevailing tendencies of their envi- 
 ronment, and lived in accordance with the same. Thus we see 
 a gradual development of their surroundings as a working basis 
 for their morals. 
 
 Background: Factors Antedating the Romantic 
 Movement. 
 
 Without the least doubt, the meml^ers of the group in ques- 
 tion made a decided departure from the status quo of accepted 
 moral law. But let us not fail to realize that there were deep- 
 seated causes for such a metamorphosis in life; and since life's 
 stage is equipped with a natural background, the motives for 
 this change must be analyzed. The Italian Rennaissance brought 
 about a marked revival not only of Greek art, but also of pagan 
 philosophy and religion. During the reign of Louis XIV this 
 wave surged over France ; but it did not break over Germany 
 until the middle of the eighteenth century, after which time 
 there dawned an era of restlessness in almost every field of ac- 
 tivity. Then through Winckelmann's initiative his countrymen 
 awoke to the significance of pagan art and culture. A dis- 
 tinctly new method of procedure took place in the intellectual 
 life of Germany. Winckelmann did nothing more than emanci- 
 pate himself from the traditions and sentiments prevailing in 
 his own century. There was no denunciation of Christianity; 
 it was simply ignored. The arrows of free thought and action 
 were arrayed against the pronounced bigotry and hypocrisy then 
 existing among the clergy, and not against Christianity. The 
 result was crystallized into stereotyped doctrines, which became 
 the watchwords of a certain clique of men, the well-known party 
 of the Aufkldrung.^ The movement began with the perception 
 that honest men are bound to think for themselves ; and it ended 
 
 ' Cf., tlic various histories of German literature, particularly \'ogt unJ 
 Koch: Geschichte der deutschen Literatur, U, 130 ff; 535. 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Ronianlic School in Germany 9 
 
 in attempts to mould all men to one pattern. At the outset it 
 helped to sweep away bigotry and superstition, only to restore 
 the same, when, in the course of time, it became narrow, its 
 prescriptions rigid and suffocating. The ultimate consequence 
 was to supply every citizen with a ready-made code of morals, 
 by which all his actions from birth to death were to lie regu- 
 lated. Thus this period became characteristic of narrowness of 
 vision, utter absence of imagination, extreme utilitarianism and 
 a consequent hostility to everything which pointed l^eyond this 
 temporal sphere of existence. 
 
 It appealed to the Philistines, whose most powerful cham- 
 pion and representative Xicholai,- the author, publisher and 
 moralist, exerted all his efforts to suppress the ever-growing 
 measures of the reformers by the narrow principles of his school. 
 The result of his endeavors, however, was in the end to make 
 him a target for every would-be critic. For such tendencies 
 ignored the emotional nature of man, and proved to be too in- 
 adequate to satisfy the warm-hearted imaginative Germans. 
 Louder and louder became the protests ; a tidal wave of reaction 
 deluged the land. In the seventh and eighth decades of the 
 century the pressure became so great, that a violent upheaval 
 took place in all Germany. It found expression in the so-called 
 Sturm und Drang movement."'^ a revolt against authority and 
 existing social order. Never before had individualism been 
 preached with such vehemence and aggressiveness. It tried to 
 destroy every hindrance to individual growth, to laud primitive 
 unadulterated nature, instinct and passion, to throw off the out- 
 worn lx)nds of medieval society. Young Goethe and Schiller 
 brought this revolt to its climax in literary monuments. 
 
 Superficially this period of reform was short-lived, that is, 
 in literature ; but it was as a seed on virgin soil to the A-ounger 
 generation. Even though Goethe and Schiller had set the pace 
 for this revolt, they were naturally growing older, becoming set, 
 as it were, in their opinions. Their youthful ideas gave place 
 
 * Vogt und Koch:', Geschichte der deutschcn Liteiatur, II, 151 ff ; 537. 
 Mbid., II. 224 ff; 543. 
 
lo Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 to the calmness of mature manhood. They then moved along 
 classical lines exclusively, and employed the elaborately planned 
 rules and formulae of the ancients. As the century advanced, 
 classicism ■* too saw its decline. In F"rance the crisis of the 
 Revolution was near at hand.^ Germany, her nearest neighbor, 
 must necessarily sense her immediate influence. Consequently 
 the new movement fell into the same category with the 
 Aufkldrung. It too became sober. Goethe's pantheism could 
 no longer warm the hearts of the masses. The people wanted 
 to be enthused, to become intoxicated and enraptured, to feel 
 a knight's enthusiasm and a monk's ecstasy, to rave poetically 
 and to dream melodiously. The German people were in a state 
 of extraordinary ferment. The military despotism of- Friedrich 
 Wilhelm had slackened in the feeble hands of his incapable 
 successor. And with the relaxation of military discipline, there 
 was a wholesale abandonment of all restraint. A state of license 
 and freedom ensued, which to the narrow-minded critic was as 
 glaring and as widely spread as the excesses that disgraced the 
 English court of Charles II. The only check to the excesses of 
 the time had been the ineffective one by the leaders of the En- 
 lightenment. But they were now dead; and the young genera- 
 tion felt that the vitality of their doctrines had died with them. 
 Thus the clouds bursted, bringing along a subsequent revolt 
 against this dry wooden utilitarianism, namely romanticism. ° 
 
 Program of tfie Early Romantic School — a Synonym for 
 Innovations in Moral Law. 
 
 In this new school of Romanticism the revolutionary factors 
 of the Sturm unci Drang period gradually gave \vay to a spirit 
 of longing and desire, — an impulse which ruled the intellectual 
 world for generations, and which is still believed to be the chief 
 hope for the future. It found more or less impassioned and 
 
 * Vogt und Koch: GeschiclUe dcr deutschen Litcratur. II. 307 ff. 556. 
 ' Treitschke, II. von: Deutsche Geschichtc ini 19. Jht.. Chap. I. 
 
 • Vogt und Koch: Geschiclite der deutschen Literatur, II, 333 ff ; 560. 
 
Study ill Ethics of Early Roinaiitic School in Gcnnany 1 1 
 
 defiant expression in every land : but its earliest and strongest 
 impulse is generally regarded to have sprung from Germany. 
 Here it was fought in the realm of the intellect; in France, on 
 the other hand, it was staged on the battlefields. This revolt 
 against the old-established order, however, was nothing more 
 than a revived Stunii unci Drang. 
 
 The romanticists and their disciples on the whole yearned 
 for color and variety, demanding something warm and musical. 
 They desired nothing that was severe, cold and alien to their 
 nature. Naturally they avoided anything like Goethe's Achilleis 
 or Schiller's Braut von Messina with its solemn antique choruses, 
 because these productions lx)re a too classic stamp. Democracy 
 was the gist of their annals; liberty and individualism formed 
 the basis for the texts of their sermons. Then again, there 
 was no laxity in the execution of their principles. In short, they 
 practiced v^-hat they preached. Freedom was exercised in every 
 respect. There dawned a broader conception of moral law. The 
 sceptical half-cynical rule of Friedrich the Great had left men's 
 minds free and unrestrained, whereby imagination was every- 
 where aroused. The result was a very natural and logical co- 
 incidence. From the individualistic tendency, acquired during 
 their youth, developed self-centred thought and action. There- 
 fore they were obliged to formulate a new code of morals, abid- 
 ing by the same with deplorable consistency, — the most obvious 
 cause for bitter criticism. The secret of their method in doing 
 things might be summed up in a single sentence. — a sentence 
 which to the superficial mind would seem a mere truism: they 
 believed and acted by being l^elievers and actors. What they 
 did is explained by what they were. The early romanticists, 
 all of them, lived for themselves alone. The state was nothing ; 
 the individual was all. This was the theory, this was the prac- 
 tice of their life. The individualistic idea was never forgotten. 
 They were like the legendary Curtius. willing for themselves, to 
 take a forlorn leap into darkness in quest of their ideal. Every- 
 thing was to 1)e dared, everything endured, to make the indi- 
 vidual greater than it was. Obstacles to morality or convention 
 
12 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 did not exist for them. Anything was easily disregarded, if it 
 curtailed, to any extent, their method for self-development. 
 
 But what more could be expected? Could anyone conceive 
 of Tieck, for example, as a conservative yomig man, knowing 
 that he learned to read from a book like Geothe's Gdt2? Even 
 though crude in construction, Gots is a genuine warm and full- 
 blooded picture. The reader's sympathy is involuntarily enlisted 
 in behalf of the law breaker, whose sturdy manhood and stub- 
 bornness bring him into conflict with the state. Then, too, the 
 revolutionary spirit of Schiller's Rciuber was the keynote of the 
 age. These young radicals blame society and not the Titan, 
 who cannot help his having l^een made on a larger scale than 
 his opponents. Thereby they voice the sentiments of Schiller. 
 the youthful disciple of Rousseau, who created a production, 
 that is expressive of the revolt of a powerful nature against 
 conventional reality. The reformer takes this step, because con- 
 vention places its narrow barriers called law and custom in his 
 way on all sides. For according to him, a great man should be 
 a law unto himself. Society is arranged for the convenience 
 and comfort of fools, and not of wise men: of pygmies, not of 
 giants. A giant would be justified in trampling upon the laws 
 made for the guidance of pygmy lives. But the pygmies, being 
 so much more numerous than giants, are, after all, collectively 
 the stronger; and by their petty needle pricks they are apt to 
 harass the solitary Titan, until he rises in wrath, breaks down 
 their legal hedges and barriers, and wages war with them single- 
 handed. In the eyes of the world he becomes a malefactor, a 
 criminal, but not so the revolutionist. Yet in this category, we 
 have nothing but the effect of the Kantian doctrines which per- 
 vaded the minds of the reformers of the time. 
 
 In this respect, the prevailing tendency of the life of these 
 radicals is extreme individualism. Only the raw material of 
 their cognition was found in the outer world; and it was the 
 mind w-hich endowed this raw material with form. All nature, 
 as they knew it, was a product of the human mind. Each in- 
 dividual observer compels the objects to submit to the functions 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Rojiianiic Sclioul in Germany 13 
 
 of his mind; and therefore he is a law-giver. Within each indi- 
 vidual resides moral law as the most complete expression of 
 man's highest dignity: and this law is felt instinctively by him. 
 The true freedom of man lies in the obedience to moral law, 
 in submission to the voice of duty which speaks from within. 
 Around this central point revolves his spiritual existence. Every- 
 thing else in the world is consequently subject to doubt and 
 misrepresentation. Thus the dictates of duty alone were to 
 them a direct and unmistakable revelation of the divine. 
 
 W^ith this hypothesis in the foreground the romanticists were 
 naturally stirred to action by Goethe's Wilhelm Meister, — a por- 
 trayal of the distintegration of feudal society. For it is a man's 
 usefulness, which finally must secure him a place in society. 
 Goethe was well aware that society had not yet reached this stage; 
 but he merely wished to indicate the direction which the develop- 
 ment of the future must inevitably take. So the quest for the 
 ideal, which drew most of the romanticists into a life of ad- 
 venture, was just the individual manifestation of restless dis- 
 content, — a factor which animates society at large, and is slowly 
 revolutionizing it in accordance with the changed conditions of 
 modern life. But this element of reform became more and more 
 pronounced in the romantic writers. In spite of the revolution- 
 ary influences that colored the environment of their youth, they 
 had been held in check by their strict religious parents, who were 
 staunch disciples of the Enlighteners. And, of course, they had 
 been between two fires, so to speak, namely: paternal love on 
 the one hand, and duty to themselves on the other. Their 
 heart's desire had always been to put their own plans into 
 execution. But with conflicting views on every side, they were 
 apparently at sea. There was no landing place in sight for their 
 aims. In despair they gave up hope, and lost all interest in 
 the project of self-development: and through carelessness as to 
 their conduct, they permitted themselves to drift along aim- 
 lessly. But when they saw in the background of Berlin 
 Schleiermacher and Rahel's salon, a safe harlx)r, with Fried- 
 rich Schlegel as their pilot, they lost no time in setting sail; 
 
14 Study in Ethics of Early Roviantic School in Germany 
 
 and they were soon headed toward this port, where they dropped 
 anchor. \A'ith prospects of their dreams being reahzed, they 
 forthwith alHed themselves with Rahel Levin and her fol- 
 lowers.'^ 
 
 Rahel Levix and Her Salon — the Haven of Refuge for 
 THE Romanticists and Their New Moral Code. 
 
 It was Friedrich Schlegel's quick perception of the common 
 need, that led him in particular to this little society, whose main 
 bond of union was the admiration felt by its meml^ers for the 
 freedom and sense of emancipation characterizing young Goethe, 
 which by no means was the common taste in Berlin. Like the 
 romanticists, Berlin society was immersed in numerous conflict- 
 ing tendencies in morals, philosophy and religion. At one ex- 
 treme was the sober utilitarian life of the Enlighteners, with 
 whom religion and even the human passions were regarded 
 superficially. At the other was the higher fashionable circle 
 around the court, consisting of snobs, hypocrites, and for the 
 most part insincere personages, who used religion as a cloak 
 on ecclesiastical occasions, abandoning it at other times in pref- 
 erence to licentiousness and coarse unrestraint. Half way be- 
 tween lay the Jewish salons, where black-eyed Jewesses, "radi- 
 ant with the beauty of their rich Oriental womanhood, burned 
 incense, somewhat indiscriminately, to every new candidate for 
 literary laurels." ^ 
 
 Very remarkable it is, that such a down-trodden and perse- 
 cuted race like the Jews could rise to such a position of promi- 
 nence. But they were in the same category with the majority 
 of the romanticists, in that the conditions of the times necessi- 
 tated their emancipation not only from the strict conventional 
 laws, but also from their lowly despised state. Friedrich the 
 Great had done but little to alter the legal status of the Jews." 
 
 ' Berdrow, O. : Rahel Varnhagen. Graf, E. : Literatur-historischc Fosch- 
 ungen, Vol. 28. Varnhagen, K. A.: Schriften, Vol. 19, 211-314. 
 ' Boyesen, H. H. : Essays on German Literature, p. 292. 
 'Ritter, I. H. : Geschichte der jiidischen Reformation, pt. II, i, 2. 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Ronianiic Sclioul in Germany 15 
 
 Moses Mendelssohn, on the other hand, had been their intellec- 
 tual liberator: for it was he, who awakened them to a recognition 
 of their own powers, which for centuries had been completely 
 disregarded. Still they were not lying dormant. On the con- 
 trary, they were undergoing the finest sort of development; and 
 when they did ultimately gain recognition, there was seen in them 
 the means of a close relation between the Jews and the German 
 people. Prussian self-esteem caused that of the Jews to increase 
 in turn. The ultimate consequence, however, was that, in the 
 last quarter of the eighteenth century, not only the masculine 
 half of fashionable Berlin, but even the women of the fashion- 
 able world likewise sought admission to the homes of the fore- 
 most Jewish families. Princes, nobles and diplomats were al- 
 ready in close contact with Jewish bankers in the business world. 
 In the Jewish home the spirit of democracy and uncorrupted 
 liberty reigned supreme. Here, to say the least, there existed 
 more intelligence and far less prejudice than was to be found 
 in other German circles. The easy social tone permitted by the 
 women, young, handsome and cultured leaders, made the circle 
 more and more attractive. Gradually, it became indicative of 
 good taste and good tone to mix in Jewish society. 
 
 While Friedrich Schlegel, Tieck and Schleiermacher were 
 practically drafting plans for the new romantic movement, an 
 influential Jewess was becoming the leader of her like-minded 
 sisters : namely, Rahel Levin,^^ the first great and modern woman 
 in Germany. She was a person with characteristics absolutely 
 her own. with everything about her primordial, — a real contri- 
 bution to civilization and a never-ceasing evolutionary force. 
 Her personality exercised untold power over her associates, plac- 
 ing them under its indelible influence. Henriette Herz, one of 
 her group and at the same time her most enthusiastic rival in 
 the society life of Berlin, "declares that the soul of Jewish woman 
 thus awakened, reached its highest development in and through 
 Rahel." '^ Rahel longed for life in sunshine and splendor. 
 
 Key, K. : Rahel \'arnhagen, Chap. I. 
 Ibid., pp. 9 flF. 
 
1 6 Study ill Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 tervor and passion. With her independence of thought aug- 
 mented with a boundless passion for Hberty, she was far in 
 advance of the women of her time, whether Jewish or German. 
 Her indomitable freedom of thought gave her courage to oppose 
 even her strict parents; and finally her daring, animated, un- 
 prejudiced nature, deepened by Germanic culture, was actually re- 
 sponsible for her leaving home. She purposely expressed her- 
 self frankly on every point, utterly disregarding the effect of the 
 same. But in being candid and outspoken, she was typical of 
 a great movement which is still taking place, — a movement, 
 which seeks to evolve the completely human personality from 
 the feminine creature of the sex. The decisive point, however, 
 is that her blood was that of a Jewess, and that it was not only 
 strengthened by the best qualities of the race, but, at the same 
 time, stimulated by its most grievous misfortunes. The oriental 
 force of love in all her feelings gave rise to her sincere worship 
 of great masters. It was the power of such a personality that 
 served as a nucleus for her salon, making it magnetic, so to 
 speak. For in her alone were combined and concentrated all 
 the peculiarities, which made her circle so attractive to men of 
 letters. How often were her friends ready to be guided by her ! 
 Still she did not wish to dominate them, even though she un- 
 consciously did so through the power of her intellectuality. At 
 any rate, besides being a prototype of the modem Jewish woman 
 (jf culture, Rahel Levin was a woman, who taught not only 
 the romanticists, but also other contemjx)raries to hope for the 
 truths on which we now live. For just as in the flourishing 
 period of Athenian history, Aspasia, who herself created 
 nothing, was to Socrates an inspiration of wisdom, to Pericles 
 of eloquence, to Sophocles of poetry, and to Phidias of beauty 
 of line; so do we discern in the background of the Berlin of 
 Schleiermacher '- and the romantic school another woman. 
 Rahel, who was similarly influential. 
 
 This was the first time that Jewish women ever fulfilled 
 ri civilizing mission in modern society, due for the most part 
 
 " Dilthcv. \\'.: Lcbcii Schleiermachers, I. 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Roiiiaiilic School in Germany 17 
 
 to their great and rapid receptivity for another civih'zation. New 
 seed fell on an altogether virgin soil. Time-honored forms and 
 traditions were abrogated. There was an acquisition of a great 
 zeal for culture, of a passion and a capacity iov civilization, 
 which, however, di'd not always imply a corresponding indi- 
 viduality. Such individuality characterized certain Jewesses of 
 Rahel's circle, who received impressions from the liberal ideas 
 of their time and from its most refined culture. For example, 
 they were enthusiastic readers of Voltaire, Rousseau and Tasso 
 in the original. All were staunch admirers of Goethe above all. 
 Naturally they extended a warm welcome to Friedrich Schlegcl, 
 whose devotion to the great pagan exceeded even their own. He 
 soon l:>ecame a privileged member of the little company, and 
 intimately enough to perceive how entirely experimental their 
 lives were made by the novelty of their view's. Young impres- 
 sionable women, married when they were mere children to men 
 of their parents' choice, were beginning to make a personal ap- 
 plication of these lessons in freedom that they heard on every 
 side. Thus it was a natural coincidence for this salon to become 
 a synonym for unbounded liberty, only in the practice of which 
 could they see any prospects for self -advancement, for the de- 
 velopment of their individualistic tendencies, and. at the same 
 time, for the attainment of the ideal sought by the romanticists 
 as well as by other zealous revolutionists. 
 
 When Friedrich Schlegel realized the existence of such 
 principles in exact parallel with his own philosophy of life, he 
 was not slow in putting their theory into practice. The most 
 harmonious and most interesting example of the embodiment of 
 such principles met him in the person of Dorothea Veit,^^ who 
 supplied him with that which was lacking in his existence. She, 
 the daughter of Moses Mendelssohn, had been married to a 
 wealthy Jewish banker, when she was only sixteen years old. 
 When she first became acquainted with Schlegel. she had for 
 many years been the wife of a man of her parents' choice, and 
 was the mother of two sons. Thoueli she had never become 
 
 Sidgwick. .\.: Caroline Schlegel and her Friends, pp. 153 ff. 
 
1 8 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 resigned to her life, she nevertheless endured it with dignity. 
 Her mind had lain fallow, her tastes had been repressed, her 
 development had been at a standstill. But her friendship with 
 Schlegel soon ripened into the closest intimacy, which stirred 
 up her smoldering energies and fanned the torpid passion of 
 her nature into full blaze. She, however, felt that she was 
 justified in thus transforming that terrible destiny im,posed 
 upon her by parental authority into social and intellectual emanci- 
 pation. Still this episode met with complete approval within 
 their immediate group. The plan for the development of the 
 individual demanded such method of procedure. Then again, 
 it was in direct accordance with their established worship of the 
 god, "Truth." '^ To them a person, who is not true and honest 
 to himself, can fulfill no position whatever, neither in the family 
 nor in the outside world. It is the love of truth that is wanting 
 in us. Some people have too little understanding to find the 
 truth within themselves ; others have no courage to acknowledge 
 it. As one grows older, life acquires greater significance: and 
 to the soulful person, the questions of the meaning and aim of 
 life increase in importance as the shades of the evening gather. 
 So it was with Rahel and her society, of which she was the 
 center. Their beliefs displayed more and more their personal 
 characteristics. Each one of the circle naturally considered the 
 other's behavior as the direct reaction of the mental concept. 
 
 What was the ultimate consequence ? Nothing but the fos- 
 tering of a childlike freedom from prejudice in the ethical 
 sphere, where current prejudices were revalued with equal bold- 
 ness and thoroughness. Subsequently everything breathed an 
 air of pure absolute democracy. — something which we vainly 
 try to believe that we are practicing here in America. Further- 
 more, the salon developed its life in the widest of circles. No 
 one was especially invited; but all were welcome, whosoever 
 they might me. A sister or a friend was often brought along 
 to share in the social privileges, about which the men were so 
 
 " Key, E. : Rahel Vanihagcn, p. 178; pp. 40 ff. Varnhagen. K. A. : Schrif- 
 ten, Vol. 19, 275. 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Gcrman\ 19 
 
 enthusiastic. Of course, it was necessary that new attractions 
 be added, owing to the ever-increasing number of patrons. The 
 drawing room was ahvays filled with men of all vocations and 
 with women remarkable for l^eauty and charm. Princes of 
 blood and aristocrats here rubbed shoulders with literary Bo- 
 hemians, statesmen, poets, actors and actresses. For social life 
 was an expression of life itself, a part of their very existence. 
 If we compare Rahel's gatherings with modern social evenings 
 in an intellectual circle, we find the chief difference lies in the 
 fact, that the highest aim of the former was pure culture, that 
 of the latter being something more tangible. Conversation was 
 freer than elsewhere. All questions were debatable with esprit; 
 for the hostesses were filled with the frankness, mental alertness 
 and warmth, which were lacking in the German women of the 
 time. Everything was tolerated except dullness. The most vital 
 problems of life and society were discussed; and no opinion, 
 however extreme, gave offense, that is, if defended with ade- 
 quate ability and knowledge. This extraordinary tolerance was 
 not the consequence of indifiference, but of an ultra-normal hos- 
 pitality to new ideas, eagerness to hear all sides of the question, 
 and a delight in the interchange of forceful and significant 
 thought. In short, a movement was under way to suppress the 
 insincerity of the age. — a blemish, which is still antagonistic to 
 the present-day broad-minded individual. 
 
 Examples of Moral Excesses and Extravagances. 
 
 At this juncture some glaring examples might be given to 
 show the extent, to which the various factors in the social envi- 
 ronment of the romanticists affected their morals. Then. too. 
 in this particular only the moral reforms and excesses are of 
 any concern; and further only those are worthy of note in the 
 cases, where the individual carries out his view of life in his 
 own behavior. Anyone may maintain a certain belief, and may 
 likewise reduce the same to expression in literary productions 
 or some other written composition. But, what about the men. 
 who not only do this, but in addition mould their very conduct 
 
20 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 in accordance with their behefs? In this respect, however, there 
 existed a very noticeable difference among the early romanticists. 
 A romanticist, in the modern sense of the term, is a man who 
 assumes a hostile attitude toward the spirit of the age, and 
 tries by artificial means to revive the good old times. Nearest 
 to this type was Friedrich von Hardenberg, more commonly 
 known by the nom dc plume Novalis.^^ In him we see united 
 the simplicity of a child and the high sensitiveness of a clair- 
 voyant. His delicate nature revealed something saintly, some- 
 thing of sexless serenity, something even flowerlike. He delved 
 into mysticism, and was very prone to flee to the land of the 
 supernatural. In short, his plan for inner development went no 
 further than his imagination. Thus his actions in the outside 
 world were characterized by no extravagances. "Die Welt wird 
 Traum, der Traum wird Welt." ^*^ This is the ideal of existence 
 that is held up to us in his Hcinr'xch von Ofterdingen. There is 
 not one act of free moral endeavor even hinted at in this work, 
 to say nothing of the total absence of a character, whose will 
 power would be equal to any decisive test. The entire novel is 
 a series of hallucinations, displaying the emancipation of the 
 subconscious self and not the real true self. It is purely and 
 simply characteristic of Novalis himself, with a will apart from 
 his existence and roaming about amid the incoherent and the 
 incredible. 
 
 Then again, consider Ludwig Tieck. He was brought to 
 public gaze by the appearance of his William Lovell, — a sub- 
 stitution of caprice for moral law. Still, in later years, in 
 the preface to the second edition of his novel, he claimed a 
 moral and educational purpose for this work of his youth. ^^ 
 William recalls Wieland's Agathon, in being a youth of the 
 finest sensibility and of the deepest feelings. He, like the author, 
 is an enthusiastic admirer of nature, resembling Rousseau by 
 believing in a former ideal state of mankind, scorning the pet- 
 
 ''■ Heilborn, E. : Novalis der Romantiker. 
 
 "Minor, J. (Ed.): Heinrich von Ofterdingen, Xovalis Schriften, II, 217. 
 
 " Tiecks Schriften, VI, 3 f!. 
 
S!i(dy in Ethics of Harly Ro)iiaiitic School in Germany 21 
 
 tiness of modern life compared with that of the Greeks. "Ah. 
 the golden age of the Muses has disappeared forever! When 
 gods full of tenderness were still walking the earth, when Beaut\- 
 and Grandeur clad in harmonious robes were still dancing hand 
 in hand on gay meadows, when the Hours with golden key still 
 opened Aurora's gate. . . . then the sublime and the beauti- 
 ful had not yet been degraded to the pretty and the alluring." '"" 
 Tn this sentimental longing for an imaginary state of ideal hap- 
 piness. Tieck's hero becomes a victim of the first temptation, that 
 presents itself to him in the form of a Parisian coquette. Here, 
 his philosophy of life takes a decided turn, inadequately dis- 
 guised by pantheistic phrases. "I pity the fools, who are always 
 prattling about the depravity of the senses. . . . They offer 
 sar-iflces to a powerless deity, whose gifts cannot satisfy a 
 human heart. . . . No, I have pledged myself to the services 
 of a higher deity, before which all living nature is submissive, 
 which is a union of every feeling in itself, which is rapture, 
 love, everything — for which language has no word. Only in 
 the embraces of Louise have I come to know what love is. The 
 memory of Amelia appears to me now in a dim, misty distance. 
 I never loved her." '^ New temptations convince William that 
 he needs a firmer theoretical foundation for his practice. Then 
 in his ravings he exclaims, "Do I not w\alk through this life 
 as a somnambulist? All I see is only a phantom of my inner 
 vision. ... All things exist only l3ecause I think them ; virtue 
 exists only because I think it. . . . Everything submits to 
 my caprice. . . . The world ... is suspended by the 
 chains which are controlled by my mind. ... I am the one 
 supreme law of all nature." -'* The revolting story of seduction, 
 murder and highway robbery, which forms the closing chapter 
 of Lovell's career, is a practical illustration of these principles. 
 Tn fine, Tieck has traced the downward path of a sensitive and 
 passionate youth. The author was only twentv vears old at the 
 
 "William Lovell, II. 2; Schriften, VI, 50. 
 'Mbid.. II. 23; 1. c. VI. 95 ff. 
 "Ibid.. III. 23; I.e. VI, 17- flf. 
 
22 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 time when he wrote this novel; and he certainly had not yet 
 pierced to those deepest depths of human misery and sin, which 
 he is here pretending to sound. Indeed, like Novalis, he was 
 only dreaming; and these dreams were confined to William 
 Lovell's career and not to Ludwig Tieck's. 
 
 It was Friedrich Schlegel, who capped the climax, namely 
 by his writing of Lucinde.-^ He was the inventor of a new 
 moral code, thus showing that he was anything but conservative; 
 for in this frank glorification of the flesh, he displayed open 
 hostility to spiritual progress. No wonder that the work fell 
 like a bombshell in the peaceful social circles, since it was more 
 of a social program than a real novel, expressing, as it did, the 
 author's beliefs plus that which he had already done in accord- 
 ance with these beliefs, — thereby going a step further than the 
 rest of his friends. The pervading sentiment of the book is one 
 of contempt and hatred for all the moral rules and laws, with 
 which man has imprisoned his spirit. Naturally it excited the 
 liveliest interest in Rahel's coterie, whose tone had always been 
 the freest, and whose meml^ers had often strayed beyond what 
 was regarded as the boundary-line of propriety.-- The author's 
 principles of composition may be inferred from his statement, 
 that "nothing would be more to the purpose of this book than 
 that, in writing it. he should lay aside what is called order, and 
 assert to the fullest extent his unquestioned right to charming 
 lawlessness." -^ The plot, such as it is, is contained in the 
 chapter, entitled LcJirjahrc dcr Mdnnlichkcit,^* which reads like 
 a distorted catalogue of love affairs. The characters arc mere 
 types, from Julius, who stands for Schlegel himself, and who 
 spends his entire life in "reflecting about the possibility of a 
 permanent embrace," -' whose sole aim in life is "not to have 
 
 " Kouge, 1.: Erlauterungen iibcr die Luciude. 
 
 " Sidgwick. A.: Caroline Schlegel and her Friends, p. 151. 
 
 ^' Lucinde (edition of Universal-Ribliothek, Vol. 320), p. 6. Boyesen. H. 
 H. : Essays on German Literature, p. 294. Brandes, G. : Hauptstromungen 
 der Literatur des 19. Jhts., HI, 74 ff. 
 
 " Lucinde, p. 39. 
 Ibid., p. 27. 
 
Study in Ef/iics of Early Romantic School in Germany 23 
 
 enjoyment alune, Imt also to enjoy the enjoyment," -" to Lucinde 
 herself, the embodiment of the romantic ideal of femininity, or, 
 in other words, to Dorothea Veit. "She, too (like Julius), was 
 one of those who live, not in the common world, but in a world 
 of their own creation. She. too, with a bold determination had 
 cast off all social bonds and restrictions, and lived entirely free 
 and independent." -" 
 
 But the revolutionists, who were strivini^ for independence 
 at the turning point of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, 
 realized that the need of morality continues. So they gained the 
 conception that morality could not remain unaltered, especially 
 since all existence is progressive. Consequently, life is but a dead 
 repetition, if there be no development, which in turn necessitates 
 innovations. Yet, at this time advancement was permitted least 
 of all in the sphere of morals. Therefore, one was forced by 
 inner development to commit actions, so-called crimes, which 
 were by no means done with an easy conscience. At that time, 
 voluntarily acquired independence resulted in acts which seemed 
 rather irrational. The Schlegel-Veit episode bears this out; and 
 therefore it had to be placed within the category of excesses. In 
 the struggle for personal liberty and personal satisfaction, some 
 people went so far as to believe, that independent thought and 
 action involved the right to end one's life, when one wished to 
 suffer no longer. Novalis had similar intentions after the death 
 of his betrothed, Sophie von Kiihn : -^ but lie sincerely deemed 
 this the beginning of all philosophy. Friedrich Schlegel, too, 
 at one time entertained such a view. His despondency was, how- 
 ever, due to remorse caused by one of his many affaires de coenr. 
 The contents of his correspondence from September 1791, to 
 May. 1792. constitute a diary of this episode. He also reflects 
 the incident in the Lucinde, in connection wnth the Lisette 
 affair.'" In all of his previous erotic adventures Schlegel had 
 
 '^ Lucinde, p. 5. 
 
 " Ibid., p. 60. 
 
 ** Heilborn. E. : Xovalis der Romantiker, pp. 54 ff. 
 
 ** Lucinde, pp. 46 ff. 
 
24 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 been utterly disappointed. This time, when he falls in love, his 
 aim is to avenge his inner self. With such an idea in mind, he 
 played with the affections of a coquette, who for once in her 
 life wanted true love. Force of habit had made her character 
 far inferior to the standard that was maintained even by the 
 women, who were Schlegel's associates in Rahel's salon. Her 
 careless mode of living prompted her lover to cherish no real 
 love for her. He merely made her the object of his boundless 
 passion, permitting his heart and soul to be filled with this aim. 
 Whenever she failed to understand his inclinations, he became 
 offended. It was not his purpose to gain any triumph of which 
 he could boast. Not once did he try to idealize her love, not 
 even the tragic outcome which it finally assumed. For when 
 she had truthfully and sincerely requited his apparent affection, 
 he had already tired of the experiment, and considered himself 
 incapable of coping with the situation. He then abandoned her, 
 whereupon she committed suicide. This misfortune was the 
 cause of his awakening. He realized that she had been utterly 
 deceived in him, and that her self-inflicted death was the con- 
 sequence of his repellent behavior. Her sad death had a startling 
 effect upon the passionate youth. He became sick at heart; his 
 torture and remorse grew, until, in despair and desiring to 
 end his suffering, he surrendered himself to thoughts of suicide. 
 All of the foregoing tended toward one goal, namely, duty 
 to one's self. Self -contentment or self-satisfaction, not self- 
 preservation alone, became the gist of the first law of nature. 
 So in the mind of a man like Friedrich Schlegel, it was a greater 
 virtue to grasp what one's nature passionately demands. Such 
 a type of human being is apparently concerned with the fact, 
 that man's attitude toward moral law is the determining factor 
 of his fate. The individual is organically coherent with his 
 environment. By environment are his duties defined: and what- 
 ever happiness is to be found on earth results from the fulfill- 
 ment of these duties. This sense of duty, in conjunction with 
 a pronounced belief in freedom from prejudice, made possible the 
 evolution of not only the theory, but even the practice of free 
 love. But this departure from established moral law did not in 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Roiiiaiitic School in Germany -'5 
 
 tlie least suffice the revolutionists. They even reduced the same 
 to literarv expression ; just as Friedrich Schlegel did in connec- 
 tion with the Luciiidc, which came to the seemingly prudish Ber- 
 lin societv like a thunderlx>lt out of a clear sky. The critics 
 readily charged such inventors with gross immorality. Yet, 
 what do we find revealed upon an analysis of the situation? 
 Nothing but unwarranted alarm, surprise and disgust. 
 
 The secret of such practice lay in their individualistic free- 
 dom : their actions were unconcealed and done in the presence 
 of everyone ; they assumed no cloak for whatever they did. Their 
 conduct was directed by their own manner of thought, and by 
 no means founded on public opinion. They differed widely from 
 the many individuals, w^ho were so weak and so lacking in self- 
 reliance, as to sufifer under the pressure of this public opinion, 
 thereby becoming wretched unhappy beings for life. Such suf- 
 fering was absolutely imnecessary according to the conceptions 
 of these revolutionists; for they tried to satisfy the many dif- 
 ferent conditions, only in so far as their ow^n personal advance- 
 ment was concerned. So when love was at stake, their idea was 
 apparently, that one might as well attempt to untie the Gordian 
 knot as to make an effort to behave in accordance with the 
 enigmas of public opinion. In this case the only persons, who 
 need to be considered, are those making the choice ; the outside 
 world of busybodies. who themselves live in houses of very thin 
 glass, can only view the situation superficially. Furthermore, 
 love brings natural law into play. Natural law in turn involves 
 the human instincts. Instinct in conjunction with an environ- 
 ment, which is in harmony with the instinct, forms a firmly estab- 
 lished bond for concerted action. Then, too, it must l^e remem- 
 bered that pagan philosophy inspired the people of this era to 
 live in the senses as well as in the intellect. In fact the seventh 
 commandment was very laxly interpreted throughout the eigh- 
 teenth century. Therefore this characteristic, together with their 
 sense of emancipation resulted in casting to the winds the ideas, 
 upon which they had been reared, and in considering the same 
 as remnants of gloomy asceticism, and finally in adopting a code 
 of morals at variance with the usual Christian code. 
 
26 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 Such natures as these were called pagan and Hellenic, and 
 were attracted and cherished by Rahel's circle. Pauline W' iesel,^'- 
 one of Rahel's dearest friends, who enraptured men as the most 
 perfect revelation of Aphrodite, lived amid naive frankness in 
 exact harmony with her pagan nature. She was intimate with 
 Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, one of the most eminent 
 patrons of this society and a combination of all that was courage- 
 ous and progressive. Since her married life had been a seething 
 hotbed of discontentment from the start, she felt that there was 
 absolutely no obligation to keep her behavior from bringing dis- 
 pleasure to her husband. After the latter had consented to a 
 separation, Rahel displayed complete approval, writing Pauline 
 that her strong heart was not made for suffering. It was in this 
 direction that this group played such a great role. The men, 
 in particular, however different they might be amongst them- 
 selves, — from a Schleiermacher to a Prince Louis Ferdinand, 
 the "Prussian Alcibiades," — all felt that in Rahel's salon they 
 had seen a revelation of genuine womanly nature, or, in other 
 words, that which to them was the means of progressive life and 
 existence, — what men look for, what men seek. When they fail 
 to find this sincerity and truth to oneself, this directness and 
 freshness at home, or yet in society of "good tone," then they 
 look for it in that of "bad tone." 
 
 Such women, even though not in harmony with the rest of 
 their sex of the time, were very primitive and purely natural. 
 They, like Dorothea Veit or Caroline Boehmer,^^ were the ones 
 who had strong rich natures to reveal, and who proved to be 
 at all times the best inspirations of writers. Even though Sophie 
 von Kiihn was only a fifteen-year-old child, living completely 
 outside of this environment ; still she was far in advance of her 
 age, and became the "silent witness," who gave the testimony 
 upon which her lover, Novalis, based his literary activity. In 
 fact, no literature was ever l^eautiful and fresh during periods, 
 when women were unnatural, indirect and not true to their own 
 
 Key, E. : Rahel Varnhagen, pp. 57 ff. 
 
 Sidgwick, .'\. : Caroline Schlegel and her Friends, pp. yy ff. 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Rojiiaiitic School in Gcruianx 27 
 
 femininity. Here we have the final reason for the decline of 
 our social life. Feminine individuality came into vogue at the 
 dawn of the nineteenth century, and has continued its develop- 
 ment into our present century, owing to new fields of work and 
 wider opportunities for education, thereby inducing a uniformitv 
 wherein women occupy themselves with the same tasks. The\-, 
 of course, have a more independent outward position, which 
 does not necessarily imply that they are more natural or richer 
 personalities; but, instead, they have acquired unusual feminine 
 qualities, which obtain recognition more easily, because the ma- 
 jority of their kind are in the same category. No woman will 
 purchase her freedom of thought and action or her right to be 
 natural, simply because she does not want to forfeit her social 
 position, and be considered uncultivated, by deviating from the 
 opinion of the said majority. Thus the personal element is be- 
 coming less, while the public contribution to woman's work is 
 ever increasing. Nevertheless, woman is still prone to be an \ 
 individual where a feeling of solidarity is required, and to feel ' 
 collectively where she should be an individual. Woman will 
 always be a drawback to society and to the life of the home and 
 the community, until she comes to realize that the source of all 
 virtues is justice for all others and courage for herself. On the 
 other hand, the purely natural women, at whose shrine the ro- 
 manticists worshipped, augmented productiveness, humanity and 
 culture, by teaching others to seek the truth, and by judging 
 everything as to its intrinsic value and not as to its deficiencies. 
 Just to show how indispensable women were to the existence 
 of the romanticists, let a very conspicuous example be cited in 
 this respect. As is well known. August W'ilhclm Schlegel was 
 a stamich admirer of Caroline Boehmer. In 1793, when she 
 was living in hiding in Frankfurt, disgraced by her foolish in- 
 trigues in Mainz, he rescued her from her sad plight, and took 
 her to Leipzig. Here he placed her under the protecting care 
 of his brother Friedrich ; but the latter soon reversed the situa- 
 tion. For, being charmed by her simplicity and her divine love 
 of truth, Friedrich was quite ready to lay down his life for her; 
 but, out of regard for his brother, he forced himself to conceal 
 
28 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 his love from her. At any rate, she protected him, and rescued 
 him from a life of debauchery and extravagance, that had brought 
 him to the verge of suicide. It was she, who aroused in him 
 the courage to do the work that gave him a place and a name 
 in the literary annals. In one of his letters as well as in the 
 Lucinde, he confesses that his association with Caroline Boehmer 
 was of the greatest value to him,^- and that he was a better man 
 through her untiring efiforts in his behalf. 
 
 Like Rousseau, like Goethe, the romanticists drew their 
 erotic views from their own soul and its powers of loving pas- 
 sionately. Whenever they saw in any personality the means for 
 complete happiness in life, their sense of liberty and selfishness 
 spurred them on to overstep all barriers, even those set by moral 
 law and convention. It has been observed that Friedrich 
 Schlegel's meeting with Dorothea Veit quickly resulted in inti- 
 mate friendship. Never before had a woman made such a deep 
 impression upon him, — which, in fact, was an indelible one. He 
 felt convinced that this was the one love of his life, and that 
 his affections were fully requited. He was fascinated by her 
 generous devotion and great intelligence; and she in turn did 
 not hesitate to yield to his personal charm, to his eloquence 
 and boyish enthusiasm. That she was already married caused 
 him no serious scruples. She was ready to sacrifice family, 
 means and reputation, in her aim to love as she so desired. In 
 the conviction that she was doing a courageous and admirable 
 act,^^ she left her husband in the winter of 1798, and committed 
 herself to Schlegel's keeping without the blessing of the church. 
 Their illegal union caused terrible and scandalous gossip in and 
 around Berlin ; and the world turned its Ijack on the sinners, 
 deeming them social outcasts. "We all l>elong to the tribe of 
 glorious outlaws," said Friedrich Schlegel in a letter to Caroline, 
 his sister-in-law.'^ 
 
 To cap the climax, however, during the first year of their 
 
 " Lucinde. pp. 53 flF. 
 
 " Brandes, G. : Die Hauptstromungen der Literatur des 19. Jlus., Ill, 89. 
 
 '* Sidgwick, A.: Caroline Schlegel and her Friends, pp. 155 ff. 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 2r) 
 
 union, Sclilci;cl published the Lucimlc, the manifesto of his social 
 views, in which he portra}cd all of his affaires dc cocitr, even 
 including the most recent one with Dorothea. The veil of fic- 
 titious names and circumstances was then so transparent that it 
 concealed nothing:. The book, therefore, appealed to the wide- 
 spread interest that most people feel in their neighlwrs' affairs, 
 especially when these doings are a bit scandalous or tragic. And 
 then the opinions advanced by the author were so unpopular 
 and audacious, and yet so much in harmony with certain other 
 modern conceptions, that everyone lent a willing ear to them, 
 either with pleasure or for the sake of attacking them with ut- 
 most violence. But it was a common characteristic of the ro- 
 manticists to reduce their life's activity either partly or in its 
 entirety to literary expression. Novalis resorted to this method 
 in his autobiographical romance, Heinrich von Oftcrdingcn ; 
 and Tieck, too, included within his William Loz'cll his erotic 
 experiences in conjunction with the moral views, which he hap- 
 pily never put into practice. But with the author of the Liicindc, 
 we must be fair, and note that in his own life his heart put his 
 intellect to shame. Still he never wavered in his devotion to 
 the woman, who, for his sake, had braved the judgment of the 
 world, and exchanged a life of luxury and ease for one of vain 
 and aimless wanderings. Their love, in spite of its lawlessness, 
 was its own law. and needed, according to their own testimony, 
 no statute to shield it; for it rested on the sure foundation of 
 kinship of the soul. 
 
 But men like Schlegel and Schleiermacher were susceptible, 
 to an undue extent, to the charms of women, especially so, since 
 these two made their vows, and hung their votive offerings in 
 the temple of Rahel's salon. The newness of the types of these 
 women fascinated them to distraction. The women, on their 
 part, yielded all too readily to their admirers, who often refrained 
 from shaking the tree, because of the feeling of certainty that 
 the fruit would drop. The question of ownership would arise 
 in this contingency together with many unpleasant complications. 
 They therefore preferred to run away. Ijefore the temptation to 
 pluck the fruit became irresistible. Moreover, if they could not 
 
30 Study in Ethics of Early Roiiiantic School in Germany 
 
 be lord supreme and sole usurper, they wished to be told so, in 
 order to tear themselves away and quit the frivolous life, into 
 which they were being led. Still further, the man had to ask 
 himself now, what obligation he had incurred for that which 
 he had accepted. He had to re-arrange his life with reference 
 to the introduction of this new element of love. Perhaps the 
 girl had not awakened in his soul all the emotions he was cap- 
 able of feeling. Then he contemplated her as a disturbing 
 factor in his scheme of existence, whereby she lost much of her 
 fascination. Instead of helping his self-development, she threat- 
 ened to interfere with it, by the claim which the mere fact of 
 her love seemed to make upon his interest and attention. In 
 order to escape the responsibility and pain of a definite rupture, 
 he betakes himself away, and by cruel neglect allows the relation 
 to dwindle away into nothing, disregarding the outcome, whether 
 tragic or otherwise. Ofttimes he considers himself too young 
 or too sensitive to be able to witness the pain which he has 
 inflicted. The image of her extending him tearfully her hand 
 at their parting haunts him. This vision, which was wont to 
 appear, causes him much misery. Although he endeavors to 
 condone his conduct and for a while is a prey to remorse, his 
 sense of freedom and desire for happiness dissuades him against 
 returning and manfully assuming responsibility for his actions. 
 A man acts wisely in refusing to become enslaved to a life, that 
 shows all prospects of becoming incongenial to him. To be 
 sure, the man, who remains and l>ears the blunt, may also be 
 called wise. But the rare exceptional man, richly endowed, who 
 sees the benevolent imposition which nature practices upon him, 
 and refuses to play into her hands, is he, after all. to be so ruth- 
 lessly condemned? Even though he tries to make amends, the 
 critics are sure to say, that such penance is worthless. No 
 wrong can be undone ; and a mere emotional repentance, how- 
 ever much it may benefit the penitent, is absolutely of no value 
 to her against whom he has sinned. But this is not the feeling 
 of the individual, who realizes that his fate rests upon his 
 actions alone. He knows that nature is a trickster, and that, 
 through her laws, the power of the sex causes the young man 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 31 
 
 to imagine himself in love with the first girl who appeals to 
 him physically. But the youth is the victim of nature, who has 
 no regard for the individual ; for she is ruthless, and achieves 
 her aim and discards completely the medium of achievement. 
 So we can't honestly condemn him, who fails to answer nature's 
 call by marriage, l)ecause he awakes to see that he is only being- 
 used as a mere pawn in nature's gigantic scheme to perpetuate 
 the human race. He feels the need of aid, sympath)- and under- 
 standing in his work; he longs for companionship, a partner, 
 and not a toy. 
 
 Still the man goes on and on through life, in search of 
 this ideal of companionship, the attainment of which is to bring 
 him complete happiness. Again and again he falls in love, only 
 to find the object of his affections failing to answer the simple 
 demand which he has made of her, namely, to help him in the 
 upward climb and to climb with him. But, why does he not 
 cast his project to the winds and travel without a companion? 
 He can no more help seeking a mate than a cork can help being 
 carried forward on the crest of a wave. For nature has him 
 in her grasp. He obeys her ; and there is no other way out of 
 the situation. After many trials and disappointments, he is 
 favored by fortune, if he meets the woman, who eclipses all his 
 previous erotic adventures, and who furnishes adequate evidence 
 of fitting in with his scheme of life. Then Iwth individuals may 
 look forw-ard to a happy state of matrimony. 
 
 It was at this crisis that complications arose in the case of 
 Friedrich Schlegel. with regard to his relations with Dorothea 
 Veit. As has already been seen, he discerned in her love his 
 salvation; and he therefore was averse to giving her up and 
 sacrificing his happiness, simply because she was married. This 
 condition led him and many of his co-workers to believe, that 
 legal marriage was an injurious and abject institution, particu- 
 larly when it entered one's life to such an extent, that it cur- 
 tailed progressive self -development. To them it seemed hor- 
 rible that two people, who had ceased to care for each other, 
 should still live side by side in the midst of discontentment and 
 unhappiness, or that either husband or wife should incur dis- 
 
32 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 grace by yielding to a natural preference for a third person, or 
 that a wife's rights and privileges should not be on a par with 
 those of her husband. But since nature was still their mistress, 
 her law was destined to take precedence over all, with conven- 
 tional law as her most aggressive rival and opponent in the field 
 of morality. In the human being nature is revealed in the form 
 of instinct, convention in the form of habit. Therefore, there 
 is a greater tendency for the mind to revolt against that which 
 is acquired, rather than that which is innate. If the individual 
 is so ultra-normally defiant as to rebel against nature, she is 
 finished with him, tosses him aside and leaves him to shift for 
 himself. Whether the result be recklessness and despair, or 
 determination and realization, is a problem for the individual to 
 solve. Inability to solve the problem causes unrest to creep 
 into the heart of the individual concerned. As unrest is a pro- 
 gressive disease, its next phase is dissatisfaction, which immedi- 
 ately develops into rebellion and ends in disaster. Consequently, 
 to avert such self-destruction and in despair of finding a better 
 solution, Friedrich Schlegel resorted to "Gewissensehe" or nat- 
 ural marriage ; ^^ and, in taking this stand, he was even unselfishly 
 supported and defended by the rest of his school. 
 
 The fact, that he was sincere in his convictions, is shown 
 by the boldness manifested in his comments on marriage. "Al- 
 most all marriages are only concubinages, morganatic marriages, 
 or rather provisional attempts at and distant approaches to a 
 real marriage. Its real nature accords with all spiritual and 
 worldly laws, and provides that two persons should be as one. 
 A fine idea it is, the realization of which appears to have ever so 
 many great complexities. On that account free will should be 
 limited as little as possible, if it has something to do with the 
 question, as to whether a person wants to l>e an individual or 
 the integral part of a mutual personality. . . . If the state, 
 however, desires to sustain by force tlie quite unsuccessful at- 
 tempts at marriage, then it thereby makes impossible marriage 
 itself, which could possibly be realized after new and perhaps 
 
 Luciiiflc, pp. 62-63; 70-71. 
 
Study ill Ethics of Early Roiiiaiitic School in Ccniiany 33 
 
 more fortunate attempts." ■""' Still it must Ije remembered that 
 marriage contains a large element of the unforeseen, and im- 
 poses many complex duties and obligations upon the contracting 
 persons. So a man, who is a synonym for absolute freedom, 
 and whose heart is bent on a definite scheme of self-development, 
 may well shrink from embarking upon such a venturesome enter- 
 prise; for he cannot endure the conflicting dictates of artificial 
 conventionality. Then when he, who is an extreme radical in 
 the sphere of moral law, meets with barriers that prevent a 
 legal union, he is very, very prone to tread paths extending far 
 beyond the confines of conventional morality. Consequently, it 
 was natural for a man like Schlegel to show great willingness to 
 break the ancient bonds, and to conceive a new type of union, 
 namely a union of the soul, "devotion unfettered.'' 
 
 But Schlegel's idea was, that legal ties were absolutely 
 unnecessary and superfluous. For the natural woman, with real 
 feminine qualities, married in her youth to a man of her parents' 
 choice, who is many years her senior, and for whom she has 
 never produced a spark of affection, lives a life to which she 
 can never become resigned. And if she awakes to the realiza- 
 tion of her own powers by her association with a man, with 
 whom there arises a mutual exchange of ideas and impressions, 
 and if their mutual love makes their two lives a united whole, 
 then there is sufficiently strong foundation for a natural union. 
 "Her entire being is lx»und to him. . . . Her soul seeks 
 to embrace him, will be satisfied with him ; and only in the 
 closest union with him can it find complete contentment. That 
 endeavor is real womanly love; and this closest union, . . . 
 where two become and remain as one by means of reciprocal 
 necessities and dependence, is nothing other than marriage. A 
 woman, who loves a man more than anything else. — who derives 
 from him her l:>est existence — all her existence, — who wouldn't 
 like to live without him. and who couldn't live without him, she 
 (to be sure) in her heart is his wife." ^'" Naturally such a view 
 
 Friedrich Schlegel: Jugend.schriften (edit, hy J. Minor), IJ. 208, 34. 
 Friedrich Schlegel: Jugendschriften, II, j~, 31. 
 
34 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 only subjected its author to more and more criticism. Nowadays 
 one might say, that such a man has no right to fall in love with 
 any woman. But, no honorable man will court the favor of a 
 woman and win her afifection, unless he has counted the cost 
 and means to pay it. If she deem it cheap and below stand- 
 ard, she. on the other hand, has no right to foster his love, and 
 should withhold her consent, before serious complications set 
 in. But as long as she remains reticent or expresses her sincere 
 approval, he will naturally do as he sees fit. However, some- 
 thing must be said on the other side of the question. Nature 
 has treated the male creature rather unfairly in this matter. 
 She has implanted in him a strong passion, which draws him, 
 in spite of his better judgment, toward the other sex. This 
 passion beclouds his reasoning powers, and prevents him from 
 seeing and thinking clearly. So in addition to his confusion 
 abnormal results must come to pass, especially when mankind 
 reaches such a stage in his quest for liberty, that he looks upon 
 marriage as a mere obstacle. 
 
 Not much more could be expected of Friedrich Schlegel, 
 chiefly when his close friendship with Schleiermacher is taken 
 into consideration.^^ August Wilhelm thought that something 
 might be made of his brother, Friedrich, if Schleiermacher took 
 him in hand.^® He was not wanting in ability, but his method of 
 going to work was curious, li left to himself, he would burrow 
 deeper and deeper like a mole. So, to make a long story short, 
 he was entrusted to the care of Schleiermacher, who of all the 
 romanticists was a staunch and most enthusiastic advocate of 
 freedom and an ultra-radical despiser of conventional forms and 
 traditions. The friendship soon ripened into intimacy; and the 
 young protestant minister lost no time in introducing Schlegel 
 into Berlin society. But once here, his young charge found 
 ample meat for his liberal views, in which he found apparent 
 encouragement even from his guardian. For at that time, 
 Schleiermacher, then minister of the Charite Church in Berlin, 
 
 * Dilthey. W. : Lieben Schleiermachers. T, 200 ff. 
 "•Sidgwick, A.: Caroline Schlegel and her Friends, pp. 131 ff. 
 
Study in Ethics of Early Roiminlic School in Ccrnuuiy 35 
 
 cherished a profound admiration for tlie Jewess Hcnriette Hcrz, 
 the wife of the physician Herz, and one of the chief ornaments 
 in Rahel's circle. She vokintarily requited his affection and 
 regard: and their relations became the most intimate. When 
 scandalous gossip concerning his relation to Henriette began lo 
 reach his ears, he showed no surprise, and even attempted to 
 justify himself. But not so with her; for she had from the 
 beginning known what she risked by accepting his friendship, 
 and calmly decided that he was worth more to her than the 
 opinion of the world. Then the puzzling question arose as to 
 how her husband would endure her neglect. Owing to his reti- 
 cence in the matter, it was taken for granted that he sanctioned 
 his wife's intimacy with the ?esthetic clergyman. But there was 
 revolution in the air ; and it really became the fashion to shock 
 one's fellow man. So Dr. Herz, knowing his own inferiority to 
 his wife, probably accepted the inevitable. 
 
 Strange to say, Schleiermacher did not follow his scheme 
 of life with such deplorable consistency as Schlegel did. in that 
 he failed to take Henriette into his keeping. Yet, he seem- 
 ingly tried to defend the viewpoint of Schlegel in his confidential 
 letters on the Lucinde^^ At all events, considering his social 
 position as a preacher of the gospel in the Prussian capital, it 
 was a most audacious thing for him to do. Still he did not 
 hesitate to attack the prudish insincerity of the age. which took 
 secret delight in the lascivious romances of Wieland. while it 
 cried out in a virtuous horror at the immorality of Schlegel, who, 
 dealing with essentially the same thing, had the courage to tell 
 the truth and call it by its right name. It is likewise very expedi- 
 ent to note, that the opposition and criticism, which he met 
 at the hands of his enemies, did but little to check his revolu- 
 tionary ardor. His audacity increased: and he continued to 
 revel in his extravagances, disregarding all criticism, however 
 biting it was. But the cultivated citizen of that day had only 
 a vague and shadowy notion of the state : and he did not recog- 
 nize himself as a member of general society. His first obliga- 
 
 " Dilthey. W. : Lebcn Schleiermachers, I, 494 fT. 
 
36 Study in Ethics of Early Romantic School in Germany 
 
 tion was to himself and his own personal interests: and his most 
 absorbing business was to study and develop himself. This class 
 was not exceptional in formulating this scheme of using the 
 world as an educative agency; but they were exceptional in ad- 
 hering to this formula, and in carrying out the same to the end, 
 in making every life that came in contact with their own a 
 tributary to theirs, and, in fine, in transforming what was indi- 
 vidual and accidental into high literary and enduring human 
 types. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Without the least doubt, the early romantic school was dis- 
 tinctly characterized by a decided departure from and revolt 
 against long established moral law. It must have required bold 
 endeavor and strong initiative for anyone to rebel against the 
 social order, existing at the time when the Aufkldriing had 
 placed its stamp on the whole of western Europe. The influ- 
 ence of a political revolution, such as was under way in France, 
 was, however, destined to be felt in the nearby countries, espe- 
 cially in those contiguous to the center of the revolution. In 
 such a case, at least two opposing factions will arise : the con- 
 servatives maintaining the status quo, the radicals striking out 
 for themselves and entrusting their behavior to the imagination 
 of their creative minds. At this juncture there is a dual envi- 
 ronment; and no one can live apart from both phases of these 
 surroundings. One's conduct is thereby regulated by either one 
 of the tendencies or by both. Very often a new class will come 
 into vogue, which will try to maintain a stand half way between 
 the two extremes. This type is the source of the greatest con- 
 tention, because its adherents attempt to kill two birds with 
 one stone, by partly believing in the principles of one extreme 
 and acting in accordance with those of the other. And since no 
 human being can successfully attend to more than one thing at 
 a time, this medial class consequently is bound to become in- 
 sincere and prudish, disregarding the doings of the conservatives 
 of the old school, but railing against the progressive and im- 
 
Study in Et/iics of Early Romantic School in Germany 37 
 
 aginative radical. The conscientious radical, on the other hand, 
 acquires a more independent viewpoint, bases his actions on the 
 same and commits acts, which are deemed irrational and which 
 are even placed in the category of crimes. Such a t}'pe of radical 
 is incarnated in the personalities of a Friedrich Schlegel or a 
 Schleiermacher. whose revolutionary tendencies and impulses 
 found their origin in the new environment of the time and were 
 spurred on to action by the insincerity of the age. 
 
 It's a grievous fault that these men in question lived in 
 such an environment, the radical and revolutionary tendencies 
 of W'hich their natures forced them to follow with lamentable 
 consistency. Even though Schlegel was somewhat weak and 
 effeminate, he was the greatest thinker of his school; and he 
 could have reaped 1)ountiful fruits, had be exerted his efforts 
 in other fields of work. Then, too. Schleiermacher, although a 
 clergyman and at the same time involved in matters secular, 
 should not be too severely criticized, because he was employing 
 a method to bring into the church the idea of fellow^ship. Fur- 
 thermore, we of today cannot even dare to be merciless in criti- 
 cizing these men of the early nineteenth century. For they can- 
 not be considered apart from their time, in which the tastes 
 of the people, their manner of thought and range of information 
 were very different from those of the present day. What we 
 with our present habits of thought may find somewhat immoral 
 was not immoral to the romanticist more than a century ago. 
 What we believe in the realms of morals and religion is not what 
 they believed. Therefore, we cannot afford to be narrow in our 
 opinions, nor set down as immoral or in bad taste all, that does 
 not fit into our strict artificial grooves. 
 
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