LIBRARY 
 
 HERBERT C. DORCAS. 
 
 NO $
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS 
 
 OF 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
 
 HENRY FROWDE, M.A. 
 
 PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD 
 
 LONDON, EDINBURGH 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 I
 
 THE 
 
 EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS 
 
 OF GREAT BRITAIN AND 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 BY 
 
 GRAHAM BALFOUR, M.A. 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 OXFORD 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 1903
 
 OXFORD 
 
 PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 BY HORACE HART, M.A. 
 PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE LIBRARY 
 
 I f t A 3 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 
 
 IN this book I have tried to give a brief and fairly com- 
 prehensive account of general education in the United Kingdom 
 during the nineteenth century. An impartial and even tedious 
 catalogue of existing agencies seemed likely to be more 
 effectual in indicating the present deficiencies and require- 
 ments of these islands than any more impassioned advocacy 
 of my own or anybody else's views. The Introductory chapter 
 was written last as a review of the sections, so that there has 
 been no temptation to distort or even to emphasize any of 
 the facts in order to illustrate the general views there suggested. 
 On the other hand, the explanation of any passages or 
 allusions in the Introduction which seem obscure will be 
 found in the corresponding chapter of the book by reference 
 to the Index. 
 
 My materials have been drawn largely from the many and 
 lengthy series of Departmental reports which deal with so 
 much of the education of the country, but more especially 
 from the blue-books of the numerous Commissions and Com- 
 mittees which from time to time have examined the abuses 
 or summed up the progress of schools, colleges, and univer- 
 sities the outcome of what Bagehot called ' the modern stock- 
 taking habit : the habit of asking each man, thing, or institu- 
 tion, ' Well, what have you done since I saw you last ? ' There 
 are many subjects into which no investigation has recently 
 been made, or on which no relevant report exists ; in such 
 cases I have tried to present the best information obtainable, 
 and can only regret that there is no more definite judgement 
 on record, or no more complete evidence to sum up. 
 
 Of those who have written monographs on separate depart- 
 ments of the subject, I should like to record my special debt 
 to Sir Henry Craik for his admirable sketch of elementary 
 education in England and Scotland 1 , and to Dr. Karl Breul 
 for his excellent account of the secondary schools of Great 
 
 1 The State in its relation to Education, Sir Henry Craik, K.C.B. : The English 
 Citizen Series, Macmillan, 2nd edition, 1896.
 
 VI 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Britain and Ireland in Baumeister's Handbuch l . I have been 
 at pains to give as many references as possible for my state- 
 ments, and hope that the footnotes will form a sufficient guide 
 to direct any one commencing investigations for himself. 
 
 For the sake of clearness I have had to confine myself 
 almost entirely to the central authorities which have controlled 
 and the statutes which have regulated the development of our 
 education. 
 
 The very attempt, however, to describe our education as 
 a set of systems at once draws attention to the defects with 
 which it is most often reproached its want of uniformity 
 and its incompleteness. It has variety, it has elasticity, it has 
 vigour ; there have been great energy, great generosity, and 
 much power of practical administration shown in its service : 
 but these qualities have varied widely in their application to 
 individual circumstances, and a complete tribute to them 
 would involve a description of almost every separate establish- 
 ment in the country. 
 
 I have been unable to give any account of individual schools 
 or institutions, and it was not until the region of higher educa- 
 tion was reached that any notice of separate foundations 
 became either feasible or desirable. 
 
 Professional education was at once too wide and too detailed 
 a subject to be treated within any reasonable compass, and 
 much else has been omitted which in itself it would have been 
 desirable to include. As it stands, this is not a history of 
 education, but an account of the framework of which education 
 is the life and spirit. I have had to deal only with the dry 
 bones, for the first and most pressing need was a picture of the 
 existing skeleton. Little allusion has been made to the 
 general tendencies of the time, which have affected education 
 as they have affected other departments of our activity 2 ; no 
 account has been taken of the theories 3 and hopes, and aims 
 
 1 Baumeister, Handbuch der Erzichungs- und Unterrichtslehre fur hohere 
 Schulen, i. 2 : Einrichtung u. Verwaltung des hoheren Schulwesens : Grossbritan- 
 nien, von Karl Breul, Ph.D. : Beck, Munich, 1897. It contains a good biblio- 
 graphy of our secondary school literature. 
 
 2 Cf. M. E. Sadler, Handbook of the Victorian Era Exhibition, 1897, p. 39; 
 Right lion. A. H. D. Acland and H. LI. Smith, Studies in Secondary Education, 
 p. 2. 
 
 3 Cf. Sir H. Craik, The State in its relation to Education, p. 41.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 vn 
 
 of those who have changed the schools and universities of 
 1800 into the schools and universities of to-day ; no reference 
 has been made to foreign influence \ philosophic or practical, 
 and no comparison between this kingdom and other countries. 
 I have recorded little but accomplished facts, and taken small 
 notice of Bills which were never passed, recommendations 
 which fell to the ground, or agitations before they issued in 
 tangible success. I have been able to take no cognizance of 
 private and individual or local enterprises, especially in the 
 case of persons working for private emolument, although 
 from such exertions many improvements in education have 
 resulted 2 ; and my references to the subjects taught and the 
 differences of curricula are necessarily of the slightest. 
 
 I have added a few tables of statistics as an Appendix, but 
 the returns of different countries are very seldom closely com- 
 parable. The decrease of the population in Ireland is in such 
 contrast to the increase in the rest of the kingdom, that any 
 comparisons in that direction must be inseparable from the 
 census returns, which I have accordingly included. 
 
 For convenience of description, Royal Commissions and 
 Committees have been quoted in most cases under the name 
 of the chairman, but a more exact reference will generally be 
 found on the first mention of each report, and in all cases in 
 the Index. 
 
 I have touched on many points, of which a specialized know- 
 ledge alone could secure immunity from error, and though all 
 possible care has been given, it cannot but be that in so 
 widespread a network I have occasionally missed a connexion 
 or made some mistake of detail. I should be greatly obliged 
 to any one who would kindly send me any corrections to the 
 Clarendon Press, Oxford. 
 
 I am indebted for information to many persons whom I have 
 thanked elsewhere, but must here acknowledge my special 
 obligations to Mr. G. W. Alexander, the Clerk of the Glasgow 
 School Board, who bestows on the work of strangers an 
 
 1 A concise and most useful comparison of the systems of England, America, 
 Germany, and France has been published under the name of 77/6' Making of 
 Citizens: a Study in Comparative Education, by R. E. Hughes, M.A. \\altcr 
 Scott Co., 1902. 
 
 2 Bryce Commission Report, v. p 14.
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 amount of labour and interest which many men fail to give 
 to their own books ; to Mr. T. W. Rolleston of Dublin ; and 
 especially to Mr. M. E. Sadler, who suggested this book, and 
 here in Oxford to Mr. H. T. Gerrans and Mr. W. H. Hadow, 
 Fellows of Worcester College. 
 
 OXFORD, 
 September I, 1898. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 IN preparing this edition for the press, I have been greatly 
 struck by two facts, which are full of encouragement to all who 
 have the welfare of our national education at heart. In the 
 first place, it has proved far more difficult than before to treat 
 the subject in three watertight compartments, as elementary, 
 secondary, and higher. The three grades are in fact becom- 
 ing parts of that organic whole which it is essential for us to 
 form. Secondly, even apart from the Act of last Session, the 
 amount of unobtrusive progress that has been made during 
 the past four years by statutes, ordinances, by-laws, and 
 other forms of direction is far greater than any one would 
 fancy until he has had to examine it as a whole, and then to 
 describe it in detail. 
 
 The first edition of this book was the result of nearly two 
 years' almost uninterrupted work in the libraries of Oxford : 
 the final alterations and corrections of its present form have 
 been made in the stress of county duties and of preparing to 
 administer the new Act in Staffordshire : a contrast that may 
 explain any errors or omissions, but will not, I hope, altogether 
 impair the practical value of the book, which covers much 
 ground that no one else has yet attempted to fill. 
 
 I am glad to be able to renew my thanks to all the friends 
 including Mr. Alexander who have helped me alike with 
 the first and with the second edition, and I count myself for- 
 tunate in adding to my list the names of Mr. and Mrs. F. E. 
 Kitchener. 
 
 STAFFORD, 
 March 14, 1903.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION v 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 
 I. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 
 A. England and Wales. 
 
 1. BOARD OF EDUCATION, taking the place of 
 
 a. Education Department ....... I 
 
 b. Science and Art Department . . . . . -45 
 
 c. Charity Commission (in part) 45 
 
 2. HOME OFFICE : 
 
 i. Factories 46 
 
 ii. Mines 51 
 
 iii. Prison Schools . . . . . . . . .52 
 
 iv. Reformatory and Industrial Schools 53 
 
 3. LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD : 
 
 i. Poor Law Schools ........ 63 
 
 ii. Control of Local Authorities 70 
 
 4. WAR OFFICE 70 
 
 5. ADMIRALTY 74 
 
 B. Ireland. 
 
 1. COMMISSIONERS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND . 76 
 
 2. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL INSTRUC- 
 
 TION in 
 
 3. COMMISSIONERS OF EDUCATION IN IRELAND . . . iii 
 
 4. COMMISSIONERS OF CHARITABLE DONATIONS AND BEQUESTS in 
 COMMISSIONS FOR REFORM OF ENDOWMENTS . . . in 
 
 5. HOME SECRETARY FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM: 
 
 i. Factories 112 
 
 ii. Mines . . . . . . . . . . .112 
 
 6. GENERAL PRISONS BOARD 113 
 
 7. CHIEF SECRETARY FOR IRELAND : Reformatories and Indus- 
 
 trial Schools . . . . . . . . .113 
 
 8. LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD FOR IRELAND : Poor Law 
 
 Schools . . . . . . . . . .116 
 
 9. WAR OFFICE 118 
 
 10. ADMIRALTY .... ... 119
 
 x CONTENTS 
 
 C. Scotland. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. PRIVY COUNCIL 120 
 
 The Scotch Education Department 120 
 
 EDUCATION ACT, 1872 127 
 
 2. HOME OFFICE: 
 
 i. Factory and Mines Acts 138 
 
 ii. Reformatories and Industrial Schools 138 
 
 3. SECRETARY FOR SCOTLAND : Prisons 141 
 
 4. LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD FOR SCOTLAND : Poor Law 
 
 Children 142 
 
 5. WAR OFFICE 142 
 
 6. ADMIRALTY 142 
 
 II. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 
 A. England. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION, replacing 
 
 a. Charity Commission (in part) ...... 143 
 
 b. Education Department . . . . . . -153 
 
 c. Science and Art Department : 
 
 Science and Art . . . . . -154 
 
 Public Libraries Acts 162 
 
 Technical Education 163 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION: 
 
 Powers ........... 168 
 
 Consultative Committee i?3 
 
 Registration 174 
 
 Inspection 175 
 
 EXAMINING BODIES 177 
 
 University Secondary Instruction 183 
 
 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS 183 
 
 B. Wales. 
 
 WELSH INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION : 
 
 Joint Education Committees 189 
 
 Central Welsh Board 19 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 192 
 
 C. Ireland. 
 
 1. COMMISSIONERS OF CHARITABLE DONATIONS AND BEQUESTS 193 
 
 2. COMMISSIONERS OF EDUCATION IN IRELAND . . .193 
 REFORM OF ENDOWMENTS 195 
 
 3. COMMISSIONERS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND . 200 
 
 4. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL INSTRUC- 
 
 TION : 
 
 Science and Art 201 
 
 Technical Instruction 204 
 
 5. COMMISSIONERS OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION . . . 205 
 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS 209
 
 CONTENTS xi 
 
 D. Scotland. PAGE 
 
 SCOTCH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, including Science and Art 
 
 and TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 210 
 
 REFORM OF ENDOWMENTS 221 
 
 LOCAL EXAMINATIONS 225 
 
 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS 225 
 
 III. HIGHER EDUCATION. 
 
 A. England. 
 
 1. OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE 227 
 
 Rhodes Trust 238 
 
 University Extension 239 
 
 Women 241 
 
 2. DURHAM 244 
 
 3. UNIVERSITY COLLEGES AND MODERN UNIVERSITIES : 
 
 London, Victoria, Birmingham, &c 246 
 
 4. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE 253 
 
 5. BOARD OF EDUCATION 254 
 
 CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE . . . .255 
 
 B. Wales. 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY OF WALES . . 257 
 
 St. David's College, Lampeter 259 
 
 C. Ireland. 
 
 1. UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN AND TRINITY COLLEGE . . . 260 
 
 2. THEOLOGICAL ENDOWMENTS : 
 
 Maynooth 266 
 
 Belfast 267 
 
 Magee College 267 
 
 3. THE QUEEN'S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY . . . .267 
 
 4. THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY 267 
 
 5. THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY 270 
 
 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL INSTRUC- 
 
 TION 272 
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN 273 
 
 D. Scotland. 
 
 1. THE FOUR UNIVERSITIES 274 
 
 The Carnegie Trust 284 
 
 Dundee University College 285 
 
 University Extension 286 
 
 Higher Education of Women . ...... 287 
 
 2. SCOTCH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 287 
 
 APPENDIX, Statistics 289 
 
 INDEX 293
 
 Xll 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 P. P. stands for the Parliamentary Papers of this country. 
 
 Roman figures following a date indicate the number of the bound volume in the 
 official set for that year ; occasionally a recent paper is quoted by its individual 
 reference number. 
 
 Q. denotes the Question asked of a witness in evidence before a Commission or 
 Committee. 
 
 Hansard, T. S. and F. S. denote the Third and Fourth Series of Hansard's 
 Parliamentary Debates.
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS 
 
 OF 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 IN these pages will be found side by side the systems in 
 which education developed itself during the nineteenth century 
 in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales l . England has held 
 the purse and called the councils in her capital, but the 
 development of each system has progressed according to the 
 nature and circumstances of the country. On the whole, the 
 results are much what might have been predicted ; at any rate 
 it is not very difficult now to discern the conditions and 
 national characteristics which have directed the course fol- 
 lowed by each of the four countries. We can see England, 
 businesslike and unphilosophical, somewhat lethargic in her 
 prosperity, slowly realizing first the commercial advantages 
 of education, and then the possibility of applying scientific 
 methods to the process : great in self-government, yet dele- 
 gating to the localities only those powers which she intends 
 them to use 2 ; making a working compromise at every step, 
 and triumphantly disregarding consistency in details : strong 
 in her sense of duty, greatly proud of her ancient institutions, 
 liberal in grants once her hand is opened. There are Wales 
 and Scotland, to whom education is far more dear : Wales, in 
 a newly born fervour for knowledge, producing, as it were by 
 magic, order out of chaos ; Scotland, thrifty, prosperous, and 
 wise ; with an ecclesiastical history ' the most perverse and 
 melancholy in man's annals,' yet without a religious difficulty 
 in her schools ; having taught her children for centuries past 
 to mind their book and get on in the world, and to be inde- 
 pendent and upright a lesson well learned at home and prac- 
 tised with great success abroad. Last comes Ireland, poor and 
 
 1 The order is alphabetical, but in later chapters I have placed Wales next to 
 England, as it is identified with it in elementary education. 
 
 2 Cf. R. L. Morant, Special Reports, vol. iii. p. 63.
 
 xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 in subjection ; passionately attached to her faith ; lovable and 
 unreliable and helpless ; the child among nations : the Celtic 
 genius, mysterious and unpractical, ' always bound nowhere 
 under full sail,' abandoned for long to obsolete methods and 
 inadequate instruction, because reform meant the calling up of 
 many quarrels. 
 
 At the beginning of the nineteenth century many elemen- 
 tary schools were maintained in England by the clergy and 
 devout laity, both within and without the Established Church. 
 Indeed, very little elementary instruction given in this country 
 was of any value which was not given in schools directly or 
 indirectly connected with religious denominations or societies 
 unless the Lancasterian schools (see p. 3) be considered an 
 exception. Consequently, when the State began to encourage 
 education, it could not possibly do better than pay its grants 
 over to the two leading educational societies (p. 3), which 
 directly embodied the two leading schools of thought in 
 England, the upholders of the State Establishment, conserva- 
 tive of the benefits of the past, and the less disciplined, more 
 eager advocates of freedom and reform, the inheritors of 
 the old Puritan tradition 1 . Thus, when the State began 
 to direct education, its only hope of success was to con- 
 ciliate the Established Church, and at the same time foster 
 the efforts of those denominations which enjoyed a less 
 splendid position. 
 
 So the new department began with a compromise, and 
 utilized the conflicting materials with great patience and tact. 
 The almost unconstitutional 2 device by which the Ministry 
 avoided the veto of the Upper House was a triumph of politi- 
 cal management, for if the country had not been in sympathy 
 with the Ministers, they would have had to give way on this 
 point, just as in fact they had to retreat in the matter of an 
 undenominational Normal School. When the various elements 
 of the system had been sufficiently developed, there followed 
 the application of a searching business test prescribed by the 
 Revised Code. Educational monstrosity as that Code was, 
 yet in its intolerance of shams and abuses it was in sympathy 
 with the general refurbishing of endowed institutions (seen 
 in the appointment of the permanent Charity Commission), 
 with the creation of the Civil Service Commissioners, with the 
 first reform of the Universities from outside, and with the 
 legislation for the Public Schools and Endowed Schools which 
 immediately ensued. 
 
 1 Cf. M. E. Sadler, Special Reports, vol. ix. p. 161, P. P., Cd. 836. 
 9 Hansard, T. S., xlviii. 1,325, vide p. 4.
 
 ENGLAND xv 
 
 When examinations had shown, as far as examinations could 
 show, that the rudimentary teaching- was reasonably efficient, 
 the compromise was readjusted and elevated into a national 
 system (p. 18) from which the method of payment by result 
 was gradually withdrawn, as the evil it was doing was 
 revealed. 
 
 Compulsion of attendance was rendered possible by the 
 Act of 1870, and obligatory in 1880 ; and the corollary of this 
 legislation followed in 1891, when parents of children thus 
 compelled to attend school were relieved of the necessity of 
 paying fees for their attendance. 
 
 In 1 899 the Department was reconstituted as the Board of 
 Education, with a branch taking charge of the secondary and 
 technological work. A consultative Committee was to be 
 established ; provision was made for a President who might, if 
 he were competent, be a real Minister of Education *, as well as 
 for a Parliamentary Secretary of the Board ; and the existing 
 central authority was consolidated and rendered more fit to 
 undertake the control of a general national system of educa- 
 tion, if such hereafter could be organized. 
 
 Though Lord John Russell's ' bashaws ' (as the Inspectors 
 once were called) were grossly misrepresented, there can be 
 no doubt that some of the earlier officials had very little sym- 
 pathy with true education, but the attitude of the Education 
 Department towards the schools has changed a good deal in 
 the last quarter of a century. The recent selection of the new 
 Secretary to the Board and the appointment of Principal 
 Assistant Secretaries and the Senior Chief Inspector are of 
 the best augury for the reorganization of head quarters 
 and the success of the new measures which next claim our 
 attention. 
 
 So far as the elementary system was concerned, there were 
 two grievous flaws in it which could not fail to render it. 
 inadequate the poverty of the voluntary schools and the 
 small size of many of the rural School Board areas. The 
 denominational schools which smoothed the early progress of 
 the Education Department brought their drawbacks with 
 them. As the ideals of education improved, the cost of keep- 
 ing- the schools up to the higher level increased also, and in 
 spite of Government grants, and even of special subsidies to 
 
 1 For the history of proposals to create a Minister of Education vide Hansard, 
 T. S., ccxix. 685 sqq. ; cclxxx. 1,933 sqq. ; P. P., 1884, No. 312, Report of the 
 Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1883-4. over which the Right 
 lion. H. C. E. Childers, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, presided, appointed to 
 consider how the Ministerial Responsibility under which the Votes for Education, 
 Science, and Art were administered might best be secured ; Taunton Report, i. 633 ; 
 Bryce Report, i. 257.
 
 xvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 the poorer localities, a financial crisis could no longer be 
 averted. The question had definitely to be faced, whether the 
 system of voluntary schools should be either bought up or 
 allowed to lapse, or whether, subject to the necessary con- 
 science clause, they should be placed on an equality with the 
 Board Schools in respect of receiving a compulsory local rate, 
 which should enable them to maintain or to reach the requisite 
 degree of efficiency. The smaller School Boards had proved 
 in most instances unsatisfactory : in many places (including 
 even some large towns, where the Board Schools in them- 
 selves left little to be desired) the ad hoc election of mem- 
 bers of the School Board brought few voters to the poll. 
 The organization of secondary education was, in the opinion 
 of all experts, a yet more urgent necessity for the country ; 
 and this, so far as it had received any local organization at all, 
 was since 1889 being administered under the name of 'tech- 
 nical instruction ' by the counties and county boroughs. It 
 was imperative that education should be regarded as a whole, 
 and should be administered by one set of local authorities, 
 and thus with even more inconsistent compromises than are 
 usual in English legislation the Education Bill of 1902, after 
 fifty-nine nights of debate and the application of the closure 
 in the House of Commons, finally became law (see pp. 33, 171). 
 The councils of counties and of county boroughs became the 
 local authorities for education of all grades, though some other 
 large towns were allowed to provide their own elementary- 
 instruction. School Boards and Technical Instruction Acts 
 passed away ; voluntary schools, subject to their partly main- 
 taining their own buildings and allowing the use of them free 
 of charge, became entitled to support from the rates. The 
 Board of Education remains the central authority : each local 
 authority appoints an Education Committee, in which women 
 must, and experts are expected to be included. All public 
 elementary schools are classified accordingly as they have or 
 have not been originally provided by the local authority, 
 and religious instruction in the voluntary schools is placed 
 under the charge of their managers, subject (by virtue of the 
 Kenyon-Slaney clause) to an appeal to the bishop as to the 
 compliance of the character of such instruction with the terms 
 of the trust deed, if any such appeal be laid down in that 
 document. 
 
 There is seldom any gain possible in human affairs without 
 a proportion of loss : the smaller authorities for elementary 
 education are not likely to be more efficient or more zealous 
 for education than the School Boards whose place they fill : 
 the fact that the enormous majority of denominational schools
 
 THE NEW ACT xvii 
 
 still in existence belonged to the Church of England and the 
 Roman Catholics, stirred up the resentment of the Noncon- 
 formists, who saw the universal introduction of specially elected 
 School Boards rendered impossible or indefinitely deferred. 
 Taxes for a whole generation had been devoted to the partial 
 support of denominational schools, but the similar dedication 
 of an ear-marked rate roused an enthusiasm of revolt among 
 many of the most sincere and intelligent citizens, to whom the 
 claims of education seemed for the moment to appeal in vain. 
 The removal of such very real grievances as the difficulty of 
 Nonconformists to obtain training as students or employment 
 as teachers l was left by the Act for the most part to the good 
 will and sense of fairness of the new authorities, and the 
 influence of the Board of Education. The other points to 
 which exception could best be taken were that the principle 
 of ' No taxation without direct representation ' was violated by 
 the appointment of the new Committees by the councils instead 
 of by direct election, by the possible establishment of local 
 committees by these education committees themselves, and 
 lastly and chiefly by the constitution of the boards of mana- 
 gers of Non-provided schools which have a majority repre- 
 senting the vested interest. As a matter of practical working, 
 however, it must be remembered that the strength of any 
 minority is the strength of its strongest member, and that no 
 substantive abuses are likely to be perpetrated or to continue 
 where there is an ultimate appeal, or at any rate an opportu- 
 nity of publishing the facts to a popularly elected council. 
 With the Kenyon-Slaney clause, and an adequate representa- 
 tion of the Nonconformists on the County Councils, it will be 
 very surprising if any religious persecution or proselytism 
 continues to occur. 
 
 Nevertheless the measure has raised a great deal of oppo- 
 sition both among those who thought vested interests were 
 being increased on the one hand, and those who were obtaining 
 less than they had hoped for on the other. The debates 
 in the House of Commons, though they undoubtedly drew 
 public attention to the importance of education, yet shattered 
 many illusions among those who had hoped that the cause of 
 education was beginning to gain ground in this country, in the 
 
 1 In 1902 1,337 men an d 4>59 women qualified for Training Colleges in the 
 King's Scholarship examination out of 10,728 candidates, of whom 9,764 passed 
 the examination. There were, however, vacancies only for 1,100 men and 1,700 
 women. Mr. G. L. Bruce in the Times, March 15 and 18, 1902. In 1901-2 there 
 were 3,140 students in Church of England and Roman Catholic Residential Col- 
 leges, and 1,048 in Nonconformist and undenominational Colleges, in addition 
 to 1,607 students in Day Training Colleges. P. P., Cd. 1,275, P- 47-
 
 xviii INTRODUCTION 
 
 same way it had long ago kindled the zeal and founded the 
 fortunes of America and Germany. 
 
 Administration rather than the cult of abstract principles is, 
 however, the strength of England, and it is not too much to hope 
 that when the first confusion caused by the introduction of the 
 new Act has subsided, and the various local authorities are 
 steadily and loyally working for the benefit of the children, 
 those who contributed to the success of the old regime will be 
 found taking their part in the new order with no less zeal and 
 even better results than of old. The measure is on large lines 
 and offers great possibilities to the local authorities who have 
 already in many cases been doing excellent work in education 
 under the Technical Instruction Acts: the system is one of 
 universal application, and in all probability will in a few years 
 be regarded as a subject for national self- congratulation and 
 a cause of wonder that it had not been created before. 
 
 Let us now look back for a moment to the minor depart- 
 ments of education which fell earliest under the care of the 
 State. 
 
 As England was first in industries, so she was first in show- 
 ing tenderness to the children engaged in her factories, mines, 
 and workshops ; and if her solicitude showed itself chiefly in 
 preventing physical overwork, at any rate she was less negli- 
 gent of these children than of her other boys and girls. 
 
 Our prison management is not even yet characterized by 
 much sympathy or enlightenment, but at any rate our re- 
 formatories have been modelled on the best Continental 
 example ; and so far as we have failed to obtain the best 
 results in reformatories and industrial schools, our failure has 
 been chiefly in consistent development of industrial training, 
 and is common to the education of the whole country. 
 
 Poor Law education remains one of the most difficult of our 
 social problems ; if considered from the school point of view 
 alone, the Scotch practice of boarding out all children and 
 dispensing altogether with Poor Law schools seems preferable. 
 Workhouse schools run occasional risks of inefficiency in their 
 administration : large institutions are manifestly unsuitable for 
 the training of children who, unless they return to the work- 
 house, will have to live the rest of their lives in little houses, 
 where they will forget most of the lessons they have learned 
 in their barrack homes. 
 
 Our military and naval systems especially are the natural 
 outcome of their conditions. Given a paid army and fleet 
 which must spend a large portion of their service at foreign 
 stations, it becomes necessary to provide interchangeable 
 schools, and schools adapted for men as well as for children,
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION xix 
 
 and to ensure the power of improvising instruction on the 
 smallest scale in the most remote places. 
 
 It is perhaps also worth noticing that, in connexion with 
 the Volunteer organization, a number of cadet corps have been 
 started in secondary schools which thus, in addition to the 
 physical training of ordinary games, have added a certain 
 amount of drill and rifle shooting. The earliest of these 
 bodies began with the movement in 1859, and the Public 
 Schools' Shield was shot for at Wimbledon in 1861, but the 
 number of school corps has greatly increased of late years. 
 In Great Britain in the beginning of 1903 there were 9 cadet 
 battalions, 104 corps and 7 companies, beside the Eton and 
 Harrow battalions of efficient volunteers, earning the full 
 Government grant. 
 
 The need for organizing secondary education has long 
 been manifest to every one who has taken the slightest interest 
 in English education. There were at the end of the nineteenth 
 century four fragments which, even if united, would have 
 failed to cover the necessary ground. There were the endowed 
 schools, including the great Public Schools, as well as smaller 
 grammar schools ; there was the system of Science and Art 
 Schools and classes under South Kensington ; there was the 
 technical instruction administered by county councils and 
 boroughs ; and lastly there was the advance-guard of the ele- 
 mentary school system, which had long passed its own border, 
 and in higher grade schools, evening classes, pupil teacher 
 centres, and other forms of instruction, was, with the aid of the 
 Education Department, doing good and often much needed 
 work within the province of secondary education. 
 
 i. At the beginning of the nineteenth century secondary 
 education was given only in grammar schools, according to 
 classical, or rather medieval, ideals, and little was taught except 
 the dead languages. Slowly the movement for reforming the 
 abuse of charitable endowments made its way, and equally slow 
 was the progress of public opinion. But even in the worst days 
 there was much to be learned at the English Public Schools 
 which was not written in the books and was hardly taught 
 elsewhere. Many of the masters were men of great ability 
 and force of character before ever Arnold came from Laleham 
 in 1828 to make the name of Rugby famous and to change the 
 face of education all through the public schools of England. 
 They may not have been great in didactic ; they may not have 
 realized to the full their opportunities or their duties ; the 
 scholastic instruction may have been narrow, the school life 
 rough and almost squalid ; but the discipline of intercourse 
 and common training enabled the schoolboys of these islands 
 
 b 2
 
 xx INTRODUCTION 
 
 to become as well fitted to conduct their own affairs and the 
 affairs of the State with honour and success as nations of far 
 greater learning and far profounder theories. It was in these 
 schools that there grew up spontaneously that system of games 
 which has done so much for the physical development of the 
 upper classes, and is too valuable to be allowed to degenerate 
 into ' the tyranny and the idolatry of athletics.' The struggle 
 between nations is becoming more intense, and the accom- 
 plishments necessary for success are more numerous and more 
 elaborate than they were. Want of intellectual interest is at 
 present the chief failing in our public schools, but it is reform 
 and not acquiescence in an unnecessary evil : that is needed. 
 We cannot afford to neglect the cultivation of any faculty 
 of our minds, yet in developing intellectual qualities we must 
 beware lest we lose, for the few to whom it is open, that 
 discipline of character which, being infinitely rarer and harder 
 of attainment, is the admiration of foreign critics, who anxi- 
 ously seek for the causes of the success of our ruling classes 
 and the subtle reasons that underlie the superiority of the 
 Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 2. The next rival and supplement to this ancient 2 and dis- 
 tinguished system appeared in 1836 in the form of a trade 
 designing school founded by the State. It developed into an 
 Art Department, and in 1853 received the arbitrary addition 
 of a Department for Science (p. 155). With this organization 
 the first International Exhibition in London in the year 1851 
 had much to do, and the subsequent opportunities for com- 
 paring our industrial products with the work of other nations 
 led with progressive force to a conviction that technical educa- 
 tion was necessary, if we were to retain our position as the 
 manufacturers and merchants of the world. The new depart- 
 ment gradually trained teachers in Science and Art, and was 
 the only channel of State aid to those who gave or received 
 instruction in the new studies which were so necessary to our 
 commerce. Unfortunately we needed two distinct things 
 which are easily confused secondary education and technical 
 education, the former being the necessary basis of the latter ; 
 but we tried to build without regard to the security of our 
 foundations. 
 
 In the meantime the reform which had begun in the old 
 schools improved and greatly widened their work. Endow- 
 ments were revised and made effective ; not swept away or 
 
 1 ' Intellectual things are, to put it frankly, unfashionable.' The Schoolmaster, 
 by A. C. Benson. 1902. 
 
 a Bryce Report, v. 57 ; A. F. Leach, English Schools at the Reformation, p. 7 : 
 Constable, 1896.
 
 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION xxi 
 
 confiscated wholesale, but gradually and with much pains 
 applied to new uses. In some cases there was a fusion 
 between the two systems, and schools of old foundations, 
 devoting themselves to the new studies, earned the new grants, 
 and were fed from both sources. Secondary teachers began 
 to organize themselves, to work for a higher standard, and to 
 demand a guarantee of competence. Examinations were intro- 
 duced and various tests of efficiency were applied to those who 
 chose to submit to them, but unfortunately no organization of 
 schools took place, and no measures were taken to supply the 
 deficiencies which existed. 
 
 3. It was largely because local interests had not been repre- 
 sented in any active and practical way, and because it was 
 nobody's business to see to the administration of the endow- 
 ments, that so many school foundations had sunk into 
 uselessness. The Taunton Commission (p. 147) in 1867 
 assigned the provision of the necessary secondary schools 
 to local authorities, but no such authorities with powers for 
 this purpose were in existence, and none were created by the 
 resulting measure. It was not until 1 888 that County Councils 
 were created by the Local Government Act, but being created 
 they immediately received permission to raise a rate for 
 technical education, and then, almost before they had time to 
 use this power, they were given a well-filled pocket from 
 which they might draw for the same purpose. In one grant 
 they received the power to employ for technical instruction an 
 annual sum equal to the income of all the endowed schools of 
 England, and the Science and Art Department was constituted 
 arbiter of the meaning of ' technical instruction,' which, by the 
 light of a hastily drawn statute, it proceeded to interpret 
 as including all secondary education except the dead 
 languages and non- commercial English. 
 
 The need for technical education was recognized and to a 
 certain extent met by the Technical Instruction Act of 1889. 
 The need for secondary education met with no formal recogni- 
 tion, but was so urgent that the administration of the Statute 
 was twisted in order to satisfy it. The results of putting the 
 cart before the horse in England will probably be felt for 
 many years to come, but, by no merits of our own, they may 
 in the end prove almost an unmixed blessing. Technical 
 instruction so badly needed encouragement at the time of the 
 passing of the Act, that even though much of the money was 
 wasted at first, the benefits produced by the remainder fully 
 justified the loss. But nothing else could have brought about 
 so sweeping a change in the course of English education. 
 Much harm and many acts of injustice were done, but
 
 xxii INTRODUCTION 
 
 the classical education of nearly the whole of the smaller 
 secondary schools received a liberal tincture of scientific 
 teaching. And it is only fair to note that the Science and Art 
 Department of South Kensington, which even till after this 
 date had a consistently bad educational tradition, has of late 
 years with foresight and patience worked steadily to bring 
 about the present improved state of things l . Practical science 
 may, however, be taught as badly as any other subject, and 
 the fact that literature and languages have been neglected or 
 incompetently taught in many schools does not necessarily 
 unfit them for an important part in the highest training of the 
 human mind. 
 
 4. More secondary education for the poorer classes was so 
 much needed in England that for many years the Science and 
 Art Department gave its grants to adults and children, in- 
 structed in subjects beyond any curriculum that could be con- 
 sidered elementary in classes maintained out of the public 
 rates, until the question of overlapping with secondary classes 
 proper began to arise. The Department in 1897, by the 
 celebrated ' Clause VII ' in their regulations, threw on 
 counties and county boroughs the responsibility (if they 
 cared to assume it) of being the local authorities in respect of 
 all future classes in Science and Art. But nothing was done 
 to interfere with the action of the School Boards until in 1901 
 the successive Courts of Law in the Cockerton case confirmed 
 the decision of the auditor, who refused to pass the expenditure 
 of public money by the London School Board for supplying 
 education other than elementary, and teaching persons who 
 were not children. 
 
 In 1899 when the Education Department was reconstituted 
 as the Board of Education, the Science and Art Department 
 was amalgamated with it under the Secretary of the whole 
 Department to carry on secondary and technological education 
 in general. In addition to the consultative Committee a 
 Register of teachers was established, containing in separate 
 divisions elementary and secondary teachers duly qualified. 
 Training of secondary teachers was made for the future 
 a condition of admission to this Register, and inspection of 
 schools became a regular function of the Board, both for their 
 recognition for purposes of the Register and also, in addition 
 to examination, as a test of their efficiency. 
 
 At last in 1902 the long-awaited Act including secondary 
 
 1 One reform still most urgently needed is a divorce of the arbitrary union of 
 Science and Art. To ask a man with none but scientific training to report upon 
 Art work is just neither to the inspector, the teacher, nor the pupils, and yet it is 
 done every day, because the number of Art Inspectors is inadequate.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION xxiii 
 
 education was passed, handing over the administration of 
 secondary instruction to the County Councils and County 
 Borough Councils, without withdrawing from the Urban 
 Districts and Boroughs the power under the Technical 
 Instruction Acts of raising a penny rate. But Part II of the 
 Act relating to what was called ' Higher Education ' was 
 practically non-contentious and was accordingly neglected. 
 In the rush of work which falls on the new authorities it is 
 very plain that secondary education will for long come off 
 second best. It was in the first instance shoved aside for 
 technology or at the best allowed privileges under false 
 pretences, and now, unless its friends support its claims at 
 every opportunity, it will be neglected again for the larger 
 and more popular elementary work. The elementary rates 
 will be kept as low as possible, and the secondary rate would 
 probably not be raised at all, were it not for the necessity of 
 educating pupil teachers and carrying on classes in the 
 evening light in which, according to the illogical definition of 
 the new Act, all education is secondary. 
 
 In England at this moment we have before us several years 
 of chaos, but though the confusion will be worse than ever, it 
 is at least a chaos of creation out of which order will in time 
 evolve. The new authorities have to systematize and develop 
 their work ; those who have already been doing good work in 
 the administration of elementary schools will have to be drawn 
 into the new system, and given the opportunity of carrying 
 on their good work there to better advantage. Registration 
 and secondary inspection must become realities, and the 
 working of the Central office will have to be rendered prompt 
 and efficient. A good beginning has been made by the 
 establishment of separate branches for secondary education 
 and technology, a piece of organization which only two years 
 ago was declared by the officials of the Department to be 
 inexpedient. 
 
 In the department of higher education England began the 
 century with two Universities, and ended it with six, and 
 the nuclei of more l . Tests and restrictions have been abolished ; 
 new studies have been freely introduced. The merely ex- 
 amining university has had a trial ; colleges in separate cities 
 have been federated ; the Universities, old and new, have sent 
 out lecturers in all directions, they have provided instruction 
 and examinations wherever and in whatever subjects they 
 were demanded, and they have even taken measures for the 
 professional training of the secondary teachers whom they 
 educate 2 . 
 
 1 Vide pp. 227-53. ' Cf. Bryce Report, i. 238.
 
 xxiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 The creation of the university colleges and the introduction 
 of university teaching into manufacturing towns have changed 
 the face of higher education as it can hardly be changed 
 again in England at any future time. Endowments may be 
 increased ; fresh foundations, fresh extensions, and fresh 
 alliances may be made ; but the difference between the 
 eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, between the century of 
 stagnation and the century of progress, will always be the 
 most striking contrast in the history of English Universities. 
 
 It will probably be some time before the new conquests 
 are consolidated and the best work found for each type of 
 university ; but although their minimum of requirements may 
 be raised, and although the undue worship of athleticism in 
 Oxford and Cambridge may be discouraged, it must always be 
 borne in mind that the Universities are not merely the home 
 of learning or the seat of research, but a school for the youth 
 of the whole nation. 
 
 Further funds will be required to enable the new institutions 
 to develop and the old universities to keep abreast of these 
 developments. Already Cambridge has with too little success 
 appealed to the generosity of her members, and though the 
 large policy of Cecil Rhodes has given to Oxford an oppor- 
 tunity of extending her influence beyond even the limits of the 
 British empire and the English-speaking world, yet she is 
 hampered at every turn for want of funds to improve her 
 laboratories and her libraries, to train secondary teachers, to 
 teach modern languages, to encourage research, and to supply 
 the countless other requisites of a university of to-day. 
 
 Fifty years ago education in Wales was at least as bad as 
 any to be found in the whole kingdom, and the only sign of 
 better things seemed to be a desire for knowledge, which 
 manifested itself chiefly in the somewhat unintelligent study of 
 the Scriptures by Sunday School pupils of all ages 1 . The 
 people, however, really cared, they welcomed the opportunities 
 offered them, and created new ones for themselves. Largely 
 out of their weekly wages they paid for a training college and 
 they paid for a university college. They pressed for an Inter- 
 mediate Education Act, and were fortunate enough to obtain 
 it ; they have systematized and extended their secondary 
 schools, and they have devoted the whole of their Customs and 
 Excise money, without exception, to education. They have 
 attended their university colleges and made them efficient; 
 finally, they have procured their federation in a national 
 University. Wales, long yoked to England as it has been, has 
 
 1 Vide p. n.
 
 IRELAND xxv 
 
 out of its limited material produced the most complete organi- 
 zation in the country within quarter of a century. Education 
 elsewhere may rise to greater heights or have a longer 
 tradition, but as yet no other division of the kingdom has so 
 definite an achievement to present as the intermediate and 
 higher education of Wales. 
 
 Of Ireland and its education it is most difficult at the present 
 moment to write. It is a poverty-stricken Catholic country, 
 governed by a bureaucracy still largely Protestant. The 
 inadequacy and inefficiency of the education given there 
 during nine-tenths of the last century can hardly be ex- 
 aggerated. Religious differences, ignorance, timidity, lack of 
 means and neglect all stood in the way of improvement or 
 even of bringing the average education up to the lowest 
 standard which prevailed in England and Wales. It was 
 significant of the difference between England and Ireland that 
 when the National Board of Education was appointed in 
 1831, the outcry that was made was raised against the dis- 
 endowment of Protestant missionary societies, and not, as 
 in the case of the Committee of Council, against anything 
 arbitrary or unconstitutional in the decree of the Castle. The 
 main principle of united secular education failed both in the 
 enormous majority of elementary schools and in respect of 
 training colleges. Payment by results, entirely discredited else- 
 where, continued to be the universal rule both for primary and 
 secondary schools. The elementary curriculum was hopelessly 
 obsolete: kindergarten, drawing, manual and physical train- 
 ing were little better than unknown : science, both in elemen- 
 tary and secondary schools, had wellnigh ceased to be taught, 
 and the teaching of agriculture in the National schools might 
 almost be taken as the redztctio ad absurdum of cramming. 
 The secondary system as directed by the Intermediate Board 
 was little, if any, better, whether in respect of teaching for 
 examination only, or in the neglect of modern subjects, 
 methods, and equipment. As to higher instruction Trinity 
 College, though reasonably efficient in itself, long maintained 
 an archaic attitude towards the education of women. The 
 Catholics, who might easily have inundated Trinity and over- 
 whelmed the Protestant occupants, refused to have any dealings 
 either with it or with the Queen's Colleges, and prepared 
 themselves as best they could for the examinations of the 
 Royal University, a few fellowships of which are the only 
 Government subsidy for their teachers. 
 
 In the last four years much has been changed. The curri- 
 culum of the National Schools has been brought up to elate ; 
 the conditions both as to subjects and grants for the Inter-
 
 xxvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 mediate Examinations have been remodelled, though apparently 
 with imperfect success. 
 
 The care of technical instruction has been transferred to a 
 new and active department, fettered by no traditions, which 
 has not only called in the best available talent from outside for 
 teaching the teachers and inspecting the schools, but has also 
 co-operated admirably with the other existing departments, and 
 has encouraged the County Councils in the class of work 
 which similar bodies have been doing in England. A Com- 
 mission has taken evidence on the subject of University 
 Education, and published a report, which may in time lead 
 to a new departure. Not very much more remains that a 
 central authority can do beyond persevering in a liberal 
 administration. In the meantime there are signs of a dis- 
 organized revolt among the Catholic laity against the fashion 
 in which the education of Catholic Ireland has been captured 
 by the priesthood to the exclusion of lay teachers l . 
 
 If a sound educational system could be made by three 
 strokes of a pen, this would be the time for unlimited con- 
 gratulations and rejoicings. But to those who realize that 
 the roots of education, if it is to be of any avail, must lie much 
 deeper down, in the very hearts of the people, it is plain that 
 only a small beginning has been made. 
 
 All has apparently been done for the immediate present that 
 can be done from above: but sending imperfectly trained 
 teachers to a three or six weeks' course of instruction in new 
 subjects is, as the Technical Instruction authorities themselves 
 realize, only a temporary expedient. The new generation 
 must be thoroughly equipped both in knowledge and special 
 preparation to deal with the coming generations of their fellow 
 countrymen. One accomplished fact may indeed be recognized 
 by the State. The system of combined secular education has 
 proved so futile that the Government would do well to arrange 
 for the separation of the three per cent, of children who are 
 still taught together, regardless of denomination 2 . If after that 
 religious controversy interferes with the course of education, 
 it is not easy to see any hope left for the schools of Ireland. 
 
 If Ireland has been the poor relation of the family, Scotland 
 is the happy woman who has no history. The schools and 
 Universities of Scotland have no more sensational a record 
 than is compatible with a long and successful existence. Even 
 
 1 The Ruin of Irish Education, by F. H. O'Donnell : D. Nutt, 1902. Five 
 Years in Ireland, 1895-1900, by Michael I. F. McCarthy: Simpkin Marshall 
 & Co., 1902. 
 
 a See p. 109. Including the Protestant children.
 
 SCOTLAND xxvii 
 
 the delights of theological controversy and the fierce joys of 
 sectarian persecution were early laid aside to foster a homo- 
 geneous system of education. The Scotch Education Act in 
 1872 resulted in no half-hearted compromise, but found the 
 denominations ready to transfer their schools to the new 
 School Boards which were created throughout the whole 
 country, and Voluntary Schools are thus few and of small 
 importance. Already before the Act there existed in all the 
 towns public secondary schools, which also gave elementary 
 instruction when it was needed, and in the country districts 
 there were rate-aided masters of parish schools who trained 
 their best boys for the Universities. 
 
 The characteristic of Scotch education was that no one 
 grade was entirely separate from another. Nearly all the 
 schools were in some measure both elementary and secon- 
 dary, and the Universities, as their enemies alleged and their 
 friends must to some extent confess, were secondary too 1 . 
 When it became necessary to extend this system and render 
 it complete, the application of English codes and English 
 classifications was found to produce more irritation than 
 benefit, and even the creation of a separate Education Depart- 
 ment and the appointment of a Minister for Scotland have 
 not secured her altogether from the effects of the supposed 
 identity of organization with the system established in 
 England. 
 
 In no respect has Scotland been more conspicuously in 
 advance of the rest of the Union than in her resolve to pro- 
 vide free education. First, she applied to her elementary 
 schools the money which England and Ireland appropriated 
 to relief of rates ; and when Parliament eased her from the 
 burden of this voluntary self-denial, ^"90,000 of the money so 
 released was applied to secondary education and somewhat 
 under protest to the Universities, the maintenance of which 
 she considered to be rather an Imperial duty. 
 
 Comparisons between countries are invidious and often 
 untrustworthy, but the example of Scotland is the weapon 
 generally used to intimidate England into effecting the reforms 
 most needed in her elementary schools. Children attend 
 school longer in Scotland ; the proportion of certificated 
 teachers is greater 2 ; more class subjects may be and are 
 
 1 Even now in fourteen out of the thirty-two counties there is no Higher Class 
 Public School and no Secondary Public School ; but secondary instruction is given 
 only in the higher departments in the ordinary schools. School Board Chronicle, 
 June n, 1898, p. 634. 
 
 * In 1901 one certificated teacher to every fifty-seven children in average at- 
 tendance in Scotland; one to every 71-6 in England; in England there were 
 17,956 'Article 68's,' in Scotland there were but an '32 (c) s's.'
 
 xxviii INTRODUCTION 
 
 successfully taken ; the ' woman over eighteen ' is only an 
 occasional substitute for the pupil teacher. These and other 
 details are held up for the example of impenitent England l ; 
 but the recent legislation in England is considered likely to 
 lead in due course to a new educational statute for Scotland. 
 
 Poor Law children are nearly all boarded out and educated 
 in the ordinary public schools. Poor Law authorities have 
 greater responsibility towards industrial schools, but the local 
 contributions to industrial schools and reformatories are never- 
 theless proportionately smaller than in England. 
 
 By a curious anomaly the most important charitable foun- 
 dations had become boarding schools, which withdrew their 
 children from public instruction, although private boarding 
 schools were the rare exceptions in Scotland. 
 
 If there is a department in which Scotland has been less 
 conspicuously successful than England, it is in technical in- 
 struction, but even if this be admitted, the reason for it is 
 that secondary education in the North (no less than in Wales) 
 has taken precedence of the subsequent specialization which 
 has had a more exclusive opportunity in England. 
 
 The number of the Scotch Universities has always been 
 large in proportion to the number of her inhabitants, and only 
 one university college has been added to her system. But 
 while the students have increased in the last fifty years, the 
 level of education also has been considerably raised, and a 
 corporate life has been encouraged as far as is possible among 
 students who live dispersed in lodgings. 
 
 Those who have had a defective education are still admitted 
 to the Universities, but are excluded from qualifying for its 
 degrees : thus not only has the amount of secondary educa- 
 tion given in the higher institutions greatly decreased, but 
 for a time their numbers have decreased also. The financial 
 competition between the Universities has been checked by an 
 Ordinance of uniformity of fees, which still remain lower by 
 a half than those of the London colleges. 
 
 The generosity of individuals has gone far to remedy the 
 former inadequacy of endowments. Edinburgh alone in twenty 
 years acquired almost .500,000 sterling. Aberdeen received 
 .300,000 in thirty-five years-. Glasgow obtained .250,000 
 from private sources alone for her new buildings ; while a 
 few years ago St. Andrews benefited by a legacy of 100,000. 
 
 The great bounty of Mr. Andrew Carnegie has given two 
 
 1 For the other side see A Scheme of District School Boards and a National 
 Council, by Charles M. Douglas, M.P., D.Sc., and Henry Jones, LL.D., Glasgow 
 University, 1903. 
 
 a The Universities of Aberdeen, by R. S. Rait: Bisset, Aberdeen, 1895, p. 362.
 
 ASSOCIATIONS xxix 
 
 millions to the Scotch Universities, one part of which, devoted 
 to paying fees which the very poorest always found means of 
 paying for themselves, will probably do but little good : the 
 other portion, distributed in equipment and in endowments for 
 teaching, is an example that might well be followed elsewhere. 
 
 To return to the United Kingdom as a whole, nowhere has 
 there been a greater change than in the education of women. 
 In the development of elementary education girls have re- 
 ceived an equal share with the boys, and in the remodelling of 
 endowments at any rate the principle of equality has been 
 recognized. The growth and improvement of their secondary 
 schools have been incredible. The trials and the benefits of 
 examinations have been opened to them even in the least 
 liberal quarters, instruction has been extended to them almost 
 in an equal measure, and it is only the outward mark of 
 having passed the complete round of the highest examinations 
 and fulfilled the most exacting requirements that has been 
 denied them by the ancient Universities of England 1 . At all 
 events the reproach of female ignorance has been taken away 
 from our education more quickly than other deficiencies of 
 which we have no less reason to be ashamed, though even in 
 this respect there are many parts of the country where much 
 remains to be done. 
 
 It is not possible to close these few general remarks on 
 national education, even from the central point of view, with- 
 out some reference to the numerous associations of individuals 
 which have promoted the advancement of particular views, or 
 preserved the independence and guarded the interests of par- 
 ticular classes. To write a history of these organizations 
 would perhaps be the best way to do justice to the variety 
 and energy of individual and local effort in the education of 
 this kingdom if any one could be found with the knowledge, 
 the discrimination, and the courage necessary for this task 2 . 
 Even in my pages reference will be found to the part played 
 by the National Society and the British and Foreign School 
 Society in the commencement of public elementary instruction 
 in England, and the former society has found its historian in 
 Dean Gregory (Elementary Education : National Society, 
 1895). The National Public School Association and the Man- 
 chester and Salford Committee played their part in the middle 
 of the century, while the part taken by the Education League 
 
 1 But in Dublin, the University refuses the degree, and Trinity College has 
 denied them the instruction, vide p. 265. 
 
 3 For the Secondary and Technical Associations, see The Schoolmasters 1 Hand- 
 book and Directory, 1903, Sonnenschein, a most useful handbook of reference, 
 which, it may be hoped, will be published annually.
 
 xxx INTRODUCTION 
 
 between 1869 and 1877 over the early Education Acts is 
 recorded by Mr. Adams (The Elementary School Contest, 
 pp. 1 60, 295). The North of England Council for Promoting 
 the Higher Education of Women (1867-74) laid the founda- 
 tion for University Extension lectures and University exami- 
 nations for women, while it was a society which was responsible 
 for University Extension in London. The work of the 
 National Association for the Promotion of Technical and 
 Secondary Education, founded in 1887, has been most 
 valuable. The Education section added to the British Asso- 
 ciation in 1901 has provided many valuable discussions and 
 infused much new life into the subjects discussed, but the 
 older studies have been as yet comparatively unrepresented. 
 
 Almost every division of teachers now has a separate 
 association. The Head Masters of the Public Schools held 
 their first Conference in 1 869 ; the Association of Head Masters 
 was founded in 1 890, while the Association of Head Mistresses 
 dates from 1874. The largest of all these bodies, the National 
 Union of Teachers (i. e. in public elementary schools), numbers, 
 in 1903, 47,322 ; the Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and 
 Ireland (chiefly of secondary teachers), founded in 1883, has 
 some 3,800 members. Assistant Masters, Science Teachers, 
 Preparatory Schools, and Private Schools have all their 
 associations or their conferences. 
 
 In Scotland the Educational Institute, numbering over 5,000, 
 has existed since 1847 for all classes of teachers and persons 
 interested in education. There are also an Association of 
 Head Masters of Secondary Schools, and a Scottish Assistant 
 Teachers' Association with 3,700 members. Ireland has an 
 Irish National Teachers' Association for elementary teachers, 
 and, since 1869, a Schoolmasters' Association. 
 
 I have omitted here all mention of the College of Preceptors 
 (pp. 177, 184) and of the National Home Reading Union; 
 I have said nothing of special educational associations, such as 
 the Froebel Society, or undertakings with a commercial 
 element, however slight, like the Girls' Public Day School 
 Company (p. 148), or miscellaneous bodies, like the Association 
 for the Better Endowment of the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 A profession which has established and maintains so many 
 societies at all events shows great vitality and considerable 
 devotion to the interests of its work. 
 
 Public education, like every other department of human 
 policy, depends in the last resort on the money which is forth- 
 coming to support it ; and every fresh departure makes a new 
 demand on the Treasury. In 1833 Great Britain began with a 
 vote of 20,000 ; in 1860 it was .800,000 ; in 1901 it was over
 
 EXPENDITURE xxxi 
 
 11,000,000 in public grants for elementary education in this 
 island alone, exclusive of over 6,000,000 raised by rates for 
 the same purpose. For the first quarter of a century after the 
 passing of the first Elementary Education Act, the total expen- 
 diture in England and Wales under this heading, from all 
 sources, public and private, is estimated at 21 9,000,000 l . 
 Secondary and technical education draw .1,500,000 sterling 
 annually from endowments and local rates, while the universi- 
 ties and university colleges derive more than 1,000,000 from 
 income and subsidies. The total education bill from public 
 grants, endowments, and other sources is certainly not under 
 23,000,000 a year for Great Britain and Ireland 2 . 
 
 How much money are we willing to spend ? How much 
 ought we to spend ? How much are we justified in spending 
 on our national education ? I cannot but think that any one 
 who reads the following pages, or investigates the facts for 
 himself, will conclude that the sum will have to be increased 
 considerably beyond 23,000,000. 
 
 1 Sadler, Special Reports, i. p. 30. 
 
 2 See Appendix D. In this there is very little living money included, except 
 so far as it falls under the head of endowments. The bills paid by the parents of 
 the pupils at secondary boarding schools must amount to over a million a year, 
 possibly a million and a half; but of this a considerable portion is allotted to 
 maintenance. It is notorious that the financial prizes of the teaching profession 
 are the boarding houses of good schools ; among these house-masters are many 
 men of the highest character and of the greatest ability as teachers, but it is only 
 very indirectly to their teaching that their good fortune is due. The estimate in 
 the Appendix takes no account of the new Aid Grant, nor of the Rhodes or 
 Carnegie benefactions. By 1905 the total amount will be nearly twenty-five 
 millions. (See page 292, note i.)
 
 I. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 
 A. England and Wales 
 
 ]. THE BOARD OF EDUCATION, 
 taking the place of 
 
 (a) The Education Department. 
 
 (b) The Science and Art Department. 
 
 (c) The Charity Commission (in part). 
 
 THE central authority for public elementary education in 
 England and Wales is now the Board of Education, established 
 in 1899 under an Act of Parliament (62 & 63 Viet. c. 33), 
 passed in the preceding" year, to ' take the place of the 
 Education Department (including the Department of Science 
 and Art).' In order to understand the present organization, 
 it therefore will be necessary to trace the origin and growth 
 of the Education Department. The transforming statute is 
 further described at page 33 ; but as far as elementary edu- 
 cation is concerned, the central organization has hardly been 
 affected at all by the change. 
 
 (a) The Education Department. 
 
 In the beginning of the nineteenth century 2 there was no 
 system whatever of elementary education existing in England 
 and Wales. Many endowments had been created, various 
 societies raised considerable sums annually for the purposes of 
 instruction, the clergy and ministers in many parts of the 
 country were zealously promoting schools according to their 
 different ideals, but there was no relation between the different 
 
 1 I have not thought it necessary to look beyond the generally recognized 
 division of education into elementary, secondary, and higher, nor do I offer any 
 definition more subtle than that elementary education is the education given in 
 public elementary schools, that higher education is that general training which is 
 given in Universities and University Colleges, and that secondary education is that 
 mass of instruction which lies between the elementary schools on the one hand 
 and the Universities on the other, whether it ends in itself or leads to higher 
 teaching, 
 
 a A useful contribution to the early history of English education has appeared 
 in State Intervention in English Education : A Short History from the Earliest 
 Times down to 1833, by J. E. G. de Montmorency. Cambridge University Press, 
 1902. 
 
 BALFOUR B
 
 2 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 bodies, no independent test of their work, and no control over 
 them if they failed in the performance of it. 
 
 It was known that the elementary instruction given was 
 very defective, and that the foundations of pious benefactors 
 were in many cases badly administered. In 1816 Henry 
 Brougham moved for a Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons to inquire into ' The Education of the Lower 
 Orders,' and himself sat as chairman until the report was 
 presented in 1818. In that year he introduced a Bill for the 
 appointment of a Royal Commission to inquire into educa- 
 tional charities existing in England and Wales ; and these 
 Commissioners (see page 144) were appointed and reappointed 
 until I837 1 . The scope of the first inquiry was confined to 
 the metropolis, and that of the second was much restricted 
 by the House of Lords 1 amendments to the enabling Act, but 
 the results showed that neither needs nor abuses had been 
 exaggerated. 
 
 Education was in the air, but it was some time before Par- 
 liament proceeded to deal with it as a practical question. 
 
 A Bill had been introduced by Mr. Whitbread in 1807 to 
 found a school in every parish, as in Scotland, with power 
 to employ local rates ; and this first measure dealing with 
 English elementary education as a whole was passed by the 
 House of Commons but rejected by the House of Lords. In 
 1820 Brougham 2 brought in an Education Bill based on the 
 recent investigations, but religious jealousy and dislike of 
 change rendered all attempts at legislation abortive, and it was 
 not until August 17, 1833, that the House of Commons voted 
 a sum of ; 20,000 ' for the purposes of education.' It was 
 passed late in the session, and carried by a majority of twenty- 
 four, only seventy-six members being present. Joseph Hume 
 voted against it on the ground that Brougham's reports had 
 shown that there was a sum of half a million applicable to 
 these purposes. Cobbett declared that the sole result of the 
 movement was ' to increase the number of schoolmasters and 
 mistresses, that new race of idlers ' ; and that this was nothing 
 but an attempt ' to force education on the country a French, 
 a Doctrinaire plan,' to which he should always be opposed ''. 
 As it was a vote in Supply, it needed no confirmation from 
 
 1 58 Geo. Ill, c. 91 ; 59 Geo. Ill, c. 81 ; 10 Geo. IV, c. 57; i & 2 Will. IV, 
 c. 34; 5 & 6 Will. IV, c. 71 ; Parliamentary Papers, 1877, bcvi. p. 21. 
 
 8 It was in the debate on the Address, on Jan. 29, 1828, that Brougham declared 
 in the House of Commons that ' the schoolmaster was abroad, and that he trusted 
 more to the schoolmaster armed with his primer than he did to the soldier in full 
 military array for upholding and extending the liberties of his country.' 
 
 * Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Third Series, xx. 734.
 
 EDUCATION] THE TWO SOCIETIES 3 
 
 the House of Lords, and the money was given to the Treasury 
 to be administered in the erection of school-houses in Great 
 Britain l . 
 
 In 1833 two voluntary societies shared between them the 
 main part of such weekday teaching as was given to the poor 
 in England and Wales. The larger of these, the National 
 Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Prin- 
 ciples of the Established Church 2 , had been founded in 1811 
 to take up the educational part of the work of the Society for 
 Promoting Christian Knowledge, founded in i698 3 , and its 
 schools were carried on in accordance with the ideas of 
 Dr. Bell 4 . The pupils were all obliged to receive instruction 
 in the Liturgy and Catechism of the Established Church of 
 England, and were required to attend its prayers and services. 
 If the Society ever consented to admit the children of other 
 denominations to its teaching, it was only for missionary 
 purposes and on its own terms, for it never sought nor desired 
 their attendance 5 . 
 
 The British and Foreign School Society was founded in 
 1808 to carry on the work of Joseph Lancaster 6 , and received 
 its present name in 1814. The Bible was read in its schools, 
 but no denominational religious teaching was given ; children 
 of Church folk, Dissenters, Roman Catholics, and Unitarians 
 were all received and taught. It naturally derived its chief 
 support from Nonconformists, and was regarded as the society 
 representative of them. 
 
 Since there was no State machinery in existence for the 
 administration of the new grant, the Treasury Board employed 
 the best means ready to their hand, and relied solely on the 
 recommendations of these two Societies to make grants in aid 
 of building new school -houses, subject only to the condition 
 of half the cost being met by voluntary contributions, actually 
 received, expended, and accounted for ; preference was given 
 to applications from large cities and towns, and therein to 
 
 1 Appropriation Act, 1833, 3 & 4 Will. IV, c. 96. In the following years, until 
 1839, the same sum was voted for ' the erection of school-houses in England' only 
 (4 & 5 Will. IV, c. 84) ; the Scotch grant being made separately. 
 
 3 English National Schools, i. e. schools in connexion with this Society, must 
 not be confused with the Irish National Schools under the Commissioners of 
 National Education, p. 85. 
 
 3 Account of the Efforts of the Society for Promoting Christian Knoiuledge on 
 behalf of National Education : T. B. Murray, 1848. 
 
 * An Old Educational Reformer: Dr. A. Bell, by Prof. J. M. D. Meiklejohn : 
 Blackwood, 1881. 
 
 5 Archdeacon Denison, Notes of my Life, pp. 105, 137 : Oxford, 1878. Dean 
 Gregory, Elementary Education, p. 70, 1895, National Society. 
 
 6 Educational Aims and Methods, by Sir Joshua Fitch, p. 326 : Cambridge 
 University Press, 1900. 
 
 B 2
 
 4 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 schools intended to accommodate four hundred scholars 
 and upward 1 . After 1833 the grant was made annually, 
 and several useful Acts were passed for providing sites 
 for schools 2 . 
 
 During the sessions of 1834 and 1835 a Select Committee 
 of the House of Commons took evidence on the state of public 
 instruction, but made no recommendations. In 1838 another 
 Select Committee, of which Mr. Slaney was chairman and 
 Mr. Gladstone a member, reporting on the best means for 
 providing useful education in large towns in England and 
 Wales, considered it desirable that provision should be made 
 for not less than one-eighth of the population ; but ' under 
 existing circumstances and under the difficulties which beset 
 the question,' they were ' not prepared to propose any means 
 for meeting the deficiency beyond the continuance and exten- 
 sion of the grants at present made by the Treasury for the 
 promotion of education through the medium of the two 
 Societies V The National Society had in fact, during the past 
 five years, allotted ^69,710 in grants, while the British and 
 Foreign Society had found use for ^34,145, and had granted 
 only about a third as many applications as its more popular 
 coadjutor. Successful applicants were required by a Minute 
 of August 30, 1833, to submit to an audit, and to make 
 periodical reports on the state of their schools, but the matter 
 was left to the superintendence of the two Societies 4 . The 
 proposal to create a Board or Office of Education under the 
 control of Parliament was negatived without a division. 
 Mr. Wyse (see page 84) fought stoutly for tolerance and 
 enterprise, but to no apparent purpose 5 . 
 
 Nevertheless, in 1839 a further step was taken. From the 
 attitude of the House of Lords it was evident that no popular 
 educational measure had any chance of passing into law. 
 What, however, could not be done with the aid of the Upper 
 Chamber was dexterously carried into effect by a method for 
 which its consent was not needed. 
 
 The Queen published an Order in Council appointing 
 a Special Committee of the Privy Council to administer the 
 money voted by the Commons. The Lord President of the 
 Council, Lord Lansdowne, was chairman, and the other 
 members were the Lord Privy Seal, the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, the Home Secretary, and the Master of the Mint. 
 
 1 Minutes, August 30, 1833; March 7, 1834; ** P-> I 834, xlii. p. 529. 
 
 5 School Sites Acts, 1836, 1841, 1844, 1849, 1851. 
 
 * Report, p. xi. 
 
 4 P. P., 1837-8, xxxviii. pp. 327, 354, 365; vii. p. 166 ; P. P., 1834, xlii. 
 
 P- 525- 
 
 P.P., 1837-8, vii. 157.
 
 EDUCATION] COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL 5 
 
 It is perhaps worth quoting part of the letter from Lord 
 John Russell to Lord Lansdowne, requesting him to act on 
 this Committee ' for the consideration of all matters affecting 
 the education of the people,' as this clearly expresses the 
 views with which the Committee was formed and the needs 
 which it was intended to supply. 
 
 Whitehall, Feb. 4, 1839. 
 
 ' MY LORD, 
 
 ' I have received Her Majesty's Commands to make 
 a communication to your Lordship on a subject of the 
 greatest importance. Her Majesty has observed with deep 
 concern the want of instruction which is still observable 
 among the poorer classes of Her subjects. All the inquiries 
 which have been made show a deficiency in the general 
 Education of the People which is not in accordance with 
 the character of a Civilized and Christian nation. 
 
 'The reports of the chaplains of gaols show that to a large 
 number of unfortunate prisoners a knowledge of the funda- 
 mental truths of natural and revealed Religion has never 
 been imparted. 
 
 ' It is some consolation to Her Majesty to perceive that 
 of late years the zeal for popular education has increased, 
 that the Established Church has made great efforts to pro- 
 mote the building of schools, and that the National and the 
 British and Foreign School Societies have actively endeavoured 
 to stimulate the liberality of the benevolent and enlightened 
 friends of general Education. 
 
 ' Still much remains to be done ; and among the chief 
 defects yet subsisting may be reckoned the insufficient 
 number of qualified schoolmasters, the imperfect mode of 
 teaching which prevails in perhaps the greater number of 
 the schools, the absence of any sufficient inspection of the 
 schools and examination of the nature of the instruction 
 given, the want of a Model School which might serve for 
 the example of those societies and committees which anxiously 
 seek to improve their own methods of teaching, and finally 
 the neglect of this great subject among the enactments of 
 our own voluminous Legislature 1 .' 
 
 The Committee was appointed on April 10, 1839, and first 
 met on April 13. 
 
 The House of Lords, by 229 to 118, presented an address 
 to the Queen, which was practically a protest against the 
 new Committee, but it was of no avail. The Queen replied, 
 
 1 P. P., 1839, xli. p. 255.
 
 6 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 ' I cannot help expressing- my regret that you should have 
 thought it necessary to take such a step on the present occa- 
 sion V 
 
 A similar motion in the Commons was lost only by 275 
 to 280 votes. 
 
 In 1835 a sum of 10,000 had been voted by the House 
 of Commons for the erection of Model Schools, and the crea- 
 tion of a State Training College was the scheme which the 
 Ministry now had most at heart to carry out. It was pro- 
 posed to divide the religious instruction given in this school 
 into special and general, and to entrust the former, the 
 denominational instruction, to licensed religious ministers 
 belonging to the various communities 2 . This arrangement, 
 which had already been carried out at Dublin in a more 
 extreme form, raised such a storm of indignation that all idea 
 of the school had to be dropped, and the annual vote in 1839 
 was only carried in the House of Commons by 275 against 
 273 votes. It was assumed that the system proposed for the 
 Normal School would be adopted in all schools, and there 
 was a strong opposition to any weakening of denominational 
 instruction. The vote this year was taken for ' Public Educa- 
 tion in Great Britain' as in 1833, and became 30,000 by 
 the inclusion of the ten thousand pounds which in 1834 and 
 1836-8 had been voted separately for Scotland. (See p. 123.) 
 
 However, the money was voted, a permanent staff of 
 officials was appointed 3 , and Dr. Kay (afterwards Sir James 
 Kay- Shuttle worth), an Assistant Commissioner of Poor Laws, 
 well known for his interest in the education of the poor, was 
 made the secretary of the new Committee. ' A born educator,' 
 Matthew Arnold called him, ' an earnest student of methods 
 and problems of education V 
 
 By an early Minute 5 of the Committee (June 3, 1839), 
 the money which had been voted in 1835, and was to have 
 been spent in creating the State School, was directed to be 
 divided equally between the two Societies in order to establish 
 Training Colleges, and it was readily met by corresponding 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., xlviii. pp. 681, 1,255 ! x ^ x - P- I2 8. 
 
 3 Newcastle Commission Report, vi. 300. 
 
 3 The appointment of the first two Inspectors, Rev. W. Allen and Mr. Tremen- 
 heere, was sanctioned Dec. 9, 1839. London Gazette, p. 2,608. 
 
 * T. H. Ward's Reign of Queen Victoria, ii. p. 265 : Smith, Elder & Co., 1887. 
 The subsequent secretaries have been Mr. (afterwards Lord) Lingen, 1849-69, 
 promoted to be Permanent Secretary to the Treasury ; Mr. (afterwards Lord) 
 Sandford, 1870-84, subsequently first Under-Secretary for Scotland; Mr. Cumin, 
 1884, d. 1890; Sir George Kekewich, 1890-1903; Mr. R. L. Morant, C.B., 
 appointed Acting Secretary, 1902. 
 
 5 The Minutes of the Committee in chronological order will be found in 
 P. P., 1854-5, vol. xli.
 
 EDUCATION] CONCORDAT OF 1840 7 
 
 contributions on their part. The Committee decided that the 
 annual Government Grant was still to be spent chiefly in 
 granting aid to the building of school-houses, and only 
 exceptionally of school-houses unconnected with the two 
 Societies. But the continuous right of inspection by Govern- 
 ment was to be a condition of assistance to any school, and 
 the principle of requiring a corresponding local contribution 
 in all cases was observed. Later Minutes of the same year 
 laid down that in helping all schools other than those con- 
 nected with the two Societies, two conditions were to be 
 observed that the Bible at least should be read as part of 
 the regular instruction, and that there should be a conscience 
 clause to the effect that children whose parents objected might 
 be withdrawn from the religious instruction : and these re- 
 quirements applied even to church schools unless they were 
 recommended by the National Society '. 
 
 The Education Establishment was thus fairly instituted, and 
 proceeded to do the best work that lay in its power ; but it 
 had to feel its way cautiously, for there was much jealousy 
 between the various religious bodies, and great suspicion of 
 the new creation of the Privy Council 2 . 
 
 The opposition of the Established Church to the new In- 
 spectors was settled by a Minute of August 10, 1840. By this 
 concordat the Archbishops of Canterbury and York were to 
 approve of the Inspectors appointed to inspect Church schools 
 in their provinces. In practice none but clergymen were at 
 any time appointed for this branch of the work, and no 
 objection was ever raised to any nomination, but the Church 
 attached great importance to the point, and the adhesion of 
 its schools was at that time of the most critical importance to 
 the new scheme 3 . The British and Foreign School Society 
 received by a Minute of November 30, 1843, a similar privilege 
 as to the approval of the Inspectors examining their schools, 
 and the principle was afterwards extended to other Noncon- 
 formists. 
 
 In 1843 Sir James Graham introduced a Government Bill 
 for the Regulation of Factories, to which he had tacked on 
 a number of educational clauses 4 . A distinct preponderance 
 was to be given to the established clergy in the management 
 of the schools proposed for factory children, and the Dissen- 
 
 1 Report of Select Committee of House of Commons, 1866, Ltngen, Q. 3,461, 
 
 Taunton Report, Q. 17,429. 
 3 Old Times and Distant Places, by Archdeacon Sinclair, p. 197 : John Murray, 
 
 1875- 
 
 * Life of Lord Shaftesbury, E. Hodder, vol. i. p. 461 : London, 1886.
 
 8 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 ters were up in arms at once. It was calculated that twenty- 
 five thousand petitions were presented against the Bill, con- 
 taining not less than four millions of signatures l . No concessions 
 were of any avail ; the Bill was dropped, and did not reappear 
 as a measure of educational reform -. 
 
 In 1843 grants in aid were extended to teachers' houses, and 
 to furniture and apparatus for schools ; and in the following 
 year the Inspectors were directed to offer to visit and advise 
 those schools which had received building grants before 1839, 
 but over which the Government had acquired no right of in- 
 spection. The results of these early visits showed that the 
 general quality of the education given was almost worthless : 
 even of the children who came to school only one-half learned 
 to read at all, and one quarter to write 3 . The system of 
 teaching by means of monitors, common to both Lancaster 
 and Bell, stood hopelessly condemned. Horace Mann, of 
 Boston 4 , wrote after his visit to England in 1844 (where he 
 had seen on one occasion a thousand pupils in one Lancas- 
 terian schoolroom) : ' One must rise to some comprehension 
 of the vast import and significance of the phrase " to educate " 
 before he can regard with a sufficiently energetic contempt 
 that boast of Dr. Bell, " Give me twenty-four pupils to-day, 
 and I will give you twenty-four teachers to-morrow." ' On 
 the other hand, it was impossible to expect any general im- 
 provement in the schools as long as the mass of teachers 
 was alike incapable and untrained. In 1847 in the House 
 of Commons Macaulay described the schoolmasters of the 
 poor. ' How many of these men are now the refuse of other 
 callings discarded servants or ruined tradesmen ; who can- 
 not do a sum of three; who would not be able to write 
 a common letter ; who do not know whether the earth is 
 a cube or a sphere, and cannot tell whether Jerusalem is in 
 Asia or America ; whom no gentleman would trust with the 
 key of his cellar, and no tradesman would send of a message.' 
 As for the dames, let one who was quoted the same evening 
 speak for herself. ' It's little they pays us, and it's little we 
 teaches them V 
 
 Progress, however, was being made, and on sure ground. 
 The grant of ; 10,000 for Normal Schools to the Societies 
 had resulted in the opening of St. Mark's Training College 
 
 1 F. Adams, The Elementary School Contest, p. 122 : London, 1882. 
 
 * Cf. The Elementary School System of England, works of T. H. Green, vol. iii. 
 p. 425 : London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1888. 
 
 3 In the Midlands : Sir Henry Craik, The State in its relation to Education, 
 p. 32 ; Sir J. Kay- Shuttle worth, Four Periods, 1862, p. 473. 
 
 * Report of an Educational Tour, p. 58 : Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1846. 
 6 Hansard, T. S., xci. pp. 1,016, 1,060.
 
 EDUCATION] MINUTE OF 1846 9 
 
 at Chelsea in connexion with the National Society in 1841, 
 and of the new buildings of the British and Foreign School 
 Society in the Borough Road in i842 a . Messrs. Kay and 
 Tufnell had been experimenting, largely at their own ex- 
 pense, with the school at Battersea 2 , which was handed over 
 in 1844 to the National Society 3 . There were already nine 
 of these training establishments, the want of which the Govern- 
 ment had felt so keenly in 1839; but the quality of the 
 students desiring to become elementary schoolmasters was as 
 yet very inferior, and the supply inadequate. 
 
 To remedy these defects the Committee published a Minute 
 and Regulations (August 25, Dec. 21, 1846) which established 
 new principles and marked a new departure. The double 
 purpose of improving the instruction given in the elementary 
 schools and of providing a succession of pupils for the train- 
 ing colleges was to be served 4 . The grants were no longer 
 to be confined merely to the starting of schools. Monitors 
 were to be replaced by pupil teachers, from whom greater 
 progress and higher qualifications were required ; training 
 and Training Colleges were to be encouraged by grants ; 
 teachers and pupil teachers were to receive grants direct from 
 the State. Before pupil teachers were authorized in any 
 school, the Inspector was to report on the teacher, the school, 
 and the local resources. Pupil teachers, not less than thirteen 
 years of age, were to be apprenticed for five years, during 
 which they received annual grants, and were then eligible for 
 the ' Queen's Scholarships ' of .20 to ^25 a year during their 
 course at some Training College under inspection. Teachers 
 who had undergone this preparation and obtained certificates 
 received an annual grant in augmentation of their salary pro- 
 portionate to the length of their training and subject to the 
 annual report on their school, and provision was made for 
 pensions on their retirement. All grants to teachers were 
 made by Post Office Orders, payable personally to them. 
 Voluntary contributions must provide teachers with a house 
 rent free, and a further salary equal to not less than twice 
 the amount of their augmentation grant. Mistresses earned 
 two-thirds of the grant which was paid to masters of 
 the same class. Teachers were allowed an annual payment 
 for the pupil teachers under their charge. The Training 
 Colleges received grants of ,20 to ,30 for Queen's Scholars 
 for each year of their training. 
 
 1 Newcastle Report, i. p. in. 
 
 2 Kay-Shuttleworth, Four Periods of Public Education, p. 293. 
 
 3 M. Arnold, T. H. Ward's Reign of Queen Victoria, vol. ii. p. 247. 
 * Newcastle Commission, i. 22. Four Periods, p. 481.
 
 io ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 This extension of the Government Grants apparently marks 
 the decision of the State department to accept as permanent 
 the denominational system of education in England and Wales 
 in the form which had been gradually developed. In the first 
 instance the whole scheme of education was regarded as a tem- 
 porary and provisional expedient, but as the system became 
 consolidated and assumed larger proportions than had seemed 
 possible, it was thought unfeasible to change it 1 . It was 
 afterwards compared by Mr. Lowe to a man who went to call 
 on a friend and stayed for thirty years 2 . 
 
 In July, 1847 3 , teachers who had not been at any Training 
 College received permission to enter an examination for certi- 
 ficates which carried with them the new augmentation of salary. 
 It is these certificates which have become the indispensable 
 qualifications for teachers in public elementary schools, and 
 not as yet the professional training at a College. The first 
 examinations were held in 1848: for Church of England can- 
 didates in April ; for Scotland in May and June ; and for 
 English Dissenters in the autumn 4 . 
 
 In 1847 and the following years difficulties arising as to 
 clerical supremacy and monopoly were chiefly fought out 
 over the ' management clauses ' of the Committee of Council, 
 who endeavoured gradually to introduce such safeguards of 
 conscience clause as they could induce the denominations to 
 adopt. When the Department was first created, it was found 
 that the trust deeds of schools were often very loosely and in- 
 adequately drawn, and that it was necessary to insist on seeing 
 the deeds of new schools and ascertaining that sufficient pro- 
 vision was made that the buildings should be permanently 
 devoted to school purposes 5 . An analogous distinction still 
 survives in the vested and non-vested primary schools of 
 Ireland. In England four specimen forms, with clauses 
 varied to suit circumstances of population, had been recom- 
 mended by the Commissioners as models, and in 1847 the 
 adoption of these was declared compulsory. Certain of the 
 established clergy objected to a clause securing a share in 
 the management to lay subscribers, but it was retained ; and 
 into these deeds in 1853 a conscience clause, adopted by the 
 Wesleyans in 1847, was introduced, permitting children in 
 Church schools to be withdrawn during religious instruction, 
 
 1 Newcastle Commission, vol. vi, Evidence of Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, 
 Questions 2,345, 2 >35 1 ) 2 3^ ! Mr. Chester, Q. 704; vol. i. p. 20. 
 
 2 Hansard, T. S., clxv. 197. 
 
 3 Vide Minute, July 23, 1852, 3. 
 
 4 P. P., 1847-8, vol 1. pp. 55, 61. 
 
 8 Temple, Oxford Essays, p. 226, 1856.
 
 EDUCATION] INQUIRY IN WALES n 
 
 if their parents objected. Against this there was a more 
 vigorous struggle, but a few years later it was generally 
 adopted, subject to the right of the school to repay the grant 
 and repeal the obnoxious clause, though such a right was 
 never actually exercised 1 . 
 
 In 1847 grants of school books and maps were made on 
 greatly reduced terms to schools by arrangement with pub- 
 lishers and with assistance from Government, but no publica- 
 tion of books was ever undertaken by the Department as in 
 Ireland, nor have authorized Government textbooks ever 
 been imposed on the schools. Arrangements were also made 
 by which Roman Catholics found it possible to submit to the 
 conditions necessary to earn a grant (Minute, Dec. 18, 1847). 
 No Inspector was allowed to examine in religious knowledge 
 where the managers objected on religious grounds (Minute, 
 July 10, 1847). 
 
 In 1846 the Home Secretary undertook in the House of 
 Commons that there should be an inquiry under the authority 
 of the Committee of Council into the state of education and 
 the provision for teaching English to the labouring classes 
 in Wales. Three Commissioners were appointed, and re- 
 ported in the next year 2 that in Wales and Monmouthshire, 
 with a population (in 1841) of 1,046,000, there were 1,657 
 weekday schools with 78,846 pupils on the books. The 
 ordinary accommodation was unspeakably bad 3 ; the teach- 
 ing was most inefficient 4 ; the ignorance appalling 5 ; the 
 Bible was used as a mere spelling-book 6 ; and such endow- 
 ments as there were, were grievously abused or neglected 7 . 
 The Sunday Schools, numbering 2,664 an< ^ receiving 256,270 
 scholars of all ages, had hitherto been almost the sole, as they 
 were still the most congenial, centres of education 8 . The 
 Commissioners were not instructed to go beyond a report and 
 make any recommendation. 
 
 By 1853 the great want at first existing of proper school 
 
 1 Gregory, Elementary Education, p. 7 2 ! Hansard, T. S., clxxvi. p. 519; 
 Newcastle Report, vi. 100. The clause, however, was not invariably insisted upon 
 till 1864 (Adams, The Elementary School Contest, p. 189). No Minute was ever 
 issued on the conscience clause in National Schools, owing to the difficulties of 
 negotiation (Report of Select Committee of House of Commons, 1865; Q. 452, 
 Lingen). 
 
 2 P. P., 1847, xxvii. On the subject generally see The Welsh People, by John 
 Rhys and D. B. Jones. Chap. xi. T. Fisher Unwin, 1900. State Intervention 
 in English Education, J. E. G. de Montmorency : Cambridge, 1902, p. 197. 
 
 Journal of Education, 1902, p. 327. 
 
 3 P. P., 1847, vol. xxvii, i. 20; ii. 28, 348. 
 
 * Ibid. i. 37 ; ii. 29, 281, 354. ' The Welsh workman never becomes a clerk or 
 agent ; he may be an overseer or subcontractor ' (ibid. i. 7). 
 
 5 Ibid. i. 32 ; ii. 47, 385. Ibid. i. 33 ; ii. 39, 389. 
 
 ' Ibid. i. 45; ii. 21, 393. 8 Ibid. i. 7.
 
 12 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 buildings and trained teachers had been supplied to a suffi- 
 cient extent to allow the attention of those interested in 
 education to be turned to the shortness and irregularity of 
 the attendance of the pupils in England and Wales 1 . 
 
 In this year Lord John Russell introduced a Bill which 
 gave a power of rating to towns of over 5,000 inhabitants, 
 in order to supplement the local income of elementary 
 schools. As the rural districts were supposed to be too 
 poor to pay an additional rate, the Bill did not apply to 
 them ; they received from the Education Department, under 
 a Minute of April 2, 1853, a capitation grant of four to six 
 shillings a head for boys' schools, and three to five shillings 
 a head for girls' schools, paid to the managers on all children 
 making a certain specified attendance, provided that the 
 teacher in charge had the certificate of the Government ex- 
 amination (or at first of mere registration), and that at least 
 three-quarters of the children were present at the inspection. 
 The grant was conditional on the aggregate income from 
 endowment, subscriptions, collections, and school pence having 
 amounted in the preceding year to fourteen shillings per 
 scholar in boys' schools and twelve shillings a head in girls 1 
 schools. The principle was thus abandoned of making the 
 Government Grant proportionate to local effort ; only a cer- 
 tain previous effort was required to give a certain amount 
 of instruction to a certain number of children, but the capita- 
 tion grant was not required to be met by any sum in relation 
 to it *. 
 
 The Minute was also a new departure, and an exception 
 both from what came before and what followed after, in that 
 it established a distinction between grants to boys and girls. 
 Otherwise the State has always made grants to both sexes 
 on the same scale in elementary education, and the only sub- 
 sequent difference has lain in the encouragement of different 
 subjects suited to the respective occupation of the sexes, e.g. 
 gardening and laundry-work. Boys and girls are taught 
 in the same classes to some extent, especially in the smaller 
 country schools, but there is much more co-education in 
 Scotland. 
 
 The Borough Bill, however, did not pass, and for three 
 years there existed an anomaly between country schools 
 and borough schools, until in 1856 another Minute of the 
 Department extended the attendance grant to the non-rural 
 schools. 
 
 This grant was intended to encourage attendance, which 
 
 1 Newcastle Report, i. 24. a Cf. Bryce Report, i. 159.
 
 EDUCATION] THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 13 
 
 there was no prospect of making compulsory ; but there 
 were no adequate means of checking the returns, and there 
 is no doubt that these Minutes led to a very exaggerated 
 estimate of the number of children receiving a regular edu- 
 cation. 
 
 In 1856 the first measure relating to English elementary 
 education successfully passed through Parliament, but it was 
 very limited in its aim. By an Order in Council of February 
 25, 1856, the Education Department was founded under this 
 title, and the two existing bodies, ' The Educational Establish- 
 ment of the Privy Council Office ' and ' The Establishment for 
 the Encouragement of Science and Art,' hitherto under the 
 direction of the Board of Trade (see p. 155), were included in 
 it under the chairmanship of the Lord President of the Privy 
 Council. By the new statute (19 & 20 Viet. c. 1 16) the office 
 of Vice- President of the Committee of Privy Council on Edu- 
 cation was created to provide the Department with a respon- 
 sible representative in the House of Commons, from which it 
 derives its annual grant. Before this the Committee had as 
 its only official representative the Lord President of Council, 
 its chairman, who was always a member of the House of Lords. 
 Most of the members of the Cabinet who constituted the Com- 
 mittee were members of the House of Commons, but they were 
 not individually responsible for the proceedings of the Com- 
 mittee, and although consulted on important steps they were 
 seldom in fact closely identified with it. Henceforth the 
 Vice-President was selected by the Premier in the same way 
 as any other Minister, and changed with the Administration. 
 Lord Sandon in 1874, and Mr. Acland in 1892, contrary to 
 the usual practice, were included in the Cabinet. 
 
 A general supervision of the education under Government 
 control seems to have been contemplated for the Department, 
 and affected the constitution of the Committee of Council at 
 this time 1 . The Order in Council of February 25, 1856, 
 sanctioned inspection by H. M. Inspectors of the Army schools 
 and of the Naval land schools as part of their duties, and 
 directed the Department to advise the Charity Commissioners. 
 In 1857 the grants to Reformatories and Industrial Schools 
 were greatly extended. But the tide turned, and of these 
 projects hardly anything survived. Even the inspection of 
 the Poor Law Schools was withdrawn from the Department 
 in 1863, and the Inspector, to whom was assigned the naval 
 work, was transferred to the Navy in 1863. 
 
 In 1858 a Royal Commission was appointed, with the Duke 
 
 1 Lord Sandford : Childers's Committee, 1884, Q. 249.
 
 14 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 of Newcastle as chairman, to inquire into ' the state of popular 
 education in England, and as to the measures required for the 
 extension of sound and cheap elementary instruction to all 
 classes of the people.' Their most exhaustive and able report 
 was published in six volumes in 1861, and although optimistic 
 in tone, disclosed a state of things very far from satisfactory. 
 
 Less than two-thirds of the estimated number of children in 
 England and Wales were returned as attending school at all, 
 though even their attendance must often have been merely 
 nominal. The total estimated population of England and 
 Wales in 1858 was 19,523,103, and by modern calculations 
 one-fifth of these would be children of school age belonging to 
 the class usually found in public elementary schools *, i. e. 
 3,904,600. The children attending weekday schools were re- 
 turned at 2,535,462, of which number 1,675,158 were in public 
 schools, but only 917,255 in schools in receipt of an annual 
 grant 2 , i.e. 917,255 out of 3,904,600 children. That is to say, 
 of the two-thirds of the total eligible child population, only 
 two-thirds were attending any public school, and of these 
 again little more than half were at public schools receiving 
 any grant subject to a government inspection. Of inspected 
 schools only the upper classes were reasonably efficient, and 
 only one quarter of the pupils remained at school to an age 
 sufficient to get into these classes 3 . Thus, after the Committee 
 of Council had existed for twenty years, only one-seventeenth 
 part of the children of the poor in this country were receiving 
 an education which could be definitely declared to be satis- 
 factory 4 . 
 
 The Commission reported that a county rate also should be 
 levied, to be administered by a County Board of Education 
 with county examiners (in addition to H.M. Inspectors) to 
 examine individual scholars and apportion the share of the 
 local rate ; a like arrangement was to hold good in the 
 boroughs ; there was to be a searching examination of every 
 child in elementary subjects in every school receiving grants : 
 the religious arrangements were not to be altered, and com- 
 pulsory attendance was not to be introduced. It was for this 
 Commission that Matthew Arnold reported on the elementary 
 
 1 Cross Commission Final Report, p. 53, last paragraph. 
 
 2 Newcastle Report, i. 573-4, 591. 
 
 3 Craik, p. 55 ; Newcastle Report, vol. i. 171, 242, 245. 
 
 4 The majority report of the Cross Commission in 1886 (Final, p. 14), quotes 
 the opinion of three Inspectors at the time to show that the proportion of good 
 education was greater. The minority, however, did not accept this view (p. 240), 
 and Mr. Cumin considered the numbers overstated. The Newcastle Commission 
 thought that three-fifths of the children made sufficient attendance to obtain a fair 
 elementary education as then understood, if they were properly taught, i. 225.
 
 EDUCATION] THE REVISED CODE 15 
 
 school systems of France, Holland, and Switzerland, and first 
 raised the cry, * Organize your Secondary Education.' 
 
 No legislation was attempted at the time, but in the same 
 year, 1861, the Rt. Hon. Robert Lowe, afterwards Lord Sher- 
 brooke, and then Vice-President of the Committee, published 
 a Revised Code of all the Minutes issued by the Education 
 Department which had been codified for the first time in the 
 preceding year J . 
 
 From this time the Code was reprinted every year, and no 
 alteration involving expenditure was adopted until it had been 
 submitted to Parliament. The Code was regarded as the 
 authoritative statement of the Committee of Council as to 
 grants and the conditions on which they were given to schools 
 and training colleges, and from the first it assumed the form 
 which with necessary modifications it has since preserved. 
 
 It may be noticed that it was definitely laid down in this 
 first code and repeated in the Revised Code that the object 
 of the Government Grant was ' to promote the education of 
 children belonging to the classes who support themselves by 
 manual labour.' 
 
 There was no attempt at a new system 2 , but the revision 
 amounted to a revolution in existing arrangements. ' Payment 
 by results ' was now the ruling principle. The grant to 
 schools was to depend on the attendance but subject entirely 
 to the results of an individual examination by H.M. Inspector 
 passed by each child in reading, writing, and arithmetic ; the 
 children must have made a certain number of attendances ; the 
 school must be held in approved premises and under the 
 charge of a certificated teacher, and also the girls must be 
 taught plain needlework as part of the ordinary course of 
 instruction. The backward children were no longer to be 
 neglected for the sake of the more promising scholars, but 
 every child was actually to receive at least his minimum of 
 education. Payments were to be made, not personally to 
 teachers any longer, but to the managers of schools. Thus 
 the teacher ceased to be in any degree the employe of the 
 State, and became merely the servant of the managers, who 
 were no longer bound to observe any proportion between the 
 salary they paid him and the amount of the grant he earned 
 from Government, but might drive with him the best bargain 
 
 1 The Manual of Education : by J. F. W. Drury. J. Hey wood, 1903, p. 221, 
 regards the Collection of Minutes of 1855 (p. 6 n.) as the first Code. 
 
 ' J There had even been a Minute in 1853 providing for individual examination, 
 but not carried out by the Department. Royal Commission on Scientific Instruc- 
 tion, 1872, Q. 8,084. The Minute is printed at p. 246, P. P., xli. 1854-5.
 
 1 6 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 they could conclude. The State required the teacher to 
 possess certain qualifications before his pupils could earn 
 grants for the school, but that was the extent of its recog- 
 nition of him as an individual : the grants in augmentation of 
 his salary were discontinued, and, subject to the rights of 
 teachers already retired, the pension system was withdrawn. 
 The principle of proportionate local contribution was again 
 enforced, as the total Government Grant to any school was 
 not to exceed the amount of school fees and subscriptions, 
 and it was limited to fifteen shillings per head for each scholar 
 in average attendance. 
 
 Economy, to which Mr. Gladstone, then Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, was pledged, and reality, which was his own 
 desire, were the ends at which Mr. Lowe aimed. ' If the new 
 system will not be cheap, it will be efficient, and if it will not 
 be efficient, it will be cheap V an d whether the education 
 imparted was good or not, at any rate the system was one 
 which imposed a very exact test. 
 
 The grants which were formerly either paid in full or else 
 withheld for the whole of a school, were now almost always 
 diminished to some extent by the failure of individual children 
 to pass their examinations in whole or part. Private contracts 
 no doubt reduced the amount of teachers' salaries which had 
 before come out of the Government Grant. 
 
 The new plan excited great hostility on all sides, as is the 
 usual fate of retrenchment. As Bagehot said of the House of 
 Commons, ' If you want to raise a certain cheer, make a general 
 panegyric on economy ; if you want to invite a sure defeat, 
 propose a particular saving/ 
 
 Already in 1862, before the new Code had come into actual 
 work, a fresh Minute (May 9, 1862) was issued fixing the grant 
 for each child at twelve shillings, of which only two-thirds 
 were to depend on the result of the examinations in the three 
 elementary subjects of children making two hundred attend- 
 ances two shillings and eightpence being withheld for a failure 
 in any one subject while the other four shillings were to be 
 given for average attendance. Children under six were not 
 to be examined individually, and the six standards under 
 which all children were to be examined were to be fixed by 
 the capacity and consequent position in the school, and not by 
 the respective ages of the pupils. No child was to be pre- 
 sented for examination a second time in the same or a lower 
 standard, whether it had passed or whether it had failed the 
 first time, but there was no limit of age beyond which grants 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., clxvi. p. 223.
 
 EDUCATION] PAYMENT BY RESULTS 17 
 
 might not be given. The standards were certain specified 
 tests of reading, writing, and arithmetic, laid down in six 
 gradations of difficulty ; subsequently made more exacting and 
 increased by a seventh, they remain in existence to this day, 
 and are the standards of exemption from attendance for chil- 
 dren over twelve. 
 
 Economy was effected, and genuine tests were imposed, but 
 still the unpopularity remained. The parliamentary grant 
 decreased steadily year by year, although the average attend- 
 ance of children increased 1 , and in 1895 the champions of the 
 voluntary system still attributed their deficiencies in 1870 to 
 the discouragement they received during the ten preceding 
 years 2 . 
 
 The Revised Code was accused on all hands of reducing 
 education to the narrowest limits and the meanest aims ; and 
 the tone assumed by the authorities was said to be dishearten- 
 ing and unsympathetic. Mr. Lowe will probably go down to 
 posterity as the Education Minister who denied the possibility 
 of a science of education 3 ; the examinations, though searching, 
 were necessarily mechanical, and there settled on the elemen- 
 tary schools a monotonous and lifeless uniformity, to have 
 avoided which is the chief justification of the irregular develop- 
 ment of the English system. 
 
 Examination became a touchstone indeed, but only in the 
 sense that if a subject could not be tested by examination, it 
 was considered not fit to be taught. 
 
 In 1867 one of H.M. Inspectors wrote : ' The studies of the 
 class-room must be those wherein progress can be definitely 
 measured by examination. For examination is to the student 
 what the target is to the rifleman ; there can be no definite 
 aim, no real training without it V 
 
 In 1864 it was found that the Queen's Scholars were using 
 the Training Colleges, especially in Scotland, for purposes of 
 general education, and were not carrying out the original 
 design of supplying teachers for the schools. Accordingly 
 measures were taken to prevent this, the chief being the 
 limitation of the Government Grant to 75 per cent, of the 
 actual cost of each scholar, and this rule continues to the 
 present day 5 . 
 
 In 1865 and 1866 a Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons under Sir John Pakington took evidence as to the 
 
 1 From 342,119 in 1861 to .636,806 in 1865. Cross Report, i. 1842. 
 ' Gregory, Elementary Education, p. 102. 
 
 3 Donaldson, Lectttres on Education, p. 184 : Edinburgh, 1874. 
 
 4 Taunton Report, iv. p. 60*. 
 
 8 Report of Argyll Commission on Scotch Education, 1865, p. 326.
 
 1 8 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 best method of extending 1 inspection and grants to the schools 
 as yet unassisted, but the Government being unwilling to 
 commit themselves, no report was adopted. The evidence 
 was printed by itself and gives much information about the 
 system at the time, on the working of the Committee of 
 Council, and on the conduct of business. In 1863-4 there 
 were eleven thousand parishes in Great Britain, with a popu- 
 lation of six millions, which received no assistance from the 
 State for their schools l . 
 
 In 1867, when Mr. Corry was Vice- President, a Minute was 
 issued to promote the teaching of more subjects, to encourage 
 pupil teachers, and to increase the staff of schools beyond the 
 bare minimum. Children who had passed the Sixth Standard 
 might earn the Grant by passing in certain ' Specific Subjects,' 
 but one-fifth of the elder children in average attendance must 
 pass in them. 
 
 But the times were ripening fast for a more complete 
 change, a change of principle and not of detail. It was evident 
 by this time that the deficiencies in the existing school system 
 could never be overtaken by voluntary effort, and that some 
 more certain basis of support and more responsible agencies 
 were needed than subscriptions which might cease at any 
 time, or schools which might sever their connexion with the 
 State. Up to this time if a school were wanted in any place, 
 the State would help to build it and help to maintain it on 
 certain terms, but the initiative and the payments supple- 
 mentary to the Government Grant must come from the locality 
 itself and could only be voluntary, while the body managing 
 the school was also voluntary and not necessarily representa- 
 tive of the locality. Education was only offered to those who 
 cared to come, and in many cases only conditionally on their 
 coming to denominational as well as to general instruction. 
 Except in the cases of factory or military children and those 
 in workhouse, industrial, and criminal schools, no child in 
 England or Wales need receive any education at all, or even 
 have its name entered on the books of any school. 
 
 At last in 1870, in the first Ministry of Mr. Gladstone, 
 a Government Bill for England and Wales was introduced in 
 the House of Commons by the Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, and 
 after numerous modifications was passed by both Houses of 
 Parliament. Although considerable additions have been made, 
 only five or six sections of the ' Elementary Education Act, 1 
 1870, were repealed before 1902, and it remains the basis of 
 English public elementary education to-day. 
 
 1 P.P., 1866, vii. p. 125.
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACT OF 1870 19 
 
 The Elementary Education Act, 1870 
 (33 and 34 Viet. c. 75) '. 
 
 The Act laid down that there should ' be provided for every school district 
 a sufficient amount of accommodation in public elementary schools available for 
 all the children resident in such district, for whose elementary education efficient 
 and suitable provision is not otherwise made ' ; and that when there was an 
 insufficient amount of such accommodation, the deficiency should be supplied in 
 manner provided by this Act. 
 
 An elementary school was defined as ' a school or department of a school at 
 which elementary education is the principal part of the education there given, and 
 not including any school or department of a school at which the ordinary payments 
 in respect of the instruction from each scholar exceed ninepence a week.' This 
 restriction of fees was substituted for the limitation of the schools in 1860 to the 
 children of those supporting themselves by manual labour. 
 
 An elementary school to be public must fulfil the following conditions. No 
 attendance at any place of worship or Sunday School nor any religious instruction 
 is to be imposed on any child in attendance, if his parents or guardians object. 
 Any religious teaching or observance at a school meeting must be either at the 
 beginning or end of the meeting, and any scholar may be withdrawn from these 
 by his parent or guardian without forfeiting any benefits. [This is known as ' the 
 time-table conscience clause.'] The school must be open at all times to H. M. 
 Inspector, but it shall be no part of his duties to inquire into or examine on 
 religious teaching. The school must conform to the conditions laid down for 
 earning the Parliamentary Grant in the code of the Education Department for the 
 time being. 
 
 School Boards. After due investigation the Education Department were to 
 publish a notice of the public school accommodation which they considered 
 necessary in each district in England and Wales, and a direction that it should 
 be supplied. Such districts to consist of a borough or parish, or, by order of the 
 Department, of any combination of these. 
 
 If this were not done within a reasonable time, or if the voluntary schools were 
 not likely to be maintained, or if application were made by the electors, the 
 Department might order a School Board to be formed in any district, in which 
 case it was to be elected triennially, in a borough by the burgesses, and in a 
 parish by the ratepayers. The election of a School Board for the whole of London 
 was directed by the Act. The voting was cumulative, every voter had as many 
 votes as there were seats on the Board, but might give them all to one candidate 
 or distribute them as he chose. 
 
 School Board. Each Board was to consist of not less than five or more than 
 fifteen members, as determined in the first instance by the Department, and sub- 
 sequently by the Board itself. No qualification for candidates was required by 
 the Act itself, or by the regulations issued by the Department, other than that any 
 member must be of full age and subject to no penal disqualification. Thus any one 
 may be elected, whether male or female, lodger or householder, resident or non- 
 resident 2 . In the electorate women are entitled to vote equally with men, subject 
 to their being independent ratepayers (45 & 46 Viet. c. 50, 55). 
 
 In default. If a School Board within a year after their election did not supply 
 the accommodation required by the Department, or if subsequently they failed in 
 their duties in maintaining or conducting their schools, and did not respond to the 
 requirements of the Department, they were to be declared in default, and in all 
 cases of default the Department had power to appoint a School Board of their 
 own, paid it necessary, and with full power to act for as long as was needed. 
 
 Duties. School Boards were bound to maintain and keep efficient every school 
 provided by them, and from time to time to provide such additional school 
 accommodation as they deemed necessary. They had powers to provide school 
 
 1 The standard authority on this and subsequent statutes is the Elementary 
 Education Acts Manual, by Sir Hugh Owen, 2Oth ed. : Knight and Co., 1903. 
 
 2 Ibid, igth ed., p. 125. 
 
 C 2
 
 20 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 houses properly fitted ; to improve, enlarge, and fit tip any school provided by 
 them ; to take over existing schools ; to contribute to or to build and maintain 
 industrial schools. Power was given to School Boards and also to voluntary 
 managers to acquire land for school purposes under the Land Clauses Consolida- 
 tion Act, 1845 (8 Viet. c. i8\ and its amending Acts: but the power of com- 
 pulsory acquisition of such sites was limited to the Boards, and granted to them 
 only by order of the Education Department, confirmed in each case by a special Act 
 of Parliament. 
 
 Any Board might from time to time delegate their powers except that of raising 
 money to not less than three managers appointed by them. 
 
 Fees at Board Schools. Every child attending a Board School was bound to pay 
 a weekly fee prescribed by the Board with the consent of the Department, but the 
 Board might in case of poverty remit the whole or part payment. A School Board 
 might similarly pay the whole or part of the school fees payable at any public 
 elementary school by any child resident in the district, whose parent was in their 
 opinion unable from poverty to pay it : but this power was in 1876 transferred to 
 the Poor Law Guardians. 
 
 In neither case of payment were the parents to be disfranchised on the ground 
 of receiving parochial relief. 
 
 Religious Teaching. Every School Board school was to be conducted under 
 the conditions required for public elementary schools, and no religious catechism 
 or religious formulary distinctive of any particular denomination was to be taught 
 therein. [This clause was an amendment introduced by Mr. Cowper Temple, and 
 is known by his name.] 
 
 Subject to this a School Board might cause such religious instruction to be given 
 as they thought fit, but the schools do not suffer in respect of grants if no religious 
 instruction is given. 
 
 Any voluntary school in order to receive a grant had, of course, to fulfil the 
 conditions of being a ' public elementary school ' within the meaning of the Act, but 
 the exception was granted that an inspection or examination might be made by an 
 inspector other than H. M. Inspector, and a day or not more than two days in any 
 year might be devoted to such inspection. On such clays any religious observance 
 might be practised, and any religious instruction given in the school, but notice 
 was to be given, and no child whose parents objected need attend. 
 
 [This regulation was intended chiefly for the benefit of the diocesan inspectors, 
 clergymen appointed in nearly all dioceses of the Established Church to inspect 
 the religious teaching in the school. These were already numerous in 1858 (New- 
 castle Report, i. 19), but of course have become of far greater importance to Church 
 schools since 1870.] 
 
 Attendance. Any School Board with the consent of the Department might 
 make by-laws requiring the compulsory attendance of all children between the 
 ages of five and thirteen, subject to the conscience clause, and providing for the 
 total or partial exemption of children under the Factory Acts or on the inspector's 
 certificate that a child between ten and thirteen had passed a Standard specified in 
 the by-law ( 74). 
 
 The Standards subsequently specified by the early by-laws varied in a most 
 unreasonable degree, and were sometimes absurdly low '. A general revision was 
 begun in 1900. 
 
 Efficient instruction in some other manner, sickness, or more than three miles' 
 distance from a public elementary school were regarded as reasonable excuses for 
 non-attendance. 
 
 The by-laws might impose penalties on parents and guardians, but no fine 
 imposed was with costs included to exceed five shillings. 
 
 No provision for compulsory attendance was made in districts where no School 
 Board existed. 
 
 Power of raising money. The expenses of a School Board were to be paid out 
 of the ' school fund,' into which was paid all the money received in scholars' fees, 
 Parliamentary Grant, loans and otherwise, and any deficiency was supplemented 
 by money raised by local rates, to the amount of which there was no limit fixed. 
 
 1 Sadler: Special Reports, vol. i. 1897, pp. 18, 21.
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACT OF 1870 21 
 
 The local rating authority, i. e. the council in boroughs and the overseers in 
 parishes, were required at the request of the School Hoard to pay the money needed 
 out of any money in their hands, or to levy it by a fresh rate. If the local authority 
 was in default, the School Hoard had power to levy a rate on their own authority. 
 Powers of borrowing money for building or enlarging schools were given to 
 School Hoards contingently on the consent of the Department. Their accounts are 
 audited by the Poor Law Hoard auditor for their district. 
 
 The Parliamentary Grant. After March 31, 1871, the Parliamentary Grant 
 was strictly limited to schools which fulfilled the conditions of being ' public ' and 
 ' elementary.' It was not for any year to exceed the income of the school for that 
 year derived from voluntary contributions, school fees, and any source other than 
 the Parliamentary Grant. This included the local rate levied for Board Schools, 
 and this regulation was thus a distinct advantage to them. It was provided that 
 no future Minute of the Education Department should be deemed to be in force 
 until it had lain for a month on the table of both the Houses of Parliament. After 
 that it took its place as controlling ' the conditions required to be fulfilled by an 
 elementary school,' and any new requirements thus acquiesced in by Parliament 
 have the force of a law in controlling the Parliamentary Grant. 
 
 If a local rate of $d. in the pound failed to produce 20 in any district, or the 
 amount of "js. 6d. per child, an additional Government Grant was to be given to 
 bring it up to the larger of those amounts (see p. 36). 
 
 Voluntary schools might apply for building grants up to the end of the year, but 
 after that no applications were entertained, and the grants ceased. If a School 
 Hoard wanted to build, they did not apply for a building grant, but employed the 
 rates or availed themselves of their powers of borrowing money. It was in the 
 discretion of the Department to withhold the Government Grant from any voluntary 
 school established after this date, if they considered such school unnecessary. 
 
 A report of the proceedings of the Department was to be laid before both 
 Houses of Parliament every year. 
 
 It will be seen that three principles were carried into effect 
 for the first time in English public education a compulsory 
 local rate, a representative local authority, and the compulsory 
 attendance of children at school. 
 
 The Local Rate. The new local rate was to be applied for 
 the benefit of Board Schools alone, and not of voluntary 
 schools, but the Board Schools were bound to charge fees. 
 It was, however, anticipated by Mr. Forster in those days that 
 in the great majority of cases the rate would not amount to 
 anything like threepence in the pound 1 . 
 
 In the Bill as first introduced, it was proposed to allow 
 a School Board to give grants to all the voluntary schools in 
 their district out of the rates, but this form of patronage was 
 not favourably regarded, and in place of this schools were 
 enabled to earn larger grants from Government than before. 
 
 ' Speaking roughly, 1 said Mr. Gladstone in the House of 
 Commons '-', ' it is said that the expense of educating a child in 
 an efficient secular school is thirty shillings, of which it may 
 be said one-third is now provided by the Privy Council, one- 
 third from voluntary sources, and one-third by payments from 
 the children. We think that if to the one-third which is now 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., cxcix. p. 445. 2 Hansard, T. S., ccii. p. 280.
 
 22 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 dispensed, the half of the second third were added, the volun- 
 tary schools would have no reason to complain.' 
 
 In the voluntary schools there was no obligation on the 
 managers to charge fees if they could raise the money in 
 another way, but that was seldom the case. 
 
 The Local Authority. As to the new local authority, 
 School Boards were only to be elected in those districts where 
 they were needed in order to supply more school accommo- 
 dation, or where the electors desired them. 
 
 Compulsory A ttendance. As for the compulsory attendance, 
 its sphere was at first very narrow, since it was limited to the 
 districts of such School Boards as chose to pass by-laws and 
 to enforce them. But until there were schools to go to, it was 
 useless to make it an offence not to attend them. 
 
 Religious Teaching. The measure aroused feelings not 
 only of active hostility in the Opposition but of sore disap- 
 pointment in the advanced section of the Government party. 
 For the Conservatives it went too far, while for the Radicals 
 it did not go nearly far enough. Mr. Miall, for example, as 
 the champion of the Dissenters, spoke of being ' once bit, 
 twice shy,' and of passing through ' the Valley of Humilia- 
 tion V The voluntary schools which now became synonymous 
 with denominational schools were still subsidized, but on the 
 other hand the Concordat of 1840 was broken, and the alleged 
 guarantees of 1 846 ; rivals with unlimited means were set on 
 foot, who neither withheld religious instruction nor satisfied 
 those who desired dogmatic teaching. 
 
 The recognition of denominational teaching adopted in 
 1846 was withdrawn ; after 1869 no clergymen were appointed 
 H. M. Inspectors ; no cognizance of religious instruction was 
 now taken by the State either in inspection or grant, and all 
 denominational schools which sought a grant from Govern- 
 ment must admit any child who came for secular teaching 
 whether he remained to receive religious instruction or not. 
 
 Until 1870 no public elementary school which did not 
 include the daily reading of the Bible among its subjects could 
 earn a Government Grant ; now, although the Bible was 
 habitually read in nearly all Board Schools, a purely secular 
 school might earn the grant without any question arising. 
 
 In practice almost the only exceptions to the rule of giving 
 religious instruction in public elementary day schools have 
 occurred in four counties in Wales, where Sunday Schools 
 form an important part of the life of the whole people. In 
 1894 there were only fifty-seven School Board districts in 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., cciii. p. 745.
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACT OF 1876 23 
 
 England and Wales in which no provision whatever was made 
 for religious teaching, reading, or observances. Of these 
 forty-three were in the counties of Cardigan, Carmarthen, 
 Pembroke, and Glamorgan, seven in the rest of Wales, and 
 seven in England 1 . 
 
 To the Act in general there naturally was strong opposition 
 from the supporters of denominational schools, who did not like 
 to see an undenominational rival created with power to levy 
 compulsory rates against their voluntary subscriptions. There 
 was, however, no time to waste in vain regrets, and they put 
 forth a great effort, availing themselves to the utmost of the 
 last opportunity of obtaining building grants from the Govern- 
 ment, and raised money on a heroic scale. Of the 1,600,000 
 school places added between 1869 and 1876, about two-thirds 
 were due to voluntary agencies ; only about one-fifteenth of 
 the cost of these was met by the building grant of the State, 
 and the total of voluntary subscriptions in these few years 
 amounted to not less than three million pounds 2 . 
 
 On the other hand the supporters of the measure were very 
 active. Some towns elected School Boards forthwith, without 
 waiting for the Department, although they needed no addi- 
 tional accommodation ; this they did in order that they might 
 pass by-laws and secure the only possible means of compelling 
 attendance. Boards were at once voluntarily adopted by all 
 but one of the boroughs with a population of 50,000 or more 
 inhabitants :! . 
 
 The Act in itself of course made no difference in the 
 teaching prescribed by the Code, and it was not until 1875 
 that any material alteration was made in the system of payment 
 by results (see p. 15). 
 
 Further Elementary Education Acts were passed in 1872 
 and 1873, chiefly to amend and strengthen the original Act. 
 An amendment to introduce the Ballot at School Board 
 elections had been lost in 1870, but the Ballot Act for parlia- 
 mentary and municipal elections (35 & 36 Viet. c. 33) having 
 been passed in 1872, the Elementary Education Act of the 
 following year declared that in any School Board election the 
 poll should be as far as possible conducted as at a municipal 
 election under the new Act. 
 
 Elementary Edzication Act^ 1876 (39 & 40 Viet. c. 79). 
 
 In 1876, Mr. Disraeli being in power, a new measure of 
 greater importance was brought in by Lord Sandon, the 
 
 1 House of Lords Paper, No. 2, 1895. 2 Craik, p. 109. 
 
 5 E. M. Hance in Samuelson's Subjects of the Day, i. p. 33 : Routledge, 1890.
 
 24 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Vice -President of the Committee, which ultimately created 
 local authorities with powers to secure compulsory attendance 
 in districts where no School Boards existed, and greatly 
 increased the effectiveness of compulsion. At first the Bill 
 contained only a provision for indirect compulsion : the labour 
 of children was to be limited, but there was no security that 
 the leisure thus obtained must be spent at school. At the 
 second reading- an amendment of Mr. Mundella proposing 
 compulsory attendance was rejected ; but in Committee, to 
 the surprise of the Opposition, stringent judicial compulsion 
 was introduced by the Government 1 . 
 
 The Act as passed declared that ' it shall be the duty of the parent of every 
 child to cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction in reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, and if such parent fail to perform such duty he shall be 
 liable to such orders and penalties as are provided by the Act.' A child was now 
 defined as ' between the ages of five and fourteen years." 
 
 Attendance. In case of habitual neglect on the part of the parent to provide 
 efficient elementary instruction, or of habitual truancy on part of the child, the 
 School Board or School Attendance Committee had to apply to a Court of 
 Summary Jurisdiction to issue an Attendance Order, requiring the child to make 
 an invariable or a specified attendance at a specified school. If this Order were 
 disobeyed, the parent could be summoned and fined a sum not exceeding 5^. 
 including costs, or the child, if quite unmanageable, could be sent to a certified 
 industrial school or a certified day industrial school, and the parent compelled to 
 contribute to his maintenance. On every subsequent offence both these punishments 
 could be inflicted. 
 
 Remission of school fees for poverty was transferred from the School Boards 
 to the Poor Law Guardians. As to employment, except as then laid down by the 
 Factory Acts, no child might be employed at all below the age of ten, and no 
 child might be employed between the ages of ten and fourteen without a certificate 
 from H.M. Inspector of having passed the Fourth Standard in reading, writing, 
 and elementary arithmetic, or of having made a certain attendance at any elementary 
 school certified as efficient by H.M. Inspector. [250 attendances in each of five 
 years; raised to 350 in 1900. This is popularly known as the Dunce 's Certificate,} 
 
 The age of the compulsory attendance of backward and truant children was 
 thus raised from thirteen to fourteen, and a minimum not wholly formal was 
 imposed on all before exemption was granted. 
 
 By-laws previously made by School Boards held good, though many of them 
 were much easier to satisfy : with leave of the Education Department by-laws of 
 greater stringency than the Statute might now be made, but they could not here- 
 after go below its standard. 
 
 Any employer (including a parent employing his child in any labour exercised 
 by way of trade or for purposes of gain) who was found employing children under 
 age was to be liable to a fine not exceeding 40^. 
 
 School Attendance Committees. To enforce attendance a new set of bodies was 
 called into existence to supplement the School Boards. In all districts in England 
 and Wales which had no School Board, School Attendance Committees were 
 to be appointed in parishes by the Guardians of the Poor Law Union, and in 
 boroughs by the Council : each Committee was to consist of from six to twelve 
 members of the body appointing it. An urban sanitary district might with consent 
 of the Department have a Committee appointed by its Local Board. These 
 Attendance Committees were thus practically Attendance Sub-committees of the 
 body appointing them. Their expenses were to be met out of the borough rate, or 
 in parishes out of the poor rate. 
 
 1 Adams, Elementary School Contest, p. 316.
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACTS OF 1876 AND 1880 25 
 
 It was the duty of School Boards and Attendance Committees to enforce this 
 law as regards the parent and the child : as regards employers it was to be 
 carried out by the inspectors under the Factory Acts'. Any person might inform 
 the Committee or School Board of any breach of the Act, and they were bound to 
 proceed upon it. 
 
 Attendance Committees in boroughs if they thought fit might make by-laws 
 regulating attendance ; an Attendance Committee in a parish, if it received a re- 
 quisition from the ratepayers, was bound to make them. It was also the duty of 
 Attendance Committees to report to the Education Department any infringement 
 of the conscience clauses or any complaints of the same within their district. 
 They might if they chose delegate their powers to local committees. In case of 
 default the Department had power to appoint a School Attendance Committee for 
 a period not exceeding two years. 
 
 Parliamentary Grants. The annual Parliamentary Grant was not to be reduced 
 by reason of its excess above the income of the school from other sources, pro- 
 vided that it did not exceed 17^. 6d. per child in average attendance, but it might 
 only exceed that sum by the same amount as the income of the school from all 
 other sources exceeded it. Thus, for instance, if the general income from fees, 
 rates, and contributions averaged iSs., the annual grant might amount to l8s. a 
 head and no more, even though more were earned. 
 
 Extra grants were also given in districts with a scanty population. 
 
 Certified Efficient Schools. To escape from penalties for non-attendance under 
 this Act, a child must have a certificate of proficiency or of due attendance at some 
 certified efficient school, of the efficiency of which H.M. Inspector had to be 
 satisfied. Such schools need not be ' public,' but must not be conducted for 
 private profit, must be open to inspection, must require the same attendance as 
 a public elementary school, and keep registers as prescribed by the Department. 
 A child was exempt from the action of by-laws made under the Act of 1870 if he 
 were shown to be under efficient instruction in some other manner, but certificates 
 of efficiency for non-public schools were now first instituted, and definite inspection 
 introduced of a new class of school. 
 
 [These voluntary schools did not apply for a grant, mostly because their 
 managers were unwilling to submit to the conscience clause, but they needed to 
 be returned as efficient in order to secure their pupils from being compelled to 
 attend some other school which satisfied the definition of the Act. A child 
 attending a private school private in the ordinary sense of the word of being 
 conducted lor the schoolmaster's profit could not obtain exemption as a whole 
 or half-timer until he or she was beyond school age.] 
 
 By this measure provision was made for the certification of Industrial and Day 
 Industrial schools (see p. 57) by the Home Secretary, under certain conditions, 
 the latter class of institution being now for the first time introduced and being 
 defined as schools in which industrial training, elementary education, and one or 
 more meals a day, but not lodging, are provided for the children. 
 
 Elementary Education Act, 1880. In 1880, Mr. Mundella 
 being Vice-President, the provisions for compulsory attend- 
 ance were still further strengthened by a new Act (43 & 44 
 Viet. c. 23). 
 
 It became obligatory on all School Boards and School 
 Attendance Committees to pass by-laws under the Act of 
 1870, 74, and the Committees had no longer to wait for the 
 requisition of their parish. If the by-laws were not made, the 
 Education Department might treat the locality as in default 
 under the law of 1870, or might themselves make the by-laws 
 for the district: these by-laws being needed to define the new 
 
 1 Not the by-laws (Owen, Education Acts Manual, p. 307), and only of course 
 for factory children, v. p. 49.
 
 26 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 provisions for attendance, and at the same time to allow for 
 the varying needs and desires of different parts of the country. 
 
 No child between ten and thirteen was allowed by these 
 by-laws to be absent from school, even for half-time, without 
 obtaining a certificate of having reached a standard of educa- 
 tion fixed by the local by-law. A certificate of previous 
 attendance was of no use unless the child were thirteen, when 
 by the law of 1876 he or she was still obliged to attend school 
 for another year, but could claim exemption on a certificate of 
 attendance only. 
 
 Children actually employed under the Factory Acts at the 
 time of the passing of this Act were specifically exempted 
 from it, and therefore by inference it was to override the 
 Factory Acts in the future, and impose an educational qualifi- 
 cation for half-timers between the ages of ten and thirteen, 
 while no child under ten could now escape the obligation to 
 make full-time attendance at school. The various by-laws 
 made before 1 880 remained in force, and no attempt was made 
 to render them uniform as in Scotland, although the differences 
 between them were considerable, and too many had established 
 a deplorably low standard. One-fifth of the population in 
 1 895 might obtain total exemption at the Fourth Standard ; 
 the children of over a million persons might obtain partial 
 exemption at the Second l . 
 
 The effects of the three successive Acts may be thus 
 summed up : 
 
 After 1870, by-laws enforcing attendance at school might 
 be made by School Boards. 
 
 After 1876, they might also be made by School Attendance 
 Committees. 
 
 By the 1876 Act, complete abstinence from employment 
 was enforced under ten. 
 
 By the Act of 1880, complete attendance at school was 
 enforced under ten. 
 
 In 1886 a Royal Commission was appointed, with Lord 
 Cross as Chairman, to inquire into the working of the Ele- 
 mentary Education Acts in England and Wales. They sat for 
 two years, and issued ten volumes of reports, but the final 
 report ended in five reservations and a minority report of 
 eight out of a total of twenty-three Commissioners. The chief 
 of their recommendations which have as yet been carried out 
 are raising the school age to eleven, improving evening 
 schools, making drawing compulsory for boys, starting unde- 
 nominational Day Training Colleges, and giving special help 
 to necessitous rural schools. 
 
 1 1895, Sadler, Special Reports, 1897, p. 21.
 
 EDUCATION] CHANGES SINCE 1888 27 
 
 To carry out these and other reforms there has been much 
 legislation of importance since 1888, but, apart from the Edu- 
 cation Act, 1902, the progress has been made so gradually 
 and at so many points along the line of advance, that it will be 
 clearer and more convenient to group the recent statutes 
 according to their aim rather than by their dates. The main 
 results are that education has been made free ; provision has 
 been made for the teaching of afflicted children ; the age of 
 exemption has been twice raised, and it has been rendered 
 possible to raise the age of attendance ; rates and subscrip- 
 tions have been supplemented from imperial funds, and last 
 and not least, educational authorities have to a considerable 
 extent been consolidated. 
 
 In 1888 County Councils were established by the Local 
 Government Act (51 & 52 Viet. c. 41), bodies which have now 
 been made the chief local authorities in education. In 1889 
 and 1 890 followed the Technical Instruction Act and the Local 
 Taxation (Customs and Excise Act) (54 & 55 Viet. c. 56), 
 measures of which an account will be found on pp. 165-6. 
 Their policy for the time being chiefly affected secondary and 
 technical education, but they have subsequently proved to be 
 the foundation of the new elementary system. 
 
 Financial Changes. 
 
 In 1889 Scotland had to a large extent obtained free 
 elementary education, but England and Wales devoted to 
 other purposes the Probate and Licence Duties, of which 
 Scotland had expended her share in relief of School fees. 
 To bring the countries into line, a fresh Elementary Edu- 
 cation Act (54 & 55 Viet. c. 56) was passed in 1891, granting 
 ten shillings a year to the day public elementary schools in 
 England and Wales for each child between three and fifteen 
 in average attendance, on condition that no fee should be 
 charged for children above three and under fifteen, except 
 where the average rate of fees had exceeded ten shillings 
 a year, and in that case the reduced fee and the fee grant 
 together should not exceed the former rate. If the Educa- 
 tion Department were satisfied that the amount of elementary 
 public school accommodation without payment of fees was 
 insufficient in any district, they might direct the deficiency 
 to be supplied as under the Act of 1870, and thus, if neces- 
 sary, proceed to order the election of a School Board. 
 
 In 1902 there were six hundred and thirty-three thousand 
 children paying fees in public elementary schools, and over 
 five millions receiving their education free.
 
 28 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 In order to assist the poorer elementary schools, whether 
 voluntary or under a Board, two separate Acts were passed by 
 Parliament in 1897. By the Voluntary Schools Act (60 Viet, 
 c. 5) an Aid Grant was given to elementary day schools not 
 provided by a School Board. Voluntary schools formed them- 
 selves into associations within such areas and with such 
 governing- bodies as the Education Department approved ; 
 each association received an annual grant limited to an average 
 of five shillings for the whole number of scholars in average 
 attendance. The grant was in fact paid at the fixed rate of 
 3^. ^d. to country schools, and $s. yd. to schools in towns. The 
 173. 6d. limit (p. 25) was abolished for all public elementary 
 day schools, and voluntary elementary schools were thence- 
 forth exempt from rates. Seventy-five such associations were 
 formed, forty-six being composed mainly of Church of Eng- 
 land schools, and being in all but three cases co-extensive 
 with a diocese or archdeaconry. Eleven were Catholic, eleven 
 Nonconformist; six were Wesleyan and one was Jewish. 
 The Catholic associations were diocesan ; the Wesleyan and 
 ' British ' were grouped according to counties. Nineteen 
 unassociated schools received a grant in 1901. In 1899 the 
 expenditure on teachers' salaries in voluntary schools was 
 increased by ten per cent. l . The voluntary contributions fell 
 at once by .77,000, but for the year ended in 1900 they were 
 .806,967, 5,000 in excess of their former maximum 2 . The 
 total amount paid to the associations under the Act in 1902 
 was 617,815. 
 
 In 1900 there were 2,545 School Boards and 788 School 
 Attendance Committees in England and Wales, representing 
 a population of twenty millions and nearly nine millions 
 respectively. 
 
 The second statute, Elementary Education Act, 1897 
 (60 Viet. c. 1 6), displayed a similar generosity to poor Board 
 Schools. Section 97 of the Act of 1870 made an addition to 
 the rate in poor districts, providing a minimum sum of js. 6d. 
 per child in Board Schools, and a somewhat similar sliding 
 scale now provided for bringing up the amount to a maximum 
 of \6s. 6d. per child. In 1900, 208,221 was thus paid to 
 739 School Boards. But these Acts have both been replaced 
 by the provisions of the Education Act, 1902 (p. 36). 
 
 Changes Affecting the Children. 
 
 i. Age of Attendance and Exemption. In 1893 the 
 lowest age for total or partial exemption from attendance was 
 
 1 P. p., Cd. 328, P . 1.3. ' p. p., Cd. 631, P . 159.
 
 EDUCATION] CHANGES SINCE 1888 29 
 
 raised to eleven by a short Elementary Education (School 
 Attendance) Act (56 & 57 Viet. c. 51). In 1899 an amending 
 statute (62 & 63 Viet. c. 13), introduced by Mr. W. S. Robson, 
 K.C., again raised the age of exemption a year to twelve, 
 granting partial exemption from attendance after that age 
 for a previous record of 300 attendances for each of five 
 preceding years. But this is interpreted as referring only 
 to places where the by-laws already provide for partial 
 exemption l . This Act further allowed the local authority 
 in any district to raise the minimum age for total exemption 
 to thirteen for children engaged in agriculture, who in that 
 case need make only 250 attendances per annum after reach- 
 ing the age of eleven. By the Elementary Education Act, 1 900 
 (63 & 64 Viet. c. 53), school authorities were allowed to raise 
 the age of compulsory attendance under their by-laws from 
 thirteen to fourteen, children of thirteen having hitherto only 
 come under the Act of 1876, and not under the by-laws 
 (p. 20). The penalty on parents for breach of by-laws as to 
 attendance was raised by the Act from five shillings (see 
 p. 20) to a pound, including costs. Both higher age and 
 higher penalty had already been law in Scotland since 1883 
 and 1872 respectively. The number of attendances required 
 for exemption under the so-called ' Dunce's certificate ' (see 
 p. 24) was increased from 250 to 350 for each of five pre- 
 ceding years. In all but 150 places the age has accordingly 
 been raised by by-law to fourteen, while about 500 local 
 authorities in rural districts have availed themselves of the 
 agricultural clause. 
 
 The by-laws throughout the country are being revised by 
 the local authorities : in all cases the Board of Education is 
 requiring the Fifth Standard for total exemption, and, as far 
 as possible, the Fourth for partial exemption. (Report for 
 1900-1, Cd. 756, p. n.) 
 
 It is quite clear that the time has come for a consolidation 
 of the Acts relating to elementary education, of which there 
 are nearly thirty in force. But after the experience of last 
 session this task is likely to be long deferred. In the mean- 
 time it may be convenient to quote from the Board of Educa- 
 tion Report for 1900-1, p. n,the following summary of the 
 law of school attendance. 
 
 (i) If the by-laws contain a special provision to this effect, 
 children may be employed in agriculture at the age of eleven, 
 provided that they attend school 250 times a year up to the 
 age of thirteen. 
 
 1 r. P., cd. 328, p. i 4 .
 
 30 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 (2) With this exception no child, subject to the by-laws, can 
 obtain either partial or total exemption under the age of twelve. 
 
 (3) A child between twelve and thirteen, or (if the by-laws 
 are extended) between twelve and fourteen, can only obtain 
 total or partial exemption on the conditions prescribed by the 
 by-laws. 
 
 (4) In districts where the by-laws are still restricted to 
 children of thirteen years of age, a child between thirteen and 
 fourteen can obtain total exemption either on passing the 
 Fourth Standard, or on making 350 previous attendances 
 after five years of age in not more than two schools during 
 each year for five years. 
 
 (5) A child between twelve and fourteen may claim partial 
 exemption on making 300 previous attendances annually for 
 five years, but in the view of the Board this exemption can 
 only be claimed where the by-laws themselves contain a pro- 
 vision for partial exemption. 
 
 2. Afflicted Children. In 1893 the Elementary Educa- 
 tion (Blind and Deaf Children) Act (56 & 57 Viet. c. 42), was 
 passed. Children too blind to be able to read the ordinary 
 school books or too deaf to be taught in a class of hearing 
 children in an elementary school must be sent to schools 
 certified suitable for them, and due provision of these has 
 to be made by School Boards and District Councils or body 
 appointing a School Attendance Committee. The Department 
 might declare the local authority or their committee in default, 
 or order them to pay a sum for any child attending such 
 school. The Act does not extend to idiots, imbeciles, or 
 pauper children. Blindness and deafness are no longer an 
 excuse for absence from school except for deaf children under 
 seven, and attendance in both cases of infirmity is compulsory 
 up to the age of sixteen. 
 
 A committee of the Education Department reported in 
 January, 1898, in favour of a similar measure on behalf of 
 defective and epileptic children, and accordingly in 1899 the 
 Elementary Education (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act 
 (62 & 63 Viet. c. 32) was passed. It is on similar lines to the 
 preceding measure ; power is given to ascertain the numbers 
 for which provision is required ; guides or conveyances may 
 be provided if necessary for the children ; but the later Act 
 is only permissive, and it contains no obligation to provide 
 accommodation for defective children however great the need. 
 No home for boarding may contain more than fifteen such 
 children, nor may there be more than four such houses in one 
 establishment ( 2 (6)). 
 
 There were forty schools certified for the blind in 1901,
 
 EDUCATION] THE BOARD OF EDUCATION 31 
 
 and sixty-three for the deaf: 1,640 blind and 3,236 deaf chil- 
 dren in attendance were examined : 109 schools and classes 
 with accommodation for 688 defective and epileptic children 
 were certified. 
 
 3. Employment of Children. In 1901 an inter-depart- 
 mental committee of the Education Office and the Local 
 Government Board reported on the employment of children 
 of school age out of school hours, which had already engaged 
 the attention of the House of Commons. The Committee 
 found that at least 300,000 children were so employed in 
 England and Wales; that such employment was not neces- 
 sarily undesirable, but that in 50,000 cases probably it 
 amounted to more than twenty hours per week in addition 
 to twenty-seven and a half hours' school. In certain branches 
 such as street-hawking the employment required regulation, 
 which could best be imposed by by-laws to be issued and 
 enforced by County and Borough Councils. Interference with 
 parents, except in cases of actual cruelty, was undesirable *. 
 
 Canal Boat Acts. Two Acts (40 & 41 Viet. c. 60, and 47 
 & 48 Viet. c. 75) were passed in 1877 and 1884 which require 
 every canal boat used as a residence to be registered in some 
 sanitary district, the children living on board having to attend 
 school at the place of registration, unless receiving instruction 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The authority of the Sanitary District have to enforce the 
 Act under the Local Government Board as a sanitary measure ; 
 the school authority have to enforce attendance under the 
 Education Acts. 
 
 THE BOARD OF EDUCATION 2 . 
 
 The Board of Education Act (62 and 63 Viet. c. 33) passed 
 in 1899 provided for the establishment of a Board of Education 
 charged with the superintendence of matters relating to educa- 
 tion in England and Wales, which should ' take the place of the 
 Education Department (including the Department of Science 
 and Art).' The Board consists of a President, appointed 
 by the Sovereign, and of the Lord President of Council 
 (if he is not, as in 1899, identical with the person appointed 
 
 1 House of Commons Paper, 1899, No. 205 : return from the Board of Edu- 
 cation : see also Report of a Committee of the Education Department appointed to 
 inquire into the laws of School Attendance and Child Labour, 1 893, House of Com- 
 mons Paper, No. 311. A Hill is introduced in 1903, authorizing local by-laws. 
 
 2 For a careful reading of this part of my proof-sheets I am greatly indebted to 
 the kindness of Mr. H. M. Spencer of Stafford.
 
 32 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 President of the Board), the Principal Secretaries of State, 
 the First Commissioner of the Treasury, and the Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer. Sir John Gorst remained Vice-President 
 till his retirement in August, 1902, when, by the terms of the 
 Act, his office was abolished. Lord Londonderry, a former 
 Chairman of the London School Board, was at that date 
 appointed President of the Board of Education in place of the 
 Duke of Devonshire, and Sir William Anson became the first 
 Parliamentary Under- Secretary. The Board may, with the 
 sanction of the Treasury, appoint such secretary, officers, and 
 servants as it determines. 
 
 In accordance with the provisions of the Act a Consultative 
 Committee of eighteen members, both men and women, hold- 
 ing office for six years, has been appointed by an Order in 
 Council of August 7, 1900, to advise the Board in any matters 
 referred to them, and also to frame the regulations for a 
 Register of Teachers, which must be kept in alphabetical 
 order, showing the date of registration and recording the 
 respective qualifications (see p. 44). 
 
 Under the Act any of the powers of the Charity Commis- 
 sioners may by an Order in Council be transferred to or 
 exercised concurrently by the new Board. Such a transfer 
 (for all but formal powers of official trustees of charities) was 
 made gradually, and was finally completed by an Order in 
 Council taking effect on October i, 1902, and covering all 
 the work except a few financial and formal orders (see p. 46). 
 A similar power in respect of the Board of Agriculture has 
 not yet been exercised. 
 
 On the passing of the Bill Sir George Kekewich, then Secre- 
 tary of the Education Department, was appointed also Secretary 
 of the Science and Art Department, and two Principal As- 
 sistant Secretaries were appointed to act under his direction, 
 one at each office. On the Act coming into force in April, 
 1900, the Office was reorganized, but for the present the only 
 detail which here concerns us is that of the two branches in 
 the Education Office one is mainly concerned with elementary 
 education, and domiciled at Whitehall under a Principal 
 Assistant Secretary with six subordinate Assistant Secretaries. 
 The staff of Examiners in the Office and of the Inspectors is 
 of course unaltered. 
 
 But these steps were only preliminary to more sweeping 
 changes of the local organization of the public educational 
 system as a whole. Neither the poorer voluntary schools nor 
 the schools of the small country School Boards offered any 
 reasonable prospect of improvement ; the upward progress of 
 the large School Boards into secondary education was arrested
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACT OF 1902 33 
 
 by the auditor and the Law Courts (see pp. 42, 173). Govern- 
 ment, apparently in response rather to ecclesiastical pressure 
 than to the united enthusiasm of the Cabinet for education, 
 introduced a Bill of twenty clauses which met with much 
 criticism, both intelligent and blind, raised the bitterest hostility 
 of the Nonconformists and Radicals, was discussed for fifty- 
 nine sittings in two sessions of the House of Commons, and, 
 after the guillotine application of the closure, finally became 
 law on December 18, 1902. Owing to its importance, and 
 contrary to usage, it was taken charge of in the House of 
 Commons by the Prime Minister. 
 
 The Education Act, 1903. 
 (2 Edw. VII, c. 42.) 
 
 Local Education Authorities. The Act provides that School Boards and 
 School Attendance Committees shall be abolished (Clause 5). Their powers and 
 duties are taken over by the County Councils, the County Borough Councils, the 
 Councils of Non-County Boroughs with a population of over 10,000 in the 
 Census of 1901 (23 (8)), and the Councils of Urban Districts with a population of 
 over 20,000 in 1901, each of these, so far as elementary education is concerned, 
 becoming the ' local education authority ' in its own area (Clause i). 
 
 A Non-County Borough or Urban District Council may at any time, with the 
 approval of the Board of Education, relinquish its powers under the Act to its 
 County Council by agreement, and cease to be a separate authority (20 ()). 
 Such a relinquishment would, it is understood, be final, but under Section 17 (5) 
 a similar arrangement might be made, subject to revision or resumption l . 
 
 County Councillors sitting for a Borough or Urban District, which is an inde- 
 pendent authority for elementary education, are not allowed to vote in respect 
 of any question arising before the County Council which relates only to matters 
 under the part of the Act dealing with elementary education ; but it is understood 
 that they are not disqualified from sitting on any Committee of the County Council 
 which deals with these questions (23 (3)). 
 
 Education Committees. Each of these Councils will have to raise the requisite 
 rates and borrow money if necessary (5) and (unless, being an Urban District or 
 Borough which is an authority for education other than elementary only, it decide 
 otherwise (17(i)) it is bound to 'establish an education committee or education 
 committees constituted in accordance with a scheme made by the council and 
 approved by the Board of Education.' Any powers of a council under the Act 
 (except those of raising a rate or borrowing money) may bj delegated with or 
 without restrictions or conditions to its education committee, and all matters 
 relating to the exercise by the council of their powers under the Act except in 
 reference to rate or loan must stand referred to the education committee, whose 
 report must be received and considered by the council (except in cases of urgency) 
 before taking action (17 (2)). 
 
 Provision is made for the appointment of separate committees for different areas, 
 it' necessary, or of a joint committee for any combination of counties, boroughs, or 
 urban districts or of any parts thereof (17 (5)). 
 
 Constitution of Education Committees. Every scheme shall provide (17 (3)) 
 (a) for the appointment by the council of at least a majority of the committee, 
 who, except in counties, must themselves be members of the council ; () for the 
 appointment by the council, on the nomination or recommendation where it appears 
 desirable of other bodies (including associations of voluntary schools) of persons 
 of experience in education and with knowledge of the needs of the various kinds 
 of the local schools, (c] Women must be included in the committee, (d) 
 
 1 Times, Dec. 20, 1902. 
 
 BALFOUR I '
 
 34 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Members of School Boards may be appointed members of the first committee, if 
 it be desirable, (e) No person who by any pecuniary interest is debarred from 
 being a member of the local authority, may sit on the committee. This restriction, 
 however, does not apply to teachers or officials of schools aided, provided, or main- 
 tained by the council. 
 
 The Board of Education is bound to give full publicity to every scheme before 
 approving it, and before approving any scheme which provides for the appoint- 
 ment of more than one committee, must be .satisfied that due regard is paid to the 
 importance of the general co-ordination of all forms of education (17 (6)). 
 
 Duties of the Local Authority. Besides generally inheriting all the obligations 
 and functions of School Boards and School Attendance Committees, the local edu- 
 cation authority is under the Act specifically responsible for, and has the control 
 of, all secular education in the public elementary schools in its district (5), and 
 must maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools within its area 
 which are necessary, and control all expenditure required for that purpose except 
 that for which provision has to be made by the managers of non-provided 
 schools (7). 
 
 Vohmtary and Council Schools. The two classes are described respectively in 
 the Act as ' Schools provided by the local authority' and 'Schools not provided 
 by the local authority,' but it is understood that the official designation will be 
 ' Voluntary Schools ' and ' Council Schools.' The main difference between them 
 now lies in the different methods of appointing managers, in the fact that denomi- 
 national religious instruction may, subject to the conscience clause, be given in one 
 class of school and not in the other, and that in the ' non-provided ' schools all 
 repairs (except those due to fair wear and tear) and all reasonable additions or 
 improvements must be m^de at the cost of the managers (7 (d)). 
 
 Provided Schools. In these schools the body of managers shall deal with such 
 matters relating to the management of the school and subject to such conditions 
 and restrictions as the local education authority determine (Schedule I. B. (4)"). 
 
 Aon- Provided Schools. In the case of a school not provided by the authority 
 the following conditions are enforced : Any directions given by the local authority 
 as to the secular instruction to be given in the school must be carried out by the 
 managers, including any direction with respect to the numbers and educational 
 qualifications of the teachers to be employed for such instruction, and for the dis- 
 missal of any teacher on educational grounds. But no such directions may interfere 
 with reasonable facilities for religious instruction during school hours (7 (i) (a)\ 
 The local authority has power to inspect the school (7 (i) (b}\ and the consent 
 of the local authority shall be required to the appointment of teachers, but that 
 consent shall not be withheld except on educational grounds. Its consent is also 
 required for their dismissal except on grounds connected with the giving of religious 
 instruction in the school (7 (i) (c)]. In non-provided schools assistant teachers 
 and pupil teachers may be appointed, if thought fit, without reference to religious 
 creed and denomination, and where there are more candidates than vacancies for 
 a post of pupil teacher, the local authority is to make the appointment on the results 
 of examination or otherwise (7 (5)). 
 
 Religious instruction in a non-provided school is to be given in accordance with 
 the provisions (if any) of the trust-deed relating thereto, and shall be under the 
 control of the managers. (This is the ' Kenyon-Slaney clause,' as amended by 
 the Lord Chancellor.) But if in the trust-deed there is any provision for reference 
 to the bishop or superior ecclesiastical or other denominational authority, nothing 
 in the subsection shall affect such provision so far as it gives the bishop or 
 authority the power of deciding whether the religious instruction given is or is 
 not in accordance with the provisions of the trust-deed (7 (6)). 
 
 Subject to these restrictions the managers of non-provided schools have the 
 exclusive power of appointing and dismissing teachers, and shall have all powers 
 of management required for the proposed carrying out of the Act (7 (7)). The 
 managers of a non-provided school must provide the school-house free of charge 
 (except for the teacher's dwelling-house, ifanyj,and out of funds provided by them 
 must keep it in good repair, free of any charge and make such alterations and 
 improvements in the buildings as may be reasonably required by the education 
 authority, but such damage as the local authority considers to be due to fair wear
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACT OF 1902 35 
 
 and tear in the use of any room in the school-house for the purpose of a public 
 elementary school is to be made good by the local authority (7 (i) (</)). The 
 school-house must be available for use as a public elementary day school, and also 
 free of charge for not more than three days a week for any educational purposes, if 
 the local authority has no other suitable accommodation in schools provided by 
 them (7 (i) (*)). On all these points an appeal lies to the Board of Education 
 (7 (3)), and compliance with these provisions is a necessary condition for any 
 non-provided public elementary school earning a grant (7 (i) (<)). 
 
 The local authority may use for the purposes of the school any school furniture 
 and apparatus belonging to the trustees or managers of any non-provided school 
 and in use for the purposes of the school before the appointed day on which the 
 Act comes into force (p. 37) (Sched. II. (14)). 
 
 Appointment of Managers {A^ of Council Schools. For public elementary 
 schools provided by the local authority there shall be managers appointed by the 
 local authority (if a County Council), not usually exceeding four in number, 
 together with not more than two managers appointed by the minor local authority, 
 i.e. the council of a borough or urban district, or the parish council or parish 
 meeting, as the case may be. The number of managers may however be increased, 
 so long as the same proportions are maintained. Women are qualified as managers 
 of any school. In county boroughs or such boroughs or urban districts as are 
 independent the council appoints the whole of the managers, and may appoint 
 such number as it determines (6 (i)). 
 
 (Z?) Voluntary Schools. For schools not provided by the local authority there 
 shall be a certain number (not under ordinary circumstances exceeding four) of 'foun- 
 dation managers,' together with not more than two managers representing the local 
 authorities, one being chosen in the case of counties by the higher local authority, 
 and the other by the minor local authority. In boroughs or urban districts which 
 are local independent authorities for elementary education, their council appoints 
 both of the non-foundation managers. In any case the number of managers may 
 be increased proportionately (G ^2)). Any non-foundation manager may resign, 
 and is also removable by the body which appoints him (Sched. IB V 5)). Women 
 are qualified for appointment as managers, neither age, marriage, nor sex being an 
 impediment (23 ()). 
 
 Foundation managers are appointed under the provisions of the school trust 
 deed, which, if inadequate or inconsistent with the provisions of the Act, may be 
 amended by an Order of the Board of Education (11 (i)"). Such Order (which may 
 be interim or final, but may in any case be amended by a new Order, which has to 
 be laid before Parliament) (11 (5) (8)^ must be made with due notice and have 
 regard to the ownership of the school-building and to the principles on which the 
 education in the school has been conducted in the past. 
 
 Meetings. Every body of managers must hold a meeting at least every three 
 months ; any two managers may convene a meeting ; a quorum shall not be less 
 than three or one-third of the whole number, whichever is the greater number. The 
 minutes shall be open to inspection by the local education authority (Sched. I B). 
 
 Grouping of Schools. Provided schools and also, with the consent of the 
 managers, non-provided schools may be grouped by the local authority under one 
 body of managers, the minor local authorities being duly represented (12 (6)). 
 
 Such grouping of non-provided schools is to remain in force for at least three 
 years (12 (4)), the other terms being agreed upon between the managers and the 
 local authority, or in default of agreement being determined by the Board of 
 Education (12(2)). 
 
 finance. The expenses of counties and county boroughs come ordinarily out of 
 the county fund and the borough fund or rate respectively, and if in the latter case 
 no borough rate is levied, then out of a separate rate, made, assessed, and levied 
 in like manner as the borough rate, urban districts obtaining their expenses (18) 
 in the same way as a School Attendance Committee under the Education Act 
 of 1876. 
 
 County Councils may borrow as under the Local Government Act, 1888, but the 
 money borrowed by county boroughs, boroughs, or urban district councils must 
 be borrowed on the security of the fund or rate out of which the expenses of the 
 Council under this Act are payable (19 (i)). 
 
 D 2
 
 36 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Grant. The Aid Grants (p. 28) are to cease (10), and the schools, whether 
 provided or non-provided, are to receive help from the Treasury on the fo' lowing 
 basis : A grant of four shillings per child in average attendance, and of three 
 halfpence additional per child for every twopence by which the amount raised by 
 a penny rate falls short of ten shillings per scholar. Thus, if a penny rate 
 produces 2s. yl. per scholar, the managers would receive for each scholar in 
 average attendance four shillings, plus forty-six sums of three halfpence 
 = 4.?. + 55. 9</. = 9*. gd. But every locality raising less than a threepenny rate 
 is to lose out of its Parliamentary grant half the amount by which its actual 
 rate falls below the product of a threepenny rate (10 (i ) (3)). 
 
 Endowments are not to be affected (13 (i)), nor the discretion of trustees in 
 respect thereof; but local endowments paid over to a County Council in respect of 
 provided schools are to be credited in aid of either the education rate or the poor 
 rate for the particular localities (13 (2)). Fees in any non-provided school are 
 to be divided between the local authority and the managers in a proportion agreed 
 upon between them, or else determined by the Board of Education (14). 
 
 Not less than one-half nor more than three-fourths of capital expenditure for 
 providing or improving a public elementary school (18 (i) (c)} or for rent shall be 
 charged by the County Council on the parish or parishes served by the school; 
 and similarly not less than one-half nor more than three-fourths of the expenses to 
 meet the liabilities of any School Board for loans or rent is to be raised exclusively 
 within the school district in question (18 (i) (</)). 
 
 Every borough must keep a separate education account, which must be audited 
 in the same way as the accounts of a County Council (18 (3)). In the case of 
 any receipts or payments entrusted by the local authority to any education commit- 
 tee or to the managers of any public elementary school, the accounts shall be the 
 accounts of the local education authority (18 (2)), and the auditor shall have the 
 same powers with respect to managers as he would have if the managers were 
 officers of the local education authority. 
 
 The officers of School Boards and School Attendance Committees are transferred 
 to the new authorities, and hold their offices on the same terms and conditions as 
 before, receiving not less salary or remuneration (Sched. II (16) (7)). Any officer 
 whose office is abolished, or who relinquishes it in consequence of change or 
 increase of duties, is entitled to compensation. 
 
 Provision of Schools. Notice must be given of the intention to provide any new 
 school (provided or non-provided) ; and the managers of any existing neighbouring 
 school, or the local authority, or any ten local ratepayers, may appeal to the Board 
 of Education (8 (i)) on the ground that it is not required or could be better met 
 otherwise. Any transfer of a public elementary school to or from a local 
 education authority is to be treated as the provision of a new school. 
 
 In the event of any dispute as to the necessity of any school, the Board of 
 Education shall decide without unnecessary delay, having regard to the interests 
 of secular instruction, to the wishes of the parents as to the education of their 
 children, and to the economy of the rates. A school actually in existence with an 
 average attendance of thirty pupils is not to be considered unnecessary. 
 
 Elementary Instruction. The term 'elementary school' is not to include any 
 school carried on as an evening school under the regulations of the Board of 
 Education (22 (i)). The power to provide instruction under the Elementary 
 Education Acts is limited (except when the Acts expressly provide to the contrary) 
 to the provision in a public elementary school of instruction under the regulations 
 of the Board of Education to scholars who at the close of the school year will not 
 be more than sixteen years of age : provided that the local education authority 
 may with the consent of the Board of Education extend those limits in the case of 
 any such school if no suitable higher education is available within a reasonable 
 distance of the school (22 (2)). The power to supply or aid the supply of 
 education other than elementary includes a power to train teachers and to supply 
 or aid the supply of any education, except where that education is given at a public 
 elementary school. Vehicles may be provided or reasonable travelling expenses 
 allowed for teachers or children attending school or college, if the Council think 
 necessary (22 (3)). 
 
 Failure to act. In the event of the local education authority failing to fulfil
 
 EDUCATION] INSPECTION 37 
 
 any of their duties under the Elementary Education Acts, or failing to provide 
 necessary additional public school accommodation, the Board of Education may, 
 after holding a public inquiry, make such order as they think necessary or proper 
 for the purpose of compelling the authority to fulfil its duty, and any such order 
 may be enforced by mandamus (16). 
 
 If a scheme for an education committee has not been made by a Council and 
 approved by the Board within twelve months after the passing of the Act, the 
 Board has power to make a Provisional Order for the purposes for which a scheme 
 might have been made (17 (7)). 
 
 If the managers of a non-provided elementary school fail to carry out any 
 direction of the local educational authority as to the secular instruction given in 
 that school, the local authority shall, in addition to its other powers, have the 
 power themselves to carry out the direction in question, as if they were the 
 managers (7 (i) (a)X 
 
 The Act comes into force on March 26, 1903, or such other day, not being 
 more than eighteen months later, as the Board of Education may appoint, and 
 different days may be appointed for different purposes and for different provisions 
 of this Act, and for different Councils (27 (a)). 
 
 The Act applies to Wales, but not to London, nor to Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 Such are the main provisions of the Act : its many ambigu- 
 ities await interpretation by the Board of Education and the 
 Law Courts ; its deficiencies and misconceptions will no doubt 
 in time be corrected by subsequent legislation. In the mean- 
 time those counties and county boroughs which have been most 
 eager and most successful in the conduct of technical instruc- 
 tion are preparing to take over their new duties with as little 
 disturbance of the old local authorities as may be. How 
 much obstruction will be caused by reluctant bodies or pro- 
 testing individuals, time will show ; but in the interests of the 
 children it is to be hoped that the modus Vivendi will speedily 
 be found. 
 
 An Education Act for London is promised this year, and 
 will probably confer on the London County Council powers 
 analogous to those granted to the other counties. 
 
 Inspection. The staff for the inspection of elementary 
 schools consists of a Senior Chief Inspector (first appointed 
 in 1889), eleven Chief Inspectors, two for the Training Col- 
 leges, and ten in charge of school divisions (each comprising 
 ten districts), and eighty-seven Inspectors. Until 1882 young 
 men who had taken high honours at the universities, but had 
 no special knowledge of elementary education, were appointed 
 as inspectors, but since that date the appointments are supposed 
 to be made on grounds of special qualification or experience. 
 There are twenty-three Junior Inspectors (first appointed in 
 1901); fifty-two first-class Sub-Inspectors, and eleven Sub- 
 Inspectors in manual instruction and drawing. The Sub- 
 Inspectors, a class instituted in 1882, were appointed from the 
 second-class Inspectors (known until 1896 as Inspectors'
 
 38 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Assistants), of whom there were 161 in 1897 appointed from 
 the head teachers of public elementary schools. Since 1896 
 six ladies have been appointed Junior Inspectors. 
 
 The staff of more than twenty ' examiners ' in the Educa- 
 tion Office who examine the Inspectors' reports, assess the 
 grants, and revise the examination papers for Certificates, 
 King's Scholarships, &c., is appointed from the class which 
 formerly supplied Inspectors. 
 
 In 1896 Mr. M. E. Sadler was appointed to the new post of 
 Director of Special Reports, and a central educational library 
 was opened at Whitehall. Up to the present time eleven 
 volumes have been issued by Mr. Sadler and his assistants, 
 dealing with various educational questions at home, in the 
 Colonies, and abroad. Few countries had more need of an 
 Educational Intelligence Department than the United King- 
 dom ; hardly anywhere has its creation been so rapidly or so 
 amply justified. 
 
 Education and Grants given imder the Codes. It is 
 manifestly outside the scope of this work to follow in detail 
 the changes in the curriculum through the successive Codes, 
 or the methods in which the various grants were assessed. 
 Even under the Revised Code we have seen (p. 18) that the 
 doors were opened to subjects other than reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic, and after 1875 payment by results began 
 slowly to disappear. In that year certain subjects, such as 
 history and geography, were made ' class subjects,' which, if 
 taught at all, must be taught throughout the whole school, 
 and be judged by the proficiency of the classes as a whole. 
 
 In 1890 in elementary subjects a fixed grant on the average 
 attendance was introduced, examination was to be by sample, 
 and not less than one- third of the scholars were to be indi- 
 vidually examined. The grant might be at the rate of 14^. 
 or i2s. 6d., according to the Inspector's Report, in addition to 
 the various subsidiary grants. 
 
 In 1897 the last trace of payment by results vanished. 
 In specific subjects, the last stronghold of the Revised Code, 
 payment was to be at the rate of one shilling for each twenty- 
 four hours devoted to the subject, and payment by examina- 
 tion ceased *. 
 
 Since 1895 Inspectors have been allowed (with leave from 
 head quarters) to omit the regular annual visit, and to pay visits 
 instead without notice. 
 
 In 1900 the grant for children above infants was consoli- 
 dated as 21 or 22 shillings, with a further sum for the more 
 
 1 P'or a table showing the alterations in the Codes, 1871-95,566 Special Reports, 
 vol. i. pp. 33-44-
 
 KDUCATION] THE CODE 39 
 
 technical subjects, varying from two to seven shillings. The 
 Code, instead of laying down a precise curriculum, which 
 must be closely followed, in this year indicated the subjects 
 to be taught, and allowed the schools, if they chose, to submit 
 their own detailed scheme of arranging the subjects, dependent 
 on the approval of the Inspector. 
 
 The subjects still necessary were (and in 1903 are) English 
 (including reading, writing, and grammar), arithmetic, draw- 
 ing (for boys), needlework (for girls), together with lessons, 
 including object-lessons, on geography, history, and com- 
 mon things, singing (which should be as a rule by note), 
 and physical training. These are not all indispensable in 
 every class, and one or more may by permission be omitted. 
 There is a large division from which one or more subjects 
 must be taken, if considered desirable, including algebra, 
 Euclid, mensuration, mechanics, chemistry, physics, elementary 
 physics and chemistry, animal physiology, hygiene, botany, 
 principles of agriculture, horticulture, navigation, Latin, French, 
 Welsh (in Wales), German, bookkeeping, shorthand, domestic 
 economy or domestic science, drawing (for girls), and needle- 
 work (for boys). In addition to these there are subjects still 
 earning a separate grant, which almost partake of the nature 
 of technical education : these are for girls cookery, laundry- 
 work, dairy work, and household management ; for boys 
 manual instruction, gardening, and, in seaport towns, cookery. 
 The next Code is to be greatly simplified. 
 
 In 1899 a Circular was issued by the Department appealing 
 to School managers and teachers of Rural Elementary 
 Schools to ' make education in the village school more conso- 
 nant with the environment of the scholars ' ; two years later 
 five specimen courses of object-lessons of this character were 
 provided by the Board of Education. 
 
 Since 1882 the children in the Welsh-speaking districts 
 might be required to explain in Welsh the meaning of any 
 passage read to them ; this permission was gradually expanded, 
 and since 1893 the education may be bilingual. 
 
 School hours. The usual attendance in public elementary 
 schools for older children is for three hours in the morning 
 and for two, or two-and-a-half hours in the afternoon ; this is 
 for five days in the week, there being no school on Saturdays. 
 
 Age. In 1872 the attendance of children under three and 
 over eighteen received no recognition ; in 1884 the grant was 
 restricted to children who had not passed the Seventh Standard 
 in the three elementary subjects, unless re-examined by per- 
 mission of the Inspector ; but in 1890 an age limit of fourteen 
 was added to this qualification. In 1902 the attendance of
 
 40 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 those children only was recognized who are not under three 
 nor over fifteen years of age, but by the Act of 1902, as we 
 have seen, the age of recognition is extended to those ' who 
 at the end of the school year will not be more than sixteen 
 years of age.' 
 
 Higher Elementary Schools. By a Minute of April 6, 
 1900, a new class of Schools was recognized by the Board, 
 presumably as representing the higher limit to which public 
 elementary education in this country is permitted to extend. A 
 public elementary day school to be recognized under this head 
 must be organized to give a complete four years' course of in- 
 struction approved by the Board to children between the ages 
 of ten and fifteen who have been certified by the Inspector as 
 qualified to profit by the instruction given. Such schools must 
 be shown to be needed in the district, and they are as a rule 
 limited to three hundred pupils, the lower classes having a 
 teacher for each forty, the upper for each thirty scholars at 
 most. The curriculum must be approved by the Board, and 
 must show a sufficiency of science instruction both practical 
 and theoretical provided in each year. 
 
 Up to the end of June, 1902, recognition had been granted 
 to twenty-eight of such schools. 
 
 Technical Instruction. Serious technical instruction lies 
 probably outside the limits of elementary education, but 
 besides the technical teaching given in schools which were 
 still called elementary, the whole tendency of the education 
 of young children in England of late years has been in 
 the direction of sense training, object-lessons, and manual 
 employment. 
 
 The Technical Instruction Act of 1889 (52 & 53 Viet. c. 76) 
 especially excludes pupils in elementary schools from its 
 grants, ' the purpose of this restriction not being to imply that 
 such children should not receive technical instruction, but 
 that sufficient provision is supposed to be already made by 
 grants from the Education Department or the Science and 
 Art Department 1 .' 
 
 The Science and Art Department, until 1898, paid grants 
 for drawing and manual training, but these subjects in elemen- 
 tary schools were then transferred to the Education Depart- 
 ment (p. 45). ^ 
 
 For the chief subjects of a technical nature encouraged by 
 the Board of Education in elementary schools, see p. 39. 
 
 Evening Continuation Schools. Night schools were a de- 
 partment from which much was hoped at first. We read of 
 
 1 Technical, Commercial, and Industrial Education in Great Britain and 
 Ireland, by M. E. Sadler, 1895, p. 3 ; Bordeaux Conference, 1896.
 
 EDUCATION] EVENING SCHOOLS 41 
 
 great zeal and earnestness shown in the early days, when few 
 of the labouring classes had received much education and most 
 had deficiencies to supply. At Wells the bishop himself was 
 found teaching a class of navvies to read and cypher ; at 
 Bristol any interruption to the school was greatly resented ; 
 at Rochdale the Inspector was told at the end of the school 
 hour, ' Go thou on : we want as much as we can for the 
 money V 
 
 By 1855 night schools were in receipt of capitation grants 
 and payments to teachers, though only if they were in con- 
 nexion with a day school in receipt of annual grants ; until 
 1 86 1 teachers in day elementary schools were forbidden to 
 teach in night schools also, and from 1839-60 only 2,916 
 was paid to night schools out of the public grants 2 . 
 
 The Revised Code withdrew the aid given to teachers, but, 
 on the other hand, abolished the restriction on day teachers, 
 and made capitation grants on the average attendance and 
 payment for the results of examination in reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic. The schools in consequence began more 
 and more to rely upon the Science and Art Department 
 (see p. 157). 
 
 In 1871 grants were restricted to persons not over eighteen 
 and (as since 1860) not under twelve, but in 1876 the upper 
 limit was raised to twenty-one. In 1882 no attendance was 
 recognized for a grant of any person over twenty-one or 
 under fourteen. 
 
 The average attendance steadily decreased. In 1870 it was 
 73,375, in 1886 it had fallen to 26,009 3 . Since 1890 'the 
 principal part of the education given ' in these schools need 
 no longer be elementary, as required by the Education Act of 
 1870, this change being definitely sanctioned by the Education 
 Code (1890) Act 1890, 53 & 54 Viet. c. 22. In 1893 a special 
 Code was published, in which the new title of Evening Con- 
 tinuation Schools was first introduced. 
 
 The chief changes were these. The attendances of persons 
 over twenty-one were recognized ; no scholar was compelled 
 to take the elementary subjects. Grants were paid as in day 
 schools for the instruction of the school as a whole, instead of 
 as formerly for the attainments of the individual scholar. The 
 fixed grant was no longer paid on the average attendance, but 
 on the number of hours' instruction received by the scholar, at 
 the rate of one shilling for every twelve hours, depending, how- 
 ever, on some other grant being earned. Variable grants 
 were earned on the Inspector's report and according to the 
 
 1 Newcastle Report, i. 39. " Sadler, Special Reports, i. 54. 
 
 s Cross Commission. Final Report, p. 162.
 
 42 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 hours given to the subjects. Surprise visits were, as a rule, 
 substituted for examinations on a fixed day. 
 
 From 115,582 scholars on the registers of 1,977 schools in 
 1893, the number rose to 206,335 scholars in average attend- 
 ance at 5,263 schools in 1900. 
 
 But there was trouble ahead. The persistent refusal of the 
 public to face the need for organizing secondary education 
 allowed interests to become more conflicting and conditions 
 more complicated every year. Government, as we shall see, 
 had encouraged two systems of public instruction to grow up 
 under its care and with the support of its grants. Of these, 
 the public elementary schools were limited by Acts of Parlia- 
 ment to elementary education (which was nowhere defined) 
 given to children (whose age was limited by no statute), while 
 the Science and Art schools and classes were not hampered 
 by any similar restrictions. 
 
 The local authorities under the one system very naturally 
 availed themselves of the subsidies offered by the other, and 
 it was not till 1900 that it was decided that the concurrent 
 expenditure for this process under the Education Acts was 
 contrary to law. Mr. Cockerton, district auditor under the 
 Local Government Board, disallowed the expenditure so in- 
 curred by the London School Board. On Dec. 20, 1900, the 
 Queen's Bench Division held in the case Regina v. Cockerton 
 that a school board, out of money raised by rates, might not 
 provide for any instruction which was outside the curriculum 
 prescribed by the Code issued by the Education Department 
 for elementary public schools, and that to educate adults in 
 such schools by means of funds drawn from the rates was 
 beyond the legal powers of a school board. And this decision 
 was upheld by the Court of Appeal 1 . 
 
 In consequence of this decision the Board of Education 
 issued a Minute on July 3, 1901, announcing that in any 
 Evening- Continuation School conducted as a Public Ele- 
 mentary School under the Elementary Education Acts, the 
 instruction given must be in accordance with those Acts, and 
 that no attendances might be counted for grants for any 
 scholar who had at the beginning of the school year attained 
 the age of fifteen. 
 
 The Education Act, 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. n) authorized 
 county and county borough councils and (by consent) other 
 local authorities to empower school boards to carry on for 
 a year any school which had been conducted in violation of 
 
 1 Law Reports, K.B.D., 1901, vol. i. pp. 343, 733, 739. A clear analysis from 
 the County Council point of view is to be found in the Record of Technical and 
 Secondary Education, vol. x. pp. 10, 140.
 
 EDUCATION] TRAINING OF TEACHERS 43 
 
 the law, and this arrangement was renewed by a similar 
 statute in 1902. 
 
 (Continued under Secondary Education, p. 173.) 
 
 Training of Elementary Teachers. The growth of ar- 
 rangements for training teachers has been noticed in the 
 early history of the Committee of Council at pp. 9 and 10. 
 The nation preferred voluntary institutions to a State Normal 
 School, and the system has continued until the present day. 
 The Revised Code made the profession unpopular, and re- 
 duced the numbers and consequently the quality of the 
 teachers supplied, and the Training Colleges passed through 
 a most critical and anxious period 1 ; but with 1870 came an 
 enormously increased demand and an improvement of the 
 position and remuneration of the masters and mistresses. 
 
 The only important change of principle that has taken 
 place was the introduction of Day Training Colleges, recom- 
 mended by Lord Cross's Commission in i888 2 , and finally 
 embodied in the Code of 1890. These Colleges must be 
 attached to some University or College of University rank, 
 and must be under a local Committee responsible for the 
 discipline and moral supervision of their students, and for 
 their regular attendance at professional or other lectures. 
 The usual practising school is of course necessary, and the 
 idea is to enable teachers to obtain during their training some 
 of the benefits of a University course, even if they are not 
 able to take a degree. In the same year the resident Training 
 Colleges were also first allowed to admit a small proportion of 
 day students. Day Training Colleges have been established 
 in every town in England and Wales which possesses a Uni- 
 versity or University College, and secondary training is also 
 attempted in connexion with some of these institutions. 
 
 In 1901 there were seventeen Day Training Colleges and 
 forty-five Residential Colleges, and at fourteen of the latter 
 there were 181 women day students. There were 4,188 re- 
 sident students in all, and 1,426 day students. 
 
 Every College since 1901 has had to submit a two years' 
 training course for approval : periodical inspection is provided 
 during that period with an examination at the end. 
 
 The average salary of certificated masters in 1860-70 was 
 94 ; it then rose to 121 in 1880, and is now almost ,129. 
 In 1860 mistresses with certificates averaged ,-62, but sank 
 by 1870 to .57, and only recovered by 1895 those two-thirds 
 which the Committee of Council in 1846 considered to be their 
 
 1 Report on Admiralty Schools, 1883, p. 141 ; P. P., 1867, xxii. pp. u, 528; 
 1868, xxv. p. xiii ; 1872, xxv. p. 14. 
 3 Final Report, p. 100.
 
 44 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 due proportion to the men's earnings 1 . In 1869 women and 
 girls amounted to little more than half of the whole teaching 
 staff, but by the end of the century they had risen to be 
 three-quarters of the total number. 
 
 The pension system introduced in 1846 and suspended in 
 1862 was revived to a limited extent in 1875 for the benefit 
 of the teachers formerly under them. In 1895 a Depart- 
 mental Committee reported in favour of the establishment of 
 a Teachers Superannuation Fund, and in 1898 a Super- 
 annuation Act was passed (61 & 62 Viet. c. 67). 
 
 ' A woman over eighteen years of age, approved by the 
 Inspector ' as a teacher, was first recognized in infants', girls', 
 and mixed schools in 1875 and 1876 in place of two monitors, 
 then as an assistant, and latterly as an additional female 
 teacher in these schools, and also for boys in the first three 
 standards. Such a person need not have passed any exam- 
 ination nor received any training, she is regarded with much 
 disfavour by experts and by more fully qualified teachers. 
 Since 1890 this regulation is known as 'Article 68.' The 
 number of these persons increased from 18,534 in 1893 to 
 16,717 in 1899, and in 1902 was 17,588. 
 
 The pupil teacher system (p. 9) has proved permanent 
 and its continuance was recommended by a Departmental 
 Committee in 1898 2 . The minimum age was raised in 1897 
 from 14 to 15, but a further rise was recommended together 
 with an increase both in opportunities and qualifications. In 
 some towns provision has been made for the instruction of 
 this class by the creation of Pupil Teacher Centres, at which 
 they meet to receive special training and secondary instruction. 
 The amount of instruction, however, varies from a fairly 
 complete secondary education to a few hours on Saturdays. 
 In March, 1902, there were 105 such centres, with 17,435 
 pupil teachers under instruction. In 1902 the District Auditor 
 disallowed the expenses incurred by the London School Board 
 in connexion with these Centres, and in future the cost of this 
 instruction will have to be met out of the secondary fund. 
 From 1903 onward there is to be only a final examination 
 for pupil teachers, which may be any examination qualifying 
 for admission to a Training College. 
 
 Under the regulations of the Teachers' Registration Council 
 under the Board of Education Act (see p. 32) all persons re- 
 cognized by the Board as certificated teachers under the Day 
 School Code are to be included in the alphabetical register 
 
 1 Newcastle Report, i. 641 ; Special Reports, 1897, p. 47. Cf. p. 9. 
 3 P. P., C. 8,761. A Departmental Committee has just been appointed to report 
 on the training of pupil teachers, March 12, 1903.
 
 EDUCATION] SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 45 
 
 free of charge, and also in Column A, in a separate list. Any 
 qualifications other than those required by the Board from 
 certificated teachers shall be registered on payment of half 
 a crown. 
 
 (b) Science and Art Department 
 (now replaced by the Board of Education}. 
 
 The whole of the work latterly conducted by this Depart- 
 ment belonged to secondary and higher education, and an 
 account of the origin and aims of the Department will be 
 found at p. 154. 
 
 Grants in aid of the establishment of Schools of Art in 
 1852 were offered only on condition of special instruction 
 being provided for artisans and in elementary schools, and 
 there followed prizes to children, rewards to their masters, 
 and augmentation grants to elementary teachers who passed 
 in drawing and taught it satisfactorily. 
 
 In 1885 elementary drawing was made a class subject under 
 the Code of the Education Department, but two years later 
 the vote for instruction in drawing was again taken in the 
 estimates of the Science and Art Department, and administered 
 by it until 1898, when it was handed over to the Education 
 Department, both in elementary day schools and evening 
 continuation schools 1 . Since 1890 drawing has been com- 
 pulsory for all boys in public elementary schools (except in 
 infant schools), and grants are given for it on the average 
 attendance according to the report of the Inspector. Manual 
 training was introduced in 1890, and in 1898 this also was 
 transferred to the Education Department. The charge of 
 drawing and manual instruction in Reformatories and Indus- 
 trial Schools was transferred to the Home Office in 1899 
 (p. 61), and in Poor Law Schools to the Local Government 
 Board in 1901 (p. 68). 
 
 (c) The Charity Commission 
 (now mainly replaced by the Board of Education). 
 
 The history of this department will be found at p. 143 
 under Secondary Education, with \vhich it has been chiefly 
 concerned. The Digest published by the Commission in 
 1842 shows 2,194 endowed non-classical (and therefore pre- 
 sumably elementary) schools in existence, of which 905 had 
 
 1 Cf. Law Reports, K.B.D., 1901, i. p. 345.
 
 46 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 been founded between 1660 and 1730, and 72 between 1660 
 and I730 1 . The Taunton Commission found that in 1865 or 
 1866 out of a total of 820 endowed grammar schools with 
 a net educational income of 195,184 (exclusive of exhibi- 
 tions to the annual value of 14,264), only 198 were elementary 
 schools or departments of schools, and that their income was 
 but 8,762, with exhibitions worth 17 2 . The Commissioners 
 had the same powers under the Charitable Trusts Acts and 
 the Endowed Schools Acts over foundations for elementary 
 education as over any other endowed schools, except that by 
 the Endowed Schools Act, 1873 (36 & 37 Viet. c. 87), ele- 
 mentary schools with an income of less than 100 from their 
 endowment were exempted from this control. Most of these 
 powers have now been transferred to the Board of Education 
 (p. 32), but the Charity Commissioners retain the right of 
 deciding 1 whether any endowment or any part of it is held 
 for or ought to be applied to educational purposes ; and also 
 such powers as those of appointing official trustees for 
 charitable funds (see p. 1 70). 
 
 The income of elementary schools from endowments 
 amounted in 1871 to 50,516; by 1876 it was 102,237; by 
 1881 148,000, and the increase of capital between 1871 and 
 1 895 amounted to about three and a half millions 3 . 
 
 2. THE HOME OFFICE. 
 
 The Home Office touches the system of elementary educa- 
 tion in several places : on the one hand it controls children 
 employed in factories and mines, and on the other it deals 
 with the penal organization and the children sent to reforma- 
 tories and industrial schools. 
 
 i. The Factory Acts. 
 
 These measures anticipated the Education Acts by many 
 years, since by them education was first made compulsory in 
 this country for any children of private individuals living in 
 their own homes. Of recent years they have almost entirely 
 lost their importance, as the provisions affecting factory chil- 
 dren differ but little from the laws controlling" the elementary 
 education of English children in general. 
 
 The first Act for the benefit of the young who were 
 employed in factories was passed in 1802 (42 Geo. Ill, c. 73) 
 at the instance of Sir Robert Peel, father of the Prime Minister, 
 and himself a large mill owner, but its provisions for instruc- 
 
 1 De Montmorency, State Intervention in English Education, p. 246. 
 
 3 Report, i. App. p. (150). 
 
 3 Sadler, Special Reports, vol. i. p. 27.
 
 EDUCATION] THE FACTORY ACTS 47 
 
 tion and church-going were limited to apprentices; in 1819 
 a more general measure was passed, and the employment of 
 children under nine in cotton mills and factories was prohibited, 
 but there was no provision for education in it or any succeed- 
 ing statute before 1833. In that year a Factories Act (3 & 4 
 Will. IV, c. 103) was passed, which in respect of education 
 was immensely in advance of all provisions for the working 
 classes at the time, although the subsequently appointed 
 Inspectors 1 took a low estimate of its value. 1833 was the 
 year which first saw ^20,000 voted for building schools for 
 the people, but Lord Althorp's Act not only attempted in a 
 rough way to provide schools and have them inspected, but 
 it made the attendance of children at them compulsory. 
 
 Under this statute children between nine and thirteen might 
 only be employed if they had a voucher of having attended 
 school two hours on six days in each preceding week. The 
 Inspector might require the employer to make a deduction 
 of one penny in the shilling from a child's wages, and pay 
 the same for the schooling of the child according to his 
 direction. A wider scheme directing the Inspector to establish 
 new schools, where desirable, out of the poor rate, was struck 
 out by the House of Lords. 
 
 Parental responsibility was not expressly declared until 
 1844 (7 & 8 Viet. c. 15, s. 38), but employers and parents 
 might be fined in case of wilful default. The former were 
 liable to a penalty not under i nor over 20, and the latter 
 to a fine not exceeding 2os. This Act applied only to textile 
 factories. 
 
 There was no reference to religious education in this Act, 
 nor in any of the subsequent Bills which passed into law, 
 and in practice no difficulty seems ever to have arisen on this 
 point. 
 
 If the Inspector thought any schoolmaster or mistress 
 incompetent or in any way unfit, he might disallow and with- 
 hold the order for any payment of salary due. That this 
 provision was by no means unneeded may be seen by the 
 report of the three Inspectors of Factories in England in 
 1839. O ne f them, Leonard Horner, a brother of the Rt. 
 Hon. Francis Horner, and a keen friend of education, wrote 2 : 
 ' It is not at all an unusual thing to have certificates presented 
 to me subscribed by the teachers with his or her mark ; this 
 generally happens in the case of female teachers ; but they 
 are held to be equal in quality to the majority of those who 
 keep dame schools.' . . . ' I have had to reject the school 
 voucher of the fireman, the children having been schooled in 
 1 Newcastle Report, i. 207. 2 P. P. Eug., 1839, vol. xlii. p. 358.
 
 48 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 the coal-hole (in one case I actually found them there), and 
 having been made to say a lesson from books nearly as black 
 as the fuel, in the interval between his feeding and stirring 
 the fire of the engine and boiler. It may be supposed that 
 such a thing could only happen at the mill of some poor 
 and ignorant man ; but that, I am sorry to say, was not the 
 case, for it occurred at factories where a large capital must be 
 embarked.' 
 
 On the other hand, in some cases excellent schools had 
 already been established, and some employers at first refused 
 to give information about their schools, on the ground that 
 it might lead people to say that further educational measures 
 were unnecessary l . 
 
 In 1843 Sir James Graham's Factory Bill, containing a large 
 educational scheme, fell through, as we have seen (p. 8), but 
 a new Act was passed in the next year with more simple 
 regulations (7 & 8 Viet. c. 15). 
 
 Children might be employed for half-time at eight instead 
 of nine years of age, but the hours of labour were reduced. 
 The parent or person having direct benefit from the wages 
 of any child employed on alternate days had to cause the 
 child to attend school for at least five hours between eight 
 in the morning and six in the evening on the week-day 
 preceding each day of employment. Children employed 
 otherwise than on alternate days were to attend school for 
 three hours on each working day of the week during any 
 part of which they were employed, or two and a half hours 
 on winter afternoons. 
 
 The arrangements as to the schoolmaster's certificate and 
 the schoolmaster's fees remained, but the fee to be paid by 
 the employer when required by the Inspector was not to 
 exceed twopence a week, and the amount deducted from 
 the child's wages \vas (as in 1833) not to exceed a penny in 
 the shilling. The powers of the Eactory Inspector as to 
 annulling certificates and disqualifying schoolmasters for 
 inefficiency, immorality or neglect were increased. 
 
 In 1864 and 1867 Acts were passed extending the law to 
 non-textile factories, and in the latter year another Act (30 
 & 31 Viet. c. 146) applied analogous but less stringent regula- 
 tions to workshops. 
 
 In 1874 another Factory Act (37 & 38 Viet. c. 44) was 
 passed which took into recognition the new conditions created 
 by the Elementary Education Acts. It dealt only with textile 
 factories, but raised the age of employment in them from the 
 
 1 P. P. Eng., 1839, vol. x!ii. p. 381.
 
 EDUCATION] THE FACTORY ACTS 49 
 
 ' eight ' of 1844 to ten, and the age of a ' child ' from thirteen 
 to fourteen ; children of thirteen could now only obtain total 
 exemption by showing a certificate of proficiency, subsequently 
 fixed at the Fourth Standard by a Minute of the Education 
 Department in 1875. In districts where there was sufficient 
 school accommodation within reach, schools attended by 
 half-timers must be recognized as efficient by the Education 
 Department, and thus the principal need for inspection of 
 schools by Factory Inspectors came to an end. If there is 
 no public elementary school within easy reach, the Factory 
 Inspector can approve some other school, but is bound to 
 give immediate notice to the Board of Education. 
 
 The Elementary Education Act of 1876 applied these new 
 regulations to the non-textile factories, and also placed work- 
 shops on the same footing in respect of education. 
 
 The enforcement of the Factory Acts towards parents and 
 employer and of the Education Act as regarded the employer 
 remained with the Factory Inspectors: towards the parent 
 in respect of the Education Act and in respect of any by-law 
 it was assigned to the School Boards and School Attendance 
 Committees and their officers. 
 
 In 1878 the Factory and Workshop Acts were consolidated 
 by a new measure (41 Viet. c. 16). The latest educational 
 provisions remained substantially the same, although there 
 were several changes of detail. All factories and workshops 
 were subject to this Act, but the employment of fifty persons 
 no longer constituted an establishment a factory as in the 
 Act of 1867. A child failing to make in any week all its 
 required attendances had now to make up the deficient hours 
 before it could be again admitted to employment in the next 
 week. As in the Workshop Regulation Act, 1867, the em- 
 ployer was bound to continue to pay a school fee, not exceed- 
 ing in this instance three pence, and not exceeding one-twelfth 
 of the child's wages (from which it might be deducted as long 
 as the child remained at the school) ; the application was now 
 to be made not by the Inspector, but by the Board authority 
 or persons managing the school. 
 
 The standards of proficiency and previous attendance were 
 to be fixed from time to time for the purpose of the Act by 
 the Home Secretary with the consent of the Education Depart- 
 ment. By the London Gazette, Feb. 25, 1879, proficiency 
 was fixed at the Fourth Standard ; the attendances must be 
 250 a year, at not more than two schools for five years after 
 five years of age. This was raised after 1893, by Orders of 
 March 4 and Aug. 16, 1892, to the Fourth or any higher 
 Standard required by the by-laws of the locality.
 
 50 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 The maximum fine of a parent for a breach of the Factory 
 Acts remains twenty shilling's, while in the case of the English 
 Education Acts until 1900 it was only five shillings. 
 
 The Elementary Education Act of 1880 made local by-laws 
 for attendance compulsory everywhere, and, while saving 
 existing engagements, implied that in future, by-laws should 
 override the Factory Acts. Children of thirteen, however, 
 w T ere allowed to obtain exemption on a certificate of mere 
 attendance as well as on a certificate of proficiency. 
 
 The Factory and Workshop Act of 1891 (54 & 55 Viet, 
 c. 75) directed that after January i, 1893, no child under the 
 age of eleven years should be employed in a factory or work- 
 shop, and so far anticipated the provision of the Elementary 
 Education (School Attendance) Act of 1893 (56 & 57 Viet. 
 c. 51) which raised the age of indispensable attendance to the 
 same extent. 
 
 The existing statutes were again consolidated by the Factory 
 and Workshop Act, 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. 22), by which the half- 
 time age was raised to twelve (s. 62). The standard for total 
 exemption, as fixed by the Home Secretary in December, 
 1900, requires the Fifth Standard, and in the case where the 
 by-laws of the school authority apply to children between 
 thirteen and fourteen, a child must satisfy the conditions for 
 total exemption before he can be employed for full time. 
 A fee may still be drawn from the employer by the managers 
 of any recognized efficient school entitled to charge fees. 
 
 From being in advance of their times, the Factory Acts fell 
 behind them, and for some years even served to exclude child- 
 ren from the benefits of the Education Acts. To these they 
 are now subordinate, and in Great Britain there is little differ- 
 ence left between the two sets of statutes (see p. 29). In 
 neither case (apart from agriculture) may a child be employed 
 under twelve, in neither case is there any restriction (except 
 for ' young persons ') after reaching fourteen. 
 
 The chief differences are that it is merely during school 
 hours that the Education Acts prohibit or restrict work ; if the 
 child attends school for whole or half-time, an unlimited 
 amount of work may be done out of school hours or during 
 the holidays (p. 31). In factories or workshops, on the other 
 hand, until the child is exempt from restriction, the Factory 
 Acts either limit the hours strictly, or prohibit work in a 
 factory altogether ; a child under age may not be employed 
 there at any hour of the day, a half-timer may only work so 
 many hours or so many days a week. At the age of twelve, 
 and until they are thirteen, children under the Factory Acts 
 can only be employed half-time, while in the case of most
 
 EDUCATION] MINES ACTS 51 
 
 by-laws made under the Education Acts they can qualify for 
 total exemption on reaching 1 twelve. Under the Factory 
 Acts, again, the employer is bound every week to obtain the 
 half-timer's certificate of due attendance at school ; under the 
 Education Acts he need only satisfy himself once for all of the 
 child's exemption. 
 
 But the question of half-time employment is losing its 
 importance, for the number of half-timers is rapidly and 
 steadily dwindling. The figures fell from 201,284 in 1876 
 to 175,437 in 1890 (of which, however, only 99,000 were in 
 factories); and again more rapidly to 74,468 in 1901. In 
 the year last mentioned 59-1 of the half-timers were employed 
 in Lancashire, and it was in that county that the greatest 
 resistance has been made to the raising of school-age. In 
 London, in 1901, there were only 771 half-timers, and in the 
 whole of Wales only 17 l . 
 
 It must be remembered that this legislation applies only to 
 children employed in factories and workshops of a certain 
 class, and that a more real evil is the amount of work that 
 children of poor parents have to do every day in addition to 
 their full school work (p. 31). 
 
 ii. Mines Acts. 
 
 The first Collieries Act was passed in 1842, and Inspectors 
 were appointed in 1850. Education, how r ever, was not touched 
 until the general Mines Act of 1860 was passed, which 
 required a certificate of proficiency or attendance from boys 
 between ten and twelve, girls not being allowed to work 
 underground at all since that date. 
 
 As far as metalliferous mines were concerned this Act was 
 repealed in 1872, and the new Act which prohibited the 
 employment underground of boys below twelve, contained no 
 educational provisions. The Coal Mines Regulation Act of 
 the same year (35 & 36 Viet. c. 76) required attendance at 
 school of boys between ten and twelve. The Coal Mines 
 Regulation Act, 1887 (50 & 51 Viet. c. 58), consolidated pre- 
 vious Acts, but prohibited all employment underground of 
 boys under twelve. The employer is still bound to pay over 
 to the teacher of any public elementary school twopei.ce 
 a week, or one-twelfth of the wages of any boy or girl in his 
 employment attending that school, boy or girl being defined 
 as persons under the age of sixteen. 
 
 The Mines (Prohibition of Child Labour Underground) Act, 
 1900 (63 & 64 Viet. c. 21), prohibited all employment of boys 
 
 1 Board of Education Reports. Report on Child Labour, 1895, p. 21. 
 
 E 2
 
 52 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 under thirteen in any mine below ground in the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 In England and Wales in 1900 there were 41,000 boys 
 under sixteen employed underground, and 13,000 boys and 
 girls of the same ages above-ground in coal mines ; and in all 
 other mines only 827 boys underground l . 
 
 As for above-ground employment, ' pitbanks ' are, by the 
 Factory and Workshop Acts of 1878 and 1901, included 
 among non-textile factories or workshops, alike for coal and 
 metalliferous mines. 
 
 Agricultural Children Act. In this connexion the Agri- 
 cultural Children Act, 1873 (36 & 37 Viet. c. 67), may be 
 mentioned. It forbade agricultural labour under eight and 
 ordered attendance at school ; but no machinery was provided 
 to enforce the Act, and it was placed under the charge of 
 no Department. Consequently it remained a dead letter, and 
 was repealed and superseded by the Education Act of 1876 
 (see p. 24). The special provision for agricultural half- 
 timers under the School Attendance Amendment Act, 1899, * s 
 mentioned on page 29. 
 
 iii. Prison Schools. 
 
 By the Prisons Act, 1865 (28 & 29 Viet. c. 126), it was 
 directed that provision should be made in every prison in 
 England and Wales for the instruction of prisoners in reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic during such hours and to such an extent 
 as to the Visiting Justices might seem expedient, provided that 
 such hours should not be deducted from the hours prescribed 
 for hard labour. 
 
 By the Prisons Act, 1877 (39 & 40 Viet. c. 21), all these 
 powers previously exercised by the Visiting Justices were 
 vested in the Prison Commissioners appointed by the Act, 
 and an improved system of elementary education was intro- 
 duced '*. 
 
 In 1878 over fifty officers were employed as teachers in 1 13 
 prisons at a cost of 4,300, but were not engaged exclusively 
 in teaching 3 . 
 
 In 1879 a special Committee reported on a system of educa- 
 tion suitable to the conditions peculiar to prison life, and the 
 present regulations were adopted. 
 
 In local prisons schoolmaster-warders are specially selected 
 by the Governors and Chaplains and recommended to the 
 
 1 P. P., Cd. 766, p. 56. ' P. P, Cd. 753, p- 133- 
 
 3 1896 Committee Report, p. 5.
 
 EDUCATION] PRISON SCHOOLS 53 
 
 Commissioners for engagement : they are tested by one of 
 Her Majesty's Inspectors of the Education Department 1 . 
 
 No prisoner sentenced for less than four months receives 
 instruction, which only extends to Standard III of the Public 
 Elementary Code -. 
 
 In convict prisons all the schoolmasters have certificates 
 of the Education Department. Instruction is given up to the 
 ' Sixth Standard, 1 which, however, only corresponds to the 
 public Fourth Standard. It is given in classes, whereas in 
 local prisons it is given in separate cells 3 . 
 
 In 1896 a Departmental Committee reported on the Educa- 
 tion and Moral Instruction of Prisoners in Local and Convict 
 Prisons in England and Wales, and in 1897 the Commissioners 
 of Prisons and Directors of Convict Prisons reported that they 
 had submitted a scheme for carrying out the recommenda* 
 tions. Persons imprisoned for three months might receive 
 instruction ; the first three standards of the Day School Code 
 were adopted, and the systems in convict and local prisons 
 were assimilated. The convict's education was to be ' com- 
 pleted ' in the nine months before he was transferred to public 
 works prisons 4 . Every prison has one or more schoolmasters 
 according to the number of prisoners eligible for instruction 5 . 
 Of convicted persons committed to prison in England and 
 Wales during the year 1900, 19-2 per cent. w r ere unable to 
 read and write 6 . 
 
 iv. Reformatory and Industrial Schools. 
 
 These schools, so far as they are recognized by Govern- 
 ment, are under the control of the Home Secretary. ' Re- 
 formatories are schools to which are sent juveniles up to the 
 age of sixteen, convicted of an offence punishable with penal 
 servitude and imprisonment, who must not now, however, have 
 served a term in prison. Industrial Schools are for children 
 up to the age of fourteen, who may not have committed an 
 offence, but whose circumstances are such that if left in their 
 surroundings they are likely to join the delinquent population. 
 Thus Reformatories are for actual, Industrial Schools for 
 potential delinquents, and the former contain children some 
 three years older or more than the latter. Both are volun- 
 tarily maintained by private associations or local authorities, 
 aided by a Government contribution towards their expenses, 
 and are subject to Government inspection V 
 
 1 1896 Committee Report, p. 9. J Ibid. Q. 4,551. * Ibid. p. lo. 
 
 4 Report for 1896-7, p. 18. 5 P. P., Cd. 753, p. 136. 
 
 * P. P., Cd. 1,278, p. 26. T Inspector's Reports for 1895 and 1901, abridged.
 
 54 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Reformatory Schools. Schools which subsequently became 
 Reformatories were founded in the last century, and received 
 recognition from Government prior to 1838, when the Crown 
 exercised its prerogative through the Home Secretary by 
 granting pardons to boys sentenced to transportation on con- 
 dition that they should submit to the training of some specified 
 school of this class T . In the first year of the late Queen's reign, 
 a prison was established, for young offenders only, at Park- 
 hurst in the Isle of Wight. It was a step in reform, but even 
 at Parkhurst the prisoners at first all wore irons-, and in the 
 fields were superintended by sentries with loaded weapons 3 . 
 
 The Treasury contributed to their support a sum that was 
 intended to cover the expense of these offenders 4 . 
 
 In a Minute of December 21, 1846, the Committee of Council 
 on Education offered grants for industrial training, and schools 
 of the reformatory class availed themselves of these privileges 
 until the end of 1857, when those institutions which had begun 
 to receive aid and inspection from the Home Office were 
 handed over altogether to its consideration 5 . In 1846 the 
 Committee also recommended that ,5,000, out of ,20,000 
 voted by Parliament, should be expended on a Model Penal 
 School ; but this was never done <; . 
 
 In 1854 the first Statute dealing directly with Reformatories 
 was passed 'The Youthful Offenders Act,' 17 & 18 Viet, 
 c. 86. By it the Home Secretary was empowered to certify 
 Reformatory Schools, if on the report of an Inspector of 
 Prisons they appeared useful and efficient for their purpose. 
 Any person under sixteen convicted of any offence punish- 
 able by law on an indictment or a summary conviction before 
 a magistrate or two or more justices of the peace might, on 
 the direction of the Court, be sent at the expiration of his 
 sentence to a Reformatory School for an additional period of 
 not less than two or more than five years. The Treasury 
 might defray the cost out of funds to be provided by Parlia- 
 ment for the purpose, and parents or step-parents might be 
 compelled to help to support such offender while in the school. 
 An Inspector of Prisons visited the institutions and made an 
 annual report. 
 
 In the same year Feltham Industrial School was established 
 for Middlesex by a private Act (17 & 18 Viet. c. clxix), 
 
 1 See i & 2 Viet. c. 82, s. n. 
 
 J Lushington Committee Report, i. 182. 3 Aberdare Report, ii. 736. 
 
 * Minutes of Committee of Council on Education, 1852-3, P. P., l.xxix. p. 537. 
 
 5 Minute, Dec. 31, 1857; P. P., 1859, xxi a. xxxiv; Lushington Repuit, 1896, 
 i. p. 318. 
 
 6 P. P., 1854-5, p. 394.
 
 EDUCATION] REFORMATORY SCHOOLS 55 
 
 receiving only convicted children between the ages of seven 
 and fourteen, being thus a Reformatory in point of character, 
 and an Industrial School in respect of age. 
 
 The Reformatory and Industrial Schools Act (19 & 20 Viet, 
 c. 109), passed in 1856, provided that young persons should 
 not be sent to a school to which the parents objected, if 
 they named another school duly certified. 
 
 In 1857 the Quarter Sessions or Council of any Quarter 
 Sessions Borough were allowed to grant money in aid of 
 a Reformatory School '. 
 
 In the same year the Rev. Sydney Turner was appointed 
 as a Prison Inspector by the Home Secretary especially to 
 inspect and report on Reformatory and Industrial Schools 2 , 
 an office which was made permanent in 1866. 
 
 During the four years 1854-7 forty-four Reformatory 
 Schools were certified in England 3 . 
 
 By the Reformatory Schools Act, 1866 (29 & 30 Viet, 
 c. 117), the previous Acts were repealed, consolidated, and 
 amended. Offences for which persons could be sent to Re- 
 formatories must be such as were punishable with penal 
 servitude or imprisonment. No child under ten might be sent 
 to a Reformatory, unless sentenced by a Judge of Assize or 
 Court of General or Quarter Sessions, or previously charged 
 with an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprison- 
 ment. The parents might apply within thirty days to have 
 an offender removed to a Reformatory conducted in accor- 
 dance with the religious persuasion of the offender, or after 
 a longer interval on paying the cost of the transfer. The 
 Prison Authorities (as defined by 28 & 29 Viet. c. 126, s. 5) 
 were given power to defray the cost as current expenditure, 
 while the Treasury might contribute a sum recommended by 
 the Home Secretary. 
 
 The Prison Authority was given power to contract with 
 a Reformatory to receive and maintain offenders, or to con- 
 tribute to the establishment of such a school, or subsequently 
 (in 1872) to build and maintain such a school themselves. 
 
 By Lord Leigh's Act (56 & 57 Viet. c. 48), passed in 1893, 
 new provisions were substituted for those of 1866 for sending 
 offenders to Reformatories. The age was raised from ten to 
 twelve, unless the child had been previously convicted, the 
 minimum term raised from two to three years, and the 
 
 1 20 & 21 Viet. c. 55; now by 51 8c 52 Viet. c. 41, ss. 3, 3.8, transferred to 
 County Couneils and councils of larger municipal boroughs. The same applies 
 to Industrial Schools. 
 
 a 5 & 6 Will. IV, c. 38, s. 7; P. P. Eng., 1876, C. 1,534; Mr - Turner's last 
 report and review of the system. 
 
 3 Newcastle Report, i. 408.
 
 56 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 imprisonment previous to being sent to the school might be 
 dispensed with. In no case were offenders to be kept at the 
 school after nineteen. 
 
 The effect of this measure is shown by the fact that in 1898 
 out of 1,476 offenders sent to Reformatories 1,196 had suffered 
 no previous imprisonment. Accordingly by the Reformatory 
 Schools Act, 1899 (62 & 63 Viet. c. 12), it was rendered 
 illegal to sentence a youthful offender to penal servitude 
 or imprisonment in addition to detention in a Reformatory. 
 Thus the previous imprisonment that was originally the 
 fundamental distinction between Reformatories and Industrial 
 Schools has been abolished, and since there remains principally 
 the difference of age, it has been suggested by the Govern- 
 ment Inspector that they should be classified as Senior and 
 Junior Home Office Schools. 
 
 This, however, would lose sight of the fact that a child may 
 be sent to an Industrial School merely for the bad character 
 and neglect of its parents, but must itself be an offender before 
 it can go to a Reformatory. 
 
 By the Youthful Offenders Act, 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. 20), 
 certain regulations were made tending to reduce the number 
 of very young offenders sent to Reformatories rather than to 
 Industrial Schools \ and power was given to courts of sum- 
 mary jurisdiction at the time of committing a child to a 
 Reformatory or Industrial School to make an order on the 
 parent or guardian for contributions to its support ; any 
 order, if made upon complaint, may be enforced summarily 
 as an affiliation order, i. e. by distress and commitment to 
 prison. 
 
 Industrial Schools. The early history of Industrial Schools 
 is the outcome of two different purposes. On the one hand 
 there was the anxiety to prevent boys falling into bad com- 
 pany, which has latterly been the controlling influence in 
 these schools ; and on the other there was that desire to give 
 an industrial training which has recently found its expression 
 rather in technical and manual instruction. 
 
 In the early days Ragged Schools were frequently men- 
 tioned in the same connexion with Industrial Schools-. They 
 were provided by charity free of charge, and made no require- 
 ments as to the dress of the pupils ; consequently they were 
 used chiefly by the children of outdoor paupers, of the disso- 
 lute, and of those unwilling to pay fees : % The secular part 
 
 1 P. P., Cd. 8 4 o, p. 8. 
 
 * Education Department Minute, Dec. 31, 1857 > Newcastle Report, i. 388, 397. 
 
 * Newcastle Report, i. 391.
 
 EDUCATION] INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 57 
 
 of their educational work has naturally been absorbed by the 
 public elementary schools '. 
 
 The Education Department in 1 846 offered grants to day 
 schools of industry for rent of field gardens, and help to hire 
 or build workshops, washhouses, or kitchens, and to provide 
 tools. It specially referred to schools situated in the denser 
 parts of great cities, intended to attract from the streets vagrant 
 youths who are there trained in criminal pursuits, or accus- 
 tomed to beggary and vagrancy *. 
 
 By Minutes in 1856 and 1857 the Committee of Council 
 considerably extended their industrial grants to schools, con- 
 fining' them, however, to schools which were industrial in 
 character, and whose scholars were taken exclusively from the 
 criminal and abandoned classes; but by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 108, 
 Industrial Schools were transferred to the charge of the Home 
 Secretary in 1860, and all connexion with the Education 
 Department ceased. 
 
 Meanwhile the Industrial Schools Act for England and 
 Wales had been passed in 1857 (20 & 21 Viet. c. 48 ; 23 & 24 
 Viet. c. 1 08). Children above seven and under fourteen, con- 
 victed of vagrancy, might be committed to a school certified 
 by the Committee of Council on Education and examined by 
 their Inspector (after 1860 by the Inspector of the Home 
 Department), but only if the parents would not give an 
 assurance in writing for the child's good behaviour or find 
 a security for the same. The parents might be made liable 
 for the support of the child up to 3$. a week ; the child could 
 not be detained beyond the age of fifteen against his or 
 her will. 
 
 In 1 86 1 24 & 25 Viet. c. 113 consolidated the previous Acts 
 and enlarged their scope. 
 
 A distinction was introduced between children under twelve 
 and those under fourteen. The latter, if destitute, vagrant, 
 mendicant, or frequenting the company of reputed thieves, 
 might be committed to an Industrial School ; under twelve, 
 they could also be sent if they had committed an offence 
 punishable by imprisonment or some less punishment. Child- 
 ren need no longer be convicted in order to be sent to an 
 Industrial School, but if convicted previously of felony they 
 were not admissible. Parents might present their children 
 under fourteen before the justices as unmanageable, and 
 obtain an order committing them to school ; but in this case 
 the parents had to defray the whole expense. Eor the 
 
 1 doss Report, iii. p. 438. 
 
 a Minute, Dec. 21, 1846 ; P. P. Eng., 1854-5, xli. p. 209.
 
 58 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 maintenance of the others the Treasury was empowered to 
 contribute any sum that the Home Secretary might recom- 
 mend, and the extent of their parents' possible contribution 
 was raised to 5,5*. a week. Children convicted on a previous 
 charge of felony were not admitted to these schools. 
 
 This Act was only temporary, but in 1866 29 & 30 Viet. 
 c. 118 was passed, which embodied most of its provisions, 
 and remains the controlling Act till the present time. Under 
 the new regulations a child under fourteen, being a destitute 
 orphan or with a surviving parent undergoing penal servitude 
 or imprisonment, was added to the list of those liable to be 
 sent to these schools, and the limit of detention without con- 
 sent was raised from fifteen to sixteen. 
 
 The Inspector of Industrial Schools and the Inspector of 
 Reformatories must necessarily be one and the same person 
 appointed by the Home Secretary. Refractory children might 
 be sent from workhouses and pauper schools, and the Guard- 
 ians had power to contribute. The same school might not be 
 certified both as a Reformatory and an Industrial School l . 
 The Prison Authority might contract for the reception of 
 children at these schools, and contribute to the capital or 
 current expenditure ; and in 1872 these bodies received power 
 to establish and maintain schools themselves, if necessary 
 (35 & 36 Viet. c. 21). 
 
 Children under fourteen of a woman twice convicted of 
 crime, or children living with prostitutes, may be sent to these 
 schools (34 & 35 Viet. c. 112 ; 43 & 44 Viet. c. 15). 
 
 In 1870, by the Elementary Education Act, School Boards 
 received powers of contributing to the establishment and 
 maintenance of Industrial Schools, and with consent of the 
 Education Department- of establishing such schools them- 
 selves (ss. 27, 28) 3 . They also received power to enforce the 
 Industrial Schools Act, if they thought fit (s. 36). 
 
 By the 1876 Act (s. 13), School Boards and School Attend- 
 ance Committees were compelled to enforce the Act unless 
 they thought it inexpedient. In the case of offences against 
 the Act, if no Day Industrial School were available, a child 
 might be committed to any certified Industrial School. Child- 
 ren so sent might be released on licence at the end of one 
 month, instead of eighteen months as in 1866. 
 
 Industrial Schools established after March, 1872, receive 
 only T,S. 6d. for each child from Government instead of 5^. 
 
 1 Fdthnm in Middlesex is a partial exception to this, being under a special Act 
 of Parliament, 17 & 18 Viet. c. clxix. 
 
 a Since 1876, of the Home Secretary. 
 
 3 In 1900 the School Boards had ten Industrial Schools, and also all the Truant 
 Schools, and all the English Day Industrial Schools but one.
 
 EDUCATION] DAY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 59 
 
 The power of enforcing contributions from parents was 
 considerably increased by the Youthful Offenders Act, 1901 
 (i Edw. VII, c. 20, s. 6). See p. 56. 
 
 D.iy Industrial Schools. These were a further develop- 
 ment introduced by the Elementary Education Act of 1^76, 
 and are schools where children are compelled to attend daily 
 and receive industrial training-, elementary education, and one 
 or more meals a day. The Act directed that in the case of 
 children for whom their parents habitually and without reason- 
 able excuse neglect to provide efficient elementary education, 
 or who are habitually found wandering or not under proper 
 control, or in the company of rogues, vagabonds, disorderly 
 persons, or reputed criminals, it shall be the duty of the local 
 authority to apply to a court of summary jurisdiction for an 
 Attendance Order ', on breach of which the Court might order 
 the child to be sent to a certified Day Industrial School, if the 
 parent were not in default, or the Order were disobeyed 
 a second time. 
 
 Prison authorities and local education authorities have the 
 same powers of establishing them or contributing to them as in 
 the case of Industrial Schools. They are regulated, in addition 
 to the Act, by the Orders issued by the Home Secretary and 
 Orders in Council. The expense is met by a Treasury contribu- 
 tion of is. a week per child, being the maximum allowed by law ; 
 the parent cannot be made to contribute more than 2^. a week, 
 the Guardians being bound to pay if he cannot, and the residue 
 (if any) is made up by the managers. There W 7 ere twenty of 
 these schools in England in 1896 (since reduced to nineteen), 
 accommodating over 3,000 children, and the Departmental 
 Committee had ' nothing but praise to give these institutions.' 
 ' The system is non-punitive, and the object is to make the 
 children as happy as possible 2 .' They exercise strict control 
 over the children without destroying the bond of family life. 
 The school, though not under the Education Department, 
 resembles in most respects any ordinary public elementary 
 school, with exceptionally regular attendance, as the children 
 are sent for at once every morning, if they do not come. They 
 are all mixed schools for boys and girls. The attendance is 
 usually continued for about two years a . 
 
 Trziant Schools. There are fifteen so-called Truant 
 Schools, established by twelve School Boards, which are 
 ordinary certified Industrial Schools adopting a system of 
 short detention and severe discipline for truant children. 
 They were described in 1882 as practically 'prisons and 
 
 1 p. 24. <i Lushington Report, p. 125. 3 Ibid. p. 126.
 
 60 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 schools of mere detention 1 ,' and were unfavourably regarded 
 by the Committee of 1 896. 
 
 In England and Wales there were on December 31, 1901, 
 38 Reformatories with 3,957 young offenders actually in the 
 schools, and 109 Industrial Schools with 12,788 scholars, 
 including 18 Day Industrial Schools with 3,288 children in 
 attendance. There were also 1,232 children in 14 Truant 
 Schools 2 . 
 
 Investigations. The Newcastle Commission reported in 
 1 86 1 that, on the whole, none of the institutions connected 
 with education appeared to be in a more satisfactory con- 
 dition than the Reformatories 3 ; but, on the other hand, they 
 recommended that Industrial Schools should be gradually 
 replaced by declaring District and separate Union Schools 
 available for the reception of suitable children 4 . 
 
 In 1882 a Commission under Lord Aberdare was appointed 
 to inquire into Reformatories and Industrial Schools, and their 
 report was presented in 1884. They recommended that the 
 inspection of all Reformatory and Industrial Schools should 
 be transferred to the Education Department, who should 
 make the same grants to them as to Public Elementary 
 Schools, and that contributions from Boards of Guardians 
 on a fixed scale should be substituted for all other grants to 
 Industrial Schools from Councils and School Boards. 
 
 In 1893 there was a strong representation made to the 
 Home Office as to the narrowness and insufficiency of the 
 education given in the Metropolitan Schools, and the Home 
 Secretary promised that there should be an improvement 5 . 
 
 In 1895 a Departmental Committee under Sir Godfrey 
 Lushington was appointed to report on Reformatory and 
 Industrial Schools, and the report was presented in 1896. 
 They recommended that Truant and Day Industrial Schools 
 should be placed under the Education Department, but 
 decided by a narrow majority that this was inadvisable for 
 Reformatories and ordinary Industrial Schools. Children 
 at Industrial Schools should be enabled to attend public 
 elementary schools, if the authorities of both schools agreed. 
 
 Edtication. Reformatories and ordinary Industrial Schools 
 may conveniently be considered together in respect of the 
 education given, as they are under the one Inspector, and 
 their teachers practically belong to the same class, The Act 
 
 1 Aberdare Report, Q. 1,016. 
 
 2 P. P., 1902, Cd. 1,301. 
 
 s Report, i. 413. ' Ibid. p. 405. 
 
 * Letter, June 2, 1893 ; Lushington Report, i. 38.
 
 EDUCATION] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 6r 
 
 for Industrial Schools directs that industrial training- shall he 
 given, while that for Reformatories does not specify this 
 requirement, but the Model Rules issued by the Home 
 Secretary exact it in both cases, for Reformatories for not 
 more than six or less than four hours a day, for Industrial 
 Schools for four hours without alternative. The Factory Acts 
 are not enforced in these schools l . 
 
 For the elementary instruction teachers are engaged by 
 each separate establishment, and the only check on their 
 efficiency is the report of the Inspector on the state of 
 education in the school. In Industrial Schools (but not in 
 Reformatories) 20 a year is paid by the Treasury towards 
 the salary of a schoolmaster if he have a certificate, and 15 
 for a mistress on similar terms 2 . No part of the general 
 grant to the school depends upon the quality either of the 
 literary or the industrial education. Originally there was 
 a rule that if it were unsatisfactory there should be a reduc- 
 tion of is. 6d. from the general grant, but this was never 
 enforced 3 . 
 
 The Standards of the Education Department have been 
 introduced into the schools, but till recently there was no 
 official encouragement to proceed beyond Standard Five 4 . 
 
 In December, 1895, the standards in elementary subjects 
 were exactly assimilated to the Code of the Education 
 Department, and the teaching of class subjects, such as 
 geography and history, was encouraged 5 . 
 
 The schools are necessarily all half-time schools, three hours 
 secular instruction being given daily. The inspection of 
 drawing and manual instruction formerly conducted by the 
 Science and Art Department, together with the administration 
 of the consequent grants, was taken over by the Home Office 
 from March 31, 1899. 
 
 The industrial training is elementary in most of these 
 schools, but there is a very wide difference in the equipment 
 of the different establishments, which all, nevertheless, receive 
 grants on the same scale. 
 
 The Lushington report was on the whole unfavourable to 
 the education given, especially to the industrial training. The 
 schools were probably as good as half-time schools elsewhere , 
 though as a rule the Home Office children w j ere older. 
 Labour was considered too much as reformatory in itself, 
 and the training was not sufficiently directed to enable a boy 
 
 1 Lushington Report, p. 53. 2 Ibid. p. 41, Q. 30,172. 
 
 3 Ibid. Q. 1,543. 4 Ibid. p. 36. 5 Ibid. p. 39. 
 
 6 The late Inspector pronounced them in 1882 'quite fit to teach as far as we 
 want them to go ' (Abtrdare, Q. 582).
 
 62 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 to become self-supporting- 1 . Evidently in the last seven 
 years considerable progress has been made, at any rate in the 
 better schools, and that report is now characterized as out of 
 date -. The principles laid down by the Department are ' to 
 avoid pressing- too hard the literary side of elementary educa- 
 tion, to profit by the excellent schemes of industrial training 
 in vogue, and after collating- these, to issue the fullest possible 
 syllabuses for the information and guidance of the schools 3 . 
 Syllabuses for shoemaking- and tailoring have already been 
 issued and supplemented by a series of courses of trades prac- 
 tised in the Army. Needlework and other manual subjects 
 for girls are also receiving attention. At the same time there 
 is full recognition of the need of a preliminary literary training 
 to enable the pupils to take advantage of their technical oppor- 
 tunities. The chief things aimed at are the acquisition of the 
 workman's touch, the art of handling tools, an understanding of 
 the materials, and a capacity to plan as well as to execute 4 . 
 
 At present the Roman Catholic Reformatories for boys seem 
 most to require improvement. They are larger and more in 
 need of funds than the institutions that have achieved the 
 best results, while their pupils are drawn in each case too 
 exclusively from the same locality 5 . 
 
 Conscience Clause. Provision is made in both Reforma- 
 tories and Industrial Schools for children, as far as possible, 
 being sent to schools of their own denomination ; if this be 
 not possible, ministers of their own denomination have 
 access to them for instruction , and they are not compelled 
 to attend other religious services. But in the case of Roman 
 Catholics, at any rate, these safeguards were not regarded as 
 adequate by the Committee of 1896, as the local authorities 
 often refuse to contribute, if the children are moved ' away to 
 one of their own schools. There is probably some danger of 
 high-handed dealings, as appears from the answer of a 
 Secretary of a Reformatory in i882 8 : 'Yes; we teach the 
 Catechism, whatever the denomination may be of the child's 
 parents. We never heard of any parents having a denomina- 
 tion. I fancy that if they got as far as that, we should not 
 have their children.' In which also there is much truth ; 
 fortunately it could be added, 4 They have never raised such 
 a thing as the shadow of a religious difficulty.' 
 
 1 Lushington Report, p. 50. 
 
 3 Inspector's Reports for 1900, p. 36,011.408: for 1901, P. P., Cd. 1,301, p. 37. 
 
 3 Report for 1900, Cd. 408, p. 37. 
 
 4 Report for lyoo, P. P., Od. 408, p. 38. 5 Ibid. p. 46. 
 6 29 & 30 Viet. c. 117, ss. 14-16; c. 118, ss. 1 8, 19, 25. 
 
 T Lushington, p. 130. 8 Abcrdare Report, Q. 4,046.
 
 EDUCATION] POOR LAW SCHOOLS 63 
 
 3. THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD. 
 
 This Board was created in 1871 by 34 & 35 Viet. c. 70, to 
 take over the functions of the Poor Law Board and the 
 supervision of the laws relating to the public health and local 
 government. 
 
 i. The Poor Law. 
 
 In 1834 the Poor Law system of England and Wales was 
 placed on a new footing by 4 & 5 Will. IV, c. 76, and 
 administered by Commissioners until 1847, when a Ministerial 
 Department called the Poor Law Board was formed (10 & 
 ii Viet. c. 109), consisting of several Cabinet Ministers and a 
 new Minister called the President of the Poor Law Board. 
 
 Under the old Poor Law there was seldom any education 
 in the workhouses except such as was given by some chance 
 pauper who acted as schoolmaster to the children, who were 
 not often separated from the adult paupers l . 
 
 By the first set of regulations published by the new Poor 
 Law Commissioners in 1835 the boys and girls in every 
 workhouse were to be instructed in reading, writing, and the 
 principles of the Christian religion (and after 1847 in arith- 
 metic) for at least three of the working hours in every day, 
 and a schoolmaster and mistress and any assistants necessary 
 might be engaged by the Guardians. 
 
 At the time this was the only systematic and compulsory 
 education recognized by the Government, except in the case 
 of the Services and the factories. It is the less surprising 
 to find the Bedford Guardians requesting that reading only 
 might be taught in their workhouse, in order that the 
 inmates of the workhouse might not receive greater advan- 
 tages than the children of the self-supporting poor -. Even at 
 this date a good many Unions sent their children to the outside 
 village schools 3 . 
 
 In 1844 power was given to the Commissioners by 7 & 8 
 Viet. c. 101 to combine poor law unions 4 or parishes not in 
 union into districts for school purposes, but the consent of 
 
 1 Children under the Poor Law, by Sir William Chance (Swan Sonnenschein 
 & Co., I' S 97, 7-T. 6</.), p. 2. A most valuable book, with abundant quotations from 
 nnd references to the original sources. Reports of Poor Law Inspectors on the 
 Education ol Pauper Children, P. P. Kng., 1862, xlix. p. 567 ; Mr. Andrew Doyle's 
 Report; al^o Hartley, Schools for the People, p. 269 (Bell & Daldy, 1871). 
 
 a Chance, p. 5 
 
 s Report on the Training of Pauper Children, E. C. Tufnell, 1841. 
 
 * The unit of administration was the parish or a combination of parishes directed 
 by the Commissioners and called a Union (Rev. T. W. Fowle, Poor Law. p. 25: 
 Macmillan, 1881).
 
 64 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 the Guardians in writing was necessary for the combination, 
 and the consent of pauper parents was required before their 
 children could be sent to such district school. No district 
 might be more than fifteen miles in length, nor might more 
 than one-fifth of the average annual rates be expended on 
 such district school J . Such a school district was to be 
 governed by a board of qualified ratepayers elected by the 
 Guardians, and the Chairman of each Board of Guardians was, 
 with his own consent, to be an ex officio member. 
 
 The Acts of 1834 and 1844 both provided that no regu- 
 lation should authorize the education of any child in any 
 religious creed other than that professed by the parent, and 
 that the licensed minister of the corresponding religious per- 
 suasion might visit the school or asylum for the purpose of 
 instructing a child in the principles of his religion -. 
 
 In 1846 the House of Commons voted a sum of 20,000 to 
 be spent on a normal school for training teachers for work- 
 house and for penal schools. On the matter being referred 
 to the Committee of Council for Education for their advice, 
 it was recommended by them that half the sum should be 
 spent on the normal school, and two sums of 5,000 each on 
 a pauper and a penal model school. As a result Kneller Hall 
 was opened near Hounslow in 1850 under the late Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury and Mr. F. T. Palgrave as a training 
 college for Poor Law schoolmasters, but it was found that 
 the prospects of subsequent employment were not such as 
 to attract suitable candidates. The Model School was never 
 built, and the scheme if not ill-devised :5 was at all events 
 not effectively carried out, and was discontinued at the end of 
 
 1855 4 - 
 In 1846 .15,000 was voted by the Commons towards the 
 
 salaries of masters and mistresses of workhouse schools, of 
 which there were by this time some 700. These salaries 
 had hitherto been fixed and paid by the separate Boards of 
 Guardians out of the rates. The distribution of this grant 
 also was referred to the Committee of Council, and they, by a 
 Minute of Dec. 21, 1846, determined to award salaries accord- 
 ing to teachers' qualifications. The vote w T as increased next 
 year to 30,000 5 , and the Committee by a Minute of Dec. 18, 
 1847, made arrangements for the gradual examination of 
 
 1 The last two restrictions, however, were removed or amended by n & 12 Viet. 
 c. 82 and 14 & it; Viet. c. 105. 
 
 1 4 & 5 Will. IV, c. 76, s. 19; 7 & 8 Viet. c. 101, s. 43. By another Act of 
 1844 (c. 101) masters could no longer be compelled to receive apprentices. 
 
 3 Mr. Andrew Doyle's Kepoit, P. P., 1862, xlix. 595. 
 
 * P. P., 1854-5, x 'i- P- 394- * V. P., 1847, xxxv. p. 264.
 
 EDUCATION] POOR LAW SCHOOLS 65 
 
 teachers, and fixed their salaries in proportion to the certifi- 
 cates which they obtained and to the extent of their duties. 
 Grants were also made to masters for scholars apprenticed to 
 them (as far as was possible) for five years as pupil teachers, 
 part of the pupil-teacher grant being retained for the appren- 
 tice's future benefit. Salaries of industrial instructors might 
 also be charged on the grant. 
 
 In order to proportion the salary more exactly to the work 
 actually done, a circular of the Poor Law Board was issued 
 on May 6, 1850, by which Guardians or Managers guarantee 
 a minimum salary to each teacher, and if the Government 
 Grant to them, based on the class of certificate and the 
 number of children instructed by each teacher, exceeds that 
 minimum, the surplus up to a certain maximum total for 
 each class of certificate is paid over to the teacher by the 
 Guardians or Managers. Any such surplus must depend in 
 the last resort upon the capitation grant, and consequently it is 
 to the teacher's interest to keep as many children in his class as 
 possible. For a long time this was said to have a harmful 
 effect on the schools a , but of late years there seems to have been 
 no abuse of the system, and in the highest class it is actually 
 beneficial 2 , if the children are not kept marking time. 
 
 The control over the teachers' salaries was a great power 
 in the hands of the Poor Law Board, as they could withhold 
 the grant and throw the payment of salary on the rates, if the 
 Guardians refused reform. 
 
 In 1847 the Committee of Council appointed four Inspectors 
 of Poor Law schools, of the same class as their own Inspectors 
 and with similar duties, and these continued to report to the 
 Education Department until March 31, 1863, when they were 
 transferred to the service of the Poor Law Board at the 
 request of the Department 3 . The reason seems to have been, 
 in addition to ' unnecessary trouble,' ' a certain friction caused 
 by the different ideas which prevailed in the Departments as 
 to how these schools should be conducted 4 .' The Poor Law 
 Board thenceforth issued its own certificates to its teachers, 
 but the principles of inspection and examination were in no 
 way changed 5 . 
 
 1 Newcastle Report, i. p. 363 ; G. T. C. Hartley, The Schools for the People, 
 p. 280. 
 
 3 Circular of P. L. B., May 6, 1850; the amount of capitation grant has since 
 been raised slightly. I am indebted for some of this information to the kindness 
 of Mr. J. R. Mozley, the Senior Inspector, who is not in any way responsible lor 
 my version of the facts. 
 
 3 1 6th Report of Poor Law Board, 1864, p. 19. 
 
 * Childers's Select Committee, 1884, Q. 158, 159, 286. 
 
 8 In 1890 the Education Department consented to issue their parchment
 
 66 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Provision for the education of refractory pauper children 
 in Industrial Schools and of afflicted pauper children in 
 certified special schools was made in 1861 and 1862 respec- 
 tively 1 . Boarding out children is, as we shall see, the invari- 
 able practice in Scotland, and though not officially recognized 
 it had already been employed in England in some cases, but 
 only within the limits of the same Union. In 1870 an Order 
 of the Poor Law Board first permitted its extension to board- 
 ing beyond these limits '. 
 
 In 1878 the Board directed that the standards of examina- 
 tion in Poor Law Schools should be those of the Education 
 Department, and that time-tables should be prepared and 
 attendance registers kept 3 . 
 
 The result of all these laws and regulations has been that 
 District Schools have made but little way, only eight school 
 districts having been formed by 1868, and only two having 
 been permanently added since 4 . Some Boards of Guardians 
 have started large schools for their children at a distance from 
 the workhouse, but the really important movement has been 
 in the direction of educating pauper children along with the 
 rest of the population. Mr. Holgate, an Inspector of Schools 
 under the Local Government Board, said, in 1887, that in a short 
 time we should see the last workhouse school pure and simple 
 abolished, unless it happened that there was no public elemen- 
 tary school within reach 5 . 
 
 The rapidity of the process is best illustrated by the follow- 
 ing figures : 
 
 Number of Unions in which children attend 1890. 1901 
 
 Workhouse Schools .... 200 42 
 
 Schools detached from Workhouse 
 District Schools .... 
 Schools of other Unions 
 Public Elementary Schools 
 
 68 35 
 
 28 29 
 
 26 16 
 
 3 2 5 5 2 5 
 
 647 647 
 
 The progress of this has no doubt been greatly accelerated 
 by the Education Act of 1891, which pays a fee grant of los. 
 out of the National Exchequer to the school managers for 
 every child in average attendance at public elementary schools, 
 
 certificates to Poor Law teachers, on examination by the Education Department 
 Inspectors. Since 1889 salaries to teachers have no longer been paid direct by 
 Government, but by the County Councils out of the sums ceded from the Imperial 
 revenues under the Local Government Act, 1888, the Local Government Board 
 annually certifying the amount. 
 
 1 24 & 25 Viet. c. 113, replaced by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 118 ; 25 & 26 Viet. c. 43. 
 
 2 Chance, pp. 28, 29. 3 Ibid. p. 40. * Ibid. p. 30. 
 * Cross Commission Report, iii. p. 49, Q. 49,865.
 
 EDUCATION] POOR LAW SCHOOLS 67 
 
 and thus relieves the Guardians to that extent. The case of 
 each school is judged on its own merits for the fee grant, 
 which may be withdrawn under sec. 4, sub-sec. (3), but in 
 point of fact this seems never to have been done. 
 
 By the Elementary Education Act, 1900, 63 & 64 Viet. 
 c. 53, s. 2, Boards of Guardians were enabled to contribute 
 to the expenses of any school thus used by Poor Law children, 
 that the expense might be fairly distributed over the whole 
 union and not be laid on the parish in which the school 
 happened to be placed. 
 
 In 1901 the average daily number of children in District 
 Schools in England and Wales was 6,274, and the children 
 in other Poor Law Schools numbered 1 1,879'. 
 
 In 1903 teachers in Poor Law Schools are to be admitted 
 to the examination for certificates with other elementary 
 teachers, and their service in these schools now is recognized 
 by the Board of Education. 
 
 Investigations. There has not been a great deal of direct 
 official investigation into the education given to children under 
 the Poor Law. The Newcastle Commission on Elementary 
 Education reported on it in 1861, and the Cross Commis- 
 sioners referred to it in 1888^. In 1894 a Departmental 
 Committee, with Mr. Mundella as Chairman, inquired into 
 the existing system of Poor Law Schools in the Metropolis, 
 and reported in 1896. 
 
 The first of these authorities laid great stress on the evil of 
 mixing the children with adult paupers in the workhouses, and 
 recommended that the Poor Law Board should have power to 
 order the creation of District Schools. They found the state 
 of the children of those receiving out-relief was morally, intel- 
 lectually, and physically as low as possible 3 , and that probably 
 there were a hundred thousand of them receiving no education 
 at all. They recommended that the guardians should be re- 
 quired to enable any child (between four and fifteen) of any 
 person receiving out-relief to receive education at any school 
 approved by the Poor Law Board, and that attendance at 
 school should be a condition of the continuance of out- 
 relief 4 . 
 
 In 1862 the Poor Law Board requested their Inspectors to 
 report on the possibility of improving pauper education 5 . and 
 Mr. Andrew Doyle especially showed that the inquiry of the 
 
 1 P. P., Cd. 1,231 p. c. 
 
 2 Mrs. Nassau Senior's inquiry in 1874 was confined almost exclusively to 
 physical, moral, and domestic training (Chance, p. 35). 
 
 3 Newcastle Report, i. 381. 4 Ibid. p. 383. 
 5 P. P. Kng., 1862, xlix. 513. 
 
 F 2
 
 68 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Commission was unfairly restricted, their evidence partial and 
 much of it quite out of date, and abundant data were quoted 
 in contradiction. A trenchant criticism of Kneller Hall is to 
 be found in the same pages l . 
 
 The Commission of 1888 recommended that the educational 
 inspection should be transferred to the Education Depart- 
 ment 2 , and in 1896 the Mundella Committee repeated the 
 recommendation. 
 
 On March 31, 1901, the administration of grants for draw- 
 ing and manual instruction, together with the necessary in- 
 spection conducted by the Science and Art Department, were 
 taken over by the Local Government Board in all Poor Law 
 Schools. 
 
 As to literary efficiency, the Education Department Stan- 
 dards were introduced in 1878 3 , but even in 1886 in many 
 District Schools only the three elementary subjects were 
 taught 4 . The inspection seemed not to have followed the 
 recent improvement of H. M. Inspectors of the Education 
 Department 5 . 
 
 In the Metropolitan Poor Law Schools the Committee of 
 1896 found that the curriculum remained where it was in 
 1847, when arithmetic had been added to reading and writing. 
 But this statement does not seem to be borne out by the actual 
 practice in the schools, although official requirements appa- 
 rently extended no further 7 . The Committee, however, con- 
 sidered the schools far below the standard usually attained by 
 the children in public elementary schools, and had seen no 
 school which would be classed as excellent 8 statements which 
 admit less of direct disproof. 
 
 The industrial training in 1888 seemed hardly what it ought 
 to be, and eight years later it was very unsatisfactory 9 , a ver- 
 dict which Mr. Chance applies to the whole country 10 . Until 
 the General Order of January 30, 1897, Poor Law children of 
 ten were in some cases treated as half-timers, contrary to the 
 Education Act of 1893 u . The training of boys as musicians 
 and sailors appears the most satisfactory department 12 , other- 
 wise boys do not seem to keep to the employment in which 
 they have been instructed 13 . Special efforts are made to train 
 girls for domestic service 14 in ordinary houses. The chief 
 
 I P. P. Eng., 1862, xlix. 595. 2 Final Report, i pp. 162, 239. 
 
 3 General Order, April 3, 1878; Chance, p. 97. 
 
 4 Cross Evidence, Q. 49,836. 5 Chance, p. 352. 
 
 6 General Order, July 24, 1847. 
 
 7 Chance, p. 98 ; a great number of contrary instances are given. 
 
 8 Repoit, p 39. ' Ibid. p. 46. 10 Chance, p. 377. 
 
 II Ibid. p. 379. Ibid. p. 86. 13 Ibid. p. 25. H Ibid. p. 92.
 
 EDUCATION] vSCHOOL FEES 69 
 
 difficulty where workhouse children attend public schools is 
 to provide for adequate supervision out of school time 1 . Oc- 
 casionally there seems to be reluctance to mix with the other 
 children on the part of the clean workhouse child -'. 
 
 The Mundella Committee recommended that all Poor Law 
 children should be educated as far as possible in the ordinary 
 public elementary schools, or at all events in schools sufficiently 
 detached from the buildings in which the children are main- 
 tained; that the schools should be considered public elemen- 
 tary schools, and receive grants and inspection from the Edu- 
 cation Department, the former according to attendance and to 
 efficiency. The standard of teachers should be that of ordinary 
 public elementary schools, and teachers should be allowed to 
 pass into the service of other managers. The use of such 
 ' class ' and ' specific ' subjects as are deemed suitable should 
 be optional in these schools, and religious knowledge should 
 be tested by the chaplain, subject of course to the conscience 
 clause. 
 
 Payment of School Fees by Guardians. In 1855 Denison's 
 Act (18 & 19 Viet. c. 34) enabled Boards of Guardians, if they 
 deemed proper, to grant further aid to parents receiving out- 
 relief to enable them to provide schooling for any child between 
 four and sixteen in any school approved of by the Guardians. 
 Attendance at school was not to be made a condition of out- 
 relief. But out- paupers were not eager for education, nor were 
 Guardians anxious to spend money. So the Act remained 
 nearly a dead letter 3 , until it was repealed in 1873 by 36 & 37 
 Viet. c. 86, under which the power remained with the Guar- 
 dians. Attendance for children between five and thirteen 
 became a necessary condition for the continuance of out- 
 relief, but the parents were to have the choice of the school, 
 and the fee paid was not to be more than a farthing for each 
 attendance. 
 
 In 1876 this in turn was repealed (39 & 40 Met. c. 79) ; 
 out-relief remained conditional on school attendance, and the 
 parent still had choice of the school. By this Act, School 
 Attendance Committees were not allowed to pay or remit 
 fees; the power of School Boards under the Act of 1870 to 
 pay fees not exceeding ^d. a week for children of indigent 
 parents not in receipt of relief at any public elementary school 
 was transferred to the Guardians, though the School Boards 
 retained the power of remission. But since the payment of 
 fees (p. 27) was abolished in 1891, the question has lost its 
 importance. 
 
 1 Chance, p. 173. 3 Ibid. p. 172 ; Mundella Report, Q. 15,511. Cf. p. 115. 
 3 Newcastle Report, i. 380.
 
 70 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 ii. Control of Local A ^lthor^t^es. 
 
 School Attendance Committees and School Boards. 
 Under the Education Act of 1876, School Attendance Com- 
 mittees appointed in country parishes by Boards of Guardians 
 were strictly controlled in their expenditure and appointments 
 by the Local Government Board. Under the Education Act, 
 1870, the accounts of School Boards have had to be kept on 
 forms prescribed by the Local Government Board and audited 
 by Poor Law District auditors, subject to the direction of the 
 same authority. 
 
 4. THE WAR OFFICE. 
 
 The Elementary Education provided by the Army falls 
 under the two heads of soldiers and of their children, but it is 
 administered by the one department and imparted chiefly by 
 the same teachers. It must be borne in mind that the system 
 has to be adapted not only to the United Kingdom, but also 
 to soldiers and their families on foreign sendee. 
 
 Regimental schools were introduced in 1811, the school- 
 master being appointed by the colonel of each regiment. 
 
 In 1846 there was a reorganization, a normal school was 
 started at Chelsea for training Army schoolmasters, and the 
 Royal Military Asylum, which had been opened in 1803 for 
 the sons of soldiers, was used as a model school in connexion 
 with it. Schoolmistresses, regularly trained at some training 
 college, were engaged for the ' infant ' and ' industrial ' schools, 
 and these were allowed pupil teachers and two monitresses 
 apiece if necessary. The industrial training was confined to 
 girls and consisted of sewing, materials for which were pro- 
 vided by a small capitation grant. 
 
 By the Order in Council of February 25, 1856 (see p. 13), 
 it was recommended that the Education Department should 
 for the future inspect the regimental schools in the United 
 Kingdom and the training school at Chelsea, and report on 
 them to the Secretary of State for War. But this does not 
 appear ever to have been done *. 
 
 In 1 888, as the result of an Inquiry, regimental schools were 
 abolished, as being too small for efficiency, and the schools 
 were consolidated in each garrison. The Normal School was 
 discontinued, and schoolmasters are now selected by com- 
 petition from the Army, and from pupil teachers at the 
 Asylum and Royal Hibernian School, any remaining vacan- 
 cies being filled by certificated civilian schoolmasters of the 
 
 1 Hartley, The Schools for the People, p. 42.
 
 EDUCATION] WAR OFFICE 71 
 
 second class without examination. All candidates are posted 
 to a garrison school for a year on trial, and if satisfactory are 
 then regularly enlisted in the Corps of Army Schoolmasters. 
 
 Trained schoolmistresses were considered too expensive, 
 and the small children were in future to he entrusted to wives 
 of non-commissioned officers and soldiers acting as school- 
 mistresses for a small salary. This last arrangement for- 
 tunately broke down at once, and competent trained mistresses 
 were appointed as before when needed 1 . 
 
 In 1875 the Royal Military Asylum was made a half-time 
 school with a view to teaching the boys trades, but the effect 
 on their general education was so disastrous that the full 
 elementary course was restored in 1889^. 
 
 Compulsory Edzication and Abolition of Fees. Compul- 
 sory attendance of the men was always rather a difficult ques- 
 tion, as in 181 1 Sir James Mansfield had laid down that it was 
 no part of military discipline to attend school : \ and in 1858 the 
 law officers of the Crown had supported this opinion 4 . In 
 1849, however, the Commander-in Chief published an Order 
 requiring recruits to attend school for two hours daily ; in 
 spite of which attendance remained voluntary, and in 1872 all 
 recruits were compelled to attend until they got a fourth-class 
 certificate. In 1888 the fourth class was abolished as worth- 
 less, being only equal to the second standard in elementary 
 schools, and compulsory education was abandoned, as it was 
 a waste of time to teach soldiers who were unable or unwilling 
 to pass out of the lowest class ; \ 
 
 An educational standard has been required of every man 
 for promotion to corporal or higher rank, at any rate since 
 June, 1857. In 1872 non-commissioned officers had to attend 
 until they got third-class certificates, and since 1888 second- 
 and even first-class certificates have been necessary for pro- 
 motion to the higher non-commissioned ranks. 
 
 Fees were first remitted in the lowest class 6 , and then 
 gradually abolished altogether between 1860 and 1870. 
 
 Attendance of the children of soldiers is compulsory 7 : 
 a small payment had formerly to be made by them. If there 
 is no military school, and at depots where the barracks are 
 near enough, the children attend some certified efficient or 
 
 1 1889 Report, paragraphs 24-26. 2 1889 Report, p. 18. 
 
 3 Taunton's Common Pleas Reports, iv. 88 ; Warden v. Bailey. 
 
 * Newcastle Report, p. 417. 
 
 6 Suggested as probable by the Newcastle Commission, i. 427. 
 
 6 Newcastle Report, i. 420 ; Second Report, Council of Military Education, 
 
 P- 13- 
 
 7 Second Report of Council, 1865, p. 15; Report, 1872, App. i; Queen's 
 Regulations, 1892; Circular, July 5, 1892.
 
 72 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 inspected school approved of by the Secretary of State for 
 War ; provision was formerly made for the payment of their 
 fees. 
 
 By the Army Schools Act of 1891 (54 Viet. c. 16), all Army 
 Schools are reckoned as public elementary schools for the 
 purpose of any provision for like benefit of children in such 
 schools in the case of any endowed charity. 
 
 The Education given. In 1886 the curriculum in Army 
 Schools was for the first time assimilated to that in public 
 elementary schools as approved by the Committee of Privy 
 Council on Education. 
 
 A . To the Men. The object of these schools as declared 
 by the King's Regulations is to afford men the opportunity 
 of acquiring a sound and useful education. 
 
 The curriculum is elementary, the second class being equal 
 only to the Fifth Standard *, but any European or Oriental 
 modern language, field fortification, military topography and 
 tactics, may be taken up as optional subjects. 
 
 B. To the Children. In 1893 the subjects of the instruc- 
 tion given were identical in scope with those of the Civil Code, 
 but were fewer in number. 
 
 Kindergarten teaching was adopted for the infants, but only 
 in such greatly modified form as was compatible with the 
 teaching obtainable and the expense possible in Army Schools ; 
 its introduction is proceeding very slowly 2 . 
 
 Lessons begin with a prayer and a Bible lesson, but attend- 
 ance at this is optional. 
 
 The average daily attendance of children in the schools at 
 home and abroad in 1895 was Infants, 6,80 1 ; older children, 
 5,998 ; and it remains about the same at the present time. 
 Twenty years before, under the long-service system, there 
 was nearly double the number of children. 
 
 Soldiers with certificates. 1873. 1892. 1902. 
 
 ist Class . . . I > 2 57 2,906 5,631 
 
 2nd ,, J3,855 41,122 48,422 
 
 3rd 18.942 31,575 31,289 
 
 The percentage of certificates to total strength was 36-51 
 in 1892, and 37-69 in 1895. 
 
 In 1895 there were 265 schoolmasters and 285 school- 
 mistresses. There has been a reduction of about 70 in the 
 latter since 1871, as they are employed for children alone; 
 the masters remain nearly the same. 123 masters and 133 
 mistresses were serving in Great Britain, while the remainder 
 are on foreign service or in Ireland, 
 
 1 1893 Report, p. 7, * 1896 Report, p. 16.
 
 EDUCATION] ARMY SCHOOLS 73 
 
 The organization of the Department has been changed 
 several times 1 . In 1860 it was transferred from the Secretary 
 of State for War and placed under the Commander-in-Chief; 
 it was under the charge of an officer, styled the Director- 
 General of Military Education, who, in addition to higher 
 military education, had the general supervision of everything 
 connected with Army Schools and the appointment of teachers. 
 In 1898 this office was abolished and the field-officer known 
 as the Director of Army Schools was made responsible for 
 their general working. 
 
 There is a body of men selected from the most efficient 
 schoolmasters, known since 1892 as Inspectors, nine of whom 
 were serving in England in 1902, one in Scotland, three in 
 Ireland and twelve abroad. Military schools, according to 
 the King's Regulations (par. 1,206), are divided into Garrison, 
 Detachment or Regimental. Garrison schools are for adults 
 and for the older children : they are under the direction of 
 the General Officer commanding the district, who may dis- 
 tribute the control of the schools in his command as he may 
 consider expedient. At Head Quarters of Districts the schools 
 are under the Assistant- Adjutant-General. Elder girls' schools 
 are similarly dealt with. Detachment schools are for the men 
 only. There are Infant Schools in every corps for the younger 
 children of soldiers. These are according to circumstances 
 ' Garrison ' or ' Regimental,' in the latter case being under the 
 direction of the officer commanding the unit. 
 
 Provision is made for Evening Schools, and for the use of 
 civil schools in cases where it is necessary. 
 
 General and other Staff Officers must visit their schools 
 from time to time. Commanding Officers and officers second 
 in command of units must visit frequently the Army Schools 
 attended by the adults or children of their corps. 
 
 No report on the Army Schools has been issued since 1896, 
 and except the number of certificates given above no further 
 information was obtainable from the War Office in 1902. 
 There is no apparent reason why this public department of 
 education should be exempted from the duty of issuing an 
 annual report, especially in view of the policy attempted in 
 1888. 
 
 The Army Gymnasium at Aldershot has been developed 
 to a high degree of efficiency, especially with a view to train- 
 ing Instructors, and the Commander-in-Chief has afforded 
 
 1 For general information see Reports, Council of Military Education, on Army 
 Schools, 1862, 1865, 1868-9 ; Reports of the Director-General of Military Educa- 
 tion, 1872, 1874, 1877, 1889, 1893, 1896 ; Report of Royal Commissioneis on the 
 Present State of Military Education, 1870, ii.
 
 74 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 special facilities for the employment of non-commissioned 
 officers so trained in preparing- elementary teachers to give 
 physical training- in any public elementary day schools. Such 
 training- is intended solely to develop the physique of the 
 scholars, and is not in sense or intention military in any 
 degree. 
 
 5. THE ADMIRALTY. 
 
 The Elementary Education of the Navy is a complex 
 subject, owing to the numerous classes of those who receive 
 it and the varied conditions of their lives. 
 
 The main divisions of the instructed are these : 
 
 A. Persons employed or in training-. 
 
 1. (a) Boys in training ships. 
 
 (b) Boys serving in the Navy in seagoing ships, or 
 harbour ships. 
 
 2. (a) Men serving- in seagoing- ships or harbour ships, 
 being either bluejackets or marines. 
 
 (b) Marines on shore. 
 
 (c) Bluejackets or marines in the Naval Prison. 
 
 B. Children 
 
 (a) of marines ; 
 
 (b) of sailors (at Greenwich Hospital School) ; 
 
 (c) of persons in Admiralty employment T . 
 
 A. (i) Formerly there was a class of ' seamen's school- 
 masters ' who taught only reading, writing, and arithmetic 
 as far as the ' rule of three.' 
 
 By the Order in Council of February 25, 1856'-, the 
 Education Department was empowered to inspect the Green- 
 wich Hospital Schools, the Royal Dockyard Schools, and 
 the Schools of the Royal Marines, and to report thereon 
 to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. This was 
 not neglected, as in the case of the Army ; an Inspector 
 was directed to carry out the Order, and in the end was 
 appointed Director of Education for the Navy in 1864. 
 
 In 1862 the elementary education of the Navy was 
 systematized. Existing teachers had to obtain Education 
 
 1 The only official report on this department, except a short chapter by the 
 Newcastle Commission, is the ' Report by the Inspector of Naval Schools on the 
 educational condition of seamen and marines, and the working of elementary 
 schools under the Admiralty,' 1883 (P. P., 1883, C. 3,569), but the late and present 
 Chaplains of the Fleet have most kindly furnished me with full information. 
 Cf. also Childers's Committee, Q. 1,835 sf l c l- '' ' le arrangement of the facts is 
 mine, and the entire responsibility for any mistakes which may have crept into 
 the text. 
 
 3 P- 13-
 
 EDUCATION] ADMIRALTY 75 
 
 Department certificates or to resign, and pupil teachers were 
 introduced. From 1875 to 1883 there was a system of train- 
 ing- teachers at Greenwich 1 , but vacancies are now filled by 
 ordinary certificated teachers. 
 
 There are fourteen Head Schoolmasters, one in e."ch Gun- 
 nery and Torpedo Ship and in each of the Training- Ships, and 
 seventy-three Naval Schoolmasters. Candidates must have 
 passed through a recognized Training College, have obtained 
 at least a Third-Class certificate, and be of good character 
 and able to swim. Schoolmasters are recommended for 
 promotion by the Chaplain of the Fleet, who is the Inspector 
 of Naval Schools, and may on his recommendation continue 
 to serve to the age of fifty-five. 
 
 There are seven Home Training Ships educating about 
 2.500 Boys, who attend school about nine hours a week for 
 seven months, and are divided into four ' Instructions,' the 
 highest corresponding to a good Standard VI of the Educa- 
 tion Department. There is an advanced Class in each of 
 these Ships for Algebra, Trigonometry, and Navigation. 
 There are also three Seagoing Training Ships, on board 
 which Boys recruited at a later age are trained, and, if 
 backward, receive as much education as circumstances will 
 permit. 
 
 In 1880 there were thirty-one schoolmasters in seagoing- ves- 
 sels, but none are now carried except in the case of the three 
 seagoing Training Ships ; the instruction is left to volunteer 
 schoolmasters; these receive additional pay and hold a night 
 school open to men and boys who wish to improve their 
 education or qualify for higher ratings. The qualifications 
 for the various petty officers differ with their ratings, and are 
 given in somewhat general terms in the King's Regulations. 
 
 In ships which carry many midshipmen their education is 
 under the charge of a Naval Instructor, who is often the 
 Chaplain. His instruction is mostly professional, and always 
 secondary, if not higher, but his presence is to be noticed as 
 an educational influence in the Navy. 
 
 (2) Marines on shore have their own schools, in five places. 
 There are four certificated masters at the Depot at Walmer 
 and two at Eastney, and these schools are attended by recruits. 
 There is also a certificated master at each of the other stations, 
 and help is given by soldier assistants. In all the schools 
 men attend voluntarily to qualify for promotion as non- 
 commissioned officers. 
 
 (3) There is a schoolmaster at the Naval Prison at Lewes 
 
 1 As recommended by the Newcastle Commission in 1861, i. 452.
 
 76 ENGLAND AND WALES [ELEMENTARY 
 
 and another at Bodmin, men in the fourth stage attending 
 every evening, and men in the third stage on three evenings 
 of the week. The instruction is given in the cells. 
 
 B. (i) Schools for Children. There are schools for children 
 of the Royal Marines at each of their five stations in England. 
 The boys are taught by the men's schoolmasters, the girls 
 and infants by trained mistresses assisted by pupil teachers. 
 At Walmer there is a mixed school for boys and girls and 
 an infants' department. Attendance is compulsory, but all 
 fees were abolished as long ago as 1871. Since 1876 the 
 standards of the Education Department have been adopted ; 
 since 1880 the Lords of the Admiralty have issued certificates 
 of exemption under the Education Acts on the report of the 
 Inspector of Naval Schools. 
 
 In 1895 these schools were recognized as public elementary 
 schools receiving grants and inspection from the Education 
 Department, the commandants or persons appointed by the 
 Admiralty acting as local managers *, 
 
 Religious instruction is given by the teachers at the begin- 
 ning or end of the morning lesson, and sometimes by the 
 Chaplain, simultaneously with the ministers of other deno- 
 minations. 
 
 In 1881 there were 444 boys, 417 girls, and 629 infants in 
 the schools, and 113 infants were sent to board and parochial 
 schools, for which the Admiralty paid the fees. In 1902 
 there were about 644 boys, 604 girls, and 747 infants in 
 attendance at the schools. 
 
 (2) There is also Greenwich Hospital School, where 1,000 
 boys, sons of men in the Royal Navy or Marines, are boarded 
 and educated. This is divided into the Upper Nautical or 
 Higher School, with 150 boys, and the Lower Nautical School 
 with 950, which is now under the Education Department. 
 
 The first of the two classes of the Upper School learns 
 specific subjects, Mathematics, French, and Navigation, and 
 corresponds generally to a higher elementary school. The 
 second class and the Lower School are half-time schools ; 
 the three classes of the Lower School correspond to Stan- 
 dards V, IV, and III respectively, Religious instruction is 
 given every forenoon at the commencement of school, and 
 due provision is made for the worship and teaching of various 
 denominations. 
 
 (3) Besides these schools the Admiralty also pays for the 
 schooling of a number of girls, not exceeding 200, the orphans 
 of seamen, who are educated in schools approved of by the 
 
 1 Local Government Board Departmental Committee Report on Metropolitan 
 Poor Law Schools, 1896, p. 43 (Mundella).
 
 EDUCATION] NAVAL SCHOOLS 77 
 
 Lords of the Admiralty. It also contributes to voluntary 
 schools in Dockyard towns and other places where it employs 
 many people or holds much property. Thus in 1881 .882 
 was paid to 54 schools at which 24,275 children were being 
 educated, of whom 9,565 were the children of persons in the 
 Admiralty employment ; in 1902 724 was granted to 53 
 schools at which 30,526 children were in attendance, of 
 whom 12,052 w r ere the children of persons employed by the 
 Admiralty. Grants are also made to voluntary schools in 
 the United Kingdom, which are attended by the children of 
 coast-guard men.
 
 I. ELEMENTARY 1 EDUCATION 
 B. Ireland 
 
 1. THE COMMISSIONERS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 IF the problem of public education was difficult in England 
 and Wales at the beginning of the nineteenth century, in 
 Ireland it seemed almost hopeless. 
 
 In that distressful country the vast majority of the people 
 were of a different race from the class who governed them ; 
 they belonged to a religious body, which was under political 
 disabilities, and the head of which was a foreign potentate. 
 For centuries they had hated their rulers, who had repressed 
 them without mercy and without intelligence ; the trade and 
 manufactures of the country had been persistently discouraged 
 or destroyed ; many of the landlords were absentees, and 
 those who remained were remarkable as a body neither for 
 their devotion to learning nor their zeal for reform : every- 
 where was a squalid poverty almost unknown across St. 
 George's Channel. 
 
 Education was naturally at a low ebb. It was only in 1781 
 and 1792 that the Statutes of William III and Anne 2 were 
 repealed 3 , which forbade any Catholic either to teach in 
 Ireland or to send his children abroad for their education. 
 The public money had been lavished on societies and schools 
 during the eighteenth century in a fashion unknown to 
 England, but these efforts had been so identified with prose - 
 lytism that every fresh scheme appeared only to arouse the 
 dislike and suspicion of the Irish people and of their spiritual 
 leaders. 
 
 Parliamentary investigations began earlier than at West- 
 minster. In 1788 Commissioners were appointed by the 
 Lord Lieutenant to inquire into all schools of public or 
 charitable foundation and all grants or funds for the purpose 
 of education in Ireland (Irish Statutes, 28 Geo. Ill, c. 15; 
 30 Geo. Ill, c. 34). In 1791 they reported an income of 
 45,000 available for education, of which ,15,000 proceeded 
 from annual grants 4 , and over ,8,000 fell to the share of 
 
 1 ' Primary ' is the word generally used in Ireland for the lowest stage of 
 education. 
 
 2 Irish Statutes, 7 Will. Ill, c. 4, ss. 1,9; 8 Anne, c. 38, s. 16. 
 
 3 Ibid. 21 & 22 Geo. Ill, c. 62 ; 32 Geo. Ill, c. 2 i. 
 
 4 Kildare Commission Report, 1858, i. 18.
 
 IRELAND, 1791-1824 
 
 79 
 
 grammar schools or Trinity College, thus leaving a yearly 
 sum of more than 20,000 available for elementary education '. 
 
 In 1806, after the Union, the Commission was revived 
 (46 Geo. Ill, c. 122) and sat from 1806 to 1812. They esti- 
 mated that there were 4.600 schools for the lower orders in 
 Ireland, attended by upwards of 200,000 children *, 72 per cent, 
 of whom were Catholics; 44 of these were public establish- 
 ments, in which upwards of 4,200 children were maintained 
 and educated at an annual cost of ^7o,ooo 3 . 
 
 Again, in 1824 another Royal Commission was appointed 
 to inquire into schools in Ireland and advise as to the best 
 means of extending education to all classes. They reported 
 in 1825, 1826, and 1827, and found that in 1824 there were 
 11,823 elementary schools in Ireland, attended by 560,549 
 pupils and taught by 12,530 masters and mistresses 4 . 
 
 The population of Ireland in 1824 was 7,091, 500 5 , and the 
 children of school age must have numbered i, 41 8,000 G . Thus 
 two-fifths of the children were on the books of some school or 
 other, but the extent of their attendance and the quality of 
 their instruction may have amounted to anything or nothing. 
 
 Irish elementary education, as it exists to-day, dates from 
 1831, but it was based on previous failures, and can only be 
 understood by noting the attempts which had preceded it, and 
 tracing in their deficiencies the reasons of its development. 
 
 In 1824 the numbers were distributed as follows 7 : 
 
 Schools. Pupils on the Books. 
 
 Kildare Place Society . 
 
 London Hibernian Society . 
 
 Association for Discountenancing Vice 
 
 Erasmus Smith Foundation 
 
 Baptist Society . 
 
 Charter Schools . 
 
 Schools of other Societies, &c. 
 
 Less Schools included under two head- 
 ings 
 
 Catholic Schools. 
 Catholic Day Schools 
 Nunnery (Girls') Schools . 
 The Christian Brothers 
 
 Maintained by individuals . 
 
 " Pay Schools " 
 
 919 
 618 
 226 
 
 "3 
 
 88 
 
 32 
 
 123 
 
 2,119 
 392 
 
 352 
 46 
 
 2 4 
 
 1,727 
 
 422 
 
 322 
 
 9.352 
 
 5 8 > 2 5 
 37.507 
 12,769 
 8,882 
 
 4,377 
 2,210 
 
 7.155 
 
 25.093 
 
 33.529 
 7>i36 
 5>4. : 4 
 
 106,012 
 
 46,119 
 
 13,686 
 
 394.732 
 
 11,823 
 1791 Report, first printed in Kildare Report, iii. 370, 378. 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 5 Fourteenth Report, p. 4. 
 
 * Second Report, p. 4 ; Ninth Report, p. 60, Appendix. 
 
 s Vide Appendix, p. 2^9. * See p. 14. 
 
 7 The figures given are from the returns of the Established Clergy as supple-
 
 So IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Scattered under these headings were many of the Parish 
 Schools 1 , which were more or less directly the results of an 
 attempt of Henry VIII to establish ' a school to learn English ' 
 in every parish in Ireland, to be kept or provided by the 
 incumbent under ultimate penalty of forfeiture of the benefice 2 . 
 But although his Act (Irish Act, 28 Henry VIII, c. 15) was 
 reinforced by 7 Will. Ill, c. 4 (see page 78), the results were 
 very imperfect, and the Act was generally evaded by the vicar 
 granting ,2 a year to some school in his parish 3 . In 1825 in 
 the 1,242 benefices of Ireland there were 782 schools in receipt 
 of pecuniary aid from the clergy, amounting in all to ^3,3OO 4 , 
 and these were attended by 12,195 Protestants and 15,303 
 Catholic children 5 . 
 
 As the Select Committee reported in 1838, 'their establish- 
 ment, conduct, and continuance depended exclusively on 
 individuals. It is a matter therefore of no surprise that Parish 
 Schools " were never established in any great numbers in 
 Ireland 6 ," nor calculated at any time to answer fully the 
 purposes for which they were instituted 7 .' 
 
 Some of them were included in the Pay Schools, which 
 accommodated seventy per cent, of the children ; but these 
 must have been in most cases the old Catholic ' Hedge 
 Schools Y where, under the penal laws 
 
 ' Still crouching 'neath the sheltering hedge or stretched on mountain fern, 
 The teacher and his pupils met feloniously to learn 9 .' 
 
 Several masters of the Hedge Schools in the South of 
 Ireland at this period enjoyed considerable local reputation as 
 classical and mathematical scholars 10 , but on the whole there 
 can be no doubt that a very scanty stock of reading, writing, 
 and ciphering was the utmost that was taught in them 1J . They 
 did not profess to give any religious teaching, but left it 
 entirely to the clergy of each denomination l2 . 
 
 Of the specifically Catholic Schools, the Day Schools were 
 supported by the collections and subscriptions of the Roman 
 
 mented by the Catholic returns. The Catholic returns supplemented by those of 
 the Established Church give 568,964 scholars. Second Report, P. P., 1826-7, x 'i- 
 pp. 6-1 8 ; xiii. 1,058. 
 
 I Eleventh Report, 1810. a 1825 First Report, p. 3. 
 8 Ibid. p. 37. * Ibid. p. 37. 
 5 Ibid. App. p. 15. 6 Report, Q. 837. 7 Ibid. p. 6. 
 8 J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland, i. 570. 
 
 John O'Hagan (1822-90 : Judge of the Land Court) ; v. The New Spirit of the 
 Nation, p. 16: Fisher Unwin, 1894. 
 
 10 Report of the Royal Commission under Lord Powis on Irish Primary Edu- 
 cation, 1870, vi. p. xxiv. 
 
 II Ibid. ii. 358. 
 
 13 J. H. Bridges, Two Centuries of Irish History, p. 295 : Kegan Paul, Trench, 
 & Co., 1888.
 
 EDUCATION] ASSOCIATION SCHOOLS 81 
 
 Catholic inhabitants of certain parishes, and were under the 
 superintendence of the Roman Catholic priests l . After the 
 removal of restrictions in 1 792 there was a great multiplication 
 of Catholic Schools'*. 
 
 The Institute of the Christian Brothers was a ' congre- 
 gation ' founded in 1802 and confirmed by a Papal Hull of 
 1820. The members took vows of poverty, chastity, and 
 obedience, and also a vow to teach children gratuitously 
 during their lives. In 1825 they had eleven schools taught 
 by forty brothers ' ! , but have since become the most important 
 Catholic educational body in Ireland 4 . 
 
 The Nuns' Schools for girls belonged chiefly to the Order 
 of the Presentation, which is devoted to giving instruction 5 . 
 In 1825 they were reported as conducted with great order 
 and regularity, and well provided with every school requisite 6 . 
 
 Of the associations at the head of the list The Incorporated 
 Society, founded in 1733 ; The Association for Discountenanc- 
 ing Vice, incorporated 1800; The London Hibernian Society, 
 founded in 1805 ; and The Baptist Society, formed in 1814, 
 were all more or less avowedly proselytising societies, sup- 
 ported largely by public subscriptions, and in the case of the 
 first two by a Government Grant 7 . The Incorporated Society 
 between 1733 and 1824 spent 1,027,715 of the public money, 
 and 584,423 from private sources, only with the effect of 
 creating grave scandals. To it belonged the notorious Charter 
 Schools which Mr. Froude thought ' the best conceived educa- 
 tional institutions that existed in the world 8 ,' although he 
 admitted their ' conspicuous and monstrous failure.' Between 
 1775 and 1803 they received the children of Catholics only: 
 the pupils were brought up with cruelty and neglect, and 
 their labour was let out to the masters at fifteen shillings 
 a year each 9 . As a result of the 1824 Commission, its grant 
 was gradually withdrawn. 
 
 The Erasmus Smith Elementary Schools were founded 
 from the surplus of an endowment given in 1657 by a 
 
 1 1827 Second Report, p. 17. 
 
 3 Newenham, State of Ireland, pp. 13-19; Lecky, History of Ireland in the 
 Eighteenth Century, 1892, v. 425. 
 
 3 1825, First Report, p. 85. 
 
 * Po\\is, viii. 83-94, I >3 > Ellis, Irish Education Directory, 1887, gives 275 
 of these schools with 27,490 pupils. 
 
 5 1825 Report, p. 86. ' ' Ibid. p. 88. 
 
 7 Vide generally Royal Commission First Report, 1825 ; especially pp. 7, 8, 16, 
 and Appendix 337. 
 
 8 The English in Ireland, ii. 491. 
 
 9 The Society has, however, during the last sixty years had a most useful and 
 honourable career in the education of Protestant children (Kildare Report, i. 14, 
 90; Endowed Commissioners' Reports, 1885-6, App. 2 ; 188990, p. vi). 
 
 BALFOUR G
 
 82 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 London citizen to found grammar schools, in which the only 
 restrictions were that the masters were to be Protestants, and 
 the pupils were to be taught Ussher's Catechism 1 . 
 
 As an outcome of the feeling in favour of a system which 
 should not attempt to proselytise, the Kildare Place Society 
 was founded in 1811 to promote and support schools in which 
 the Bible should be read without note or comment, but no 
 Catechisms or controversial books should be used, and in 
 consequence of the Report of 1812 it began to receive sub- 
 sidies from Government in 1814. It seems to have been 
 honestly worked, but it allowed itself to aid schools connected 
 with some of the denominational societies, the priesthood 
 declared against it, and its doom was sealed 2 . The fact was, 
 as Mr. Stanley said in 1831, the rule of reading the Bible 
 without comment was one to which no conscientious Catholic 
 could submit 3 . 
 
 In addition to the Societies and to the grants which they 
 received, Parliament in 1819 empowered the Lord Lieutenant 
 to make grants from the Consolidated Fund in aid of schools 
 established by voluntary subscriptions. These grants were 
 administered by three unpaid Commissioners, and were free 
 from denominational restrictions, but although the annual 
 amount had risen to 10,833 by ^24, only 12 out of 431 
 grants made up to 1825 were assigned to Roman Catholics 4 , 
 and in 1826 the fund was discontinued 5 . 
 
 The interesting feature about these various schemes is that 
 into their management every feature but one had been intro- 
 duced which we shall afterwards find in the Government 
 system. State grants in aid of building schools, salaries and 
 gratuities to teachers, requirement of local effort, normal 
 schools, adult evening schools, competent inspectors, mixed 
 Boards, publication and free issue of school books, combined 
 secular instruction, and even a conscience clause as far as 
 Catechetical instruction w r as concerned separately or in 
 combination, all these were in actual use. There only re- 
 mained one thing a guarantee for religious independence, 
 and this was pointed out from the first by every independent 
 body which inquired into the problem. 
 
 In 1791 the Commissioners recommended that no distinction 
 should be made between scholars of different religious de- 
 nominations 6 . 
 
 1 Powis Report, i. 481. 
 
 2 ' The Society for promoting the Education of the Poor in Ireland ' ; its offices 
 were in Kildare Place, Kildare Street, Dublin. 1825 Report, p. 50; Kildare 
 Report, i. 126. 
 
 3 Hansard, T. S., vi. 1,253. * 1825 Report, p. 58. 
 
 ' Select Committee on Foundation Schools, 1838, p. n. * Kildare, iii. p. 364.
 
 EDUCATION] COMMISSIONS 83 
 
 In 1812 the Commissioners unanimously reported that l no 
 plan of education . . . can be carried into effectual execution 
 in Ireland, unless it be explicitly avowed and clearly under- 
 stood as its leading" principle that no attempt shall be made 
 to influence or disturb the peculiar religious tenets of any sect 
 or description of Christians V 
 
 The Kildare Place Society was founded, and nothing else 
 was done, apparently in the hope that the new undertaking 
 might supply the want. 
 
 In 1825 the third Commission recommended that, in 
 a country where marked divisions exist between different 
 classes of the people, schools should be established for the 
 purpose of giving to children of all religious persuasions 
 such useful instruction as they may severally be capable and 
 desirous of receiving, without having any ground to appre- 
 hend any interference with their religious principles 2 . 
 
 On March n, 1828, these reports were referred to a Select 
 Committee of the House of Commons, who adopted most 
 of the recommendations, and stated that in their opinion it 
 was ' of the utmost importance to bring together children 
 of the different religious persuasions in Ireland for the pur- 
 pose of instructing them in the general subjects of moral and 
 literary knowledge, and providing facilities for their religious 
 instruction separately when differences of creed render it im- 
 practicable for them to receive religious instruction together.' 
 They recommended the establishment of a fixed authority for 
 the control and management of State-aided schools ; that two 
 days a week should be set apart for religious instruction by 
 the various clergy, Protestants and Catholics each to have 
 one day. 
 
 The entire body of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in 
 Ireland presented petitions to both Houses of Parliament ;! , 
 entreating that the recommendations of this Committee 
 should be adopted, and the same course was urged by 
 another Select Committee of the House of Commons which 
 inquired, in 1830, into the state of the poorer classes in 
 Ireland, and recommended education as one of their remedial 
 measures 4 . 
 
 Catholic Emancipation was passed in 1829, and in 1830 
 Earl Grey came into power, but it was not until September 9, 
 1831, the year before the Reform Bill was passed, that any 
 steps were taken to carry out these recommendations. On 
 that date the House of Commons voted a sum of 30,000 
 
 1 Fourteenth Report, 1812, p. 2. 2 1825 Report, p. 89. 
 
 3 Hansard, Second Series, xvi. 1,259 ; P. P., 1830, vii. p. 50. 
 1 Ibid. 
 
 G 2
 
 84 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 ' to enable the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to assist in the 
 education of the people.' The scheme was explained by 
 the Hon. E. G. Stanley, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, 
 afterwards Prime Minister and fourteenth Earl of Derby, 
 who seconded the vote ; it was received with welcome by 
 O'Connell, and with great bitterness by some of the Irish 
 Tories 1 . The general lines were those recommended by 
 the Select Committee of 1828; the system adopted was 
 afterwards described as a denominational system with a con- 
 science clause, in which there was to be separate religious 
 and combined literary and moral instruction 2 . The scheme 
 had been submitted to the Government in the preceding 
 winter by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Thomas Wyse, M.P. for the 
 county Tipperary, and was adopted by them without acknow- 
 ledgement 3 . It may be noted that this was no fresh grant 
 to Ireland, but simply 30,000 withdrawn from the Kildare 
 Place Society and the Society for Discountenancing Vice, 
 and paid instead to a new agency for public education. The 
 machinery was provid&l by the Lord Lieutenant, who ap- 
 pointed an unpaid Board of seven members, including the 
 Duke of Leinster, ' a distinguished Protestant in whom 
 the Catholics had much confidence 4 ,' as Chairman, and 
 Dr. Whately and Dr. Murray, the Protestant and Catholic 
 Archbishops of Dublin. Three of the Board belonged to 
 the Established Church, two were Roman Catholics, and the 
 remaining two a Presbyterian and a Unitarian. Mr. Stanley 
 in his speech hinted that if this body failed, the next expedient 
 of the Government would be a Board of paid members. The 
 scheme, after its exposition by Mr. Stanley in his speech, 
 was sketched by him in a letter to the Chairman 5 , and then 
 gradually developed in an explanatory document 6 and Rules 
 and Regulations ", as it was moulded by actual experience 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., vi. p. i,249sqq. 
 
 '* Powis, i. 38 ; J. Williams, Education, p. 332 : A. & C. Black, 1892. 
 
 3 Notes on Education Reform in Ireland, from Speeches, Letters, &>c. in the 
 unpublished Memoirs of the A'f. Hon. Sir Thomas Wyse, K.C.B., by Miss W. M. 
 Wyse : Redmond & Co., Waterford, 1901. 
 
 Thomas Wyse, junior, of the Manor of St. John's, Waterford, born 1791, was 
 educated at Stonyhurst and Trinity College. Dublin, and spent some time abroad, 
 chiefly in Italy. He sat as M.P. for Tipperary 1830-3, and for Waterford City 
 1835-47. In 1849 he was made a Privy Councillor, and sent as Minister Pleni- 
 potentiary to Greece, where he remained for a number of years. He became 
 a K.C.B. in 1857, and died in 1862. In 1^36 he published Education Reform, or 
 the Necessity of a National System of Education, a most enlightened book, show- 
 ing a wide knowledge of foreign educational literature. He was also the author 
 of Walks in Rome and Oriental Rambles. See pp. 102, 207, 282. 
 
 4 fifty Years of Concessions to Ireland, O'Brien, i. 120. 
 
 5 Powis Report, i. p. 22, two versions. 6 Ibid. p. 27. 
 7 Ibid. p. 607, reprinted up to 1869.
 
 EDUCATION] THE BOARD 85 
 
 and under pressure from the different religious bodies. It 
 is not necessary here to record in detail the numerous differ- 
 ences which existed in these various pronouncements, especially 
 as in the beginning the practice was evidently far from uni- 
 form *, and after the first few years there were for a long time 
 no great modifications. I propose to describe the system 
 as it existed during the first forty years of its existence, 
 and then to draw attention to the most important additions 
 made by statute or otherwise during the last quarter of a 
 century. 
 
 (i) The Central Government. The Board of Commis- 
 sioners of National Education in Ireland. The members 
 have always been 4 men of high personal character, including 
 individuals of exalted station in the Church and persons 
 professing different religious opinions.' They were (and 
 are) appointed by the Lord Lieutenant at his sole discretion, 
 and may be (but never have been) removed by him at 
 pleasure 2 . Their number was gradually increased, until by 
 their Charter of 1860 it was fixed at not more than twenty 
 members, half of whom were to be Catholics and half Pro- 
 testants. In a short time after the establishment of the Board 
 it was found that a permanent administrative officer was 
 necessary, and the Rev. James Carlile, the Presbyterian 
 member, was appointed Resident Commissioner with a fixed 
 salary ;; . The other members have always been unpaid. The 
 Commissioners are independent of Government, except in so 
 far as they rely upon the House of Commons for their annual 
 grant, and there is a regulation that no fundamental rule may 
 be altered without the express permission of the Lord Lieu- 
 tenant 4 . Bills and Votes in the House of Commons are 
 introduced by the Chief Secretary for Ireland. 
 
 A staff of paid inspectors and clerks was at once appointed. 
 Grants were made for various purposes as far as the gradually 
 increasing Parliamentary Grant allowed. 
 
 The right of Inspection of schools was reserved from the 
 first by the Board, who were thus wiser than the English 
 Committee of Council. In 1837 they divided Ireland into 
 twenty-five districts, increased to thirty-two in 1843. Each 
 of these was under its Superintendent, as those officers were 
 
 1 Powis Report, i. 36, 59, 117, 165. 
 
 2 Cross Commission, Report on English Elementary Education, Q. ^3,176. 
 Q. 53,186, Q. 53,233. 
 
 3 He resigned in 1838, and was presently succeeded by Mr. Macdonnell, who 
 remained in service until 1872. He was succeeded by Sir P. Keenan, who died 
 in 1894, and was in turn succeeded by the Rt. Hon. C. T. Redington, and Dr. 
 W. J. M. Starkie. 
 
 * Cross, Q. 53,189, Q. 53,207 ; Childers, Q. 861.
 
 86 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 called, until the title of Inspector was restored in 
 In that year a few Sub-Inspectors were selected from the 
 best teachers, and employed chiefly in organizing- new schools 
 and improving- old ones, which were imperfectly conducted. 
 In later years this duty has been performed by organizing- 
 teachers 2 . 
 
 All grants to teachers and monitors are paid to them 
 individually from head quarters by Post Office Orders :i , on 
 a system similar to that in force in England between 1846 
 and 1862, which was complicated and entailed very much 
 correspondence 4 . 
 
 (2) The Local Management. A ' patron ' was recognized 
 in every school receiving assistance from the Board. Unless 
 otherwise specified in the application, he was the person 
 applying in the first instance to place the school in con- 
 nexion with the Board 5 . He was invested with the local 
 government of the school, and might appoint a fit person 
 as local manager. He (or the manager) had the right of 
 engaging- and dismissing the masters, subject to the regula- 
 tions of the Board, but the Commissioners retained the right 
 of dismissing- unsuitable persons, although upheld by the 
 patron. On the other hand, there seems to be no provision 
 against arbitrary dismissal 6 . The Committee of a school 
 might be its patron, but among the Catholics the patron is 
 almost universally an individual 7 . He must be a person of 
 some position and responsibility, preferably a clergyman or 
 priest. 
 
 The manager arranged the time-table of the school, subject 
 to the reg-ulations of the Board. He is not removable unless 
 after a public inquiry 8 . 
 
 (3) Religioiis Instruction. The one thing necessary for 
 the success of the new system was to procure the indis- 
 criminate attendance of children of all denominations. It 
 was left to the schools to fix their own fees and make 
 regulations as to hours, but the one point on which every- 
 
 1 Powis, i. no. 
 
 a The Inspection staff consists of six Head Inspectors (introduced in 1846, ibid.), 
 nearly seventy district Inspectors, and a few Inspectors' assistants, all selected by Civil 
 Service competitive examination, National Schoolmasters being eligible for appoint- 
 ment (vide article by Rt. Hon. C. T. Redington, the late Resident Commissioner, 
 in the Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. i. p. 254). Half the leading 
 officers are Catholics and half Protestants (Childers's Report, 1884, Q. 866). 
 
 3 Powis Report, Q. 3,025. 
 
 * Lord Lingen before House of Commons Committee, 1865, Q. 561, Q. 576, and 
 Q. 582 ; Hansard, T. S., clxv. p. 200; Redington, 248. 
 
 5 Report for 1885, Art. 99 (e) ; Powis, i. 150. 
 
 6 Powis, i. 27. Journal of Education, 1898, p. 378. 
 
 7 Cross, iii. Q. 53,150. " Childers's Report, 1884, Q. 864.
 
 EDUCATION] RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION 87 
 
 thing 1 manifestly depended was the entire separation of the 
 denomination during- religious instruction. 
 
 At first one or two week-days were set apart in every 
 week entirely for religious teaching in schools receiving 
 grants from the Board, and opportunity was also afforded 
 for it on the other days before or after ordinary school 
 hours l . This time was reduced to a day or part of a day 
 in 1 8382, and in 1840, at the instance of the Presbyterians, 
 the ' fifty -two Popish holidays' were abolished, and the 
 principle of assigning a separate day was abandoned ''. 
 
 Religious teaching on ordinary days was given at times 
 set apart for it. After 1838 such times might be during 
 ordinary school hours, if arrangements were made for sepa- 
 rating the children who received it, in case of objection being 
 raised by the parents 4 . 
 
 In 1855 it was laid down that religious instruction or 
 exercises might take place before or after ordinary school 
 hours, and at one intermediate time only, except where it 
 appeared that this permission would prevent children of any 
 religious denomination availing themselves of the advantages 
 of a school 5 . 
 
 In 1865 leave was granted to withdraw children to a limited 
 extent from ordinary instruction for separate religious teach- 
 ing, provided that the secular education was not materially 
 impeded 6 . 
 
 Notice had to be published of the hours when religious 
 instruction was to be given, and until 1837 children were 
 not allowed to remain for the religious lessons of denomina- 
 tions other than their own 7 . After that year they might 
 remain if they chose, but in 1866 the original rule was 
 restored 8 , and now no Protestant may remain for religious 
 instruction given by a Catholic, and no Catholic may remain 
 for that given by the member of any other denomination, 
 unless the parent has requested it in writing 9 . 
 
 After many small changes and rearrangements the principle 
 of the Board took the following shape in 1866. 'Religious 
 instruction must be so arranged that each school shall be 
 open to children of all communions ; that due regard be 
 had to parental right and authority ; that accordingly no 
 child shall receive, or be present at, any religious instruction 
 of which his parents or guardians disapprove ; and that the 
 
 1 Rules, 1831, iii. 2 Rules, 1838, ii. 2. 
 
 3 Powis, i. 90. Correen School. * Ibid. i. 90, 138. 
 
 s Rules, 1855, i. iv. 2. s Powis, i. 185. 
 
 7 Ibid. i. 59, 87. 3 Ibid. i. 117, 188. 
 9 Rules for 1891, Art. 90.
 
 88 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 time for giving it be so fixed that no child shall be thereby, 
 in effect, excluded, directly or indirectly, from the other 
 advantages which the school affords 1 . 
 
 Prayers or reading the Bible either in the Authorized or 
 Douay Versions are reserved for the times of separate 
 instruction. 
 
 Religious instruction was given by the Clergy of the 
 denomination, as formerly in the Pay Schools (p. 80) or by 
 laymen approved by the parent : they were not employed or 
 remunerated by the Board. 
 
 (4) School- houses. As in England, the first grants given 
 were in aid of building schools, and out of these building 
 grants there soon arose an important division of the schools 
 into Vested and Non-Vested, which exists to the present 
 day. 
 
 The chief conditions laid down by the Board were that 
 the site and not less than one-third of the expense of any 
 school receiving a building grant should be locally contri- 
 buted (as against one-half required in England and Scotland), 
 and that the buildings should be vested in trustees chosen by 
 the applicants and approved by the Commissioners -. 
 
 From these schools the Board has always required a more 
 permanent and complete submission to their rules than from 
 the non-vested schools, which receive only occasional or annual 
 grants easily discontinued 3 . 
 
 In 1844 the Board received a Charter enabling it to hold 
 land to the yearly value of 40,000 4 , and this they proceeded 
 to utilize by requiring that from that date all schools receiving 
 building grants should be vested, not in trustees, but in the 
 Board themselves, who then became responsible for their 
 proper maintenance of the buildings. Their reason for this 
 course was that trustees frequently allowed the school-houses 
 to become dilapidated, and could only be compelled to do 
 their duty by a suit in Chancery 5 . There was great oppo- 
 sition to the new rule, which was considered, especially among 
 the Catholics, to imply all sorts of sinister designs on the part 
 of the Commissioners. In 1861 applicants were allowed either 
 to vest their school in the Board, who then undertook all 
 repairs, or to vest it in their own trustees and remain liable 
 for the expense of maintaining it themselves 6 . Finally, in 
 1866, the managers of any vested school, by repaying the 
 money received, without interest, might have the school 
 reconveyed to themselves ". A similar right had been granted 
 in England, but was never exercised (p. 1 1). 
 
 1 1866 Rules, i. iv. 2. 2 Powis, i. 27. 3 Ibid. * Ibid. i. 106. 
 
 '" Ibid. i. 107. 6 Ibid. i. 174. 7 Ibid. i. 189.
 
 EDUCATION] SCHOOL-HOUSES 89 
 
 Mr. Stanley in his letter had directed that a fund sufficient 
 for the annual repairs of the school-house and furniture should 
 be required before any grant was made, but anything in the 
 nature of invariable permanent endowment was found to be 
 impracticable in a country so poor as Ireland 1 . 
 
 It was at first announced that peculiar favour would be shown 
 to joint applications from Protestants and Catholics, but this 
 pressure to unite denominations was abandoned on demand 
 of the Presbyterians 2 . 
 
 Grants for teachers' residences were not in these days made 
 by the Board for their ordinary schools. 
 
 Free access to the schoolroom during- secular instruction was 
 always allowed to the public in Vested Schools 3 . 
 
 Originally the religious teachers approved by the parents 
 must be allowed access to the children for the purposes of 
 religious instruction in any of the schools subsidized by the 
 Board, but the Presbyterians raised the greatest objections to 
 this rule, and after 1840 it was decided that the managers of 
 non-vested schools need not at any time admit religious 
 teachers of any other denomination 4 . In vested schools such 
 teachers still retained the right of access, but, as a matter of 
 practice, it is not generally demanded 5 . 
 
 No school-house may be used for political meetings or con- 
 verted into a place of religious worship. Subject to these 
 regulations the managers of non-vested schools have entire 
 control of them on Sundays. No denominational emblems 
 may be exhibited inside a school during secular instruction, 
 nor outside in the case of schools built after 1855 ; nor might 
 political emblems be exhibited inside or affixed to the exterior 
 of schools at any time. 
 
 District Model Schools. One of the early schemes of the 
 Board was the establishment of a model school in each of the 
 thirty-two school districts into which Ireland was divided G . 
 The first of them, however, was only opened in 1849, and the 
 full number was never completed 7 . The schools were to cost 
 no more than 800 apiece, but they enormously exceeded 
 their estimates, and varied greatly in their size and accom- 
 modation s . 
 
 The aim, as afterwards defined , was to promote ' united 
 education,' to exhibit the most improved methods of literary 
 
 1 Fowls, i. 115. 3 Ibid. i. 48, 74, 90. 3 Ibid. i. 151. 4 Ibid. i. 90, 99. 
 
 5 Ibid. Q. 27,062-5, Cardinal Cullen ; Report of Childers's Select Committee of 
 House of Commons on Administration, 1884, Q. 970. 
 
 6 1835 l^'P ort > p- 40 ; Powis, i. 77. 
 
 7 Powis, i. 115, 208. 8 Ibid. i. 210. 
 9 In 1867, Powis, i. 426.
 
 90 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 and scientific instruction to the surrounding- schools, and to 
 train young persons for the office of teacher. They were to 
 be utilized for supplying teachers for National Schools. Each 
 school was to have a residence for the master and a dormitory 
 for three candidate teachers, afterwards called pupil teachers J ; 
 a residence near the school was to be provided for the mistress 
 and one female candidate teacher. Six Minor Model Schools 
 were also erected, which did not receive candidate teachers. 
 
 These schools were managed by the Commissioners and 
 subject to the same regulations as ordinary National Schools, 
 but there were two important differences in principle. No 
 local contributions were required, and the locality had not the 
 right of appointing the teachers 2 . 
 
 The Model Schools, after a time, almost more than any 
 part of the work of the Commissioners, aroused the hatred of 
 the Catholics 3 , and Catholic children were in many cases for- 
 bidden to attend them. In 1861 the Chief Secretary under- 
 took in the House of Commons that no more Model Schools 
 should be erected without reference to the House 4 . 
 
 They give a higher education than the ordinary schools 5 , 
 and their teachers receive special rates of remuneration. In 
 all, only twenty-six District and Minor Model Schools 
 have been created, exclusive of the four Model Schools in 
 Dublin 6 . 
 
 (5) Books. Nowhere was a supply of good school books 
 more wanted than in Ireland. In the old days instruction 
 was almost entirely individual, and every child used to bring 
 with it to school whatever book it could get in which to learn 
 reading. ' It has occurred to a member of the Commission ' 
 of 1824 'to see in a School in the County of Sligo a child 
 holding the New Testament in its hands, sitting between two 
 others, one of whom was supplied with The Forty Thieves 
 and the other with The Pleasant Art of Money Catching, 
 while another, at a little distance, was perusing the Mutiny 
 Act, and reading aloud their respective volumes at the same 
 time 7 .' 
 
 A list of the books actually used in four counties is given in 
 the same report, and ranges through Milton and Locke, and 
 Dusseldorf on Fratricide, Lydia (a loose Novel), the Academy 
 of Compliments, and the History of Philander Flashaway*. 
 
 The Kildare Place Society did much to supply the want 
 and published a number of suitable works, which the new 
 
 1 Powis, i. 429. 2 Ibid. i. 210. 3 Ibid. i. 445. 
 
 * Hansard, T. S., clxiv. p. 917. 5 Powis, i. 213, 436. 
 
 6 National Education Board Report for 1895, p. 15. 
 
 7 First Report, 1825, p. 44. * Ibid. 1825, App. p. 553.
 
 EDUCATION] SCHOOL BOOKS 91 
 
 Board at first adopted. The Catholic Book Society's publi- 
 cations were also edited for the use of the National Schools'. 
 But these were only temporary and provisional steps, and the 
 Resident Commissioner and his Assistants set themselves to 
 produce a graduated series of lesson books, which was brought 
 out with as little delay as possible. This was the foundation 
 of the classes corresponding- to the English Standards, which 
 came into prominence in 1872 when payment by results was 
 introduced. 
 
 Their merits were well pointed out by Lord Powis's Com- 
 mission. ' They brought with them uniformity, and rendered 
 class teaching- possible ; they were graduated to suit the 
 growing capacities of children ; they were distributed gratis 
 or sold cheaply ; they were generally accepted as containing 
 nothing inimical to Christian faith or morality, and they 
 accomplished beneficial results of national importance V 
 
 A book of extracts from the Scriptures for joint use in the 
 schools was also produced with the help of Dr. Arnold of 
 Rugby 3 . It was published with the sanction of the Board 
 and largely used at first 4 . But public feeling ran strongly 
 against it ; the Catholics objected to using it at all, while the 
 Protestants, especially the Presbyterians, resented it as a 
 mutilation of the Scriptures. Already, in 1838, a Superin- 
 tendent was reproved for directing its use, and it gradually 
 went out of use, though never actually withdrawn 5 . 
 
 Another book for joint use led to one of the bitterest con- 
 troversies in the history of the Board. A work on Christian 
 Evidences, written by Archbishop Whately, was prohibited 
 by the Commissioners in 1853. The author demanded that all 
 books published by the Board should be read in all the Model 
 Schools , and being defeated retired from the Board, accom- 
 panied by Mr. Blackburne, the ex-Lord Chancellor of Ireland, 
 and Baron Greene. 
 
 No books might be used in the schools other than those 
 sanctioned by the Commissioners, but none were prohibited 
 except as containing matter objectionable in itself, or objec- 
 tionable as belonging to some religious denomination 7 . There 
 never was any compulsion to use the books issued by the 
 Board, although there was great temptation, inasmuch as these 
 alone were supplied gratuitously or on special terms by the 
 Commissioners. 
 
 One of the chief Catholic grievances has been the omission 
 of the histories of Ireland and of the Church of Rome from 
 
 1 Powis, i. 28. ' 2 Ibid. i. 119. 3 Ibid. i. 40. 
 
 1 Ibid. i. 41. 5 Ibid. i. 96; Cross, Q. 53,426. 
 
 ' Powis, i. 129. 7 Ibid. i. 120.
 
 92 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 the reading-books l . So far was the exclusion of national 
 spirit carried in the early days, that in 1838 Dr. Whately 
 struck out ' Breathes there a man with soul so dead,' and 
 would not allow the children to hear that ' Freedom shriek'd 
 as Kosciusko fell-.' In Music the indictment is almost in- 
 credible, but in the whole music manual in use in 1868 there 
 was not a single Irish air 3 . 
 
 Grants of Books. A first stock of the Board's school 
 books was furnished to their schools from 1833 onwards, and 
 renewed at intervals, and additional copies were supplied at 
 special rates 4 . Between 1843 and 1850 books were sold also 
 at very low prices to poor schools in Ireland not connected 
 with the Board, but on a protest from the leading publishers 
 this was discontinued 5 . The books had at one time a con- 
 siderable circulation outside Ireland' 1 , but probably all need 
 for a Government series has now ceased. 
 
 (6) Teachers. Most of the Government Grant was expended 
 on the training and payment of teachers, and, bad as the con- 
 dition of school literature was, it is doubtful whether the 
 teachers were not, if possible, worse. Dr. J. F. Murray, one 
 of the first Inspectors, wrote in February, 1833, ' The ignor- 
 ance of the teachers, generally speaking, is another barrier 
 to improvement. To an arrogance and self-conceitedness 
 peculiarly their own, many of the country schoolmasters and 
 mistresses unite an ignorance of everything except reading 
 and writing, with occasionally a smattering of mathematics. 
 I found few who knew anything of English grammar ; fewer 
 still who were acquainted with geography. However I might 
 lament the limited extent of their information, I could not but 
 regret the wretched judgment displayed in communicating 
 the little they do know V 
 
 Conditions Training. In Mr. Stanley's letter it was laid 
 down that every teacher appointed in the future must have 
 received previous instruction in ' the Model School ' to be 
 established in Dublin, and to be sanctioned by the Board s . 
 This was repeated in the Rules and Regulations, but in prac- 
 tice the Board had to content itself for a long time with giving 
 a short course to a few teachers selected by the Inspectors 
 from those already in their service. 
 
 Temporary arrangements for training were made in 1832, 
 and in 1838 the regular Normal establishment 'for training 
 teachers and educating persons destined to undertake the 
 
 1 Powis, i. 351. ' O'Brien, i. 194. 3 Powis Report, Q. 2,032. 
 
 4 Ibid. i. 38. 5 Ibid. i. 120. 
 
 6 Childers's Committee Report, 1884, Q. 858. 
 
 7 Powis, i. 76. 8 Drafts A and B, ibid. p. 22.
 
 EDUCATION] TEACHERS 93 
 
 charge of schools' was opened in Maryborough Street, Dublin, 
 at the head quarters of the Board, though it was not until 
 1845 that the female training establishment was completed 1 . 
 The ordinary course, however, remained at five months, and 
 even so the proportion of teachers who ever passed through 
 it was very small. Religious teaching was entirely omitted 
 from the curriculum and left to the voluntary efforts of the 
 different denominations 2 . 
 
 In 1862 many of the Catholic bishops issued a prohibition 
 against the Training College on account of its secular charac- 
 ter 3 , and the proportion of Catholics greatly declined. It was 
 not until denominational institutions received recognition that 
 the Catholics were trained in anything approaching adequate 
 numbers. 
 
 In 1855 it was laid down that no clergyman of any de- 
 nomination nor (except in the case of convent schools) a 
 member of any religious order could be recognized as the 
 teacher of a National School 4 . 
 
 Teachers have been discouraged, and, since 1843, absolutely 
 prohibited, from attending political meetings, except for the 
 purpose of voting, unless officially employed. 
 
 Monitors. One of the chief sources of supply to the teach- 
 ing body, and the principal means of assistance in its work, 
 were the Monitors in the National Schools. A few were 
 employed in the Dublin Model School from the first 5 , but in 
 1845, the year before the corresponding class of pupil teachers 
 was introduced in England, the system was extended to the 
 provinces in Ireland, and greatly developed during the next 
 ten years. At first (1850) they must be not under fourteen 
 nor over sixteen on engagement ; afterwards (in 1855) a 
 junior class might be taken at eleven, and 300 were at once 
 appointed, but these were discontinued in 1873 6 . 
 
 In 1862 the Board secured the co-operation of some of the 
 best convent schools in training pupil teachers, who were 
 introduced under the title of first class monitors into a few 
 very large and highly efficient schools 7 . 
 
 In 1864 the district Model Schools were supplying about 
 130 new teachers yearly to the training establishment 8 . 
 
 In 1873 all monitors were placed in three classes 9 , and 
 junior monitors abolished. 
 
 1 At first it was not proposed to train schoolmistresses at all, nor indeed to 
 employ them except for sewing and the like (Powis Report, i. 802). 
 Powis, i. 88, 409 ; Cross Report, Q. 53,429. 
 
 Cross, Q. 53,328. * Rules and Regulations, I. vii. 2. 
 
 Powis. i. 109. 6 Ibid. i. 155. 
 
 Ibid i. 176-8,401. 8 Ibid. i. 182. 
 
 Report, p. 25.
 
 94 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Teachers' Remuneration. Another condition of assistance 
 required by Mr. Stanley's letter was that ' a permanent salary 
 for the master ' was to be ' locally provided for,' no amount 
 being stated ; gratuities (also of undefined amount) to teachers 
 of schools conducted under the rules laid down would then be 
 granted by the Board. 
 
 But owing to the poverty of the country, all that could be 
 done in this direction was to require that there should be 
 a sufficient number of children to augment by their weekly 
 pence the Government salary l . No guarantee was taken 
 that the fees would continue to be paid, and in practice when 
 the people found that the Government provided the salary, in 
 a great many cases they relaxed their efforts 2 . 
 
 At first the teachers of schools received grants at the rate 
 of i for every ten children expected to attend their school 3 . 
 
 In 1841 a new principle of payment was introduced. All 
 the teachers employed were divided into three classes 4 , and 
 in the future no teacher was to be recognized or paid except 
 as probationary, until he had been classed after examination 
 either by the Inspector, or, if attending the Normal School, 
 by the Professors 5 . Promotion depended partly on examina- 
 tion and partly on the report of the Inspector. The master 
 or mistress was then paid according to the class of his or her 
 certificate, and not by a capitation grant on the pupils. 
 
 The original mode of payment by capitation grant was con- 
 tinued in convent schools conducted by religious bodies, who 
 were unwilling to have their teachers classed by outside ex- 
 aminers. The grant, however, was paid on the daily average 
 attendance 6 , and this differed so widely from the old esti- 
 mates that the amount was raised first to .15 and then to 20 
 per hundred children. 
 
 Various grants were made for good service, for order, for 
 training teachers, pupil teachers and unpaid monitors, but 
 most of these have been discontinued since payment by results 
 was introduced 7 . 
 
 There has been a steady rise in the amount of State grants 
 to teachers, as may be seen by a comparison between the 
 tables in force in 1841 and 1901, although the latter should 
 be still further increased by the residual capitation grant of 
 60 and upwards for principal teachers and .35 or less for 
 assistant teachers. Local contributions are not included ; they 
 
 1 Powis, i. 115 ; Cross, Q. 53,144. a Powis, i. 46, 329 ; ii. 293. 
 
 * House of Commons Committee Report, 1835, Q. 1,266 ; Powis, i. 181. 
 
 * Completed in the case of the masters in 1849 (Powis, i. 114). 
 
 5 Ibid. i. 98,617. 6 Ibid. 1.623. 
 
 7 See p. 1 08.
 
 EDUCATION] PROTESTANT OPPOSITION 95 
 
 were uncertain, and now at any rate are very insignificant, as 
 school fees are represented in the Government Grant. 
 
 Males. females. 
 
 Class. Code 1841. Code 1900. Code 1841. Code 1900. 
 I. i. 20 175 1$ ji 4 i 
 
 ii. ^"127 .105 
 
 n. \ 5 107 \i *9 
 
 III. ia 77 'o &>> 
 
 Such was the system established, but into the controversial 
 history of the Board during 1 these forty years it is unnecessary 
 to go into any detail. For some time the Commissioners led 
 an uneasy life, and their only relief seems to have been an 
 occasional change of assailants. 
 
 At first the Catholics received the new system with readi- 
 ness, and even eagerness *. The Established Church never 
 liked it in their hearts, though some of its members were 
 influenced by Archbishop Whately and acquiesced in the 
 change. For the first nine years it was the Presbyterians and 
 the Orangemen who resisted every restriction and clamoured 
 for a return to the old state of things. In 1832 the Synod of 
 Ulster raised the cry of ' the Bible unabridged and unmuti- 
 lated Y and held back from the Board's Schools. Between 
 1832-5 four school- houses were wrecked and burned in 
 Ulster, and five more were closed on account of intimidation 3 . 
 
 In 1832 the Christian Brothers (page 81) had placed certain 
 of their schools in connexion with the Board, but in 1836 
 most of them were withdrawn. 
 
 In 1837 Select Committees of the House of Lords and of 
 the House of Commons were appointed to inquire into the 
 new system ; the evidence given before both Committees was 
 printed, but neither body came to any definite decision nor 
 issued any but a formal report. 
 
 In 1835 and 1836 a Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons, with Mr. (afterwards Sir Thomas) Wyse as Chair- 
 man (page 84), took evidence on the Schools of Public Foun- 
 dation in Ireland, and, being reappointed, published a most 
 striking report in i838 4 . Its recommendations were far in 
 advance of the times too far in advance to have had any 
 chance of success if they had been adopted. It proposed for 
 elementary education to retain the Commissioners of National 
 Education as a Central Board co-operating with local bodies 
 in every parish or district, which, subject to the Grand Jury, 
 
 1 Powis, i. 70. a Ibid. i. 48-66. 
 
 3 House of Lords Report, 1837, p. 94. * P. P., 1837-8, vii. 345.
 
 96 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 were to fix a rate to be levied 1 . The education proposed 
 was not less remarkable than the scheme of administration. 
 1 Lessons on objects' was the first item in the curriculum. 
 Manual and physical training- were recommended, and agri- 
 cultural teaching as far as possible. Singing was to form 
 a portion of general elementary education, but even more 
 striking is this sentence, which Ireland after sixty years still 
 required to take to heart : ' There does not seem to exist any 
 valid reason why the elements of at least linear drawing- 
 should not be taught as universally as writing 2 .' A Bill for 
 the National Board and School Meetings of ratepayers was 
 introduced in 1835 by Mr. Wyse, and dropped after a second 
 reading. 
 
 As the Board began slowly to make concessions to the 
 ultra-Protestant party, the Catholics became dissatisfied. The 
 Rev. John MacHale, Catholic Archbishop of Tuam ;j , had suc- 
 cessfully led the attack on the Kildare Place Society in 1820, 
 and in 1838 he began to assail the new Board, on the ground 
 that nothing but Catholic endowed schools would satisfy 
 Catholic Ireland 4 . 
 
 Archbishop Murray supported his colleagues on the Board, 
 and in 1839 the dispute was referred to the Pope. 
 
 In 1840 the Commissioners practically ceded the last of the 
 eight points demanded by the Presbyterians r ', who thereupon 
 withdrew from all opposition and became the staunchest sup- 
 porters of the Board. 
 
 In 1841 the Pope decided that the schools were to have 
 a fair trial and forbade further controversy, directing- the 
 pastors of his flock to maintain watchful care and take every 
 precaution 6 . This for a time silenced the Catholics. 
 
 In 1845 nine of the Bishops of the Established Church 
 declared decidedly and publicly against any plan of education 
 established and maintained by the State. They tried to press 
 the claims of the Church Education Society, which had estab- 
 lished its schools in opposition to the new system of 1839^ 
 but the Government turned a deaf ear 8 . 
 
 In August, 1844, the Board received its first Charter, and 
 the controversy about vesting new schools in the Commis- 
 sioners began 9 . 
 
 1 Report, p. 26. 2 p. 36. 
 
 3 Vide Dictionary of National Biography, and Maynooth College: a Centenary 
 History, by Bishop Ilealy, p. 452 : Dublin, 1895. 
 
 4 R. Barry O'Brien,/''//// Years of Concessions to Ireland, vol. ii. p. 176. A 
 clear and fair account of this controversy from the Catholic point of view. 
 
 8 Powis, i. 90. 6 Ibid. i. 124. 7 Ibid. viii. 29. 
 
 8 Ibid. i. 102. 9 See p. 88; Powis, i. 106 ; O'Brien, ii. 188.
 
 EDUCATION] CATHOLIC OPPOSITION 97 
 
 After this came the Potato Famine ; and dissensions were 
 stayed for a time. Within five years the population was 
 reduced by death and emigration from eight and a quarter to 
 six and a half millions. 
 
 In 1850 the Archbishop of Tuam made his next move, and 
 at the Synod of Thurles the Roman Catholic Bishops pre- 
 sented a claim for separate education. Failing that, the vest- 
 ing of schools in the Board was condemned ; Catholic teachers 
 for Catholic schools were demanded, and the censorship of 
 Catholic religious books ; a creed register was prescribed, 
 and a rule forbidding Catholic children to attend Protestant 
 instruction. More representation of Catholics on the Board 
 was especially demanded. These claims were refused at the 
 time, though most of them have since been conceded l . 
 
 In 1854 another Select Committee of the House of Lords 
 was appointed, but, like its predecessor of 1837, failed to make 
 any joint report. 
 
 In 1859 the Catholic Archbishops and Bishops of Ireland 
 presented a memorial praying for a participation in educational 
 grants for the separate instruction of Catholic children. This 
 was refused. In 1866 it was repeated, with the same result". 
 In 1860 the supplemental Charter was granted to the Board, 
 which was henceforth to consist of twenty members, Protestants 
 and Catholics in equal numbers. 
 
 In 1869 the Irish Protestant Episcopal Church was dis- 
 established, and from its revenues, which were vested in ' the 
 Commissioners of Church Temporalities in Ireland 3 ,' the 
 various branches of Irish education subsequently received or 
 are receiving either the capital or interest of two and one-third 
 millions sterling (pp. 100, 206). 
 
 Powis Commission. In 1868 a Royal Commission, com- 
 posed of seven Protestants and seven Catholics, with Lord 
 Powis as Chairman, was appointed to inquire into the whole 
 system of Irish Primary Education, and in 1870 they presented 
 a most elaborate report in nine volumes. 
 
 The general conclusion at which they arrived was that the 
 progress of the children in the National Schools was very 
 much less than it ought to be 4 (' We know very \vell that 
 forty-five per cent, of the attendance in the National Schools 
 are in the First Book '), and that it was much the same in the 
 chief denominational schools 5 . 
 
 1 Powis, i. 125-26. 2 Ibid. i. 185. 
 
 3 32 & 33 Viet c. 42. The Irish Church Act. 
 
 4 Report, vol. i. 293. 
 
 5 Powis Report, Q- 2 3.8 2 <>. Cf. The Chief Inspector's Report, P. P., 1902, 
 Cd. 954. p. 17. 
 
 BALFOUR H
 
 98 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 To improve this state of things the Commissioners recom- 
 mended the increase of teachers' salaries by an additional 
 payment on results 1 , residences for principal teachers at the 
 cost of the locality 2 , and written engagements between man- 
 agers and teachers with three months' notice on either side 3 . 
 Local management was declared absolutely necessary 4 ; the 
 principle of local contribution to meet State grants was to be 
 enforced 5 , and the local authority was to have power to erect 
 schools 6 and levy a rate not exceeding threepence in the 
 pound 7 . 
 
 Training of teachers 8 was to be encouraged by aiding other 
 training schools under the management of committees, volun- 
 tary societies or religious bodies ; the course at Marlborough 
 Street should be extended to twelve instead of six months, 
 and scholars attending it might live in approved boarding- 
 houses or lodgings, and be under the care of pastors of their 
 own religion. 
 
 But there was a further breach proposed in the system of 
 combined education. It was recommended that in any school 
 district or within any city or town where for three years there 
 had been two or more schools, of which one was under Pro- 
 testant and one under Roman Catholic management, having 
 an average attendance of not less than twenty-five children, 
 the National Board might, on application from the Patron 
 or Manager, adopt any such school and award aid subject 
 only to the exclusion of Protestants from religious instruc- 
 tion given by Catholics and of Catholics from religious in- 
 struction given by non-Catholics, and of children in general 
 from any religious observances to which their parents objected. 
 Such recognition was to be terminable on twelve months' 
 notice 9 . 
 
 The distinction between convent and other schools was to 
 cease, and their teachers to be classed and examined. Monks' 
 schools also should be admitted to aid on the usual conditions 10 . 
 The provincial model schools should be gradually discon- 
 tinued 11 , and the provincial and district model agricultural 
 schools should be revised and reduced in numbers '- ; junior 
 monitors should be discontinued, and the lowest standard for 
 teachers raised 13 . It was not considered expedient to intro- 
 duce compulsory attendance in the rural districts 14 . 
 
 There were three Commissioners who refused to sign the 
 
 1 Report, vol. i. pp. 348, 379. 2 p. 310. 3 p. 383. 
 
 4 p. 311- '" P- 342. 6 p. 322- 7 P- 343- 
 
 " p. 421. Cf. Mr. Chichester P'ortescue's letter (ibid. p. 189). 
 
 9 p- 371. J PP- 39 2 > 395- n P- 459- 
 
 12 P. 465- " PP- 45 424- " P- 325-
 
 EDUCATION] POWIS COMMISSION 99 
 
 report, and three more who objected to the opening of endow- 
 ments to all denominations, but no subsequent inquiry into the 
 system as a whole has been held, nearly every important 
 change since introduced was recommended by the Com- 
 mission, and their list of recommendations has not yet been 
 exhausted. 
 
 The further improvement of teachers' salaries by means of 
 a system of partial payment by results was first carried out in 
 1872, and more completely in the following year. The scheme 
 was suggested by Mr. (afterwards Sir Patrick) Keenan \ and 
 was devised to avoid the worst faults of the English machine. 
 Six classes of children were recognized besides infants under 
 seven. Reading, Spelling, Writing, and Arithmetic received 
 grants in all classes, but the scale was graduated, the respec- 
 tive grants being higher in the upper classes than in the lower. 
 Grammar, Geography, Needlework, and (since 1873) Agricul- 
 ture were taught in the upper classes, and extra subjects, 
 which had been introduced in 1855, continued to receive 
 encouragement. 
 
 Thus the system differed from its English prototype in that 
 the whole of the teacher's income did not depend on the results 
 of the examination ; the teacher maintained his individual 
 relation to the Board as before, though he had always been 
 the servant of the manager and not of the Government ; the 
 upper classes of the school were more remunerative than the 
 lower, though each individual scholar was as valuable as any 
 one else in his class. 
 
 The whole of the fees were divided among the teachers in 
 addition to their salaries. Model and Convent Schools 
 received results fees like any other National School, in spite 
 of the differences existing with regard to the payment of their 
 respective teachers 2 . 
 
 In return for this fresh grant, Parliament directed the Board 
 to require all managers to enter into a specified form of agree- 
 ment with their teachers terminable only on three months' 
 notice on either side 3 . 
 
 In 1873 the Rules and Regulations were largely revised. 
 Junior and unpaid monitors were abolished 4 . Individual 
 examination of infants might be dispensed with in cases where 
 there was a bona fide provision for their systematic training 
 with a separate staff and separate room, but even by 1898 
 
 1 Report, vol. iii. p. 89. 
 
 2 Capitation grants after 1885 were paid not on the average daily attendance 
 (p. 94), but at the rate of los. or us. a head, according to the Results Ex- 
 aminations. 
 
 3 Report for 1872, p. 21. 4 Ibid. p. 36. 
 
 H 2
 
 ioo IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 there had been no relaxation of the rule in the case of older 
 children. 
 
 Legislation and Subsidies. If Public Elementary Educa- 
 tion was long in appearing on the Statute book in England, 
 it was later still in Ireland, where it had been longer in exist- 
 ence. But in 1875 two Acts were passed in the same session. 
 
 The National School Teachers' Residences Act (38 & 39 
 Viet. c. 82) authorized public loans for erecting houses for 
 teachers of non-vested schools, while in the case of vested 
 schools the Commissioners began to make grants for the same 
 purpose. But the more important Act of the two was the 
 National School Teachers (Ireland) Act, 1875 ! . Government 
 had provided an additional method for the schools to earn 
 grants for the teachers ; it now remained to provide the addi- 
 tional money with which those grants might be paid, and 
 local rates were to be enabled to help the Imperial Treasury. 
 Any Board of Guardians was by the Act allowed to become 
 contributory to the extent of one- third of the results fees in 
 the National Schools in its Union, and Parliament provided 
 the remaining two-thirds, while non-contributory unions were 
 to receive only one-third from the Imperial Treasury. 
 
 It may be said at once that the Act has proved a failure, as 
 one of the Powis Commissioners predicted of any attempt to 
 levy an education rate 2 . Not more than 73 unions out of 
 163 ever became contributory at any time 3 ; in 1897 there 
 were only 25 which continued their payments, and since the 
 diversion of the rates to purposes of technical instruction 
 (p. 204), this contribution has died out altogether. 
 
 From 1876 to 1880 Government offered to pay two-thirds 
 of the amount of results fees in non-contributory unions if the 
 local contributions amounted to one-third and averaged 33. ^d. 
 in the year on each child in average attendance. During the 
 great distress in 1880 they offered to find one-third, and then 
 to pay a sum equal to the local subscriptions, whether these 
 amounted to a third of the entire results fees or not ; and in 
 1 88 1 this was made the permanent rule 4 . Thus Government 
 paid one-third of the results fees in these unions, and the 
 remaining two-thirds, as far as they were paid at all, were 
 paid equally by Government and by local contributions fl . 
 
 In 1879 a Teachers Act (42 & 43 Viet. c. 74) provided for 
 the building of Residences for teachers of Vested Schools, and 
 also set apart a sum of i ,300,000 from the property of the 
 Disestablished Church as the nucleus of a fund for teachers' 
 
 1 38 & 39 Viet. c. 96. a Powis, i. 535. 
 
 3 Childers's Report, 1884, Q. 903. * Vide Annual Reports. 
 
 '" Vide p. in.
 
 EDUCATION] TRAINING COLLEGES 101 
 
 pensions *. Male teachers were to retire at sixty-five, and 
 mistresses at sixty. 
 
 Customs and Excise Money. In 1890 the Local Taxation 
 (Customs and Excise) Act (53 & 54 Viet. c. 60) was passed. 
 
 England and Scotland were able to devote their residue 
 to technical education : but of the money for Ireland 78,000 
 was paid annually to the Commissioners of National Educa- 
 tion, to be distributed by them in proportion to the average 
 number of pupils in daily attendance at the National Schools. 
 
 (1) In Contributory Unions the money was to be paid to 
 the guardians in relief of local rates as a whole or partial 
 reimbursement of results fees. 
 
 (2) In non -Contributory Unions it was to be paid for the 
 benefit of the National Schools as an addition to the local 
 contributions to the schools. 
 
 These payments were more valuable even than their 
 amounts seem to show, for being- reckoned as voluntary 
 contributions they enabled many schools to claim full pay- 
 ment of the last third of their results fees under the conces- 
 sion first made in 1880 (p. 100). Thus in 1889-90 576 schools 
 failed to get such payment ; in the next year under this new 
 system all but 14 succeeded 2 . 
 
 By the Agriculture and Technical Instruction Act, 1899, 
 62 & 63 Viet. c. 50, this Local Taxation money is now handed 
 over to the Board of Agriculture (p. 202), and the 78,000 
 paid to the Commissioners of National Education is provided 
 by the House of Commons vote. 
 
 Training Colleges. We have seen that it was originally 
 intended that all National teachers should receive a pre- 
 liminary training, but the Board, which relied solely on its 
 own training institution, never really faced the question nor 
 attempted to place that establishment in a position to educate, 
 even after their appointment, the total number of teachers 
 needed. In 1883 there were 7,907 Roman Catholic teachers 
 in the National Schools, and of these only 2,142 or 27 per 
 cent, had been trained; there were 2,714 Protestant teachers, 
 of whom only 1,412 or 52 per cent, had been trained: thus 
 only one-third of the total number had received the training 
 which more than fifty years before had been declared an 
 indispensable preliminary to employment 3 . In 1882 England 
 had more than thrice, and Scotland nearly six times as many 
 teachers in proportion to the population as Ireland. 
 
 1 In 1897 the Fund was reported by a Committee of investigation to be insolvent 
 to the extent of i ,200,000 at the end of 1895. In 1 898 the scale of premiums was 
 increased. 
 
 a Report for 1890, p. 22. 3 Report for 1883, p. 17. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE LIBRARY
 
 102 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 In 1883 the Right Hon. Sir George Trevelyan, then Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland, wrote to the Board declaring the 
 need to be 4 no longer one of speculation or expediency, but 
 one of absolute urgency '.' 
 
 Accordingly the recommendations of the Powis Commis- 
 sion (see p. 98) were at last carried into effect, and the 
 British system of voluntary denominational Training Colleges 
 was introduced in addition to the Board's own College in 
 Marlborough Street. Grants were offered to approved insti- 
 tutions on a credit system by which every student attaining 
 his diploma brought his college 50 for one or 100 for 
 two years of training (35 or 70 in the case of women). 
 St. Patrick's Training College for Catholic Male Students at 
 Drumcondra, and Our Lady of Mercy Training College for 
 Females in Dublin, were opened within the year, and in 1884 
 the Church of Ireland placed its Training College for Male 
 and Female Students in Kildare Place, Dublin, in similar 
 connexion with the Board. The De La Salle College at 
 Waterford was added in 1891, St. Mary's, Belfast, in 1900, 
 and ' Mary Immaculate/ Limerick, in 1901. 
 
 The period of training was extended to two years in 1883, 
 or one year in the case of a certificated teacher ; and the old 
 rule of paying teachers' salaries during their training, on 
 condition of their providing efficient substitutes, was main- 
 tained 2 . 
 
 As in Great Britain, the grant to voluntary establishments 
 was not to exceed 75 per cent, of the total annual expenditure 
 (seep. 17). 
 
 In 1884 it was rendered possible to obtain public loans 
 for starting non-vested Schools or Training Colleges, on the 
 recommendation of the Commissioners for National Education 
 (47 & 48 Viet. c. 22). 
 
 In December, 1890, the system of payments in these 
 colleges was revised with a view to place the denominational 
 training colleges on an equal footing with Marlborough 
 Street : and payments were made quarterly at a capitation 
 rate, with an extra grant on obtaining a diploma. The 
 Board also undertook to repay gradually to the managers 
 the value of their buildings 3 . 
 
 Fifty-three per cent, of the principal and assistant teachers 
 in 1901 had received a course of one or two years' training. 
 
 Compztlsory Education. In 1883 a motion was agreed to 
 
 1 Report for 1883, p. 17. 
 
 2 Subjects of the Day: ]. Samuelson, Education, 1890, p. 69. 
 
 3 Cf. The Irish University Question : The Catholic Case, Archbishop Walsh. 
 Browne & Nolan, Dublin, 1897, p. 519.
 
 EDUCATION] COMPULSION 103 
 
 in the House of Commons without a division, that it was 
 expedient to introduce into Ireland the principle of com- 
 pulsory education with such modifications as the social and 
 religious conditions of the country required l . 
 
 In 1892 came the Irish Education Act (55 & 56 Viet. c. 42), 
 which followed the lead of Scotland in 1889 and England 
 in 1891 and freed elementary education, and which also in 
 a half-hearted way provided for compulsory attendance in 
 the larger towns. 
 
 ^210,000 was to be paid annually by the Treasury, or any 
 other sum determined by Parliament, proportionate to the 
 English fee grant, and in the future no fees were to be 
 charged for children over three and under fifteen in any 
 State-aided elementary school, or only fees to the amount 
 by which the average scale of fees in the school had 
 exceeded 6s. in 1891, unless the Commissioners assented 
 to any other arrangement. Teachers received a bonus, and 
 the salaries were augmented 20 per cent. ; where the capita- 
 tion grant was still paid, it was increased by 3>y. 6d. a head. 
 A bonus of 9 was given to each male assistant, and ^7 los. 
 to each female classed above the third class. 
 
 The attempt at compulsory education was limited to muni- 
 cipal boroughs and towns or townships under Commissioners. 
 The discretion of extending it to the counties or any part 
 of them was entrusted to the County Councils, which were 
 not created by Parliament till the Local Government (Ireland) 
 Act, 1898 (6 1 & 62 Viet. c. 37). 
 
 Where the Act applied, School Attendance Committees 
 were to be formed, half of the members being appointed by 
 the Town Council or Commissioners, and half nominated 
 by the National Board. Parents must cause every child 
 between six and fourteen to make seventy-five attendances 
 each half-year at some National or other efficient school. 
 A certificate of having passed the Fourth Class procured 
 exemption, and the list of other valid excuses was unusually 
 liberal, even for a plausible people. Employment of children 
 under eleven, or without a certificate over eleven but under 
 fourteen, was forbidden, unless permitted by the Factory 
 and Workshop Acts. The Attendance Order is prescribed, 
 unless the School Attendance Committee think it inexpe- 
 dient to make an application, and the penalty on parents 
 for disobedience is fixed at $s,, costs included. The Com- 
 missioners of National Education have power to take action 
 in case of default', and also to extend the powers of the Act 
 to the suburbs of any place where it is in force. 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., cclxxvi. p. 1299,
 
 104 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 But in point of fact the measure, lenient as it is, was for 
 some time adopted in but few places, partly owing to the 
 difficulty in providing funds to meet the necessary expenses. 
 This obstacle having been removed by the Local Government 
 (Ireland) Act, 1898, the compulsory clauses were enforced 
 in 1901 in 83 out of the 120 towns and townships having 
 Commissioners, and School Attendance Committees have 
 been appointed in 43 rural districts. In those places where 
 the Act has really been enforced for some time, the total 
 average attendance is about five per cent, above that of the 
 rest of Ireland, rising to 69-1. 
 
 Upwards of twenty local authorities refused to put the Act 
 in force as long as a certain class of schools (scilicet denomina- 
 tional) were excluded from participation in public grants. It 
 will be remembered that the Powis Commission had recom- 
 mended that in places where there were both a Catholic and 
 a Protestant school of a certain size, the restrictions as to 
 religious teaching might be to a certain extent relaxed, as long 
 as a compulsory time-table conscience clause was retained. 
 Negotiations to this end between the Chief Secretary and the 
 National Board were entered upon in 1892, and have since 
 been renewed, but the Board has not as yet been sufficiently 
 unanimous or sufficiently circumscribed in its proposals to 
 admit of any result being reached either under a Liberal or 
 a Conservative Government. 
 
 Evening Schools. In 1846 the Board reported that a con- 
 siderable number of evening schools had been opened. ' No 
 experiment that we have made has been more thoroughly 
 successful. . . . We have never witnessed amongst persons in 
 any class greater eagerness or aptitude for knowledge V 
 
 Salaries, grants of books, and inspection were afterwards 
 extended to them 2 , and after 1872 they received results fees. 
 
 Since 1883 every school of this kind is restricted to pupils 
 of one sex. 
 
 The number of schools fell from 1 19 in 1880 to 52 in 1890 : 
 and in 1900 there were only 21 schools with an average 
 attendance of 864 pupils. The regulations have been revised 
 for 1901, a uniform fee of 15^. or ijs. 6d. being allowed for 
 each unit of average attendance, and in consequence grants 
 were made to 375 schools, with 18,954 pupils chiefly over 
 14 years of age upon the rolls. 
 
 Industrial Training and Agricziltzire. The Commis- 
 sioners were from the beginning very anxious to encourage 
 industrial training in Ireland, and for a time made grants to 
 
 1 Powis, i. 109. 2 1855: 1863.
 
 EDUCATION] AGRICULTURE 105 
 
 schools of industry as a separate class. These were chiefly 
 directed to the encouragement of needlework and embroidery ; 
 ordinary sewing and knitting have been compulsory in 
 National Schools since 1850. 
 
 The general attempts at industrial education were spas- 
 modic and futile, and had little more result than a sixth-class 
 industrial programme for girls and a course of handicraft for 
 teachers \ 
 
 The chief industry of Ireland was agriculture, and that was 
 fostered by the Board with an interest unknown in England. 
 In 1837 two agricultural schools were established under local 
 management, and in 1838 the model farm and garden of 
 seventeen acres at Glasnevin near Dublin were opened, which 
 has subsequently expanded into the Albert National Agricul- 
 tural Training Institute of 180 acres 2 . Glasnevin served both 
 for higher and intermediate agricultural teaching, and also for 
 training of National School Teachers 3 , as well as for experi- 
 ments and for practical dairy work. The Munster model 
 farm near Cork was opened in 1853, and it remains in most 
 respects a smaller Glasnevin 4 . In 1849 the Commissioners 
 began to lease and manage farms, of which by 1856 they had 
 20 of first-class character ; but the expense was so excessive 
 that no more were added. The buildings were of cut stone, 
 even the byres, so that a peasant would say, ' Cowhouses, 
 indeed ; bedad, it's parlours he has them in ! Where would 
 the likes of me be looking for grandeur like them ? ' Smaller 
 farms also were encouraged in connexion with schools, and in 
 1875 there were 228 of all kinds, of which 19 were first-class 
 farms. The latter were, however, soon after discontinued, 
 with the two exceptions already mentioned, which in 1900 
 were taken over by the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 In 1895 there were only 46 ordinary farms under local 
 management, but gardens in connexion with schools had risen 
 to 43 ; in 1899, 38 farms remained, and the gardens were 116. 
 
 In 1873 the theory of agriculture was introduced as an 
 obligatory subject for boys in results fees examinations in the 
 three upper classes in ordinary country National Schools. 
 Eor boys in city schools and for girls it was voluntary. 
 
 In 1897 85,000 pupils were examined, of whom 68 per cent, 
 passed. The subject, however, was taught almost exclusively 
 from a textbook unaccompanied by practical demonstration, 
 and the teaching is described by experts as ' quite valueless,' 
 and ' wholly useless, if not worse 5 .' 
 
 1 Cross, Q. 53,260. 3 Powis Report, i. 462. 3 Ibid. i. 854. 
 
 * Ibid. 1.869. Both were taken over in 1900 by the Department of Agriculture. 
 5 Belmore Final Report, p. 40.
 
 106 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Efficiency of the Education given in the National Schools. 
 The system inaugurated in 1831 and reformed forty years 
 later endured till nearly the end of the century with few 
 changes. Compulsion and local rates met, as we have seen 
 (pp. 100, 103), with little success. The Denominational 
 Training College system was developed ; and increased grants 
 were accepted without demur from the Imperial Treasury. 
 
 The numbers had risen from 107,042 children on the rolls 
 in 1833 to 1,018,408 in 1896, and from 280,005 in average 
 daily attendance in 1852 to 534,957 in 1896, although the 
 population had fallen from 8,175,124 in 1841 to 4,704,750 
 in 1891. 
 
 The percentage of those who can neither read nor write 
 had, according to the Census returns of 1891, fallen to 
 one-third of what it was fifty years before. 
 
 As for the quality, there can be no doubt that the advance 
 is incalculable on the Pay Schools, where seventy per cent, of 
 the children attending any school went in 1824, or even on the 
 early schools of the National Board with their untrained and 
 incompetent teachers. 
 
 But the fact was that the education remained woefully 
 behind that of the rest of the United Kingdom, though there 
 were only one or two indications of the opinions of other 
 authorities. 
 
 In 1884 the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction 
 reported that no progress could be effected in this direction 
 in Ireland until primary education had been placed on a 
 proper footing, but compulsion was their only suggestion to 
 that end *. 
 
 The Director-General of Military Education reported in 
 1896 that ' the education imparted in the National Schools in 
 Ireland differs so widely from that given in schools in Great 
 Britain that it would be inadvisable to send the children of 
 soldiers to them.' A Committee under Lord Harris had 
 reported to the same effect in 1887 (1896 Report, p. 28). 
 And it was not until 1897 that the English Education Depart- 
 ment consented to recognize an Irish certificate, and then only 
 the first-class certificate of a teacher who had been through 
 a training college. 
 
 Reading, writing, and arithmetic were probably taught 
 fairly well by old-fashioned methods to the elder children, 
 but the modern developments in teaching were neither known 
 to the teachers nor encouraged with any success by the 
 Department. Kindergarten teaching was given in 357 out of 
 
 1 Second Report, i. 532.
 
 EDUCATION] BELMORE COMMISSION 107 
 
 8,606 National Schools in 1896, and physical exercises were 
 very little practised outside the Kindergarten classes. Draw- 
 ing- in 1896 was taught only to 74,317 children, out of 274,273 
 eligible to learn it. Singing by ear was not recognized, and 
 only 65,289 pupils earned a grant in singing by note out of 
 the 532,533 making an average attendance '. 
 
 Elementary science as a subject was virtually extinct 2 , 
 Woodwork and Hand and Eye Training were practically 
 unknown 3 . 
 
 In 1897 only one of the school books supplied by the Board 
 contained any Irish airs at all 4 . 
 
 Belmore Commission. But the year 1897 may mark the 
 beginning of brighter days for Irish teaching. 
 
 In January, 1897, a Vice- Regal Commission, with the Earl 
 of Belmore as Chairman, was appointed to inquire how far 
 and in what form manual and practical instruction should be 
 introduced into the National Schools, and they presented their 
 most excellent report in June, 1898. They recommended 
 that the instruction in the schools should be made of a more 
 practical character: Kindergarten should be extended to all 
 infants, and ' Hand and Eye Training ' and ' Woodwork ' to 
 older children. Drawing should be made compulsory, singing 
 should be brought within the reach of all, drill and physical 
 exercises should be introduced with the least possible delay. 
 Needlework should be continued, and practical agriculture, 
 where feasible ; but book-teaching of the latter ought to be 
 replaced by elementary science as part of the ordinary 
 education. Payment by results ought not to be applied to 
 the new subjects ; Evening Schools should be released from 
 needless restrictions, and if possible rendered popular and 
 effective ; the Training College courses should be altered 
 so as to provide teachers competent to give the new in- 
 struction. 
 
 If these recommendations seem somewhat numerous, they 
 urged nothing which was not common or even compulsory in 
 England, and what a measure of the deficiencies of the Irish 
 curriculum at that time they afford ! 
 
 The general verdict of the Commission on the education 
 given in the National Schools was that, while it fitted boys 
 for the Irish Intermediate Schools, it left them ' not fit to enter 
 a Technical School, even if they had such a school at their 
 doors 5 .' 
 
 The first consequence of their inquiries was that a slightly 
 
 1 Belmore Final Report. 2 Ibid. p. 36. 
 
 3 Ibid. pp. 17, 24. * Cf. Quarterly Review, July, 1899, p. 5. 
 
 5 Report, p. 6.
 
 io8 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 modified Programme was issued in 1898, and Results Examina- 
 tions were abolished from the beginning- of April, 1900. In 
 March, 1901, the Commissioners of National Education issued 
 a new set of Rules and Regulations. The partial payment of 
 teachers by results and their promotion by examination were 
 abolished ; they now receive a salary according to their grade, 
 supplemented by a capitation grant on the average attendance 
 and a progressive continued good service salary. Promotion 
 depends on training, position, ability, seniority, and service. 
 The retention of teachers in the higher grades and the recog- 
 nition of assistants depend on the maintenance of average 
 attendance. Individual examination of all pupils and payment 
 by results are abolished, though all schools are still to be fully 
 examined and inspected. Managers and teachers have free- 
 dom of organization under schemes approved by the Com- 
 missioners. The ordinary Day School subjects are English 
 (Reading, Writing, Grammar, and Composition), Arithmetic, 
 Kindergarten and Manual Instruction, Drawing, Singing, 
 School Discipline and Physical Drill, Object Lessons and 
 Elementary Science; and in Girls' Schools, Cookery, Laundry, 
 and Needlework. Geography and History are to be taught 
 during the reading hours. Mathematics, Irish, French, Latin, 
 and Instrumental Music may be taught outside the regular 
 school hours, or during them, provided that the adequacy of 
 the course of instruction in the ordinary Day School subjects 
 is not impaired or hampered thereby : they earn a grant 
 when systematically taught, if the class pass the tests applied 
 by the examiner. 
 
 The new system seems well devised, but the difficulty lies in 
 securing that it shall be adequately carried out by teachers and 
 Inspectors. It is easy to make a code on paper, but if the 
 only instructors available neither know the new subjects them- 
 selves nor the right method of teaching them, it is obviously 
 difficult to set the system going, or to prevent it from 
 being a mere sham. In 1900 only fifty per cent, of the 
 teachers in the National Schools had been trained in a 
 college, and even in favourable years the supply of new 
 teachers, though increasing, does not amount to more than 
 two-thirds of the vacancies to be supplied. The existing 
 masters and mistresses for the most part have hitherto neither 
 taught nor even learned the more modern subjects, nor would 
 it be possible or desirable to replace them suddenly by a staff 
 more elaborately equipped for their duties. In the meantime 
 a special body of five Organizers, an Assistant, and thirty 
 Sub-Organizers were appointed in 1900 to form classes of the 
 existing teachers in various parts of the country, and to give
 
 EDUCATION] SUMMING UP 109 
 
 them as much instruction as is possible in Hand and Eye 
 Training, Object Lessons and Elementary Science, Cookery 
 and Laundry, in Needlework and in Music. 
 
 The equipment of the Training- Colleges giving instruction 
 in Science has been greatly improved : the supply of apparatus 
 and of books to the Day Schools has been reorganized. 
 Manual Instructors have been provided to teach Needlework, 
 Kindergarten, and Manual Instruction, and their services are 
 much appreciated. In 1901-2 the Commissioners made 1,185 
 Equipment Grants for Elementary Science and Hand and Eye 
 and Drawing apparatus. Similar apparatus and books are in 
 future to be supplied not from store but from vendors and 
 publishers recognized by the Department. 
 
 But even if the lack of highly qualified teachers and 
 adequate apparatus can be supplied, there is much more to 
 be faced. The difficulties standing in the way are religious 
 exclusiveness, poverty and indifference to education. 
 
 The religious question for good or ill seems to be solving 
 itself. The Commissioners have held with tenacity to their 
 original system of separate religious and combined literary 
 instruction. The Irish people, both Catholic and Protestant, 
 have steadily set their faces to separate schools. 
 
 In 1870 there were 400,000 Catholics and 2 7,000 Protestants 
 in schools attended by one denomination only. In 1895 there 
 were 455,000 and 125,000 respectively, in spite of the decline 
 in population; in 1901 there were 368,835 and 114,311 respec- 
 tively. In 1870, in schools taught solely by Catholics, there 
 were 25,000 Protestant children, in 1895 16,000, in 1901 but 
 9'535 * ^ n l %7i m schools in which some of all of the 
 teachers were Protestants, there were 42,000 Catholic children ; 
 in 1895 there were but 17,000, in 1901 but 9,511, although in 
 1901 74-2 per cent, of the population were Catholics. 
 
 That is to say, of the 551,000 Catholic children in Ireland 
 attending school, two-thirds were attending National Schools 
 taught exclusively by Catholic teachers, at which no Pro- 
 testant children were in attendance. Nearly all the remaining 
 third were in schools in which there were a few Protestant 
 children, but no Protestant teachers. Less than two per cent, 
 were at schools in which any of the teachers were Protestants 
 And yet in all these schools the absence of children during 
 religious teaching of another denomination was enforced as far 
 as the National Board could enforce it. 
 
 Mr. Butt in 1865 put it very graphically: 'Walking down 
 King's Inn Street (in Dublin) the passenger may see, divided 
 by a narrow lane, two separate buildings both bearing the 
 
 1 Annual Reports: in 1896 the basis of reckoning was changed.
 
 no IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 inscription of National School. One one side of the lane is 
 a school under the management of the ladies of a convent ; 
 on the other side is the school of a Presbyterian Church. Not 
 a single Protestant child attends the one ; not a single Roman 
 Catholic child the other. Yet in both religious education is 
 fettered and controlled. ... In the narrow compass of that 
 lane, about four yards wide, any observer can estimate the 
 reality of the system of united education and the deep practical 
 wisdom of its rules V 
 
 In fine it is clear that the Irish, whether Catholics or Pro- 
 testants, simply will not have combined education. 
 
 As for the poverty of Ireland, it is a commonplace. The 
 Commission that reported in 1896 on the financial relations 
 between Great Britain and Ireland found that while the former 
 had but eight times as large a population as the latter, it had 
 at least twenty times as much property subject to income-tax, 
 and all circumstances pointed to a similar state of things 
 among the wage-earning classes 2 . 
 
 The entire voluntary contributions of Ireland to public 
 elementary education, including rates, amount only to 
 6-8 per cent., the remainder being found by the Treasury of 
 the United Kingdom, a fact which should not be forgotten in 
 estimating the taxation of Ireland 3 . But even when all 
 costs out of pocket are paid, the poor cannot afford to 
 postpone their earning while they are carrying on their 
 studies. Children leave school earlier, monitors and pupil 
 teachers cannot go to Training Colleges, teachers dispense 
 with training if possible. 
 
 When all allowance has been made for these difficulties, 
 when free schooling has been provided for children in 
 schools where no interference with their religion need be 
 feared, the total average attendance amounts to less than 64 per 
 cent., and powers of compulsion in a few centres bring it up 
 in 1901 only to 69-1 per cent., as against the 82-17 of England 
 and Wales, and 82-92 for Scotland. Though the illiteracy 
 figures are improving, still more than a fifth of the population 
 are unable to write, and more than an eighth can neither read 
 nor write. In England and Scotland, 1901, 19 per cent, of 
 persons sent to prison were w r holly illiterate, in Ireland the 
 proportion was 30 per cent. 4 , while of 1,022 cases admitted in 
 1900 to Industrial Schools in Ireland, 608 could neither read 
 nor write (p. 1 16). 
 
 It is impossible to say that these figures are satisfactory. 
 
 1 Cit. Sadler, Special Reports, 1897, p. 227. 
 
 z I'. P, 1896, pp. 2, 19, 26, 39-42. 
 
 3 P. P., Cd. 704, p. 28. * P. P., Cd. 1,278, p. 26.
 
 EDUCATION] SCIENCE AND ART in 
 
 2. THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND 
 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 replacing 
 The Science and Art Department. 
 
 The regulations and grants of the Science and Art Depart- 
 ment applied to Ireland equally with England ; but for 
 elementary drawing and manual training the Department 
 limited its aid to such schools as were not under the National 
 Board. The extreme need of Ireland for more instruction in 
 drawing was shown by the fact that as late as 1897 only 
 3 1 per cent, of all the children in the National Schools were 
 taught this subject, and only 24 per cent, of that small number 
 passed. Nor were matters any better outside the sphere of 
 the Commissioners' work. In 1900, 93 schools 1 (of which 
 74 belonged to the Christian Brothers), earned ; 1,288 from 
 the Department for the drawing of 18,388 children in average 
 attendance, and only two schools received a grant for manual 
 training. Owing to the withdrawal of grants for second-class 
 passes by South Kensington in 1 895, the teaching of Elementary 
 Science had ' practically disappeared from the primary schools 
 of Ireland 2 .' 
 
 In 1899, however, by the Agriculture and Technical In- 
 struction (Ireland) Act, 62 & 63 Viet. c. 50, a new Department 
 was created to which among other duties w T as entrusted the 
 administration of the grant for Science and Art in Ireland, 
 the actual transfer taking place on April i, 1901. Most of its 
 educational functions relate to secondary and technical in- 
 struction, and are described on pp. 201-5. 
 
 3. THE COMMISSIONERS OF EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 
 
 4. THE COMMISSIONERS OF CHARITABLE DONATIONS AND 
 BEQUESTS. 
 
 COMMISSIONS FOR REFORM OF ENDOWMENTS. 
 
 These Commissions have filled relatively so much larger 
 a part in the history of Secondary Education that I have 
 placed them under that heading, and they will be found at 
 
 P- I93-. 
 
 But it must be remembered that they deal also with endow- 
 ments for elementary education, and that it is only because 
 
 1 1870, about thirty schools; 1880, twelve schools ; 1890, forty-eight schools. 
 
 2 Belmore Report, p. 36.
 
 ii2 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 so much more public money has been granted to the lower 
 branch that its endowments have been of comparatively little 
 importance to it of late years. Thus in 1791, of an income of 
 .30,000 arising from educational endowments, ,22,000 sooner 
 or later was applied to elementary foundations 1 ; and in 1838 
 there were 349 elementary endowed schools in Ireland, exclu- 
 sive of the Erasmus Smith and Royal foundations 2 . But of 
 the income of 67,305 dealt with under the Educational 
 Endowments Act of 1885 (see p. 199), it is not possible to say 
 how much is applied to elementary education. 
 
 5. THE HOME SECRETARY FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 L The Factory Acts. 
 
 The English Acts have applied to Ireland from the begin- 
 ning. 
 
 The English Education Act of 1876 did not apply the 
 Factory Act of 1874 to non-textile factories in Ireland, but 
 this was remedied by the Factory Act of 1878. 
 
 There are three Inspectors in Ireland who report to the 
 chief office in London. But in 1893 there were only 204 
 schools attended by factory children, nearly all of them in the 
 North of Ireland 3 . 
 
 Under 41 Viet. c. 16 a certified efficient school in Ireland is 
 defined as ' any national school or any school recognized by 
 the Lord Lieutenant or Privy Council as affording sufficient 
 means of literary education for purposes of this Act.' 
 
 The controlling statute is now the Factory and Workshop 
 Act, 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. 22). 
 
 The Acts are still considerably in advance of the Irish 
 education statutes, but in 1900 there were only 4,753 half- 
 timers on the rolls of any school, and only 2,179 in average 
 attendance, of whom 1,577 w ere in County Antrim. 
 
 ii. Mines. 
 
 The first Acts which applied to Ireland were the Coal 
 Mines Regulation Act and the Metalliferous Mines Act in 
 ^72 (35 & 36 Viet. cc. 76, 77), but since that date the law 
 has been the same throughout the United Kingdom. But in 
 1900 there were only 33 boys under 16 employed under- 
 ground in all Ireland. 
 
 1 Kildare Report, i. 18. 
 
 1 W)se Select Committee Report, p. 9. 
 
 3 P. P., 1893, No. 311, p. 27.
 
 EDUCATION] PRISONS BOARD 113 
 
 6. THE GENERAL PRISONS BOARD. 
 
 Prisons in Ireland were regulated after 1826 by 7 Geo. IV, 
 c. 74, and various amending Acts. There was a Board of 
 Superintendence appointed by the Grand Juries, with whom 
 also the appointment of all officers rested. 
 
 In 1843 Gaol vSchools were placed on the same footing- as 
 Workhouse Schools, and grants of books made on similar 
 terms by the Commissioners of National Education. 
 
 In 1853 gratuities were paid to teachers in special cases. 
 
 In 1868 thirty-eight masters and twenty-three mistresses 
 were employed in thirty-six gaols. Thirteen of these schools 
 were connected with the National Board, but only four received 
 gratuities \ 
 
 The General Prisons Board was constituted in November, 
 1877, under 40 & 41 Viet. c. 49, and insisted on the rule for 
 separate confinement being observed. The Commissioners of 
 National Education refused to allow their Inspector to examine 
 prisoners in separate cells, and so the privilege of their 
 inspection was withdrawn 2 . The appointment of all officers 
 rests with the Lord Lieutenant, subject to the approval of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 Of persons committed to prison in Ireland in 1900 no less 
 than 30 per cent, were unable to read or write 3 . 
 
 7. THE CHIEF SECRETARY FOR IRELAND. 
 Reformatories and Industrial Schools. 
 
 The Irish system of the Reformatories and Industrial Schools 
 was created by and is administered under different Acts from 
 those in force in Great Britain, but the Irish Acts were 
 modelled on the statutes already passed in this country, and, 
 as far as education is concerned, the differences lie rather 
 in the application of principles than in the measures them- 
 selves. The Chief Secretary for Ireland takes in these Acts 
 the place of the Home Secretary in England. 
 
 Reformatories. The first Act for the establishment of 
 Reformatories (21 & 22 Viet. c. 103) was passed in 1858, and 
 this was repealed and replaced in 1868 by the Irish Reforma- 
 tory Schools Act (31 & 32 Viet. c. 59). In 1881 44 & 45 
 Viet. c. 29 gave power to Grand Juries and the Town 
 Councils of Dublin, Limerick, and Cork to contribute to 
 their establishment or maintenance, and to borrow money for 
 building. 
 
 1 Powis, i. 478. 3 First Report of Prisons Board for 1^79, p. 11. 
 
 3 P. P., Cu. 1,278, p. 26.
 
 ii4 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Industrial Schools. The Industrial Schools (Ireland) Act 
 was passed in 1868 (31 Si 32 Viet. c. 25). The Inspector of 
 Reformatories in Ireland was to be identical with the Inspector 
 of Industrial Schools. 43 & 44 Viet. c. 15 (see p. 58), enab- 
 ling children found living with prostitutes to be sent to 
 Industrial Schools, applied to Ireland. 
 
 The chief differences between the English and Irish laws 
 are that in Ireland neither to Reformatories nor Industrial 
 Schools may any child or juvenile offender be sent, except to 
 an institution under the exclusive management of persons of 
 the same religious persuasion as that professed by the parents 
 or guardians of the pupil. With this exception there is but 
 little difference between the Reformatories of the two countries 
 as far as the letter of the law is concerned \ 
 
 With certified Industrial Schools the other chief distinctions 
 are that in Ireland a parent cannot get a refractory child 
 committed to a certified Industrial School, even on payment ; 
 nor is a child admitted, one of whose parents has been con- 
 victed of a crime or offence punishable with penal servitude 
 or imprisonment. 
 
 Lord Aberdare's Commission, which inquired into Reforma- 
 tories and Schools in 1884, has been the only body besides 
 the Powis Commission which included Ireland in its investi- 
 gations. They recommended that the literary education 
 should be tested in all cases by Inspectors of the National 
 Board of Education 2 , and that payment by results should 
 be made to these as to ordinary National Schools, though 
 it would not be necessary to insist on the teachers having 
 certificates. 
 
 In Ireland there was more grading of Reformatories and 
 also of Industrial Schools 3 by the age of the children 4 . The 
 certified Industrial Schools in Ireland are regarded as insti- 
 tutions for poor and deserted children rather than for semi- 
 criminals 5 , probably because there is no other means of 
 compelling street urchins to attend school 6 . 
 
 Consequently young children who are criminal in a very 
 slight degree, and in England would probably be sent to 
 Industrial Schools, are sent in Ireland to Reformatories 7 , and 
 the older and more criminal children do not appear in them 
 at all. 
 
 Some twenty years ago the proportion of very young 
 children committed to Reformatories was in this way unduly 
 
 1 For a list of the variations, vide Aberdare Report, i. paragraph 87, and 
 Appendix A. 9. 
 
 2 Report, par. 89. s Ibid. par. 88. 4 Ibid. Q. 1,917. 
 * Ibid. par. 92. ' Ibid. p. Ixiii. ' Ibid. par. 91.
 
 EDUCATION] REFORMATORIES 115 
 
 large, but the percentage of those under twelve sank from 
 32-7 committed in 1880 to 21-7 in 1896, while the children 
 under eight in Industrial Schools have risen from 28-1 to 
 34-8 in the same year 1 . In 1882 918 out of 1,256 children 
 sent to Industrial Schools were thus committed because 
 they were ' found begging or asking for alms,' and children 
 have been actually sent out to beg with this aim in view-. 
 In 1894 there were 1,024 such committals, but by 1900 they 
 had been reduced to 160. 
 
 In 1 883, out of seventy-one schools of both classes, the pupils 
 of thirty-two were attending National Schools 3 . In 1901 the 
 pupils from such establishments were attending thirty National 
 Schools. The schools in question were usually under the 
 same managers as the National Schools attended, but in any 
 case no objection ever seems to have been made to such 
 attendance. In one instance indeed the nuns managing an 
 Industrial School withdrew their children from contamination 
 with the pupils of a National School 4 . The principal object 
 of sending the children to public schools is to obtain the 
 judgment of the Inspectors of the National Board. Even 
 Industrial Schools not in connexion with the Board were 
 voluntarily examined by the National Examiners 5 . 
 
 Except for such examination there was in 1884 very little 
 literary inspection of Industrial Schools in Ireland 6 , and the 
 Inspector naturally did not regard this as a sufficient guarantee 
 in all cases, though the different educational bodies in charge 
 of some of the schools examined them in an efficient man- 
 ner 7 . The Aberdare Commission reported that the industrial 
 training was better there than in England, and that more 
 children afterwards followed the trades they had been 
 taught 8 . 
 
 Till within the last year or two the only systematic indus- 
 trial training in the country was to be obtained in these 
 schools 9 . The schools in general adopted in 1901 the Re- 
 vised Programme issued by the Commissioners of National 
 Education. 
 
 The Youthful Offenders Act, 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. 20), 
 
 1 Annual Reports of Inspector. 
 
 a Aberdare, par. 94. In Scotland a child has been directed to steal for the same 
 purpose (Argyll Report, 1865, p. 255). In a large number of cases the begging is 
 fictitious. a6th Report, P. P., 1898, C. 9,042, p. 12. 
 
 3 Aberdare, Q. 12,414. * Ibid. Q. 13,382. 5 Ibid. Q. 13,381. 
 
 6 Ibid. Q. 12,414. 7 Ibid. 
 
 8 Ibid. i. p. Ixii. 
 
 9 Contemporary Review, April, 1898, p. 578 : ' Irish Elementary Education, 
 by Edith . Hogg and A. D. Innes. 
 
 I 2
 
 n6 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 applies to Ireland, but orders for contributions from parents 
 cannot be summarily enforced. 
 
 Of 1,022 cases admitted to Industrial Schools in 1900 there 
 were 608 who could neither read nor write ; 3 73 read or wrote 
 imperfectly, while only 41 could read well. 
 
 In 1900 there were six Reformatories in Ireland and seventy 
 Industrial Schools. 
 
 Five Reformatories were Catholic and one Protestant. There 
 has been no Protestant establishment for girls since 1895, 
 owing to the strict enforcement of the rule as to exclusive 
 management by persons of the same religious persuasion, and 
 since that date Protestant girls have had to go to prison if 
 over the Industrial School age. There are sixty-two Catholic 
 and eight Protestant Industrial Schools. 
 
 At the end of 1900 there were 618 children actually in 
 Reformatory Schools, and 8,214 * n Industrial Schools. The 
 ship for boys at Belfast was given up in 1899, and a fishing 
 school at Baltimore, which only sent one boy to sea a year, 
 was made ordinary in 1898. 
 
 There is no provision for Day Industrial Schools in Ireland, 
 nor are there any Truant Schools. 
 
 8. THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD FOR IRELAND. 
 
 The Irish Poor Law was introduced in 1838 by i & 2 Viet, 
 c. 56, when regular workhouses were first erected. A Local 
 Government Board was created in 1872 by 35 & 36 Viet. c. 69 
 to take over the duties of the Poor Law Commissioners l . 
 
 The Commissioners made rules that a schoolmaster and 
 mistress should be appointed by the Board, and that the 
 children should be educated for three hours at least every 
 day 2 . 
 
 The 49th section of the Act of 1838 was quoted in the 
 Rules and Regulations for that year of the Board of National 
 Education as explanatory of their rules of religious in- 
 struction. 
 
 It ran as follows : 
 
 ' No order of the Poor Law Commissioners nor any by-law 
 . . . shall authorize the education of any child in any work- 
 house in any religious creed other than that professed by the 
 parents or surviving parent of such child, and to which such 
 parents or parent shall object, or in the case of an orphan to 
 which the guardian or guardians, godfather or godmother, of 
 such orphan shall object. Provided also that it shall be lawful 
 
 1 Cf. 10 & ii Viet. c. 90. 3 Powis, Q. 10,632.
 
 EDUCATION] WORKHOUSE SCHOOLS 117 
 
 for any regular minister of the religious persuasion of any 
 inmate of such workhouse at all times in the day, on the 
 request of such inmate, to visit such workhouse for the pur- 
 pose of affording religious assistance to such inmate, and also 
 for the purpose of instructing his child or children in the 
 principles of his religion.' 
 
 In 1843 tne Commissioners of National Education received 
 workhouse schools into connexion on condition of their 
 observing this rule and submitting- to their inspection. Grants 
 of books only were made to them '. In 1850 the Commis- 
 sioners, with the concurrence of the Poor Law Commissioners, 
 awarded grants to forty male and forty female teachers of 
 these schools on the recommendation of the District In- 
 spectors. 
 
 In 1855 it was definitely required that all the rules of the 
 Board applicable to Non-Vested Schools must be observed. 
 
 In 1871 the view of the Irish Workhouse School taken by 
 the Irish Poor Law Commissioners was that, ' shut off as it is 
 from all contact with adults other than the teachers, it differs 
 in no respect materially from the boarding school to which 
 parents in a better class of life send their children from home 
 for the purpose of a more systematic course of education and 
 discipline V 
 
 The schools are examined on the same plan as the ordinary 
 National Schools, and extracts from the reports of the Inspector 
 are sent to the Local Government Board for the information 
 of the different Boards of Guardians on the plan which was 
 abolished in England in 1863. The salaries of the teachers 
 are fixed by the Poor Law Authorities and paid from the 
 Consolidated Fund. By the National School Teachers (Ire- 
 land) Act, 1875 (38 & 39 Viet. c. 96), power was given to the 
 Guardians of awarding to the teachers of their Poor Law 
 Union National Schools from the rates the amount of results 
 fees which would have been payable in a National School on 
 the Inspector's Reports, and the National Board in 1877 dis- 
 continued their system of gratuities. 
 
 In 1848, by ii and 12 Viet. c. 25, the Poor Law Commis- 
 sioners were given power to combine Unions into Districts 
 for schools, but it was more than forty years later that two 
 District schools for eleven Unions were formed at Trim and 
 Glin. 
 
 Most of the workhouse schools are separate for boys and 
 girls. Farms from two to twenty-five acres are attached to 
 all Unions, and some boys acquire practical instruction in 
 
 1 1843, viii. 2. * Report for 1870-1, p. 13.
 
 n8 IRELAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 agriculture. After April i, 1863, the Commissioners of 
 National Education, at the request of the Government, dis- 
 continued the assistance they had given to the agricultural 
 department of these schools 1 ; but in 1897 they consented to 
 allow inspection and examination by their officers -. 
 
 District Inspectors are prepared to examine at the work- 
 house any boarded-out Pauper Children attending any school 
 not being a National School :5 . 
 
 For the power of Unions to become contributory to the 
 salaries of National teachers, vide p. 100. 
 
 By 1876 153 Poor Law Schools were in connexion with 
 the Board, and only five remained outside; in 1895 the num- 
 ber was 155, but the numbers attending these schools have 
 greatly decreased. 
 
 r , , Children on Average Daily 
 
 schools. a r> a ,i j 
 
 the Rolls. attendance. 
 
 1860 . 140 13,483 6,654 
 
 1870 . 147 i7, 2 50 8,399 
 
 1880 . 158 16,945 8,880 
 
 1890 . 158 9,430 5,221 
 
 1901 . 148 4,441 * 3,665 
 
 9. THE WAR OFFICE. 
 Military Schools. 
 
 Besides the ordinary Military Schools under the War Office, 
 there is a special institution for the children of soldiers, the 
 Royal Hibernian School, first opened in 1770, in the Phoenix 
 Park 5 . Charters were granted to it in 1809, 1819, and 1841, 
 and in 1846, when it was assimilated to the Royal Military 
 Asylum at Chelsea. 
 
 Half-time was introduced in 1879, and the literary education 
 suffered. The system of education was based on that of the 
 Irish Model Schools, modified to suit the character of the 
 school and the probable career of the pupils, most of whom 
 pass into the Army. Owing to the example of the Royal 
 Military Asylum at Chelsea, full school time was restored in 
 1890, and the system of standards in force in the Army 
 Schools was introduced. All the Masters now belong to the 
 Army School Department, and the School is examined 
 annually by Inspectors of Army Schools 7 . 
 
 37th Report, Commissioners of National Education, App. p. 30. 
 
 63rd Report, p. 18. 3 58th Report : for 1891, p. 98. 4 Average. 
 
 P. P., 1810, x. p. 253. 
 
 Hartley, Schools for the People, p. 233. 
 
 Director- General's Report, 1893, p. 27.
 
 EDUCATION] ARMY AND NAVY 119 
 
 The establishment consists of 410 boys 1 . In 1895 thirty 
 army schoolmasters and thirty-seven mistresses, besides acting 
 teachers, were serving in Ireland 2 . 
 
 10. THE ADMIRALTY. 
 
 The educational regulations apply to Ireland as far as 
 occasion arises, but there are no special establishments in that 
 country. 
 
 1 Director-General's Report, 1896, p. 26. 3 Ibid. 1896, pp. 19, 23.
 
 I. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 C. Scotland 
 
 1. PRIVY COUNCIL. 
 The Scotch Education Department. 
 
 THE beginning- of this century, which found in England 
 only a sprinkling of voluntary schools, and in Ireland only 
 unsuccessful State-aided proselytising- societies, and hedge- 
 schools but recently legalized, discovered in Scotland a long- 
 established system of public schools partly supported by 
 rates. 
 
 The reason is not far to seek. The Scotch had always 
 been zealous for education, and had made several attempts 
 to provide an organized system of schools, which failed 
 chiefly from want of funds. But in 1696 an Act was passed 
 ' for Settling of Schools Y which ordained that ' there shall 
 be a school settled and established and a schoolmaster ap- 
 pointed in every paroch not already provided by the advice 
 of the heritors (landowners) and minister of the paroch.' 
 Under this Act the heritors are bound to provide a com- 
 modious school-house, and a ' sallary ' not above 200 merks 
 (11 2s. 2d}. nor under 100 (5 us. i^.). Each heritor is 
 to be assessed in proportion to his valued rent, and is allowed 
 relief from his tenants to the extent of one-half 2 . Then 
 follows the clause which provided for default, and was intended 
 to save the Act from the fate of so many measures by passing 
 on its administration to the hands of other persons interested 
 in it. ' If the heritors or a major part of them shall not 
 conveen, or being conveened shall not agree among them- 
 selves, then in that case the Presbitrie (the ministers of all 
 the parishes in the district with one elder from each parish) 
 shall apply to the Commissioners of the Supply of the shire ' 
 (the body of landholders in each county who assessed the 
 land-tax), who shall carry out the Act. But the Commis- 
 sioners after all were heritors themselves, and many of the 
 
 1 Scotch Act, William, 1696, c. 26. A similar statute had been passed during 
 the Rebellion (Charles I, 1646, c. 45), and afterwards repealed. 
 
 2 Argyll Commission: Second Report, 1867, p. xxvii.
 
 PARISH SCHOOLS 121 
 
 elders likewise, and thus in many cases nothing was done to 
 provide either house or salary for a teacher. In 1794 the 
 average salary of the parish schoolmaster amounted to no 
 more than thirteen pounds, although the cost of living had 
 greatly increased during the course of the century 1 . 
 
 Under this statute the parish schools existed without inter- 
 ference for more than a century, the schoolmasters holding 
 office ad vitam aut cidpam. The schools were in the main 
 elementary schools, but it must always be remembered that 
 they also supplied a considerable quantity of secondary in- 
 struction, and sent pupils direct to the universities. Schools 
 were not cast in such uniform moulds in those days, and 
 Scotland, being a poor country, had in creating a working 
 system of national education to employ the various elements 
 of that system to supplement one another's deficiencies -. 
 
 In 1803 the first amending Act, 43 Geo. Ill, c. 54, was 
 passed. The teacher's salary was raised to not less than 
 300 or more than 400 merks, and the heritors were in addition 
 bound to furnish a suitable dwelling-house and a fenced 
 garden ; the schoolmaster was a freeholder, and might enforce 
 the supply of his accommodation by appeal to Quarter Sessions. 
 Only those heritors might attend the meeting and vote who 
 owned lands within the parish of at least 100 Scots of 
 valued rent. The qualification, however, was not so high as 
 it sounds since the pound Scots amounted to is. $d. only. 
 It was legally obsolete, as the coinages of England and 
 Scotland were made uniform by 5 Anne, c. 8, s. xvi. 
 
 In parishes of great extent, and especially in the Islands, in 
 any case where two schools were needed in one parish, the 
 heritors might provide 600 merks salary and no house, and 
 distribute the amount between two or more teachers. The 
 additional schools so created were known as Side Schools. 
 
 The schoolmaster was to be elected by the heritors and 
 minister acting as one body ; he was then examined and 
 approved by the Presbytery, and was required to sign the 
 Confession of Faith (see p. 274) and the Formula of the Church 
 of Scotland. 
 
 The superintendence of the schools remained in the hands 
 of the ministers of the Established Church. The hours of 
 teaching and the vacations were regulated by the Presbytery, 
 who also might censure, suspend or deprive a schoolmaster 
 for neglect, immorality or cruelty, without right of appeal. 
 
 The system was excellent as far as it extended, but it 
 
 1 Socta/ Life of Scotland, by H. G. Graham, vol. ii. p. 154: A. & C. Black, 
 1900. 
 
 * Argyll Commission, Third Report, p. 109.
 
 122 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 practically did not affect the large towns \ and it fell especially 
 short in the Highlands and Islands 2 . The country parishes 
 were very large, for in Scotland there were less than a 
 thousand parishes in all on an area of twenty million acres, 
 whereas the thirty-seven million acres in England and Wales 
 comprised fifteen thousand parishes 3 . The towns, on the 
 other hand, relied chiefly on burgh schools and academies 
 (see p. 210), which were to a great extent secondary, and on 
 voluntary effort, which proved inadequate. Even in 1873 
 thirty thousand elementary school places were wanted in 
 Glasgow, and over four thousand in Edinburgh 4 . 
 
 In May, i8i8 5 , Brougham's Select Committee of the House 
 of Commons, investigating the Education of the Poor of the 
 Metropolis (p. 2) were directed to inquire into the state of the 
 education of the poor in Scotland. The chief result was 
 a collection of returns from the officiating ministers in Scot- 
 land of the schools within their parishes, printed in 1819. 
 
 The recommendations of the Committee were made in 
 June, i8i8 7 , and in them no distinction was made between 
 Scotland and England, except that for the latter the adoption 
 was recommended of ' the Parish School system, so usefully 
 established in the Northern part of our island.' It was noticed 
 that the Scotch sects, differing only ' in certain opinions of 
 a political rather than a religious nature,' could conscientiously 
 use Parish Schools connected with the Establishment and 
 employing the same Catechism. 
 
 In 1825 the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland 
 established an Education Committee to supplement the Society 
 for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge in Scotland, 
 which had been founded in 1 709 chiefly to promote religious 
 teaching in the Highlands, and was by law connected with 
 the Established Church of Scotland 8 . 
 
 In 1833, as we have seen (p. 2), the House of Commons 
 voted 20,000 ' for the purposes of Education,' and the Appro- 
 
 1 Cumin, Report of Select Committee of the House of Commons, 1866, Q. 1,113. 
 Craik, The State in its Relation to Education, p. 140. 
 
 Report of Endowed Institutions (Scotland) Commission, P. P., 1881, C. 2,768, 
 p. vii. 
 
 Scotch Board of Education, Third Report, 1876, p. viii. 
 
 Hansard, First Series, xxxviii. 616. 
 
 P. P., 1819, ix (c.) p. 1,450*. End of 1818 : 
 
 Schools. Children. Revenue. 
 
 Parochial Schools . . . 942 54,i6i .20,611 
 
 Endowed Schools . . . 212 10,177 ' 3,679 
 
 Dames' Schools . . . 257 5,560 
 
 Ordinary Schools . . . 2,222 106,627 
 
 3- 6 33 '76,525 ^34,290 
 7 P. P., 1818, iv. pp. 57-61. 8 Argyll Second Report, xxxv.
 
 EDUCATION] THE FIRST GRANTS 123 
 
 priation Act of the same year (3 & 4 Will. IV, c. 96) assigned 
 it to ' the erection of School-houses in Great Britain,' but none 
 of the money went to Scotland. For four out of the next 
 five years, however, Scotland received an annual vote of 
 10,000 for her schools'. 
 
 The English conditions of 1833 were imposed on Scotland 
 in 1834-, except that the recommendation of the two societies 
 was dispensed with. Help was given also only to large 
 towns :J . 
 
 In 1838 an Act, i & 2 Viet. c. 87, was passed authorizing 
 the Treasury, in the case of moneys voted by Parliament, to 
 set aside a fund for the endowment of schools in the High- 
 lands, for which the heritors were to provide school -house, 
 residence, and garden. These were afterwards known as 
 'Parliamentary Schools.' In April, 1837, and January, 1839, 
 the Treasury appropriated tw r o sums of 6,000 and 4,000 
 for these purposes out of the annual votes of 10,000. 
 
 In 1839 the votes for England and Scotland were reunited, 
 after a severance of six years, in 30,000 ' for Public Educa- 
 tion in Great Britain ' (2 & 3 Viet. c. 89), and this time Scot- 
 land received her share. 
 
 In 1839 the Committee of Council for Education was 
 established at Whitehall, and, as far as State recognition was 
 concerned, the histories of Scotch and of English Schools are 
 almost identical for the next thirty years. Even the Concordat 
 as to the appointment of Inspectors 4 was concluded between 
 the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and the 
 Committee of Council early in 1840, several months before 
 the English arrangement (p. 7). 
 
 But it must be remembered that in Scotland the Govern- 
 ment grant was only one-half of the story, and that the old 
 rate-aided parish schools steadily continued the second century 
 of their public existence, merely drawing increased revenue 
 from Whitehall if they chose to submit to the conditions of 
 the Committee of Council, and acquiring additional efficiency 
 from inspection and from the training of their teachers. Many 
 of the best schools remained content with their parochial 
 
 1 The following are the items of the successive Appropriation Acts : 
 
 1834 (4 & 5 Will. IV, c. 84). For erecting School-houses in Scotland and 
 Model Schools in England. (This all went to Scotland.) 
 
 J ^35 (5 & 6 Will. IV, c. So). For erecting Model Schools. (This sum was 
 reserved for England, and spent in 1842 : Newcastle Report, i. 643, 645.) 
 
 1836 (6 & 7 Will. IV, c. 98) and 1837 (7 Will. IV, c. 79). For the erection of 
 School-houses and Model Schools in Scotland. 
 
 1838 (i & 2 Viet. c. in). For the erection of School-houses in Scotland. 
 
 * Minute, October 21, 1834; P. P. Eng., 1839, x ^- 3^6, 4 O - See P- 3- 
 
 5 Ibid. pp. 386, 403, 408. 
 
 4 Kay-Shuttleworth, Four Periods of Public Education, p. 464.
 
 124 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 income, and pursued their way undisturbed by any one but 
 their own minister and Presbytery 1 . The heritors took 
 a liberal view of the case, assented to this arrangement 2 , and 
 in many instances contributed more to the schools than was 
 required of them by law 3 . 
 
 Mr. Horace Mann, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board 
 of Education, gives the picture of a Scotch elementary school 
 at this period, which is a fitting companion to Mr. Fearon's 
 later description of the burgh schools 4 . He especially admires 
 the ' mental activity ' and ' incredible rapidity ' displayed. 
 ' I do not exaggerate when I say that the most active and 
 lively schools I have ever seen in the United States must be 
 regarded almost as dormitories compared with the fervid life 
 of the Scotch schools 5 .' 
 
 The Free Church. In 1843 came the Disruption, when 
 470 ministers left the Established and formed the Free Church, 
 and this movement was not unnaturally accompanied by great 
 sectarian bitterness. As parish schoolmasters still had to sign 
 the Formula of the Established Church, about 80 of them, 
 accompanied by nearly 300 other teachers, ' went out ' ; it 
 became necessary to provide for these, and it was determined 
 to aim at providing 500 new schools ; consequently a new 
 one, often much needed, was built in connexion with nearly 
 every Free Church 6 . 
 
 No religioiis difficulty. But with all this the religious 
 difficulty has been almost unknown in Scotch education 7 , 
 and little worse ever resulted from the jealousy of any 
 denomination than the creation of competing schools in dis- 
 tricts where they were not wanted, and the consequent failure 
 to help those regions where there was no rivalry to fear \ 
 
 In 1829 the Education Committee of the General Assembly 
 of the Church of Scotland stated that their schools were open 
 freely to Roman Catholics, and that the teachers were directed 
 not to press on them any instruction to which their parents 
 or priests might object 9 . In later days the Established and 
 Free Churches and the Roman Catholics all insisted on 
 a Parliamentary Conscience Clause in any Education Act for 
 
 1 Lord Sand ford ; Evidence before the Commission on Endowed Institutions, 
 Scotland: Report on distribution of Grants for Higher Education, P. P., 1881, 
 C. 2,768, p. 21 ; Argyll Second Report, App., p. 248. 
 
 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. p. 235 ; Powis Report, ii. 326. 
 
 * Taunton Report, vi. 51. 5 Report of an Educational Tour, 1846, p. 61. 
 
 6 Argyll First Report, 1865, p. 95. 
 
 7 General Report of the Assistant Commissioners, 1867, p. 329, xxxv ; Nine- 
 teenth Century, January, 1897 : ' The Educational Peace of Scotland,' by T. Shaw, 
 Q.C. 
 
 * Craik, pp. 143, 152. 
 
 * 1866, House of Commons Select Committee Report, Q. 1,033.
 
 EDUCATION] THE REVISED CODE 125 
 
 Scotland 1 . Consequently when the Act came, it was possible 
 to leave the School Boards full discretion to provide what 
 religious education they thought fit, subject only to the time- 
 table and the Conscience Clause. 
 
 No Capitation Grant. Almost the only distinction between 
 Scotland and England made by the Education Department 
 was that the capitation grants of 1853 and 1856 were confined 
 to England and Wales. 
 
 The Revised Code. When the days of the Revised Code 
 arrived, the disadvantage of centralization at Whitehall was 
 seen. Scotland bitterly resented her more or less mixed 
 schools being bribed to confine themselves to the merest 
 rudiments of education, and objected to receiving grants for 
 those only out of all the pupils in her public schools whose 
 parents were engaged in manual labour. In consequence of 
 her protests the Revised Code was suspended in Scotland in 
 June, 1864, in respect of payments, although it continued to 
 enforce individual examination 2 ; and it is only fair to add 
 that in the opinion of the Education Department this test 
 revealed that in Scotland there was at least as much need as 
 in England for paying more attention to the elementary 
 instruction of the children :i . Accordingly in Scotland until 
 1872, in addition to grants for maintaining Normal Schools 
 and building grants for elementary schools, Government 
 help was devoted to augmenting the salaries of certificated 
 teachers, and paying the stipends of assistant and pupil 
 teachers or apprentices, and the gratuities to teachers for 
 instructing them 4 . 
 
 In 1 86 1 the Parochial and Burgh Schoolmasters Act, 
 24 & 25 Viet. c. 107, brought the parish school system up to 
 date. Teachers' salaries were raised to not less than ^35 or 
 more than 70, and the minimum of house accommodation 
 in future was increased. Female teachers might now be 
 appointed for elementary education or industrial training at 
 not more than .30 a year. But already for twelve years 
 Government had been paying grants for training school- 
 mistresses in Scotland 5 . 
 
 The examination of parish schoolmasters before appoint- 
 ment was transferred to the Scotch Universities from the 
 Presbyteries, and the jurisdiction of the Presbyteries as to 
 
 1 1866, House of Commons Select Committee Report, Q. 1,034. 
 a Report for \ 864, p. Ixxvi. 
 
 3 Lord Sandford, Report of Commission on Endowed Institutions, P. P., iSSi, 
 C. 2,768, p. 24. 
 
 * Argyll Second Report, 1867, xci. 
 
 8 Mr. G. W. Alexander (Breixmer, p. 234).
 
 is6 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 dismissal for cruelty or immorality was transferred to the 
 Sheriffs. Scotland was divided into four districts, each of 
 which was allotted to one of the Universities. Each University 
 Court was to appoint six examiners, three being Professors 
 in the Faculty of Divinity and three in the Faculty of Arts ; 
 examiners and secretary were paid by the Treasury. 
 
 The heritors and ministers might permit or require a 
 schoolmaster to resign for neglect of duty ; but if it were 
 through no wilful fault of his, they were bound to grant a 
 retiring allowance of at least two-thirds of his actual salary. 
 Schoolmasters were no longer required to sign anything 
 further than an undertaking not to teach opinions opposed to 
 the Divine Authority of the Scriptures or to the Doctrine of 
 the Shorter Catechism. 
 
 The Argyll Commission, The Newcastle Commission in 
 England was followed in 1864 by the appointment of a similar 
 body, presided over by the Duke of Argyll, to inquire into 
 the schools in Scotland. It was not restricted to elementary 
 education, but extended also to all secondary schools, and 
 thus corresponds to the Newcastle, Clarendon, and Taunton 
 Commissions rolled into one. 
 
 In their final report, which was presented in 1867, the 
 Commissioners came to much the same general conclusions 
 as the Newcastle Commission. 
 
 While taking an optimistic view of school attendance, which 
 they still had to declare inadequate, they found the existing 
 system of schools ' in a large measure defective.' They found 
 418,000 out of 510,000 children on the roll of some school or 
 other 1 , but in the rural districts there were only 1,133 Parish 
 Schools out of a total of 4,451 schools, and many of the 
 proprietary and private adventure establishments were ex- 
 tremely inefficient and gave no real education -. As to the 
 course to be pursued they were unanimous. In every parish 
 in Scotland there were rate-supported schools ; voluntary 
 schools were numerous, many already aided by the State, and 
 there was also a Government Department ready to develop 
 all schools in Great Britain. But of the 1,008 Parochial and 
 Side Schools only 334 were in receipt of grants from White- 
 hall 3 , the systems were not co-extensive, and neither separ- 
 ately nor in conjunction were they adequate. It was necessary 
 to extend them, and for this purpose it was recommended to 
 combine them ; to compel every parish school to submit 
 to the Education Department, and also as in England to 
 welcome all voluntary schools which accepted the necessary 
 
 1 Report, pp. clxxiii, clxxvi. 3 Ibid. p. xxxvii. 
 
 3 Ibid. App., p. 48.
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACT OF 1872 127 
 
 terms, and then compulsorily to fill up the deficiencies remain- 
 ing-. A 2d. rate in the country, and 2\d. in the Hebrides, 
 Glasgow, and the largest towns, would, it was thought, do all 
 that was necessary l . 
 
 First Education Act, 1872. It was not, however, until 
 1872, two years after Mr. Forster's Act, that the first Educa- 
 tion Act for Scotland, 35 & 36 Viet. c. 62, was passed. As 
 the State-aided elementary schools in England and Scotland 
 had been administered by the same Code for upwards of 
 thirty years, the two Statutes were naturally on the same 
 general lines, but the Scotch measure was distinctly in advance 
 of its forerunner, even, in some respects, in advance of the law 
 in England to-day. 
 
 The chief points of difference were these : Scotland was 
 ready for a uniform system of School Boards, for universal 
 compulsory education, for freedom in religious instruction, 
 and (although this does not concern us here) for a measure 
 dealing also with her burgh schools and secondary educa- 
 tion. 
 
 EDUCATION ACT, 1872^ 
 
 School Boards were created in every parish and burgh, 
 elected triennially by a cumulative vote by owners and occu- 
 piers of ^4 annual value. An ordinance of the Department 
 prescribed the use of the ballot. The Act declared it to be 
 the duty of the Boards to provide a sufficient amount of ac- 
 commodation in public schools available for all residents for 
 whose education efficient and suitable provision was not 
 otherwise made. ' Parish and burgh schools and all other 
 schools established under previous Acts of Parliament were 
 at once transferred to the Boards, which received the powers 
 and obligations of the heritors and minister, the authority of 
 the Presbyteries being likewise abolished so far as concerned 
 public schools. Only seven Boards in Scotland have no 
 schools, and this is owing to their districts being supplied by 
 the schools of an adjoining Board, generally a burgh Board in 
 the same parish. The School Boards were authorized to 
 accept transference of other schools, and within a few years 
 practically all the State-aided schools in Scotland, with the 
 exception of those connected with the Roman Catholic and 
 Episcopalian Churches and the practising schools of the 
 
 1 Report, p. clxxii. 
 
 3 The standard authority on this and subsequent legislation is A Manual of the 
 Acts relating to Education in Scot/and (founded on that of the late Mr, Craig- 
 Sellar), by J. Edward Graham : W. Blackwood & Sons, 1901.
 
 128 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 Training Colleges, were under the Boards 1 .' In 1901 there 
 were 2,788 Board schools under 978 School Boards, 189 
 Roman Catholic schools, and 164 schools connected with 
 other Churches or undenominational. Even private schools 
 have been absorbed in considerable numbers, though the rule 
 is the same as in England against Board schools being con- 
 ducted for private profit or farmed out. It was the School 
 Boards, and not as in England the voluntary agencies, who 
 had the benefit of the last grant from the State in aid of 
 building schools. An interval of grace was allowed till the 
 end of 1873, during which only School Boards might send in 
 applications, and after that date schools could only be built, as 
 in England, by local rates or voluntary efforts. 
 
 Compulsion, As for the principle of compulsion, it was 
 declared to be the duty of every parent to provide elementary 
 education in reading, writing, and arithmetic for his children 
 between the ages of five and thirteen, and in case of inability 
 from poverty to pay the school fees, he might apply to the 
 parochial board, who were to pay them out of the poor fund. 
 Even blind children were not exempt. The penalty against 
 the parent or employer for disobedience might be as high as 
 2os. with a further 2os. for costs, or imprisonment not exceed- 
 ing fourteen days. If any School Board did not choose 
 to use their powers of compulsion, the Education Depart- 
 ment possessed no authority to enforce the exercise of these 
 powers 2 . 
 
 Total exemption from attendance depended on the certifi- 
 cate of H. M. Inspector, and the requirements for this were 
 fixed for the whole of Scotland by the Scotch Education 
 Department in February, 1874, at the Fifth Standard :i . The 
 Act was held not to override the Factory Acts 4 , and no 
 regulations were imposed as to half-time. 
 
 No grants were made for religious instruction, but it was 
 given at the discretion of each School Board, subject to no 
 other restrictions than the time-table conscience clause. The 
 Boards, with only two or three exceptions, resolved to make the 
 Bible and the Shorter Catechism the basis of their instruction 5 . 
 
 Teachers were to be engaged by the School Boards, and 
 to hold office during their pleasure ; but the rights of existing 
 teachers under the old system were carefully safeguarded. 
 
 Grants might be made under the Act to any School Board 
 for public schools under their management, and also to the 
 
 1 Mr. G. W. Alexander in Miss Bremner's Education of Girls and Women in 
 Great Britain, p. 241 : Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1897. 
 
 2 Craik, p. 164. 3 First Report, Ixxiv. * Ibid. p. Ixxviii. 
 * Board of Education, First Report, 1874, xv.
 
 EDUCATION] EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 129 
 
 managers of any school which is, in the opinion of the Scotch 
 Education Department, efficiently contributing to the secular 
 education of the parish or burgh in which it is situated. 
 
 A separate Committee of the Privy Council for Education 
 was appointed for Scotland, but the Lord President and Vice- 
 President continued to preside over both the Scotch and 
 English Committees, until in 1885 the Vice- President was 
 succeeded in the former by the Secretary for Scotland, whose 
 office was created in that year by 48 & 49 Viet. c. 61 '. 
 Scotch Education Bills are as a rule introduced in the House 
 of Lords by the Secretary for Scotland (formerly by the Lord 
 President) and in the Commons by the Lord Advocate. The 
 chief exceptions to this practice were the Duke of Argyll in 
 1872 and Mr. Mundella in 1883. 
 
 Besides this permanent Department, a special Board of 
 Education for Scotland was created for three or five years 
 to set the new system in motion. It was finally continued 
 till 1878, and then handed over its remaining powers to the 
 permanent Committee. 
 
 By the first Scotch Code, issued in 1874, the long-deferred 
 method of payment by results was at last enforced in order to 
 ensure the efficiency of the new and wide- spreading system 
 of education, but it was in a form amended by experience, 
 and more like that introduced into Ireland in 1872. In the 
 six standards (which already existed in Scotland for examina- 
 tion) a certain gradation of payments was observed, an extra 
 2s. being paid according to the annual average attendance, if 
 scholars present on the day of examination in the classes 
 from which children were examined in Standards II and III 
 showed an intelligent and grammatical knowledge of the 
 passages read ; and a further sum of 2s. if the classes 
 examined in Standards IV, V, and VI passed creditably in 
 history and geography. All children present might be 
 examined, whether they had made 250 attendances or not, 
 and the graduated grants were made on the total annual 
 average attendance-. A graded bonus of is. 6d. or is. was 
 given for organization and discipline, which was not adopted 
 in England till 1875, nor graduated till 1882. 
 
 The restriction of day school grants to persons not above 
 eighteen, which began in 1872, has been maintained until the 
 present day, and there is no other limit. 
 
 In 1876 the fourth English Elementary Education Act (39 
 
 1 The head quarters of the Scotch Education Department are at Dover House, 
 Whitehall. The inspection is performed by four Chief Inspectors, twenty-three 
 Inspectors, four Junior Inspectors, and thirty Sub-Inspectors. 
 
 1 Board of Education, 1874, xvii ; Code 1874, Article 19, c. 4. 
 
 BALFOUR K
 
 130 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 & 40 Viet. c. 79) extended to Scotland its provisions in 
 respect of the conditions required to obtain the annual par- 
 liamentary grant, the chief of which were the 1 7^. 6d. limit 
 (see p. 25) and the terms of the grant of 10 or 15 to 
 schools in thinly populated districts. 
 
 In 1878 and 1883 further Scotch Education Acts were 
 passed (41 & 42 Viet. c. 78 ; 46 & 47 Viet. c. 56), chiefly for 
 the purpose of improving school attendance and smoothing 
 away unforeseen difficulties in working the original Act. 
 
 The Act of 1878. The new Act supplemented the effects 
 of the Factory and Workshop Act of the same year by 
 applying to children in private employment and imposing on 
 them a uniform test of proficiency even for half-time. No 
 child at all was to be taken into regular employment under 
 ten years of age, no child between ten and fourteen was to be 
 employed except under the Factory Acts, even for half-time, 
 without having passed a Standard, subsequently fixed by 
 a Minute of the Department at the Third. Full-time employ- 
 ment was to be open to children between ten and fourteen 
 only on the certificate granted by H. M. Inspector under the 
 Act of 1872, and by a Minute of February 16, 1874, granted 
 for the Fifth Standard. Casual employment in the streets 
 after nine p.m. in the summer and seven in the winter was 
 also forbidden to children between ten and fourteen without 
 certificate, but a School Board might grant temporary permis- 
 sion for not more than six weeks. 
 
 The age of unrestricted employment was thus raised to 
 fourteen, but the limits of compulsory attendance at school 
 remained, as in 1872, at thirteen. 
 
 School Boards received by this Act the powers of com- 
 pulsory purchase of school sites, which had been granted in 
 England in 1870, but this concession has been of little use 
 owing to the complicated nature of the conditions laid down. 
 
 By the Act of 1883 the Attendance Order (p. 24) was intro- 
 duced into Scotland, but the child himself could not be com- 
 mitted to an Industrial School, as in England, merely because 
 he was unmanageable ; the punishment of the parents might, 
 as in 1872, amount to a fine of 2o>y. or a fortnight's imprison- 
 ment. The Third Standard was definitely imposed by the 
 new Statute as a requirement of all half-time labour under the 
 Factory Acts, as well as in private employment, and the Fifth 
 Standard for total exemption. Attendance at school was now 
 made compulsory (except in cases of exemption) between 
 thirteen and fourteen, as well as abstinence from employment. 
 Children under fourteen could only obtain exemption on a 
 certificate of proficiency, and not, as in England, by a certifi-
 
 EDUCATION] FREE EDUCATION 131 
 
 cate of previous attendance ; but, on the other hand, the 
 English Elementary Education Act of 1893 did not apply to 
 Scotland, so that in Scotland after that date children under 
 eleven could still obtain exemption from school. 
 
 In 1885 the Scotch Education Department received a greater 
 measure of independence. The Secretary for Scotland was 
 placed at its head instead of the Lord President of the Council, 
 and a separate secretary was appointed, the latter post being- 
 filled by Mr. (now Sir Henry) Craik, at the time a Senior 
 Examiner in the Education Department. The audit is con- 
 ducted in Edinburgh, but the head quarters remain at White- 
 hall. 
 
 In 1887 a Departmental Committee under Mr. C. S. Parker, 
 M.P., reported on Training Colleges and Compulsory Attend- 
 ance. For the latter the existing powers, used with vigour 
 and firmness, were considered sufficient. For training teachers 
 the existing training colleges were approved, combined as far 
 as possible with university teaching for those who were fit for 
 it. The cost to the State was moderate, and it was not held 
 desirable that it should be reduced l . 
 
 In 1890 an Act for the provision of schools for blind and 
 deaf-mute children (53 & 54 Viet. c. 43) was passed, which 
 corresponds in most points with the Act passed in England in 
 1893. But in Scotland the Act was not to be enforced by 
 the interposition of the Education Department ; any person 
 interested might apply to the sheriff, who might make an 
 order as to the expenses of such education, which was to be 
 final. Particular attention has been paid to afflicted children 
 in Scotland ; in the first Education Act of 1872 parents were 
 declared to be responsible for the education of their blind 
 children, and since the Code of 1892 grants of three or five 
 guineas for progress of blind or deaf-mute pupils in elementary 
 education or manual instruction are paid in any school or 
 institution approved by the Department. In 1901 there were 
 thirteen special and twenty-five ordinary schools with special 
 accommodation for these children. 
 
 No legislative provision for the epileptic and feeble-minded 
 has been made in Scotland, but in 1902 the Code offered 
 special grants for children epileptic or defective, whether 
 physically or mentally, who should be taught in special classes 
 limited to twenty pupils, under conditions satisfactory to the 
 Department. 
 
 Free Education. In 1889 the first step towards free public 
 
 education in the United Kingdom w T as taken by Scotland. In 
 
 the previous year the Probate and Licence Duties were sur- 
 
 1 Report, P. P., vol. xli. 66 1. 
 
 K 2
 
 132 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 rendered by the Treasury in aid of local taxation (Act 51 & 
 52 Viet. c. 60). The Scotch share, being- eleven-hundredths 
 of the whole, was dealt with by the Local Government (Scot- 
 land) Act, 1889 (52 & 53 Viet. c. 50), and in response to 
 the unanimous feeling of the Scotch members, a proportion 
 estimated at 247,000 was assigned towards the relief of 
 school fees 1 . The Scotch Education Department, in whose 
 discretion the management was left, applied the money by 
 a Minute of Aug. 26, 1889, in remission of all fees below 
 Standard IV, and partial remission of fees in Standards IV 
 and V. 
 
 In 1890 a further sum not exceeding 40,000, granted by 
 the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act (53 & 54 Viet, 
 c. 60), was applied by the Department under a Minute of 
 August 1 8 to free the Fourth and Fifth Standards entirely ; 
 by a Minute of June n, 1891, all children between five and 
 fourteen were freed, irrespective of standard ; and in 1893 all 
 children between three and fifteen, as in England *. 
 
 Certain School Boards were permitted, with the sanction of 
 the Department, after making due provision for free educa- 
 tion, to retain fees in a small number of their schools. The 
 total number of pupils thus paying amounted to twenty-two 
 thousand in 1900. 
 
 By the Education and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) 
 Act, 1892 (55 & 56 Viet. c. 51), the twenty-second section of 
 the Scotch Local Government Act was repealed, and there is 
 paid annually to Scotland from the Treasury in relief of fees 
 a sum of 265,000, or of such other amount as Parliament 
 might determine, having regard to the amount of the fee 
 grant under the English Education Act, 1891. Scotland was 
 thus relieved from the consequences of her self-denial in the 
 cause of free education in 1889. Out of this money, however, 
 90,000 was assigned forthwith to secondary and higher 
 education (see p 217). 
 
 Out of her savings from 1889 to 1892 Scotland was able to 
 make up the fee grant to i2s. per child until 1897, and in that 
 year the Chancellor of the Exchequer undertook that it should 
 continue at the same amount 3 . In the same year the propor- 
 tion of eleven to eighty between the Scotch and English 
 grants was abandoned, in spite of strong protests from Scot- 
 land, and the grants are paid irrespective of this relation 4 . 
 
 Help J "or Poorer Sc/iools. As in Ireland so in the High- 
 lands and Islands of Scotland, poverty, a sparse population, 
 
 1 Craik, p. 177 ; Hansard, T. S., cccxxxiv. p. 1831. 
 
 3 Art. 133 : Code 1894, pp. 12. 1901. 3 Hansard, F. S., 1. pp. 460, 906. 
 
 * Hansard, F. S., 1. pp. 459, 464.
 
 EDUCATION] RECENT ACTS 133 
 
 and remoteness have been the great obstacles to efficient 
 education. The long- sea-lochs on the north and west coasts 
 and the numerous islands have imposed conditions unknown 
 in even the most barren districts of the south, and from the 
 first foundation of the Scotch Committee special favour was 
 shown to Inverness, Argyll, Ross, Caithness, Sutherland, 
 Orkney, and Shetland; since 1888, in some of these counties 
 the Education Department has been associated with the 
 local authorities in management of schools and has provided 
 extra financial assistance. Eortunately by March, 1895. it 
 proved possible to restrict this arrangement to Ross and 
 Inverness, beyond which counties indeed it had never really 
 extended. 
 
 In 1897 an Education Act (60 & 61 Viet. c. 62) was passed 
 in aid of the poorer Board and Voluntary schools in Scotland, 
 corresponding- to the two measures passed for England earlier 
 in the same session. Schools under School Boards received 
 the same treatment as in England, where a ^d. rate amounted 
 to less than 7^. 6d. per child (p. 21); for all voluntary 
 schools a grant was made of T,S. a head on the average atten- 
 dance. But the distribution is to be regulated by the annual 
 Code, and no reference was made to voluntary associations. 
 Voluntary schools are also, as in England, to be exempt from 
 rates; but the ijs. 6d. limit is untouched (see p. 25). In 
 Scotland, out of 3,120 public elementary schools in 1896 only 
 390 were voluntary ; and the grant to them was only $s. a head 
 per child instead of $s. as in England, because the fee grant 
 in Scotland was i2>y. in the place of the English io,y. l 
 
 In 1901 a fresh Education Act for Scotland was passed, 
 i Edw. VII, c. 9. By this the regular employment of chil- 
 dren under twelve was forbidden, or of such children between 
 twelve and fourteen as had not obtained permission from their 
 School Board. Power was given to the School Boards to 
 grant such exemption to these children as under the circum- 
 stances in each case after due inquiry they see fit, subject to 
 a revision by the Department, who require that regular 
 employment must be awaiting them, and the circumstances 
 of their parents must render it necessary. 
 
 In 1902 a Royal Commission was issued to inquire into 
 physical training, with Lord Mansfield as chairman, and made 
 a most valuable report early in 1903, dealing with the whole 
 subject in the various grades of education. They insisted on 
 the fact that ' the education cannot be based on sound prin- 
 ciples which neglects the training and development of the bodily 
 
 1 Hansard, F. S., L pp. 460, 889.
 
 134 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 powers,' and does not deal with the whole of school life, in- 
 cluding- the recreation of the pupils. A similar departmental 
 inquiry for England was promised in March, 1903. 
 
 Codes. There was no serious mitigation of payment by 
 results in the Scotch Codes until 1886, when the two lowest 
 standards were excluded from individual examination and 
 received graduated grants; class subjects were introduced, 
 and thus instruction in Scotland as well as in England was 
 divided into three sections of elementary, class, and specific 
 subjects. 
 
 In 1890 the same change was made as in England, individual 
 examination disappeared as the basis of payment for the ordi- 
 nary standard work of the school. A fixed grant of los. was 
 made on the average attendance, supplemented by a grant of 
 is., 2s., or 3<y., in proportion to the merit of the teaching 1 . 
 
 In the Code of 1892 a Merit Certificate was introduced, 
 which was granted as a distinction to any child over thirteen 
 who attained a standard of thorough efficiency in the three 
 elementary subjects as well as in the class subjects (at least 
 two) proposed in the school, and passed an examination 
 embracing all the stages of one specific subject. In 1901, 
 23,239 of these certificates were granted ; the conditions, 
 however, have been seriously modified at different times, 
 and the certificates are now granted to scholars of the age 
 of twelve and upwards. 
 
 In 1894 Inspectors were allowed at their discretion to omit 
 their annual visits to infant schools if two visits without notice 
 had been paid, but in the case of the older children this was 
 not introduced until 1898. 
 
 In 1899 tne Scotch Code was largely modified. Greater 
 liberty (as in England since 1900) is allowed to managers 
 and teachers, who are free to offer any curriculum for the 
 Seniors, Juniors, and Infants for the approval of the Inspector, 
 provided only that it contains certain necessary subjects. Nature 
 knowledge and drawing, with or without manual training, 
 were made compulsory. English, geography, history (for 
 Seniors), learning poetry by heart, singing, physical exer- 
 cise, and for girls, needlework, are generally indispensable. 
 An additional grant may also be earned for experimental 
 science, cooking, household economy, &c. 
 
 For the pupils who wish to proceed beyond the Merit 
 Certificate a higher system is provided in Advanced Depart- 
 ments or Higher Grade Departments, the latter of which fall 
 definitely within the limits of secondary education. Admis- 
 sion to both is conditional on obtaining the Merit Certificate, 
 
 1 6d. more above Standard III.
 
 EDUCATION] MERIT CERTIFICATE 135 
 
 which is granted to scholars of the age of twelve and 
 upwards. 
 
 The Advanced Departments are intended for pupils who 
 may remain probably one or two years longer at school, but 
 in the Higher Grade Departments there must be a well- 
 defined course of instruction approved by the Department, 
 extending over not less than three years, which may be either 
 commercial, or predominantly scientific and technical, or 
 specially suited to girls or any special class of pupils. The 
 grants rise by twenty shillings each year, beginning at fifty 
 shillings, and may be increased ten per cent, for exceptional 
 efficiency, or reduced by one or more tenths for inefficiency. 
 In such schools there must be one teacher for every thirty 
 pupils or less. 
 
 In 1903 a revision of the Merit Certificate system is promised. 
 Provision is to be made for specialized supplementary courses 
 for children who have passed a qualifying examination. The 
 Merit Certificate is then apparently to be reserved until the 
 children actually leave school, and will take into account the 
 special courses they have taken in the meantime. It will thus 
 be once more a true Leaving Certificate. 
 
 In the north of Scotland Gaelic has been definitely recog- 
 nized in the Code since 1886, and in the five northern 
 counties and Orkney and Shetland an extra pupil teacher 
 may earn a grant, if employed in giving bilingual instruction 
 to Gaelic -speaking children l . 
 
 In 1901 there were still in Scotland 28,106 persons over 
 three years of age who spoke nothing but Gaelic (Cd. 1,257, 
 p. xvi). 
 
 Drawing. In 1889, at the request of a number of School 
 Boards, drawing, which had been introduced as a class subject 
 in 1886, was removed, and handed over entirely to South 
 Kensington, as yielding them better financial results. The 
 change was educationally of small importance, as the local 
 superintendent of the Science and Art Department already 
 examined in this class subject, being deemed for this purpose 
 an inspector of the Scotch Education Department (p. 219). 
 
 By a Minute of July 29, 1897, the administration of Science 
 and Art grants was transferred to the Scotch Education 
 Department, but the Science and Art Department continued 
 to account for grants till the following April. 
 
 The Scotch Code for 1898 carried on the grants for 
 elementary drawing and manual training upon the same 
 general lines, and required that the manual training should 
 be l progressive in character, educational in aim, and properly 
 
 1 See Report by Sir H. Craik, P. P., C. 4,261, 1884.
 
 136 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 allied to instruction in drawing,' and that more advanced 
 instruction should be provided for second- and third-year 
 pupils in this subject. 
 
 Training of Teachers. For the training of teachers a 
 system of denominational colleges was already beginning in 
 Scotland before 1839^ and two grants of ,5,000 were made 
 in 1841 for the Normal Schools of the Church of Scotland in 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow. 
 
 It was recognized by the Department as the national custom 
 in Scotland to live in lodgings out of college-, and conse- 
 quently no special creation of Day Training Colleges (see p. 43) 
 has ever been necessary. In 1897 there were eight colleges 
 with accommodation for 963 students. In two of these, for 
 female students, residence was compulsory, in four it was 
 optional, and the remaining two made no provision for it. 
 
 The system has prospered pari passu with the English 
 Training Colleges. It was especially in Scotland that these 
 institutions were utilized for the purposes of general education 
 in the days before the Revised Code, and the Government 
 contributions had to be limited to three-quarters of the actual 
 expenditure in order to restrict the colleges to persons actually 
 intending to become teachers. 
 
 In 1890 76 per cent, of the certificated male teachers and 
 64 per cent, of the women had studied in these institutions. 
 In 1901 80-3 per cent, of the men and 62-7 per cent, of the 
 women teachers had been trained in them. For a long time 
 in Scotland King's scholars have been allowed to count 
 attendance at one or two university classes in the winter 
 session as part of their training lectures, and special facilities 
 have been given to enable Graduates after a short period of 
 practical probation to become certificated teachers. 
 
 Since 1873 the University fees of certain King's scholars 
 may be reckoned as part of their training college expenses, 
 three-quarters of which may be paid by the Education 
 Department . 
 
 In 1895 a system was established by which university 
 students might be admitted as c Queen's [King's] students ' 
 under supervision of a local committee in any of the Scotch 
 Universities or University College, both receiving a grant : 
 they are examined by a joint board of university professors 
 and one or more chief inspectors. 
 
 Teachers' certificates in Scotland are still divided into three 
 classes. The ' woman not less than eighteen, approved by 
 
 1 Alexander, p. 235 of Miss Bremner's Education of Girls and Women. 
 '' First Revised Code, Art. 99 ; P. P., 1862, xli. p. 139. 
 3 Report for 1895, p. 16.
 
 EDUCATION] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 137 
 
 the Inspector,' has received less recognition than in England : 
 not more than one is allowed in each school, and only as an 
 equivalent to a pupil teacher. 
 
 The average salary of Scottish teachers rose from ^101 for 
 a man and 55 for a woman in 1870, to 146 and ^70 
 respectively in 1901. 
 
 Pensions. There was a fund for the relief of widows and 
 children of burgh and parochial schoolmasters in Scotland, 
 started in 1807 (47 Geo. Ill, c. 85), to which all masters were 
 bound to contribute. By the Act of 1861 present contributors 
 remained liable to obligations and benefit, but no future- 
 teachers need join. 
 
 Scotland shared in the limited pension scheme of 1846, 
 suspended in 1862, and revived for the benefit of survivors in 
 1875, and also in the Elementary Teachers Superannuation 
 Act, 1898, of which measure 80 per cent, of the men and 62 
 per cent, of the women teachers availed themselves. 
 
 Cotitimiation Schools. These schools had almost the 
 same early history as in England. In 1876 the age limit 
 was raised from eighteen to twenty-one, and in 1886 they 
 received the increased grants made to England in 1882. In 
 1893 a special Code was issued almost identical with the 
 English Code of the same year. Children of twelve (as 
 against fourteen in England) were allowed to attend, if 
 already exempt from attending day schools ; the upper limit 
 of age was removed, and also the obligation to take elemen- 
 tary subjects, and these changes have naturally made the 
 instruction to a great extent secondary. 
 
 In 1901 a new set of ' Regulations for Continuation Classes ' 
 was introduced, which renders it possible to distinguish 
 clearly between the elementary and secondary instruction 
 given. They are confessedly an amalgamation of the former 
 Evening Continuation School Code and the Regulations of 
 the Science and Art Directory relating to Evening Classes. 
 Three Divisions are recognized. The first consists of Prepa- 
 ratory Classes, open to all who are free from the obligation to 
 attend school under the Education Acts. The second gives 
 specialized elementary instruction, and is open to persons 
 over sixteen, or who, being under that age, have the Merit 
 Certificate, or have qualified or are qualifying under Divi- 
 sion I. The rate of grant varies according to the practical or 
 theoretical nature of the instruction. 
 
 Division III gives advanced specialized instruction in 
 courses which must extend over a period of three years ; the 
 first year is open to any one eligible for Division II. 
 
 Certificates of satisfactory attendance and progress are
 
 138 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 awarded wholly on attendance and record of work shown by 
 the exercises done, and also by examinations held by the 
 teachers. These may be supplemented by special exami- 
 nations held in conjunction with the teachers by persons 
 appointed by the managers and approved by the Depart- 
 ment, or, in the case of the Third Division, held by the 
 Department itself. The instruction may be given in classes 
 conducted by a School Board or other Local Authority 
 recognized for educational purposes, or in other classes in 
 circumstances specially approved. 
 
 2. THE HOME OFFICE. 
 i. Factory and Mines Acts. 
 
 Scotland has always been under the same Factory and 
 Mines Acts as England (see p. 51), but, as with Ireland, the 
 Factory Act of 1874 was not applied to non-textile factories 
 in Scotland by the English Education Act of 1876, and tex- 
 tile and non -textile factories remained on different footings 
 until 1878. 
 
 Under the Factory Act of 1878 a certified efficient school 
 in Scotland was defined as ' any public or other elementary 
 school under Government inspection.' 
 
 As the Elementary Education Act of 1893 did not apply to 
 Scotland, the Factory Act of 1891 (54 & 55 Viet. c. 75) was 
 consequently of more importance in that country until the 
 Education (Scotland) Act of 1901. But half-timers in Scot- 
 land are confined almost entirely to the Dundee district, 
 where they decreased from 2,793 in 1896 to 1,824 m 1900 
 (P. P., Cd. 668, p. 335). Personation there, however, is still 
 common (P. P., Cd. 1,112, p. xii). 
 
 The Factory and Workshop Act of 1901, i Edw. VII, c. 22, 
 accepts the ordinary exemption granted by Scottish School 
 Boards under the Education (Scotland) Act, 1901 (see p. 133), 
 as the only means of obtaining total exemption for children 
 who have reached thirteen and wish to be employed in a 
 factory as ' young persons.' 
 
 This measure and likewise the Elementary Education Act 
 (Scotland), 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. 9), both raised the minimum 
 age for employment from eleven to twelve years as in 
 England. 
 
 ii. Reformatories and Indtistrial Schools. 
 
 Both these classes of schools remain under the Home 
 Secretary, although the Inspector has advised that they should
 
 EDUCATION] REFORMATORIES 139 
 
 be placed under the Secretary for Scotland, and the English 
 and Scotch Departmental Committees have made similar 
 recommendations '. 
 
 Reformatories. The first Acts of 1854-56 and the Con- 
 solidating Act of 1866 applied to Scotland as well as Eng- 
 land (see p. 54), but the power given in 1857 to English 
 Quarter Sessions or Town Councils to contribute to Refor- 
 matories was only extended to Scotland in 1866. Lord 
 Leigh's Act of 1893 and the Reformatory Schools Act of 1899 
 also apply to Scotland 2 . 
 
 Industrial Schools. The first statute in these islands, 
 relating to schools of this class and known as Dunlop's Act 
 (17 & 1 8 Viet. c. 74), was passed in 1854 for Scotland only. 
 The Act and its amending Acts passed in the two following 
 years were intended ' to render Reformatory and Industrial 
 Schools more available for the benefit of Vagrant Children.' 
 They did not in fact deal with Reformatories in the modern 
 sense at all, but with Industrial Schools only, for the nomen- 
 clature had not yet become fixed. The schools ' w r ere to 
 receive aid out of the Education Vote, administered by the 
 Committee of Council, and to be open to the inspection of 
 Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools or any other inspector 
 specially appointed for the purpose 3 .' 
 
 Under these Acts the schools were frankly Ragged Schools 
 to take outcast children 4 . 
 
 In 1860 Industrial Schools were transferred from the Com- 
 mittee of Council to the Home Secretary by 23 & 24 Viet, 
 c. 108. 
 
 'In 1 86 1 the Scotch Acts were consolidated by a temporary 
 Act (24 & 25 Viet. c. 132; 25 & 26 Viet. c. 10), the pro- 
 visions of which substantially correspond with those of the 
 English Consolidating Act of the same year, also a temporary 
 measure; and in 1866 the law both for English and Scotch 
 industrial schools was consolidated in the Act now in force 5 .' 
 In Scotland the parochial authority was made liable, under 
 section 38, to pay $s. a week to the Treasury for any child 
 sent to an Industrial School who had been chargeable to the 
 parish within the three months preceding. 
 
 From this point the law in the two countries has been the 
 same, except so far as it has been laid down by their different 
 Education Acts and by local Acts of Parliament. 
 
 1 Lushington Report, 1896, i. 104, 253, 322. 
 
 a The former Act was passed earlier in 1893 as the Reformatory Schools 
 (Scotland) Act, 56 & 57 Viet. c. 15, and was repealed and re-enacted for Great 
 Britain by c. 48. The recent Act is 62 & 63 Viet. c. 12. 
 
 3 Lushington Report, i. n. * Ibid. Q. 31,962. 
 
 * Ibid. i. p. 12. See p. 56.
 
 140 SCOTLAND [ELEMENTARY 
 
 By the Scotch Education Act, 1872, power was given to 
 School Boards to establish and maintain certified Industrial 
 Schools, but they received no power to contribute to these 
 institutions till (56 & 57 Viet. c. 48) 1893, and the former 
 power they never exercised 1 . On the other hand, School 
 Boards in Scotland were never placed under any obligation to 
 work the Industrial Schools Act, 1866, a result obtained in 
 England by the Education Act, 1876-. 
 
 By the Prisons (Scotland) Act, 1877 (40 & 41 Viet. c. 53, 
 s. 67), the Commissioners of Supply of any county or the 
 magistrates of any borough may contribute to any certified 
 Reformatory or Industrial School subject to the approval of 
 the Home Secretary, but they have no power to establish one. 
 
 Day Industrial Schools. In Glasgow a Board of Com- 
 missioners was constituted by a local Act in 1841 (4 & 5 
 Viet. c. 36) for Repressing Juvenile Delinquency, and by an 
 amending Act in 1878 (41 & 42 Viet. c. 121) they received 
 power to establish Day Industrial Schools, four of which have 
 been established. 
 
 In 1893 the Day Industrial Schools (Scotland) Act (56 Viet, 
 c. 12) was passed for the certification of these schools, which 
 may be established and maintained by voluntary agencies or 
 by a School Board ; it repealed the liability of the Poor Law 
 authorities in Glasgow to contribute. Its only result as yet 
 has been the opening of one Day Industrial School in Edin- 
 burgh in 1898. 
 
 There are as yet no Truant Schools in Scotland : truants 
 beyond the control of their parents have been committed to 
 ordinary Industrial Schools, while the Day Industrial Schools 
 have dealt with the remainder. The Glasgow School Board 
 is, however, building a Truant School in 1903. 
 
 Lord Aberdare's Commission in 1884, and the Depart- 
 mental Committee presided over by Sir Godfrey Lushington 
 in 1896, included Scotland in their investigations, and a 
 Scotch Departmental Committee reported on Habitual Offen- 
 ders in 1895 3 . 
 
 The differences between Scotland and England are due 
 much more to the working of the Acts, as in Ireland, than 
 to the measures themselves. That the Acts were differently 
 worked was due chiefly in the first instance to the absence 
 of Poor Law Schools in Scotland, which caused Industrial 
 Schools to be used to a great extent for destitute children 
 
 1 Lushington, Q. 28,297. 
 
 3 See p. 25. The same is true of Day Industrial Schools. Lushington Report, 
 Q. 28,296. 
 
 3 Ibid. i. Appendix No. x. p. 250.
 
 EDUCATION] PRISON SCHOOLS 141 
 
 who would have gone to District Schools in England '. This 
 tendency, however, was to some extent checked in regard 
 to Reformatories in Scotland by the dislike in that country 
 to put children in prison, and until 1893 imprisonment was 
 an indispensable preliminary to their admission to a Refor- 
 matory -. 
 
 In vScotland by section 38 of the Act of 1866 the Parochial 
 Authority is bound to pay the Treasury $s. a week for any 
 child in an Industrial School chargeable to the parish within 
 the three months preceding. The local authorities have 
 hitherto contributed a far smaller proportion in relation to 
 the Government Grant than in England 3 , and there is said 
 to have been greater laxity in committal 4 . In Scotland these 
 schools all have agents who look out for likely cases, and 
 enable the establishment to be run at its full strength, and as 
 economically as possible 5 . 
 
 In Scotland in 1901 e there were nine Reformatories with 
 670 juvenile offenders, and thirty-three Industrial Schools with 
 4,353 children actually in the schools. 
 
 The Youthful Offenders Act, 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. 20), 
 (p. 56), applies to Scotland, where it is specially provided 
 that a record of the conviction is to be sent to the Clerk of 
 the School Board which is responsible for any youthful 
 offender under fourteen. An order for contribution from the 
 parent may be enforced as if it were a decree for aliment, 
 i. e. by an application for a warrant to imprison. 
 
 3. THE SECRETARY FOR SCOTLAND. 
 
 A General Board of Directors of Prisons was established 
 in Scotland in 1839 (2 & 3 Viet. c. 42), each prison being 
 placed under a County Board. By 23 & 24 Viet. c. 105 
 these Boards were established in every county, and the 
 appointment of teachers as well as other officers was explicitly 
 placed in their hands. In 1887 all prisons in Scotland were 
 vested by 40 & 41 Viet. c. 53 in the Secretary for Scotland, 
 and all local obligations ceased. Three Prison Commissioners 
 
 1 Aberrlare, Q. 1,569 sqq. 
 
 3 Lushingtou. p. 131. But in 1882 the proportions of children and young 
 offenders in Industrial Schools and Reformatories to the whole population were 
 in the three countries as follows : 
 
 Reformatories. Industrial Schools. 
 
 Scotland . . . i to 3,573 I to 840 
 
 Ireland . . . ,.4,492 ,, 897 
 
 England ... ,, 5,657 2,384 
 
 Aberdare Report. Q. 12,460. 
 
 * Lushington, p. 133. * Ibid. p. 137. 5 Ibid. p. 144. 
 
 6 P. P., Cd. 1,301.
 
 1 42 SCOTLAND 
 
 might be appointed, but the number of officers and servants 
 is determined by the Secretary of State, subject to the sanc- 
 tion of the Treasury as to their number, and they are appointed 
 by the Commissioners subject to his approval. 
 
 Only prisoners under thirty-five with a sufficiently long 
 term receive instruction, and thus in 1901, owing to the vast 
 preponderance of short sentences it was restricted to 693 out 
 of 66,769 admissions : . Of convicted prisoners received in 
 1900 into prisons in Scotland 19-2 were unable to read or 
 write ' 2 . 
 
 4. THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD FOR SCOTLAND. 
 
 This Board was established in 1894 by 57 & 58 Viet. c. 58 
 to take over the powers and duties of the Board of Super- 
 vision, which was created to administer the new Poor Law in 
 1845 (8 & 9 Viet. c. 83). Under section Ixix of the latter 
 Act the Parochial Boards had power to make provision for 
 the education of children, but in Scotland the practice is to 
 board out all such children, who thus attend the ordinary 
 public elementary schools. On May 15, 1901, of 6,368 children 
 chargeable, 5,562 were actually boarded out 3 . 
 
 No workhouse or district schools existed till lately in Scot- 
 land, but on June 30, 1901, out of 1,475 children in the poor- 
 houses, 119 were at school in the house, of whom 83 were in 
 the Govan poorhouse, and 20 in Wigtownshire. 
 
 5. WAR OFFICE AND ADMIRALTY. 
 
 The War Office and Admiralty Regulations apply to Scot- 
 land as to England. Instruction is provided for soldiers and 
 their children, and for seamen and boys wherever serving; 
 but they bring their instructors and rules with them, except 
 in the possible case of soldiers' children attending civil 
 schools. 
 
 1 P. P., 1902, Cd. 1,060, p. 9. 2 P. P., Cd. 1,278, p. 26. 
 
 3 Local Government Board Report for 1900-1, p. xii. P. P., Cd. 1,051, p. xii.
 
 II. SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 A. England 
 
 THE BOARD OF EDUCATION, 
 replacing 
 
 (a) The Charity Commission (in part). 
 
 (b) The Education Department. 
 
 (c) The Science and Art Department. 
 
 ENGLISH elementary education has for some time past been 
 in receipt of large grants from the State, administered under 
 the supervision of its officers, and thus the history of the 
 Education Department and its origin includes a fairly com- 
 plete account of the development of public elementary schools. 
 The Board of Education, which is to be in the future the 
 official centre for the administration of public secondary as 
 well as elementary education in this country, was created only 
 in 1899, and even then four years elapsed before the official 
 recognition of the local authorities in secondary education. 
 
 The Board received the powers and duties of three existing 
 public departments, two of which it entirely absorbed. The 
 history of secondary education in the nineteenth century in 
 England is consequently a threefold strand woven of the 
 chronicles of the Charity Commission, the Education Depart- 
 ment, and the Science and Art Department. The public 
 history of the secondary schools at large can best be traced 
 in connexion with the record of the Charity Commission, 
 and under this head I have included a number of facts re- 
 lating to general progress, though not strictly belonging to 
 the history of the Commission itself. 
 
 A. THE CHARITY COMMISSION. 
 The General Course of Secondary Education. 
 
 Much of what has been said about elementary education in 
 England at the beginning of the nineteenth century applies 
 equally to secondary education at the same date. There
 
 144 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 were many foundations in various degrees of efficiency ; there 
 were many abuses known to exist and few means of correct- 
 ing 1 them ; there was no external control of secondary schools, 
 no responsibility, no general organization. In most cases the 
 only method of rectifying abuses was by long and costly pro- 
 ceedings l in the Court of Chancery, which had jurisdiction in 
 the case of all charities, but the power of the Court to inter- 
 fere or to modify existing regulations was very insufficient 
 and very uncertain. Suits by the Attorney-General (1818-37) 
 lasted from five to ten years on the average : in the case of 
 many charities a large part of the funds was swallowed up by 
 costs. 
 
 In the course of the century there were numerous reforms : 
 procedure has been improved, probably no scandals now 
 exist, and not only has a central authority for inspection and 
 organization been introduced, but a supply of local authorities 
 has been created, charged with the duty of establishing and 
 maintaining the necessary schools. Chaos, however, has con- 
 tinued so long, and the higher schools have grown so accus- 
 tomed to independence and isolation that it is neither likely 
 under the circumstances nor desirable that any rigid and 
 universal system will for some time be evolved. 
 
 In 1812 Sir Samuel Romilly's Act (52 Geo. Ill, c. 101) 
 had aimed at simplifying Chancery procedure for the reform 
 of charities, but the chief result seems to have been an increase 
 of vexatious suits -. 
 
 Brougham's Commission of 1818 (see p. 2) extended to 
 many Grammar Schools and other secondary educational 
 endowments, although charities with special visitors, gover- 
 nors, or overseers were not included within its scope until 
 1831"; and there were other exceptions, including the 
 Universities and their colleges, and the six large Public 
 Schools. 
 
 In 1819 the range of the Commission was extended to 
 charitable endowments in general, and its labours did not 
 come to an end before 1837*. In 1835 a Select Committee 
 of the House of Commons considered their reports, and 
 recommended the appointment of a permanent Board of 
 Commissioners to superintend Charities, to suggest schemes 
 
 1 Report of Select Committee on Charitable Trusts Acts, P. P., 1844, IK - P- il1 > 
 Taunton Commission Report, i. 464. 
 
 * R. E. Mitcheson, Charitable Trusts, p. 4 : Maxwell, 1887. 
 
 5 58 Geo. Ill, c. gi ; 59 Geo. Ill, c. 81 ; 10 Geo. Ill, c. 57 ; i & 2 Will. IV, 
 c. 34; 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 71. 
 
 * The total number of endowments finally reported on by these Commissioners 
 was 28,840, estimated at the time ol the aggregate value of i , 209, 395 (Cluchester 
 First Report, P. P., 1850, xx. p. 17).
 
 EDUCATION] CHARITABLE TRUSTS ACT 145 
 
 of administration, and to control the institution of proceedings 
 in Equity. 
 
 In 1840 the Grammar Schools Act (3 & 4 Viet. c. 77) was 
 passed to give the Chancery Courts larger powers in dealing 
 with the regulations of these schools when brought before 
 them. It specially provided that where the classics were 
 retained, the standard of admission was not to be lowered. 
 
 Another Royal Commission was appointed under Lord 
 Chichester in 1849, which reported that ' the evils and abuses 
 are still in existence to a very wide extent, and no sufficient 
 remedy has yet been provided for this correction V and they 
 too urged the creation of a permanent public authority. 
 
 It was not, however, until 1853 that the Charitable Trusts 
 Act (16 & 17 Viet. c. 137) was passed and the Charity Com- 
 mission constituted. A board of four members was appointed, 
 three of whom were paid, while the fourth has always been 
 a member of the House of Commons, without salary. Powers 
 were granted to them for conducting inquiries into the con- 
 ditions and management of charities ; dealings with the 
 corpus of charitable property were put under their control, 
 and their sanction was necessary to the institution of judicial 
 proceedings 2 . In certain cases, especially those relating to 
 the appointment and removal of trustees, and the sale, leasing 
 or improvement of the property of charities, relief might be 
 given in Chancery by a Judge in Chambers, or, in cases where 
 the income was less than 30, by the District Bankruptcy 
 Courts (since abolished), or by the County Courts. The 
 Board was empowered to frame schemes for the appropria- 
 tion of charitable property to new trusts on the application of 
 trustees or persons interested, but each scheme had to be con- 
 firmed by Act of Parliament. From this and an amending 
 Act Eton and Winchester were exempted. 
 
 Practice soon showed that Chancery was too costly and 
 dilatory, and that the slightest opposition in Parliament was 
 fatal to any new scheme 3 . 
 
 In 1860, by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 136, judicial powers were given 
 to the Charity Commissioners themselves, similar to those 
 conferred by the Act of 1853 on the Court of Chancery and 
 the County Courts. Application, however, had first to be made 
 to them by some person authorized under the Act of 1853, 
 the case must not be contentious, and most important limita- 
 tion of all in charities where the income exceeded 50, the 
 jurisdiction of the Commissioners only arose upon an applica- 
 tion made by a majority of the trustees of the charity con- 
 
 1 First Report, p. 18. a Mitcheson, Charitable Trusts, p. n. 
 
 3 P. P., 1884, ix. p. iv, Q. 149.
 
 146 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 cerned. This last restriction is said to apply to eighty-five 
 per cent, in value of the chanties of the country, although in 
 point of numbers it affected only ten per cent. \ but the 
 result of the measure in general has been to transfer to the 
 Charity Commission practically all such applications as are 
 made 2 . 
 
 But in the meantime more direct interference with inter- 
 mediate education had been taking place. In 1861 a Royal 
 Commission under Lord Clarendon had been appointed to 
 inquire into nine specified leading Public Schools of the order 
 which, receiving the sons of the higher and wealthier classes 
 of the country, has sent the largest proportion of pupils to the 
 Universities, and adhered most exclusively to a classical educa- 
 tion 3 . Seven of the schools Eton, Winchester 4 , Westminster, 
 Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury were board- 
 ing schools ; St. Paul's and Merchant Taylors' were day 
 schools : the youngest of them, Charterhouse, had been in 
 existence since the beginning of the seventeenth century ; the 
 oldest, Winchester, since 1387. In 1861 they were educating 
 2,696 boys ; \ In addition to these the Commissioners obtained 
 full returns from Marlborough, Cheltenham, and Wellington, 
 three schools founded within the preceding twenty years, 
 which had rapidly risen to the first rank ; and also from the 
 City of London and King's College Schools, two of the lead- 
 ing London secondary day schools. 
 
 The report was presented in 1864. As the schools had 
 been selected for their importance and popularity, it was a 
 foregone conclusion that no abuses, which according to the 
 ideas of the time were monstrous, would be found, and the 
 Commissioners had no wish to deal hardly with the schools or 
 to obliterate their individuality. It was desirable to remove 
 a number of restrictions, and considerably to widen their 
 curriculum and bring it up to date, and this they were to be 
 given an opportunity of doing for themselves. Certainly the 
 inquiry was not premature, nor were the recommendations 
 superfluous. There was little systematic teaching of either 
 
 1 Mitcheson, p. 13 ; Charitable Trusts Acts First Report, 1884, Q. 189. 
 
 * Mitcheson, p. 14. 
 
 * Taunton. i. 128 ; Bryce Report, ix. 426. 
 
 4 Winchester had received new statutes under the University of Oxford Act, 1854, 
 17 & 18 Viet. c. 81, see p. 233. 
 
 5 Report, i. p. n. The Taunton Commission returned them as 2,956, apparently 
 in 1866, and the net aggregate income, including exhibitions, above ,65,000 a 
 year (Taunton, i. (150)). In 1901 they had nearly 5,000 boys; and the whole 
 of the schools of about the same calibre in England ^admitted to the Head Masters' 
 Conference, about ninety in number) had about 28,000 pupils, including these 
 5,000 (Public Schools Year Book, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1903, and private 
 information).
 
 EDUCATION] PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT 147 
 
 History or Geography at any of the nine Public Schools ' ; 
 Natural Science was practically excluded. In 1862 French 
 was not compulsory at Eton, and before 1851 Mathe- 
 matics also had been voluntary. But these dates show that 
 movement had begun even in the places least given to rash 
 innovation a . 
 
 In 1868 the Public Schools Act, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 118, was 
 passed, dealing with the seven boarding schools specified, 
 requiring them to make new statutes (freed from specified 
 existing restrictions) for the appointment of new governing 
 bodies, which were then to make new statutes for the regula- 
 tion of their respective schools. A body of seven Special 
 Commissioners was appointed, which had to approve of all the 
 new sets of statutes and regulations before they were submitted 
 to the Privy Council and published. If no objections were 
 made, received, or entertained, the statutes might then be 
 approved by the Queen in Council. 
 
 The Special Commissioners were to hold office for one 
 year, or, if necessary, for two, and, in default of the action of 
 the Governing Body of any school within a given time, might 
 make new statutes, regulations, or schemes, which were then 
 to go through the ordinary course directed. Any statute or 
 scheme made by the Commissioners, however, had to lie 
 before both Houses of Parliament for forty days before receiving 
 the Royal Approval. 
 
 Meanwhile, at the end of 1864, a Royal Commission had 
 been appointed under Lord Taunton to inquire into the 
 education given in secondary schools included neither in the 
 preceding Commission nor in the Newcastle (Elementary 
 Schools) Commission of 1859. The Commissioners presented 
 their report in 1867, and a most able and thorough report 
 it was. They found there were 572 endowed secondary 
 Grammar Schools at work with a net income of ,183,066 and 
 exhibitions to the annual value of .13, 897^ 
 
 Endowed Schools Commission. 
 
 Secondary Schools, public or private, which were thoroughly 
 satisfactory, were few in proportion to the need (vol. i. p. 104). 
 The secondary boarding schools were chiefly for the upper 
 classes ; the supply of the three grades of day schools was 
 described respectively as ' very small,' ' very insufficient,' ' very 
 poor ' ; and there was an almost total absence of any education 
 in science or studies other than classical (pp. 102-3). 
 
 1 Clarendon Report, p. 17. a Eton Evidence, Q. 6,933, 6,264. 
 
 8 Vol. i. App., p. (151) : not including elementary schools. 
 
 L 2
 
 148 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 endowments applicable to secondary education were put to the 
 best use, and very many were working to little or bad effect 
 (p. 1 06) ; while a hundred towns of five thousand or more 
 inhabitants had no endowed grammar school at all (p. 652). 
 
 It was for this Commission that Matthew Arnold reported 
 on the corresponding systems in France, Germany, Switzer- 
 land, and Italy, and to it he returned with the demand, 
 4 Organize your secondary and your superior instruction ' 
 (vi. 640). 
 
 The Commissioners recommended the appointment of a 
 central administrative authority, which they suggested should 
 be the Charity Commission, with the addition of some specially 
 qualified members (p. 633). In addition to this there should be 
 local provincial boards in order to deal with the schools in local 
 groups (p. 637). And, thirdly, examination of the schools was 
 to be the pivot of all improvement, and there ought to be 
 a Council of Examinations (p. 649) ' to decide on the results ' 
 of the instruction given, half the members being nominated 
 by the Universities. Private and proprietary schools might 
 be registered and admitted to the examinations (p. 653). An 
 official Commissioner should be appointed to each district by 
 the Central Body and act as Inspector (p. 639). Towns or 
 parishes might be allowed to rate themselves for building new 
 and enlarging old schools, and educating meritorious pupils 
 free of charge (p. 656). 
 
 In their report the Commission divided secondary schools 
 into first, second, and third grade, according as the age of 
 leaving was eighteen or more, sixteen or fourteen (pp. 15, 577). 
 The Commissioners took evidence from ladies and others on 
 secondary education for girls, and devoted a separate chapter 
 of their report to the subject. There were only twelve 
 endowed secondary schools for girls in England and two in 
 Wales l , besides a few elementary schools -. 
 
 1 Report, i. p. 565. 
 
 * The effect, however, produced by the revelation of girls' needs and capacities 
 for education was so great and gave so much impetus and so much support to those 
 who were devoting themselves to this work, that within ten years' time endow- 
 ments had been provided for 45 new schools for girls, containing from 50 to 400 
 pupils each {Frances Mary Buss, by A. E. Ridley: Longmans, 1896, p. n). The 
 North London Collegiate School, founded by Miss Buss in 1850, is one of the 
 most successful of these. Cheltenham Ladies' College was founded in 1854; in 
 1858 Miss Beale became Principal, and in 1897 it numbered nearly 1,000 pupils. 
 The Girls' Public Day School Company, founded in 1873 on a business basis, had 
 34 Schools in 1897 with 7,150 pupils (Victorian Exhibition Handbook. 1897, 
 p. no). On the growth of schools and colleges for women, consult The Renais- 
 sance of Girls' Education, by Alice Ziuimern : A. D. Innes & Co., 1898.
 
 EDUCATION] TAUNTON COMMISSION 149 
 
 Endowed Schools Act. 
 
 This was followed by the passing of the Endowed Schools 
 Act, 1869, 32 & 33 Viet. c. 56, but only the first of the pre- 
 ceding" recommendations was adopted, a section of the bill 
 providing for registration of teachers and obligatory examina- 
 tion of endowed schools being dropped at an early stage. 
 By the Act Commissioners, not more than three in number, 
 were to be appointed for a limited period, which was ultimately 
 extended to August, 1874. They received power, in the case 
 of endowed schools, to initiate what schemes they thought 
 fitting without waiting for applications, and elaborate regula- 
 tions were laid down for the submission of these proposals to 
 the parties concerned, to the Committee of Council on 
 Education, to the Queen in Council, and to the Houses of 
 Parliament. The procedure as to schemes is complicated ; 
 roughly, it was this that when the Charity Commission had, 
 after due inquiry, formed a scheme, the Education Department 
 must approve it before it was sent to the Queen in Council. 
 A petition against it is heard by the Judicial Committee of 
 Privy Council, or the scheme may, on petition, be brought 
 before Parliament. Either House may present an address 
 against the whole or part of a scheme, in which case it is 
 dropped or altered. Every scheme must finally be approved 
 by the Sovereign in Council, when it acquires the force of an 
 Act of Parliament '. 
 
 In practice it has been found that a scheme, however non- 
 contentious, is hardly ever passed under a year, and sometimes 
 takes several years to get through ~. 
 
 The great Public Schools and public elementary schools 
 in receipt of grants from Government were excluded from 
 their control ; endowments less than fifty years old were not 
 to be interfered with unless the governing body concerned 
 assented to the proposed scheme. Endowments for giving 
 doles, marriage portions, or apprenticeship fees, and for any 
 purposes which might have failed altogether or become in- 
 significant in comparison with the magnitude of the endow- 
 ment, might (if founded before 1800), with the consent of the 
 governing body, be applied for the advancement of education. 
 Schemes for schools founded since 1819 could only be made 
 with consent of their governors. Existing rights were safe- 
 guarded and measures taken to secure freedom of conscience 
 in day and boarding schools. It is to be noticed that, in accor- 
 
 1 The steps are detailed with clearness in the Report on Secondary Education, 
 1895, vol. i. p. 21. 
 
 1 Report on the Charity Commission, P. P., 1894, xi. Q. 3,131.
 
 1 50 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 dance with the spirit of the Taunton Commission, it was 
 explicitly declared that in all schemes provision was to be 
 made for extending to girls the benefits of endowments ' as far 
 as conveniently may be.' 
 
 The chief advances made upon the powers of the Charity 
 Commissioners were that the new Commissioners might 
 originate schemes on their own initiative, and that no 
 distinction was made between endowments with greater or 
 less revenues. 
 
 In 1873 there was an amending Act, and the next year, the 
 Commission coming to an end, its functions were, by the 
 Endowed Schools Act, 1874, 37 & 38 Viet. c. 87, transferred 
 to the Charity Commissioners, whose powers over endowed 
 schools had been suspended since 1869. The new Act was 
 only to last for five years, but was continuously renewed l as 
 to the power of making schemes and to paying the salaries of 
 the two additional Commissioners sanctioned by the Act. In 
 1894 it was estimated that at the then rate of progress, without 
 providing for any amendments, nine more years would be 
 required to make schemes for the remaining endowments 
 known to be subject to the Acts 2 . 
 
 During the existence of the Endowed Schools Commission 
 235 schemes were passed, dealing with an annual income 
 of 93,635, and proposals submitted dealing with 85,000 
 more 3 . 
 
 ' If the Endowed Schools Acts were repealed and nothing 
 was substituted for them, the only consequence would be 
 that a particular mode ot reorganizing certain endowments 
 would cease to exist. But if the Charitable Trusts Acts were 
 repealed and nothing was substituted for them, the con- 
 sequence would be a revival of the lengthy and expensive 
 process of the jurisdiction of the Chancery Division of the 
 High Court, in all the above-mentioned respects, over these 
 educational endowments V 
 
 In 1876 a full digest was completed of all Endowed Charities 
 in England and Wales then known to the Commissioners. 
 The total gross income was 2,198,464, of which 646,882 
 was assigned to education, and 87,865 to apprenticing and 
 advancement . 
 
 In 1884 the Select Committee under Mr. Childers on 
 Education, Science, and Art (Administration) recommended 
 
 1 42 & 43 Viet. c. 66; since 1882 by the annual Expiring Laws Continuance 
 Acts. 
 
 - Bryce Report, i. 25, Q. 10,840. * P. P., 1875, xxviii. p. 5. 
 
 4 Bryce Report, i. 21. 5 P. P., 1877, Ixvi. p. 32'.
 
 EDUCATION] INQUIRIES 151 
 
 that the proposed Education Minister should have power to 
 call on the Public Schools for reports merely, but that in 
 the case of all other endowed schools he might require 
 reports and further direct inquiry to be made. Hut nothing 
 came of it. 
 
 Both the Charity Commission and the Endowed Schools 
 Commission excited a good deal of hostility at first, especially 
 by the abolition of interests vested but abused, and by the 
 substitution of greater, though perhaps more remote, benefits, 
 such as improved cheap teaching in place of gratuitous 
 but inferior instruction. Investigations have been held at 
 various times, and have resulted in a vindication of the 
 Commissioners. 
 
 In 1884 a Select Committee of the House of Commons 
 inquired into the working of the Charitable Trusts Acts 
 1853 to 1869, and found that the Commissioners had exercised 
 their powers with discretion and sound policy, and recom- 
 mended the abolition of the 50 limit in the Act of 1860'. 
 
 In 1886 and 1887 there was a similar inquiry into the 
 working of the Endowed Schools Acts, which found that 
 the principles laid down were, on the whole, sound and just, 
 and that the Commissioners had faithfully attempted to carry 
 them out. The Select Committee recommended examination 
 and inspection of the schools, and supported the (Childers) 
 Select Committee of 1884 on Education, Science, and Art 
 (Administration) in desiring a Minister of Education -. They 
 pointed out the increase in importance of technical and in- 
 dustrial education since the Endowed Schools Acts had been 
 passed and the need of giving effect to it in schemes. 
 
 A Treasury Departmental Committee in 1893 recommended 
 that the Charity Commission should not be placed under 
 a Minister, but that the number of Commissioners should be 
 reduced as soon as possible. In 1894 a Select Committee of 
 the House of Commons approved the past action of the Charity 
 Commission, especially of recent years, but considered recon- 
 stitution necessary, and advised that the control of educational 
 endowments should be added to the functions of a Minister 
 of Education. All draft schemes should be invariably (as they 
 were usually) submitted to District and Parish Councils for 
 comment and advice 3 . 
 
 In 1892 a detailed return 4 was made to the House of 
 Commons by the Charity Commissioners, containing the 
 income of the Educational Endowments in England only, 
 known at the end of 1891, available for secondary education. 
 
 1 P. P., 1884, ix. p. xi. " P. P., 1887, ix. p. viii. 
 
 3 P. P., 1894, xi. p. vii. 4 1892, Paper 99.
 
 152 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 The total amount, exclusive of ' property of an incalculable 
 value in the form of sites and buildings for schools,' was 
 .697,132 a year. Of 1,262 distinct endowments, 668 were 
 then worked under schemes approved by the Commission J . 
 A comparison with the results of the Taunton Commission 
 shows that new foundations and discoveries have nearly 
 doubled the schools and enormously increased the revenues 
 since 1868. 
 
 London received a separate Commission under the Duke of 
 Northumberland (1878-80) for the Parochial Chanties of the 
 City, and a consequent Act (46 & 47 Viet. c. 36) which added 
 two special members and gave special powers to the Charity 
 Commission. The ordinary powers had been found ' insuffi- 
 cient for the control of charities so ancient, numerous, and 
 obscure as the City Parochial Charities^,' and the special 
 body did not complete its work until 1892. It was chiefly 
 from these funds that the London system of Polytechnics was 
 established by means of grants which had to be met by 
 corresponding local endowments 3 , though in the provision of 
 such endowments the generosity of private donors has had 
 a very large share. 
 
 By far the most important inquiry into secondary educa- 
 tion was the Royal Commission of which Mr. Bryce was 
 chairman. Its report, made in 1896, will be more conveni- 
 ently considered at p. 168 under the Board of Education, the 
 creation of which it recommended. In the meantime it will 
 be well to consider the last authoritative record of the num- 
 bers and size of secondary schools in England before the 
 establishment of the Board. In 1897 the Education Depart- 
 ment undertook a voluntary census of all schools in England 
 (excluding Monmouthshire) between the public elementary 
 schools and the universities and university colleges. In the 
 absence of any recognized classification 4 the report 5 was 
 necessarily general and lacking in definition, but it far sur- 
 passed in precision and value any information previously 
 in the possession of the public. However, it must be said at 
 the outset that it contained a large number of small private 
 schools which may not be public elementary schools, but 
 
 1 Fortieth Report, 1893, p. 32. E. M. Hance, The Organization of Secondary 
 Education: Liverpool, 1896. 
 8 Mitcheson, p. 18. 
 
 3 The Keriaissance of Girls Echtcation, by Alice Zimmern, p. 174 : A. D. Innes 
 & Co., 1898. 
 
 4 One head master of a school preparatory to the Public Schools replied that his 
 school did not give ' secondary' education. Many persons who ought to know 
 better confuse secondary schools with second-grade schools (Taunton, i. 15 ; Bryce, 
 i. 41). 
 
 4 P. P., 1898, C. 8,634.
 
 EDUCATION] SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 1897 153 
 
 certainly have no claim to be called secondary. No less than 
 1,423 of the schools in the return had no pupils over the age 
 of fourteen, and there is no means of knowing how many of 
 these were merely preparatory for the 4,786 higher schools. 
 The mixed schools, the largest proportion of which (65 per 
 cent.) contained less than 31 pupils, also had the largest pro- 
 portion of non-graduate teachers, and probably very few of 
 them were preparatory a . 
 
 On June i, 1897, there were 6,209 ' Secondary ' Schools, of 
 which 1,958 were for boys, 3,173 for girls, and 1,078 were 
 definitely ' Mixed ' Schools ; the totals of pupils were 158,502 
 boys and 133,042 girls, being 5-4 and 4-5 per thousand respec- 
 tively of the estimated total population. Of these children, 
 two-thirds were under fourteen, 24 and 21 per cent, of the 
 boys and girls respectively were between fourteen and six- 
 teen, and only 9-3 per cent, of the boys and 11-4 per cent, of 
 the girls were over sixteen. From these figures it is clear 
 that a large number of the schools in question were not secon- 
 dary in any real sense of the word. 
 
 Of the boys' schools, 1,311 (67 per cent.) were private 
 enterprise schools, and of the girls' schools 2,886 (90 per 
 cent.). 502 boys' schools (25 per cent.) were ' endowed,' and 
 only 86 (2-7 per cent.) of the schools for girls ; but ' endow- 
 ment ' need amount to no more than a few shillings. Of all 
 the schools, 51 per cent, had under 31 pupils, 91 per cent, 
 had less than 101. Of the staff exclusively attached to the 
 schools, 55-9 per cent, of the boys' masters were graduates, 
 29-2 of girls' masters, and 25-8 of the masters at mixed 
 schools. Of the mistresses exclusively attached to schools, 
 those who had qualified by examination for degrees were 
 only 12 per cent, of the total. The average number of pupils 
 for each exclusively attached teacher was just under twenty. 
 For the continuation of this section under the Board of Educa- 
 tion see p. 1 68. 
 
 B. THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The history of the Education Department has already been 
 traced in connexion with elementary education, with which 
 alone according to statute the Department was concerned, 
 however desirable it may have been that its sphere should be 
 extended. The benefits of the Education Acts were limited 
 to schools in which the principal part of the education given 
 
 1 On the subject of preparatory schools see Special Reports on Educational 
 Subjects : Preparatory Schools for Boys : their Place iu English Secondary Educa- 
 tion : 1900, P. P., C. 418.
 
 1 54 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 was elementary, and though some of the school boards 
 maintained that, subject to this restriction, they were at 
 liberty to give more advanced education to a minority of 
 the pupils in each day school, and also that (by virtue of the 
 Education Code 1890, Act 1890)* they were able to do the 
 same without limit of numbers in Evening Continuation 
 Schools, yet the Cockerton judgement (p. 42) declared it to 
 be illegal for School Boards to expend any part of the money 
 raised by rates either in giving instruction outside the Board 
 of Education Day School Code or in giving education to 
 adults 2 . 
 
 As a matter of fact there is no doubt that a certain number 
 of School Boards were providing in their Higher Grade 
 schools an education which could only be described as secon- 
 dary 3 . Pending further legislation, the Education Act of 
 1901 (i Edw. VII, c. n) allowed existing arrangements to be 
 continued for a year, and the Education Act, 1901 (Renewal) 
 Act, 1902 (2 Edw. VII, c. 19), further protracted this period 
 for twelve months longer. 
 
 Almost the entire relation of the old Education Department 
 to secondary instruction was thus irregular, and the control of 
 the Training Colleges and the sanction of any scheme under 
 the Endowed School Acts before reference to the Privy Council 
 were perhaps its only legitimate functions. In the Training 
 Colleges (see p. 43) future elementary teachers receive an 
 ordinary secondary education in addition to their specialized 
 professional training. 
 
 The functions of the Board of Education in reference to 
 secondary education will be found on p. 169. 
 
 C. THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 4 . 
 
 The Science and Art Department was the second great 
 Government department directly concerned with education, 
 which offered grants of public money to those managers, 
 teachers, and students who fulfilled the conditions it laid 
 down. 
 
 There is no necessary connexion between Science and Art, 
 and, as we shall see immediately, they owe their combination 
 in this country to a merely administrative device. But this 
 at least they have in common, that before this century they 
 
 1 53 & 54 Viet. c. 22. 
 
 a Law Reports, K. B. D., 1901, vol. i. pp. 343, 733, 739. 
 
 3 Bryce Report, i. pp. 10, 30. 
 
 * Calendar and History, and General Summary of Proceedings of the Science 
 and Art Department: also the Report and the Directory. All published annually 
 till 1900. P. P., C. 9,429.
 
 EDUCATION] SCIENCE AND ART 155 
 
 entered into none of the curricula of endowed schools, and 
 when their advantages were realized, the study of them had 
 to be encouraged by direct grants from the current income 
 of the State. 
 
 Past History. The early history of the Department has 
 a close analogy to that of the Education Department proper. 
 
 In 1786 an Order in Council created a Committee of the 
 Privy Council in Trade, which has developed into a depart- 
 ment of the Civil Service and is now known as the Board 
 of Trade '. 
 
 The first step towards the creation of the Department was 
 taken in the interests of commerce. In 1836, just fifty years 
 after its establishment, the Committee of Trade, acting on the 
 report of a Select Committee of the House of Commons -, 
 made application to the Treasury, and a sum of 1,500 was 
 voted by the House of Commons for a Normal School of 
 Design. A council was appointed, a central school opened, 
 and in 1841 provincial schools of design were started in the 
 provinces with the aid of grants from Government. In 1852 
 the arrangements were remodelled, and a Department of 
 Practical Art established, a Science Division being added in 
 the following year, when the title of the Department of 
 Science and Art was first bestowed 3 . By the Order in Council 
 of Feb. 25, 1856, this Establishment was removed from the 
 Board of Trade to the new Education Department under the 
 Lord President of the Council, with whom a Vice -President 
 was associated by the Statute of the same year (p. 13). 
 
 Thus both branches of the Department were originally 
 created and worked by Special Committees of the Privy 
 Council administering annual grants voted by the House of 
 Commons ; both Departments appeared for the first time in 
 the Statute book after a long period of activity upon the 
 appointment of the Vice- President, who was to be their 
 official representative in the House of Commons ; and both 
 from very small beginnings on a merely provisional basis 
 grew into large educational departments, which needed only 
 consolidation to become the permanent establishment of 
 to-day. The chief differences in their common elements were 
 that while the Committee of Council on Education was con- 
 sulted on important steps in the Education Department 
 proper, the Science and Art Department was controlled only 
 by the President and Vice- President without reference to the 
 
 1 Traill, Central Government, p. 125: Macmillan, 1881. 
 
 2 Reports, P. P., 1835, v; 1836, ix. 
 
 s Cf. Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, by Fabian Ware, p. 29 : 
 Harper, London, 1901.
 
 156 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 Committee J . Moreover, the Codes of the Education Depart- 
 ment must be submitted to both Houses of Parliament, 
 whereas the Science and Art Regulations, though always 
 presented to Parliament, formerly needed and still require no 
 further sanction. 
 
 The Education Department proper was finally limited to 
 England and Wales, while the Science and Art Department 
 long continued to extend its grants to Scotland and even to 
 Ireland. 
 
 The duties of the former were restricted almost entirely to 
 the inspection and direction of education, while the latter 
 department, in addition to this class of work, not only itself 
 carried on the two Royal Colleges of Science and of Art, 
 but was responsible for several large Museums, and included 
 in its reports and finance the Geological Survey and Solar 
 Physics Committee. 
 
 The Department was originally accommodated in Somerset 
 House, in the old rooms of the Royal Academy, but after 
 a few years at Marlborough House it was removed in 1857 to 
 South Kensington, with the name of which its work is still 
 identified. 
 
 The organization of the Department was tentative and 
 very frequently changed, but in 1884 it received a Secretary 
 and Permanent Head of its own, and was thus rendered more 
 independent of the joint establishment at Whitehall, although 
 it remained directly under the control of the Lord President 
 of Council and the Vice- President 2 . 
 
 Reports. Besides earlier reports on the Schools of Design, 
 Select Committees of the House of Commons reported in 
 1864 on the Schools of Art, and in 1868 on Scientific Instruc- 
 tion for the Industrial Classes. The latter report especially 
 emphasized the necessity of placing within the reach of every 
 child elementary instruction, in which drawing, physical 
 geography, and instruction in natural phenomena should be 
 included. The reorganization of secondary instruction was 
 urgently recommended, and the introduction of the teaching 
 of science into secondary schools. 
 
 In 1870 a Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction was 
 appointed, with the seventh Duke of Devonshire as chairman, 
 and issued a report in ten parts, beginning in 1871 and 
 ending in 1875. This careful investigation dealt with the 
 whole of the scientific instruction given in the United 
 Kingdom from the elementary schools to the Universities, 
 and included the Museums and scientific work recognized by 
 
 1 Traill, Central Government, p. 148 ; Cross Report, Q. 507. 
 3 Bryce Report, i. 26.
 
 EDUCATION] SCIENCE GRANTS 157 
 
 Government. The report contains much general information 
 on educational bodies at the time, which is not to be found 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Science Organization Grants. From 1853, when the 
 Science Division was first created, until 1859, isolated experi- 
 ments were tried in aiding- the establishment of local Science 
 Schools in selected localities, but at the end of the period 
 only four such schools survived, and a new method was 
 adopted. 
 
 Minutes were published in accordance with which any place 
 establishing science classes for itself might obtain subsidies 
 from South Kensington on the results it could show in 
 written examinations held on the spot by the Department. 
 Teachers must have passed the special Examination of the 
 Department and obtained a certificate of competency to teach. 
 On these certificates payments were made to them propor- 
 tionate to the number of pupils they passed, up to a certain 
 maximum, and additional payments were made for pupils 
 gaining prizes. The students themselves could gain prizes 
 and medals, and scholarships and exhibitions were afterwards 
 established. Grants were made to the schools towards appa- 
 ratus and books. Only six subjects were recognized at first, 
 but the list grew until it included twenty-five. 
 
 The first examination for teachers was held in 1859, and 
 the first general examination for pupils in May, 1861. In the 
 early sixties, when payment by results became the rule every- 
 where, many elementary school teachers, seeing their salaries 
 threatened or actually diminished, cast about for some means 
 of restoring their fortunes, and found it at South Kensington. 
 They managed to qualify themselves and give scientific 
 instruction in the evening ] : the education might be very 
 narrow, but it went beyond the three R.'s of the day, and its 
 pecuniary results were very welcome. 
 
 In 1867 the special examination for teachers was abolished, 
 and permission to teach depended henceforth on passing 
 a sufficiently good general examination. In 1868 building 
 Grants were extended to Science Schools, and continued 
 until 1897. In 1870 part of the payment of the special local 
 Secretaries appointed by the local authorities was undertaken 
 by the Central Department. 
 
 In the ordinary Science Examinations grants for the most 
 rudimentary science results were abolished in 1892, one ele- 
 mentary division only being recognized ; and the principal 
 effect of this was to transfer the support of such elementary 
 instruction to the local authorities. 
 
 1 First Report of Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction, 1872, p. xx.
 
 158 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 In 1896 there was a complete revision of the grants for 
 ordinary Science classes. An attendance grant was intro- 
 duced, varying with the subject and the stage of it, and 
 depending on the efficiency of the class as reported by the 
 Inspector and as shown by its success in the annual examina- 
 tions. The payments for results were discontinued for every, 
 thing- but Honours. An Inspector of the Department, when 
 necessary, visited the Training Colleges and reported on the 
 premises and the instruction given in Science. 
 
 In 1897, in consequence of the recommendations of a 
 Departmental Committee, building grants were discontinued 
 and a fixed minimum salary required for teachers. 
 
 The Charity Commissioners co-operated as far as possible 
 with the Department, in order to insure the representation of 
 local authorities, and to secure the recognition of Endowed 
 Secondary Schools as Science Schools. 
 
 Schools of Science. In November, 1872, the first relaxation 
 of payment by results appeared in the creation of a special 
 order of classes known as Organized Science Schools. In that 
 year the need for a continuous and systematic course of scien- 
 tific training to follow the ordinary Elementary Education 
 led the Department to offer special payments for attendance 
 in the case of schools or classes which complied with its regu- 
 lations for organizing a course of scientific instruction which 
 should occupy three years x . The school might be held by day 
 or night, but must be properly organized as a ' Science School,' 
 and consequently have a properly constituted and approved 
 Local Committee. A grant of i os. a head was offered for each 
 pupil who made 250 day attendances in the year (or half 
 that sum for 75 attendances at night) and passed in one specific 
 subject in addition to the ordinary payments on results. The 
 growth of these schools was slow: in 1885 only three were 
 in existence, but by 1896 they numbered 125, and by 1901 87 
 more had been added; of these 51 in all were attached to 
 Public Elementary Schools conducted by School Boards -. 
 
 In 1895 a sweeping reorganization was effected in the system 
 of grants and of the education given in these schools. Pay- 
 ments on the results of the May examinations were diminished, 
 a grant was made for practical work, and a variable grant was 
 introduced, depending on the report of the Inspector upon the 
 work of the school as a whole, both in literary and scientific 
 subjects. 
 
 The most remarkable change was the introduction of com- 
 pulsory literary subjects into all Organized Science Day 
 
 1 Science and Art Department Report for 1872, App., p. 8. 
 a P. P., House of Commons Paper, No. 114, 1902.
 
 EDUCATION] ORGANIZED SCIENCE SCHOOLS 159 
 
 Schools, while the minimum of scientific instruction was 
 reduced from fifteen to thirteen hours a week. An Organ- 
 ized Science Day School must provide a thorough and pro- 
 gressive course of education in Science, combined with literary 
 or commercial instruction adapted to students whose education 
 is such as to fit them to enter Standard VII of the English Code 
 for a Public Elementary School J . The course was no longer 
 specified as consisting of three years, but the regulations 
 provided for its occupying three or four years, and the grant 
 might be discontinued if the number of those attending 
 dwindled beyond a certain point. From 1897 manual training 
 was to be compulsory in all Organized Science Day Schools. 
 
 In 1901 a system was first introduced by which Secondary 
 Day Schools, inspected by the Board of Education and sub- 
 mitting a three or four years' course, might receive grants. 
 
 In 1902 Schools of Science and Day Secondary Schools 
 were renamed Secondary Day Schools A and B respectively. 
 In the former thirteen hours a week must still be devoted to 
 Science (including not more than five hours' mathematics), 
 while ten must be given to other approved subjects, includ- 
 ing English and one foreign language. In Secondary Day 
 Schools B there must be not less than nine hours' Science 
 (including five hours' mathematics). 
 
 In both classes of schools a regular progressive curriculum 
 must be laid down, grants are to be paid to Schools A for the 
 first five years in accordance with the hours of instruction 
 received by students, and afterwards by annual grants on each 
 student making not less than 250 attendances in the year, 
 assessed on the results of the preceding year. In either case 
 there must be at least twenty qualified students in the school, 
 and all such schools must be inspected by the Board of Edu- 
 cation. In Secondary Day Schools B this grant will be paid 
 from the first on each student making not less than 240 
 attendances, more being given for the third and fourth than 
 for the first and second year. 
 
 The chief difficulty has been to get pupils to stay long 
 enough at the schools. Every effort is made to secure their 
 continued attendance at a course which shall if possible extend 
 over four or at least three years. 
 
 In 1901 of 9,902 pupils on the register of 78 Schools of 
 Science not connected with any public elementary schools, 
 only 1 6-6 per cent, were in their third, and 4-5 per cent, in 
 their fourth year. Of forty-three similar schools conducted 
 by School Boards, and therefore attached to public elementary 
 
 1 Directory, 1895, p. 33.
 
 160 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 schools, only 9-6 per cent, were in their third, and 2-8 in their 
 fourth year 1 . 
 
 Art Grants. From 1841 to 1852 the Board of Trade 
 appointed and paid masters in the provincial schools of design 
 subject to the locality paying half of the cost of the schools, but 
 this it frequently failed to do. It was also found difficult to 
 carry out the prescribed course ' on account of the great need 
 of elementary teaching which existed among the students V 
 
 In 1852 the new Department of Practical Art withdrew 
 from direct management and support of the provincial schools, 
 but made grants to them on different terms. In connexion 
 with all Schools for Art a certain amount of instruction in 
 drawing must be provided, and evening classes for artisans 
 and elementary schools ; payment was made according to the 
 certificates of the Department held by the teacher; pupil 
 teachers were paid, and medals and prizes were given to 
 pupils. The teacher no longer drew a salary from the Board 
 of Trade, but made his own terms with his committee :; . 
 
 In 1857 inspection of all Art schools earning grants was 
 organized, the Inspectors awarded local medals, and sent up 
 a few selected drawings for competition at head quarters. 
 
 In 1856 building grants were commenced and continued 
 till 1897. 
 
 In 1863 payment by results was substituted for payment on 
 certificates, and from the next year all drawings were sent 
 direct to South Kensington and there examined for grants 
 and prizes. 
 
 In 1865 provision was made for the establishment of Night 
 Classes for instruction in drawing as distinguished from 
 Schools of Art, and the restriction of grants to classes held 
 after 6 p.m. was removed in 1876. 
 
 Day Schools of Art are now governed by rules laid down 
 in the Regulations for Secondary Day Schools. Instruction 
 in Art must be carried on methodically for about forty weeks 
 in the year, and their rooms must be devoted wholly to Art 
 instruction. Schools that have been continuously efficient for 
 five years will be paid an average annual grant in addition to 
 payment for successful students. 
 
 Conditions applying both to Science and Art. 
 
 Local Management. In all cases there must be a Local 
 Committee of at least five members. It may be (a) the Local 
 Authority under the Education Act, or the Committee to 
 
 1 P. P., 1902, House of Commons Paper, No. 114. 
 
 1 House of Commons Select Committee on Schools of Art, Report, 1864, p. iv. 
 
 3 Ibid.
 
 EDUCATION] SCIENCE AND ART 161 
 
 which it has delegated its power ; or (6) the governing 
 body of a school (other than public elementary) with a 
 scheme under the Endowed Schools Acts; or (r) a Com- 
 mittee formed for the purpose according to the regulations 
 of the Department. 
 
 Inspection and Examination. The inspection of the 
 Department was formerly very inadequate owing to want of 
 Inspectors, of whom in 1870 there were only two, and after- 
 wards only four. Officers of the Royal Engineers were 
 utilized to a considerable extent, but only to see that the 
 regulations of the Department were observed, and not to 
 report on the state of instruction in the schools '. 
 
 In 1893 thirteen more Inspectors were appointed to carry 
 out the new regulations as to Organized Science Schools, to 
 inspect Training Colleges if necessary, to supervise the tem- 
 porary Art Inspectors in the elementary schools ; generally 
 to act as advisers in Art and Science in districts where local 
 authorities administered grants for technical education, and to 
 co-operate with the officers of these authorities in securing the 
 efficient and economical administration of science instruction 2 . 
 In the end of 1901 there were twenty-three Inspectors and 
 thirty-three Junior Inspectors. Since 1901 all the Inspectors 
 of this branch equally with Whitehall have been entitled His 
 Majesty's Inspectors. 
 
 Restriction of Grants. The old School of Design tried to 
 exclude from its benefits all persons who were not designers 3 . 
 After 1852*, although the instruction was declared to be for 
 the operative classes, the principle adopted was that the 
 schools should be open to the whole community, different 
 classes paying fees according to the instruction received and 
 to their status. As soon as payment by results began, the 
 State refused to pay for those who were able to pay for them- 
 selves, and the Science Grants from 1859 and the Art Grants 
 from 1863 were limited to payments for the results achieved 
 by the industrial classes. The grant at first included only 
 artisans, children of the labouring poor, scholars, persons in 
 training as Art teachers or employed as designers for manu- 
 facturers 5 , but payment gradually rose to coincide 6 with partial 
 exemption from the income tax, w T hich was granted to incomes 
 under ^500 a year. The only restriction now existing is the 
 
 1 Report for 1872, pp. x, 41 ; Bryce Report, i. p. 60 ; Royal Commission on 
 Scientific Instruction, 1872, Q. 7. 
 
 2 Forty-first Report of Science and Art Department, 1894, Ixvi. 
 
 3 1864, Select Committee, Q. 26 and Q. 299. 
 * Ibid. 
 
 5 Ibid. p. 279; Minute, Feb. 24, 1863. ' In 1895. 
 
 BALFOUR M
 
 1 62 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 power reserved by the Board of Education of refusing to 
 grant scholarships ' to persons whose financial circumstances 
 do not warrant such aid,' and to other than British subjects. 
 
 Scholarships and Exhibitions. There are numerous 
 scholarships and exhibitions derived from public and private 
 sources for both Science and Art. Some are given abso- 
 lutely, some in response to local contributions, some to enable 
 students to attend the Royal Colleges ; others enable pupils 
 of an elementary or organized science day school to pursue 
 their studies at approved day schools. Grants are given to 
 masters and students in Schools of Art to visit South Ken- 
 sington and to study there ; also to science teachers to attend 
 courses at the Royal College or a summer course in July. 
 
 Local Authorities. Local management in schools and classes 
 both for Science and for Art had always been required by the 
 Department, but in 1897 a further step w r as taken, which was 
 justly considered as indicating the direction of future develop- 
 ments. In the Regulation contained in the Directory for 
 that year the following- clause was given for the first time : 
 
 ' VII. In Counties and County Boroughs in England which possess an organiza- 
 tion for the promotion of secondary education, such organization, if recognized by 
 the Department, may notify its willingness to be responsible to the Department 
 for the Science and Art instruction within its area. In such cases grants will in 
 general be made to the Managers of new Schools and Classes, only if they are 
 acting in unison with such organization. (The rights of the Managers of existing 
 Schools and Classes will not be interfered with, and Town Councils and School 
 Boards who are managers of Schools receiving Science and Art Grants will not be 
 debarred from establishing in their districts additional Schools where necessary.) In 
 Wales the Intermediate Education Authority is for this purpose regarded as the 
 Authority for the promotion of Science and Art.' 
 
 Students reported by the Inspector as unqualified to derive 
 benefit might be excluded from the Schools of Science and 
 disqualified from receiving the attendance grant in other 
 Science Classes. 
 
 By July, 1898 : , twenty-eight Councils had been recognized 
 by the Department as responsible for the Science and Art 
 teaching in their districts. Examination and inspection in 
 these cases are retained by the Department : the grants earned 
 by all the schools in any one area are handed over to the local 
 organizations, w r hich settles matters relating to the managers 
 and their duties. 
 
 Public Libraries Acts. 
 
 Statutory powers of building and maintaining Schools for 
 Science and Art have been given to local authorities through- 
 out the United Kingdom by a series of Acts relating to the 
 
 * By 1901 there were 36 county authorities and 27 in county boroughs.
 
 EDUCATION] TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 163 
 
 provision of Public Libraries and Museums. The first Act 
 was in 1845, but the first reference to schools was in two 
 Acts of 1855', by which a rate not exceeding one penny in 
 the pound might be raised for the purpose, if the borough 
 or parish decide to adopt the Act, and might be expended 
 on a public library or museum or school for Science and Art. 
 
 In i884 2 it was expressly declared that any authority acting 
 under these Acts might accept a grant from the public funds 
 made by the Committee of Council on Education on the 
 conditions prescribed by that body, and that where any 
 museum, library, school, or other institution has been estab- 
 lished under the Acts, another may be added in connexion 
 without taking further proceedings. 
 
 England, Ireland, and Scotland all possess these powers, 
 but under different Acts ; the educational clauses, however, 
 present little difference 3 . 
 
 In 1901 the sum of ,19,439 was expended by local authori- 
 ties under these Acts in England 4 . 
 
 The Science and Art Department as Central Aiithority 
 for Technical Instriiction. 
 
 Valuable as the teaching of Science and Art was fifty years 
 ago to a country provided only with an inadequate equipment 
 of Public Schools and Grammar Schools on the one hand and 
 a struggling system of instruction in reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic on the other, even more important at a later date 
 was the duty assigned to the Science and Art Department in 
 1 889 of being the central authority in the country for what was 
 known as technical instruction, and of administering an income 
 which gradually amounted to nearly a million per annum. 
 
 Past History of Technical Education. 
 
 It is very difficult to give a clear and yet adequate account 
 of the movement which in this country has been comprehended 
 under the name of Technical Education. For one thing, 
 circumstances caused the term to be applied to a great deal 
 of secondary instruction which had not the slightest claim to 
 be considered technical, either in its treatment or its con- 
 tent ; in the next place, the grants made in its name were 
 
 1 18 & 19 Viet. c. 40 (Ireland), c. 70 (Great Britain). 
 
 a 47 & 48 Viet. c. 37 (Great Britain and Ireland). 
 
 8 England and Wales, 55 & 56 Viet. c. 53 (this Act definitely specifies the 
 Department of Science and Art as the source of grants), 56 & 57 Viet. c. 1 1 ; 
 Scotland, 50 & 51 Viet. c. 42 ; Ireland, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 40, 47 & 48 Viet. e. 
 
 37. & c- 
 
 * House of Commons Paper, 1902, No. 225, p. vi. 
 
 M 2
 
 1 64 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 either handed to local authorities with free powers of applying 
 the money, or else provided by independent local associations 
 of various kinds. There has been no recognized central 
 authority except the Department of Science and Art, which 
 began its career with no definite recognition of a difference 
 between technical instruction in particular and secondary 
 education in general, and in consequence only made con- 
 fusion worse confounded. Technical education was never 
 dealt with as a whole in England either by statesmen or 
 educational authorities, as may be seen by a consideration of 
 its history. 
 
 In the first two decades of this century there was a great 
 craving for knowledge among the intelligent workmen who 
 had been trained by the industrial revolution, and their 
 zeal and desires were naturally for mechanical and scientific 
 knowledge ' . 
 
 Dr. Birkbeck, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Ander- 
 son's Institution in Glasgow '-, established courses of lectures 
 for working men in 1800, and these were continued and 
 developed until in 1823 the Glasgow Mechanics' Institution 
 was founded (see p. 220). In 1824 a similar association was 
 established in London, under the auspices and with the 
 financial help of Dr. Birkbeck, who had left Glasgow in 1804, 
 and the example was followed in a great many towns through- 
 out the country. 
 
 But the result showed the truth of the judgement passed so 
 many years later by the Commission on Technical Education 
 that a good secondary education is the best possible pre- 
 liminary to all good technical instruction 3 . Dr. Birkbeck 
 himself had found that the want of preparatory teaching 
 prevented many of his hearers from following the simplest 
 explanations, and this absence of solid foundation rendered 
 many of the institutes very unstable. Numbers of them 
 died out, but in some cases they lingered on, often as little 
 more than working men's clubs, until they were utilized as 
 a nucleus for endowments or till the spread of education 
 developed a fresh need for them 4 . 
 
 The first International Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park 
 drew attention to the great want of taste and training in the 
 British manufacturers, but we organized the Department of 
 
 1 See The First Publication of the Central Society of Education : London, 1837, 
 p. 217. Lectures seem to have been given in Birmingham before 1790. 
 
 2 For Anderson's own claims see The Inrst Technical College, by A. Humboldt 
 Sexton. Chapman & Hall, 1894. 
 
 3 Report, vol. i. p. 516. 
 
 * J. G. Godard, Life of Birkbeck : London, 1884, 8vo.
 
 EDUCATION] THE ACT OF 1889 165 
 
 Science and Art, and said that all was well. The Exhibition 
 of 1862 followed; we were examining in every subject that 
 was taught, and engrossed in seeing that we paid only for 
 what we got. Time went on, and Germany, united and re- 
 invigorated after the war, became with her education a for- 
 midable rival in trade. The French Exposition Universelle 
 of 1878, which, in the words of M. Leclerc 1 , 'annoncait 
 brillamment la rentreeen scene dela France, acheva d'inquieter 
 les Anglais.' The usual remedy of a Royal Commission was 
 applied in 1880, and Mr. (afterwards Right Hon. Sir) Bernhard 
 Samuelson was Chairman. The Commissioners did their 
 work well, visited most of the important centres on the Con- 
 tinent, and reported finally in 1884. They pointed out the 
 need of a number of good secondary schools of the modern 
 type, and declared that legislation was necessary to enable 
 localities to found and support technical and secondary 
 schools ; they recommended that the teaching of the Science 
 and Art Department should be more practical and its inspec- 
 tion more effective, and reported in favour of a general exten- 
 sion of manual, technical, and scientific instruction in elementary 
 and secondary schools. 
 
 Modern Legislation. 
 
 The time had come at last for action. In 1887 an Act for 
 Technical Schools in Scotland was passed (p. 220) ; the next 
 year the Local Government Act, 1888 2 (51 & 52 Viet. c. 41) 
 created County Councils in England and Wales, and gave 
 them an income out of the Probate and Licence Duties ; in 
 the following year the Technical Instruction Act, 1889 (52 & 
 53 Viet. c. 41), became law for England, Wales, and Ireland. 
 
 As far as England and Wales were concerned, this last 
 measure allowed the council of any county or borough, or 
 any urban sanitary authority (under the Public Health Acts), 
 to supply or aid in supplying technical or manual instruction, 
 and to delegate its authority to a committee appointed for 
 the purpose wholly or partly from its members. The chief 
 restrictions were that public elementary schools were not to 
 be helped (p. 40), a conscience clause was imposed, the 
 principle was laid down that the body granting supplies must 
 be represented in the management of the institution subsidized, 
 and the rate was limited to a penny in the pound. 
 
 Not only was the Act important in its immediate provisions 
 
 1 L' Education des classes moyennes et dirigeantes en Angleterre, p. 230 : Armancl 
 Colin et Cie, Paris, 1894. 
 
 3 For a very clear and concise sketch of English local authorities see An Out- 
 line of English Local Government by E. Jenks : Methuen, 1 894.
 
 1 66 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 but it was the first deliberate recognition of County Councils 
 as local authorities in Education, and foreshadowed the educa- 
 tional organization of to-day. 
 
 Under section i (f.) of this Act the Department of Science 
 and Art was the central authority which decided in the case 
 of schools and institutions, or between schools and local 
 authorities, on questions of distribution of grants, sufficiency 
 of provision, and representation on governing bodies. 
 
 Technical instruction was defined as ' instruction in the prin- 
 ciples of science and art applicable to industries, and in the 
 application of special branches of science and art to specific 
 industries or employments. It shall not include teaching the 
 practice of any trade or industry or employment, but, save 
 as aforesaid, shall include instruction in the branches of 
 science and art with respect to which grants are for the time 
 being made by the Department of Science and Art, and any 
 other forms of instruction (including modern languages and 
 commercial and agricultural subjects) which may for the time 
 being be sanctioned 1 by that Department by a Minute laid 
 before Parliament, and made on the representation of a local 
 authority that such a form of instruction is required by the 
 circumstances of its district.' 
 
 Manual instruction was defined as ' instruction in the use of 
 tools, processes of agriculture, and modelling in clay, wood, 
 or other material.' An Amending Act, 54 & 55 Viet. c. 4, was 
 passed in 1891, removing one or two practical difficulties in 
 administration. 
 
 Almost before rates had been levied, the Local Taxation 
 (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, 53 & 54 Viet. c. 60, allotted 
 to England and Wales a large sum annually out of the 
 Customs and Excise duties. This was popularly known as 
 ' whiskey money,' being handed over to local authorities in 
 place of being paid as compensation to publicans, the purpose 
 for which it had originally been destined. ,300,000 was to 
 be devoted to police superannuation, and the residue was 
 distributed among the funds of counties and county boroughs, 
 who might, if they chose, contribute it or any part of it 
 for the purpose of technical education over and above 
 any rates. The money was secured for technical instruction 
 almost by hazard, at the last moment, in default of any 
 other suitable object 2 , but it is this residue which has been 
 
 1 By 1900, 132 subjects had been recognized, ranging from modern languages, 
 music, commercial grammar, literature, and composition to boot-clicking, brick- 
 laying, and plasterers' work (Report, Appendix A, p. i). 
 
 3 For an account of the circumstances see The Renaissance of Girls Education, 
 p. 169, by Alice Zimmern : A. D. Innes & Co., 1898. The grant was thus applied 
 on the intervention of the Rt. Hon. A. H. D. Acland.
 
 EDUCATION] WHISKEY MONEY 167 
 
 the main fund for the local support of technical education in 
 England. 
 
 The local authorities all over the kingdom at once responded 
 to the unexpected invitation, and in many cases, at first often 
 without educational knowledge or expert advice, proceeded 
 to make grants to lecturers and vote money to institutions. 
 The lecturers were often unprocurable or extremely unsatis- 
 factory, but the demand improved the supply, wisdom came 
 with experience : the better counties set a good example to 
 the less fortunate, and education was greatly benefited. South 
 Kensington took a very generous view of the scope of 
 technical instruction, and, fortunately it may be for education 
 in general, but unfortunately for delimitation, it sanctioned 
 under the head of technical instruction almost every subject 
 except the Classics which can well be included under Secon- 
 dary Education. It neither restricted the subjects, nor did 
 it endeavour to secure their treatment from a technical point 
 of view, and thus a great part of the grant went to Secondary 
 Education, although many of the better secondary schools 
 have either been unable to profit by this outpouring or have 
 had to sacrifice their educational ideals to specialization. 
 
 The Science and Art Department assigned ,5,000 to 
 technical instruction in 1890 (see p. 220), but next year the 
 splendid grant of the Customs and Excise money took its 
 place. The amount of residue assigned to technical education 
 by English local authorities ' rose from 472,560 in 1892-3 to 
 654,463 (out of a total of 775,944) in 1895-6, and in 
 1900-1 to 863,847 out of 924,360. The sum raised by 
 rates in this country under the Technical Instruction Acts 
 has grown from 12,762 in the first-named year to 106,209 
 in the last, exclusive of 19,439 due to the Public Libraries 
 Acts (see p. 162). 
 
 By the Education Act, 1902 (2 Edw. VII, c. 42), the Technical 
 Instruction Acts were repealed, but the ' whiskey money ' 
 is by that Act still granted to the councils of counties and 
 county boroughs as before : the whole of it, however, must 
 now be expended on education other than elementary (thus 
 including technical). County and county borough councils 
 may raise a rate (which in the case of counties must not 
 exceed twopence without permission from the Local Govern- 
 ment Board) for this purpose, and councils of boroughs or 
 urban districts may raise concurrently a penny rate. But 
 technical education is now placed on the same footing as 
 secondary or higher education under the Act. 
 
 1 House of Commons Paper, No. 225, 1902, p vi.
 
 1 68 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 The City and Guilds of London Institute (see p. 255), 
 besides a college in Finsbury for technical education of an 
 intermediate grade and the South LondonTechnical Art School, 
 has from the beginning held inspections and examinations of 
 technical schools and classes throughout the country. In 
 1901 the technological examinations were held at 380 centres, 
 attended by 34,246 students, and there were 904 candidates 
 in manual training examinations for teachers. 
 
 THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 
 
 At last upon the various converging roads the point has 
 been reached where they all merge in the Board of Educa- 
 tion. The Charity Commission has handed over its powers 
 under the Charitable Trusts Acts and the Endowed Schools 
 Acts as far as education is concerned. The Education 
 Department, long the central authority in elementary educa- 
 tion, has yielded up such establishments and such experience 
 as it had gained in a field never legally recognized as its own. 
 Science and Art are now co-ordinated with general educa- 
 tion, and the much-needed heterogeneous courses, subsidized 
 as technical instruction, will in due course fall into their place 
 in a national system, either as being really secondary in them- 
 selves, or supplementary to true secondary education. 
 
 We have seen that the creation of a central authority in 
 secondary education had long been recommended, but the 
 immediate occasion of its establishment was undoubtedly 
 the Report of the Royal Commission appointed in 1894, 
 ' to consider what are the best methods of establishing 
 a well-organized system of Secondary Education in Eng- 
 land, taking into account existing deficiencies, and having 
 regard to such local sources of revenue from endowment 
 or otherwise as are available or may be made available 
 for this purpose.' The Right Hon. J. Bryce was chairman, 
 and three out of the seventeen members were ladies, the first 
 of their sex ever appointed Royal Commissioners. The Report 
 in nine volumes was presented in August, 1895, and was not 
 unworthy of the importance of the subject. 
 
 They reported in favour of the creation of a General Educa- 
 tion Department under a responsible Minister of Education, 
 with a permanent secretary, and a consultative Education 
 Council, of which one-third should be appointed by the 
 Crown, one-third by the Universities, and one-third coopted. 
 Into this were to be absorbed the Charity Commission (as 
 far as educational endowments are concerned), the Science
 
 EDUCATION] BOARD OF EDUCATION 169 
 
 and Art Department, and the existing Education Depart- 
 
 ment *. 
 
 There were to be local authorities in every county and 
 every county borough (i.e. in boroughs of more than 50,000 
 inhabitants), appointed, as to a majority by the Councils or 
 existing local authorities, partly by the Education Minister 
 and partly coopted^. These local authorities should be bound 
 to provide sufficient secondary 3 education, and the Central 
 Office should see that the duty was fulfilled. They were to 
 have power to initiate schemes for local 4 endowments and 
 to supervise all local secondary 5 schools. 
 
 Inspectors of the schools were to be appointed by the local 
 authority and approved by the Central Office, and inspection 
 should be chiefly administrative rather than educational (; . 
 Examinations were to be regulated by the Central Office 7 , but 
 conducted by university or other competent external bodies 
 selected by the governing bodies 8 . 
 
 Departmental grants, so far as they were secondary 9 , and 
 the grants to county and borough councils under the Customs 
 and Excise Act, i89O 10 , were to be applied to the new system, 
 while a local rate, not exceeding 2d. in the pound, was 
 recommended n . 
 
 Schools having their pupils as boarders from a distance 
 were to be classed as non-local, and to be exempt from the 
 power of the local authority 12 ; registration of teachers was 
 gradually to be adopted 13 ; professional training was recom- 
 mended to the consideration of the Universities u . No syste- 
 matic grading or classifying of schools was to be imposed, 
 but this was to be left to time 15 . 
 
 In 1899 the recommendations contained in the first of these 
 five paragraphs were to a certain extent fulfilled by the 
 establishment of the Board of Education. 
 
 Board of Education Act. 
 
 By the Board of Education Act, 62 & 63 Viet. c. 33, a Board 
 of Education was established on April i, 1900, consisting of 
 a president and certain members of the Cabinet (see p. 31). 
 It is charged with the superintendence of matters relating to 
 education in England and Wales, and takes the place of the 
 Education Department (including the Department of Science 
 and Art). 
 
 1 vol. i. pp. 256 sqq., 103. a p. 266 sqq. 3 p. 273. 
 
 4 p. 275. 6 p. 277. 6 pp. 59, 163, 305. 7 p. 304. 
 
 8 Ibid. 9 p. 313. 10 p. 309. " p. 3 J - 
 
 13 p. 262. 13 p. 320. " p. 323. 15 p. 3 2 5-
 
 1 70 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 For the proper working of the Act it was necessary that 
 the office arrangements should be reorganized, and a Depart- 
 mental Committee was appointed to report upon what steps 
 it was necessary to take. This committee decided that ' it 
 would be inexpedient to establish the third branch of the 
 Education Office to deal with the provisions of the Board of 
 Education relating to Secondary Schools.' Thus secondary 
 education was placed with science and art and technology in 
 the heterogeneous branch of the office, which is best described 
 as non-elementary (see p. 32). This branch is under a 
 principal assistant secretary, who has four subordinate assis- 
 tant secretaries. ' Two of the latter, as heretofore, will be 
 engaged in the administration of the science and art instruc- 
 tion ; one will be chiefly concerned with literary instruction, 
 and one with technology, or the application of science to 
 industrial purposes.' But from April i, 1903, there is to be 
 a division organized to deal with secondary schools, under 
 Mr. W. N. Bruce, as principal assistant secretary, and another 
 division dealing with technology and higher education in 
 Science and Art, under Mr. Grant Ogilvie, holding a similar 
 position. Sir William Abney, who retires, is appointed 
 Adviser to the Board of Education in matters connected 
 with Science. 
 
 Transfer of Porvers. It is declared lawful for the Sovereign 
 in Council ' by Order, to transfer to or make exercisable by 
 the Board of Education any of the powers of the Charity 
 Commissioners or of the Board of Agriculture,' in matters 
 appearing to relate to education. But ' any question as to 
 whether an endowment or any part of an endowment is held 
 for, or ought to be applied to educational purposes, shall be 
 determined by the Charity Commissioners.' In point of fact 
 the full powers to institute any inquiries necessary for pur- 
 poses of administrative inspection in England and Wales were 
 granted to the Board in 1900, to be exercised concurrently 
 with the Charity Commissioners. In 1901 the power of 
 framing schemes under the Charitable Trusts Acts and the 
 Endowed Schools Acts, in regard to educational endowments 
 in England and Wales, was also transferred from the Charity 
 Commission, the general jurisdiction of the Commissioners in 
 the administration of educational endowments being retained l . 
 And by an Order which came into operation on Oct. i, 1902, 
 all remaining powers of the Commissioners were transferred 
 to the Board, except those of appointing official trustees of 
 charitable funds and making orders for vesting or transferring 
 of property in respect of the same. 
 
 1 P. P., Cd. 756, p. 8.
 
 EDUCATION] EDUCATION ACT, 1902 171 
 
 The two other important features of the Act were the 
 Consultative Committee, and the Register of Teachers (see 
 pp. 1 73-4). But before dealing with them it will be convenient 
 at this point to consider the provisions of the Education Act, 
 1902 (2 Edw. VII, c. 42), as they affected Secondary Education. 
 
 Education Act, 1902. 
 
 The central changes and innovations we have mentioned, 
 though most valuable in themselves, were insufficient without 
 local organization. Accordingly the Education Act of 1902 
 (2 Edw. VII, c. 42, see p. 33) constituted the County Councils 
 and County Borough Councils the sole local authorities for 
 all education other than elementary. For the purposes of the 
 Act they continue to receive the ' whiskey money ' (p. 166), 
 but without limitation to so-called ' technical ' instruction, the 
 Technical Instruction Acts being by this measure repealed ; 
 the whole of the grant, moreover, must now be expended 
 upon education other than elementary, it being necessary to 
 carry forward to the same account any balance remaining at 
 the end of the year. The Councils also have power to raise 
 a rate for similar purposes, which however in the case of 
 counties must not without the leave of the Local Government 
 exceed twopence in the pound, though in County Boroughs 
 it is unlimited. 
 
 The Councils of non -County Boroughs and of Urban 
 Districts (without limit of population) though not recognized 
 by the Government as independent local authorities (except 
 in elementary education, in the case of the larger places), yet 
 possess the power of spending such sums as they think fit for 
 the purpose of supplying or aiding the supply of education 
 other than elementary, but the rate raised by them for this 
 purpose must not exceed one penny in the pound (as under 
 the Technical Instruction Acts), though it may be raised 
 concurrently with the county higher rate. 
 
 The general machinery of the Act is the same as that 
 which provides for elementary education (see p. 33), but 
 County Councillors who represent Boroughs or Urban Districts 
 which for elementary purposes are independent authorities, 
 are subject to no disability in the County Council so far as 
 secondary education is concerned. 
 
 There is bound to be an Education Committee (except in 
 the case of non-County Boroughs or Urban Districts which 
 only levy a penny rate), which may or may not be the same 
 as the committee for elementary education, and must in any 
 case equally be consulted by the Council.
 
 1 72 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 Part II of the Act is specially devoted to what is there called 
 Higher, i.e. non-Elementary Education, the following are 
 the chief provisions which apply to education other than 
 elementary : 
 
 Supply of Education. The local authority must consider the educational needs 
 of the area, and take such steps as seem to it desirable, after consultation with the 
 Board of Education, to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary, 
 and to promote the general co-ordination of all forms of education. In exercising 
 their powers under the Act, a Council shall have regard to any existing supply of 
 schools or colleges, and to any steps already taken for the purposes of higher 
 education under the Technical Instruction Acts. 
 
 Conscience Clauses. In applying money under this part of the Act, a Council 
 shall not require that any particular form of religious instruction or worship, or any 
 religious catechism or formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomina- 
 tion, shall or shall not be taught, used, or practised in any school, college, or 
 hostel aided but not provided by the Council, and no pupil shall on the ground 
 of religious belief be excluded from or placed in an inferior position in any school, 
 college, or hostel provided by the Council, and no catechism or formulary distinctive 
 of any particular religious denomination shall be taught in any school, college, or 
 hostel so provided, except in cases where the Council, at the request of parents of 
 scholars, at such times and under such conditions as the Council think desirable, 
 allow any religious instruction to be given in the school, college, or hostel other- 
 wise than at the cost of the Council. Provided that in the exercise of this power 
 no unfair preference shall be shown to any religious denomination. 
 
 In a school or college receiving a grant from, or maintained by, a Council under 
 this part of the Act, 
 
 (a) A scholar attending as a day or evening scholar shall not be required as 
 a condition of being admitted into or remaining in the school or college to attend 
 or abstain from attending any Sunday school, place of religious worship, religious 
 observance, or instruction in religious subjects in the school or college or elsewhere ; 
 and (l>) the times for religious worship or for any lesson on a religious subject 
 shall be conveniently arranged for the purpose of allowing the withdrawal of any 
 such scholar therefrom. 
 
 A County Council may, if they think fit (after giving reasonable notice to the 
 overseers of the parish or parishes concerned", charge any expenses incurred under 
 Part II on any parish or parishes which, in the opinion of the Council, are served by 
 the school or college in connexion with which the expenses have been incurred 
 (s. 18 (i) (a)). 
 
 An authority may delegate its powers to the council of a county, a borough, 
 urban district, or parish, whether a local education authority or not, in respect 
 of, the management of any school or college within the area of the council 
 (s. 20 (a)). 
 
 The power to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary 
 includes a power to train teachers, and to supply or aid the supply of any education 
 except where that education is given at a public elementary school (s. 22 (3)). 
 
 The powers of a Council in education other than elementary includes power to 
 make provision for the purpose outside their area in cases where they consider it 
 expedient to do so in the interests of their area, and shall include power to provide 
 or assist in providing scholarships for, and to pay or assist in paying the fees of, 
 students ordinarily resident in the area of the Council at schools or colleges or 
 hostels within or without that area (s. 23 (2)). 
 
 Provision may be made for vehicles or the payment of travelling expenses for 
 teachers or children attending school or college whenever the Council consider 
 such provision required by the circumstances of their area or of any part thereof. 
 Here and throughout the Act the term 'college' includes any educational 
 institution, whether residential or not (s. 22 (3)) (s. 24 (4)).
 
 EDUCATION] CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE 173 
 
 Evening Schools. 
 
 It was natural that Evening- Schools, which at first gave for 
 the most part elementary instruction, should with the spread 
 of education become largely secondary in character. The 
 process was gradual (p. 41): its advance was marked by 
 the Code of 1890, its completion perhaps was signalized by 
 the Cockerton judgement. The Regulations for Evening 
 Schools of 1902 fully recognized the altered state of affairs, 
 and, following the Scotch precedent of 1901, amalgamated the 
 Evening Schools Minute of July 3, 1901, with the current 
 Science and Art Regulations, so far as they affected these 
 schools (P. P., Cd. 1,044). Grants are limited to such schools 
 as from their character and financial position are eligible to 
 receive them, and it is declared that the Board of Education 
 will not in general recognize schools in which no fees are 
 charged, though exception may be made in favour of 
 individual pupils. Elementary instruction is of course still 
 provided for those who need it, but higher grants are given 
 for more advanced teaching. Subjects are grouped under five 
 heads : Literary and Commercial ; Art ; Manual Instruction ; 
 Mathematics and Science ; Home Occupations and Industries. 
 At least two subjects should be taught in every school, and 
 this rule will be firmly insisted upon in future, though no 
 provision as yet secures that any individual pupil shall take 
 more than one subject. 
 
 The insoluble problem of the distinction between elementary 
 and secondary education has, as we have seen (p. 36), been 
 arbitrarily settled in the Education Act, 1902, by a reference 
 to the clock. No school ' carried on as an evening school 
 under the Regulations of the Board ' shall be considered 
 elementary. All instruction, even in reading and writing-, 
 given after four o'clock becomes secondary, while the teaching 
 of French and German, mechanics and physiology remains 
 elementary education, if they are taught in a public elemen- 
 tary day school during school hours. The definition was 
 modified several times during the passage of the Bill, and in 
 its final form has at least the merit of clearness. 
 
 Consultative Committee. 
 
 The Board of Education Act provided that the Sovereign 
 might by an Order in Council establish a Consultative Com- 
 mittee, consisting as to not less than two-thirds, of persons 
 qualified to represent the views of Universities and other bodies 
 interested in education, for the purpose of 
 
 (A) Framing' with the approval of the Board of Education
 
 1 74 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 regulations for a register of teachers which shall be formed 
 and kept in a manner to be provided by the Order in Council. 
 The draft of any such Order must be laid before both Houses 
 of Parliament for four weeks before it is submitted for 
 signature. 
 
 (B) Advising the Board of Education on any matter referred 
 to it by the Board. 
 
 The Committee was duly appointed of eighteen persons, 
 fifteen men and three women, to hold office for six years, with 
 special provisions to secure that all should not retire at the 
 same time. 
 
 Registration of Secondary Teachers. 
 
 Some qualification is presupposed in any official register of 
 teachers, and the establishment of registration has long been 
 regarded by many as the best means of raising the standard of 
 this profession. 
 
 The College of Preceptors (p. 177) first began to examine 
 teachers in 1847, and assigns the grades of Licentiate, Associate, 
 and Fellow to masters and mistresses alike, the theory and 
 practice of teaching being compulsory in each grade x . The 
 College likewise has agitated for registration of teachers ever 
 since i86o 2 , and the same policy has been followed by the 
 Teachers' Guild, which was founded in 1883. 
 
 The original Endowed Schools Bill (see p. 149) contained 
 a provision for the examination and registration of the teachers 
 in all such schools, but this was in the second part of the 
 measure which finally was abandoned. 
 
 The Select Committee of the House of Commons under 
 Sir W. Hart Dyke, appointed to consider a Teachers' Regis- 
 tration and Organization Bill in 1891 3 , reported that the 
 registration of secondary teachers was in principle desirable; 
 and the Bryce Commission on Secondary Education declared 
 in 1896 that upon no subject was there more general agree- 
 ment 4 . 
 
 The establishment and maintenance of a Register was, as 
 we have seen (p. 32), definitely assigned as a duty to the 
 Advisory Committee established by the Board of Education 
 Act, and the detailed regulations are laid down by an Order 
 in Council issued on March 6, 1902, and revised on July i 
 following. It is to be kept by a Teachers' Registration 
 Council consisting of twelve members, men or women, holding 
 office for three years, half of whom are at present appointed 
 
 1 Bryce Report, vol. ii. Supplement, p. 7. 2 Fifty Years of Progress, p. 15. 
 3 P. P., 1891, No. 335, p. iv. * Bryce Report, i. 192, 318.
 
 EDUCATION] INSPECTION 1 75 
 
 by the chief associations of teachers, elementary and secondary, 
 and half by the President of the Board of Education. 
 
 In addition to a general alphabetical list of all recognized 
 teachers, there are to be : Column A : a list of certificated 
 teachers in public elementary day schools ; and Column B : 
 a list of secondary teachers possessing educational and pro- 
 fessional qualifications prescribed in the Schedule to the Order. 
 The professional tests involve passing a recognized examina- 
 tion in the theory of education, and a certain amount of 
 practical training and of experience at a recognized school. 
 These conditions are somewhat relaxed for existing teachers 
 who apply for registration within the next three years. 
 
 Supplemental registers are to be annexed for qualified 
 teachers of music, drawing, physical training, manual instruc- 
 tion, cookery, needlework, and other special subjects here- 
 after to be approved. 
 
 Powers of Inspection. 
 
 It is laid down in the Board of Education Act that the Board 
 of Education may by their officers, or, after taking the advice 
 of the Consultative Committee, by any University or other 
 organization, inspect any schools supplying secondary educa- 
 tion, and desiring to be so inspected, for the purpose of 
 ascertaining the character of the teaching in the school, and 
 the nature of the provisions made for the teaching and health 
 of the scholars, and may so inspect the school on such terms 
 as may be fixed by the Board of Education with the consent 
 of the Treasury. 
 
 The expenses of inspection may be met out of the money 
 applicable for the purposes of education other than elementary 
 by the council of any county or county borough for any school 
 within their county or borough. 
 
 Up to the end of 1901 fifty-one secondary schools had been 
 inspected by the Board, thirteen of these being inspected on 
 the application of the authorities of their county. 
 
 The Board of Education has recognized the Universities of 
 Oxford and Cambridge and Victoria University as inspecting 
 authorities, but subject to the condition that the administrative 
 part of the inspection shall be conducted by an officer of the 
 Board itself. 
 
 Inspection has for some time past been undertaken by various 
 bodies, which were originally created for the purpose of 
 holding examinations. 
 
 It is generally understood that inspection will be indispens- 
 able in the case of any school before it is ' recognized ' by the
 
 1 76 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 Board of Education as qualify ing- any of its teachers for a place 
 on the register, but this inspection differs as yet from more 
 elaborate administrative inspection of the Board for recognition 
 of a Secondary Day School which is to receive grants. 
 
 Tests of Secondary Education. 
 
 Inspection, as carried out by the Board of Education and its 
 recognized agencies, is not altogether a novelty in England 1 , 
 though it is now to be employed on a wider scale and with 
 greater attention to sanitary, physical, and financial arrange- 
 ments than has hitherto been the case. The word ' inspection ' 
 may of course mean anything from the visit of an examiner 
 who spends all his time looking over papers, and at most 
 questioning a class viva voce, to a rigorous scrutiny of the 
 organization, the methods and results of teaching, and the 
 sanitary condition of a school. The task is undertaken in a 
 meaning which may approximate more or less closely to the 
 latter interpretation by various bodies whose original purpose 
 and main function have hitherto been chiefly examination, 
 namely, the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board, the Oxford 
 and the Cambridge Local Examinations authorities, and the 
 College of Preceptors. 
 
 Between 1887 and 1900 the Charity Commissioners 
 employed some of their Assistant-Commissioners to make 
 a systematic inspection of the secondary schools worked by 
 schemes under the Endowed Schools Acts. The work was 
 performed very gradually, its nature being defined as ' official 
 or administrative rather than educational.' The Assistant-Com- 
 missioners in question have now been transferred to the Board 
 of Education, and the Board of Agriculture has power to inspect 
 and report on any school giving technical instruction in agri- 
 culture (see p. 253). 
 
 The Training Colleges have been from the first under the 
 inspection of the Board of Education. 
 
 It is probable that, in the future, inspection in its best sense 
 will play a very much greater, and examination a very much 
 less, part in secondary education ; but neither process exactly 
 or entirely fills the part of the other, and it is probable that 
 the requirements of schools and of the responsible authorities 
 will best be met by a nice adjustment of inspection coupled 
 with examination. 
 
 Examination. 
 
 Even as late as the middle of the last century, when the Com- 
 mittee of Council was sending out its Inspectors to examine 
 
 1 Bryce Report, i. 59.
 
 EDUCATION] EXAMINATION 177 
 
 and report upon all elementary schools which earned or 
 desired its grants, there was no external test of merit available 
 for secondary schools. A school might become famous by 
 winning some of the few scholarships open for general com- 
 petition at the Universities, or, by an arrangement private and 
 purely individual, persons of high standing might be invited 
 to adjudge school prizes or examine the upper classes ot 
 a school. But there was no general test of work which applied 
 to the whole of a school, and was open to any number of 
 schools that chose to apply. 
 
 Examination was on its way : it had revived in the old 
 Universities, it had arisen in the elementary schools, and its 
 adoption in secondary education was only a matter of time. 
 
 The public service at home and abroad was still supplied 
 by nomination, and good and bad were indiscriminately 
 nominated. 
 
 The Indian Civil Service was opened for competition in 
 1854 (16 & 17 Viet. c. 95) ; Macaulay's speech on competitive 
 examination was delivered in the House of Commons on 
 June 24, 1853 ('The moment you say to an examiner, not 
 " Shall A or B go to India ? " but " Here is A ; is he fit to go 
 to India ? " the question becomes altogether a different one '). 
 The first public competitive examination for the Royal Military 
 Academy, Woolwich, was held in August, 1855 (P. P., Eng., 
 1857, vi. 519). The Civil Service Commissioners were 
 appointed in May, 1855, ' to ma ke provision for testing, accord- 
 ing to fixed rules, the qualifications of the young men who 
 may from time to time be proposed to be appointed to the 
 junior situations in any of Her Majesty's Civil Establishments.' 
 For some time the examinations were merely qualifying; 
 from 1859 a bout three candidates were generally nominated 
 for each vacancy, and it was only in 1870 that the competition 
 was thrown open to all. In 1901-2, ^18,327 was spent on 
 salaries, wages, and allowances of the Commission, and ^17,722 
 on assistant examiners -. 
 
 These, however, were only selective examinations, which 
 were separated by their very purpose from education, which 
 they only indirectly influenced. Examinations held solely to 
 test education began with private agencies. The College of 
 Preceptors, an association of schoolmasters, chiefly of private 
 schools, had been formed in 1846 for the organization and 
 improvement of the profession, and had received a charter 
 
 1 Vide Hansard, T. S., cxxviii. p. 739. 
 
 2 Appropriation Account, p. 177. (Chambers, Encyclopaedia, 1889: Art. 
 'Civil Service'; Practical Essays, by A. Bain, LL.D., p. 71 : Longmans, Green, 
 & Co., 1884.) 
 
 BALFOUR N
 
 1 78 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 in 1849. It sent examiners to schools, and in December, 1853, 
 held its first examination of pupils at head quarters 1 . The 
 subjects included Latin, French, English History, Geography, 
 Mathematics, and for the higher classes Drawing, or some 
 branch of physical science, and Greek. It is difficult to realize 
 how advanced a programme this was ten years before the 
 report of the Public Schools Commission, when the classical 
 curriculum was most strictly observed. 
 
 The examinations were not restricted to the schools of 
 members ; they were open to girls as well as to boys, and have 
 been successfully continued to the present time. 
 
 In 1852 the Society of Arts had formed a union of 
 Mechanics' Institutes, which was joined in the course of the 
 next two years by 362 of these associations ~. For the 
 members of these they proposed to hold examinations in 
 1855, but only one candidate a chimney-sweep presented 
 himself, and he was not examined 3 . In 1856 there were 52 
 candidates who were examined in London; in 1857, 220 
 in London and Huddersfield. In 1858 local Boards were 
 formed and the examinations held at forty centres ; there were 
 1,107 candidates, of whom only 197 ultimately received 
 certificates. 
 
 These examinations, however, were by express arrange- 
 ment 4 confined strictly to persons over fifteen who had left 
 or were leaving school ; they were intended at most to test 
 the final result of a school education, and not to ascertain 
 the progress schoolboys were making 5 . The syllabus of 
 examination was very liberal, but aimed rather at special 
 subjects for adults than at a prescribed course G . It included 
 Mathematics, Mechanics, Chemistry, Physiology, Botany, 
 Geography, English History, English Literature and Com- 
 position, Latin, French, and German. The examiners were 
 men of very high calibre. 
 
 The next step led directly to the intervention of the Uni- 
 versities. A local committee of persons interested in educa- 
 tion was formed in the West of England, and included Mr. 
 (afterwards Sir Thomas) Acland, a double first at Oxford in 
 1831, Lord Ebrington, who in 1854 had been greatly inter- 
 ested in the scheme of the Society of Arts 7 , and the late 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, who had examined for that Society 
 
 1 Educational Times, January, 1854, p. 87. 
 
 a Journal of the Society of Arts, 1852, p. 2 ; 1854, p. 823. 
 
 8 Ibid. 1859, p. 194. * Ibid. 1857, P- 
 
 8 Oxford University Extension Gazette, 1895, p. 75. 
 
 ' Cf. Acland, Some Account, &c., p. 78. 
 
 7 Journal, 1854, p. 555.
 
 EDUCATION] LOCAL EXAMINATIONS 179 
 
 in 1856. An examination was held at Exeter l in June, 1857, 
 the Education Department granting- the services of two of 
 H. M. Inspectors, one of whom was the ' Rev. F. Temple. 1 
 The range of papers was very wide, and included Music, Art, 
 Practical Science, Horticulture, Commerce ; both sexes were 
 admitted to the examination. Similar examinations were 
 immediately held in five other counties, and so great was the 
 success of the movement that the University of Oxford acceded 
 in the same year to an application to place the system on a 
 permanent footing- -, and entrusted the working of it to a body 
 of Delegates. The Society of Arts welcomed the scheme 
 and offered prizes for Seniors obtaining three first classes 3 . 
 Cambridge followed suit the next year, and in July and De- 
 cember, 1858, respectively, the first examinations of the two 
 Universities were held. A proposal for united action was 
 rejected, as Cambridge was not prepared to grant the title of 
 Associate 4 . For some time they were known as the Middle 
 Class Examinations, a designation which was not social but 
 intellectual '\ but which hindered their extension fi . 
 
 The syllabus was in advance of the times, though not so 
 elaborate as in the Exeter experiment. Senior and junior 
 certificates were awarded, and honour lists published. Oxford 
 further granted the title of Associate in Arts to those candi- 
 dates who passed in the Senior Division. 
 
 The examinations were at first open only to boys, but in 
 1863 the Cambridge Syndicate allowed girls the use of their 
 papers, and in 1865 admitted them fully on the same terms 
 as boys, and this example was followed by Oxford in 1870. 
 Examination of schools either in connexion with or separately 
 from the examination for certificates, and a preliminary division 
 for candidates under fourteen, are the chief developments 
 resulting from experience 7 . Commercial subjects have been 
 
 1 ' Mr. Acland told us that the secret of his success in originating, jointly with 
 Dr. Temple, these examinations, was that they had, as a preliminary step, held an 
 examination similar to such which they desired to see established by the University 
 " We showed at Exeter that our ideas would march " ' (Miss E. Davies, Women 
 in the Universities of England and Scotland, p. 9 : Macmillan, 1896). 
 
 3 Some Account of the Original Objects of the A T ew Oxford Examinations for 
 the Title of Associate in Arts and Certificates in the year 1858. By T. D. Acland, 
 2nd ed. : Ridgway, London, 1858, p. Si. 
 
 s Journal, 1858; Acland, p. xxxi. 
 
 * Students' Guide to the University of Cambridge Local Examinations, by Rev. 
 Canon Brown, D.D., 5th edition, 1893, p. 33. 
 
 5 Acland, p. vii. 
 
 6 The heading of Lord Ebrington's letter in \hzjournal of 'the Society of Arts, 
 whether due to him or to the editor, was ' Middle Class Education and Public 
 Local Exnminations ' (Journal, 1854, p. 555). On p. 583 there is, however, refer- 
 ence to ' the amount of education befitting an Englishman of the middle classes.' 
 
 7 For Women's Examinations, &c., v. pp. 241-4. 
 
 N 2
 
 i8o 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 [SECONDARY 
 
 tried, abandoned, and resumed by both Universities, but no 
 separate commercial certificate is now given. 
 
 The examinations for certificates are in writing only, and 
 are held annually at a number of centres throughout the 
 country, and even in the Colonies, Oxford having chosen 
 July and Cambridge December. The examinations are open 
 to any one, regardless of age, unless in the case of honours. 
 Special papers in religious knowledge are s'et for Catholics 
 and Jews, but this subject is not in any case compulsory for 
 candidates where objections are made on conscientious grounds. 
 The experiment is being tried in many subjects by Oxford of 
 setting separate papers for a pass candidate. 
 
 Durham also conducts Local Examinations, and since 1895 
 arranges for the examination and inspection of Grammar, 
 Private, Organized Science, and other Secondary Schools 1 . 
 Victoria University likewise examines and inspects schools ; 
 fourteen schools were examined by it in 1901. Birmingham 
 is making inquiries preparatory to a reformed system of 
 similar examinations. 
 
 Local Examinations. 
 OXFORD. 
 
 
 Centres.* 
 
 Candi 
 Examined. 
 
 dates* 
 
 Passed. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Schools 
 examined. 
 
 1860 
 
 13 
 
 864 
 
 498 
 
 57-6 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 23 
 
 1,605 
 
 1,009 
 
 62-9 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 33 
 
 2,119 
 
 1,322 
 
 62-4 
 
 
 
 1890 
 
 62 
 
 2,890 
 
 1,983 
 
 68-6 
 
 45 
 
 1901 
 
 241 
 
 9>99 2 
 
 6,285 
 
 68-3 
 
 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 
 Centres.* 
 
 Candi 
 Examined. 
 
 dales* 
 Passed. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Schools 
 examined* 
 
 1860 
 
 10 
 
 355 
 
 256 
 
 72-1 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 3i 
 
 2,482 
 
 1,501 
 
 60-5 
 
 13 
 
 1880 
 
 118 
 
 6,429 
 
 4,122 
 
 64-1 
 
 67 
 
 1890 
 
 190 
 
 8,476 
 
 6,302 
 
 74-4 
 
 95 
 
 1901 
 
 460 
 
 H.473 
 
 10,484 
 
 72.4 
 
 99 
 
 * Not including colonial candidates, centres, or schools. 
 
 For the College of Preceptors in 1860 and in 1870, 821 and 
 1,517 candidates were entered. In 1880, 11,208, and in 1890, 
 16,269 were examined. In 1902, 5,948 passed out of 9,612 
 examined (62 per cent.). The returns of passes for the earlier 
 years include those candidates who only passed in a lower 
 class than that for which they were entered, and even the 
 later figures include colonial entries. 
 
 The Society of Arts continues to hold its examinations at 
 
 1 Calendar, 1897-98, p. 55.
 
 EDUCATION] THE JOINT BOARD 181 
 
 local centres, chiefly in subjects of a commercial nature, such 
 as shorthand and typewriting-. Modern languages are also 
 encouraged, a viva voce examination in French being 1 intro- 
 duced in 1902. Until 1882 no fees were charged. In 1901 
 8,797 candidates were examined. The technological examina- 
 tions instituted by the Society in 1873 were transferred to the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute on its foundation in 
 
 The Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, 
 commonly known as the Joint Board-. 
 
 When the Public Schools Bill went into Committee in the 
 Commons in 1868, Mr. Lowe moved that these Schools 
 should be examined in elementary subjects by H. M. Inspec- 
 tors. This was not pressed to a division, but the principle 
 of inspection was freely discussed. Regular examination was 
 the basis of the recommendations of the Taunton Report in 
 1867 (see pp. 147, 148), and accordingly the Endowed 
 Schools Bill, as introduced by Mr. Forster in 1869, contained 
 provisions for the compulsory examination of all endowed 
 schools. These clauses were found to be too heavy, and 
 were transhipped into a separate Bill which never came to 
 port. The Endowed Schools and Chanty Commissioners, 
 however, made a point of providing' for annual examination 
 in their schemes. 
 
 The Head Masters of the Public Schools, when they met for 
 their second Conference at Sherborne in the end of 1870 3 , 
 passed a resolution to urge the Universities to institute a 
 Matriculation examination, and directed their Committee to 
 confer with Oxford and Cambridge as to the best form of it. 
 The Committee were also instructed to press upon Govern- 
 ment the importance of instituting a system of leaving-exam- 
 inations 4 . The Committee, however, seem to have disregarded 
 the latter instruction and obtained the sanction of the next 
 Conference to their action 5 . They entered into negotiations 
 with Oxford and Cambridge for providing an efficient exam- 
 ination for schools and individuals. 
 
 A Syndicate appointed by the latter University and a 
 
 1 Journal of the Society of Arts, July 8, 1897, p. 810. 
 
 3 Essays on Secondary Education, Clarendon Press, 1898, p. 262, P. E. Matheson. 
 * The first conference was held at Uppingham, at the invitation of Mr. Thring, 
 
 in December, 1869, and was preliminary and informal (A Memoir of Hugo Daniel 
 Harper, D.D., by L. V. Lester : Longmans & Co., 1896). 
 
 4 Report of Meeting, p. 6 : James Ellis, Sherborne, 1871. 
 
 5 The Proposed Control of the Public Schools by the Universities, E. E. Bowen: 
 Rivingtons, 1872. A Letter to Edward Bowen, M.A., by Rev. G. Ridding: 
 Wells, Winchester, 1872.
 
 1 82 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 Delegacy of the former, after some discussion, formed in 1873 
 a Joint Board ; the Universities consented to recognize its 
 certificates as exempting undergraduates from their earliest 
 examinations, and the first examinations of the Board were 
 held in 1874. In 1878 girls were admitted, and in 1883 a 
 lower class of certificates was instituted, the standard of the 
 higher being still maintained. Commercial certificates were 
 tried and abandoned, as in the Local Examinations. To each 
 school examiners are sent ; candidates are examined ; for 
 certificate purposes all papers are submitted to examiners, 
 assembled in alternate years at Oxford and Cambridge. 'In- 
 spection ' denotes that the examiner inspects and reports on 
 sets of papers first marked by masters of the school l . 
 
 Candidates. Higher? Lower. Schooh Examined. 
 
 1880 700 475 
 
 1890 2,087 941 398 
 
 1902 3,386 1,127 586 178 
 
 In 1874 London University made overtures for joining in 
 the work, but its scheme was too large and not adaptable to 
 the conditions desirable at Oxford and Cambridge. The 
 Matriculation examination of London has been used largely as 
 a leaving examination, even by pupils who had no intention 
 of exercising the right of entering the University 2 . Thus, in 
 1900, 1,890 persons passed the Matriculation examination, 
 while only 887 entered for any examination for Bachelors' 
 Degrees. (See also p. 248.) In the last two years two lan- 
 guages are no longer indispensable, and the status of the 
 examination has somewhat suffered in consequence. 
 
 In the end of 1902 the University of London announced 
 a system of educational inspection and examination of schools, 
 and instituted in connexion with it a ' school -leaving certifi- 
 cate.' This certificate is granted on examination in cases 
 where a sufficiently high standard has been attained in a school, 
 and definite conditions have been fulfilled : it will admit the 
 holders to be registered as matriculated students of the Uni- 
 versity without further examination if they are already sixteen, 
 or upon reaching that age. No junior certificate is to be 
 granted, but passes in various subjects, inadequate for a certi- 
 ficate, will be marked on a document called a ' school record.' 
 
 There is to be a special Board of Moderators to maintain 
 a fixed standard for the matriculation and the school-leaving 
 certificate examination. 
 
 1 Bryce Commission Report, v. pp. 277, 288. 
 
 2 For statistics vide p. 248; also Essays on Secondary Education, Clarendon 
 Press, 1898, p. 232; Bryce Report, i. p. 58.
 
 EDUCATION] UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 183 
 
 UNIVERSITY SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 
 The system of University Extension, taken up by Cam- 
 bridge in 1873 and followed by the other universities, will 
 be found at p. 239. That the lectures are to some extent 
 secondary in their scope and introductory to university teach- 
 ing, is shown by estimate given to the Bryce Commission 
 (vol. i. p. 55), that of the 60,000 persons attending Extension 
 Courses in 1893-94, ten to twelve per cent, were actually at 
 the time pupils in secondary schools. But their success has 
 proved there was a real need for these lectures, and they 
 have often exercised a most valuable stimulus outside the 
 school curriculum. 
 
 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS. 
 
 Little or no separate provision for the training of secondary 
 teachers was made in this kingdom till within the last quarter 
 of the nineteenth century and even yet the need for it has not 
 obtained general recognition. 
 
 The whole aspect of the question has, however, been trans- 
 formed by the establishment in 1902 of the Board of Education 
 Register of Teachers, which will in future require training 
 as a necessary condition for registration. At the present so 
 many schemes are in process of foundation or development 
 that it is quite impossible to present any table of institutions 
 or courses which could pretend to be complete for more than 
 a few weeks. The Register demands after April i, 1906, for 
 secondary teachers (a) qualifications equivalent to a University 
 educational standard, (<) a year's training, (c) a year's experi- 
 ence. 
 
 But it was long before this stage was reached. In the past, 
 mistresses, being less fettered by tradition and more de- 
 pendent for engagements on diplomas than men, have shown 
 more ardour in making provision, and also in availing them- 
 selves of it when made. On the other hand, their secondary 
 training, like much of their other work in education, has 
 suffered greatly from want of funds, and they have been in 
 many cases merely admitted to derive what benefit they could 
 from the institutions for training elementary teachers. 
 
 The Home and Colonial Society had for many years a non- 
 Government department which was opened to secondary as 
 w r ell as elementary mistresses, and since 1895 this has become 
 a separate branch establishment at Highbury, with a secondary 
 practising school attached l . 
 
 1 Education of Girls and Women in Great Britain, C. S. Bremner : Swan 
 Sonnenschein & Co., 1897, p. 171.
 
 1 84 ENGLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 The Girls' Public Day School Company (p. 148), after 
 its formation in 1873, saw the need of developing the views of 
 its teachers, and organized several short courses of lectures 
 which they were encouraged to attend l . 
 
 In 1878 the Maria Grey Training College was opened by 
 the Teachers' Training and Registration Society as a non- 
 residential secondary training school for women ; it has since 
 been moved to Brondesbury, and a hostel for residence was 
 opened in 1898. Its work is divided into three departments, 
 lower, higher, and kindergarten ; but all with a view to train- 
 ing secondary teachers. There is accommodation for fifty or 
 more students, and in Dec. 1902, there were fifty-three. 
 
 In 1885 the Cambridge Training College for Women 2 was 
 founded, which requires a year's residence, and St. Hilda's 
 hostel was opened as a training department of the Ladies' Col- 
 lege at Cheltenham in the same year 3 . Since that date the 
 Mary Datchelor College in 1888 and Bedford College, London, 
 in 1892 have established departments for training, and there has 
 been a steady growth of smaller institutions. The other insti- 
 tutions recognized by the Order in Council as to Registration 
 of Teachers, in addition to those already mentioned, are the 
 Froebel Institute, St. Mary's College, Paddington, the Catholic 
 Training College, London, and St. Mary's Hall, Liverpool. 
 
 For men an institution was opened in Finsbury in February, 
 1883*, but it did not meet with sufficient support, and in 
 October, 1886, the experiment was declared to be over 5 . A 
 Secondary Day Training College was opened by the College 
 of Preceptors in October, 1895, but again it failed to pay its 
 way 6 . A Holiday Course of a general nature for teachers 
 has been held under the auspices of the College in each January 
 since 1898, and has met with great success. 
 
 The most valuable and successful developments are, how- 
 ever, those which either commenced for the benefit of both 
 sexes, or beginning on behalf of men subsequently included 
 women in their scope. 
 
 In 1871 the College of Preceptors (founded in 1846) insti- 
 tuted systematic courses of lectures on teaching, open to both 
 sexes 7 , and made their examination for teachers, which had 
 begun in 1 847, far more searching than before in the theory 
 
 1 For this information and for much other kind help I am indebted to Miss 
 A. J. Cooper. 
 
 2 Limited to fifty-two students {Handbook Victorian Era, p. 132). 
 
 * Bremner, p. 173. * The Educational Times, 1883, p. 120. 
 
 s Select Committee on Registration, Q. 2,887. 
 
 6 Educational Times, February, 1898, p. 63. 
 
 7 Bryce Report, vol. ii. Supplement, p. 3.
 
 EDUCATION] TRAINING OF TEACHERS 185 
 
 and practice of education, which had been a distinctive feature 
 of the examination from the beginning- 1 . 
 
 The Head Masters' Conference of 1872 represented to the 
 Universities the importance of promoting- the professional 
 education of teachers, and has continued at intervals with 
 a rising, though tempered, enthusiasm to press the point. 
 
 In 1879 a Teachers' Training Syndicate was accordingly 
 appointed by the Senate at Cambridge. Courses of lectures 
 have been delivered, and certificates of theoretical knowledge 
 and practical efficiency granted on examination since 1880. 
 The examinations are now held in London, Cambridge, Chel- 
 tenham, Edinburgh, and Aberystwyth 2 . A similar proposal 
 was made at Oxford in the end of 1878, but was lost by a 
 narrow majority, and nothing was done until 1896. 
 
 In 1883 the University of London first held an examination 
 in the Art, Theory, and History of Education, coupled with 
 a practical examination in teaching and the management of 
 a class 3 . This Diploma is reserved for graduates, and the 
 practical test is indispensable. The Day Training College 
 just established for Secondary Teachers is perhaps the most 
 important of the new departures. A considerable amount of 
 provision for secondary teachers is also made in nearly all the 
 university colleges, chiefly in connexion with the Elementary 
 Day Training Colleges already attached to them. Many of 
 the new schemes make provision for the establishment of 
 student teachers, but however valuable this feature of the 
 work may be it is to be hoped it will not lead to the creation 
 of a class of secondary pupil teachers. 
 
 The Secondary Commission reported in 1895 that a course 
 for special preparation was generally desirable for persons 
 intending to be teachers, that it should have both a theoretical 
 and a practical side, and the requisite freedom and variety 
 would be best secured if the Universities undertook the task 4 . 
 
 In 1895 the University of Durham established a Certificate 
 for Secondary Teachers, the instruction for which is given 
 at Newcastle in connexion with the Training of Elementary 
 Teachers 5 . 
 
 The University of Oxford in November, 1896, instituted an 
 examination to be held twice a year in subjects bearing on the 
 Theory, History, and Practice of Education, for the purpose 
 
 1 Educational Times, 1872, p. 258 ; Fifty Years of Progress in Education : 
 a review of the work of the College of Preceptors, 1846-96, pp. 7, 22. 
 
 a Calendar, 1898. 
 
 3 By 1898 sixty-seven teachers' diplomas had been awarded, of which only 
 fifteen belonged to the first seven years. 
 
 * i. 200, 322. 
 
 * Newcastle College Calendar, 1896-97, p. 182.
 
 1 86 ENGLAND 
 
 of granting Diplomas in Education. All arrangements were 
 placed in the charge of the Delegates of Local Examinations, 
 who had further to satisfy themselves of the proficiency of 
 candidates in the Practice of Education. No member of the 
 University may be admitted to examination who has not 
 kept residence for at least seven terms, and the Delegates 
 imposed conditions on other candidates which ensure an 
 adequate previous education of University standard. Lec- 
 tures in Method are provided and systematic supervision of 
 practice ; attendance is required for two terms or any longer 
 period until the lecturer is satisfied with the progress of the 
 pupil ; shorter holiday courses on the same lines are held for 
 teachers already following their profession. Satisfactory 
 experience in a secondary school approved by the Delegacy 
 is a necessary condition for a Diploma. The Statute 1 was 
 re-enacted in 1899, when it was rendered possible to obtain 
 distinction in the examination, and in 1902 a new Delegacy 
 was established to take charge of the whole system of training, 
 which is henceforth to be managed and financed separately. 
 Great care has been taken to require as much practical 
 training as possible, while the standard of theory has not 
 been in any way lowered. 
 
 In 1902 a large hostel for women teachers was established 
 at Oxford, the students of which attend the University Train- 
 ing course. 
 
 In 1897 Cambridge revised its scheme and developed it in 
 connexion with the Elementary Day Training College. 
 
 In 1902, as we have seen (p. 174), the Government 
 Register for Teachers was established, and official recognition 
 first granted to secondary teachers in this country. After 
 1905 a secondary teacher can be placed on the Board of 
 Education Register only if he has passed an approved examina- 
 tion in the theory of teaching, or has passed the examination 
 for one of certain specified diplomas or certificates in the 
 theory and practice of teaching. 
 
 1 This must not be confused with the Statute for the Training of Teachers, which 
 relates to the Day Training College for Elementary Teachers.
 
 II. SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 B. Wales 
 
 EVER since elementary education first received recognition 
 from the State, Wales has always been identified with England 
 in the benefits offered and the obligations imposed. Educa- 
 tional endowments of any sort were few, and unduly favoured 
 the Established Church in a country where the mass of the 
 people were Dissenters. Even the scanty foundations that 
 existed were neglected or abused l . But enthusiasm for learn- 
 ing and readiness for self-denial 2 have been very great in 
 Wales, and the limited size of the country has perhaps rendered 
 patriotism more effectual and the development of secondary 
 education more practicable than in England. At all events, 
 Wales obtained in 1889 an Intermediate Education Act, which 
 until 1903 this country regarded with envious eyes 3 . 
 
 The Taunton Commission (p. 147) in 1865 and 1866 found 
 that in Wales there were but thirty-six endowed Grammar 
 Schools with a net annual income of -7,576, educating 1,136 
 boys, of whom 706 were in classical schools, and only two 
 endowed schools for girls, with a gross annual income of 
 5,435 4 . One hundred and twenty-three other endowments 
 were estimated to apply 2,800 annually to education, chiefly 
 primary. Twenty towns, averaging 1 1 ,000 inhabitants each, 
 had no grammar school endowments at all 5 . 
 
 Although a University College was established (p. 257), 
 nothing was done for secondary schools, until in 1881 a Com- 
 mittee of the Education Department under Lord Aberdare was 
 appointed by Government to inquire into the conditions of 
 intermediate and higher education in Wales, and to make 
 recommendations. They found that whereas secondary school 
 
 1 Report of Commissioners on the State of Education in Wales, P. P., 1847, 
 xxvii. vol. i. p. 45 ; ii. pp. 21, 393. Vide p. 14. 
 
 2 Lord Aberdare's Departmental Committee Report, 1881, i. p. xxvii. See 
 also The Welsh People, by John Rhys and D. B. Jones, chapter xi : T. Fisher 
 Unwin, 1900. 
 
 3 ' The Working of the Intermediate Act in Wales,' by the Right Hon. A. H. D. 
 Acland, M.P., being chapter iii, part ii, of Studies in Secondary Education : 
 Percival and Co., 1 892. Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. ii. 
 PP- i, 58. 
 
 * Taunton Report, vol. xxi. pp. 1,2. 5 Ibid. vol. i. p. 423.
 
 1 88 WALES [SECONDARY 
 
 accommodation should be furnished for 15, 700 boys in Wales 1 , 
 the Grammar Schools provided only 2,846 places, and the 
 actual attendance was only 1,540, while seventy-nine private 
 schools for boys had only 2,287 in attendance 2 . Only one- 
 third of the boys were being taught any natural science, and 
 none were receiving any technical or trade instruction. Girls 
 had three endowed and seventy-three private schools, attended 
 by 265 and 1,871 pupils respectively 3 . The aggregate income 
 of the endowed schools amounted to 19,588. 
 
 The Committee recommended that a local rate or Parlia- 
 mentary Grant, or both, should be applied ; that the schools 
 receiving help should be undenominational in character, and 
 the governing bodies popularly chosen. They insisted on 
 the need of provision for girls, and of exhibitions for enabling 
 scholars to pass to the higher schools, and also upon the 
 importance of some organized machinery for the periodical 
 inspection and supervision of these schools. 
 
 But the Legislature was as leisurely as usual, and it was not 
 before 1889 that the Government's hand was forced and a 
 private Bill, amended by the Government, was carried as 
 The Welsh Intermediate Education Act '(52 & 53 Viet. c. 40). 
 
 In the new organization there were two chief factors, the 
 County Councils, established the year before, and the Charity 
 Commissioners, acting more especially under the Endowed 
 Schools Acts. Moreover, the Technical Education Act, with 
 its power for levying a local rate, was passed in the same 
 year, and the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 
 granting money from the Treasury, followed in 1890 (p. 166). 
 
 The purpose of the Welsh Act was declared to be to make 
 provision for the intermediate and technical education of the 
 inhabitants of Wales and the county of Monmouth, which, 
 speaking Welsh to a great extent, is for all educational pur- 
 poses regarded practically as part of Wales. 
 
 Intermediate education is defined by the Act as ' A course 
 of education which does not consist chiefly of elementary 
 instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, but which 
 includes instruction in Latin, Greek, the Welsh and English 
 languages and literature, modern languages, mathematics, 
 natural and applied science, or in some of such studies, and 
 generally in the higher branches of knowledge.' 
 
 In every county and county borough in Wales and in 
 Monmouthshire a Joint Education Committee was constituted, 
 
 1 At ten instead of the usual sixteen per 1,000 of the population (Aberdare, 
 i. p. xvi). 
 
 " Ibid. p. xv. 3 Ibid. pp. xv, xxv, Ix, Ixi.
 
 EDUCATION] ACT OF 1889 189 
 
 three members being nominated by the county or borough 
 council and two by the Lord President of the Privy Council : 
 any of the Assistant Charity Commissioners had a right to 
 attend the meetings but not to vote. Each Committee was 
 required to report to its council, but was not otherwise subject 
 to its control, except in limitation of rate. 
 
 The original powers of the Charity Commission were sus- 
 pended, except with the consent of the Education Department ; 
 the powers of the Education Committees were given to them 
 originally for three years, but have been continued by the 
 Expiring Laws Continuance Acts. Their function is to pre- 
 pare a scheme or schemes for their own county, alone or in 
 conjunction with their neighbours, specifying the local educa- 
 tional endowments which ought to be employed and recom- 
 mending, if they chose, to their council a payment out of the 
 county rate, not exceeding \d, in the pound. The scheme is 
 to be submitted to the Charity Commission *, has always been 
 drafted by them, and, if approved, goes forward as if it had 
 been an original scheme under the Endowed Schools Acts. 
 
 The Treasury makes a grant to meet all local contributions, 
 the amount for each county not exceeding in the aggregate 
 the sum payable in pursuance of the Act out of the county 
 rate. The Imperial contribution depends on the efficiency of 
 the schools, as testified by such annual inspection and report as 
 the Treasury may require. 
 
 Except in the case of cathedral schools or others excepted 
 from the Endowed Schools Act, 1869, every scheme must 
 provide that no catechism or denominational formulary shall 
 be taught to any day scholars in schools receiving aid, and 
 that times for prayer or religious worship or lesson shall be 
 arranged conveniently for the withdrawal of a day scholar 
 therefrom. 
 
 Administration of Schemes. 'The duty of the Joint 
 Education Committee is confined to the framing of schemes ; 
 it has no administrative functions. The funds and schools are 
 administered by governing bodies constituted by the several 
 schemes. The only requirement of the Welsh Act, besides 
 those contained in the Endowed Schools Acts with regard to 
 the religious opinions of governors, is to the effect that the 
 County Council is to be " adequately " represented on the 
 governing body of any school receiving aid from it.' 
 
 Constitution of Governing Bodies. ' In the county boroughs 
 the scheme is administered by a single governing body. In 
 the counties there is a division of administrative functions 
 
 1 Since 1900 the Board of Education.
 
 190 WALES [SECONDARY 
 
 between a county governing body and local governing bodies 
 for particular districts or schools. In every county the County 
 Council nominates at least a bare majority of the county 
 governing body, which also contains in every case representa- 
 tives of some one of the three Welsh University Colleges. The 
 remainder of the body is composed of representatives of the 
 local governing bodies and of coopted members. The size of 
 the county governing body varies, but is seldom more than 
 thirty or less than twenty members. The local governing 
 body ranges in size from eleven to sixteen members, and 
 generally contains representatives of the County Council, the 
 county governing body, the local government authority, and 
 the elementary schools.' 
 
 ' On both the county and the local body women are eligible, 
 and in many cases provision is made for ensuring their 
 presence.' 
 
 Technical Instruction Acts in Wales. The Technical 
 Instruction Acts applied to Wales and Monmouthshire as well 
 as to England, and were put into force side by side with the 
 Welsh Intermediate Education Act. ' In many counties the 
 Joint Education Committee was nominated by the County 
 Council to act also as its committee under the Technical In- 
 struction Acts, with a view to avoid friction, or conflict, or 
 overlapping of schemes. Power is taken in every scheme 
 under the Welsh Act to add to local governing bodies any 
 number of governors required, in order to allow of aid under 
 the Technical Instruction Acts being given to a school V 
 
 The harmonious working of the Joint Education Com- 
 mittees was secured in the first instance by the attendance at 
 them all of the same Assistant Charity Commissioner, who 
 thus acted as an informal channel of communication and means 
 of comparison between them 2 . It was found expedient also 
 to organize Conferences of the several Committees, which in 
 turn led to the preparation of a scheme for the establishment 
 of a Central Welsh Board for Intermediate Education ; to 
 provide, along with some minor matters, for the examination 
 and inspection of all intermediate schools regulated by schemes 
 under the Act 3 . 
 
 The work of schools is regarded as different in kind from 
 instruction given to adults, even when both are of a secondary 
 nature 4 , and they are superintended generally in each county 
 by different committees. 
 
 In 1892 the Lords of the Treasury published regulations as 
 
 1 Bryce Report, v. pp. 50-51. 
 
 9 Report of Elgin Committee, Scotland : P. P., 1892, xli. Q. 692, 704, 706. 
 
 3 Bryce Report, v. 51. * Education, July 9, 1898, p. 16.
 
 F. DUCATION] WALES 1 9 1 
 
 to the inspection and examination of these schools, sanctioning 
 the conduct of them by such a Board, which, however, could 
 not enter upon its functions before 1897. 
 
 Inspection in the meantime was conducted by Assistant 
 Charity Commissioners, and examinations were held by various 
 persons and bodies selected by the governors and approved 
 by the Charity Commission. 
 
 Schools ins fee ted Number 
 
 and examined. of boys. of girls. 
 
 1895 30 i, 1 64 644 
 
 1896 47 1,913 1,484 
 95 3> 8 7 6 3,79 2 
 
 The inspection and examination of these schools are con- 
 ducted by the Chief Inspectors, and a temporary Inspector 
 appointed for the purpose. 
 
 4 There are now in Wales ninety-five secondary public 
 schools, of which nine only are not regulated by schemes 
 under an Act ; while of the other eighty-six, sixty-nine are 
 altogether newly founded under the Welsh Act of 1889 V Of 
 the ninety-five county schools in 1901, twenty-two are for 
 boys only and twenty-two for girls only, forty-four are dual, 
 and seven are mixed schools. In 1901 the scholarships 
 amounted to 13,781, but a want of funds is somewhat inter- 
 fering with the success of some of the schools. 
 
 Fifty-nine of these schools had in 1897 an attendance of 
 about 5,000 pupils, who paid about 22,000 in fees, in addition 
 to the general income of 43,019 2 . 
 
 In Wales and Monmouth in 1901 the Councils of the 13 
 Counties and 3 County Boroughs devoted the whole of the 
 Residue to Intermediate and Technical Education, chiefly 
 under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act, 1889; and 14 
 Boroughs and Urban Districts were making grants for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 The whole public income of the Principality for secondary 
 and technical education amounted in 1897 to about 92,000, 
 38,000 being Customs and Excise money under the Act of 
 1890, 20,000 was raised by rates under the Technical In- 
 struction Acts, and the remaining 34,000 was produced in 
 equal moieties by rates under the Welsh Act of 1889 and 
 by the corresponding contribution from the Central Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 By the Board of Education Act in 1899 and the Board of 
 Education (Powers) Orders in Council, 1900, the powers of the 
 
 1 The Record of Technical and Secondary Education, 1898, pp. 77, 159. 
 3 The Record, ibid. p. 77.
 
 1 92 WALES 
 
 Charity Commissioners over endowments regulated by schemes 
 under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act were, with some 
 minor exceptions, transferred on November i, 1900, to the 
 Board of Education, not only for the performance of the actual 
 duties, but also to prepare the Board for the future assumption 
 of like powers throughout the country (P. P., Cd. 328, p. 7). 
 By the Board of Education Act the inspection of schools 
 established by schemes under the Welsh Act is definitely 
 ordered to be conducted as heretofore by the Central Welsh 
 Board for Intermediate Education, which is to be recognized 
 as the proper organization for the inspection of any such 
 schools as may be desirous of inspection (62 & 63 Viet. c. 33, 
 s. 3 (i.)). 
 
 Training of Secondary Teachers. Wales has not failed to 
 pay attention to this important point. The three University 
 Colleges all make provision for training secondary teachers, 
 in addition to normal Departments for elementary teachers. 
 Bangor and Cardiff require them to be graduates, or at any 
 rate to possess a really high qualification. At Bangor the 
 practice is in the County Council Schools. 
 
 The Science and Art Department offered its grants to Wales 
 on the same terms as to England, and the same holds good of 
 the Board of Education, its successor. 
 
 The Education Act, 1902. This measure applied to Wales 
 equally w r ith England, though several of the County Councils 
 passed resolutions in condemnation of the measure. The only 
 clause in the statute applying specially to Wales runs as 
 follows : 
 
 'Any scheme for establishing an education committee of 
 the county of any county or county borough in Wales or the 
 county of Monmouth or county borough of Newport, shall 
 provide that the county governing body constituted under the 
 Welsh Intermediate Education Act, 1889, for any such county 
 or county borough shall cease to exist and shall make such 
 provision as appears necessary or expedient for the transfer 
 of the powers, duties, property, and liabilities of any such 
 body to the local education authority under this Act, and for 
 making the provisions of this section applicable to the 
 exercise by the local education authority of the powers so 
 transferred.'
 
 II. SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 C. Ireland 
 
 1. THE COMMISSIONERS OF CHARITABLE DONATIONS 
 AND BEQUESTS. 
 
 2. THE COMMISSIONERS OF EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 
 
 THE history of Irish Secondary Education is a record of 
 poverty, of abused endowments, and of numerous inquiries 
 preceding 1 tardy reform. There was very much less prose- 
 lytism than in the elementary schools, but the chief benefits 
 of the endowments were secured to the Protestants, who ha d 
 possessed a monopoly of founding them. 
 
 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 Diocesan Free Schools. In 1570 an Irish Act of Parlia- 
 ment (12 Eliz. (first session), c. i) was passed for the founda- 
 tion of a free school in every diocese in Ireland at the cost of 
 each diocese, with an income to be provided one-third by 
 the ordinaries, and two-thirds by the other ecclesiastical per- 
 sons in the diocese. 
 
 Royal Free Schools. In 1608 James I ordered a Royal 
 Free School to be founded in each of six of the counties of 
 Ulster, and he and his successor assigned lands for the support 
 of these and several other schools founded by them x . 
 
 The Act of William III, prohibiting Catholic education in 
 Ireland 2 , contained a provision for enforcing the Act of 
 Elizabeth, describing her foundations as ' publick Latin free 
 schools ' ; but neither the original nor the supplementary 
 Act was ever carried out to the full extent. 
 
 Such of the Diocesan and Royal Free Schools as were 
 established were of the class known in England as Grammar 
 Schools. There was no intention of excluding Catholics 
 from the benefits offered 3 , and some of the scholars at any 
 rate were to be admitted free of charge 4 , but the latter 
 
 1 Kildare Report, i. pp. 7-10. 2 Irish Act, 7 Will. Ill, c. 4, s. x ; vide p. 78. 
 3 Kildare Report, pp. 30, 53. * Ibid. pp. 30, 52. 
 
 BALFOUR O
 
 194 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 provision was much neglected, and in practice almost all the 
 pupils seem to have been Protestants l . 
 
 During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there 
 were various grammar schools founded in Ireland by private 
 benefactors 2 , the best known being the three Erasmus Smith 
 Schools 3 ; but the total provision for secondary education 
 was very inadequate, and the majority of the existing schools 
 were reported by the successive Commissions to be in a 
 very inefficient state. 
 
 The Commissioners of 1791 4 found that there was a sum of 
 ^"7,600 5 spent upon forty-six grammar schools of public or 
 private foundation, educating in all 1,214 pupils. They 
 reported, however, that neither the Diocesan nor the Royal 
 Free Schools had answered the intentions of the founders 6 , 
 and recommended that an unpaid Board of Control should 
 be established for all endowed schools, with a summary juris- 
 diction for their improvement 7 . One of their conclusions was 
 that large salaries to schoolmasters are generally ruinous to 
 schools. 
 
 In 1806 there were seven Royal Free Schools and only 
 thirteen Diocesan Schools in existence. 
 
 Commissioners of Charitable Donations and Bequests. 
 One of the last Acts of the Irish Parliament (40 Geo. Ill, c. 75) 
 constituted under this title a body consisting chiefly of the 
 judges and of the bishops of the Irish Church. The new 
 Board took the place of an annually appointed committee of 
 the Irish House of Lords, whose duty had been to prevent 
 the concealment or misapplication of charitable funds, and it 
 received powers to sue for the recovery of such donations and 
 to apply property cy pres to kindred purposes if the 
 original objects had failed. 
 
 In 1844, by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 97, it was reconstituted and com- 
 posed of three judges and ten members nominated by the 
 Crown, of whom five were to be Catholics ; the power of 
 cy pres application was withdrawn, and power given to hold 
 lands in trust for Catholic priests in Ireland. In 1858 the 
 endowments in their hands produced an income of ^2,461, 
 mainly applicable to education 8 , primary or secondary. Their 
 powers were extended by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 54, and 34 & 35 
 Viet. c. 102, but remain more limited than those granted to 
 the English Charity Commission. 
 
 1 Kildare Report, pp. 30, 56, 59, 61. " Ibid. p. 14. 
 
 3 Ennis, the fourth, was founded 1773 (ibid. pp. 10, n, 65). 
 
 4 p. 78. 
 
 5 Kildare, iii. pp. 370-78 : allotting ^850 of the Erasmus Smith endowment 
 to secondary education. c Ibid. iii. p. 364. 
 
 7 Ibid. iii. pp. 365 : 347. 8 Ibid. i. p. 105.
 
 EDUCATION] ENDOWMENTS 195 
 
 Board of Commissioners of Education in Ireland. In 
 1813 the Board of Commissioners of Education in Ireland was 
 created by 53 Geo. Ill, c. 107, a measure introduced by the 
 first Sir Robert Peel. It consisted of two judges, three Pro- 
 testant archbishops, four bishops, the Provost of Trinity, and 
 four members nominated by the Lord Lieutenant. All the 
 members were unpaid, and there was no religious restriction 
 as to the nominated members. All endowed schools in 
 Ireland were placed under their charge, except the Erasmus 
 Smith Schools, the Charter Schools, the Parish Schools, and 
 schools with visitors appointed by Charter or Statute, or 
 schools of private foundation intended for the education of 
 persons not belonging to the Church of Ireland. The Royal 
 School estates were vested in them, and the Court of Chancery 
 might transfer to them the funds of other schools in their 
 charge; they were empowered by themselves or deputy to 
 visit all these schools and make orders for their management, 
 and they had stringent statutable powers of inquiry ; but their 
 right to incur expenditure under these heads was very ill 
 defined. 
 
 In 1824 the Commissioners exercised their powers and 
 consolidated twenty-nine dioceses into thirteen districts for 
 Diocesan schools, five dioceses only remaining separate x . 
 
 It was hardly to be expected that a large body of Com- 
 missioners, some of them members ex officio, some non- 
 resident in Ireland, most of them with important public 
 duties, and none of them paid for their services, should have 
 spent much time or trouble over matters in which their duties 
 and powers were seriously questioned *. At any rate, during 
 the first three-quarters of their eighty years of unreformed 
 existence they seem to have given an average attendance of 
 three or four members at their infrequent meetings 3 (six 
 members had been added to the original Board in 1822), to 
 have managed the estates rather than the schools 4 , to have 
 done that badly, to have acted with great want of uniformity, 
 and not even to have taken care of the deeds relating to the 
 endowments under their care 5 . 
 
 REFORM OF ENDOWMENTS. 
 
 The Commissions of 1806-12 and 1824-7, an( ^ t ^ le Select 
 Committee of 1828 (pages 79, 83), limited their general recom- 
 mendations to primary education, although the Commissioners 
 
 1 Kildare Report, i. p. 28. 3 Rosse Report, i. p. 12. 
 
 3 Kildare, i. p. 245 ; Rosse,i. p. 8. * Wyse, Select Committee, 1838, p. 63. 
 
 6 Kildare, i. 242 ; Rosse, i. 14, 22. 
 
 O 2
 
 196 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 had reported in detail on some or all of the endowed secondary 
 schools. 
 
 In 1806 there were thirty-three endowed Classical Schools 
 of public foundation (including the Erasmus Smith Grammar 
 Schools) educating- nearly 1,000 pupils, chiefly boarders, and 
 possessing endowments worth about ,9,000 a year l ; and 
 there seem to have been in 1809-12 eleven grammar schools 
 out of fifteen private foundations educating some 420 boys 2 . 
 
 Mr. Wyse's Select Committees of 1835-8 (page 95) 
 reported on the Diocesan and Royal Schools and other 
 schools of public foundation, and drew up a scheme of 
 secondary and higher education not less remarkable or exten- 
 sive than their proposals for elementary instruction. There 
 were to be in every county an Academy, and a Provincial 
 College, and an Agricultural School in each of the four pro- 
 vinces. This system was to utilize the existing secondary 
 endowed schools : these were to be enlarged and made applic- 
 able to both commercial and classical education in general and 
 special literary and scientific courses, and thus adapted to 
 the needs both of the middle and upper classes 3 . The Board 
 of Commissioners of 1813 was to be amalgamated with the 
 National Board as a central authority, and the Grand Juries 
 (or Town Councils when chosen by election, and afterwards 
 ' County Boards or County Councils ') were to be the local 
 authorities for secondary education and levy local rates 4 . 
 A Normal School was to be preferred to a general University 
 training for secondary teachers, but a Chair of Education in 
 the University and a Course of the Science of Education were 
 recommended 5 . 
 
 Kildare Commission. 
 
 In 1854 a Royal Commission was appointed under the 
 Marquis of Kildare to inquire into the Endowed Schools in 
 Ireland, and their report in four volumes was presented 
 in 1858. 
 
 They found fifty-two endowed grammar schools with an esti- 
 mated annual income of ,14,954, and two superior English 
 schools with an income of ,498 ; but no less than ninety-one 
 towns, which in the census of 1851 had contained over 2,000 
 inhabitants apiece, had to rely solely on private enterprise or 
 subscriptions for their secondary education G . 
 
 1 Fourteenth Report, p. 4. The figures on p. 2 give 1,065 pupils (less 
 Carysfort, 12-50) and .7,620 income. 
 
 2 Twelfth Report, 1812 ; Second Report, 1807. * Wyse Report, pp. 64-77. 
 * Ibid. pp. 70, 76. 8 Ibid. p. 41. 6 Kildare Report, i. Appendix, 55, 56.
 
 EDUCATION] KILDARE COMMISSION 197 
 
 Of the nineteen Diocesan Free Schools in existence only 
 six were in a satisfactory state, with 196 out of a total of 240 
 pupils l ; while four out of the six Royal Free Schools edu- 
 cated 221 pupils out of 277 2 . 
 
 The Commissioners found that in many places the National 
 Schools had displaced teachers who had given secondary as 
 well as elementary instruction 3 , and that there was great 
 need of more means of intermediate education, which ought, 
 they reported, to be provided by local funds under the 
 management of local trustees in combination with grants of 
 public money 4 . 
 
 They recommended that in place of the Commissioners of 
 Education a Board should be established to control endow- 
 ments not exclusively confined to one sect ; that it should 
 consist of persons of different religious persuasions, and 
 include at least one paid Commissioner 5 . Schools earning 
 a grant must give united literary education to persons of all 
 persuasions 6 . This last recommendation lost the Commis- 
 sioners one signature to the Report, which was signed only 
 by three out of five members. 
 
 Nothing was done in furtherance of this Report, but 
 throughout the seventies the Commissioners of Education 
 continued in their annual reports to demand reform in their 
 constitution and an increase of their powers. The Disestab- 
 lishment of the Irish Church gradually deprived them of 
 some of their episcopal members, and as no provision was 
 made for the future support of the Diocesan Schools after the 
 termination of life interests, these gradually became extinct, 
 and their funds fell into the hands of the Church Tempor- 
 alities Commissioners (p. 97). By 1880 only three schools 
 survived, the masters of the remaining eleven having com- 
 pounded for their life interests 7 . 
 
 Rosse Commission. In December, 1878, a Vice-Regal 
 Commission was appointed under Lord Rosse to inquire into 
 the Endowed Schools of Ireland, and reported in 1880. 
 They drew more attention to the conservative nature of 
 secondary education in Ireland than to the deficient amount 
 of it, but did not consider themselves instructed to offer any 
 recommendations. 
 
 ' The want of more extensive provisions for practical and 
 technical training, and of an education adapted to prepare 
 pupils for commercial life and other pursuits not calling for 
 classical study, has been much felt.' ' The course of dis- 
 
 1 Kildare Report, p. 45. 2 Ibid. p. 63 ; allowing fifty boys for Armagh. 
 
 3 Ibid. i. p. 222; Powis, i. 501. * Kildare Report, i. p. 222. 
 
 5 Ibid. p. 246. 6 Ibid. p. 223. 7 Rosse Report, i. 46, 47.
 
 198 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 cipline and instruction in the larger Grammar Schools in 
 most cases is satisfactory,' but ' many of the smaller local 
 endowments (especially for higher education) have proved 
 inadequate V 
 
 The Commissioners criticized ' the marked and most in- 
 jurious absence of system, vigour, and efficiency in the dis- 
 charge of the functions committed to the Board of Education V 
 and the inadequacy of their powers. Difficulties existed in 
 dealing with endowments formerly vested in persons or 
 bodies affected by the Disestablishment of the Irish Church, 
 and in all cases there was a great want of summary powers for 
 the control of educational endowments. 
 
 The Commission found that there were in Ireland over 
 seven hundred endowed schools, of which some three hundred 
 were under the Board of National Education. The annual 
 income derived from land was ,58,128, and from trust funds 
 .26,982. Of this total of ,85,000 only .8,000 belonged to 
 Munster, and only ,891 to Connaught 3 . 
 
 Educational Endowments Act. At last, in 1885, the 
 Educational Endowments (Ireland) Act was passed (48 & 
 49 Viet. c. 78), corresponding more or less to the English 
 Endowed Schools Act of 1869, and very closely to the 
 Scotch Educational Endowments Act of 1882 (see p. 223). 
 
 Two Judges of the Irish Supreme Court were appointed 
 Judicial Commissioners, and with them were associated three 
 paid Assistant Commissioners, ' persons of experience in 
 education.' The Commission was to last till the end of 1888, 
 but was ultimately continued till April, 1893 (54 & 55 Viet, 
 c. 60). Dublin University and Trinity College, all endow- 
 ments for theological instruction, and all foundations for the 
 exclusive benefit of persons of any particular religious deno- 
 mination and under the exclusive control of such denomina- 
 tions, were not to be dealt with by the Commissioners unless 
 with the consent of the founder or governing body. 
 
 The chief duty of the Commissioners was to draft schemes 
 for the future government and management of educational 
 endowments, and these were submitted to the Lord Lieu- 
 tenant in Council, and were subject to the same course of 
 publications, petitions, appeals, and submission to Parliament 
 as similar English proposals under the Endowed Schools Act. 
 But the only remedy in case of default by a governing body 
 in carrying out a scheme was by summary compulsion of the 
 High Court on the application of the Attorney-General. 
 
 Vested interests were carefully guarded, but in all schemes 
 due regard was to be paid ' to merit as ascertained by 
 
 1 Rosse Report, i. 229. ' 2 Ibid. i. 25. 3 Ibid. i. 477.
 
 EDUCATION] ENDOWMENTS ACT, 1885 199 
 
 examination ' or other means ; and benefits of endowments 
 were, as far as possible, to be extended to both sexes. Inspec- 
 tion of all endowed schools by an inspector appointed by the 
 Lord Lieutenant and due audit of accounts were to be pro- 
 vided for in all schemes, and due provision might be made 
 for future alterations of schemes from time to time by the 
 Commissioners of Charitable Bequests. 
 
 Two hundred and twelve schemes were submitted to the 
 Lord Lieutenant, dealing- with an estimated income from 
 endowments of .67,305 J (in addition to private income from 
 fees, subscriptions, &c., of .73,601), and relating to endow- 
 ments of all kinds for elementary, secondary, and even in one 
 or two instances for higher education. Most of these schemes 
 were passed, including several made with the consent of the 
 governors : but several others, including a scheme for the 
 Erasmus Smith schools, were abandoned owing to diversity 
 of opinions, and no ready means of dealing with them is in 
 existence since the termination of the Commission. 
 
 Among the schemes framed by the Commissioners was one 
 for the reform of the Board of Commissioners q/ Edit 'cation 
 in Ireland, which was made with the consent of that body, 
 and finally approved by the Viceroy in May, 1891 2 . 
 
 In future there are to be twenty Commissioners : ten 
 appointed by the Lord Lieutenant and holding office during 
 his pleasure five being Protestant and five Catholic resident 
 in Ireland and ten persons elected by the ten new local 
 Boards of Education. 
 
 The Commissioners are to possess and exercise all the 
 powers possessed by their predecessors, to hold and manage 
 the estates, to pay an Inspector appointed by the Lord 
 Lieutenant who must inspect all schools in their charge at 
 least once a year; but nearly all the management of the 
 schools is left to the local Boards. 
 
 Of these there are ten, all in Ulster, according to the 
 situation of the principal endowments dealt with, the districts 
 being Armagh, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Cavan, and Donegal. 
 For each of these there are a Protestant and a Roman Catholic 
 Board, consisting of nine members each, but the number may 
 be increased to fifteen by cooptation on the vote of a majority 
 of seven. The first Boards were nominated in the scheme, 
 but after that the Protestant Boards have been elected an- 
 nually in fixed proportions (varying according to the locality), 
 by the Diocesan (Episcopal) Councils and General Assembly 
 (Presbyterian) ; the Wesleyan Methodist Conference in two 
 
 1 Final Report, 1894, C. 7,517, p. xxiii. 
 
 2 Annual Report of Educational Endowments Commissioners for 1890-1, p. 234.
 
 200 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 cases coopt a member representing other Protestant de- 
 nominations 1 . 
 
 Each Catholic Board consists of a prelate, four ecclesiastics, 
 and four laymen, and upon a vacancy occurring by death, 
 resignation, or failure to attend it is filled by cooptation 
 among the ecclesiastics and laymen respectively. 
 
 The Boards establish or maintain such school or schools 
 in their separate districts as they think expedient, administer 
 the endowments, hold property bequeathed to or vested in 
 them, exercise general supervision and control over the 
 schools, and make all necessary regulations for them ; the two 
 Boards in each district appoint an Estates Committee from 
 among themselves, to advise and assist the Commissioners. 
 They promote intermediate education in their district gene- 
 rally, and elect annually a Commissioner who need not belong 
 to their Board. 
 
 They also administer a special scheme for the Ulster Royal 
 Foundations (for the Royal Free Schools) which have been 
 divided between the Protestants and Catholics. The income 
 of these schools, however, has been greatly reduced by agri- 
 cultural depression, and in 1901 amounted only to 9,768. 
 
 ' Superior Schools ' in Ireland according to the Census 
 
 Establishments. Pupils. 
 1861 . . . 729 21,674 
 
 1871 
 1881 
 1891 
 1901 
 
 574 21,225 
 
 488 20,405 
 
 474 2 4. 2 7i 
 
 49 35,3o6 
 
 A superior school is defined as one in which a foreign 
 language is taught, at least to an appreciable extent. 
 
 In the superior schools in 1901 10,968 Roman Catholics 
 were being educated, and 10,257 Protestants of various de- 
 nominations. 
 
 The private secondary schools in Ireland fell from 371 
 with 10,383 pupils in 1871, to 210 with 8,051 pupils in 
 1901. 
 
 It must always be borne in mind that a considerable number 
 of the Irish boys of the upper classes are sent to school in 
 England, or at any rate elsewhere than in Ireland. 
 
 3. THE COMMISSIONERS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The Commissioners of National Education in their fourth 
 Report, published in 1837, announced a future division of 
 
 1 Report for 1890-1, pp. 211-41. 2 P. P., 1892, C. 6,780, p. 64.
 
 EDUCATION] SCIENCE AND ART 201 
 
 their schools into primary and secondary, the latter to afford 
 manual training; but of course money was never forthcoming 
 to develop this scheme, and it was dropped. 
 
 In 1867 a plan was approved by the Hoard for the intro- 
 duction of Classics and French into the National Schools, but 
 there was a delay in making pecuniary arrangements l . 
 
 The Powis Commission on Primary Education in 1870 
 recommended that the course of education in Primary Schools 
 should not be extended to secondary or intermediate subjects, 
 but that Masters of Primary Schools should be freely allowed 
 to teach as extra branches out of school hours any subjects in 
 which they might have qualified themselves. The lessons 
 must be regarded as private tuition, to be paid for by the 
 parents or friends of the pupils who received them -. En- 
 dowed schools should be revised and provision made for 
 admission of promising pupils by open competition into 
 superior schools without distinction of locality or creed". 
 
 This last article, however, only obtained the assent of eight 
 of the fourteen Commissioners. 
 
 In 1873 the recommendation to introduce higher subjects 
 out of school hours was carried out, and grants were given 
 for three years' courses of Classics, German, Erench, or Irish, 
 and for a number of subjects in Science 4 . 
 
 The Model Schools of the Board (p. 80) give a definitely 
 higher education than the ordinary National Schools, but, as 
 we have seen, there is a strong Catholic feeling against them 
 in spite of their educational merits. 
 
 4. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL 
 INSTRUCTION REPLACING THE SCIENCE AND ART 
 DEPARTMENT. 
 
 In the matter of grants, Ireland shared the bounty of the 
 Science and Art Department on the same terms as Great 
 Britain from the very beginning. 
 
 Thus in 1852 out of twenty Art Schools in the kingdom 
 Ireland had four and Scotland only two: in 1860, of Science, 
 Navigation, and Art Schools subsidized by the Department 
 Ireland had eight to Scotland's twelve and England's sixty- 
 seven 5 . In 1868 it could be said that 'scientific instruction 
 had gone ahead faster than anywhere else ' : there were 
 seventy -six schools where science was taught, against sixteen 
 in Scotland 6 . 
 
 1 Powis Report, i. 189. 3 Ibid. Art. 120, 121. 
 
 3 Ibid. Art. 122. 4 P. P., 1874, xix. p. 120. 
 
 5 P. P., 1861, xxxii. p. 36. P. P., 1867-68, xv. Q. 688.
 
 202 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 In 1868 the Government proposed to form a separate 
 Department for Ireland analogous to the existing- Science 
 and Art Department in London, but a Commission of the 
 Committee of Council for Education reported unanimously 
 in the following year that such a step would be detrimental 
 to the interests of Science and Art in Ireland. The Science 
 schools and classes in that country were declared to be most 
 successful, but the absence of industrial opportunity was 
 a great discouragement to instruction of artisans in drawing 
 or design 1 . 
 
 As time went on the amount of Science and Art instruction 
 in Ireland began steadily to decrease. The sum paid by 
 South Kensington for schools and classes in 1871-2 was 
 ^9,271 ; by 1900 it had fallen to ^3,84o 2 . 
 
 This, however, was the last grant paid by the English 
 authorities. In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruc- 
 tion Act (62 & 63 Viet. c. 50) created a Department which 
 takes the place of the Science and Art Department, as far as 
 Ireland is concerned, both in administering the grants for 
 Science and for Art, and more especially in taking charge of 
 Technical Instruction 3 . The new authority has the Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland as President, and a new paid official 
 as Vice-President 4 . In connexion with the Department there 
 is a General Council of Agriculture and two advisory Boards, 
 the Agricultural Board and the Board of Technical Instruction. 
 There is also, for the purpose of co-ordinating educational 
 administration a small Consultative Committee of Education, 
 consisting of the Vice- President and one representative each 
 from the Board of Technical Instruction, the Agricultural 
 Board, the Commissioners of National Education, and the 
 Intermediate Education Board. 
 
 As far as the Science and Art grant is concerned, the help 
 granted will depend as before on the amount of instruction 
 given, and therefore on the amount of local effort to provide 
 such instruction. The Department has revised the regula- 
 tions as to Drawing (as a separate subject) and Experimental 
 Science in schools, and a two years' course is required, but in 
 other subjects the Science and Art regulations are still con- 
 tinued as a temporary measure. 
 
 1 Report of Commission on Science and Art Department in Ireland, 1869, i. 
 pp. xxxi, xxxiv. 
 
 3 Science and Art Report, 1875, P- 221 '> Dep. of A. Report, 1901, p. 52. 
 
 3 Consult Ireland, Industrial and Agricultural, published by the new Depart- 
 ment in 1901 for the Glasgow Exhibition, and reissued with much new matter for 
 the Cork Exhibition in 1902. 
 
 4 The Right Hon. Horace Plunkett is Vice-President, and Mr. T. P. Gill the 
 first Secretary.
 
 EDUCATION] TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 203 
 
 The teaching of Science had reached a very low ebb : in 
 the Intermediate Examinations the number of boys presented 
 in that subject in 1891 was 2,885, in 189911 had fallen to 673 '. 
 In 1901 there were only six laboratories in the secondary- 
 schools of Ireland, and such science teaching- as existed was 
 almost entirely theoretical and verbal. 
 
 At the end of the season in 1902, by the influence and 
 assistance of the Department, 101 permanent and 49 pro- 
 visional laboratories had been established, at a cost of some 
 30,000, nearly half of which was provided by the local 
 authorities, the Department, and the Science and Art grant. 
 
 The difficulty caused in this respect by lack of aim and 
 knowledge the Department tried to meet by providing the 
 necessary literature and instructions: the dearth of science 
 teachers with practical knowledge of experimental work has 
 been provisionally dealt with as far as possible by holding 
 summer courses for the past two years in Experimental 
 Science, Drawing, and Manual Instruction, which will be 
 continued for several years to come. These classes were 
 attended in 1901 by 293 teachers representing 196 schools, 
 and apparently by an increased number in 1902 -. 
 
 The new programme of the Board was taken up by 152 
 schools in 1901-2, 6,412 pupils taking the first year's course 
 in Introductory Physics. ' The phase of transition has been 
 necessarily abrupt,' as the Report for 1902 says, ' From 
 a time-honoured method, in which the textbook reigned 
 supreme, to one in which the pupil, under skilled direction, 
 is encouraged to find out the facts of science as far as possible 
 for himself, the change is somewhat of a revolution.' 
 
 The Public Libraries (Ireland) Act 1855, was amended by 
 the similar Act of 1902 (2 Edw. VII, c. 20) which allowed 
 Rural District Councils to adopt the earlier Act. 
 
 Evening Schools have hitherto proved of very little impor- 
 tance in Ireland. In 1900, as we have seen, in all Ireland 
 there were only twenty-one under the Commissioners oi 
 National Education (p. 1 1 1), and in the same year only forty 
 received a grant for Science or Art teaching from South 
 Kensington, and half of these schools maintained day classes 
 as well 3 . 
 
 In 1901 new regulations were introduced, with the result 
 that 375 scholars earned grants from the National Commis- 
 sioners, there being 18,954 pupils on the rolls, and 10,919 
 
 1 Dep. of A. Report, 1901, p. 64. 
 
 a P. P., Cd. 838, p. 69 ; Cd. i ,314, p. 60. 
 
 3 Board of Education Report, 1900-1, ii. p. 627.
 
 204 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 present at inspection. Most of the pupils were over fourteen 
 years of age, but the three R.'s were taught in nearly all these 
 schools. Grants of i js. 6d. or i $s. are made on the unit of 
 attendance l . 
 
 Technical Instrziction. 
 
 The Technical Instruction Act, 1889 (p. 165), applies to 
 Ireland, but none of the money granted to Ireland by the Local 
 Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890 (pp. 101, 207) was 
 applicable to Technical Education. Consequently the Science 
 and Art Department did not in the case of Ireland withdraw 
 the assistance it had assigned to technical instruction in 1890, 
 but in 1891 allotted .5,000 for this purpose to Ireland, and 
 subsequently offered grants equal in amount to the contribu- 
 tions made by local authorities out of the rates raised under 
 the Technical Instruction Acts. This grant amounted in 
 1900-1 to "3,044 ; the amount expended in Ireland in 1899 
 out of the local rates was 4,252, and 920 more raised under 
 the Public Libraries Acts 2 . In 1901, however, the Treasury 
 announced their intention of withdrawing this grant, as other 
 funds for the support of Technical Instruction were now (by 
 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act, 1899) 
 available in Ireland. In response to strong protests, however, 
 this grant has been continued in the meantime for three years 3 . 
 
 Technical Instruction, as we have seen, is now placed under 
 the control of the Agriculture and Technical Instruction 
 Department from April i, 1901, though the grant of 55,000 
 began the year before. The definition of technical instruc- 
 tion is practically identical with that in the original Technical 
 Instruction Act, 1889, and does not include instruction given 
 in elementary schools. The Board of Technical Instruction, 
 which may be consulted on all matters in connexion with 
 technical instruction, is composed of the President and Vice- 
 President of the Department, fifteen representatives of local 
 authorities, a representative each of the Intermediate Educa- 
 tion Board and of the Commissioners of National Education, 
 and four persons appointed by the Department. 
 
 The total funds placed at the disposal of the Department 
 amount to some 160,000 per annum, of which 55,000 falls 
 to Technical Instruction. The 78,000 formerly paid under 
 the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890 (53 & 54 
 Viet. c. 60), to the Commissioners of National Education 
 (p. 101), is now transferred to this Department. 
 
 By a supplementary Act in 1902 (2 Edw. VII, c. 3) a con- 
 
 1 P. P., 1902, Cd. 1,198, p. 23. 
 
 2 P. P., 1901, House of Commons Paper, No. 257, p. 222. 
 
 3 P. P., 1902, Cd. 1,314, p. 6.
 
 EDUCATION] TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 205 
 
 gested districts area may be excluded by a county council 
 raising- a rate for agriculture or for other rural industries or 
 technical instruction. 
 
 The agricultural work of the Department does not concern 
 us except for the fact that the Agricultural Hoard in 1900-1 
 voted .3,000 to be administered by the Department, with the 
 concurrence of the Board of Technical Instruction, for rural 
 industries and technical instruction directly connected there- 
 with, distinct from schools or educational classes. 
 
 The 55,000 is divided into two parts, of which 25,000 is 
 to be handed over to the councils of the six county boroughs 
 (Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick, Londonderry, and Waterford), 
 to be applied in aid of technical instruction schemes approved 
 by the Department. The distribution is open to revision 
 every three years. The remaining 30,000 is to be expended 
 by the Department on technical instruction in other parts of 
 Ireland, and may be used also in the collection of information. 
 
 Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act, 1898 (61 & 62 
 Viet. c. 37), the county councils (and concurrently with them 
 the local authorities) have power to raise a rate of a penny in 
 the pound for the purposes of this Act, and nearly all of them 
 in 1902 availed themselves of the permission. 
 
 In 1901 the money was divided among the county boroughs 
 in the following proportions : Dublin 8,289, Belfast 10,943, 
 Cork 2,436, Limerick 1,219, Londonderry 1,257, an d 
 Waterford 856. Of the other portions 3,000 was reserved 
 for schemes worked by the central authority, while the 27,000 
 was set aside as a reserve for equipment and apparatus, since 
 none of the schemes for the localities were yet in working 
 order. 
 
 For the session 1902-3 twenty-seven county schemes and 
 twenty -four urban schemes are more or less fully in opera- 
 tion, together with those in the six county boroughs. 
 
 In the current year the local rates raised for technical 
 education will probably amount to above 25,000, of which 
 the bulk is shared in nearly equal proportions by the Counties 
 and County Boroughs. 
 
 5. THE COMMISSIONERS OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION. 
 
 There was formerly in Ireland a system of Middle Class 
 Examinations established in 1860 under the Queen's Univer- 
 sity, resembling the English Local Examinations. They dis- 
 tributed no grants, and never attained any importance, but 
 died out only in 1879, with the extinction of the Queen's 
 University (p. 269) l . 
 
 1 P. P., 1861, xx. p. 816; 1870, xxvi. p. 405.
 
 206 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 Nevertheless it was no innate objection to examinations 
 that caused their abolition, but rather the rivalry of a more 
 elaborate and despotic system, well endowed from funds 
 devoted to public purposes. 
 
 The national system of elementary schools had, as we have 
 seen (p. 197), actually diminished the available amount of 
 secondary instruction in Ireland. In 1878, of every 100,000 
 persons in Scotland 371 were receiving education in the 
 endowed intermediate schools ; of every 100,000 Protestants 
 in Ireland 199 were receiving a similar secondary training ; 
 but of every 100,000 Catholics in the same country only two 
 were being educated in the endowed secondary schools l . If 
 secondary education needed assistance in Ireland, and con- 
 current endowment was admitted to be out of the question, 
 the only feasible course was to omit religious instruction from 
 the scheme, provide against proselytism, and subsidize the 
 best secular training. Accordingly the Intermediate Educa- 
 tion (Ireland) Act, 41 & 42 Viet. c. 66, was passed in 1878, 
 offering public examinations in secondary subjects to any 
 persons of either sex who had been educated in Ireland during 
 the twelve months preceding, and in addition to a number 
 of prizes and scholarships given to the scholars themselves 
 making payments for the results to the managers of the 
 schools where those pupils were being educated. 
 
 An unpaid Board of Commissioners of Intermediate Educa- 
 tion was appointed to administer the annual interest of 
 1,000,000 paid to them from the funds of the disestablished 
 Irish Church. This income, amounting at first to 32,000, 
 declined in the next twenty years to 27,500. 
 
 Examiners were appointed annually from a list prepared by 
 the Board and approved by the Lord Lieutenant ; written 
 examinations were held once a year at centres selected by the 
 Board. The examinations lasted for two weeks, and included 
 Latin, Greek, modern languages and Celtic, drawing, mathe- 
 matics, science, and commercial subjects. There were four 
 classes Seniors under eighteen, Middle under seventeen, 
 Junior under sixteen, and since 1892 Preparatory between 
 twelve and fourteen. After 1890 candidates under twelve 
 were not admitted. 
 
 The Conscience Clause is as follows : ' No payment is made 
 to any school unless the rule is strictly observed that no pupil 
 attending is permitted to remain in attendance during the 
 time of any religious instruction which the parents or guardians 
 of such pupil shall not have sanctioned, and that the time for 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., ccxli. p. 436.
 
 EDUCATION] INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATIONS 207 
 
 giving such religious instruction is so fixed that no pupil not 
 remaining in attendance is excluded directly or indirectly 
 from the advantages of the secular education given in the 
 school.' 
 
 The examinations at once became as great a success in 
 point of numbers as could well be expected : difficulties were 
 chiefly financial, as the 1,000,000 originally allotted had 
 been intended for boys only 1 . 
 
 By the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890 
 (53 & 54 Viet. c. 60), after a sum of .78,000 had been paid to 
 the Commissioners of National Education (p. 101), the residue 
 of the Irish share was assigned to the Commissioners of 
 Intermediate Education for results fees or prizes, exhibitions, 
 and certificates to be distributed according to a scheme which 
 should be settled by the Board with the approval of the Lord 
 Lieutenant and the Treasury. The money, amounting to 
 nearly ^50,000 a year, was spent accordingly in adding 
 examinations in a commercial course for the middle and lower 
 grades, and in a new preparatory grade for children between 
 twelve and fourteen. 
 
 Such a system of mere examination and payment by results 
 was bound to prove unsatisfactory, for though it was originally 
 intended that the Assistant Commissioners should pay occa- 
 sional visits of inspection to the Intermediate Schools 2 , this 
 never proved feasible, and no such supplement was ever pro- 
 vided. The worst evils of examination for money payments 
 were rife. Competition was pushed to extremes ; cramming 
 was encouraged ; overtaxing of the children, and overburdening 
 of the memory at the expense of the intelligence were the least 
 of the charges which so freely were brought. The Com- 
 missioners themselves realized that ' there were grave defects 
 in the system,' and as the result of their own petition, on 
 May 30, 1898, they were constituted a Vice- Regal Commission 
 to inquire into, and report upon, the system and its practical 
 working. In August, 1899, they made their recommenda- 
 tions 3 , and declared that without legislation they were power- 
 less to carry them out. 
 
 Thereupon during the next session the Intermediate Educa- 
 tion (Ireland) Act, 1900, was passed (63 & 64 Viet. c. 43), 
 which allowed the funds of the Commissioners to be applied 
 in a manner provided by rules to be made by the Board with 
 the approval of the Lord Lieutenant and submitted to Parlia- 
 ment. The restriction of the subsidy under the Local Taxa- 
 
 1 Report for 1880, p. 6. 
 
 2 Childers's Committee Report, 1884, Q. 935. 
 
 3 final Report, P. P., 1899, .9,511.
 
 2o8 IRELAND [SECONDARY 
 
 tion Act of 1890 to fees on results and prizes was withdrawn. 
 Twelve Commissioners instead of seven might be appointed, 
 and power was given to the Board to appoint Inspectors. 
 
 New Regulations accordingly were issued, which came into 
 force in 1902. Since the circumstances of the case demand 
 a test that will differentiate between the different schools 
 sending in candidates, the examinations are to be held as 
 before, and the four grades are retained. There is an 
 examination for Honours, Exhibitions, and Prizes held at the 
 end of the Pass examination, but to this the Preparatory 
 candidates are not admitted. 
 
 The Pass and Honour Courses are divided normally into 
 the Grammar School Course and the Modern Course, but the 
 differences as yet seem small. In the former Latin is com- 
 pulsory and Greek may be taken : the latter differs only in 
 Modern Languages being obligatory and Bookkeeping (except 
 for Seniors) and Shorthand being admitted. The Prizes and 
 Exhibitions are competed for in three groups Classical, 
 Literary, and Science. Through all the Pass and Honour 
 Courses and the Groups the old divisions of Senior, Middle, 
 and Junior candidates run. Out of sixteen or seventeen 
 subjects any number may be offered, but the marks in 
 English Composition and five other of the subjects only will 
 be counted. 
 
 Experimental Science and Drawing (as a separate subject) 
 are regulated by the Department of Agriculture and Tech- 
 nical Instruction, whose rules the Intermediate Education 
 Commissioners have adopted. The Pass grant is given for 
 those pupils who have worked a practical course as required, 
 and have been present at the final examination, while for 
 honours and prizes an individual examination is held in these 
 subjects by an Inspector of the Department. Both subjects 
 are gradually to become compulsory in the next four years, 
 and Domestic Economy and Botany are hereafter to be 
 included. 
 
 Already complaints of the amount of work required from 
 candidates have been heard, and the standard set in 1902 was 
 so high that the results had to be revised and 30 instead of 
 40 per cent, was accepted in most subjects for a pass x . The 
 system was severely criticized at the meeting of the British 
 Association at Belfast in September of the same year. 
 
 No one is admitted to any of the examinations under thirteen 
 or over nineteen ; for prizes and exhibitions the ages remain 
 1 6, 17, and 18 as before, while no Preparatory candidate may 
 be over 15. An Intermediate School Roll has to be sent in 
 
 1 Journal of Education, Jan. 1902, p. 54.
 
 EDUCATION] TRAINING OF TEACHERS 209 
 
 by each head master during the autumn preceding the exami- 
 nation, containing the names of all pupils in his school who 
 are eligible as candidates, stating if they propose to offer 
 themselves, or giving the reasons for their abstention. 
 
 The grants to the schools, made on a triennial average, 
 are awarded on a sliding scale according to the quantity of 
 candidates who pass, the minimum number being seven ; 
 there is a further varying bonus on the number who pass 
 with honours, and yet again another grant dependent on the 
 relation of passes in higher grades to those in lower. Prizes 
 and exhibitions are awarded as before, but may be applied 
 by direction of the Board to payment for past or future 
 instruction, or generally for the permanent benefit and ad- 
 vancement of the candidate. 
 
 Six Inspectors have been appointed for a year to inspect 
 the schools which send in candidates for the Examinations. 
 Eight permanent Examiners have been appointed to set the 
 papers which are looked over in part by Sub-examiners '. 
 
 In 1880 4,100 boys were examined, and 5,800 in 1901, 
 about 70 and 65 per cent, respectively passing in each year. 
 1,400 girls were examined in 1880, 2,300 in 1901, of whom 
 76 and 69 per cent, respectively passed. The centres in- 
 creased from 128 in the former year to 255, and the amounts 
 paid in results fees from .9,681 to ^"56,760. 
 
 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS. 
 
 The first provision to secure this end in Ireland was an 
 examination in the University of Dublin in the History and 
 Theory of Education, and also an examination in the Practice 
 of Teaching. It is open only to graduates, who must pass 
 the former of these tests, for which a certificate is awarded, 
 before they can be admitted to the latter. For those who 
 have passed both there is a diploma. No permanent provision 
 for lectures or a course of instruction seems to have been 
 made. The first examination was held in January, 1898, 
 when three candidates, all English teachers, presented them- 
 selves. 
 
 A statute of the Royal University creating a Diploma in 
 Teaching for graduates of the University was approved in 
 March, 1898 2 . 
 
 A training college (recognized by the Cambridge Syndicate) 
 was opened in September,.-- ^9.8, for women teachers in 
 secondary schools a the .Ursuline Convent. Waterford. 
 
 No register has yet been established for Irish secondary 
 teachers. 
 
 1 Journal of Education, Feb. 1903, p. 132. P. P., C. 8,846.
 
 II. SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 D. Scotland 
 
 1. THE PRIVY COUNCIL. 
 i. The Scotch Education Department. 
 
 WE have seen already in dealing with Scotland that the 
 lines of division in Public Education were laid rather accord- 
 ing to localities than to grades of instruction : that so far as 
 systematic provision had been made, the country children, 
 young and old, were taught in the schools of the parishes, 
 while the town children depended on the burgh schools or 
 Academies (p. 211). In the towns there were also some 
 Church (Sessional) schools, as well as small schools in private 
 hands. 
 
 When the Assistant Commissioners of the Argyll Com- 
 mission came in 1866 to investigate the Scotch secondary 
 schools they found eighty-two public schools of all sorts 
 existing within seventy-six burghs, three burghs only having 
 no public schools. Of these schools thirty-two were burgh 
 schools, twenty-three were academies, nine were mixed burgh 
 and parochial schools, and eighteen parochial schools l . 
 
 There were also four public secondary schools outside the 
 limits of burghs, one of which, Glenalmond, was a reproduc- 
 tion of an English ' Public School V Of these eighty-six 
 schools there were, besides Glenalmond, only five in all Scot- 
 land, two being in Edinburgh, and three in Aberdeen, to 
 which the designation of secondary school was strictly applic- 
 able 3 , for all the others presented 'a confusion of Infant, 
 Primary, and Elementary Schools combined in one 4 .' 
 
 Less than half of the preparation for the Universities, how- 
 ever, was in the hands of the Burgh Schools and Academies. 
 The figures obtained for the Argyll Commission from the 
 Universities showed that at Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. Andrews, 
 and Aberdeen, only 35, 46, 47, and 47 per cent, respectively 
 of the students had been educated at Burgh and Middle Class 
 Schools, the remainder coming from parochial schools (about 
 
 1 Third Report, i. p. Ixxvii. * Ibid. i. 258 ; ii. 241. 3 Ibid. i. no. 
 
 * Ibid. i. 146.
 
 ACADEMIES 211 
 
 15 per cent.) or Free Church Schools, or having been edu- 
 cated either out of Scotland or by private means '. 
 
 B^^rgh Schools. On the whole, however, although mixed 
 instruction was given in both cases, just as elementary educa- 
 tion was represented by the parish schools, so the burgh 
 schools and academies stood for secondary education in 
 Scotland. 
 
 The characteristic marks of a burgh school were that 
 although it might be supported either out of burgh funds 
 or by endowment, it was subject to regulation by the autho- 
 rities of the burgh as such, and under that regulation it was 
 open to the community J . 
 
 The Presbyteries claimed and generally exercised a juris- 
 diction over the Burgh Schools until 1861, when it was 
 abolished by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 107, just after it had been 
 established before the Court of Session 2 . 
 
 Burgh schools dated back to periods before the Reforma- 
 tion, but it is interesting to note that although recognized 
 in Statute, they were never endowed or organized by any 
 enactment 3 . So far as a nation wants schools, it will have 
 them, and the means matter but little. 
 
 Academies. The other chief factors in Scotch secondary 
 education were the Academies and the Universities, which 
 were sometimes in rivalry with and sometimes complementary 
 to the Burgh Schools. 
 
 ' About the middle of the 1 8th century there arose a cry for 
 a more liberal and more practical course of education than 
 that supplied by the old burgh schools, where the neglect or 
 omission of the commercial branches was felt to be a great 
 evil an evil which the burgesses and others interested in 
 education endeavoured to remove by introducing science 
 classes into the schools. At first in some academies this 
 branch alone was taught, but in a short time they lost their 
 original characteristics, became in fact grammar schools with 
 this difference, that the new schools, designated academies, had 
 a more practical course of studies, more commodious build- 
 ings, better staff of teachers, better organization, and generally 
 a new body of patrons. Though at first the academies were 
 intended merely to supplement the grammar schools, in a 
 short time they superseded or absorbed them ; and, in a few 
 instances, instead of amalgamating with them became their 
 rivals 4 .' 
 
 1 Opinion of Counsel, ibid. p. 229. 
 
 3 History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland, p. 93, by James Grant, M.A. : 
 \V. Collins, Sons, & Co., London and Glasgow, 1876. 
 3 Ibid. 462. * J. Grant, p. 114. 
 
 P 2
 
 212 SCOTLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 The academies in most instances were ultimately under 
 the combined management of proprietors and the Town 
 Councils l . 
 
 When we come to the Universities (see p. 278) we find that 
 the task of preparation for them had been imperfectly accom- 
 plished, and that they were compelled to undertake a large 
 measure of education which did not rise above secondary. 
 Statistics collected in 1866 show that of 862 students in senior 
 and junior classes in the four Universities, 22 per cent, were 
 sixteen years of age or less, and 16 per cent, more were only 
 seventeen, whereas the usual age of matriculation at Oxford 
 was between eighteen and nineteen 2 . Youth does not neces- 
 sarily disqualify well-taught boys from attaining to higher 
 education : but the Junior Greek Class at the Universities 
 used to begin with the Greek alphabet, while in Mathematics 
 it was but little better 3 ; and as long as there was no entrance 
 examination for students proceeding to degrees, there is no 
 doubt but that there was a good deal of overlapping of uni- 
 versity and school teaching 4 . That it was partly the Univer- 
 sities who were at fault is shown by their attempts to prevent 
 the High Schools from teaching Greek (p. 278). 
 
 It must also be noted that very many of the children of the 
 upper classes are, as in the case of Ireland, sent to English 
 schools for their education. 
 
 The Scotch secondary schools differed among themselves 
 and also differed from the English schools generally in their 
 relation to a standard curriculum and the advancement of 
 classes. In some cases there was no settled curriculum : 
 different masters taught kindred subjects, and competition 
 arose between the teachers 5 . In other cases there was a 
 course but it was not imperative, some subjects were optional 
 and were taught at extra charge . In the third class of 
 schools there was a regular course, which lasted four years, 
 through which all boys who entered in the same year were 
 conducted by the same master. At the end of each year the 
 whole class was promoted, and the master went up along with 
 them. At the end of the fourth year the class was handed 
 over to the Rector, or Head Master (who might have little or 
 no control over the other teachers), and the master began 
 another four years' course with the new boys 7 . 
 
 The hours were usually very long. In 1866 a boy at 
 a Scottish Day School had 1,980 hours of lessons during the 
 
 1 J. Grant, p. 127. " Argyll Third Report, i. pp. 246, 157. 
 
 * Report of first Scotch Universities Commission, 1830, pp. 28, 31. 
 
 * Argyll Third Report, p. 150; Fearon, Taunton Report, vi. p. 31. 
 
 3 Argyll Third Report, p. 99. 6 Ibicl.p. 101. ' Ibid. p. 102; Fearon, p. 24.
 
 EDUCATION] ARGYLL COMMISSION 213 
 
 year, as against the 1,110 hours of Rugby, a normal English 
 Public School 1 . 
 
 Investigations. The system went on without interference 
 or investigation of any sort until 1866, when both Scotland 
 and England were at work inquiring into their secondary 
 schools. 
 
 The Assistant Commissioners of the Argyll Commission 2 
 found 15,946 pupils in 70 Burgh and Middle Class Schools, 
 and estimated that these numbers represented the children of 
 about two-thirds of the middle-class population of Scotland ''. 
 They also reported as to the quality of 210 Departments of 
 schools which they had examined. 
 
 Classics . . 
 English . 
 Mathematics 
 Modern Languages 
 
 Good and Fair. 
 . 54 per cent. 
 
 58 
 56 
 37 
 
 Indifferent. 
 31 per cent. 
 33 i, 
 33 ,, 
 
 Bad. 
 15 per cent. 
 9 .. 
 ii i> 
 
 22 ,, 
 
 On the whole they considered secondary education in Scot- 
 land to be in a satisfactory condition, though requiring and 
 capable of amendment 5 . They saw that if the Parochial 
 Schools were to be subject to the Revised Code and were 
 bribed to devote all their energies to the barest rudimentary 
 teaching, secondary education would need increased support, 
 and they recommended the establishment of efficient District 
 or Supplementary schools and the establishment of bursaries 
 or scholarships to these schools and to the Universities 6 . 
 ' The number of distinguished men who have risen up in 
 Scotland through these schools and our Universities has long 
 been the glory of this country and the wonder and envy of 
 other countries, and it would be a matter of infinite regret if 
 this national feature were to be obliterated V 
 
 The Commissioners, however, did not think it necessary to 
 adopt this recommendation, but contented themselves with 
 advising grants for the buildings and repairs of Burgh schools, 
 and special grants to Parochial schools which were discharging 
 the functions of secondary schools 8 . They also reported in 
 favour of an annual inspection of the teaching and buildings 
 of all Burgh schools by one of H. M. Inspectors of Schools [ \ 
 
 In 1866 the Taunton Commission sent Mr. Fearon as 
 Assistant Commissioner to institute a comparison between the 
 Middle Schools in England and Scotland. He was immensely 
 struck with the educational zeal and sympathy of the public- 
 
 Argyll Third Report, 87. 2 Page 126. * Argyll Third Report, p. vii. 
 
 Ibid. p. Ixxiv. 5 Ibid, xviii. 6 Ibid. p. 146. 
 
 Ibid. " Ibid. p. xxvi. Ibid.
 
 SCOTLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 and the good attendance at the burgh schools l . He found, 
 for example, 390 children attending as day scholars at the 
 burgh school of Ayr, 4 a town with less than the population 
 of Reading or Canterbury V ' Where in England could we 
 produce such an example of interest and confidence in a public 
 school among the middle classes of our rural population 3 ? ' 
 He dwells on the ardour of the Scotch teacher, ' with the 
 dignity of a ruler in his gestures and the fire of an enthusiast 
 in his eye,' and draws a lively contrast between an endowed 
 English grammar school at its afternoon lessons and a Scotch 
 burgh school 4 . He notes, however, that few of the schools 
 would rank in respect to the age of the pupils as more than 
 second grade secondary schools 5 , and that superior education 
 had been almost extinguished in Scotland for the sake of 
 elementary and secondary instruction. The blending of the 
 middle and lower classes in the burgh schools was complete, 
 but the upper classes resorted almost entirely to English 
 schools and universities 6 . 
 
 The Scotch secondary schools were almost entirely day 
 schools, although by 1866 private boarding schools were 
 becoming of more importance 7 . There are now four Scotch 
 schools admitted to the Head Masters' Conference 8 , but these 
 in all educate less than a thousand boys, not all of whom are 
 boarders. Yet when the proportion of wealthy people in 
 Scotland and England and the number of Scotch boys at the 
 English public schools are taken into account the difference 
 in the upper classes is not so great as would at first appear. 
 It is in the class just below this that the distinction must be 
 made. 
 
 Though girls were admitted to many of the burgh schools, 
 and did well there, yet the majority of them went to schools 
 partly of a proprietary and partly of a private character a . 
 
 Legislation. The first Statute affecting burgh schools was 
 the Act of 1 86 1 (24 & 25 Viet. c. 107) 10 (p. 125), which besides 
 abolishing the jurisdiction of Presbyteries over these schools, 
 also absolved the Masters from signing the Confession of Faith 
 or the Formula of the Church of Scotland, and did not, as in 
 the case of the Parish Schoolmaster, impose any subscription 
 in place of it. 
 
 After several attempts the first Education (Scotland) Act 
 was passed in 1872, 35 & 36 Viet. c. 62 (see p. 127). It was 
 not, as in England, an Act for Elementary Education only, 
 
 1 Taunton Report, vi. p. 60. 2 18,573, ibid. p. 9. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. 60. * Ibid. p. 51. 5 Ibid. pp. 6, 8. 
 
 * Ibid. pp. 21,22. 7 Ibid. p. u. 8 Public Schools Year Book, 1903. 
 
 9 Taunton Report, vi. p. 58. 10 Sec. 22.
 
 EDUCATION] EDUCATION ACTS 215 
 
 but dealt with burgh schools, in which it included all schools 
 to which the term was legally applicable, by whatever name 
 they might be called, and all schools established or managed 
 by School Boards in burghs and vested in them by this Act. 
 
 School Boards, as we have seen, were established in every 
 parish and burgh, and superseded the Town Councils in the 
 management of burgh schools. 
 
 The existing burgh schools in which the education given 
 did not consist chiefly of elementary instruction, but included 
 classics, modern languages, mathematics, natural science, and 
 generally the higher branches of knowledge, were to be 
 deemed higher class public schools and managed accordingly, 
 to promote the higher education of the country. Eleven such 
 schools were specified as Higher Class Public Schools, and any 
 School Board might resolve that any burgh school under its 
 management should be so deemed, or any parish school which 
 could not reasonably be considered as chiefly elementary 1 . 
 
 As far as practicable, and subject to the approval of the 
 Board of Education, School Boards were to relieve these 
 schools of the necessity of giving elementary instruction ; but 
 this regulation has proved practically a dead letter. These 
 schools were to be annually examined in the higher branches 
 of knowledge by examiners appointed and employed by the 
 School Boards. The school fees were to be fixed at intervals 
 of not less than three years by the principal teachers and the 
 ordinary teachers of the school, subject to the determination 
 of the Board of Education. Their funds were to be kept 
 entirely separate from the school fund, from which they were 
 to receive nothing except the cost of the annual examination 
 and the cost of providing or enlarging buildings. The con- 
 tributions payable to them from the ' common good ' of the 
 burgh were confirmed to them by law. The endowment of 
 each school for general purposes was assigned to it, and also 
 any endowments for instruction in particular subjects or for 
 teachers in particular branches. The full amount of fees was 
 to be divided among the teachers as each School Board should 
 determine. 
 
 The School Board might fix for its masters in any higher 
 class school such qualifications as it thought fit, and might 
 appoint as examiners professors of any Scotch university or 
 teachers of distinction in a higher class public school. 
 
 The Education Act (Scotland) of 1878 (41 & 42 Viet. c. 78) 
 (see p. 130) allowed the expenses of higher class public school 
 buildings, or the expenses of maintaining them, or such other 
 
 1 Thirty-two in June, 1901.
 
 216 SCOTLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 expenses for the promotion of efficient education as were not 
 provided for by other revenues, to be paid for out of the 
 school fund, with consent of the Education Department, and 
 expressly authorized the School Boards to maintain the 
 buildings. The Education Department, however, interpreted 
 this as not applicable to masters' salaries. 
 
 Provision was also made for the examination of any higher 
 class schools by H.M. Inspectors or other persons appointed 
 by the Department on the application of the authority of 
 such school, whether a public school or not, on their under- 
 taking to pay such expenses as the Education Department 
 might fix. 
 
 Inspection and Examination. In 1885 the Department 
 was completely severed from the English establishment. The 
 Secretary for Scotland took the place of the Lord President 
 of Council, and the post of Secretary to the Scotch Educa- 
 tion Department was created and given to Mr. (now Sir) 
 Henry Craik. In the following year the provision for the 
 inspection of Higher Class Schools was first put in force, both 
 for public schools and such other endowed or voluntary 
 secondary schools as chose to apply. It was soon found 
 desirable to provide for these schools an examination which, 
 while fixing a standard at which secondary education ought 
 to aim, might not only concentrate their work by rendering 
 a multiplicity of examinations unnecessary, but also stimulate 
 their efforts by offering to the pupils a certificate to which a 
 definite value could be attached l . These examinations began 
 in 1888 and were thrown open to pupils of State-aided 
 schools in 1892. They are held simultaneously by written 
 papers, and success is rewarded by what is known as a 
 Leaving Certificate, which since 1902 is given only for groups 
 and not as formerly for single subjects. 
 
 In 1902 thirty-two Higher Class Schools were inspected, as 
 well as twenty-five endowed and thirty-seven schools under 
 private management whether that of a governing body or 
 a proprietor. The number of candidates for Leaving Certifi- 
 cates has grown from 2,528 in 1890 to 13,173 in 1895 and 
 18,212 in 1902. In 1901 they came from 441 schools, of which 
 353 were aided by the State. 
 
 In 1888 a Committee appointed by the Education Depart- 
 ment under Mr. Charles Parker, M.P. (p. 131), reported on 
 Secondary Education in Scotland, and recommended that the 
 country should look mainly to schools especially appropriated 
 to it. They found that in the large cities the School Boards 
 
 1 P. P., Cd. 1,235, P- 36.
 
 EDUCATION] COMMITTEES 217 
 
 dealt satisfactorily with the schools, but that in the small 
 burghs secondary education was starved for the sake of 
 elementary grants, and that consequently it was expedient 
 that it should receive a State grant. In each country parish 
 a school capable of preparing its best pupils for the Univer- 
 sities should be maintained, the staff of such schools should 
 be recognized, evening schools should be encouraged, and 
 leaving examinations at secondary schools should be insti- 
 tuted l . 
 
 Education Act, 1892. In 1892 Scotland received her share 
 of the money which England and Ireland, following her 
 example, now spent on freeing education (see p. 132). 
 
 By the Education and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) 
 Act, 1892 (55 & 56 Viet. c. 51), of the sums so assigned 
 ;6o,ooo were given annually 
 
 (a) to defray the cost of the inspection of higher class 
 schools in Scotland, and of the holding of examinations for 
 and granting the Leaving Certificates of the Scotch Education 
 Department ; 
 
 (6) to make provision for secondary education, under 
 Minutes of the Department submitted to Parliament, in urban 
 and rural districts in Scotland, but only to schools under the 
 same management as a State-aided or higher class public 
 school, or school managed under an Act, scheme, or pro- 
 visional Order. Subject to vested interests, the control of 
 fees was transferred from teachers to managers in schools 
 receiving the new grant. 
 
 Secondary Education Committees. A Committee under 
 Lord Elgin was at once appointed by the Scotch Education 
 Department to inquire into the best means of distributing 
 the latter of these two grants, for which it was estimated that 
 ,57,000 would be available ; the cost of inspection of Higher 
 Class Schools and of the examinations for Leaving Certificates 
 being ^3,300 2 . The Committee took evidence 3 and, in 
 accordance with their report, Committees on Secondary Edu- 
 cation were elected for each county and for the burghs of 
 Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Leith, and Dundee, and for 
 Govan parish. 
 
 These Committees were elected for three years on the 
 principle of equal representation of the county or burgh 
 council and of the School Boards. In counties the chairmen 
 of all the School Boards elected their members, in the five 
 burghs they were chosen by the burgh School Board. To 
 these was added in each case one of H.M. Inspectors, nomi- 
 
 1 P. P., 1888, xli. p. 643; cf. P. P., 1892, Ixii. p. 158. 
 
 a P. P. Eng., 1892, Ixii. p. 67. 3 Ibid. p. 71.
 
 2i 8 SCOTLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 nated by the Department, and in the burghs representatives 
 of specified local endowments. 
 
 The Committees were to report on the existing 1 provision 
 for higher education and any deficiencies in their district, and 
 make recommendations to the Department. 
 
 4 Under the original Minute l the money available was to 
 be distributed on the principle that the amount earned by 
 each school should be determined mainly by the work done 
 in that school, the schools entitled to share being selected by 
 the Burgh or County Committee.' 
 
 'After Parliamentary discussion, however, the plan was 
 changed, and a new Minute was issued on May i, 1893, in 
 accordance with which a proportionate amount was allotted 
 to each Burgh or County, to be distributed according to 
 a scheme drawn up for the approval of the Department by 
 each Committee 2 .' 
 
 Due regard must be paid in such schemes both to educa- 
 tional efficiency and to the extension of the benefits of 
 secondary education to the largest possible number of 
 scholars 3 . 
 
 The Committees have since been elected triennially, and 
 while the original elements have been retained, a provision 
 has been inserted that if the local authority under the Local 
 Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, or the Education 
 and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) Act, 1892, entrusted 
 any Secondary Education Committee with the administration 
 of funds available for secondary or technical education, the 
 local authorities are to be represented on such committee by 
 additional members not exceeding one-third of the whole 
 Committee in number 4 . 
 
 Such representation was further extended in 1900. The 
 money thus entrusted to the Secondary Education Committee 
 comprised in 1900 one-fifth of the whole amount available. 
 The larger grants, however, may safely be left to their local 
 authorities : it is the smaller sums which it is desirable to 
 concentrate and to administer on a respectable scale instead of 
 allowing them to be frittered away in ineffectual doles 5 . 
 
 In 1898 the Local Taxation Account (Scotland) Act, 61 & 62 
 Viet. c. 56, assigned a further annual grant of 35,000 to Scot- 
 tish secondary and technical education. This amount is ex- 
 pended partly under Minutes of April 27 and June 15, 1899, in 
 grants to the Higher Class Secondary and Technical Schools 
 
 1 August ii, 1892, modified January 31, 1893. 
 
 2 Report of Ed. Dep. for 1892-3, pp. 141-56; for 1895-6, p. 142. 
 
 3 Ibid. 1892-3, p. 155. * Ibid. 1895-6, 143; one-half, 1897. 
 
 5 P.P., Cd. 585, p. 28.
 
 EDUCATION] CONTINUATION CLASSES 219 
 
 on the principle of a fixed grant to each school, supplemented 
 by grant which is varied according to the average attendance 
 of pupils over twelve. In Higher Class Public Schools it 
 depends also on the proportion which the expenditure from 
 rates upon the school bears to the valuation of the district. 
 No grant exceeds 750 or is less than 300 l . 
 
 Teaching of Science and Art. Scotland always shared 
 fully in the grants offered by the Science and Art Department 
 (see p. 156), though perhaps in the days before the Educa- 
 tion Acts less zeal was shown in taking advantage of them 
 than might have been expected 2 . But this had long passed 
 away before 1897 when their administration, as far as Scotland 
 was concerned, was transferred to the Scotch Education Depart- 
 ment. The state of affairs, however, discovered by the Scotch 
 authorities on taking over the South Kensington system was 
 not satisfactory. It was found that the distinction between 
 Evening Continuation Schools and Science and Art Classes 
 was so vague that in some cases grants were being claimed in 
 both from the Education Department and also from the 
 Science and Art Department on account of the same subjects 
 taught (though under different names) by the same teachers 
 to the same pupils at the same hours 3 . The functions of the 
 local committees had been largely nominal, and the classes 
 were in many instances ventures of the teacher who made 
 what he could out of them as a private speculation 4 . 
 
 These matters were quickly rectified, and in the meanwhile 
 grants for single subjects are continued by the Department 
 for the most part in accordance with the South Kensington 
 Regulations. 
 
 Scotland also has powers of raising a rate for schools 
 under the Public Libraries Act (50 & 51 Viet. c. 42), but no 
 use was made of these in 1901. 
 
 Continuation Classes. The Code of Regulations which 
 came into force on July 31, 1901, has already been treated at 
 p. 137. Secondary education is concerned with Division III, 
 providing specialized instruction, which must extend over a 
 period of three years. Such classes are open to all persons 
 who are over sixteen, or who, being under that age, have 
 gained the Merit Certificate, or have qualified or are qualify- 
 ing by attending the preparatory classes. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to point out the advantage that Scot- 
 land has possessed in her School Boards not being limited by 
 statute to dealing with elementary education or with instruc- 
 tion given to children only. 
 
 1 P. P., Cd. 585, p. 29. > P. P., 1867-8, xv. Q. 7,678. 
 
 3 P. P., Cd. 9,307, p. 30. * Ibid. p. 31.
 
 220 SCOTLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 Technical Education. Technical Education began in the 
 United Kingdom (p. 164) with the lectures at Anderson's 
 Institution in Glasgow. In 1821 the School of Arts was 
 established at Edinburgh ' for the better education of the 
 mechanics of Edinburgh in such branches of Physical Science 
 as are of practical application in their several trades V 
 
 The Mechanics' Institution at Glasgow and other similar 
 foundations were established two or three years later, and for 
 the next half-century their history was analogous to that of 
 English institutions of the same character. The Universities 
 and secondary schools were cheaper and more accessible than 
 in England, the zeal for education was greater, but there was 
 no system which made any pretence of giving a real technical 
 training either to adults or to children. 
 
 In the course of time existing establishments were rendered 
 more efficient by amalgamation. In 1885 the School of Arts, 
 by a scheme under the Educational Endowments Commission 
 (p. 223), became the Heriot Watt College; Anderson's Insti- 
 tution, and its offshoot the Mechanics' Institution, were simi- 
 larly grouped with other foundations in 1886 as the Glasgow 
 and West of Scotland Technical College (p. 288). 
 
 Technical Schools Act, 1887. In 1887 Scotland obtained 
 the first measure passed by Parliament for Technical Educa- 
 tion (50 & 51 Viet. c. 64, amended by 55 & 56 Viet. c. 63). 
 
 It gave power to any School Board to provide a technical 
 school for its district and pay the expenses out of the school 
 fund. A School Board had the same powers as in the case of 
 a higher class public school under the Act of 1878, and the 
 Technical School was to be deemed a public school, except 
 for attendance to earn grants under the Education Acts. No 
 help was offered from South Kensington until 1890, and in 
 the following year that was withdrawn (see p. 167). 
 
 Hardly any use has been made of the Act, and only one 
 School Board has availed itself of it in erecting a Technical 
 School 2 . 
 
 In 1890 the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 
 allowed Burgh and County Councils, as in England, to apply 
 the residue of their new funds to technical education, but 
 there was a doubt as to whether grants could be made except 
 to School Boards. The money was appropriated before this 
 was settled, and less has been done than in England. 
 
 It must, however, be remembered that the powers of the 
 School Boards for definite secondary education are consider- 
 
 1 Descriptive Handbook of the British Education Section at the Paris Exhibition, 
 1900, p. 113 : Eyre & Spottiswoode, London. 
 
 2 Alexander : Bremner's Education, p. 262.
 
 EDUCATION] TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 221 
 
 ably greater than in England, and it is chiefly by means of 
 its Education Acts that Scotland has fostered that secondary 
 education which, in the South, was often described as ' tech- 
 nical.' 
 
 The grants at stake are smaller in proportion to the popu- 
 lation, the total amount being only about 16 per thousand in 
 contrast to ,35 per thousand in England, and in the case of 
 small police burghs both district and grant are too small to be 
 effective. 
 
 In 1896-7 out of 41,000 available, 28,000 was devoted 
 by local authorities to education; in 1900-1 out of 87,600 
 payable in respect of the previous year 62,447 was tnus allo- 
 cated, the remainder going in relief of rates 1 . The increased 
 total is due to the fact that in 1898 the Local Taxation 
 Accounts (Scotland) Act assigned a further annual grant of 
 35,000 for technical and secondary education, the distribution 
 of which has been already explained at p. 218. Of the amount 
 actually expended in 1901, 16,073 was handed over to the 
 Secondary Education Committees. 
 
 THE REFORM OF EDUCATIONAL ENDOWMENTS. 
 
 The Scotch endowments for education seem in comparison 
 with England and Ireland to have suffered little from neglect 
 or misappropriation : the national thrift and zeal for education 
 rendered great abuses impossible. 
 
 In the matter of endowments the secondary schools had 
 fared badly in Scotland. If John Knox had been able to 
 carry out his scheme 2 , a grammar school would have been 
 founded in every town, and endowed out of the patrimony of 
 the Church. But the barons who had got possession of the 
 said patrimony successfully resisted all such endeavours on the 
 part of the Reformed Church, and in 1867 only ten burgh 
 schools had any endowments, and these only amounted to 
 1,400 a year, while six of the Academies had an income of 
 870 3 . This does not include the endowed ' Hospitals,' which 
 spent 44,182 in giving 1,064 free boarders 'what may in 
 the majority of cases be termed a liberal education, including 
 Latin, Greek, and Mathematics 4 ,' and also supporting a num- 
 ber of elementary day schools. 
 
 Of the endowments for schools nearly half of the total 
 amount belonged to the ' Hospitals,' which derived their name 
 from Christ's Hospital in London, in imitation of which the 
 
 1 P. P., 1902, House of Commons Paper, No. 182. 
 
 a First Book of Discipline, Laing's ed., ii. 210, 221 ; J. Grant, pp. 76-8. 
 
 3 Argyll Third Report, p. 60. 4 Ibid. pp. xix, xx.
 
 222 SCOTLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 first of them was founded by George Heriot in 1624 for the 
 maintenance, clothing, and education of orphan or destitute 
 children l . The instruction was almost always both elementary 
 and secondary, following the precedent of the Parochial and 
 Burgh Schools. 
 
 But though there were no crying scandals, the administra- 
 tion of these trusts became in many cases unsuited to the ideas 
 or deficiencies of modern days, and even when reforms were 
 desired by the trustees it was not always easy to effect them. 
 Heriot's Hospital, for example, contrary to the intentions of 
 the founder, had gradually come to educate all its founda- 
 tioners within its own walls instead of sending the children 
 to the grammar school -. In 1836 the Governors obtained a 
 private Act (6 & 7 Will. IV, c. 25), which enabled them to 
 devote their surplus funds to establishing elementary free 
 schools in the most crowded parts of Edinburgh, and from 
 the control over the attendance these day schools produced 
 exceptionally good results. But it was fifty years more before 
 the other funds of the Hospital were employed to the best 
 advantage. 
 
 The Argyll Commission (pp. 126, 213) drew attention to 
 the Hospitals, and recommended that, subject, where neces- 
 sary, to the approval of Parliament, the General Board of 
 Education should amend the statutes of these institutions with 
 a view to the extension of education 3 . 
 
 In 1869 an Endowed Institutions (Scotland) Act (32 & 33 
 Viet. c. 39) was passed, enabling governors, trustees, or mana- 
 gers of institutions or endowments for educational or charit- 
 able purposes to apply to the Home Secretary for Provisional 
 Orders to provide for their better government and administra- 
 tion. These Orders were to be laid before Parliament, and 
 then, if not opposed, to come into operation. But after a few 
 such Orders had been issued, the law officers of the Crown 
 advised that the powers granted by the Act were inadequate, 
 and no more action was taken. 
 
 In 1872 a Royal Commission was appointed, with Sir 
 T. E. Colebrooke as Chairman, to inquire into all Educa- 
 tional Endowments in Scotland (except those founded in the 
 Universities before 1808 and reported on by the Commission 
 of 1858), and into the hospitals and schools supported by them. 
 
 They reported the total annual income of Educational 
 Charities to amount to ,174,000, of which 79,000 belonged 
 to the Hospitals, 43,000 to the Elementary Schools, and the 
 remainder in nearly equal proportions to Secondary Schools, 
 
 1 Colebrooke Commission, Third Report, p. 19. 2 Ibid. p. 21. 
 
 * Argyll Third Report, p. xxvii.
 
 EDUCATION] ENDOWMENTS ACTS 223 
 
 to Mixed Endowments, and to General Endowments ' . Under 
 this last head was included the celebrated Dick Bequest, dating- 
 from 1828, an endowment, both in itself and its administra- 
 tion, far in advance of its times, increasing- the salaries of parish 
 schoolmasters in Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray as a reward of 
 merit, and in encouragement of higher instruction 2 . 
 
 They advised opening the Hospital Schools and reducing 
 the foundationers as far as possible. Endowments for educa- 
 tion were to be devoted to improving- education, subsidizing 
 higher instruction, and establishing exhibitions and bursaries. 
 Examination by qualified independent inspectors and audit of 
 accounts were recommended together with the appointment 
 of a temporary Executive Commission. 
 
 Accordingly, in 1878, a Commission of seven members, 
 Lord Moncrieff being Chairman, was appointed by the Endowed 
 Institutions Act (41 & 42 Viet. c. 48), with the powers which 
 had been wanting in 1869. Governing- Bodies might apply 
 as before for Provisional Orders to the Home Secretary, who 
 now could remit the application to the Commissioners for in- 
 quiry. The Order must be consistent with the general prin- 
 ciples of the petition and must still be laid before Parliament. 
 
 The Commissioners being also directed to report to the 
 Education Department on the best means of promoting higher 
 education in public and State-aided schools, recommended that 
 in every parish there should be at least one teacher qualified to 
 give instruction in the higher subjects, and declared its opinion 
 that it was not only possible to combine thorough elementary 
 teaching with instruction in the higher branches, but that any 
 separation of these subjects was detrimental to the tone of the 
 school and dispiriting to the master. Secondary schools 
 might be serviceable in crowded centres, but they were im- 
 practicable in country parishes 3 . 
 
 The Commissioners reported on thirty-one Endowments, 
 but, on the same principle as the Charity Commission in 
 England, had no power to take action except at the request 
 of the Governing Bodies themselves. 
 
 To remedy this want of initiative the Educational Endow- 
 ments (Scotland) Act, 1882 (45 & 46 Viet. c. 59), provided 
 for the appointment of a new Commission of seven members 
 under Lord Balfour of Burleigh, with power to prepare draft 
 schemes for the future government and management of educa- 
 tional endowments only. They were directed to have special 
 
 1 Third Report, 1875, p. 239. Excluding .22,020 of University Endowments 
 given since 1808. 
 
 a Bryce Report, v. 506 ; Report to the Trustees of the Dick Bequest, by Professor 
 Laurie: Edinburgh, 1890. 3 Final Report, p. vii.
 
 224 SCOTLAND [SECONDARY 
 
 regard to making provision for secondary or higher or tech- 
 nical education in public schools or otherwise in the respective 
 districts. The Act applied to all endowments created before 
 1872, and was the original of the Irish Educational Endow- 
 ments Act of 1885 (p. 198), which, mutatis mutandis, was 
 almost identical with it. 
 
 Any endowment of a State-aided school, or school coming 
 under the Education Acts, being of less annual value than fifty 
 pounds, might be reformed by a scheme approved by the 
 Education Department. 
 
 On the termination of the Commission (which ended in 
 1890) the revision of schemes might be dealt with by the 
 Court of Session and by consent of the Education Department. 
 
 The Commissioners adopted as their principle that relief to 
 the poor through an educational endowment must be given in 
 the form of educational opportunities for the children of the 
 poor, and not in the form of a payment in aid of general rates 
 in which many besides the poor would participate ] . 
 
 The interests of girls, ' merit as ascertained by examination, 1 
 inspection of schools and audit of accounts received the same 
 recognition as in the Irish Endowments Act (see p. 199). 
 
 The Commissioners' schemes had to be approved by the 
 Scotch Education Department, and ultimately sanctioned by 
 an Order in Council. If any petition were presented to the 
 Department against a scheme, such scheme must be laid before 
 both Houses of Parliament, and then unless either House pre- 
 sented an address against it, it might be approved by an 
 Order in Council. A ' special case ' might be submitted to 
 the Court of Session on any point of law. 
 
 The Commissioners submitted 379 schemes dealing with 
 821 endowments, and a revenue of nearly ,200,000 2 , which 
 they assigned to the following purposes : 
 
 Free Education . ........ 11,387 
 
 Clothing and Maintenance ... .... 29,055 
 
 Elementary School Bursaries ...... 13,386 
 
 Bursaries for Higher Class and Technical Schools and 
 
 Universities ...... 21,954 
 
 Grants to School Boards for Higher Education 
 
 Grants to Higher Class Schools . 
 
 Grants to Evening Classes . 
 
 Grants to Technical Schools 
 
 Girls' Education (besides what they share with boys) 
 
 Rural School Boards . 
 
 Miscellaneous Educational Purposes 
 
 Sum to be apportioned by Governing Bodies 
 
 1 Seventh Report, P. P., 1890, C. 5,957, p. xx. 
 
 2 Ibid. P. P., 1890, xxxi. p. 771. 
 
 3 2 > l8 9 
 
 4.305 
 
 22,200 
 
 I 4, 2 59 
 
 534 
 
 9,600 
 
 2 7,455 
 
 oo
 
 EDUCATION] TRAINING OF TEACHERS 225 
 
 LOCAL EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Local Examinations were introduced into Scotland in 1865, 
 when the Universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews both 
 held them. But there seemed to be little demand; in 1867 
 St. Andrews had not candidates enough for an examination 1 , 
 and the system never prospered as in England. 
 
 It was chiefly of service in testing the education of girls-'. 
 In 1883 Edinburgh had 47 centres where 891 candidates were 
 examined, and of these 746 were girls 3 . 
 
 Glasgow took up the Examinations in 1877 and Aberdeen 
 in 1880, but the University Preliminary Examinations and the 
 Education Department Leaving Certificate Examinations have 
 reduced their importance, and Glasgow and St. Andrews 
 have discontinued them. The Senior and Junior Examina- 
 tions of Edinburgh were discontinued after 1900, but all three 
 classes of Aberdeen are still held ' to supply a common test 
 of attainment in the schools, and for those educated privately V 
 
 Higher Local Examinations will be found at page 287. 
 
 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS. 
 
 The Argyll Commission found in 1867 that while over 70 
 per cent, of the teachers in Burgh and Middle Class Schools 
 had studied at some University and about half of these had 
 taken a degree, 10 per cent, had been trained in the Training 
 Colleges, and that the teachers in private schools were largely 
 drawn from these training institutions 5 . 
 
 In 1876 the trustees of the will of Dr. Andrew Bell 6 (who 
 died in 1832) founded professional chairs at Edinburgh and 
 St. Andrews for teaching the Theory, History, and Practice 
 of Education 7 , this being the first endowment of the sort in 
 any University in these islands. 
 
 A Lectureship was founded in Aberdeen University in 
 October, 1893, and a year later the University of Glasgow 
 made a similar provision 8 . 
 
 In all these Universities a hundred lectures are delivered 
 each session, and attendance now qualifies towards graduation 
 in Arts. 
 
 1 Argyll Third Report, p. 133. * Taunton Report, vi. p. 35. 
 
 " Sir A. Grant, University of Edinburgh, ii. 157. 
 
 * Miss Galloway, p. 265 of Miss Bremner's Education of Girls and Women ; 
 School Calendar, 1897-8 : Whitaker and Co., Aberdeen. 
 
 8 Third Report, pp. 78, 173. " p. 3. 
 
 7 The endowment at St. Andrews produced ^223 in 1897 towards the salary of 
 ^400, Edinburgh drawing ^361. 
 
 8 The Scottish Educational Year Book, 1898, p. 171 : The Free Tress Office, 
 Aberdeen, is. 6d.
 
 226 SCOTLAND 
 
 At Edinburgh arrangements are made for securing sufficient 
 practice to qualify for the University Schoolmasters' diploma 
 recognized by the Education Department. 
 
 Formerly the Edinburgh diploma was open only to Gradu- 
 ates of that University l . Diplomas are now granted also at 
 Glasgow and Aberdeen. 
 
 St. George's Training College, Edinburgh, was opened in 
 1886 for women only, and two years later started a High 
 School in connexion with it ' 2 . The students attend the 
 lectures of the University ; but very few of them graduate. 
 
 The greater part of the Scotch training is directed to those 
 who will be masters in the ordinary public schools, and I can 
 only repeat once more that the lines between elementary and 
 secondary schools are less marked in Scotland than in other 
 parts of the kingdom. 
 
 The Education Department controls the Training Colleges, 
 which furnish additional education to those who are to be 
 teachers in elementary schools as well as providing them with 
 technical training. For King's students, see p. 136. 
 
 No register for secondary teachers yet exists in Scotland. 
 
 1 Registration Select Committee Report, 1891, p. 335. 
 
 2 Handbook Victorian Exhibition, 1897, p. 132.
 
 III. HIGHER EDUCATION 
 
 A. England 
 1. OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 IN the year 1800 the external direction of higher education 
 in England and Wales was confined almost exclusively to the 
 two ancient Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and even 
 their immediate influence extended little beyond the Church 
 of England. At Oxford a Dissenter was not suffered to 
 matriculate at all or to enjoy the instruction or any other 
 privilege either of University, College or Hall '. At Cambridge 
 he might become a student, but could obtain no degree, hold 
 no office, receive no emolument, and take no part in the 
 government of the University or of any foundation *. 
 
 In spite of the penal laws against Nonconformist and 
 Catholic schoolmasters and tutors 3 , they seem to have given 
 instruction in England and Wales without much interruption 
 during the greater part of the eighteenth century, but their 
 schools, being- only on sufferance, never attained any great 
 importance, and except in principle counted for little in the 
 intellectual history of the time. 
 
 Numerous small Nonconformist Academies, for laymen as 
 well as for ministry students, existed during the course of the 
 eighteenth century, though Homerton and Hoxton were ex- 
 ceptional in having any long continuous life. Manchester 
 College was founded at Manchester in I786 4 . Having no 
 endowments, most of them rose and fell with individual 
 teachers. 
 
 1 Report of Royal Commission on Oxford, 1852, p. 54. 
 
 2 Report of Royal Commission on Cambridge, 1852, pp. 38, 43. 
 
 3 The clauses of the Act of Uniformity against Nonconforming schoolmasters 
 and tutors (13 & 14 Car. II, c. 4, ss. 8, n\ though mitigated by the Toleration 
 Act (i W. & M. c. 18) and by 19 Geo. Ill, c. 44, were not definitely removed 
 from the Statute-book till 1865 (28 and 29 Viet. c. 122, s. 15), but George II 
 expressed his disapproval of the attack on Dr. Philip Doddridge in 1734 {Dictionary 
 of National Biography*), and no more prosecutions seem to have taken place. The 
 Schism Act, passed in 1714 (12 Anne, stat. 2, c. 7), was repealed five years later 
 (5 Geo. I, c. 4). The Five Mile Act and the Conventicle Act were only formally 
 repealed in 1812. 
 
 * D. Bogue and J. Bennett, History of Dissenters: London, 1808-12, 4 vols. . 
 ii. 34, iii. 282, iv. 261, 262 ; Hansard, T. S., xxv. 643. 
 
 Q 2
 
 228 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 In the case of the Catholics, an Act of 1699 (i i & 12 Will. 
 Ill, c. 4) inflicted perpetual punishment on papist school- 
 masters or tutors. Relief was granted in 1791 (31 Geo. Ill, 
 c. 32), and in 1795 Stonyhurst was founded. But Catholics 
 seem to have had no difficulty in obtaining education in 
 England during the eighteenth century 1 . Even after the 
 abolition of Tests in 1871, a Catholic embargo remained on 
 the English Universities, and was only removed by a decision 
 of the Pope in 1895 2 . 
 
 The advantages offered by Oxford and Cambridge were, 
 however, disproportionate to the favours they had received. 
 The curriculum at either university was narrow, and was 
 neglected with impunity, and distinctions were awarded under 
 the most arbitrary rules, when they were not a matter of pure 
 favouritism. Residence for four academic years was the one 
 real qualification for a degree 3 . Cambridge held an honour 
 examination in mathematics only, and until 1797 the proctors 
 exercised the privilege of inserting names into the honour 
 list at will 4 . Oxford, until 1802, granted its degrees on 
 the formal report of three unpaid examiners, Masters of 
 Arts appointed for three days without regard to their 
 qualifications 5 . 
 
 Fellowships and scholarships were in most cases restricted 
 to certain localities, certain families, or certain schools 6 . 
 There was no power in most cases to vary these restrictions, 
 and the utmost to be hoped was that there might be an 
 honest selection of the best capacity within the required limits, 
 instead of a nomination which each Fellow exercised in turn, 
 and regarded as his right and his private property 7 . Fellows 
 in nearly all cases were obliged to take Orders in the Church 
 of England, and were in all cases forbidden to marry 8 . Every 
 student since 1420, before he could become a member of 
 
 1 Lecky, History of England, i. 309. 
 
 "* Tablet, April 27, 1895. The proposal to recognize St. Edmund's House (an 
 establishment for Roman Catholics at Cambridge) as a public hostel was rejected 
 on May 12, 1898, by 462 votes to 218. A private Hall for Catholics was opened 
 at Oxford in 1896, and another in 1897, under the usual regulations, without 
 remark, and probably no opposition would be raised to a similar course at Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 3 This minimum had dwindled at Cambridge to three years and a term, and in 
 1858 was reduced to three years. In 1859 the Oxford necessary residence was 
 changed from four academical years to three. 
 
 4 J. B. Mullinger, ' History of the University of Cambridge,' Epochs of Church 
 History, p. 178: Longmans, 1888. 
 
 5 1852 Report of Royal Commission on Oxford, p. 60. 
 
 6 Oxford Report, 1852, pp. 149, 174; Cambridge Report, pp. 157, 185. 
 
 7 Oxford Report, p. 168. 
 
 8 Ibid. pp. 163, 164; Cambridge Report, p. 171. 
 
 9 History of the University of Oxford, by Sir H. C. Maxwell Lyte, p. 200 : 
 Macmillan & Co., 1 886.
 
 EDUCATION] OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE 229 
 
 either University, had been obliged to attach himself to some 
 College or Hall, and in the case of Oxford must take up his 
 residence within its walls. The colleges had eight or nine 
 times as much property as their University, and most of the 
 University professorships were but poorly paid in comparison 
 with College offices. It is not surprising that the Colleges 
 had overshadowed the Universities. ' The cessation of pro- 
 fessorial teaching is designated by the Hebdomadal Board as 
 a "temporary interruption,'" said the Oxford Report of 1852 
 (page 93), ' but it is an interruption which, so far as we can 
 ascertain, has been the rule and not the exception for at least 
 a century and a half.' The professorial system had been 
 almost entirely superseded in the instruction of undergraduates 
 by the College tutors l ; but these in turn, especially at 
 Cambridge, had been largely supplemented by private 
 ' coaches.' 
 
 The constitution of both Universities seemed to have been 
 devised to prevent any attempts at change. All initiative 
 in Cambridge rested with the Caput Senatus, consisting of 
 the Vice-Chancellor and of five members elected from fifteen 
 persons nominated by the Vice-Chancellor and Proctors : the 
 veto of one member of this body was sufficient to put a stop 
 to any measure 2 . At Oxford the analogous Hebdomadal 
 Board consisted solely of the Heads of Houses (including the 
 Vice-Chancellor) and the two Proctors ; and the Vice- 
 Chancellor singly and the Proctors jointly had a similar power 
 of veto. Convocation, the general body of Oxford graduates, 
 corresponding to the Cambridge Senate, could only accept 
 or reject without amendment any proposal sent to them, and 
 their debates were still conducted in Latin. Congregation, 
 the intermediate body of regent masters, had lost all but the 
 most formal existence 3 . The Cambridge Code of Statutes 
 had been given by Queen Elizabeth in I57O 4 . Oxford was 
 governed by the Laudian Statutes accepted in 1636, which 
 had been so little modified that in 1850 it was contended that 
 only the Crown and University in conjunction could alter 
 them 5 . Some of the Statutes, of course, were of much more 
 remote date. Every one taking his M.A. degree at Oxford 
 had until 1827 to swear that he would neither give nor attend 
 lectures at Stamford non leges nee audies Stanfordiae 
 a relic of the secession to that town in 1334 five centuries 
 before. 
 
 1 Oxford Report, p. 93 ; Cambridge Report, p. 70. 
 
 2 Cambridge Report, p. 13. 3 Oxford Report, pp. 10, n. 
 * Cambridge Correspondence, 1852, p. 2. 
 
 5 Oxford Report, pp. 3-5. A. Clark, The Colleges of Oxford, p. 254: Methuen, 
 1891.
 
 230 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 The Colleges at both Universities were governed nominally 
 by the original founders' statutes or revised and adapted 
 versions of these ; at Cambridge, in two or three instances, 
 the sanction of the Crown had been obtained for these 
 changes, but most of them were quite without legal authority ] . 
 Modification was thus in most cases impossible without the 
 intervention of Parliament, and neither the Crown nor the 
 Houses of Parliament interfered before the middle of the 
 century. 
 
 In the meantime such reforms as were practicable had 
 already begun from within, and there was in either University 
 a considerable party which ardently desired improvement. 
 At Oxford, in the end of the eighteenth century, Dr. Cyril 
 Jackson, the Dean of Christ Church, had instituted examina- 
 tions within his own College 2 . In 1795 Oriel had begun 
 to elect to its fellowships from outside solely on the results 
 of its own examinations 3 : in 1829 the Master and fellows of 
 Balliol began to elect scholars after examination, and in 1834 
 obtained such sanction as the Visitor could give to this 
 change in their statutes 4 . The most brilliant success attended 
 these reforms, and encouraged similar measures elsewhere. 
 
 Cambridge, it must be said once for all, had not sunk into 
 so deep a lethargy as Oxford : there were fewer restrictions 
 in fellowships and scholarships, and fewer abuses in filling 
 them 5 . Its defect was narrowness rather than indifference. 
 In 1772 the Master of St. John's established examinations 
 in his college 6 . In 1838 Dr. Whewell, the Master of Trinity, 
 revived the lectures of Moral Philosophy 7 ; in 1844 Trinity 
 obtained new Statutes, and was followed by St. John's in 
 
 l8 49 8. 
 
 Nevertheless, in spite of the higher intellectual life, and 
 the great names which Cambridge could boast : in spite of 
 the greater openness of the endowments, and tolerance to 
 Dissenters, there was no great increase in the numbers re- 
 sorting to the Whig University. In 1800 matriculations were 
 twice as numerous at Oxford, and the nation at large seems 
 to have been quite indifferent to the intellectual superiority 
 of her rival. 
 
 Even the absence of examinations will not account for this 
 preference, for after 1800, when the requirements of Oxford 
 had become at least as severe as those of Cambridge, the 
 
 1 Oxford Report, p. 148; Cambridge Report, p. 150. 
 
 2 A. Clark, The Colleges of Oxford, p. 316: Methuen, 1891. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. 122. * Ibid. p. 56; 1852 Report, pp. 152, 189, 190. 
 8 Report, p. 156 ; Oxford Evidence, p. 36. 
 
 Mullinger, p. 182. 7 Ibid. p. 194. 8 Ibid. p. 198.
 
 EDUCATION] REFORMS 231 
 
 majority in matriculations remained with the elder University 
 until two-thirds of the century were passed. 
 
 In 1800 a University Statute was passed at Oxford by 
 which a genuine examination for the B.A. degree ' was 
 established in 1802, and a small honours list published with 
 names in order of merit. An examination for the M.A. 
 degree was also instituted, but never became more than 
 formal, and after five years was discontinued. In 1807 Literae 
 Humaniores and Mathematics were separated, and two classes 
 of honours in alphabetical order were created for either 
 'school.' Improvements were continually made, until in 1830 
 Honour Schools were separated from Pass Schools, and leave 
 was given to illustrate ancient by modern authors 2 . 
 
 In 1824 the Classical Tripos was first held at Cambridge, 
 but until 1850 it was open only to those who had taken 
 honours in Mathematics 3 . In 1849 Cambridge revised such 
 of its ordinances as, having been made by the University 
 alone, were open to alteration 1 , and the Moral Science and 
 Natural Science Triposes were recommended for adoption 5 . 
 In the next year Oxford further reorganized its examinations, 
 and introduced Moderations as a test of pure scholarship in 
 the middle of the University course 6 . 
 
 It may be as well to point out here that Oxford, Cambridge, 
 and Durham (apart from Newcastle) are national institutions 
 only by virtue of their influence and position, and the import- 
 ance of the various privileges they have received. Queen 
 Elizabeth granted them a Charter of Incorporation in 1570 
 (13 Eliz. c. 29), which confirmed to them the patents they 
 already enjoyed. The power of Parliament to interfere with 
 the Universities and Colleges is only that right which it pos- 
 sesses to deal with any private institution or property in the 
 interest of the nation 7 . The endowments of these Universities 
 proceed solely from private benefactions and bequests. Among 
 other persons, different sovereigns have exercised their liber- 
 ality in endowing certain professorships and readerships, which 
 were at first supported out of the Privy Purse or Civil List, 
 regarded until recent years as private property. On the ac- 
 cession of William IV the hereditary revenues of the Crown 
 were surrendered to the people, who in return undertook to 
 make suitable provision for the Throne. Consequently two 
 sums of about ^100 are still paid annually by the Commis- 
 
 1 1852 Report, p. ^3. 2 Ibid. p. 61. 
 
 3 Mullingtr, p. 189. * Ibid. p. 199. 
 
 5 In 1848, ibid. p. 196. 6 Report, 1852, p. 65. 
 
 7 Oxford 1852 Report, p. 155. Cf. M. Pattison, Suggestions on Academical 
 Organization, p. 10 : Edinonston and Douglas, Edinburgh, 1868. Ox.brd Corre- 
 spondence, 1852, p. 32.
 
 232 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 sioners of Woods and Forests. Two sums of about 1,000 
 each for professors and lecturers, which after 1821 were voted 
 annually by the House of Commons to Oxford and Cambridge 
 till after the passing of the first University Acts, were surren- 
 dered in return for the abolition of the stamp duties on matricu- 
 lations and degrees, which had been imposed by 55 Geo. Ill, 
 c. 184, and now brought in at least twice the total amount to 
 Government. But these grants were due to the pledge given 
 to the representatives of the original donor, and Oxford, Cam- 
 bridge, and Durham differ as yet from all other Universities 
 in the kingdom in that they draw no annual subsidy and have 
 received no grants from the national Treasury. 
 
 At last came the interference of the State. In 1834 a Bill 
 to admit Dissenters to Oxford and Cambridge had passed the 
 House of Commons, but had been thrown out by the Lords 
 and disappeared for a generation. But in August, 1850, the 
 Queen under her Sign Manual appointed two Commissions to 
 inquire into the state, discipline, studies, and revenues of Oxford 
 and Cambridge respectively : power was given to call for in- 
 formation and documents, but when these were refused, no 
 means of compulsion were afforded. 
 
 Obstruction in Parliament was for the present rendered 
 impossible, but recalcitrance in high places was soon mani- 
 fested. The Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge in 1850 refused 
 to answer any questions l . At Oxford the Governing Body 
 withheld all information and disputed the legality of the 
 Commission 2 . The Dean of Christ Church did not even 
 acknowledge the letters addressed to him 3 . Dr. Routh, 
 who had already been sixty years President of Magdalen 
 College, ' declined giving information concerning property 
 which he was not conscious of having misused or misapplied, 
 or surrendering statutes . . . which he had sworn to observe 4 .' 
 Dr. Philpotts, Bishop of Exeter and Visitor of Exeter College, 
 wrote to the chairman that there was ' absolutely no parallel 
 to the Commission since the fatal attempt of King James II to 
 subject these venerable bodies to his unhallowed control 5 .' 
 Six Colleges at Oxford and two at Cambridge gave no evi- 
 dence whatever to the Commissioners, and in many others 
 assistance was limited to one or two individual members of 
 the Foundation. 
 
 The Chairman of the Oxford Commission was Dr. Hinds, 
 Bishop of Norwich, an enthusiast for education, and its Secre- 
 tary was the Rev. A. P. Stanley, already author of The Life 
 
 1 Cambridge Correspondence, p. 2. a Report, p. i. 
 
 3 Oxford Correspondence, p. 20. * Oxford Evidence, p. 334. 
 
 8 Oxford Correspondence, p. 7.
 
 EDUCATION] ROYAL COMMISSIONS 233 
 
 of Thomas Arnold, and afterwards Dean of Westminster, 
 with Professor Goldwin Smith to assist him. They had 
 a fertile subject, an intimate knowledge, and no particular 
 desire to spare anybody ; and further, the Secretary was 
 a master of English. The result was a classic among Hlue 
 Books, far superior to the Report of the Cambridge Commis- 
 sioners, over which Dr. Graham, Bishop of Chester, presided, 
 and which had at once a smaller opportunity and a general 
 amiable desire to make things pleasant. 
 
 Both reports appeared in 1852, and change could be no 
 longer averted. In 1854 Oxford received an Act of Parlia- 
 ment (17 & 1 8 Viet. c. Si) embodying some of the chief 
 recommendations made; the Cambridge Act (19 & 20 Viet. 
 c. 88) followed in 1856. 
 
 The constitutions were reformed ; the Hebdomadal Council 
 and the Council of the Senate were to be elected in certain 
 proportions from Heads of Houses, Professors and other 
 Doctors and Masters of Arts. The Cambridge veto was 
 abolished ; Convocation and the Senate were reformed. Ox- 
 ford Congregation, the body of resident Doctors and Masters, 
 was now constituted, although the Ancient House of Congre- 
 gation, which grants degrees and appoints examiners, was, 
 perhaps accidentally, still left in existence ] . 
 
 Oaths and Declarations were abolished for all degrees at 
 Cambridge except in Divinity, but no graduate could become 
 a member of the Senate without declaring himself a member 
 of the Established Church. At Oxford these tests were re- 
 moved from Matriculation and the Bachelors' Degrees except 
 in Divinity; for the M.A. and all Doctors' degrees they were 
 retained. 
 
 The Act provided for the abolition of the stamp duties im- 
 posed by 55 Geo. Ill, c. 184 on degrees and matriculations, 
 which in 1853 had drawn ,5,279 from Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge -. The Universities, on the other hand, had to give 
 up the .2,000 a year of royal grants which the House of 
 Commons had undertaken to pay since 1821. The arrange- 
 ment was carried into effect by two separate Acts, for Oxford 
 in 1856 (19 & 20 Viet. c. 36), and for Cambridge in 1858 
 (21 & 22 Viet. c. n). 
 
 An executive Commission was appointed in either case 
 with power to require the production of documents and the 
 giving of information ; all oaths not to disclose such informa- 
 tion being declared illegal. 
 
 The Universities and Colleges were allowed to amend their 
 
 1 The Historical Register of the University of Oxford, p. 13: Clarendon Press, 
 I8S8. a P. P., 1854, vol. 1. 435.
 
 234 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 Statutes, which were then to be submitted to the Commis- 
 sioners, and in the event of their omitting to do this, the 
 Commissioners might frame Ordinances and Regulations. 
 The Statutes must be laid before both Houses of Parliament, 
 and receive the sanction of the Queen in Council. Petitions 
 might be presented by parties interested and referred to a 
 special Committee of the Privy Council. After the expiration 
 of the Commission, Statutes might be altered by University or 
 Colleges, subject to their obtaining similar sanction. 
 
 The chief changes introduced by the Statutes as passed 
 were the removal of a great number of restrictions in elect- 
 ing to fellowships and scholarships, and the resuscitation of 
 the professoriate. 
 
 The reform as yet was rather permissive than accomplished. 
 The Oxford Commission had recommended that fellows should 
 no longer of necessity be ordained, and that a University 
 matriculation examination should be established l . A few 
 restrictions were removed, but in the case of tutors and most 
 fellows ordination was still required, and the conditions of 
 entrance were still left in the hands of the Colleges. At 
 Cambridge the Colleges (except Christ's) refused to throw 
 open their fellowships, and the Statutes merely granted them 
 a permission of which they need not avail themselves 2 . The 
 reorganization of professors' lectures left much for future 
 reformers ; at Cambridge the Colleges, with three exceptions, 
 refused the invitation to contribute five per cent, of their 
 income for this purpose 3 . Nevertheless, the minute restric- 
 tions, devised two hundred years before for entirely different 
 conditions, were now removed, and the Universities were set 
 free to develop themselves, according to the ideas of their 
 leaders, to meet the wants of the present day. 
 
 Statutes were passed at Oxford in 1868 and at Cambridge 
 in 1869 allowing persons to become members of the Univer- 
 sities without joining any College, as long as they lived in 
 licensed lodgings and were subject to a special Board. In 
 1853 many people had thought such a step opened the way 
 to ' demoralization and irreligion of which no man can see the 
 end 4 .' It has resulted at either University in the creation of 
 a large unendowed 5 society without hall, chapel, or dwelling- 
 rooms, which opens a University course to a number of men 
 who could not otherwise afford it, and affords opportunities 
 of becoming members of the University for purposes of special 
 
 1 Report, pp. 163, 68. a Final Report, 1861, p. 16. 3 Ibid. p. 7. 
 
 4 Report and Evidence upon the Recommendations of H.M. Commissioners pre- 
 sented to the Board of Heads of Houses and Proctors, p. 387 : Oxford, 1853. 
 '' Uryce Commission Report, v. 134.
 
 EDUCATION] 
 
 REFORMS 
 
 235 
 
 study to Americans and foreigners which the Colleges are not 
 always ready to offer ] . 
 
 Undergraduates at Cambridge had been allowed to live out 
 of College in licensed lodgings, at any rate since the end of 
 the eighteenth century 2 ; by the Statute of 1868 this privilege 
 was granted at Oxford, the new Delegacy taking charge for 
 the first two years both of lodging-houses and of Non-Col- 
 legiate Students 11 . The Colleges are thus no longer restricted 
 in numbers by the size of their buildings, and the larger and 
 wealthier bodies threaten to become unwieldy at some expense 
 to the prosperity of the smaller foundations. 
 
 In 1871, after many struggles, the Universities Tests Act 
 (34 Viet. c. 26) was passed, abolishing all oaths and affirma- 
 tions at Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham except in Divinity. 
 It applied to professorships, fellowships, scholarships, and 
 emoluments of all kinds as well as matriculation and degrees, 
 and included Universities, Colleges, and Halls alike. 
 
 The opposition in 1850 had at the time rendered any com- 
 plete statement of revenue impossible, but in 1872 a Royal 
 Commission under the Duke of Cleveland was appointed to 
 inquire into the property 4 and income of the two Univer- 
 sities, the Colleges and Halls, but without power to do more 
 than report facts. They found the annual gross incomes from 
 all sources, at the end of 1871, to be as follows : 
 
 
 External. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rents, 
 
 Internal. 
 
 Subject to 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Dividends, 
 
 Fees, &c. 
 
 7 rusts. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 University of Oxford 
 
 13,605' 
 
 18,546* 
 
 15,438' 
 
 47,589 
 
 Colleges and Halls . 
 University of Cambridge . 
 
 27^953 
 2,930 6 
 
 58,884 
 20,133 8 
 
 35-4 1 ? 
 10,408 
 
 366,254 
 
 33,471 
 
 Colleges .... 
 
 229,621 
 
 42,255 
 
 27,54! 
 
 306,51 2 10 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 18 
 185 
 143 
 103 
 
 1 Number of Non-Collegiate undergraduates : 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 1870 ... 96 
 1880 . . . 308 
 1890 . . . 247 
 
 I9OI . . . 201 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge Calendars. 
 
 J. \V. Clark, Cambridge: Historical and Picturesque Notes, p. 291 : Seeley, 
 1890. 
 
 3 An executive Committee appointed by the University is called a Delegacy at 
 Oxford, and a Syndicate at Cambridge. 
 
 4 The Cambridge Commission had only been able to reckon the gross income 
 of the seventeen Colleges as 'not less than .185,000' (p. 197). At Oxford the 
 College endowments, exclusive of fees, were said to be ,150,000 a year (1852 
 Report, p. 151), whereas in 1871 they were 271,952 (i. p. 200, Cleveland Report". 
 
 5 1900: .16,255. 6 1897: .2,051. 7 1900: "30,488. 
 
 * 1897 : 40,182 (Oxford University Gazette, Cambridge University Reporter}. 
 J 1900: .12,806. 10 Including Sidney Sussex College.
 
 236 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 The total income from all sources 1 was .753,826. 
 
 Thus out of the revenue of three-quarters of a million the 
 Universities possessed little more than 80,000, while the 
 Colleges received more than eight-ninths of the total 2 . The 
 College incomes varied at Cambridge from Trinity with 
 59,735 and St. John's with 45,704 to nine Colleges with 
 less than 10,000; and at Oxford from Christ Church with 
 39,291 to five Colleges with less than 10,000 a year each of 
 internal and external revenue 3 . Agricultural depression has 
 subsequently altered most of these figures to a serious extent, 
 except in the case of Colleges with building estates or City 
 property. The total divisible revenue of the Cambridge 
 Colleges fell off by 34 per cent, between 1881 and 1896 4 . 
 
 In 1877 an Act was passed for Oxford and Cambridge 
 (40 & 41 Viet. c. 48) appointing executive Commissions for 
 either University. The chief purpose was to make further 
 provision out of College revenues for University purposes, 
 and to remove any still remaining unnecessary restrictions. 
 The Universities and Colleges were to pass new Statutes with 
 the aid of the Commission ; each College might name three 
 Commissioners to act with the representatives of Government 
 in making its own ordinances. The draft Statutes were to be 
 laid before the Queen in Council and both Houses of Par- 
 liament, much as in the case of Public School and Charity 
 Commission schemes, but there was a special Universities Com- 
 mittee permanently appointed to hear petitions. Future 
 alterations made by either University or any College must be 
 submitted to the Crown and Parliament and go through the 
 usual course. 
 
 The Commissioners could not make Statutes for endow- 
 ments founded within the last fifty years, but with this excep- 
 tion (and that of Lincoln College, Oxford) the Universities 
 and all Colleges subject to it have received new Statutes under 
 these conditions. 
 
 Fellowships have been remodelled, and are mostly attached 
 to College offices or University appointments. In Oxford 
 a sum of more than 20,000 per annum was thus assigned to 
 endow professorships and readerships, and about 100 sinecure 
 fellowships were reserved as prizes for open competition 5 . 
 
 Ordination and celibacy were only retained as far as was 
 
 1 Including 7,095 for Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, not subdivided, but 
 not any capital sold out (Report, i. pp. 29, 197, 204). 
 
 2 Ibid. pp. 197, 200, 207, 208. 
 
 3 Ibid. pp. 200, 204. 
 
 4 Times, April 23, 1897. As to Oxford cf. Statistical Society's Journal, 1895, 
 
 P- 39- 
 
 5 Hon. G. Brodrick, History of the University of Oxford, p. 201 : 1886.
 
 EDUCATION] 
 
 STUDIES 
 
 2 37 
 
 rendered necessary by the maintenance of chapel services and 
 of college discipline ; but the tenure of fellowships was in 
 all cases for specified periods only, though subject to renewal. 
 College scholarships were made more uniform in conditions 
 and value. 
 
 No University Matriculation Examination was imposed, but 
 the matter was left, as before, to the tests which each College 
 found it desirable to apply. In 1873 only two Colleges in 
 Cambridge had an entrance examination *, or required more 
 than a certificate of fitness from any M.A. of Cambridge or 
 Oxford. In Oxford these tests were even then general, but 
 the standard varied with the ambitions or needs of the different 
 Colleges. 
 
 Studies were grouped under Boards of Faculties, the nomi- 
 nation and appointment of University examiners were regu- 
 lated, and provision was made for the publication of accounts. 
 
 More important in practice at Oxford than the restoration 
 of the Professors has been the gradual opening of College 
 lectures to members of other Colleges. Under the existing 
 system all honours lectures are open to any member of the 
 University, similar arrangements in the case of pass lectures 
 being determined by the tutors and the lecturers themselves. 
 The same practice has been introduced at Cambridge, but to 
 a less extent. 
 
 The gradual enlargement of the curriculum cannot be better 
 shown in a brief space than by a list of the various new honour 
 schools which have been from time to time created. 
 
 1853 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 Natural Science .... 
 Jurisprudence and Modern His- 
 tory 1853 
 
 Theology (as an Honour School) 1 870 
 Jurisprudence and History 
 
 (separated) . . . .1872 
 Literae Indicae . . . .1887 
 Literae Semiticae . . .1891 
 Literae Orientales . . . 1896 
 Literae Anglicae . . . 1897 
 
 Cambridge. 
 Moral Science . 
 Natural Science . 
 Law . 
 
 Law and History 
 Theology . 
 
 Law and History sep ratec 
 Semitic Languages 
 Indian Languages 
 Mediaeval and Modern Lan 
 guages .... 
 
 1851 
 
 1851 
 1858 
 1870 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 1878 
 1879 
 
 1886 
 
 In 1882 Cambridge created the degrees of Doctor of Science 
 and Doctor of Letters : since 1896 specially recognized Ad- 
 vanced Students engaged in research are allowed to proceed 
 to the ordinary B.A. degree after two years' residence. 
 
 The degrees of Bachelor of Letters and Bachelor of Science 
 were established for research at Oxford in 1895, and the 
 Doctor's Degrees followed in 1900. But the new degrees do 
 
 1 P. P., 1873, xxviii. p. 644.
 
 2 3 8 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 [HIGHER 
 
 not give their holders any share in the government of the 
 University. 
 
 In Nov., 1901, a proposal in Congregation at Oxford to 
 exempt Candidates for Responsions from the need of offering 
 both Latin and Greek was defeated only by 189 to 166 votes. 
 The question may hereafter come up in a modified form, and 
 a measure aimed at rendering Greek no longer indispensable 
 is said to be under consideration at Cambridge. 
 
 Oxford in 1880, and Cambridge in 1886, passed Statutes for 
 affiliating to themselves Colleges in the United Kingdom (and 
 subsequently, in the Colonies). Students from these institu- 
 tions receive certain privileges as to admission to examina- 
 tions and length of residence. At Cambridge, Extension 
 Students who have taken a three years' course are excused 
 a year of residence. 
 
 1800 
 1840 
 1850 
 1862 
 1872 
 1882 
 1892 
 1901 
 
 Matriculations. 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 247 
 
 129 
 
 396 
 
 345 
 
 409 
 
 360 
 
 433 
 
 407 
 
 632 
 
 
 757 
 
 892 
 
 799 
 
 934 
 
 837 
 
 878 
 
 Undergraduates on the books. 
 Oxford. Cambridge. 
 
 2,39 2 
 3> OI 3 
 3,197 
 3,538 
 
 1,526 
 2,102 
 2,818 
 2,909 
 2,958 
 
 The number of men gaining honours in the final schools 
 (not including the Second Part of any Tripos at Cambridge) 
 now averages more than 400 each year in either University. 
 
 The total number of scholarships and exhibitions (varying 
 from about .100 to 20 or less a year) was in 1901 at Oxford 
 nearly 800, and at Cambridge, excluding B. A. scholars, nearly 
 600. Thus (if we take into consideration the shorter resi- 
 dence at Cambridge), one probably out of every four under- 
 graduates actually in residence at either University is receiving 
 more or less financial assistance. The amounts granted to 
 scholars in the first instance are on the whole smaller at 
 Cambridge than at Oxford, but they are more frequently 
 increased on the score of satisfactory progress. 
 
 In 1900 there were nine lay and twelve clerical heads of 
 Colleges at Oxford; 213 lay and 68 clerical fellows. At 
 Cambridge the numbers were, five lay, twelve clerical heads ; 
 fellows, 251 laymen, 69 in Orders J . 
 
 The Rhodes Trust. The late Cecil Rhodes at his death in 
 1902 left (in addition to a legacy of ,100,000 to Oriel College, 
 of which he was a member) an annual income of some 
 
 1 The Nationalization of the old English Universities, by Lewis Campbell, 
 M.A., LL.D. : Chapman and Hall, 1901.
 
 EDUCATION] UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 239 
 
 ^"34,350 for scholarships to be held for three years at the 
 University of Oxford. Sixty scholarships of 300 a year, 
 each for three years, distributed among- the British Colonies 
 (twenty-four for South Africa, twenty-one for Australasia, 
 and fifteen for America) ; one hundred and two scholarships, 
 also of ,3<x) a year, for the United States, two for each State 
 or Territory ; and fifteen of ,250 a year each for Germany. 
 These scholarships are to be awarded not only for intellectual 
 and athletic capacity, but also for character and promise ', and 
 the scholars are to be dispersed through the different Colleges 
 of the University. The scheme is being prepared for the 
 trustees, after consultation with the Oxford authorities, by 
 Mr. G. R. Parkin, of Toronto, who is visiting the various 
 countries benefited ; it will come into force gradually, the 
 first scholars coming to Oxford in the autumn of 1903. The 
 Oxford college authorities have shown every disposition to 
 facilitate the working of the scheme. 
 
 University Extetision. 
 
 We have already seen how in 1858 Oxford and Cambridge 
 assumed an indirect control over the education of persons who 
 were not members of either University 2 , but besides establish- 
 ing external examinations and inspection of schools, they 
 have subsequently taken steps for extending their actual 
 teaching to students who are unable to matriculate or reside 3 . 
 
 In 1867 the North of England Council for Promoting the 
 Higher Education of Women was formed, and in the same 
 year Professor Stuart of Cambridge had delivered some lec- 
 tures before several schoolmistresses' associations in Yorkshire 
 and Lancashire, and also before working men at Crewe, 
 Rochdale, and elsewhere. The new Council took up the 
 arrangements for lectures and developed them with such good 
 result that in 1873 the University of Cambridge allowed a 
 Syndicate, which they had appointed to consider the ques- 
 tion, to undertake the organization of these courses. Two 
 years later the Syndicate was made permanent, and in 1878 
 w r as amalgamated with the Syndicate \vhich already had 
 charge of the Local Examinations. 
 
 1 Times, April 5, 1902. * p. 179. 
 
 3 University Extension, Past, Present, and Future, by H. J. Mackinder and 
 M. E. Sadler : Cassell and Co., 1891. Eighteen Years of University Education, 
 by R. D. Roberts: Cambridge, 1891. L Education en Angleterre, &c., Leclerc, 
 chap, xviii ; L? extension universitaire par renseignement, Armand Colin : Paris, 
 1894. Report of Royal Commission as to New University for London ; The 
 Nineteenth Century, 1894, vol. xxxvi. pp. 203, 371, 598, by C. "Whibley and 
 M. E. Sadler.
 
 240 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 [HIGHER 
 
 In 1876 the London Society for the Extension of Univer- 
 sity Teaching was formed. 
 
 In 1878 Oxford made a premature attempt to undertake the 
 work which was entrusted to a Committee of the Delegacy 
 for Local Examinations, but it almost died out until it was 
 reorganized in 1885, and a special Delegacy for the purpose 
 was not appointed before 1 892. The movement has to a greater 
 or less extent been taken up also by the University of Durham 
 (in co-operation with Cambridge) and the Victoria University, 
 as well as most of the University Colleges. 
 
 In October, 1902, the London Society was dissolved, its 
 work being transferred to the ' Board to promote the Exten- 
 sion of University Teaching of the University of London.' 
 
 In 1888 the first Summer Meeting was held at Oxford, and 
 attended by 900 Students. In 1890 Cambridge held its first 
 Summer Course on a more restricted scale ; and meetings 
 have subsequently been held each Summer and have been 
 well attended. 
 
 In 1886 Cambridge granted curtailment of one year of 
 residence to undergraduates who had already taken a recog- 
 nized three years' course of Extension lectures. 
 
 The recommendation of the Local Examinations and 
 Lectures Syndicate at Cambridge to grant a diploma in Arts 
 to external students without residence was rejected by the 
 Senate on May 26, 1898, by 122 votes to 70. 
 
 The method pursued is that, as in the case of Local 
 Examinations, a centre is formed, a certain sum is guaranteed, 
 and all arrangements on the spot are made by a local com- 
 mittee. The University or Society sends the lecturer, who 
 delivers a course on a subject selected originally by the 
 committee, an hour's class follows each lecture, essays are 
 invited and corrected, books are lent ; finally an examination 
 is held and certificates are granted. Women have been 
 throughout on an equal footing with men. 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 London. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 S3 
 
 g>| 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 ^i 
 
 H 
 
 $ 
 
 !> 
 
 
 I 
 
 e 
 
 v 
 
 || 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 S "f 
 
 |J 
 
 8 
 
 ? 
 
 ^ s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <0 
 
 3 
 
 \r vi 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1873-4 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 3,200 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1879-80 
 
 20 
 
 47 
 
 5,9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 2,237 
 
 1889-90 
 
 37 
 
 89 
 
 9,295 
 
 109 
 
 148 
 
 17,904 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 12,923 
 
 19012 
 
 8y 
 
 104 
 
 9,200 
 
 135 
 
 190 
 
 20,862 
 
 65 
 
 195 
 
 
 
 The Board of Education now recognize Sessional Extension
 
 EDUCATION] WOMEN: CAMBRIDGE 241 
 
 Courses for pupil-teachers, and a Joint Advisory Committee 
 of Oxford, Cambridge, London, and Victoria representatives 
 is in future to take measures for securing uniformity in the 
 standards of the respective examinations. 
 
 Women? s Colleges, Cambridge and Oxford. 
 
 The most conspicuous advance in the establishment of 
 higher education for women was made at Cambridge, and 
 was the result of two distinct movements along similar but 
 not identical lines. 
 
 In 1869 a college 'designed to hold in relation to girls' 
 schools and home teaching a position analogous to that 
 occupied by the Universities towards the public schools for 
 boys' was established at Hitchin by a Committee. In 1870 
 by a private arrangement some of its scholars were examined 
 in the subjects of the Previous Examination of the University 
 of Cambridge. The institution throve, became incorporated 
 as Girton College in 1872, and in 1873 removed to a building 
 of its own within two miles of Cambridge. The College for- 
 merly accommodated 106 students and 9 resident officials, and 
 a new wing was opened in Michaelmas Term, 1902 1 . 
 
 The supporters of Girton have consistently demanded 
 a common standard of education for both sexes, and have 
 believed that any separate scheme of examination for women 
 only tended to keep down the level of female acquirements. 
 
 The other champions of feminine education held that 
 instruction and examinations alike should be specially 
 adapted to women, different, though not necessarily less 
 difficult. In 1869 the Syndicate for Local Examinations 
 at Cambridge instituted an Examination for Women over 
 Eighteen, in response to a petition presented to the Uni- 
 versity to that effect in the preceding year. The Examina- 
 tion was opened also to men in 1874, and is now known as 
 the Higher Local Examination. 
 
 A Lectures Committee was formed to prepare girls to meet 
 this special test, and also generally to improve and extend 
 the education of women, and with 1870 courses of lectures 
 began. In October, 1871, a house of residence for students 
 attending lectures was opened in Cambridge, and this 
 developed into Newnham Hall, opened in 1875, which in 
 turn became Newnham College in 1 880. It also has prospered 
 and grown, until now it provides for 158 students in addition 
 
 1 Women in the Universities of England and Scotland, Miss Emily Davies : 
 Macmillan, 1896, price 6</. ; Girton College Report, 1902. 
 
 BALFOUR R
 
 242 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 [HIGHER 
 
 to the staff . The Lectures Committee became the Association 
 for Promoting the Higher Education of Women in Cambridge 
 in 1873, was dissolved, and was afterwards replaced by Newn- 
 ham College Association in 1880. 
 
 Thus the two Colleges have worked side by side in the same 
 University town, the one desiring special education for women, 
 the other demanding the same tests as men ; both using the 
 same examinations and working harmoniously together, and 
 presenting a united front to a yet unconvinced University. 
 
 The expedient of allowing University examiners to examine 
 women unofficially was continued till 1881, and was utilized 
 by students belonging to Girton or Newnham. Pass as well 
 as Honours examinations were taken ; and no requirement 
 was made of first passing the Previous Examination or as to 
 length of residence. 
 
 In 1 88 1 women were admitted to all the Honour Examina- 
 tions of the University for the degree of B.A., received 
 a University Certificate of their classes, and had their names 
 published in a separate section of each Tripos ; but there is 
 no class of Home Students as at Oxford, and strangers from 
 outside are not admitted. These privileges are granted to 
 those only who belong to either Girton or Newnham, or 
 reside within the precincts of the University under their 
 regulations, and who have fulfilled the conditions of residence 
 imposed on members of the University, and have passed the 
 Previous Examination or some recognized substitute for it. 
 All Triposes are open to women on these terms, and 
 examiners may certify that a woman has reached a standard 
 equivalent to that required for an ordinary degree, though 
 insufficient for honours. Practically all University and college 
 lectures are open to members of the two Colleges, except the 
 Medical Course. 
 
 In 1897 a proposal to confer on women by diploma the 
 title of B.A., without admitting them to membership of the 
 University, was submitted to the Senate and rejected by 1713 
 to 662 votes 2 . 
 
 1869-70 
 1879-80 
 1889-90 
 1901-2 
 
 Girton. 
 
 Newnham. 
 
 Students. 
 
 Degree 
 Certificates. 
 
 Students. 
 
 Degree 
 Certificates. 
 
 6 
 
 52 
 103 
 128 
 
 16 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 80 
 
 '35 
 164 
 
 26' 
 
 34 
 
 1 Life of Miss A. J. Clough, especially chapter v, by Miss B. A. Clough 
 Arnold, 1897. 
 
 3 Times, May 2 a, 1897. * 1890.
 
 EDUCATION] WOMEN: OXFORD 243 
 
 Oxford. Before 1879 various lectures had been delivered 
 to women in Oxford, but in that year several more or less 
 independent schemes matured simultaneously, and the arrange- 
 ments for teaching women began to assume their present 
 form. The Higher Local Examinations of the University, 
 open to women only till 1901, were authorized in 1875, and 
 first held in 1877. The Association for Promoting the Educa- 
 tion of Women in Oxford was founded in 1878 to establish 
 and maintain a system of instruction. In 1878 Lady Margaret 
 Hall was founded on Church of England principles (with 
 a conscience clause), and Somerville Hall, strictly undenomi- 
 national, followed in the next year. In October, 1879, l ^ e 
 two Halls were opened, and the Association began its first 
 course of lectures. 
 
 The Association has not been absorbed as at Cambridge, 
 but has in practice proved a sort of general deliberative 
 Council on which each corporate body is represented, although 
 each Hall has its separate Council for the administration of 
 its own affairs. It has always supervised resident students 
 who belonged to no Hall; in 1893 it recognized them 
 officially as Home Students, and placed them under a special 
 committee. 
 
 St. Hugh's Hall was founded in 1886, St. Hilda's Hall, 
 founded in 1893 as an offshoot from Cheltenham, was con- 
 stituted a Hall in 1896. In 1894 Somerville assumed the 
 title of College. 
 
 In 1884 Honour Moderations and the Final Honour Schools 
 of Mathematics, Science, and Modern History were opened to 
 women by the University, all arrangements and payments 
 being made through the Delegates of Local Examinations. 
 Every couple of years a fresh school was conceded to women, 
 until finally in 1894 the remaining examinations for the 
 degree of B.A., including all Pass Schools, were opened. The 
 Delegates still conduct the Higher Local Examinations (a sort 
 of blend of Moderations and Pass Final Schools, first held in 
 December, 1894, and opened to men in 1902), and an Honour 
 Examination in Modern Languages in which the University 
 has as yet no Final Honour School. 
 
 In 1896 Congregation rejected a proposal to admit women 
 to University degrees ! , or even to grant them diplomas 
 recording their achievements -. The Association consequently 
 grants two classes of diplomas, the one to students who have 
 1 resided ' for three years and taken a full B.A. course in due 
 order, the other to those who have passed an alternative 
 
 1 By 315 to 140, March 3, 1896. a By 178 to in, March 10. 1896. 
 
 R 2
 
 244 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 course ; certificates are awarded for a distinguished but less 
 complete career 1 . 
 
 All Honour lectures and nearly all lectures, as far as is 
 practicable, in Pass subjects, are open to women in Oxford, 
 but the Association still maintains certain lectures for its 
 members, for which there is no other adequate provision. 
 
 The main difference between Oxford and Cambridge in 
 this connexion is that at Oxford women are admitted to Pass 
 as well as Honour Schools, and for either examinations, as 
 far as the University is concerned, they need neither have 
 studied nor resided in Oxford, nor belong to any organization 
 or society. They must, however, first pass Responsions or 
 some other examination recognized as equivalent by the 
 Delegates of Local Examinations. 
 
 Number of Registered Final 
 
 Students. Honours. 
 
 1890. 1902. 1890. 1902. 
 
 Lady Margaret Hall 34 68 8 12 
 
 Somerville College 
 St. Hugh's Hall . 
 St. Hilda's Hall . 
 Home Students 
 
 32 74 6 2l 
 
 13 31 4 
 
 21 2 5 
 
 17 34 5 
 
 96 228 16 47 
 
 In 1902 thirty-eight students obtained honours in Final 
 Schools of the University, but only ten qualified for the full 
 B.A. diploma, and so long as this reluctance to take the 
 complete University course is shown, there is little chance of 
 the question of granting degrees being reopened. 
 
 2. DURHAM UNIVERSITY 2 . 
 
 In the seventeenth century the foundation of a University 
 for the North of England was often proposed, and in 1657 
 Cromwell granted his assent to such a foundation at Durham. 
 On the Restoration this scheme came to an end, and it was 
 not until 1832 that the present University of Durham was 
 established by a private Act, 2 & 3 Will. IV, c. 19, by means 
 of some .3,000 a year and certain preferments, ceded by the 
 Dean and Chapter of the Cathedral. Colleges were founded, 
 as at Oxford and Cambridge, to be constituent parts of the 
 University ; but the money for this purpose had to come 
 from the University itself, and Durham has always been at 
 a disadvantage from the smallness of its funds. University 
 
 1 For exact details see the Calendar of the A. E. W., 1901-2, p. 17: Oxford, 
 price (>d. 
 
 2 Report of Commission, P. P. Eng., 1863, vol. xvi ; University Calendars; 
 Devonshire Commission on Scientific Instruction, vol. v; P. P., 1874, xxii. p. 78.
 
 EDUCATION] DURHAM 245 
 
 College was opened in 1837, Bishop Hatfield's Hall 1846, 
 and Bishop Cosin's Hall 1851, but the last had to be closed 
 in 1854. In 1841 some further provision was made by the 
 Ecclesiastical Commissioners under an Order in Council. 
 An executive Commission was appointed in 1861, 24 & 25 
 Viet. c. 82, with the usual powers of making- schemes to be 
 submitted to the Queen in Council and the Houses in Parlia- 
 ment, but very little resulted from it. 
 
 The College of Medicine at Newcastle, founded in 1851, 
 was admitted into connexion with the University in 1852, 
 and more closely associated in 1870. In 1865 a school of 
 physical science was established, but it was in 1871 that the 
 most important step in the history of the University was 
 taken. A College of Physical Science was established at 
 Newcastle, partly by the Corporation of that city, partly by 
 the leading landowners in the neighbourhood, and with the 
 hearty support of the University of Durham to which it was 
 affiliated, and which devoted ^1,000 a year to its purposes 1 . 
 
 Durham has always provided special opportunities and 
 training for theological students. In other respects it has, 
 to the best of its abilities, taken up the movements initiated 
 by the older Universities. Like them, it has always required 
 residence, although in 1865, the numbers having fallen very 
 low, the Arts course, unfortunately, was reduced to two 
 years. Thus in 1870 unattached students were admitted, in 
 1871 (but this was by the same Act of Parliament, see p. 235) 
 theological tests were abolished. Colonial colleges are ad- 
 mitted to affiliation. Local examinations, examination and 
 inspection of schools, and, in collaboration with Cambridge, 
 extension lectures have been adopted. In 1895 and this 
 was giving a lead which has not been followed all degrees 
 except those in divinity were opened to w r omen. There is 
 an elementary matriculation examination, and in 1896 cer- 
 tificates were given for Proficiency in General Education, 
 which, under certain conditions, dispense with the necessity of 
 passing the former test. 
 
 In 1853-4 the average number of students in residence 
 was 120; in 1862, the impulse of the North countrymen 
 towards Durham having died out 2 , the number had fallen 
 to 44 3 . 
 
 In 1900 there were 497 undergraduates on the books of the 
 University, exclusive of musical and medical students and of 
 the 215 students of the College of Science 4 . 
 
 1 P. P., 1874, xxii. p. 78. a P. P., 1872, xxv. Q. 8,757. 
 
 * P. P., 1863, xy i- P- 7- * Calendar, 1900-01.
 
 246 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 The receipts of the University from all sources in 1859-61 
 averaged 9,000 a year l . 
 
 3. UNIVERSITY COLLEGES AND MODERN UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 Thus much of Oxford and Cambridge, and of Durham, 
 which, apart from Newcastle, has not differed greatly from 
 the two older Universities. The most important change in 
 English higher education has been the creation throughout 
 the country of University Colleges, which in some instances 
 have become new universities, but in all cases have extended 
 higher teaching to towns and to individuals it had never 
 reached before, at low charges and in numerous subjects for 
 which a demand has come into existence. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 
 
 The movement began in 1826 by the foundation of an 
 institution, which was an undenominational teaching college, 
 and was also intended to be a University for London. It 
 was opened in 1828. King's College, a Church of England 
 establishment, was founded by Royal Charter in the same 
 year and was opened in 1831. It is unnecessary here to 
 detail even the first of the many controversies which the very 
 name of London University seems to evoke. The earlier 
 foundation received its first charter in 1836 as University 
 College, London, and in the same year there was also in- 
 corporated the University of London, an examining body 
 which for fourteen years granted degrees to none but duly 
 qualified members of University and King's Colleges. In 
 1850 the University received a new charter, and admitted 
 candidates from additional affiliated colleges, over which it 
 had no visitatorial power or effectual control. The new 
 qualifications varied so much that in 1858 they were all swept 
 away, and all matriculated candidates were admitted to the 
 examinations without any requirements as to residence or 
 previous courses of study 2 . 
 
 In 1860 the Faculty in Science was created, and the 
 degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Science were introduced 
 into England. 
 
 In respect to the success of the University of London, as 
 Fyffe well said, ' When a University has but one function to 
 fulfil, the only question that can be asked about it is whether 
 it fulfils this function well. It can no more suffer from the 
 peculiar infirmities of Oxford and Cambridge than a skeleton 
 
 1 P. P., 1863, xlvi. Evidence, pp. 4, 7. 2 Calendar, 1898-9, pp. xx-xxii.
 
 EDUCATION] LONDON 247 
 
 can suffer from gout.' The standard of its examinations 
 has always been well maintained, and it has insisted on 
 Bachelors of Arts proving their fitness for the higher degree 
 of M.A. Yet when that question is satisfactorily answered, 
 ' there is something chilly and forlorn in the spectacle of 
 a University which gathers to it no glad troops of youth, 
 which is the home of no one learned man, which ceases even 
 to have any concrete existence between the recurring throes 
 of examination V 
 
 In 1889 a Royal Commission under the Duke of Northumber- 
 land reported on the requirements of London in respect of 
 a University. Another Commission, with Earl Cowper as 
 Chairman, was appointed in 1892 to report on the Bill for 
 constituting a teaching University in London, to be known 
 as the Gresham University ; they took much evidence and 
 reported in January, 1894. 
 
 At last, in 1898, the London University Commission Act 
 was passed, appointing seven executive Commissioners to 
 frame new statutes for the University, which were duly ap- 
 proved by Parliament in 1900. A distinction is established 
 between Internal and External Students, who are to have 
 separate examinations, which nevertheless shall test as far as 
 possible the same standards of knowledge and attainments. 
 All certificates and diplomas are marked Internal or External, 
 but Internal Students can, if they prefer, be admitted to the 
 External examinations, and graduate accordingly. 
 
 The Internal Students are those pursuing approved courses 
 of study at the Schools of the University, which include 
 University, King's, Bedford and Holloway Colleges, the 
 Royal College of Science, the City and Guilds Institute, ten 
 medical schools, six theological colleges, and Wye Agri- 
 cultural College, Kent, though it has not been possible to 
 include the Inns of Court or the Incorporated Law Society, 
 nor the leading Colleges of Music. Perhaps the most im- 
 portant of the new features is the recognition of the London 
 School of Economics, which is intended to provide economic 
 teaching of University rank for those engaged in the direction 
 or study of commerce and finance. Besides teachers directly 
 appointed by the University, members of the teaching staffs 
 of public educational institutions within a certain distance of 
 London are also recognized as Teachers of the University by 
 the Senate, after consulting with the Academic Council (the 
 Committee for Internal Students). There is a widely repre- 
 sentative Senate of fifty-six members, with standing com- 
 
 1 C. A. Fyffe, T. H. Ward's Reign of Queen Victoria, ii. pp. 313, 314.
 
 248 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 mittees for the Internal and External Students, and for the 
 extension of University teaching. 
 
 The buildings of the Imperial Institute were, by an arrange- 
 ment made with Government and subject to certain privileges, 
 handed over in 1900 as the seat for the University. A sum 
 of money was formerly voted by the House of Commons 
 every year as a grant, but this in fact was made good by the 
 appropriations in aid received from the students' fees ; from 
 1901 the University receives an actual grant of ,8,000 a year. 
 University College is to be incorporated in the University, 
 and King's College is proposing to give up its system of 
 tests except in connexion with theological teaching. Both 
 these foundations have appealed to the public for very large 
 sums of money to place them on a satisfactory footing, and 
 with considerable success. 
 
 In 1867 a supplemental charter was granted enabling the 
 University to hold examinations for women, and in 1880 they 
 were admitted to all degrees. 
 
 1840 
 
 I8.KO 
 
 1860 
 1870 
 1880 
 1890 
 1900 
 
 Queen's College, London, was founded for women in 1848 
 on Church of England lines 1 , but its best work as yet has 
 been done in secondary education. 
 
 Bedford College was founded in 1849 for the higher teaching 
 of women, and has been the first women's institution to receive 
 a share of the grant to University Colleges 2 . 
 
 VICTORIA UNIVERSITY, 
 now about to be subdivided into 
 
 The University of Liverpool, 
 
 The University of Manchester, 
 
 The Yorkshire University. 
 
 The Owens College. In 1846 Mr. John Owens left nearly 
 100,000 to found an institution at Manchester for ' providing 
 
 1 Bremner, p. 128. 2 ^700, 1894; .1,200, 1897. 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF LONDON. 
 
 
 Matriculations. 
 
 Total Candidates 
 
 Candidates. 
 
 ^passeT 
 
 for all 
 Examinations. 
 
 77 
 
 89-6' 
 
 1 86 
 
 206 
 
 5-5 
 
 355 
 
 428 
 
 68.0 
 
 788 
 
 845 
 
 50.8 
 
 1,459 
 
 1,400 
 
 58-6 
 
 
 2,762 
 
 4 6 '3 
 
 4,984 
 
 4-285 
 
 44-1 
 
 7,062
 
 EDUCATION] VICTORIA 249 
 
 or aiding- the means of instructing- and improving- young 
 persons of the male sex (and being of an age not less than 
 fourteen years) in such branches of learning and science as 
 are now, and may be hereafter, usually taught in the English 
 Universities, but subject nevertheless to the fundamental and 
 immutable rule ' that no religious tests whatever should be 
 applied. It was to be open to all without respect to place of 
 birth, and without distinction of rank or condition in society. 
 The College was opened in 1851, incorporated in 1871, and 
 lodged in its present buildings in 1874. Women were ad- 
 mitted to its classes in 1875; a separate College for them, 
 founded in 1877, was incorporated in Owens College in 1883 ] > 
 at which time women were first registered as students of 
 Owens College. 
 
 In 1874 the Yorkshire College was founded at Leeds, in 
 1882 the University College, Liverpool. 
 
 In 1880 a charter was granted to Victoria University, of 
 which Owens College, Manchester, was the only original 
 member; University College, Liverpool, was admitted in 
 1884, and three years later it w r as followed by the Yorkshire 
 College, Leeds. All persons matriculating must be members 
 of one of these Colleges, and all candidates for degree ex- 
 aminations must furnish certificates of having passed through 
 a recognized three years' course in one of the Colleges. 
 The University receives an annual grant of ^"2,000 from 
 Government, and may, besides examination fees, receive 
 contributions from the Colleges. Bachelors of Arts or of 
 Science must, unless they have taken honours, pass a further 
 examination for higher degrees. All the degrees are open 
 to women, except in the case of medicine, the regular courses 
 for w r hich are not opened to them by the Colleges. There 
 are no University lectures apart from the Colleges, but four 
 fellowships tenable for one year have been founded for 
 research. 
 
 In 1901 Liverpool began with some success to seek endow- 
 ments to establish a separate University of its own. Man- 
 chester followed suit in presenting a petition to the Privy 
 Council. The Committee of the Privy Council reported, in 
 February, 1903, that separate charters ought to be granted 
 to Liverpool and Manchester, and that the Yorkshire College 
 at Leeds should have the opportunity of submitting a drait 
 charter incorporating a University for Yorkshire. 
 
 1 The Owens College, by Joseph Thompson : Manchester, iSS<5.
 
 250 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. 
 
 In 1880 Mason College, Birmingham, was established. 
 Eighteen years later the movement for the endowment of 
 a University was begun, and within twelve months nearly a 
 third of a million was promised. In March, 1900, a charter 
 was granted, constituting a University with faculties of Science, 
 Arts, Medicine and Commerce, and such other faculties as the 
 statutes of the University might from time to time prescribe, 
 was granted, and by 63 & 64 Viet. c. xix the property and 
 liabilities of Mason College were transferred to the University. 
 The constitution consists of a Court, a Council, and a Senate, 
 in all of which provision is made for the representation of 
 local authorities. 
 
 In 1901 the new University began to receive an annual 
 State grant of 2,000. By January, 1902, the endowment 
 fund had reached 420,000 ; and the income from local 
 sources amounted to 7,000 a year, including 5,500 from 
 a local rate of a halfpenny in the pound. The Faculty of 
 Commerce is the first established in this country, though 
 provision is being made for a somewhat similar course of 
 instruction in London. 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGES. 
 
 Besides the colleges already mentioned as members of 
 Universities, University College, Bristol, was founded in 1876 ; 
 Firth College, Sheffield, in 1879, becoming Sheffield University 
 College in 1897 ; University College, Nottingham, was opened 
 in 1881. 
 
 In 1892 and 1893 the success of Oxford and Cambridge 
 Extension work resulted respectively in the establishment of 
 the Reading University Extension College and of the Technical 
 and University Extension College, Exeter : two combinations 
 of diverse forms of local effort with University teaching which 
 have hardly even now had time to establish their claim to 
 a State subsidy. In 1896 a similar college was founded at 
 Colchester. In 1902 the Board of Education accepted the 
 scheme by which Hartley College, Southampton, founded 
 originally as an Institution in 1859, is converted into a Uni- 
 versity College, and pending the fulfilment of certain condi- 
 tions, both Reading and Southampton are to receive Govern- 
 ment grants of 1,000 a year. An organization is at work 
 for the establishment of a similar and much-needed College 
 in the Potteries District of North Staffordshire. 
 
 The characters of these colleges differ so much according
 
 EDUCATION] UNIVERSITY COLLEGES 251 
 
 to the needs of their cities and the means at their disposal, 
 that it is not easy to give a description in general terms which 
 shall be applicable to them all, while their numbers render 
 it impracticable to detail their differences. They all possess 
 constitutions, professorial staffs, and buildings, but, except 
 at Bedford College, there is no official provision made for 
 lodging the students, although recognized residential halls 
 exist in most places for the women. The work of a University 
 standard is carried on principally in the day classes, but there 
 is abundant opportunity provided in the evening classes for 
 those unable to attend during the day. Many of the colleges 
 spread their influence by Extension lectures and otherwise 
 in smaller towns in the neighbourhood. In many instances 
 they have drawn around them the Denominational Colleges 
 and Seminaries of the districts, the students of which receive 
 instruction and associate freely with the other students. In 
 almost all cases women are received on exactly the same 
 terms as men, the exceptions belonging almost entirely to 
 medical studies. 
 
 Having been created in and for their present environment, 
 it is in many respects easier for them than for the older 
 Universities to meet existing needs and deal with existing 
 arrangements, especially in connexion with lower, secondary, 
 and technical education. Thus they have solved for them- 
 selves numerous difficulties and reduced to practice many 
 theories which elsewhere have not yet been adjusted to 
 the old traditions, and they have developed studies which 
 it may not always be desirable for the more strictly classical 
 Universities to direct. 
 
 In respect of endowments, over a million and a half has 
 been expended on the University Colleges from all sources, 
 partly from magnificent donations or bequests, and partly 
 from local subscriptions. In 1889 the House of Commons 
 decided to recognize them as a national institution by voting 
 ; 1 5,000 for distribution among them. This grant, which 
 was recommended for the London Colleges and Manchester 
 by the Devonshire Commission in 1874, has been renewed 
 annually, and in 1897 was increased to ^25,000 J , a fresh 
 apportionment being made on the report of the President 
 of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Professor Liveing of 
 Cambridge, who made a careful inspection of them all at 
 the request of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. These 
 grants are not in any case to exceed one-fourth of the local 
 income of each institution, and depend further on the per- 
 
 1 P. P., 1897, 345, P . 74.
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 [HIGHER 
 
 formance of ' an appreciable amount of advanced University 
 work V 
 
 The Inspectors said that ' the Colleges were, to speak gener- 
 ally, doing good work, fulfilling their function and realizing the 
 purpose for which they were established, namely, of bringing 
 education of an advanced and University kind to those who 
 cannot go to the Universities to seek it, of forming a link 
 between the Universities and the great commercial communities 
 of the country, and of establishing in the minds of these com- 
 munities centres of intellectual enlightenment and culture.' 
 
 A similar report of an inspection made in 1901 * confirms the 
 remarkable progress of these institutions, but dwells on the 
 need of husbanding their funds to allow of the extension or re- 
 modelling of their scientific departments, as needs arise, and 
 also urges the desirability of ' adding to the amenities and con- 
 solidating the community of student life.' Since 1896 nearly 
 one million has been received in benefactions: nevertheless 
 there is still an ' enormous amount of routine work ' thrown 
 upon the teachers, who have too much to do. 
 
 Annual 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 Annual 
 
 Number 3 
 
 Total 
 
 Annual 
 
 Grant, 
 
 of Day 
 
 Capital 
 
 Income, 
 
 recommended 
 
 Students, 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 1900-1. 
 
 for 1902-3. 
 
 1896-01. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Owens College, Manchester 656 
 
 450,526 
 
 38,434 
 
 3,500 
 
 University College, London 740 
 
 400,000 
 
 20,820 
 
 3,000 
 
 Liverpool . .416 
 
 209,948 
 
 20,912 
 
 3,000 
 
 Leeds 
 
 532 
 
 231,468 
 
 16,598 
 
 2,300 
 
 King's College, Londc 
 
 >n . 1197 
 
 247,869 
 
 16,008 
 
 2,300 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 446 
 
 108,000 
 
 2i,394 
 
 2,700 
 
 Newcastle . 
 
 411 
 
 67,783 
 
 1J ,59 2 
 
 i, 800 
 
 Bristol 
 
 225 
 
 4 2 ,398 
 
 7,104 
 
 1,200 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 433 
 
 100,308 
 
 10,896 
 
 1,700 
 
 Sheffield . 
 
 296 
 
 65,650 
 
 7,684 
 
 1,300 
 
 Bedford College, London . 232 
 
 27,666 
 
 7,741 
 
 I,20O 
 
 University Extension Col- 
 lege, Reading . 
 
 University Extension Col- 
 lege, Exeter 
 
 Hartley College, Southamp- 
 ton. 
 
 5,584 1,951,616 ^179,183 24,000 
 
 359 3, I0 7 4,73 l > 
 
 64 15.443 73i 
 
 129 29,000 3,436 1,000 
 
 6,136 .2,026,166 188,080* .26,000 
 
 An annual report and statement of accounts is sent to the 
 Education Department by each college in receipt of a grant. 
 
 1 ;i,ooo of the vote goes to University College, Dundee. 
 
 * P. P., 1902 : House of Commons Paper, No. 252. 
 
 3 Excluding medical students ; including Training College students. 
 
 * P. P., 1902, No. 252, p. 131.
 
 EDUCATION] BOARD OF AGRICULTURE 253 
 
 In this list the Royal Hollorvay College finds no place, as it 
 has not yet had time to outgrow its endowments ; its impor- 
 tance, however, entitles it to mention. It was founded at Mount 
 Lee, Egham Hill, by Mr. Holloway, who died in 1883, but it 
 was not opened for students until October, 1887. The inten- 
 tion of the founder was that it should k afford the best education 
 suitable for women of the middle and upper middle classes, 1 
 and it was intended to be mainly self-supporting-. With this 
 view he spent some ^"400,000 on land and buildings, and then 
 added another ^300,000 for endowment 1 . 
 
 The founder desired that the College should ultimately 
 obtain power to confer degrees, and that in the meantime the 
 students should qualify themselves for degrees at London and 
 other Universities. In the end of 1897 an important meeting 
 was held to consider the advisability of constituting Holloway 
 the University for women, but the plan was favoured by none 
 but those who were opposed to the acceptance of women else- 
 where, and it seems definitely settled that this scheme will never 
 be carried out. 
 
 The buildings contain ample lodging for two hundred and 
 fifty students ; the number of resident students in 1903 was 137. 
 
 4. THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Among the many miscellaneous tasks which were given at 
 various times to Committees of the Privy Council was the 
 supervision of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts and 
 of the Destructive Insects Act, 1877. To the Agricultural 
 Committee appointed for these duties was assigned in 1888 
 a parliamentary grant of .5,000 for the promotion of agri- 
 cultural education -. In the following year a Board of Agri- 
 culture was created (52 & 53 Viet. c. 30) to take over the 
 functions of this Committee and of the Land Commissioners, 
 and to supervise the working of various Acts connected with 
 the land ; and it was composed of several Ministers of State 
 with a specially appointed President. 
 
 By the terms of the Act they may ' undertake the inspection 
 of and reporting on any schools which are not public elemen- 
 tary schools, and in which technical instruction, practical or 
 scientific, is given in any manner connected with agriculture 
 or forestry; and the aiding of any school which admits such 
 inspection, and in the judgement of the Board is qualified to 
 receive such aid ; and the aiding of any system of lectures or 
 instruction connected with agriculture or forestry, and the 
 
 1 Dictionary of National Biography . 
 
 2 Hansard, T. S., cccxxv. p. 1,819.
 
 254 ENGLAND [HIGHER 
 
 inspection of and reporting- on any examination in agriculture 
 or forestry.' 
 
 At first in order to preserve and develop the few existing 
 institutions, the Government grants were given partly to 
 schools and courses of a local character, but afterwards the 
 chief aim of the Department has been to establish and main- 
 tain collegiate centres for agricultural instruction for the 
 benefit of groups of County Councils, and to furnish in- 
 spection for such agricultural instruction as these Councils 
 provide 1 . 
 
 In 1900-1, .7,850 of the grant was given to ten institutions, 
 seven of which were of a collegiate character, and received 
 ,6,600 between them. Thirty-two County Councils in the 
 previous year were spending not less than a thousand pounds 
 apiece on agricultural instruction. Of the money devoted by 
 the local authorities to technical education it was reckoned 
 that .77,000 was spent on agricultural teaching in 1899- 
 1900. 
 
 By the Board of Education Act, 1899 (62 & 63 Viet. c. 33) 
 any of the powers of the Board of Agriculture in matters 
 appearing to the Crown to relate to education may be trans- 
 ferred to the Board of Education, but no such transfer has 
 yet taken place. 
 
 5. THE BOARD OF EDUCATION, 
 
 replacing 
 i. The Ed^t:Cat^on Department. 
 
 The Board of Education is now the authority to whom the 
 University Colleges in Great Britain receiving grants have 
 annually to report (p. 252). 
 
 THE BOARD OF EDUCATION, 
 
 replacing 
 ii. The Science and Art Department. 
 
 The Board provides higher instruction both in Science and 
 Art at its two Colleges at South Kensington. 
 
 Royal College of Science. In 1851 a 'Government School 
 of Mines and of Science applied to the Arts ' was opened, and 
 two years later a ' Royal College of Chemistry,' a private in- 
 stitution, was amalgamated with it. In 1862 Royal exhibitions 
 and scholarships were bestowed on it. During the seventies 
 
 1 1894, C. 7,495.
 
 EDUCATION] SCIENCE AND ART 255 
 
 the various sections of the school migrated one after another 
 to South Kensington. In 1868 summer courses were started 
 for teachers who received allowances for maintenance during 
 their attendance. These proved so successful, and the need 
 for science teachers had so greatly increased, that, after some 
 delay, the whole school was : reorganized in 1 88 1 as the 
 1 Normal School of Science and Royal School of Mines,' and 
 in 1890 it received the title of The Royal College of Science, 
 London. 
 
 ' It is primarily intended for the instruction of teachers in 
 the various branches of Physical Science, and of students of 
 the industrial classes selected by competition in the examina- 
 tion of the Department of Science and Art, but other students 
 are admitted so far as there may be accommodation for them 
 on the payment of fees ' 2 . ' The College confers the title of 
 Associate. 
 
 Short summer courses are given to country teachers, who 
 receive their fares and a bonus, while until May, 1900, evening 
 courses were given to working men 3 . 
 
 The Royal School of Mines continues to exist as an affiliated 
 institution, but its students obtain their general scientific training 
 in the Royal College. 
 
 Royal College of Art. In 1837 a central Government School 
 of Design was established (p. 1 55). 
 
 In 1852 the Department of Practical Art was founded, and 
 greatly improved the Central School, making it a National 
 Training School of Art, which in 1896 received the title of 
 Royal College of Art. ' The special object of the school is 
 the training of Art Teachers of both sexes of designers and 
 of Art workmen, to whom facilities and assistance are offered 
 in the shape of Studentships, in Training Royal Exhibitions 
 and National Scholarships with maintenance allowances. Free 
 Studentships with complete or partial remission of fees are 
 also granted 4 .' In 1901 it was divided into an upper and 
 a lower school ; and its students no longer compete in the 
 Board of Education Examinations 5 . 
 
 CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE. 
 
 The Livery Companies of London formed a Committee in 
 1877 to prepare a scheme for a national system of technical 
 
 1 As recommended by the Board of Trade in 1852, Calendar, 1898, pp. xxx 
 and xxxv. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. xxxvi. " Ibid. p. xxxvii. 
 
 * Ibid. p. xxxviii. 8 P. P., Cd. 756, p. 6.
 
 256 ENGLAND 
 
 education ; in 1879 schools were opened, in 1880 the City and 
 Guilds of London Institute was registered as a Company, its 
 object being to provide and encourage education adapted to 
 the requirements of all classes of persons engaged, or pre- 
 paring to engage, in manufacturing and other industries l . In 
 1900 it received the grant of a Royal Charter. A large Cen- 
 tral Technical College was opened at South Kensington in 
 1884, where most of the higher education is given, the in- 
 struction being more specialized than that of the Science and 
 Art Department. 
 
 It is now a ' School of the University of London,' in the 
 Faculty of Engineering, and is attended by some 280 students 
 taking systematic courses in engineering and chemistry. 
 
 In 1901 the Board of Education made an arrangement with 
 the Institute to prevent overlapping in examinations. For the 
 secondary work of the Institute, see p. 168. 
 
 1 Second Report, Samuelson Commission, vol. i. 527; HazeWs Annual, 1891, 
 1898.
 
 III. HIGHER EDUCATION 1 
 B. Wales 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGES AND THE UNIVERSITY OF WALES. 
 
 As in secondary so in higher education, the Welsh people 
 has shown great ardour and great public spirit. 
 
 As early as 1854 it was proposed to raise funds for a 
 University College in Wales, but the scheme had to be post- 
 poned to the creation of a Training College. This was duly 
 founded and began its work at Bangor in 1862, but it was 
 not until 1872 that the University College of Wales was 
 opened at Aberystwyth 2 . The foundation was unsectarian, 
 and the fees very low, less than one -fifth the cost of the 
 students being met by their fees. 
 
 The Committee on Intermediate Education 3 reported in 
 1 88 1 in favour of a parliamentary grant, which should be 
 given to one University College in South Wales and another 
 in North Wales. Accordingly, in 1883, the former was 
 opened at Cardiff, and the latter at Bangor in 1884, and each 
 of these received 4,000 a year. The claims of Aberystwyth 
 were also pressed, and it received in 1884 2,500, increased 
 in 1886 to 4,000 a year 4 . In 1895 and 1896 Aberystwyth 
 and Bangor each received special grants of 10,000 for 
 building purposes. 
 
 In 1893 the three Colleges were incorporated by Royal 
 Charter in the University of Wales, which receives an annual 
 grant from Government, amounting in 1894 to 3,000, in 
 1901 to 4,000. When the petition for this Charter 5 was 
 drawn up there w r ere 650 students attending the three Col- 
 leges, and one-eighth of the Bachelor's Degrees in Art and 
 Science granted at the London University during the preceding 
 year were taken by Welsh students 6 . 
 
 The Charter created a University Court, containing the 
 
 1 Studies in Secondary Education, pp. 109 seqq. 
 
 3 Aberdare Report, i. p. xvi ; Journal of Education, 1902, p. 328. 
 
 3 p. 188. 
 
 4 In 1882 and 1883 it had received 2,000 and 4,000 (Appropriation Acts). 
 
 5 Undated. Between 1889 and 1893. 6 Petition.
 
 258 WALES [HIGHER 
 
 Chancellor, nominees of the Lord President, representatives 
 of local authorities, of the various sections of each College 
 and of the Graduates of the whole University, representatives 
 of Welsh secondary and elementary teachers and of the 
 Intermediate Education Board a hundred members in all. 
 It also created a Senate, composed of the Principals and 
 Professors, and also a Guild of Graduates, consisting- of all 
 Graduates and the teaching staff of the Colleges. Statutes 
 were to be made by the Court, but schemes of studies or of 
 examinations must first be recommended by the Senate. In 
 all examinations for degrees at least one examiner in each 
 subject must be appointed, who is not a teacher in any of 
 the constituent Colleges. 
 
 A University examination is held at each of the three 
 Colleges for matriculation, open only to persons not under 
 sixteen. The first was held in 1895. No candidate is 
 admitted for any examination to an initial degree unless he 
 or she has pursued a recognized course in one of the colleges 
 for three years, part of which may, however, under certain 
 conditions be spent at a theological college. Candidates for 
 Doctor's or Master's degrees must give further proof of 
 knowledge or skill. 
 
 The University of Wales Act of 1902 (2 Edw. VII, c. 14) 
 extends to Graduates of the University all privileges and 
 exemptions possessed and enjoyed by Graduates of the Uni- 
 versities of Oxford, Cambridge, London, and the Victoria 
 University. 
 
 Nine theological Colleges (including Lampeter) have been 
 recognized as giving education for degrees in theology. All 
 degrees, and every office and the membership of every 
 authority, are, by the Charter, open to women equally with 
 men, and there is a recognized hostel or hall of residence 
 for them in each of the three towns. 
 
 Day Training Colleges exist at Aberystwyth, Bangor, and 
 Cardiff, and great efforts have been made to extend these 
 benefits of training to secondary teachers. University Exten- 
 sion is also promoted by means of lecturers. 
 
 Number of Students. 
 
 Aberystwyth. Bangor. Cardiff. 
 
 1884-85 ... 58 
 
 1890 ... 165 97 
 
 1900 . . . 437 305 568 
 
 Jesus College, Oxford, has always been especially a Welsh 
 College, and even after the changes effected by Commissions,
 
 EDUCATION] LAMPETER 259 
 
 half the Fellowships and half the Scholarships are still reserved 
 for Welshmen. 
 
 ST. DAVID'S COLLEGE, LAMPETER. 
 
 In the early part of the nineteenth century the class from 
 which many of the Welsh clergy were drawn was so poor 
 that, in order to provide candidates with any education at 
 all, it was found necessary to license some of the Welsh 
 Grammar schools as institutions from which persons might 
 be ordained *. The English Universities were far too costly, 
 and, the better to meet the want, St. David's College, Lam- 
 peter, was opened in 1827 'for the reception and education 
 of persons destined for Holy Orders,' a Royal Charter being 
 granted in the following year. 
 
 In 1852 by a second Charter the College was permitted to 
 confer the degree of B.D. ; and in 1865 a further Charter 
 granted the right of giving a B.A. degree, ' the course of 
 education being extended so as to be equivalent to the 
 ordinary course of education for a Bachelor's Degree of the 
 Universities of Oxford or Cambridge.' (Charter, 1865.) 
 
 Government originally gave 5,000, and an additional sum 
 of 1,000 in 1827 ; certain advowsons were granted to the 
 College by a special Act in 1824, and in 1865 the Ecclesiastical 
 Commissioners transferred to it an income of 1,000 a year. 
 
 Though Lampeter was originally a college for the general 
 education and professional training of the clergy, no religious 
 tests were ever imposed, and it offers a general education to 
 all persons without regard to religious denomination, though 
 the majority of students ultimately take Orders. The B.A. 
 course requires three years' residence, but a Licentiateship in 
 Divinity can be obtained in two. The Degree examinations 
 have always been held by examiners appointed in equal 
 numbers by Oxford and Cambridge, to which in 1880 and 
 1883 respectively the College was also affiliated. 
 
 The undergraduate students at the end of 1902 numbered 
 about 125. 
 
 1 P. P., 1847, xxvii A - P- 45- 
 
 S 2
 
 III. HIGHER EDUCATION 
 C. Ireland 
 
 1. THE UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN AND TRINITY COLLEGE. 
 
 IRISH higher education until 1794 closely resembled its 
 English original. There was but one University, and that 
 was open only to members of the Established Church. 
 
 In March, 1591-92, Queen Elizabeth granted ' a .Charter 
 or Letters Patent 1 ,' incorporating Trinity College, Dublin 
 (' unum Collegium Mater Universitatis 2 '), the commencement 
 of a University similar to those of Oxford and Cambridge. 
 ' We license the Provost and Fellows of the said College that 
 they may establish amongst themselves whatever well-consti- 
 tuted laws they may perceive in either of our Universities of 
 Cambridge or Oxford, provided that they shall consider them 
 proper and suitable for themselves 3 .' The first four Provosts 
 were all Cambridge men 4 , and the influence of Cambridge was 
 naturally great. 
 
 The Charter nominated the Provost, three Fellows nomine 
 plurium 5 , and three Scholars, as well as the Chancellor and 
 Visitors. The Provost and Fellows received power to make 
 statutes for the College, to appoint acts and exercises for 
 degrees, and to elect University Officers 2 . The Crown 
 granted certain confiscated lands in the North for an endow- 
 ment, and about ,2,000 was collected in money . 
 
 No provision was made for admitting any other Colleges, 
 if founded, to a share in the University. In fact, none of 
 
 1 The Dublin University Calendar, 1877, vol. ii. p. i. The History of the 
 University of Dublin, p. 8, by Rev. J. W. Stubbs, D.D. : Dublin, 1889. The Book 
 of Trinity College: Belfast, 1892. The Constitutional History oj the University 
 of Dublin, p. 14, by D. C. Heron (Catholic) : Dublin, 1847. Report of the Royal 
 Commission (Archbishop Whately, Chairman) on the University of Dublin and 
 Trinity College, 1853, p. 2. Trinity College, Dublin, by W. Macneile Dixon: 
 Robinson, 1902. 
 
 1 Heron, p. 15 ; Calendar, ii. p. i. 
 
 * Translation of the Charter, vide Heron, p. 19. 
 
 * Stubbs, pp. 4, 18, 19, 27. 
 
 6 The distinction between Senior and Junior Fellows was not made until early 
 in the seventeenth century (Stubbs, p. 29). 
 8 Heron, p. 34.
 
 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY 261 
 
 the later subsidiary foundations ever became Colleges or 
 attained any importance 1 , and no such division of aim or 
 interest as occurred at Glasgow 2 has arisen between Trinity 
 College and the University. 
 
 In 1637 Charles I granted a new Charter, resuming for 
 the Crown the exclusive right of making Statutes, and in 
 exercise of this right he issued herewith a new code of 
 Royal Statutes which, with modifications by Royal Letters 
 and Statutes, lasted till the days of modern reform 3 . 
 
 The endowments of the College and University, which at 
 first had been very inadequate, gradually increased ; professor- 
 ships were founded, and between 1752 and 1763 ^"45,000 
 were granted by Government for building 4 . 
 
 Catholics in the eighteenth century might neither go abroad 5 
 nor learn from Catholics at home, yet in Dublin the College 
 Statutes exacted from all students an oath denying the 
 temporal supremacy of the Pope in these dominions 6 , and 
 required attendance at religious services in the College 
 Chapel ; it was further necessary to take the Oath of 
 Supremacy and the declaration against transubstantiation 
 before proceeding to a university degree 7 . Subscription of 
 the Thirty-nine Articles, however, was not required as in 
 England, and in practice Catholic and Nonconformist Students 
 had been from time to time excused from attendance at 
 Chapel 8 . 
 
 In 1793 the Roman Catholic Relief Act (Irish Act, 33 
 Geo. Ill, c. 21 ) provided that any persons might graduate 
 in the University without oath or declaration save of allegi- 
 ance and abjuration, if the laws of the University were altered 
 to admit of it. In 1794, accordingly, a Royal Letter made 
 the necessary changes, and consonantly with the spirit of the 
 law the College authorities admitted Dissenters on the same 
 terms with Catholics to all privileges of study and graduation 
 and to sizarships 9 . But no relaxation was made in the case 
 of Scholars, who had to attend Chapel and take the Commu- 
 nion, or of Fellows, who must all belong to the Established 
 Church, and nearly all take its Orders 10 . 
 
 The University and College were practically indivisible, and 
 were ruled by the Provost and Senior Fellows. The Univer- 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., ccxiv. 398. 
 
 2 Scotch Universities Commission Report, 1863, p. xiv. 
 
 8 Calendar, ii. p. 3. * The Book, p. 192. 
 
 8 p. 78. 6 Heron, p. 46. 
 
 7 Stnbbs, p. 283; Heron, p. 82. 
 
 8 Ibid. ; Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 280, 514. 
 
 9 Whately Commission Report, pp. 4, 53 ; Heron, p. 49. 
 
 10 Report, pp. 10, 54.
 
 262 IRELAND [HIGHER 
 
 sity was, fortunately for its efficiency, not too independent to 
 admit changes in its Statutes effected by the means of Royal 
 Letters. There had long been a matriculation examination l ; 
 the exercises for degrees were a formality, but the examina- 
 tions were genuine 2 . For graduation in all Faculties except 
 Music, it was and is necessary first to take the B.A. degree. 
 But Classics did not reign supreme, for besides the Faculties 
 of Law, Medicine, and Divinity, in 1776 two Royal Chairs of 
 Modern Languages were founded 3 . In 1841 the first School 
 of Engineering in the kingdom was established 4 . 
 
 In 1840 a Royal Letter removed the condition of celibacy 
 attached to the fellowships, which had been continually violated 
 before it was stringently re-enacted in 181 1 5 . 
 
 This further increased the value of these endowments to 
 Dublin, which has always been a home of learning, and num- 
 bered among its Fellows many distinguished men 6 . 
 
 The great defect of Dublin is that residence is not necessary 
 for the Arts degree. Provided that a man passes an exami- 
 nation each term, he never need reside at all, whether in 
 College or out of it. Many Students do reside, and attend- 
 ance on the Professors' lectures is necessary for taking a degree 
 in Divinity, Law, Medicine, or Engineering 7 ; but a man may 
 become Bachelor of Arts without ever having spent more than 
 a few days at any one time in Dublin, or setting eyes on his 
 fellow students except in the examination room. 
 
 In 1851 the tide of University reforms, which had reached 
 England the year before, brought a Royal Commission under 
 Archbishop Whately to inquire into the State, Discipline, 
 Studies, and Revenues of the University of Dublin and of 
 Trinity College. 
 
 They found the College income for 1852 amounted to 
 ,35,994 from external, and ^26,8 1 6 from internal sources 8 , 
 while the University fees for degrees had been in 1850 
 ^3,i43 9 . There were 1,217 undergraduates on the books, 
 of these only 1 18 were living in College 10 , and 518 residing in 
 the City and suburbs n . A public registry of addresses was 
 kept, but the out-college residents were under very little 
 
 I Stubbs, p. 204; Report, p. 64. 2 Report, p. 57. 
 3 Ibid. p. 44. 4 Ibid. p. 41. 
 
 5 The Book, p. 93 ; Report, p. 5. 6 The Book, p. 123, and passim. 
 
 7 Dublin University Calendar. 
 
 8 In 1888 the net college income was returned at .55,987 (P. P., 1889, 334), of 
 which 12,960 was received from students. 
 
 * Evidence, pp. 12, 267. 
 
 10 There is accommodation in college for 230 men, but most sets of rooms are for 
 two occupants (Report, p. 56; Calendar, 1901-2, p. 2). 
 
 II Report, p. 63.
 
 EDUCATION] TRINITY COLLEGE 263 
 
 control, and the Commission recommended that they should 
 be required to live in licensed Halls or Lodging Houses. 
 
 The desirability of enforcing residence seems not to have 
 been raised, though it was necessary for the only other Univer- 
 sity in Ireland at that time, and at all the other Universities in 
 the kingdom. 
 
 The Commission reported in 1853 ' that numerous improve- 
 ments of an important character have been from time to time 
 introduced by the authorities of the College, and that the 
 general state of the University is satisfactory. There is great 
 activity and efficiency in the different departments, and the 
 spirit of improvement has been especially shown in the 
 changes which have been introduced in the course of educa- 
 tion to adapt it to the requirements of the age V 
 
 In 1855 certain alterations were made in accordance with 
 these recommendations with regard to fellowships, professor- 
 ships, fees, and other minor matters ; the number of lay 
 fellows was increased from three to five ; forty exhibitions, 
 open without distinction of creed, were founded 2 ; the formal 
 exercises for degrees were abolished, and all the higher 
 degrees, except the M.A., were made tests of merit 3 . The 
 constitution itself, however, was not dealt with until 1857. In 
 that year by Letters Patent power 4 was again given to the Pro- 
 vost and Senior Fellows (known as The Board) to alter rules, 
 but such alteration must be sanctioned by the Senate or Con- 
 gregation of the University, now for the first time incor- 
 porated, and consisting of Doctors and Masters on the books 
 of the University. The Chancellor, or, in his absence, the Vice- 
 Chancellor, was bound to convene this body on the requisition 
 of the Board, and had power to adjourn or dissolve the meet- 
 ing. The Caput of the Senate consisted of the Chancellor 
 of the University and the Provost of the College or their 
 substitutes, and the Senior Master, who was elected by the 
 Senate, and any one of these three could veto a grace. In 
 the Senate the Chancellor or Vice- Chancellor had an abso- 
 lute veto ; no rule for conferring degrees might be proposed 
 which had not been previously adopted by the Provost and 
 Senior Fellow 5 . 
 
 In 1867 Mr. Fawcett introduced a Bill to remove all religious 
 disabilities, but they were removed only from certain Chairs 
 (30 & 31 Viet. c. 9). In 1873 by the University of Dublin 
 Tests Act (36 Viet. c. 21) all tests were abolished in University 
 
 1 Report, p. 92. 2 Fourteen open studentships were founded in 1858. 
 
 8 The Book, p. 95. * Calendar, ii. p. 6. 
 
 5 The Book, p. 97 ; Calendar, 1877, ii. p. 9.
 
 264 IRELAND [HIGHER 
 
 and College for all offices and emoluments whatsoever, except 
 for any Professor of, or Lecturer in, Divinity. 
 
 Early in 1873 Mr. Gladstone made a heroic attempt to settle 
 the Irish University question. He brought in a bill to eman- 
 cipate the University of Dublin from the control of Trinity 
 College, which henceforth was to be only one among several 
 Colleges. The Catholic University, Magee (Presbyterian) 
 College \ and the Queen's Colleges of Belfast and Cork were 
 to share in its government and privileges. The theological 
 faculty was to be disestablished and handed over to the repre- 
 sentative body of the disestablished Church of Ireland 2 . To 
 remove further grounds of controversy the new University 
 was to take no cognizance of metaphysical or moral philo- 
 sophy or of modern history 3 . 
 
 The Protestants did not like the measure, because it deprived 
 them of power ; the Catholics did not like it, because it failed 
 to provide them with endowments ; and on the second reading 
 it was rejected by three votes 4 . 
 
 The Letter of 1857 was a measure of reform, but Mr. Glad- 
 stone in 1873 could with accuracy describe the University of 
 Dublin as being in servitude to a single College 5 . ' It means 
 servitude to eight gentlemen who elect the other Fellows, 
 who elect also themselves, and who govern both the Univer- 
 sity and the College.' To secure a more real representation 
 for the University, a Council of the University was instituted 
 in 1874 for co-operating in regulation of studies, lectures, and 
 exercises in the College, and in appointment and regulation of 
 the tenure of office of Professors. It consists of the Provost 
 and four groups elected from the Senate by Senior and Junior 
 Fellows, Professors, and the rest of the Senate respectively . 
 It can, however, only be said to ' interfere a little ' with ' the 
 small and perfectly homogeneous governing body 7 .' 
 
 In 1878 a Royal Commission reported that the College had 
 received ; 140,661 as compensation for the loss of advowsons 
 on the Disestablishment of the Irish Church 8 , and recom- 
 mended that the income of this sum should be devoted to 
 increasing the number of Senior Fellows. They also thought 
 that the Divinity School should be transferred to the Repre- 
 sentative Body of the Church of Ireland, together with a liberal 
 provision for its support 9 . None of these recommendations 
 were, however, carried into effect. 
 
 1 Opened 1865. 2 Hansard, T. S., ccxiv. p. 408. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. 416. * Ibid. p. 1,863. ' I kid. p. 392. 
 
 * Calendar, 1877, p. n. 
 
 7 Royal Commission, Gresham University, Professor Mahaffy, Q. 24,682. P. P., 
 1894, xxxiv. p. 1,144. 
 
 Report, p 3. 9 Ibid. p. n.
 
 EDUCATION] THE BILL OF 1873 265 
 
 In 1870 special examinations for women were first held, 
 but it was not until 1896 that women were admitted to any of 
 the ordinary University examinations, and then only to certain 
 honour examinations, in separate rooms from the men, and as 
 an experiment to be tried for three years. In 1901 they were 
 admitted to do the papers of the Matriculation Examination, and 
 if successful to the Honour Examination for junior freshmen. 
 But this privilege is granted only from year to year. In 
 December, 1902, the Board of Trinity College decided to 
 apply for a Royal Letter authorizing the admission of women. 
 The question must come before the Council and the Senate of 
 the University, but Government is understood to be favour- 
 able to the proposal. The first examinations in the History 
 and Theory of Education and Practice of Teaching were held 
 in January, 1898 l . 
 
 The maximum and minimum of students (including Bache- 
 lors) on the College Books within the last forty years were 
 1,308 in 1886 and 1,063 in 1894-. In the end of 1897 there 
 were 1,084, of whom 798 were undergraduates. 
 
 As for the religious question, the following Census returns 3 
 show to how small an extent the Catholics avail themselves of 
 the leading University : 
 
 Students on books, including Roman Catholics, 
 1871 ... 991 74 
 
 1881 . . . 1,338 115 
 
 1891 . . . 1,162 76 
 
 1901 ... 976 73 
 
 It was estimated that of the 1,200 students who matricu- 
 lated between 1891 and 1895, only about six per cent, were 
 Catholics 4 . 
 
 In the matter of residence, in 1866 there were 568 resident 
 undergraduates; 488 were non-resident, or had failed to 
 attend a quarter of their lectures ; the total number, however, 
 of those who had kept terms during the preceding year was 
 
 I,2l8 5 . 
 
 In 1891 Professor Mahaffy stated that less than twenty per 
 cent, got degrees by examination only 6 . 
 
 1 p. 209. 2 Calendar, 1898, p. 524. 
 
 3 The Irish census contains a good many valuable returns as to the number of 
 students in various institutions. 
 
 4 Edinburgh Review, January, 1898, p. 119. 
 I P. P., 1867, Iv. p. 774 . 
 
 Gresham University Commission, Q. 24,688.
 
 266 IRELAND [HIGHER 
 
 2. THEOLOGICAL ENDOWMENTS. 
 i. Maynooth. 
 
 The French Revolution broke up many of the Colleges on 
 the Continent at which the Irish Catholic priesthood was 
 trained x ; at the time of the Revolution 478 Irish students 
 were abroad, and of these no less than 348 were in France 
 itself. To remedy this in 1795 the Irish Parliament passed 
 an Act appointing" trustees for endowing an academy or 
 seminary for Catholics only (35 Geo. Ill, c. 21). The Duke 
 of Leinster let a house and grounds on favourable terms 2 at 
 Maynooth, 15 miles north-west of Dublin. The seminary 
 was opened in 1 795, and the next year the Lord Lieutenant 
 laid the foundation-stone of new buildings. The Irish House 
 of Commons voted 8,000, and this became an annual grant, 
 varying slightly in amount. By the Act of Union, 40 Geo. Ill, 
 c. 38, Article 7, it was provided that the sum granted inter 
 alia for maintaining institutions for pious and charitable 
 purposes in Ireland should not be reduced for twenty 
 years. A separate ' lay College ' was started in 1 800 for 
 boys admitted under fifteen 3 , but was discontinued in 1817. 
 Since that year Maynooth has been a clerical seminary 
 pure and simple. The grant, after one or two fluctuations, 
 was fixed at 8,928 4 , and was voted annually by the House 
 of Commons till 1845, a constant cause of exasperation to 
 ultra- Protestant members. In 1845 an Act of incorporation 
 was passed (8 & 9 Viet. c. 25), and the annual grant raised to 
 26,360, provision being made for 520 students; a sum of 
 30,000 was also given for buildings. There were two Royal 
 Commissions of inquiry, which reported in 1827 and 1855. 
 
 On the disestablishment of the Irish Protestant Church in 
 i869 5 , all denominational endowment ceased and existing 
 interests were compensated. Maynooth received a sum of 
 369,040, being fourteen times the annual grant, and the 
 Acts of 1 800 and 1 845 were repealed. 
 
 When the Royal University of Ireland was established, 
 the Senate were disposed to give three of their fellowships 
 for lecturing to the students at Maynooth, but the Catholic 
 bishops declined the offer, and students are not now expressly 
 prepared for the examinations of the University 7 . Maynooth 
 
 1 Maynooth College: the Centenary History, p. 95, by Rev. John Healy, D.D., 
 Bishop of Macra: Dublin, 1895. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth 
 Century, iii. 348. 
 
 3 Healy, p. 127. 3 Ibid. pp. 312, 319, 692. 
 
 4 Appropriation Acts. Bishop Healy states it as 9,673, p. 263. 
 
 5 p. 97. 6 Healy, p. 481. 7 Ibid. p. 527.
 
 EDUCATION] THE QUEEN'S COLLEGES 267 
 
 is a College of the Catholic University. In 1901 Maynooth 
 had 504 students 1 . 
 
 ii. Belfast Academical Institution. 
 
 Another educational grant to a denomination was made 
 in the case of the Belfast Academical Institution, which, opened 
 in 1814 as an undenominational establishment for affording 
 youth a classical and mercantile education 2 , soon became 
 a college for the education of the Presbyterian clergy of 
 Ireland. It received from Parliament after 1828 an annual 
 subsidy, which began at 1,500 and amounted to 2,500 in 
 1849, when the Institution was merged in the General 
 Assembly's Theological College, Belfast. The grant was still 
 continued for the retiring allowances of Theological Professors, 
 and at the Disestablishment was commuted for a sum of 
 43,976 3 , being fourteen times the grant, and 15,000 for the 
 college buildings. In 1901 it had only 46 students. 
 
 iii. Magee College. 
 
 Magee College, Londonderry, is also a Presbyterian institu- 
 tion, founded about the same time as the Queen's Colleges. 
 It is primarily a theological college, controlled by the General 
 Assembly, but also has an Arts course which is entirely 
 undenominational. This course was attended by about sixty 
 students in 1900: most of the students graduate in the Royal 
 University. One of the Fellowships in the University is 
 assigned to the College, which to this extent receives Govern- 
 ment recognition and support 4 . In 1901 there were seventy- 
 one students. 
 
 3. THE QUEEN'S COLLEGES, AND THE QUEEN'S 
 UNIVERSITY. 
 
 4. THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY. 
 
 In 1845, Sir Robert Peel being in office, the Act 8 & 9 Viet. c. 
 66 was passed providing for the establishment of three ' Queen's 
 Colleges ' ' in order to supply the want, which had long been 
 felt in Ireland, of an improved academical education equally 
 accessible to all classes of the community without religious 
 distinction 5 .' The scheme had been suggested in 1838 in 
 the report of the Select Committee on Foundation Schools 
 
 1 Healy, p. 527. 2 1824 Commissioners' Fourth Report. 
 
 3 Appropriation Acts ; Hansard, T. S., civ. 428 ; Ellis, Irish Education 
 Directory, 1887, p. 89. 
 
 4 P. P., 1901, Cd. 826, Q. 317. 
 
 5 Report of Royal Commission, 1858, p. i.
 
 268 IRELAND [HIGHER 
 
 and Education in Ireland (p. 196) of which Mr. Wyse was 
 chairman, and it was largely to his continued exertions that 
 the present scheme was due. 
 
 A sum of 100,000 was granted for sites and building for 
 three colleges at Belfast, Cork, and Galway, and each college 
 received 7,000 a year. Three Faculties were established 
 in each, viz. Arts, Law, and Physic. The colleges were 
 strictly undenominational, and professors were forbidden by 
 the Statutes to make any statement disrespectful to the 
 religious convictions of their classes, or to introduce political 
 or polemical subjects 1 . 
 
 They were opened in the end of 1849, and in 1850 the 
 Queen's University was founded, as a part of the original 
 design, to examine for degrees students who had qualified 
 by attending courses at these colleges. But by this time 
 Peel was dead, and ' no institutions were ever yet opened 
 under such unfavourable circumstances.' They received little 
 support ' even from the Government who founded them 2 '. 
 
 In August, 1850, as we have seen on p. 97, the Synod 
 of Thurles assembled, and the Roman Catholic clergy were 
 prohibited, under penalty of suspension, from taking part 
 in the administration of the colleges, on the ground that they 
 were dangerous to faith and morals 3 . There were eight 
 Catholic students that year at the Queen's Colleges, and 
 twenty-one the next, but the scheme failed the Catholics 
 as a body would none of it, and though the Colleges have 
 done and continue to do good work, they did not solve 
 the problem of providing a generally acceptable teaching 
 University. 
 
 In 1882 and the following years the classes and scholarships 
 in the Queen's Colleges were thrown open to women. 
 
 The total number of students attending the Queen's Colleges 
 has varied considerably. Their maximum was reached about 
 twenty years ago, and the numbers are still dwindling. At 
 Belfast, which has been the most successful, meeting a real 
 need of the Presbyterians of Ulster, there were in 1881-2 
 567 students in attendance, of whom 353 were Presbyterians 
 and 25 Catholics: in 1899-1900 there were 347, of whom 
 247 were Presbyterians. At Cork they have ranged from 
 402 in 1 88 1 -2 (with 221 Catholics) to 171 (98 Catholics) in 
 1900-01. At Galway they fell from 208 (87 Catholics) in 
 1881-82 to 83 in 1898-99, of whom 28 were Catholics. Each 
 year some 4,000 is given in scholarships and exhibitions : 
 
 1 Report of Royal Commission, 1858, p. 7. 
 
 2 P. P., 1858, Report of Q. Coll. Commission, 1857, pp. 135, 244. 
 
 3 Powis Report, Q. 3,690 ; The Catholic Case, pp. 401-4, Archbishop Walsh.
 
 EDUCATION] THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY 269 
 
 at Galway in 1900-01 there were 41 scholars and 15 ex- 
 hibitioners out of 84 matriculated students, of whom some 
 thirty came from Ulster. 
 
 With regard to the Queen's University events took much 
 the same course as in the University of London. In 1866 a 
 supplementary Charter was given to the Queen's University l , 
 granting the right to examine and confer degrees upon 
 students who had not been educated at the Queen's Colleges. 
 Owing to legal difficulties, the power was not exercised, but 
 a dozen years later the old University was abolished, and 
 a new examining corporation was created, though the colleges 
 continued to exist on their old basis. 
 
 In 1879 an Act (44 & 45 Viet. c. 52) was passed for the 
 abolition of the Queen's University and the establishment of 
 the Royal University of Ireland in its place. The old annual 
 grants of about 5,000 continued until 1882, and in 1883 the 
 new University first received its full income of 20,000 a year 
 from the Church Temporalities Commissioners, who adminis- 
 tered the funds of the disestablished Church of Ireland. 
 
 Its Charter was granted in April, 1880; power was given 
 to confer degrees in all Faculties except Theology, but the 
 distinctive change was that no residence in any college was 
 required, nor attendance at any lectures, except in the case 
 of medical students. The religious difficulty was thus shelved, 
 and the Catholics have readily availed themselves of the 
 examinations and accepted the offices and fellowships of the 
 new University. 
 
 The corporation consists of a Chancellor, Senate, and 
 Graduates, the Senators being to the maximum number of 
 thirty nominated by the Sovereign, while six are appointed 
 by the Convocation of the University. 
 
 A scheme was prepared by the Senate, submitted to the 
 Lord Lieutenant, and laid before Parliament. It provided for 
 the creation of fellowships, scholarships, and prizes, and for the 
 holding of public examinations for matriculation and degrees. 
 There are twenty-nine Arts and eight Medical fellowships of 
 400 a year, most of which are assigned to persons in the 
 chief institutions which give instruction for the University 
 Examinations. By a tacit understanding half of them are 
 appointed by University College, Stephen's Green ; the re- 
 mainder are distributed among the Queen's Colleges, and one 
 is given to Magee College. One of the chief complaints made 
 against the University is that practically no extern examiners 
 are appointed. Women have always been admitted to the 
 University on equal terms with men. 
 
 1 Hansard, T. S., clxxxiv. 876 ; clxxxvii. 4, 1,432.
 
 2 ;o IRELAND [HIGHER 
 
 The Matriculation Examination and the First University 
 Examination are usually held at eight different local centres ; 
 the other examinations at Dublin only. 
 
 ROYAL UNIVERSITY. 
 
 Entered for Examinations Passed. Per cent. 
 
 1884 . . 2,364 JJ458 62 
 
 1890 . . 2,845 1,803 64 
 
 1900 . . 2,658 1,783 67 
 
 At the Queen's University the numbers presenting them- 
 selves for examination were 302 in 1870, and 748 in 1880. 
 
 The University Commission of 1901-3 (see p. 272) con- 
 sidered that the present arrangement by which degrees of the 
 Royal University of Ireland are obtainable by Examination 
 alone has lowered the ideal of University life and education in 
 Ireland, and should be abolished. It also strongly condemned 
 the present method of endowment by fellowships, and insisted 
 that the Royal University should be converted into a proper 
 teaching University, in which attendance at lectures should 
 be indispensable for degrees. The Queen's Colleges are to 
 be the constituent Colleges of the University, together with 
 a fourth, Catholic, College in Dublin. Belfast should be 
 liberally endowed and equipped, but Cork and Gal way ought 
 rather to be reduced until need is shown. 
 
 5. THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY. 
 
 The Catholic University in Ireland was founded by the 
 Catholic bishops in 1854 in accordance with the resolutions of 
 the Synod of Thurles (p. 97), being established under a Brief 
 from the Pope. The Governing Body consists of the Catholic 
 archbishops and bishops of Ireland. John Henry Newman, 
 afterwards Cardinal, was sent over to Dublin for four years 
 as its first Rector, and there delivered those lectures which 
 embodied in so perfect a form his ' Idea of a University.' 
 
 Between 1851 and 1865 .125,000 were collected for the new 
 institutions in voluntary subscriptions, and 59,000 more by 
 1874. Five out of the six thousand pounds of its annual cost 
 were spent on salaries, as the fees were almost nominal l , and 
 by 1879 its funds were nearly exhausted. 
 
 It was modelled on the University of Louvain, but was 
 sorely hampered for want of funds, and negotiations for its 
 endowment, entered into with Lord Derby's Government in 
 1867, came to nothing. The Bill of 1873 (see p. 264) pro- 
 
 1 Devonshire Fifth Report, P. P., 1874, xxii. p. 92.
 
 EDUCATION] THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY 271 
 
 posed to recognize but not to endow it. The Royal Com- 
 mission on Scientific Instruction was in 1874, owing- to its 
 restrictions and provisional character, unable to recommend it 
 for a grant l . 
 
 In 1879 the O'Conor Don brought forward a measure for 
 the endowment of a Catholic University '-' ; but the Royal 
 University was established, and his measure abandoned. 
 
 In October, 1882, the establishment at St. Stephen's Green, 
 hitherto known as ' the Catholic University,' became * Univer- 
 sity College, Dublin,' one of the six constituent Colleges of the 
 Catholic University, the others being Maynooth 3 , Blackrock, 
 Carlow, Clonliffe, and the Catholic Medical School. 
 
 In 1896-97, with only 130 pupils, St. Stephen's Green 
 obtained forty-nine first class distinctions at the Royal Uni- 
 versity, against thirty-three obtained by the Queen's Colleges 4 . 
 It is open to students of all denominations, about ten per cent, 
 being non-Catholics: the average total numbers are from 180 
 to 210, women being admitted to the Arts classes as far as 
 feasible 5 . 
 
 In 1873-74 there were only 116 students in the University, 
 of whom some were resident in Dublin, either as Intern 
 students in its buildings, or Extern either in licensed lodging- 
 houses or living with their families. Others were Non- 
 resident or Affiliated, in kindred institutions throughout the 
 country ; while others, again, non-matriculated and not neces- 
 sarily Catholics, were known as Auditors 6 . 
 
 The Irish Catholics have long made up their mind to be 
 content with nothing less than a Catholic University, which 
 shall in all respects be able to hold its own with the Univer- 
 sity of Dublin and Trinity College. It is unnecessary to go 
 through the stages of the controversy in which they have 
 gradually drawn nearer to their goal 7 . Their view was well 
 summed up by Dr. Walsh, the Archbishop of Dublin, who 
 declared in 1890, ' To us Catholics it comes as a fixed principle 
 that every institution such as Trinity College, embodying that 
 which is known as the " mixed system," is from the nature of 
 that system a source of danger to Catholic students, if they 
 frequent it ; a source of danger to the vigour and even to the 
 integrity of their faith ; a source of danger also to their con- 
 
 1 Fifth Report. * Hansard, T. S., ccxlvi. 475. 
 
 8 The Irish University Question; The Catholic Case, selected from the speeches 
 and writings of the Archbishop of Dublin (Dr. W.J. Walsh), with an historical 
 sketch, p. 46 : Dublin, 1897. P. P., Cd. 826, Q. 1,168. 
 
 * Right Hon. John Morley in the House of Commons, Feb. 17, 1898. 
 
 * Robertson Commission, Q. 1,193-97. 
 
 6 Devonshire Report, i. 83. 
 
 7 Evidence of the Robertson Commission, 1902.
 
 272 IRELAND [HIGHER 
 
 stancy in the full and faithful observance of the practical duties 
 by which they are bound as Catholics V 
 
 In July, 1901, a Royal Commission with Lord Robertson as 
 chairman was appointed ' to inquire into the present position 
 of higher general and technical education in Ireland, outside of 
 Trinity College, and to report as to what reforms, if neces- 
 sary, are desirable in order to render that education adequate 
 to the needs of the Irish people.' Three volumes of very 
 contradictory evidence have been published, and the final 
 report was issued in March, 1903. (P. P., Cd. 1,483.) It was 
 signed by eleven out of the twelve Commissioners, but with 
 six reservations, apart from the question of Maynooth. 
 
 It recommended that a Catholic College should be estab- 
 lished in Dublin, well endowed, and forming part of a Univer- 
 sity which should include the Queen's Colleges. The present 
 Catholic University School of Medicine should be absorbed 
 in it, and residential Halls for men and women should be 
 provided. 
 
 6. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL 
 INSTRUCTION, REPLACING THE SCIENCE AND ART 
 DEPARTMENT (see p. 201). 
 
 The Royal College of Science. 
 
 In 1845 the Royal Dublin Society founded a Museum of 
 Economic Geology, which two years later resulted in a 
 School of Science applied to Mining- and the Arts, and in 
 1853 this was transferred to the Department of Science and 
 Art. The course of events throughout was the same as in 
 England, but rather more rapid, for in 1867 the Royal Hiber- 
 nian College of Science was opened 2 . At the time it was 
 in advance of any institution of the sort which England pos- 
 sessed, but it is now sorely in need of new buildings and 
 appliances 3 : a Committee is reporting on its requirements. 
 
 This absorbed the School of Science, and supplies as far as 
 practicable a complete course of instruction in Science applic- 
 able to the Industrial Arts, especially those which may be 
 classed broadly under the heads of Mining, Engineering, and 
 Manufactures ; it is intended also to aid the instruction of 
 Teachers for the local schools of Science. 
 
 There is a three years' curriculum for ' Associated Students ' 
 
 1 The Irish University Question; an Address: Dublin, Gill & Son, 1890. 
 
 2 Report of Commission on Science and Art Department in Ireland, 1869, i. 
 xxxiii. 
 
 3 Journal of Education, 1898, p. 293 ; 45th Report of Department, p. xxviii.
 
 EDUCATION] WOMEN 273 
 
 who can obtain the Diploma, but it is not necessary to become 
 associated and follow this course. 
 
 In the Session of 1899-1900 there were twenty-two Asso- 
 ciated and seventy-five Non-associated Students in attendance l . 
 
 In 1900 the Royal College of Science was transferred to 
 the Department of Agriculture and Technical Science, which 
 also received charge of the Metropolitan School of Art, the 
 National Library, the Sciences and Art Museums, and the 
 Botanic Gardens. 
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 
 
 In 1866 Alexandra College, Dublin, was founded for the 
 higher education of women, and a residence house was opened 
 for their reception 2 . 
 
 In 1870 the University of Dublin held its first examination 
 for women ; as we have seen (p. 265), it was not until 1896 
 that the other sex were admitted by the University to do any 
 papers which were set for men. In 1901 the women's exami- 
 nation was made identical with the matriculation examination 
 for men, but the arrangement is still described as tentative, and 
 has been utilized by very few women in spite of four scholar- 
 ships being offered, three by the Governess Association of 
 Ireland, and one by the Board of Trinity College. 
 
 The question of College lectures will of course have to be 
 reconsidered with the question of degrees (p. 267). Some of 
 the University lectures are open to the general public, of 
 which women are admitted to form part, but Trinity College 
 has hitherto reserved its teaching for men alone 3 . 
 
 The first Statutes of the Royal University of Ireland declared 
 all degrees, honours, exhibitions, prizes, and scholarships open 
 to students of either sex. In 1884 nine degrees were taken 
 by women, in 1900 there were sixty-five 4 . 
 
 In 1882 Queen's College, Belfast, opened its honour lectures 
 to matriculated women students 3 , and the example has been 
 followed by the two other Colleges. 
 
 St. Mary's University College and the Loretto High School 
 for Girls are in connexion with the Catholic University 6 . 
 
 Alexandra College, Victoria College, Belfast, and the 
 Rochelle Seminary, Cork, are, with St. Mary's, the chief 
 institutions which prepare their pupils for the examinations 
 of the Royal University. 
 
 1 P. P., Cd. 329, p. 262. a Ellis, Irish Education Directory, 1887, p. 226. 
 
 8 Statement of the Proceedings from 1892 to 1895 in connexion with the Move- 
 ment for the Admission of Women to Trinity College, Dublin. W. G. Brooke : 
 Dublin University Press, 1895. 48 pp. 
 
 * Jottrnal of Education, 1902, p. 52. 
 
 5 Ellis, Irish Education Directory, 1887, p. 223. 
 
 8 Sadler, Special Reports, vol. i. p. 698.
 
 III. HIGHER EDUCATION 
 
 D. Scotland 
 
 1. THE UNIVERSITIES OF ST. ANDREWS, GLASGOW, 
 ABERDEEN, AND EDINBURGH. 
 
 THE University system of Scotland differs from that of 
 England at almost every point, but it has adapted its growth 
 to the wants of the people, and if limited in some respects it 
 has served the nation well, and has needed but few alterations 
 in order to meet modern requirements. 
 
 On the one hand, the Scotch Universities are more nume- 
 rous, better distributed, less expensive than Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge, and, except in the case of the teaching body, they have 
 scarcely been limited at all by sectarian restrictions. ' Profes- 
 sors, Principals, Regents, Masters, or others bearing office' 
 had to subscribe the Westminster Confession of Faith (Scotch 
 Acts, 1690, Will. Ill, c. 25 ; 1707, Anne, c. 6), but this was 
 accepted (with more or less reservation) by all or most of the 
 Protestant denominations, and this rule was, in any case, not 
 regularly observed *. Only the Principals and Divinity Pro- 
 fessors had to be ordained, and celibacy ^of course found no 
 place in the regulations. 
 
 The Universities have consequently received many more 
 students, and thus represented more completely the various 
 elements of which the nation is composed. Sessions can be 
 kept only by actual attendance at specified lectures, and not 
 by mere residence within the precincts of the University. 
 
 On the other hand, being inadequately endowed, the Univer- 
 sities have practically abolished the College system, there has 
 been little corporate life among the younger students, and 
 few men have been enabled to devote themselves to the 
 pursuit of learning for its own sake. Too much of the teach- 
 ing has been merely secondary, but one most important point 
 Scotland and England (except London for a time) have re- 
 tained in common no student has been able to obtain a 
 university degree without spending several years among his 
 fellows in attendance at the University. 
 
 1 Rosebery Report, p. 33.
 
 THE SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES 275 
 
 At the beginning- of the century there were four cities in 
 Scotland which contained Universities, and two of these had 
 received more than one foundation. 
 
 In 1411 the University of St. Andrews had been founded, and 
 two years later had obtained a Papal Bull from Benedict XIII l . 
 In 1455 the foundation of the College of St. SalVator had 
 been confirmed, in 1512 the College of St. Leonard had been 
 founded, and these had been united in 1747 by an Act of 
 Parliament 2 . In 1537 St. Mary's College had been founded 3 , 
 and at the Reformation in 1579 had been appropriated exclu- 
 sively to Theology. 
 
 In 1450 the University of Glasgow had received a Bull from 
 Nicolas V 4 . 
 
 In 1494 the University and King's College of Aberdeen was 
 erected by a Bull of Alexander VI 6 . In 1 593 the Marischal 
 College was founded by the Earl Marischal under Royal 
 authority 6 . The two Colleges were temporarily united in 
 the seventeenth century 7 , but the amalgamation was incom- 
 plete, and they again became distinct foundations with sepa- 
 rate constitutions and distinct staffs. 
 
 Edinburgh differed from the others in its constitution, and in 
 its subordination to the Municipality. In 1582 King James VI 
 or I granted a Charter to the Provost, Bailies, and Council of 
 Edinburgh for building a ' College,' granting them the right 
 of electing and dismissing the professors; and in 1621 an 
 Act was passed granting to the Provost, Bailies, Council, and 
 Community of Edinburgh, on behalf of the College, all privi- 
 leges granted to any other College in the realm 8 . On the 
 whole this government by the local authorities worked well : 
 * they succeeded where they might have been expected to fail, 
 and failed where they might have been expected to be par- 
 ticularly successful. In the intellectual development of the 
 University their success was brilliant ; they took good advice 
 and did the right thing at the right moment, and in their 
 appointments they rarely made a mistake. On the other hand, 
 the material interests of the University did not flourish in their 
 hands 9 .' 
 
 Thus Scotland, which a hundred years ago had only a fifth 
 of the population of England and Wales, had twice as many 
 University towns, and though the distance between each of 
 these and its nearest neighbours was even less than the seventy 
 
 Rosebery Report, p. 387. 2 Ibid. p. 390. 
 
 Ibid. p. 388. Ibid. p. 213. 
 
 Report, 1830, p. 305. 6 Ibid. p. 343. 
 
 i63--i67o (ibid. p. 308). 8 Ibid. p. 99. 
 
 Sir A. Grant, The Story of the University of Edinburgh, ii. 229. 
 
 T 2
 
 276 SCOTLAND [HIGHER 
 
 miles between Oxford and Cambridge, or the journey between 
 either of them and London, three out of these four were also 
 three of the four largest towns in Scotland l . 
 
 The contrast with England is most marked in respect of 
 denominational exclusion. In 1830 the Commissioners re- 
 ported, ' The Universities of Scotland are not now of an eccle- 
 siastical character, or in the ordinary acceptation of the term 
 ecclesiastical Bodies. They are connected, it is true, with 
 the Established Church of Scotland, the standards of which 
 the Professors must acknowledge. Like other seminaries of 
 education, they may be subject to the inspection of the Church 
 on account of any religious opinions which may be taught in 
 them. The Professors of Divinity, whose instructions are 
 intended for the members of the Established Church, are in 
 their character of Professors members of the Presbytery of the 
 Bounds, and' each University returns a representative to the 
 General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. But in other 
 respects the Universities of Scotland are not Ecclesiastical 
 Institutions, not being more connected with the Church than 
 with any other profession 2 . 
 
 ' They are intended for the general education of the country, 
 and in truth possess scarcely any Ecclesiastical feature except 
 that they have a certain number of Professors for the purposes 
 of teaching Theology in the same manner as other Sciences 
 are taught. . . . Neither their constitutions, endowments, nor 
 provisions for public instruction are founded on the prin- 
 ciple that the Universities are appendages of the Church. All 
 the classes may be taught by laymen, with the exception of the 
 classes of Divinity V 
 
 It was generally provided that the students should attend 
 public worship in a body, but the rules appear to have been 
 greatly relaxed, and there seems to have been no difficulty in 
 obtaining a dispensation 4 . 
 
 Such apartments as had ever been provided for the resi- 
 dence of students within the college buildings had long been 
 forsaken 5 for private lodgings. No doubt one great motive 
 for this had been economy, and in Scotland the expenses of 
 
 1 The Rosebery Commissioners in 1830 recommended the establishment of 
 a University at Dumfries out of the Crichton funds, which were then available 
 (Report, p. 85), but the money went to a lunatic asylum (Encyclopaedia Britan- 
 nica : Article, 'Dumfries'). 
 
 " Cf. Professor Halford Vaughan's evidence before the Oxford Commission : ' A 
 man who can take an (Oxford) degree is already, in point of attainments, three- 
 fourths of a Clerk in Orders, but he is not one-fourth of any other profession ' 
 (i 8,^2, Evidence, p. 86). 
 
 3 Rosebery Report, p. 8. 
 
 * Ibid., Appendix, pp. 163, 265, 328, 359, 409. 
 
 Ibid., pp. 1 80, 283, 329, 359, 409.
 
 EDUCATION] ADVANTAGES 277 
 
 a university education had been reduced to the lowest possible 
 amount. 
 
 The late Archbishop of Canterbury found, apparently by 
 personal experience, that at Balliol in his time (1839-41) 
 a careful man could, without withdrawing himself from the 
 society of the place, live for 86 a year, with a preliminary 
 outlay of 36 l exclusive of recoverable payments. In 1851 
 the late Master of Balliol considered that economy could not 
 bring the whole expenses of a year at Oxford to less than 
 100 or 120, and he put the average allowance at 200 to 
 300 2 . At Cambridge, 150 to 250 was an average estimate 
 at the same period 3 . It is reckoned nowadays that, apart 
 from vacations, it is within the bounds of possibility for an 
 unattached student at Oxford to spend no more than 50 
 a year on his education, lodging, and board. Few men can 
 live in College under 80, and 150 is estimated as the normal 
 amount 4 . 
 
 But these figures stand out as spendthrift extravagance in 
 comparison with the minimum formerly possible in Scotland. 
 Dr. Lee, in evidence before the Rosebery Commission 6 , men- 
 tioned an Aberdeen student whose total expenses for his first 
 session were only 16, more than a quarter of this being fees. 
 At Edinburgh, lodging and maintenance for the whole twenty- 
 four weeks amounted in another case to no more than 8 2J 1 . 6 , 
 or in a third instance, even to 6 7 . As in England, the 
 academic year included only six months' term, but this was 
 broken by a mid-winter vacation of a very few days, and so 
 it has been easier for poor students to make provision for their 
 college course by doing other work in the summer 8 . The 
 bursaries, or exhibitions as they would be called in England, 
 though small, were numerous, and seemed to reach the poorest 
 students of any real ability. 
 
 In consequence of all this, the attendance at the Universities 
 was far greater than in England. In 1800 there must have 
 been about 1,000 undergraduates in all at Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge 9 . In 1801 there were 993 students at Edinburgh 
 alone 10 . In 1830 the English Universities had under 3,000 
 
 1 1852 Oxford Evidence, p. 123. ' Ibid. p. 32. 
 
 3 Cambridge Report, p. 148. 
 
 * J. Wells, Oxford and Oxford Life, pp. 52, 54: Methuen, 1892. 
 8 Edinburgh Evidence, printed 1837, P- 59- 
 
 8 The annual fees for an Arts Course nowadays amount at the most to about 
 ten guineas (Edinburgh Calendar, 1894-5, p. 118). 
 
 7 Edinburgh Evidence, p. 599. 
 
 8 Rosebery Report, p. 34; Inglis Report, 1863, p. xxx ; Argyll Third Report, 
 iii. 156. 
 
 9 The matriculations at both Universities in 1800 were 376 (see p. 238). 
 
 10 Rosebery Appendix, p. 161.
 
 
 278 SCOTLAND [HIGHER 
 
 undergraduates 1 . In any of the years 1825-6-7 Scotland had 
 about 4,400 students 2 . And yet in 1830 England and Wales 
 had six times as many inhabitants as Scotland 3 . It is true 
 that a certain number of these came from outside Scotland 
 especially to attend the Medical Classes at Edinburgh. But 
 English pupils like Lord John Russell and private tutors like 
 Sydney Smith soon ceased to frequent Edinburgh, and as 
 time went on it became the custom for the sons of Scotch- 
 men of good position to resort to the reformed English 
 Universities 4 . 
 
 As there were so many students drawn from so small 
 a people, the mixture of classes was necessarily great, and the 
 fusion of professional and lower classes on the benches of the 
 lecture-rooms was complete. The Argyll Commission found 
 that of a number of students in the professors' classes 16 per 
 cent, were sons of skilled labourers and artisans 5 . 
 
 The profession of teaching naturally benefited largely by 
 this diffusion of knowledge. The Argyll Commission found 
 in 1866 that in 69 Burgh and Middle Class Schools, out of 
 286 masters 72 per cent, had studied at a university, and more 
 than half of these had taken a degree 6 . In 1901, 967 of the 
 masters in public elementary schools in Scotland, being" 22 per 
 cent, of the whole, were university graduates 7 . 
 
 The chief drawback to this large attendance was that 
 many of the students still required not higher but secondary 
 instruction. There was no test whatever at matriculation, 
 and boys matriculated as early as possible to secure the 
 material benefits of a university course without prolonging- the 
 expenses of their education 8 . The Rosebery Commission 
 reported in 1830 that the average age at which the students 
 of the Marischal College, Aberdeen, commenced their course 
 was twelve, some of them being- as young- as eleven 9 , and 
 fourteen and a half was then an average age to enter the 
 Humanity Classes at Edinburgh (cp. p. 2i2) 10 . Hence it is 
 not wonderful that the professors found it necessary to have 
 a junior class, or that these junior classes in Greek and 
 Mathematics had often to begin at the very beginning n . For 
 
 I Oxford 1852 Report, App. p. 55 ; 1,481 undergraduates on the books in 1830 : 
 Cambridge matriculations in 1830 were 424, i.e. probably 1,400 undergraduates in 
 residence. 
 
 a Rosebery Appendix, pp. 161, 263, 327, 357, 409; Edinburgh, 1825, 2,236; 
 Glasgow, 1826-7, J > 2 57 ! Aberdeen, 1826-7, 610; St. Andrews, 1825-6, 312. 
 3 p. 289. * Taunton Report, vi. p. 20. 
 
 * Third Report, i. p. 154. 6 Ibid. i. 77. 
 
 T Annual Report of Scotch Education Department. 
 
 8 Taunton Report, vi. p. 30. 9 Report, Appendix, p. 357. 
 
 10 Ibid. p. 119. 
 
 II Taunton Report, vi. pp. 30, 622 ; Rosebery Report, pp. 28, 31.
 
 EDUCATION] DEFECTS 279 
 
 the absence of Greek, however, the Universities themselves 
 were in part to blame. As late as 1772 the Principal and 
 Senators of the University of Edinburgh had protested to the 
 Town Council against Dr. Adam, the Master of the High 
 School, opening a class for teaching the elements of that 
 language 1 . 
 
 In point of examinations and definite tests of knowledge 
 the Scotch Universities in the early part of the century seem 
 not to have been much better than England. The Rosebery 
 Commission reported that ' in all the Universities in Scotland 
 till very recently, and in some of them even at the present 
 time (1830), the degree of Master of Arts (that of Bachelor 
 had fallen into disuse) has been conferred almost as a matter 
 \ of form. ... In general there was no examination or a very 
 \slightone.' 'The degrees ceased to be objects of solicitude, 
 ( and have been viewed with so little respect that at Edinburgh 
 I and Glasgow comparatively few individuals have of late 
 \ applied for them V In Glasgow only the students attending 
 gown classes continued to matriculate 3 , and generally discipline 
 was left to the professors, who did not always test the acquire- 
 ments of their classes 4 . 
 
 The absence of graduation, however, was partly due to its 
 being an unremunerative expense : even in 1 895-6 only 230 
 students graduated in Arts at the four Universities, while there 
 were 2,057 matriculations in Arts in the same year. 
 
 Universities which were competing with High Schools could 
 scarcely satisfy aspirations for the highest learning. The one 
 beneficial result of the enormous classes was the provision of 
 adequate salaries for the professors from their fees, and thus 
 it was not difficult to secure the services of teachers even of 
 a European reputation 5 . 
 
 Despite the want of fellowships, Scotland has produced 
 many distinguished men, eminent in philosophy and scientific 
 discovery rather than in the exact scholarship and classical 
 research which found its reward with facility elsewhere. 
 
 Nevertheless Lord Jeffrey admitted to the Rosebery Com- 
 missioners the justice of the reproach which had been levelled 
 against the general national instruction that though there 
 was a greater number of all ranks who possessed considerable 
 information, there were fewer who were completely learned : 
 
 1 Social Life of Scotland, by H. G. Graham, i. p. 187 : A. & C. Black, 1900. 
 a Rosebery Report, p. 39. 
 3 Ibid. App., p. 263. 
 
 * Ibid. p. 34. Graduation remained more in favour at Aberdeen than elsewhere 
 (Rosebery Report, pp. 329, 359 ; P. P., 1863, xvi. p. xxx). 
 5 Taunton Report, vi. p. 30.
 
 280 SCOTLAND [HIGHER 
 
 their knowledge, in short, though more general, was more 
 superficial than with their neighbours in England l . 
 
 The Commission reported : ' There are no endowments or 
 fellowships for the maintenance of a number of literary 
 men ... in order that they may have further opportunities 
 for literary or scientific pursuits. . . . There is nb encourage- 
 ment to prosecute to any great extent those branches of 
 literature which do not directly tend to useful objects in 
 life 2 .' 
 
 Mr. Matthew Arnold, in his report to the Tauntbn Com- 
 mission, compares the Scotch and Swiss, and declares that 
 ' so far as intellectual culture has an industrial value, makes 
 a man's business work better, and helps him to get on in the 
 world, so the Scotch middle class has thoroughly appreciated 
 it and sedulously employed it, both for itself and those whose 
 labour it uses ' ; but 4 instead of guarding, like the Germans, 
 the " wissenschaftlicher Geist" of their Universities, they turn 
 them into mere school classes V 
 
 And the number of Universities had its bad side as well as 
 the number of students, for Lord Lingen was able to say in 
 1866, 'You have four Universities competing as to which 
 shall make a graduate on the cheapest and lowest terms V 
 
 In 1826 a Royal Commission under Sign Manual was issued 
 to view and report upon the Scotch Universities, the fourth 
 Earl of Rosebery being Chairman. The preamble stated 
 that it was ' His Majesty's undoubted right and prerogative 
 to name Visitors and Commissioners to inquire into irregu- 
 larities and disputes in the Universities, and to remedy the 
 same,' and no objection appears to have been raised. Govern- 
 ment was just completing a grant of ; 120,000 for the Edin- 
 burgh buildings 5 , and the Marischal College, Aberdeen, at 
 this time received 20,000 for the same purpose 6 ; so the 
 Universities may have felt they had something to lose as well 
 as to gain, even if the king's authority had ever been ques- 
 tioned. The Committee reported in 1830, but for nearly 
 thirty years no result followed. 
 
 A Bill introduced in 1837 to appoint Visitors (as Executive 
 Commissioners) to the Universities fell through 7 , but the 
 Evidence of the former Commission was then printed, and 
 fresh Commissions were then and subsequently appointed 
 to inquire separately into the affairs of Aberdeen, Glasgow, 
 
 1 Edinburgh Evidence, 1837, p. 393. 2 Report, 1830, p. 10. 
 
 s Report, vi. 622. * Taunton Commission, Q. 13,123. 
 
 5 Grant, Story of the University of Edinburgh , ii. 208. 
 
 6 P. P., 1857-8, xx. p. 41. 7 Grant, ii. 53.
 
 EDUCATION] UNIVERSITIES ACT, 1858 281 
 
 and St. Andrews, and reported respectively in 1837, 1839, 
 and 1845. 
 
 The tests for lay professors were relaxed in 1853 by 16 & 17 
 Viet. c. 89, practically for the benefit of the Free Church, but 
 it was not until 1858 that the Universities (Scotland) Act was 
 passed (21 & 22 Viet. c. 83). Provision was made for the 
 amalgamation of the two Aberdeen foundations (for which 
 a fresh Commission had issued the year before) as the Uni- 
 versity of Aberdeen, and the constitutions of all four Univer- 
 sities were revised and assimilated. The ordinary administra- 
 tion of the affairs of each remained vested (as in practice it 
 had been previously in all cases except that of Edinburgh) 
 in the hands of the Senatus Academicus, a body consisting 
 of the Principal (who might henceforth be a layman) and the 
 Professors. The acts of the Senatus were now ' made, " subject 
 to the control and review of the University Court," a new 
 governing body introduced by the Act,' consisting in each 
 case of the Rector, the Principal, and four or five assessors 
 elected or nominated by various sections of the University *. 
 There was also established a General Council of each Uni- 
 versity, composed practically of the registered graduates in 
 all faculties. Edinburgh was now assimilated to its sister 
 Universities, and the war which it had been waging with 
 the Town for the past thirty years was stopped. It received 
 a Chancellor and a Senatus Academicus, neither of which it 
 had possessed before ; but the Lord Provost and an assessor 
 nominated by the magistrates and Council of the City were 
 made members of the new University Court, to which most 
 of the powers formerly exercised by the Town were trans- 
 ferred, including that of appointing the professors. 
 
 An Executive Commission was appointed to carry out the 
 Act by making the necessary ordinances, and the Right Hon. 
 John Inglis of Glencorse, the Lord Justice Clerk (afterwards 
 Lord President), was elected Chairman. The draft proposals 
 were to be laid before Parliament for approval ; any petitions 
 to the Crown might be referred to the Commissioners them- 
 selves to report upon, and the ordinances must finally be 
 sanctioned by the Sovereign in Council before they became 
 valid. 
 
 Up to this date, with the exception of some large grants 
 for building 2 , the Scottish Universities received from Parlia- 
 ment little more than those royal grants which, before the 
 accession of William IV, were defrayed from the hereditary 
 revenues of the Crown 3 , and in 1832 amounted to 5,496. 
 
 1 Report, 1878, p. 3. 3 Cf. p. 280. 3 P. P. Eng., 1833, xxiv. p. 570.
 
 282 SCOTLAND [HIGHER 
 
 In 1860 the grant was only 7,630, but the Commissioners 
 freely exercised their discretionary powers in founding several 
 chairs, supplying additional teaching, and providing for 
 superannuation, and by 1862 the grant had increased to 
 20,161 l . They had been empowered, on the motion of 
 Mr. Gladstone, to found a National University of which the 
 existing Universities might be the colleges, but this scheme 
 they found neither practical nor expedient, nor was it favoured 
 by any of the bodies whom they consulted 2 . 
 
 By the ordinances also the curriculum was widened, and 
 though no matriculation examination was imposed, the Arts 
 course was shortened by a year for those students who 
 qualified at once for the senior classes by passing a ' First 
 Examination V 
 
 The Commissioners refused to make a Summer Session 
 in any way compulsory, even at the urgent solicitation of 
 Glasgow. Instruction in Science was already given between 
 May and August, and courses in other faculties gradually 
 sprang up, but they were purely voluntary at first, and 
 attendance at them did not count towards graduation until 
 1892 (Ordinance n). 
 
 In 1864 the old buildings of the University of Glasgow, 
 which were dilapidated, inadequate, and badly placed, were 
 sold for ,100,000, and the University prepared to remove to 
 a new site. Government gave 120,000, public subscriptions 
 and bequests brought 261,429, and the total amounted to 
 520,329 4 . 
 
 Edinburgh also made large additions to her buildings in 
 1884, no less than 170,000 being collected from private 
 sources, while Government contributed 80,000 5 . 
 
 It may be mentioned that in 1876 the trustees of the will of 
 Dr. Andrew Bell, of Madras and monitorial fame, founded at 
 Edinburgh and St. Andrews professorial chairs of the Theory, 
 History, and Practice of Education (see p. 225). 
 
 In 1876 there was another Universities Commission, with 
 the Lord President Inglis again as Chairman, and they reported 
 in 1878 6 . They advised the increase of the popular element 
 in the University Courts, and the creation of a General Uni- 
 versities Court to sanction new ordinances ; specialization in 
 five different lines was recommended for the latter part of 
 
 1 Vide Appropriation Acts ; cf. P. P., 1875, xxviii. p. 346. The additional sum 
 was not to exceed 10,000 a year. 
 
 3 Report, p. xlvi. s Ibid. p. xxvii. 
 
 Calendar, 1897-8, p. 28. 
 
 The Quarterly Review, July, 1898, 'The Scottish Universities'; Edinburgh 
 University Calendar, 1898-99, p. 38. 
 
 6 P.P., 1878.
 
 EDUCATION] UNIVERSITY COMMISSIONS 283 
 
 the Arts course, but attendance was not to count towards 
 graduations until a preliminary examination had been passed. 
 The foundations at St. Andrews were to be amalgamated, 
 and a college affiliated to St. Andrews was to be established 
 at Dundee. 
 
 Nothing, however, came of these proposals, until in 1889 
 another Universities (Scotland) Act was passed, 52 & 53 Viet, 
 c. 55. An executive Commission was appointed with Lord 
 Kinnear as Chairman, and also a permanent Scottish Uni- 
 versities Committee of the Privy Council, to which petitions 
 from the Universities or persons directly affected might be 
 referred. In each University Court the numbers of the 
 assessors elected by the Senatus Academicus, and of those 
 elected by the General Council, were in nearly every case 
 increased from one to four, and the management of the Uni- 
 versity and College funds was transferred to each University 
 Court from the Senatus. Provision was also made for the 
 extension of the Universities in the future by affiliation of 
 Colleges. 
 
 All ordinances made by the Commissioners were to be laid 
 before Parliament, and if no address from either House were 
 lodged against them, they might then be sanctioned by the 
 Sovereign in Council. Among the various subjects specified 
 for regulation, ordinances have been passed for all the Univer- 
 sities which make the preliminary examination necessary for 
 graduation (No. n), prescribe the same fees for matriculation, 
 entrance, and graduation in all four Universities (No. 50), 
 and enable each University to admit women to graduation in 
 one or more faculties, and to provide for their instruction 
 (No. 1 8). After the expiration of the Commission (which 
 finally took place at the end of 1897) each University Court 
 might make ordinances, subject to the approval of the 
 Sovereign in Council, and, if necessary, to a reference to the 
 Universities Committee. 
 
 Each University Court has by the Act to make an annual 
 statistical and financial report, and the first of these was made 
 in 1892. 
 
 For the purposes of the Act 42,000 was given as an 
 annual grant to the Universities in place of the .17,000 they 
 were receiving in 1889 (52 & 53 Viet. c. 70). 
 
 By the Education and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) 
 Act, 1892, 55 & 56 Viet. c. 51, s. 2 (2), 30,000 a year of 
 the money which Scotland had been voluntarily spending 
 in freeing her elementary education * was transferred to the 
 
 1 P- 131-
 
 284 SCOTLAND [HIGHER 
 
 Universities, and the distribution of these grants has been 
 settled by the Commissioners in the following proportions l : 
 
 42,000 30,000 
 
 Edinburgh . . 15,120 10,800 
 
 Glasgow . . . 12,180 (,700 
 
 Aberdeen . . . s,4oo 6,000 
 
 St. Andrews . . 3,300 4,500 
 
 In 1895 the Government stamp duty on taking the M.D. 
 degree ' in either of the Universities in Scotland,' the last of 
 the duties on degrees, was abolished by 58 Viet. c. 16, s. 10. 
 
 Aberdeen received 40,000 from Government for the 
 enlargement of its buildings, the grant being completed in 
 1895-6, and has raised 100,000 from private sources 2 . 
 
 Income of Scotch Universities, 1900-1. 
 Edinburgh . . 87,050 
 Glasgow . . . 70,531 
 Aberdeen. . . 37,672 
 St. Andrews . . 30,880 
 
 226,133 
 
 Number of Students attending the Scotch Universities 3 . 
 
 1861-2. 1871-2. 1881-2. 1891-2. 1900-1. 
 
 Edinburgh 1,462 1 >&54 3,269 3,368 2,811 
 
 Glasgow 1,14 J 349 2,320 2,113 2,038 
 
 Aberdeen 634 605 813 914 86 1 
 
 St. Andrews* 163 176 193 189 275 
 
 3,399 3,984 6,595 6,584 5,985 
 
 The Carnegie Universities Trust. 
 
 In June, 1901, Mr. Andrew Carnegie placed in the hands of 
 a body of trustees a sum of 2,000,000, bearing interest at 
 5 per cent. ' One-half of the net annual income is to be 
 applied towards the improvement and expansion of the 
 Universities of Scotland in the Faculties of Science and 
 Medicine : also for improving and extending the opportunities 
 for scientific study and research, and for increasing the 
 facilities for acquiring a knowledge of History, Economics, 
 English Literature, and Modern Languages, and such other 
 subjects cognate to a technical or commercial education, as 
 can be brought within the scope of the University curriculum.' 
 
 Out of the other half of the income the whole or part of 
 the ordinary class fees exigible by the Universities shall be 
 paid for such students of Scottish birth or extraction, of 
 sixteen years or upwards, as make due application, or for 
 
 1 Ordinances 25, 26, 27, 46. * Journal of Education, April, 1898, p. 228. 
 
 3 P. P., 1888, Commons Paper, No. 365. * Excluding Dundee.
 
 EDUCATION] CARNEGIE TRUST 285 
 
 scholars who have given two years' attendance after the age 
 of fourteen years at schools inspected by the Scotch Educa- 
 tion Department. Any surplus may be devoted to establish- 
 ing courses of lectures, or for the benefit of Evening Classes, 
 or otherwise as the Trustees think proper. 
 
 The Trustees' Committee consists of nine nominated 
 members, who shall be replaced by cooptation, four ex-officio 
 members, and a single representative from each of the four 
 Universities. 
 
 In 1901 22,941 was paid on behalf of 2,441 students 
 attending 7,610 classes. In accordance with the expressed 
 desire of Mr. Carnegie, no questions were raised as to the 
 circumstances of the applicants. In the summer session of 
 1902 nearly .12,000 was paid in fees. 
 
 For the expenditure of the other moiety, the University 
 Courts have been invited to state their needs, and these 
 statements have 'been referred by the Trustees to Lord Elgin 
 and Sir Henry Roscoe, who recommend annual grants for 
 the next five years of 11,000 and 11,500 to Glasgow 
 and Edinburgh, and 9,000 and 8,500 to Aberdeen and 
 St. Andrews respectively : of this, 20,000 is for buildings 
 and equipment, 16,000 for teaching, and 4,000 for the 
 libraries. The scheme for post-graduate research provides 
 for the establishment of Scholarships of 100 a year and 
 Fellowships of 150 a year, to be granted to graduates of 
 any Scottish University, in (a) Science and Medicine, or (6) 
 History, Economics, and Modern Languages and Literature. 
 Scholarships are normally available for one year, Fellowships 
 for two years, but either may be extended for an additional 
 year. Applications for special grants in aid of definite re- 
 search work will also be entertained by the Executive Com- 
 mittee. 
 
 The total amount to be spent on post-graduate work is not 
 specified, but will probably be not less than 5,000 a year. 
 
 DUNDEE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. 
 
 Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee, and Aberdeen are the four 
 largest towns in Scotland, and of these the third alone is 
 without a University. Various schemes were proposed to 
 remedy this lack, but the plan favoured by the University 
 Commission of 1876 was carried out in 1881 by the foundation 
 of a University College, which should be in close connexion 
 with the University of St. Andrews, only a dozen miles 
 distant. In 1885 the Science degree of St. Andrews was 
 thrown open to Dundee. In 1890 the University Commis-
 
 286 SCOTLAND [HIGHER 
 
 sioners issued an affiliating order instituting a closer connexion, 
 and all classes at Dundee were recognized as qualifying for 
 the degrees of St. Andrews. Unfortunately a flaw was dis- 
 covered in the instrument of affiliation, and it was declared 
 null in 1895. 
 
 A new Ordinance was made by the Commission, which 
 constituted Dundee 'part of St. Andrews University. The 
 Principal is a member of the University Court, the Professors 
 are members of the Senatus, and the students of Dundee 
 College who matriculate as University students are in the 
 same position as students at the Colleges in St. Andrews. A 
 clause conferring on the Council of the College representation 
 in the University Court was, however, struck out by the Privy 
 Council. 
 
 In 1897 the union with St. Andrews was restored on the 
 general basis of the original agreement of 1890, and this was 
 finally confirmed in 1900 by a decision of the House of 
 Lords 1 . 
 
 The net result is that the University of St. Andrews main- 
 tains six Chairs for a School of Medicine of the University in 
 Dundee (and two others in part), while the remainder of the 
 Chairs are maintained by the College, which is financially 
 independent of the University. A Day Training College was 
 opened at Dundee in 1900. 
 
 Dundee has been included among the English University 
 Colleges by the Treasury (see p. 252), and received 500 
 a year from 1889, but in 1897 this grant was doubled. Its 
 total capital expenditure by 1896 had been 66,799, and its 
 income in 1900-1 was 7,035. In 1892-3 there were 200 
 day students, in 1895-6 there were 84 2 , and in 1899-1900, 142. 
 
 University Extension 3 . 
 
 University Extension has found very little to do in Scotland. 
 It was inaugurated by the Queen Margaret Guild in 1885, an 
 association of old students of the ladies' college at Glasgow, 
 who handed over the work three years later to the Glasgow 
 University Extension Board; but in 1895 there were only 
 twelve centres with an attendance of about a thousand persons. 
 Edinburgh and St. Andrews took up the work in 1888, but 
 in four years' time both gave up the attempt to form centres. 
 The fact is that University influence needs little extension, 
 
 1 P.P., 1901, Cd. 845, p. 101. 
 
 3 Report of Inspectors, P. P., 1897, No. 245. 
 
 3 Article by Dr. Wenley, of the Glasgow University Extension Board, reprinted 
 in the Oxford University Extension Gazette, June, 1895, p. 95.
 
 EDUCATION] WOMEN 287 
 
 and there are very few possible centres outside the large 
 towns, the chief of which possess universities. 
 
 The Summer School at Edinburgh, which in some respects 
 corresponds to a summer meeting, commenced in 1887. 
 
 The Higher Education of Women 1 . 
 
 Educational associations for women were formed in the four 
 University towns of Scotland at St. Andrews in 1868, at 
 Edinburgh in 1869, and at Glasgow and Aberdeen in 1877. 
 In several instances courses of lectures had previously been 
 delivered to women, but in St. Andrews and Aberdeen, some 
 years after the establishment of the associations, the lectures 
 were discontinued for want of support. 
 
 As for examination and recognition of merit, in 1874 the 
 University of Edinburgh granted a diploma in Arts to women 
 who attended courses and passed examinations which would 
 have entitled men to degrees. In 1876 St. Andrews insti- 
 tuted a higher examination for women only, and have con- 
 tinued to grant on this the Diploma of L.L.A. (Literate in 
 Arts), while Glasgow in 1874 created a Higher Local 
 Examination for Women. 
 
 At Glasgow in 1883 the Association was transformed into 
 Queen Margaret College, on the council of which the 
 University was represented by two members. 
 
 In 1892, when the Commissioners' Ordinance was passed, 
 empowering each University to admit women to graduation 
 and to provide for their separate or joint instruction, Glasgow 
 adopted the separate method, and Queen Margaret College 
 was amalgamated with the University and became the women's 
 department. The three other Universities at the same time 
 opened their ordinary classes in Science and Art to women, 
 who receive their instruction in common with the men. 
 
 Halls of residence exist in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and 
 St. Andrews, but women students are as free to live in 
 lodgings as men. 
 
 In 1900 there were in all 790 matriculated women students, 
 of whom 341 were at Glasgow and 227 at Edinburgh. 
 
 2. THE SCOTCH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Department has since 1896 administered an annual 
 vote for agricultural education. Originally 2,000, this was 
 increased to nearly 3,500 under the Local Taxation Account 
 (Scotland) Act, 1898 (see p. 218). It is spent chiefly in the 
 
 1 Chiefly derived from Miss Galloway's account in Miss Bremner's Education of 
 Girls and Women, pp. 264-73.
 
 288 SCOTLAND 
 
 encouragement of suitable instruction given by institutions of 
 university rank. 
 
 There are no central institutions in Scotland maintained by 
 Government for the teaching of Science or Art : the Glasgow 
 and West of Scotland Technical College and the Heriot Watt 
 College, Edinburgh, are the chief local endowments for higher 
 scientific teaching. Both, as we have seen (p. 220), represent 
 the amalgamation of a number of minor kindred institutions. 
 
 The care of the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art was 
 in 1900 handed over to the Education Department.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Population of the British, Isles, according to the 
 Census Returns. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wales and 
 
 
 England and 
 Wales. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Monmouth 
 (included in 
 
 
 
 
 
 Column 1) 
 
 iSoi 
 
 8,892,536 
 
 
 
 1,608,420 
 
 587,653 
 
 1811 
 
 10,164,256 
 
 
 
 1,805,864 
 
 673,952 
 
 1821 
 
 12,000,236 
 
 6,801,827 
 
 2,091,521 
 
 794,694 
 
 1831 
 
 1.1,896,797 
 
 7,767,401 
 
 2,364,386 
 
 906,217 
 
 1841 
 
 15,914,148 
 
 8,i75, I 24 
 
 2,620,184 
 
 i, 049,9 '5 
 
 1851 
 
 17,927,609 
 
 6,552,385 
 
 2,888,742 
 
 ,170,858 
 
 1861 
 
 20,066,244 
 
 5,79 8 ,967 
 
 3,062,294 
 
 ,296,001 
 
 1871 
 
 22,712,266 
 
 5,4 I2 ,377 
 
 3,360,018 
 
 ,421,670 
 
 1881 
 
 25,974,439 
 
 
 3,735,573 
 
 ,57', 269 
 
 1891 
 
 29,002,525 
 
 4W-750 
 
 4,025,647 
 
 ,776,405 
 
 1901 
 
 32,526,075' 
 
 4,458,775 
 
 4,472,103 
 
 ,811,362 
 
 Percentage of Persons married who signed the Register 
 by -mark 2 . 
 
 
 England and 
 Wales. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 1841 
 
 32-7 
 
 48-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 30-7 
 
 45-2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1861 
 
 24-6 
 
 347 
 
 
 
 
 
 10-6 
 
 21-3 
 
 1871 
 
 19.4 
 
 26-8 
 
 37-5 
 
 45-a 
 
 IO-O 
 
 19.6 
 
 1881 
 
 13-5 
 
 17.7 
 
 26-1 
 
 30-7 
 
 7-i 
 
 13-9 
 
 1891 
 
 6-4 
 
 7-3 
 
 19.4 
 
 19.4 
 
 3-4 
 
 5-3 
 
 1900 
 
 2-8 
 
 3-2 
 
 13.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ireland: Census. 
 
 Persons five years old and upwards. 
 
 Able to read, but Able neither to 
 
 unable to write, read nor to write, 
 
 per cent. per cent. 
 
 1841 19 53 
 
 1851 20 47 
 
 1861 20 39 
 
 1871 17 33 
 
 1881 16 25 
 
 1891 ii 18 
 
 1901 6-9 13.7 
 
 1 Preliminary Report. 
 
 BALFOL'R 
 
 3 Registrar-General's Returns. 
 
 U
 
 290 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 Public Elementary Day Schools. 
 
 
 Number 
 of Schools 
 Inspected. 
 
 Number of 
 Certificated 
 Teachers. 
 
 Average 
 Attendance. 
 
 Annual Cost 
 per Child. 
 
 England and 
 "Wales. 
 1860 
 
 6,012 
 
 6,433 
 
 751,3215 
 
 *> d. 
 I i 7i ] 
 
 1870 
 
 8,QIQ 
 
 12,744. 
 
 1,168,081 
 
 I E A 
 
 1880 Board . . . 
 Voluntary . . 
 1890 Board . ; . 
 Voluntary . . 
 1901 Board . . . 
 Voluntary . . 
 1902 Board . . . 
 Voluntary . . 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 1870 . 
 
 3,433 
 14,181 
 4,676 
 14,743 
 5,797 
 14,319 
 5,878 
 H.275 
 
 2 O^O 
 
 8,920 
 22,502 
 
 I9>527 
 27,012 
 36,667 
 2 9,434 
 38,395 
 29,283 
 
 2,486 
 
 769,252 
 1,981,664 
 1,457,358 
 2,260,559 
 
 2,339,375 
 2,492,536 
 2,344,020 
 2,546,217 
 
 207,606 
 
 2 I Il| 
 
 i 14 7$ 
 
 2 g II* 
 
 i 16 ill 
 302" 
 2 6 8| 
 
 39 
 2 6 4 
 
 i 6 8i 
 
 1880 
 
 3O64 
 
 5,33O 
 
 404,618 
 
 $3 3 4 |B. 
 
 1800 
 
 3.O76 
 
 7,745 
 
 1512,600 
 
 \ i 17 3|V. 
 \ 2 4 4 B. 
 
 
 7.I4I 
 
 11,268 
 
 633,104 
 
 ( J 9 8 |V. 
 1217 4 B. 
 
 Ireland. 
 1860 
 
 (;.632 
 
 5,068 
 
 262,823 
 
 { 2 9 6 V. 
 
 1870 
 
 6,806 
 
 7,626 
 
 350,100 
 
 
 1880 
 
 7 coo 
 
 10 674 
 
 468,557 
 
 
 1890 
 
 8,298 
 
 n, 1 19 
 
 480,144 
 
 210? 
 
 IQOI 
 
 8.60,2 
 
 11,807 
 
 482,031 
 
 2 IO I I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 864 : Annual Grant Schools only.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 291 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY VOTES AND LOCAL RATES. 
 Parliamentary Votes. 
 
 (A) for Public Education 
 (excluding Universities and Colleges). 
 
 
 Great 
 Britain, 
 
 England 
 and Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 1850 
 
 1215,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^5,000 
 
 14,755 
 
 1860 
 
 798,167 
 
 
 
 
 
 270,722 
 
 94,95' 
 
 1870 
 
 914,721 
 
 
 
 
 
 381,172 
 
 218,336 
 
 1880 
 
 
 3,536,077 
 
 464,203 
 
 722,366 
 
 336,002 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 3,782,224 
 
 611,581 
 
 918,316 
 
 474,896 
 
 1901 
 
 
 
 9,747,7!6 l 
 
 1,363,881 
 
 1,305,771 
 
 
 (B) for the 
 Science and Art 
 
 Department 
 
 (including 
 
 Museums, &c.). 
 
 Local Rates for Pubhc Education' 2 '. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 
 
 1,579,752 
 
 205,011 
 
 8,324 
 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 2,968,096 
 
 559-273 
 
 8,192" 
 
 
 1901 
 
 
 
 6,229,064* 
 
 1,012,360 
 
 
 
 
 Voluntary Subscriptions and Income from Endowment for Public Elementary 
 Schools in England and Wales, 1871-95, 32,922,173 [Sadler and Edwards: 
 Special Reports*, vol. i. p. 30]. 
 
 1 Now including former Science and Art grant. 
 
 2 Exclusive of rates under Technical Instruction, Welsh Intermediate Edu- 
 cation Act, &c. 
 
 3 Exclusive of the money repaid to Boards of Guardians under the Local 
 Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act. 
 
 * Exclusive of 106,764 paid under the Agricultural Rates Act, 1896. 
 
 U 2
 
 292 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 Estimate of Public and Trust Money available for 
 Education in the United Kingdom in 1901. 
 
 
 England 
 and Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Reference to pages 
 of this book. 
 
 Parliamentary Votes . 
 Rates 
 
 
 
 9.747.7J6 1 
 6,229,064 2 
 
 
 1,363,881 
 
 i,oi2,36o 2 
 
 
 1,305.771 
 
 25,OOO 3 
 
 
 Whiskey Money 
 Intermediate 
 Endowments 
 Elementary * 
 Secondary . 
 Universities : Oxford 
 and Cambridge, in- 
 cluding Colleges 
 Durham 
 
 863,847 
 
 156,102 
 700,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 Q.OOO 
 
 62,447 
 300,000 
 
 55,000 
 56,000 
 
 22,000 
 70,000 
 
 pp. 167, 204, 221 
 p. 209 
 
 pp. 152, 199, 224 
 
 P- 235, 33<5 
 P. 24S 
 
 Other Universities and 
 Colleges .... 
 
 I88.OOO 
 I2,OOO 
 
 
 
 p. 252 
 
 P. 257 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 226,123 
 
 
 P. 284 
 
 Ireland : University 
 and Trinity Coll. 
 Royal University 
 Queen's Colleges . 
 
 
 
 40,000 
 
 20,000 
 2 I ,OOO 
 
 p. 262 
 p. 269 
 p. 268 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 l8 >55,7 2 9 
 
 2,864,811 
 
 1,614,771 
 
 
 Grand total 22,985,311 
 
 This is a very rough estimate indeed : but it is the only one I have ever seen 
 attempted. Some of the figures are out of date : some grants are probably reckoned 
 twice over, and many items have not been included at all ; for instance, Holloway 
 College, the Irish pension fund, Welsh endowments, Scotch elementary endowments, 
 &c. The University figures include current income from fees. The Rhodes and 
 Carnegie Trusts had not begun, many other gifts have since been made to the 
 newer universities and colleges, especially London, Birmingham, and Liverpool. 
 
 1 I Edw. VII, c. 21. It is estimated that in the course of the next two years 
 recent changes will increase the Parliamentary vote for education by 1,248,500. 
 Times, March 25, 1903, p. 12. 
 
 2 P. P., Cd. i ,"198, p. 28. 3 1902-3. Seep. 205. 
 * P. P., Cd. 757, pp. 120, 436.
 
 INDEX 
 
 I. = Ireland. S. = Scotland. 
 
 Aberdare, Lord : 
 
 Commission on Reformatories 
 and Industrial Schools under, 
 (1882), 60, 114, 115, 140. 
 Committee on Intermediate and 
 Higher Education in Wales 
 under, (1881), 187-8. 
 Aberdeen : 
 
 Secondary education in, 210, 217, 
 
 223, 225. 
 University, 275, 277, 281, 284, 
 
 285, 287. 
 
 Aberystwyth, 185, 257. 
 Abney, Sir William, 170. 
 Academies, Nonconformist, 227 ; 
 
 S., 122, 210-2, 221. 
 
 Acland, Rt. Hon. A. H. D., 13, 
 
 187 n*. 
 
 Sir Thomas, 178-9 and n l . 
 Adam, Dr., 279. 
 Admiralty, 74-7, 119, 142. 
 Affiliation of Colleges, 238, 283. 
 Afflicted Children, see Children. 
 Africa, South, Rhodes Trust Scho- 
 larships for, 239. 
 Age: 
 Exemption, 17, 27, 28-30, 50, 103, 
 
 130-1, 138. 
 Limit or limits : 
 
 Compulsory School attendance, 
 for, 20, 24, 26, 27-30, 36, 39- 
 40, 128, 130, 131. 
 Continuation Schools, for ad- 
 mission to, 41, 104, 137,203-4. 
 Employment, for, 24, 26, 47-52, 
 
 103, 130, 133, 138. 
 Examinations, for, 16. 
 Grants, for obtaining, 16-7, 41, 
 
 129. 
 Reformatories and Industrial 
 
 Schools, for, 53, 55, 57-8. 
 Pupil teachers, of, 44. 
 Retirement, of teachers, 101. 
 University students, of, 212, 278. 
 
 Agricultural Children Act, 52. 
 and Technical Instruction De- 
 partment, I., 201-5, 2 8> 272-3. 
 Agriculture : 
 
 Board of, 32, in, 170, 176, 
 
 253-4; 
 
 Exemption age for children em- 
 ployed in, 29. 
 Instruction in, I., 99, 105, 107, 
 
 117-8, 202, 205 ; S., 287. 
 Agriculture and Technical Instruc- 
 tion (Ireland) Act (1899), 101, 
 
 III, 202. 
 
 Albert National Agricultural Train- 
 ing Institute, 105. 
 Alexander VI, Pope, 275. 
 Alexandra College, Dublin, 273. 
 Aldershot, 73. 
 Allen, Rev. W., 6 8 . 
 Althorp, Lord, 47. 
 America, Rhodes Trust Scholar- 
 ships for, 239. 
 Americans, 235. 
 Anderson's Institution, Glasgow, 
 
 164 and n' 2 , 220. 
 Anson, Sir William, 32. 
 Apprentices, 47, 149. 
 Appropriation Acts, 3 and n l , 123 
 
 and n 1 . 
 
 Argyll, Duke of, 129; Commission 
 on Scotch Schools under,( 1 864), 
 126, 210, 213, 222, 225, 278. 
 Army : 
 
 Gymnasium, 73. 
 
 Promotion, certificates necessary 
 
 for, 71. 
 
 Schools, 13, 70-4, 118. 
 Trades, training for, in Indus- 
 trial Schools, 62. 
 Arnold, Dr., 91. 
 
 Matthew, quoted, 6, 14-5, 148, 
 
 280. 
 
 Art (see also Science and Art) : 
 Grants, 160.
 
 294 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Art, Royal College of, 255. 
 
 Schools, 156, 1 60, 201, 220. 
 ' Article 68,' 44. 
 
 Association for the Better Endow- 
 ment of the University of 
 Edinburgh, xxx. 
 
 for Discountenancing Vice, 78, 81. 
 for Promoting the Education of 
 
 Women in Oxford, 243. 
 for Promoting the Higher Edu- 
 cation of Women in Cambridge, 
 241-3. 
 
 of Head Masters, xxx. 
 of Head Mistresses, xxx. 
 of Voluntary Schools for obtain- 
 ing Government Grants, 28. 
 Attendance : 
 Average, no. 
 Certificates for, 137-8. 
 Compulsion of, xv, 18, 20, 21, 22, 
 
 24, 25-6, 29, 102-4, 128, 130. 
 Grant, 12-3, 15, 36, 133, 158. 
 Order, 24, 59, 103, 130. 
 Parish relief depending on, 69. 
 Statistics regarding, 14, 290. 
 Summary of law of, 29-30. 
 Attorney-General, 144. 
 Auditing of School Board accounts, 
 
 21,70, 131. 
 Auditors, 271. 
 
 Australasia, Rhodes Trust Scholar- 
 ships for, 239. 
 
 Authorities for education, xvi. 
 Ayr, 214. 
 
 Backward children, 15, 24. 
 
 Bagehot, quoted, 16. 
 
 Balfour of Burleigh, Lord, Com- 
 mission under, on Educational 
 Endowments, S., (1882), 223-4. 
 
 Balliol College, 230. 
 
 Ballot, voting by, 23, 127. 
 
 Bangor, 192, 257. 
 
 Baptist Society, 79, 81. 
 
 Battersea, 9. 
 
 Beale, Miss, 148 n*. 
 
 Bedford, 63. 
 
 Bedford College, London, 184, 247, 
 248, 252. 
 
 Belfast : 
 
 Academical Institution, 267. 
 Queen's College at, 268. 
 
 Bell, Dr. Andrew, 3, 8, 225 and n 7 , 
 282. 
 
 Belmore, Earl of, Commission 
 under, on Manual and Prac- 
 
 tical Instruction, I., (1897), 
 107. 
 
 Benedict XI 1 1, 27 5. 
 Bible, the, 7, 22, 72, 82. 
 Birkbeck Institute, 164. 
 Birmingham University, 180, 250, 
 
 252. 
 Bishops, authority of, under the 
 
 Education Act 1902, 34. 
 Blackbume, Mr., 91. 
 Blind children, 30, 131. 
 Board of Education : 
 Constitution of, xv, 31-2. 
 Elementary education controlled 
 by, 31-46 ; Secondary, 143, 
 168-86, 191-2; Higher, 254-5. 
 Proposal for, negatived (1837- 
 
 8), 4. 
 
 Scottish, 129, 215. 
 Board of Moderators, 182. 
 
 of Trade, 13, 155, 160. 
 Board Schools, 19-31, 127-38, 215- 
 
 7, 290. 
 
 Boarding out, lo, 66, 142. 
 Boards of Education, I., 199-200. 
 Boards of Faculties, 237. 
 Books, n, 90-2, 104. 
 Borough Bill, the, 12. 
 
 Councils, 21, 24, 31, 33, 35, 171. 
 Road Training College, 9. 
 Boys : 
 
 Drawing compulsory for, 26, 45. 
 Grant for, 12, 207. 
 Industrial training of, 68. 
 Secondary Schools for, numbers 
 
 of, 153, 191. 
 Transportation of, 54. 
 Underground, working, 51. 
 Bristol, 41, 250, 252. 
 British Association, Education sec- 
 tion of, xxx. 
 and Foreign School Society, xxix, 
 
 3, 4andw*, 7, 9. 
 Brondesbury, 184. 
 Brougham, Henry (Lord Brough- 
 am) : 
 
 Commission on Educational 
 Charities under, (1818), 2, 144 
 and n *. 
 
 Committee on Education of the 
 Lower Orders under, (1816), 
 2, 122. 
 
 Education Bill of, 2 and n *. 
 Bruce, Hon. W. N., 170. 
 Bryce, Rt. Hon. J., Commission on 
 Secondary Education under, 
 xv n, 152, 168-9, 174. 183.
 
 INDEX 
 
 2 95 
 
 Building : 
 
 Grants, see Grants. 
 
 School Board powers of, 21. 
 Buildings, 19-20. 
 Burgh Councils, S., 217-8, 220. 
 
 Schools, S., 122, 127, 210-5, 
 
 221. 
 
 Bursaries, 224, 277. 
 Buss, Miss, 148 2 . 
 Butt, Mr., quoted, 109-10. 
 By-laws, 20, 23, 25-6, 29, 31, 50. 
 
 Cadet corps, xix. 
 Cambridge : 
 
 Examinations, 179-80. 
 University, 175, 185-6, 227-39, 
 
 277 ; Extension, 183. 
 Women's Colleges at, 241-2 ; 
 Training College, 184 and n *. 
 Canal Boat Acts, 31. 
 Canterbury, Archbishop of, 7, 64, 
 
 178-9 and n 1 . 
 
 Capitation Grant, see under Grants. 
 Cardiff, 192,257. 
 Cardigan, 23. 
 
 Carlile, Rev. James, 83 and n 3 . 
 Carmarthen, 23. 
 Carnegie, Andrew, xxviii, 284-5. 
 Cathedral Schools, 189. 
 Catholics, see Roman Catholics. 
 Celibacy, 228, 236, 262, 274. 
 Census returns, 152-3, 200, 265, 
 
 289. 
 
 Central Welsh Board, 190, 192. 
 Certificates : 
 Attendance, 137-8. 
 Irish, 106. 
 Leaving, 181, 182. 
 Proficiency, 25, 49, 103, 128, 
 
 130. 
 
 Teachers', see Teachers. 
 Certified efficient school, 25, 112, 
 
 138. 
 
 Chance, Sir W., 68. 
 Chancellor of Dublin University, 
 
 263. 
 
 Chancery Courts, 144, 145, 195. 
 Chaplain of the Fleet, 75. 
 Charitable Trusts Acts, 46, 145, 
 
 150-1, 168, 170. 
 
 Charity Commissioners, xiv, 13,32, 
 45-6, 143-53, 168, 170, 176, 181, 
 188-92. 
 
 Charles I, 261. 
 Charter Schools, 79, 8 1. 
 Charterhouse, 146-7. 
 Chelsea, 9, 70, 118. 
 
 Cheltenham, 146, 148 *, 243. 
 Chichester, Lord, Commission on 
 
 Charities under, 145. 
 Chief Secretary for Ireland, 102, 
 
 104, 113-6, 202. 
 Child, age of, 24. 
 
 Childers, Rt. Hon. H. C. E., Com- 
 mittee on Education Science 
 
 and Art(Administrative),under, 
 
 xv n, 74 n 1 , 150-1. 
 Children : 
 
 Afflicted, 27, 30-1, 66, 131. 
 Canal boat, 31. 
 Criminal, Reformatories for, see 
 
 Reformatories. 
 
 Employment of, see Employ- 
 ment. 
 
 Poor Law, 13, 45, 63-9. 
 Refractory pauper, 66. 
 Vagrant, 57, 115, 139. 
 Christ Church, Oxford, 232, 236. 
 Christian Brothers, 79, 81, 95, 
 
 ill. 
 
 Christ's Hospital, 221. 
 Church, Established, 3, 4, 7-8, lo, 
 
 28, 227-8, 243, 246 ; I., 97, 102, 
 
 1 97> J 99, 2 6, 261, 264, 269 ; 
 
 S., 121, 122, 124, 214, 276. 
 City of London School, 146. 
 and Guilds of London Institute, 
 
 168, 181, 255-6. 
 Civil Service Commissioners, xiv, 
 
 177. 
 Clarendon, Lord, Commission on 
 
 Public Schools under, (1861), 
 
 146. 
 
 Classical Tripos, 231. 
 Classics, 146, 196, 201, 262. 
 Clergy Inspectors, 20, 22. 
 Cleveland, Duke of, Commission on 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge under, 
 
 235 and nn 4 ~ 10 . 
 ' Coaches,' 229. 
 
 Coal Mines Regulation Acts, 51. 
 Coastguards' children, 77. 
 Cobbett, quoted, 2. 
 Cockerton case, xxii, 42, 154. 
 Codes, 15, 16, 23, 38 and n '-39, 
 
 42, 45, 53, 99, 108, 129, 131, 
 
 134-6, 137-8, 154, 156, 173- 
 Co-education, 12. 
 Colchester, 250. 
 Colebrooke, Sir T. E., Commission 
 
 on Endowed Institutions, S., 
 
 under, 222. 
 College of Preceptors, xxx, 174, 
 
 176, 177-8, 180, 184-5.
 
 296 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Colleges (see also Cambridge, Dur- 
 ham, Oxford) : 
 University, 229-30, 234-7. 
 Women's, 241-4. 
 Collieries Act, 51. 
 Colonies : 
 
 Examinations in the, 180. 
 Scholarships for the, 239. 
 Commander-in-Chief, 71, 73. 
 Commerce : 
 Education in, 179-80, 182, 207, 
 
 284. 
 
 Faculty of, 250. 
 
 Commissioners of Charitable Dona- 
 tions and Bequests, I., 194, 
 199. 
 
 Commissioners of National Educa- 
 tion, I., see National Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 Committee of Council on Educa- 
 tion, 4-31, 54, 57, 64, 65; S., 
 120-38 ; Secondary Education, 
 S., 210-26 ; Higher Education, 
 234 ; S., 283. 
 
 Commons, House of, see Grants, 
 Government, and Parliament. 
 Compulsory attendance, see Atten- 
 dance. 
 
 Concordat (1840), 22. 
 Confession of Faith, 121,214, 2 74- 
 Congregation, 229, 233. 
 Connaught, 198. 
 Conscience clause, 7, 10, 19, 25, 62, 
 
 124, 165, 172, 206-7, 243. 
 Consolidating Act of 1866, 139. 
 Consultative Committee on Educa- 
 tion, 32, 171, 173-4. 
 Continuation Classes, S., 219. 
 
 Schools, see Evening Schools. 
 Contributory Unions, 100-1. 
 Convent Schools, 79, 81, 98, 99. 
 Conventicle Act, 227 n 3 . 
 Convict Prisons, instruction in, 53. 
 Convocation, Oxford, 229, 233. 
 Cork, 113, 268. 
 Corry, Mr., 18. 
 Council Schools, 34-6. 
 County Boards of Education, 14, 
 
 141. 
 
 Borough Councils, 35, 171. 
 Committees for Secondary Edu- 
 cation, S., 217-8. 
 Councils, 27, 31, 33, 35, 65 n 5 -66, 
 103, 165, 171, 172, 188-90, 254. 
 Courts, 145. 
 Rate, 14. 
 Cowper, Earl, Commission on 
 
 Gresham University under, 
 247. 
 
 Craik, Sir Henry, 131, 216. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, 244. 
 
 Cross, Lord, Commission on Ele- 
 mentary Education Acts under, 
 26, 43, 67, 68. 
 
 Crown, see Sovereign. 
 
 Day Industrial Schools, 25, 59, 
 
 140. 
 
 Schools (I. Catholic), 79-81. 
 Training Colleges, 26, 43, 184, 
 
 258 ; S., 136, 286. 
 De La Salle Training College, 102. 
 Deaf children, 30. 
 
 -mute children, 131. 
 Default, 19, 25. 
 Defective and epileptic children, 
 
 30-1. 
 
 Degrees, 228, 231, 233, 246-7, 249, 
 253, 262, 263, 265, 282-3, 284. 
 Denison's Act, 69. 
 Derby, I4th Earl, see Stanley. 
 Design, Schools of, 155, 161. 
 Detachment Schools, 73. 
 Devonshire, Duke of, 32. 
 
 7th Duke of, Commission on 
 Scientific Instruction (1870) 
 under, 156. 
 Dick Bequest, 223. 
 Diocesan Free Schools, I., 193-5, 
 
 197. 
 Diplomas : 
 
 Scotch teachers', 226. 
 Women's, 243-4, 287. 
 Director of Army Schools, 73. 
 Education for the Navy, 74. 
 General of Military Education, 
 
 73, 106. 
 
 Special Reports, 38. 
 Disraeli, Mr., 23. 
 Dissenters : 
 
 Bill to admit, to Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge, 232. 
 
 Disabilities of, 227 and n 3 , 233. 
 Dublin University, admitted to, 
 
 261. 
 Education Acts and Bills opposed 
 
 by, xvii, 7-8, 22, 33. 
 Educational Society representa- 
 tive of, 3. 
 
 Grants to schools of, 28. 
 District auditor, expenses dis- 
 allowed by, 42, 44. 
 Councils, 151. 
 Schools, 66, 67, 68, 142.
 
 INDEX 
 
 297 
 
 Doddridge, Dr. Philip, 227 n 8 . 
 Domestic service, girls trained for, 
 
 68. 
 
 Doyle, Mr. Andrew, 67. 
 Drawing, 26, 40, 45, 61, 68, 107, 
 
 135, J56. 
 
 Drumcondra, 102. 
 Dublin, 90, 93, 109-10, 113. 
 
 University, 198, 209, 260-5, 2 7- 
 Dunce's certificate, 24, 29. 
 Dundee, 138, 217, 285-6. 
 Dunlop's Act, 139. 
 Durham University, 1 80, 185, 231, 
 240, 244-6, 292. 
 
 Eastney, 75. 
 
 Ebrington, Lord, 178, I79 8 . 
 
 Economics, London School of, 
 
 247. 
 
 Edinburgh, education in, elemen- 
 tary, 122 ; secondary, 210, 
 217; technical, 220; Univer- 
 sity, 225 and n 7 , 226, 275, 281, 
 282, 284, 285, 287. 
 Education : 
 
 Accounts, 36. 
 
 Acts (1856-1901), 13, 18-31,42, 
 46-51, 58, 59, 66, 153-4; I-, 
 100 ; S., 127-38, 214-21; 
 Wales, 187; (1902) xvi, 33-7, 
 39, 171-2, 192. 
 
 Annual cost of elementary, per 
 child, 290. 
 
 Charities, see also Endowments, 
 2, 143 seq., 222-3. 
 
 Committees, 33-4, 171, 189. 
 
 Department, I, 7, 13, 21, 25, 31-2, 
 45. 53, 57, 6l, 65 and 5 , 68, 
 70, 152, 153-4, 168, 189; S., 
 120-9 n l , 138, 210, 216. 
 
 Diplomas in, 186. 
 
 Free,xv,xxvii, 27-8,63,69, 102-4, 
 
 I3I-3, 193, 217. 
 Grants, see Grants. 
 Intelligence Department, 38. 
 League, xxix. 
 Local rates for, see Rates. 
 Minister of, proposed, xv n, 13, 
 
 151, 168. 
 
 National, I., see National. 
 Office, 32. 
 Reformatories and Industrial 
 
 Schools, in, 60-2. 
 Theory, History and Practice of, 
 
 184-6, 209, 225 and n 1 , 265, 
 
 282. 
 Education and Local Taxation 
 
 j Account (Scotland) Act, 132, 
 
 217, 283-4. 
 Educational Endowments Act, 
 
 198-9, 223. 
 Establishment of the Privy 
 
 Council Office, 13. 
 Elementary Education Acts, see 
 
 Education. 
 
 School, definition of, 19, 36. 
 Elgin, Lord, Committee on the 
 Distribution of Secondary 
 Grants, S., under, 217, 285. 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 229, 231, 260. 
 Elizabethan Schools, I., 193. 
 Employers, 25, 47. 
 Employment of children, see under 
 
 Age. 
 Endowed Institutions (Scotland) 
 
 Acts, 222-3. 
 
 Schools Acts, 46, 149-50, 168,170. 
 Bill, 181. 
 
 Commission, 147-53. 
 Endowments : 
 
 Elementary foundations, for, 36, 
 45-6, 292; I., 99, 1 1 1-2, 292. 
 Fellowships by, 269-70. 
 Holloway College, of, 253. 
 Secondary Schools, of, I., 193- 
 
 200; S., 215, 221-5. 
 Theological, I., 266-7. 
 University, 231, 235 and nn*~ w , 
 
 261 ; Colleges, 251-2. 
 Engineering Schools, 262, 272. 
 Ennis, 194 n s . 
 Epileptic children, 30-1. 
 Erasmus Smith Schools, 79, 81-2, 
 
 194 and n 5 , 195-6, 199. 
 Estimate of money available for 
 
 education, 292. 
 Eton, 145, 146-7. 
 Evening Art Classes, 160. 
 
 Schools, 26, 36, 40-3, 73, 75, 
 
 104, 137, 154, 173, 203-4. 
 Examinations : 
 
 Army Schoolmasters, of, 70-1. 
 Degrees, for, 262. 
 Higher, 241. 
 
 Payment by, see under Grants. 
 Poor Law Schools, in, 66. 
 Science and Art, 157. 
 Secondary School, 148, 169, 176- 
 82; I., 206-9; S., 215-7, 
 225. 
 Teachers', 10 ; I., 94 ; Poor Law 
 
 School, 67 ; S., 125-6, 136. 
 Technological, 168. 
 Examiners, 38.
 
 298 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Exemption, see under Age and 
 
 Proficiency. 
 Exeter, 179, 250. 
 Bishop of, 232. 
 Exhibitions, 162, 238, 268. 
 
 International, 164-5. 
 Expenditure on education, xxx-xxxi 
 
 and 2 , 291, 292. 
 Expiring Laws Continuance Acts, 
 
 189. 
 External Students, 247, 271. 
 
 Factory Acts, 7, 18, 20, 24, 25, 46- 
 
 51, 61, 112, 130, 138. 
 Inspectors, 25, 47-9, 112. 
 Fawcett, Mr., 263. 
 Fearon, Mr., 124, 213. 
 Fee Grants, 28, 132, 133. 
 Fees (for remission of, see Educa- 
 tion, Free), 19, 20, 21, 36, 47-9, 
 
 50,51,69,76,99, 104, 105, 173, 
 
 215, 217. 
 Fellowships, 228, 230, 234, 236, 
 
 249, 260 and 5 , 261, 263, 266, 
 
 269, 270, 279, 285. 
 Feltham Industrial School, 54, 
 
 58 n 1 . 
 Fines, 20, 24, 29, 47, 50, 103, 128, 
 
 130. 
 
 Finsbury, 168. 
 Five Mile Act, 227 and n*. 
 Forster, Rt. Hon. W. E., Education 
 
 Bill of, 18-23, I2 7> 181. 
 Foundation managers, 35. 
 France, 15, 148, 266. 
 Free Church, S., 124, 211. 
 
 Education, see Education. 
 French Exposition Universelle, 
 
 165. 
 
 Revolution, 266. 
 Froebel Society, xxx, 184. 
 Froude, Mr., 81. 
 Fyffe, quoted, 246-7. 
 
 Gaelic, 135. 
 
 Galway, Queen's College, 268-9. 
 
 Gaol Schools, see Prisons. 
 
 Gardening, 12. 
 
 Garrison Schools, 70-1, 73. 
 
 Geological Survey, 156. 
 
 George II, 227 n 3 . 
 
 Germany, 148, 165, 239. 
 
 Gill, Mr. T. P., 202 n 4 . 
 
 Girls, education of, 12, 15, 51, 62, 
 68, 70, 76-7, 148 and n 2 , 150, 
 153, 179. 182, 188, 191, 214, 
 224,225. 
 
 Girls' Public Day School Co., xxx, 
 
 148, 184. 
 
 Girton College, 241-2. 
 Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W. E., 4, 16, 
 
 1 8, 264, 282 ; quoted, 21-2. 
 Glamorgan, 23. 
 Glasgow : 
 
 Day Industrial Schools in, 140. 
 Elementary Education in, 122. 
 Mechanics' Institute, 164, 220. 
 Secondary Education in, 217, 
 
 225. 
 University, 275, 279, 282, 284, 
 
 285, 287. 
 Glasgow and West of Scotland 
 
 Technical College, 220. 
 Glasnevin, 105. 
 Glenalmond, 210. 
 Gorst, Rt. Hon. Sir John, 32. 
 Govan, 142, 217. 
 Graham, Dr. (Bishop of Chester), 
 
 233- 
 
 Sir James, 7, 48. 
 Grammar Schools, 46, 187, 193-6. 
 
 Act, 145. 
 Grants : 
 
 Admiralty, to Voluntary Schools, 
 
 77- 
 
 Carnegie Trust, 285. 
 Endowment funds, made from, 
 
 S., 224. 
 Government : 
 
 Afflicted children, for, 131. 
 
 Age limits for receiving, 16-7, 
 41, 129. 
 
 Agricultural education, for, 
 
 253-4- 
 
 Aid, 18, 28, 36. 
 
 Art, 45, 68, 160. 
 
 Attendance, 12-3, 15, 25, 36, 
 38, 134, 204. 
 
 Building, 2-3 and n l , 4, 6, 8, 9, 
 21, 23, 88, 157, 215, 261, 266, 
 268, 280, 281, 282, 284. 
 
 Capitation, 12, 41, 65 and n 2 , 
 70, 99 and n 2 ; L, 94, 103 ; 
 S., 125. 
 
 Equipment, L, n, 109. 
 
 Evening Continuation Schools, 
 to, 41-2. 
 
 Examination (Payment by 
 Results), xv, xxv, 15-18, 23, 
 38; I., 91, 94, 99-100; S., 
 129, 134 ; secondary educa- 
 tion, for, 158, 160; I., 207. 
 
 Fee, 66-7; !> 103 5 S., 132. 
 
 Gradation of, 99, 129.
 
 INDEX 
 
 299 
 
 Grants (cont.) : 
 
 Higher Education, for, 248, 
 
 249, 250-2; I., 266,267, 268 ; 
 
 S., 281-4, 286; Wales, 257-8. 
 Industrial Schools, to, 57, 58, 
 
 6 1 ; Training, offered for, 54. 
 Irish Elementary Schools (for 
 
 Higher Education see above), 
 
 78-9, 81, 82-84, 85, 92, 94, 
 
 101, 103, 109. 
 Restriction of, 25, 161-2. 
 Science and Art Department, 
 
 of, 154-5, 157-9, 167, 204; 
 
 I., 202-3; S., 219. 
 Scotch Elementary Education 
 
 (for Higher Education, see 
 
 above), 122-3, 125, 129, 130, 
 
 132, 134. 
 
 Secondary Education, for, 158, 
 160, 169, 189; I., 201, 207; 
 
 S., 217-9, 221. 
 
 Statistics of, 291. 
 
 Teachers, to, 16, 17, 64-5 and 
 5 , 99-100; pupil teachers, 9. 
 
 Technical Education, for, 40; 
 
 S., 218-9, 221. 
 Greek, 212, 238, 278-9. 
 Greenwich, 74, 75, 76. 
 Gregory, Dean, cited, xxix, 3 5 . 
 Gresham University, 247. 
 Grey, Earl, 83. 
 
 Guardians, see Poor Law Guardians. 
 Gunnery ships, 75. 
 
 Half-timers, 51, 112, 138. 
 
 Harris, Lord, Committee on Army 
 
 Education (I.) under, 106. 
 Harrow, 146-7. 
 Hart Dyke, Sir W., Committee on 
 
 Teachers' Registration and 
 
 Organization Bill (1891) under, 
 
 174. 
 Hartley College, Southampton, 250, 
 
 252. 
 Head Masters' Conference, 181 and 
 
 n 8 , 185, 214. 
 Hebdomadal Board, Oxford, 229, 
 
 233-. 
 
 Council, 233. 
 
 Hedge Schools, 80 and nn 9 - 12 . 
 Henry VIII, 80. 
 Heriot Watt College, 220. 
 Heriot's Hospital, 222. 
 Heritors, 120-1, 123, 124, 126. 
 Highbury, 183. 
 Higher Class Public Schools, S., 
 
 215-6. 
 
 Higher Education, I n ', 36, 172, 
 
 227 seq. 
 
 Elementary Schools, 40. 
 Grade Departments, 134-5. 
 
 Schools, 154. 
 
 Local Examinations, 241, 243, 
 287. 
 
 Highlands, 122, 123. 
 
 Hinds, Dr. (Bishop of Norwich), 
 232. 
 
 Hitchin, 241. 
 
 Holgate, Mr., 66. 
 
 Holland, 15. 
 
 Holloway College, 253. 
 
 Home and Colonial Society, 183. 
 
 Home Secretary, education con- 
 trolled by : 
 Elementary, 46-62; I., 112; S., 
 
 138-41. 
 Secondary, S., 222, 223. 
 
 Home students, Oxford, 243, 244. 
 
 Homerton, 227. 
 
 Horner, Leonard, quoted, 47-8. 
 
 ' Hospitals,' endowed, S., 221-3. 
 
 Hoxton, 227. 
 
 Hume, Joseph, 2. 
 
 Imbecile children, 33. 
 Imperial Institute, 248. 
 Incorporated Society, I., 81. 
 Indian Civil Service, 177. 
 Industrial Schools, xxviii, 13, 18, 
 20, 24, 25, 45, 53, 56-62, 1 14-6, 
 139-41 and n\ 
 >ay, 25, 59, 140. 
 Industrial Schools Acts, 57-8. 
 
 Training, 70, 104-5. 
 Infants, 16, 73, 76, 99. 
 Inglis, Rt. Hon. John, Universities' 
 Commissions, S., under,(i858j, 
 281 ; (1876), 282. 
 Inspection : 
 
 Army Schools, of, 13, 73, 118. 
 Art Schools, of, 1 60, 290. 
 Elementary Schools, of, 8, 9, 15, 
 17-8, 37-8; I., 85-6 and 2 ; 
 S., 129 and n 1 , 134; numbers 
 inspected, 290. 
 Industrial Schools, of, 57-8, 61, 
 
 114-5, 139- 
 
 Naval Schools, of, 13, 74 and n 1 . 
 Poor Law Schools, I., 13, 68, 117. 
 Reformatories, 54, 114-5. 
 Religious knowledge, in, n, 19. 
 Science and Art Schools, of, 
 
 161. 
 Secondary Schools, of, 175-6,
 
 300 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Inspection (cont.} : 
 
 181-2, 190-1, 192, 199, 208-9, 
 216, 217. 
 
 University Colleges, of, 252. 
 Voluntary Schools, 20, 22, 25, 34. 
 Inspectors, H. M., xv, 6 and 3 , 7, 
 
 19, 37-8, 54,65,73, 169,217. 
 Intermediate Education, Commis- 
 sioners of, I., 205-9. 
 Act, I., 206, 207; Wales, 187 
 
 and n '. 
 
 Internal Students, 247, 271. 
 Inverness, 133. 
 Ireland : 
 
 Church of, see under Church. 
 Education Act, 1902, not appli- 
 cable to, 37. 
 Educational condition of, xiii-xiv, 
 
 xxv-xxvi. 
 
 Elementary education in, 78-119. 
 Grants to, see under Grants. 
 Higher education, 260-73, 292. 
 Inspectors in, numbers of, 73. 
 Language of, 201. 
 Money available for education in, 
 
 291, 292. 
 
 National Schools, 3 n 2 . 
 Population of, 289. 
 Secondary education in, 193-209. 
 Irish Education Act, 103. 
 
 Educational Endowments Act 
 
 (1885), 224. 
 Islands, Scotch, 122. 
 Italy, 148. 
 
 Jackson, Dr. Cyril, 230. 
 
 James I, 193, 275. 
 
 Jeffrey, Lord, 279. 
 
 Jesus College, Oxford, 258. 
 
 Jews, 28, 1 80. 
 
 Joint Advisory Committee, 241. 
 
 Joint Board, Oxford and Cambridge, 
 
 1 8 1-2. 
 Joint Education Committee, 188- 
 
 90. 
 
 Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, 6, 9. 
 
 Keenan, Sir Patrick, 99. 
 
 Kekewich, Sir George, 6, 32. 
 
 Kenyon-Slaney clause of the Edu- 
 cation Act (1902), 34. 
 
 Kildare, Marquis of, Commission on 
 Endowed Schools, I., (1854), 
 under, 196-7. 
 
 Kildare Place Society, 79, 82, 83. 
 
 84, 90, 96. 
 Training College, 102. 
 
 Kindergarten teaching, 72, 106-7, 
 109, 184. 
 
 King's College, London, 246, 248. 
 School, London, 146. 
 
 King's scholars, S., 136. 
 
 Kinnear, Lord, Universities Com- 
 mission, S., (1889), under, 283. 
 
 Kneller Hall, 64, 68. 
 
 Knox, John, 221. 
 
 Labour of children, see Age limit for 
 
 employment. 
 
 Lady Margaret Hall, 243, 244. 
 Lampeter, 259. 
 Lancashire, 51. 
 
 Lancastrian Schools, xiv, 3, 8. 
 Land Clauses Consolidation Act, 20. 
 Lansdowne, Lord : 
 
 Administrative Committee of 
 Privy Council under, 4. 
 
 Letter to, from Lord John Russell, 
 
 quoted, 5. 
 
 Laudian Statutes, 229. 
 Laundry- work, 12. 
 Leaving certificate, 135, 181, 182, 
 
 216, 217. 
 
 Leclerc, M., quoted, 165. 
 Lee, Dr., 277. 
 
 Leigh, Lord, Act of, 55, 139. 
 Leinster, Duke of, 84, 266. 
 Leith, 217. 
 Lewes, 75. 
 
 Libraries Acts, 162-3, 203. 
 Library, Central Educational, 38. 
 Limerick, 113. 
 
 Lincoln College, Oxford, 236. 
 Lingen, Lord, 6 n, 280. 
 Liveing, Prof., 251. 
 Liverpool University, 248-9, 252. 
 Local Authorities, 19, 21, 22, 24-5, 
 
 27-9, 33-7, 59, 7, 98. l6 - 2 
 
 165-7, 169, 199, 218, 221, 275. 
 Boards of Education, I., 199-200. 
 Contributions, see Rates and 
 
 Voluntary Contributions. 
 Local Government Act, 27, 103, 
 
 104, 165. 
 
 Boards, 31, 45, 63-70, 116-8, 142. 
 Taxation (Customs and Excise) 
 
 Act, 27, 166, 188, 204, 218, 
 
 287. 
 
 London (see also City of London) : 
 Education Act for, 37. 
 Half-timers in, 51. 
 Parochial charities of, 152. 
 Poor Law Schools of, 60, 68. 
 School Board, 19.
 
 INDEX 
 
 301 
 
 London (cont.) : 
 Technical education in, 255-6. 
 University, 182, 185 and 8 , 
 
 246-8. 
 
 London Hibernian Society, 79, 81. 
 Society for the Extension of Uni- 
 versity Teaching, 240. 
 Londonderry, Lord, 32. 
 Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 84, 195, 
 
 198-9, 206. 
 President of Council, 4, 13, 129, 
 
 131, 155, 156. 
 
 Lords : 
 House of, 2-4, 5-6, 13, 47, 97, 
 
 286. 
 Treasury, 190. 
 
 Loretto High School, I., 273. 
 
 Lowe, Rt. Hon. Robert (Lord Sher- 
 brooke), 10, 15, 16, 17, 181. 
 
 Lushington, Sir Godfrey, Commit- 
 tee on Reformatories and In- 
 dustrial Schools under, 60, 61 
 and 6 , 140. 
 
 Macaulay, Lord, 8, 177. 
 
 MacHale, Rev. John (Abp. of 
 Tuam), 96. 
 
 Magee College, 264, 267, 269. 
 
 Mahaffy, Prof., 265. 
 
 Management clauses, 10. 
 
 Managers, 34-5, 86, 217. 
 
 Manchester and Salford Commit- 
 tee, xxix. 
 
 Manchester University, 227, 248-9. 
 
 Mann, Horace, 8 and * ; quoted, 
 124. 
 
 Mansfield, Sir James, 71. 
 
 Manual training, 40, 45, 61, 68, 
 109, 135-6, 159, 166. 
 
 Maria Grey Training College, 184. 
 
 Marischal College, Aberdeen, 280. 
 
 Marlborough College, 146. 
 House, 156. 
 Street, Dublin, 98, 102. 
 
 Marriage-portions, 149. 
 
 Mary Datchelor College, 184. 
 
 Mary Immaculate Training Col- 
 lege, Limerick, 102. 
 
 Mason College, Birmingham, 250. 
 
 Masters, see Teachers. 
 
 Mathematics, 173, 228, 231. 
 
 Matriculation, 181, 182, 233, 245, 
 249, 262, 270. 
 
 Maynooth, 266-7. 
 
 Mechanics' Institutes, 178, 220. 
 
 Medical Course, 242, 249, 278. 
 Schools, 245, 271, 272, 286. 
 
 Medicine, Carnegie Trust for im- 
 proving the faculty of, 284-5. 
 
 Merchant Taylors' School, 146. 
 
 Merit certificate, 134-5, 219. 
 
 Metropolis, see London. 
 
 Miall, Mr., 22. 
 
 Middle-class Examinations, 179, 
 205. 
 
 Middlesex, 54. 
 
 Midshipmen, education of, 75. 
 
 Military Schools, see Army. 
 
 Mines Acts, 51-2, 112, 138. 
 Royal School of, 254-5. 
 
 Mistresses (see also Teachers), 8, 9, 
 71, 183. 
 
 Mixed Schools, 12, 153, 191,210. 
 
 Model Penal School, suggestion for, 
 
 54- 
 
 Schools, 6, 89-90, 99, 201. 
 Moderations, Oxford, 231. 
 Modern Languages, 181, 201, 262. 
 Moncrieff, Lord, Commission on 
 
 Educational Institutions, S., 
 
 under, 223. 
 Money : 
 Available for education, estimate 
 
 of, 292. 
 
 Powers of raising, 20-1, 35. 
 Monitors, 8, 9, 93, 99. 
 Monmouthshire, n and nn 2 " 8 , 188, 
 
 190-2. 
 Moral Philosophy, 230. 
 
 Science, 231. 
 
 Morant, Mr. R. L., xv, 6 . 
 Mozley, Mr. J. R., 65 2 . 
 Mundella, Rt. Hon. A., 24, 25, 129; 
 
 Poor Law Committee under, 
 
 67, 68-9. 
 
 Munster, 105, 198. 
 Murray, Archbishop, 84, 96. 
 
 Dr. J. F., 92. 
 Museums, 156, 163. 
 Music, 68, 92, 107, 262. 
 
 National Association for the Pro- 
 motion of Technical and Secon- 
 dary Education, xxx. 
 
 Education, I., Commissioners of, 
 78-110,113,115,117-8,195-201. 
 
 Home Reading Union, xxx. 
 
 Public School Association, xxix. 
 
 Residences Act, I., 100. 
 
 School Teachers' (Ireland) Act, 
 1875, 100. 
 
 Society for Promoting the Edu- 
 cation of the Poor in the 
 Principles of the Established
 
 302 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Church, xxix, 3 and *-ll 
 and n \ 
 
 National Union of Teachers, xxx. 
 
 Natural Science Tripos, 231. 
 
 Navy : 
 Prison, 75. 
 
 Promotion as petty officers, 75. 
 Schools, 13, 74-7. 
 
 Needlework, 15, 62, 70, 99, 105, 
 109. 
 
 Newcastle, 185 and n s , 245, 252. 
 
 Newcastle, Duke of, Commission on 
 Elementary Education (1858), 
 under, 14, 20, 60, 67, 74 ', 
 147. 
 
 Newman, Cardinal, 270. 
 
 Newnham College, 241-2. 
 
 Nicolas V, 275. 
 
 Non-collegiate undergraduates, 234- 
 5 and n l . 
 
 Non-provided Schools, see Volun- 
 tary Schools. 
 
 Nonconformists, see Dissenters. 
 
 Normal School, xiv, 8, 64, 70, 136, 
 
 155- 
 
 North of England Council for Pro- 
 moting the Higher Education 
 of Women, xxx, 239. 
 London Collegiate School, 148 *. 
 Northumberland, Duke of, Com- 
 missions under, on : 
 London Parochial Charities 
 
 (1878-80), 152. 
 
 London University (1889), 247. 
 Nottingham, University College, 
 
 250, 252. 
 Nuns' Schools, see Convent Schools. 
 
 O'Connell, 84. 
 
 O'Conor Don, 271. 
 
 Ogilvie, Mr. Grant, 170. 
 
 Orangemen, 95. 
 
 Ordination, compulsory, 228, 234, 
 236, 261, 274. 
 
 Organized Science Schools, see 
 Science Schools. 
 
 Oriel College, Oxford, 230, 238-9. 
 
 Orkney and Shetland, 133, 135. 
 
 Our Lady of Mercy Training Col- 
 lege, Dublin, 102. 
 
 Owens College, Manchester, 248-9, 
 252. 
 
 Oxford : 
 
 Examinations, 179-80. 
 University, 175, 185-6, 227-39, 
 
 277. 
 Women's Colleges at, 243-4. 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board, 
 
 176, 1 8 1-2. 
 
 Local Examinations authorities, 
 176. 
 
 Pakington, Sir John, Committee on 
 Inspection and Grants, under, 
 (1865-6), 17-8. 
 Palgrave, Mr. F. T., 64. 
 Parents, 24-5, 29, 47, 50, 54, 55, 
 56, 57-8, 59, 64, 69, 103, 116, 
 128, 141. 
 Parish : 
 Control over education, 21, 24, 
 
 25. 35> 63 and 4 , 141, 151. 
 Schools, I., 80; S., 120-7, 2IO > 
 
 213. 
 Parker, Mr. Charles S. (M.P.), 
 
 Committees under, on : 
 Secondary Education, S., (1888), 
 
 216-7. 
 
 Training Colleges and Compul- 
 sory Attendance, S., (1887), 
 
 131- 
 
 Parkhurst Prison, 54. 
 Parkin, Mr. G. R., 239. 
 Parliament (see also Grants,Govern- 
 ment), 2, 4, 6, 13, 18, 20-1, 35, 
 149, 151, 202, 224, 231, 236. 
 
 Irish, 194. 
 
 'Parliamentary Schools,' S., 123. 
 Parochial Charities of London, 152. 
 Patrons of Irish Schools, 86. 
 Pauper Model School, proposed, 64. 
 Pay Schools, 79, 80, 106. 
 Payment by Results, see Grants by 
 
 Examination. 
 
 Peel, Sir Robert, 46, 195, 267. 
 Pembroke, 23. 
 
 Penal Model School, proposed, 64. 
 Pensions, 16, 44, 100-1, 137. 
 Personation, 138. 
 Philpotts, Dr. (Bishop of Exeter), 
 
 232. 
 Physical science, 245. 
 
 Training, 133. 
 Pitbanks, 52. 
 Plunkett, Rt. Hon. Horace, 202 
 
 n\ 
 
 Polytechnics, 152. 
 Poor Law Board, 63, 65. 
 
 Commissioners, 63 ; I., 116-8. 
 
 Guardians, 20, 24, 63-70. 
 
 Schools, xviii, 13, 45, 63-9. 
 Population, 14, 28, 79, 289. 
 Post-graduate research, 285. 
 Post Office, 9.
 
 INDEX 
 
 303 
 
 Poverty, remission of fees for, 24. 
 Powis, Lord, Commission on Ele- 
 mentary Education, 1., under, 
 
 91, 97-100, 201. 
 Practising Schools, 43, 183. 
 Presbyterians, 89, 95, 96, 199, 264, 
 
 267. 
 
 Presbytery, 121, 127, 21 1, 214. 
 Prisons, 52-3, 75, 113, 141-2. 
 Privy Council, see Committee of, on 
 
 Education. 
 Purse, 231. 
 Probate and Licence Duties, 27, 131, 
 
 165. 
 
 Proctors, 228. 
 Professorships, 229, 234, 236, 251, 
 
 261, 264, 281. 
 Proficiency certificate, 25, 49, 103, 
 
 128, 130. 
 
 Protestants, 80, 98, 193, 199-200. 
 Provided Schools, see Council 
 
 Schools. 
 Public Libraries Acts, 162-3, 2O 3> 
 
 219. 
 Public Schools, the, xix-xx, 146-7. 
 
 Bill, 181. 
 Pupil teachers, 9, 44, 65, 90, 241. 
 
 Queen Margaret College, 286, 287. 
 Queen Victoria, 4, 5, 6, 232. 
 Queen's College, London, 248. 
 
 Colleges, I., 264, 267-70, 277. 
 
 Scholars, 9, 17. 
 
 (King's) students, S., 136. 
 
 University, I., 205, 268-70. 
 
 Ragged Schools, 56, 139. 
 
 Rate for education, 12, 20-1, 27, 28, 
 33, 35, 36, 42 and n, 98, 100, 
 101, 127, 133, 141, 165, 167, 
 169, 171, 191, 204, 205, 291. 
 
 Readerships, 236. 
 
 Reading University Extension Col- 
 lege, 250, 252. 
 
 Reformatories, 13, 45, 53-6, 60 ; 
 I., 113-6; S., 138-9, 141 
 and n 3 . 
 
 Reformatory Schools Act, 55, 56, 
 
 139- 
 
 Refractory children, 57-8, 66, 114. 
 
 Regimental Schools, 70, 73. 
 
 Registration of teachers, 32, 44-5, 
 169, 171, 174-5, 183. 
 
 Religious Disabilities (see also Dis- 
 senters and Roman Catholics), 
 Bill to remove (1867), 263. 
 
 Religious Instruction : 
 Army, in, 72. 
 Elementary Schools, in, II, 19, 
 
 20, 22-3, 34. 
 Irish Schools, in, 86-8, 97, 98, 
 
 104, 109, 114, 116-7. 
 Naval Schools, in, 76. 
 Secondary Schools, in, 172; 
 
 Welsh, 189. 
 Workhouses, in, 64. 
 Residential colleges, 43. 
 Responsions, 238. 
 Revised Code, 15, 17, 38, 41, 43, 
 
 125. 
 
 Rhodes, Cecil, xxiv, 238-9. 
 Robertson, Lord, Commission on 
 Education in Ireland under, 
 (1900,272. 
 
 Robson, Mr. W. S., 29. 
 Rochdale, 41. 
 Roman Catholics : 
 Book Society of, 91. 
 College of, 266-7. 
 Disabilities, 78, 193-4, 227 and 
 
 n s , 228 2 , 261, 268. 
 Dublin University, numbers at, 
 
 265. 
 Education Boards, on, 194, 199- 
 
 200. 
 
 Emancipation, 83. 
 Grants to, n, 28. 
 Oxford and Cambridge Exami- 
 nations, special papers for, 1 80. 
 Reformatories, 62. 
 Relief Act, I., 261. 
 Schools of, n, 28, 79, 80-116, 
 
 127-8. 
 
 Scotch Schools, admitted to, 124. 
 Training College of, London, 184. 
 University of, 264, 270-2, 273. 
 Romilly, Sir Samuel, Act of, 144. 
 Roscoe, Sir Henry, 285. 
 Rosebery, 4th Earl of, Commis- 
 sion on Scotch Universities, 
 under, (1826), 276 n 1 , 277, 2/8, 
 279-80. 
 Ross, 133. 
 
 Rosse, Lord, Vice-Regal Commis- 
 sion on Endowed Schools, I., 
 under, (1878), 197-8. 
 Routh, Dr., 232. 
 Royal Dockyard Schools, 74. 
 Engineers, 161. 
 
 Free Schools, I., 193-5, 197, 200. 
 Hibernian College of Science, 
 
 272. 
 Hibernian School, 70, 118.
 
 304 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Royal Holloway College, 253. 
 
 Marines, Schools of, 74. 
 
 Military Academy, Woolwich, 
 177. 
 
 Military Asylum, 70, 71. 
 
 University, I., 273. 
 Rugby, 146, 147. 
 Rural elementary schools, 26, 39. 
 Russell, Lord John, 5, 12, 278. 
 
 Sadler, Mr. M. E., viii, 38. 
 Sailors, boys trained as, 68. 
 St. Andrews University, 225 and 
 
 n\ 275,284-7. 
 St. Edmund's House, Cambridge, 
 
 228 2 . 
 St. George's Training College, S., 
 
 226. 
 St. Hilda's Hall, 243, 244. 
 
 Hostel, 184. 
 
 St. Hugh's Hall, 243, 244. 
 St. John's, Cambridge, 230, 236. 
 St. Mark's Training College, Chel- 
 sea, 8-9. 
 St. Mary's College, Paddington, 
 
 184. 
 
 Hall, Liverpool, 184. 
 Training College, Belfast, 102. 
 St. Patrick's Training College, 
 
 Drumcondra, 102. 
 St. Paul's School, 146. 
 Salaries : 
 
 Professors', 279. 
 Teachers', in: 
 
 Elementary Schools, 10, 15-6, 
 43-4, 6s 5 -6; I., 94,98, 99, 
 108; S., 121, 125, 137. 
 Industrial Schools, 6l. 
 Poor Law Schools, 117. 
 Secondary Schools, I., 194; S., 
 
 223. 
 
 Voluntary Schools, 28. 
 Workhouse Schools, 64-5. 
 Samuelson, Rt. Hon. Sir Bernhard, 
 Commission on Technical Edu- 
 cation under, (1880), 165. 
 Sandford, Lord, 6 . 
 Sandon, Lord, 13, 23-5. 
 Scholarships : 
 
 Carnegie Trust, 285. 
 Elementary school teachers, for, 
 
 162 ; Queen's scholarships, 9. 
 Rhodes Trust, 238-9. 
 University, 228, 234, 237. 
 Welsh County Schools, for, 191. 
 Women, for, I., 268, 273. 
 School Attendance Committees, 24- 
 
 5, 26, 29, 33, 36, 58, 69, 70, 
 
 103, 104. 
 Boards, xv, 19-31, 33, 36, 49, 58 
 
 and s , 70, 158, 159; S., 127- 
 
 33, 140, 215, 217, 220. 
 Books and maps, 1 1. 
 Districts, 63-4. 
 Fund, 20. 
 Furniture, 35. 
 Hours, 39. 
 
 Sites Acts, 4 and n*. 
 Trust Deeds, 34-5. 
 ' Schoolmasters' Handbook and 
 
 Directory,' xxix n 2 . 
 Schools : 
 
 Afflicted children, for, 30-1. 
 Board, see Board Schools. 
 Certified efficient, 25, 112, 138. 
 Factory, 47-8. 
 Preparatory, 153 and n. 
 Private, vii, 25. 
 Provision of, 1902, 36. 
 Public schools, the, xix-xx, 146-7. 
 Science, see Science Schools. 
 Science : 
 Carnegie Trust for improving the 
 
 Faculty of, 284. 
 Degrees in, 246. 
 Grants for, 40, 157-9, 291. 
 Royal College of, 254-5, 272-3. 
 Schools, 42, 158-9. 
 Teaching of, 40, 107, 147, 156 ; 
 
 I., 201, 202-3; S., 201, 211, 
 219, 282. 
 
 Science and Art Department, xix- 
 xxii and , 13, 31, 32, 40, 41, 
 45, 6 1, 68, 154 and n*-6g, 
 254-5,291; I., 111,201-2,272- 
 3; S., 135, 156, 219; Wales, 
 192. 
 Scotland : 
 
 Army inspector in, 73. 
 
 Art Schools in, 201. 
 
 Boarding-out system in, xviii, 
 xxviii, 66, 142. 
 
 Co-education in, 12. 
 
 Education : 
 
 Act, 1902, not affecting, 37. 
 Department, 210-26, 287-8. 
 Institute, xxx. 
 
 System of, xiii, xxvi-xxviii, 
 120-42. 
 
 Exemption in, 29, 128, 130, 138. 
 
 Free education in, 27, 131-3. 
 
 Higher education in, 274-88. 
 
 Parliamentary votes for (see also 
 Grants), 6, 122-3, 291.
 
 INDEX 
 
 35 
 
 Scotland (cont.} : 
 
 Population of, 289. 
 
 Science and Art grants to, 135, 
 156, 219. 
 
 Secondary education in, 210-26. 
 
 Teachers' Associations in, xxx. 
 Secondary education : 
 
 Bryce Commission on, xv , 152, 
 168-9, 174, 183. 
 
 Committees, S., 217-8. 
 
 Definition of, in 1 . 
 
 England, in, 143-86. 
 
 Ireland, in, 193-209. 
 
 Organization of, needed, xix. 
 
 Scotland, in, 210-26. 
 
 Technology separated from, xxiii. 
 
 Wales, in, 187-92. 
 Secondary teachers, registration of, 
 
 174-5- 
 
 Secretary, Board of Education, xv, 
 
 6 n, 32. 
 
 Education Department, 6 n. 
 Secretary for Scotland, 129, 131, 
 
 141-2, 216. 
 
 to the Scotch Education Depart- 
 ment, 216. 
 
 of State for War, 73. 
 Senate, 229, 233, 263. 
 Sessional extension courses, 240-1. 
 Sheffield University College, 250, 
 
 252. 
 
 Shoemaking, 62. 
 Shrewsbury, 146-7. 
 Side Schools, 121. 
 Sidney Sussex College, 236 n l . 
 Sites, acquisition of, 20, 130. 
 Slaney, Mr., Select Committee on 
 
 Useful Education under, 4. 
 Smith, Erasmus, see Erasmus Smith. 
 Prof. Goldwin, 233. 
 Sydney, 278. 
 
 Society of Arts, 178, 179, 180-1. 
 for Discountenancing Vice, 84. 
 for Promoting Christian Know- 
 ledge, 3. 
 
 for Propagating Christian Know- 
 ledge in Scotland, 122. 
 Solar Physics Committee, 156. 
 Somerset House, 156. 
 Somerville College, 243, 244. 
 South Kensington, see Science and 
 
 Art Department. 
 
 South Kensington, VII Clause, 162. 
 Southampton, 250. 
 Sovereign in Council, 149, 170, 173, 
 
 234, 236, 281, 283. 
 Staffordshire, 250. 
 
 Stamford, 229. 
 
 Stamp duties on Degrees or Ma- 
 triculations, 232, 233, 284. 
 Standards (see also Codes) : 
 
 Examinations, of, 16, 17. 
 
 Exemption, of, 17, 29, 50, 130. 
 
 Industrial Schools, in, 61. 
 
 Poor Law Schools, in, 68. 
 
 Variations in, (1870), 20. 
 Stanley, Dean, 232. 
 
 Hon. E. G. (I4th Earl Derby), 82, 
 
 84, 89, 92, 94. 
 State Training College, 6. 
 Stonyhurst, 228. 
 Stuart, Prof., 239. 
 Studentships (Art), 255. 
 Summer Meetings, 240, 282. 
 
 School, Edinburgh, 287. 
 Sunday Schools, 19; Welsh, 1 1. 
 
 22-3. 
 
 Superannuation of Teachers, 44. 
 ' Superior Schools,' I., 200. 
 Switzerland, 15, 148, 280. 
 
 Tailoring, 62. 
 
 Taunton, Lord, Commission on En- 
 dowed Schools under, xv , 
 
 xxi, 46, 147, 150, 152, 181, 187, 
 
 213, 280. 
 Teachers : 
 
 Army, 70; L, 119. 
 Art training for, 255. 
 Assistant, 34. 
 Associations of, xxx. 
 Certificated, xxvii 2 , 74-5, 136-7, 
 
 157; statistics of numbers of, 
 
 278, 290. 
 Day, restricted from teaching in 
 
 night schools, 41. 
 Grants to, see Grants. 
 Industrial Schools, in, 60-1. 
 Naval Schools, in, 74-5. 
 Payment of, see Salaries. 
 Penal Schools, in, 64. 
 Poor Law Schools, in, 63-5 n 5 -6 ; 
 
 L, 117. 
 
 Prison Schools, in, 52-3, 113. 
 Pupil, 34. 
 Registration of, 32, 171, 445 ; 
 
 secondary, 183. 
 Science courses for, 255. 
 Scotch elementary, jurisdiction 
 
 over, 121, 125-6, 128. 
 Status of elementary, (1847), 8. 
 Voluntary Schools, in, 34. 
 Teachers' Guild of Great Britain 
 
 and Ireland, xxx, 174. 
 
 X
 
 306 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Teachers' Superannuation Act, 44. 
 Training and RegistrationSociety, 
 
 184. 
 
 Training Syndicate, 185. 
 Teaching, diploma in, 209. 
 Technical Instruction, 40, 163-7, 
 255-6; I., 101, in, 201-5 ; 
 S., xxviii, 220-1 ; Carnegie 
 Trust for, 284. 
 Instruction Acts, xxi, 27, 40, 165, 
 
 167, 171, 188, 190-2. 
 Schools Act, S., (1887), 220. 
 and University Extension Col- 
 lege, Exeter, 250, 252. 
 Temple, Dr., 178-9 and n 1 . 
 
 Mr. Cowper, 20. 
 Theological Colleges, 258-9, 266-7, 
 
 275- 
 
 Thring, Mr., 181 n 3 . 
 Thurles, Synod of, 97, 268, 270. 
 Time-table conscience clause, 19. 
 Toleration Act, 227 n 3 . 
 Torpedo ships, 75. 
 Training : 
 
 Colleges for (see also Day Train- 
 ing Colleges), xvii and , 6, 
 8-9, 17, 92-3, 98, 101-2, 154, 
 176; inspectors of, 37. 
 Grants for, 125. 
 Ships, 75. 
 Teachers, of: 
 Army, 70. 
 Elementary, 36, 43-4; I., 92-3, 
 
 98, 108-9; S., 136-7. 
 Naval, 75. 
 Poor Law, 64. 
 
 Secondary, 183-6, 225-6 ; I., 
 
 209; S., 225-6; Wales, 192. 
 
 Travelling expenses, allowance of, 
 
 to teachers or children, 36. 
 Trevelyan, Rt. Hon. Sir George, 
 
 102. 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, 236. 
 
 Dublin, 198, 260-5. 
 Tripos Examinations, 228, 231, 242. 
 Truancy, habitual, 24. 
 Truant schools, 59-60, 140. 
 Tuam, Archbishop of, 96, 97. 
 Tufnell and Kay, Messrs., 9. 
 Turner, Rev. Sydney, 55. 
 Tutors, 229. 
 
 Ulster : 
 
 Board Schools opposed in, 95. 
 Local Boards in, 199. 
 Presbyterians of, 268-9. 
 Royal Free Schools in, 193, 200. 
 
 Undenominational Normal School, 
 
 xiv. 
 
 Uniformity, Act of, 227 n 3 . 
 Unions, 63 and # 4 ~4, 66, 117. 
 United States, Rhodes Trust Scho- 
 larships for, 239. 
 Universities : 
 Aberdeen, see Aberdeen. 
 Acts, 235, 236, 247, 258, 281,283. 
 Age of students at, 278-9. 
 Birmingham, 250. 
 Cambridge, see Cambridge. 
 Carnegie Trust for, 284-5. 
 Catholic, 270-2. 
 
 Commissions, 232-4, 236, 280-3. 
 Cost of course at, 276-7 and 6 . 
 Curriculum, 237, 282. 
 Degrees, 237-8, 242, 243-5, 2 48> 
 
 261. 
 
 Dublin, 260-5, 273. 
 Durham, 244-6. 
 Examining, 246-8, 262, 269-70. 
 Extension, xxx, 183, 238, 239 
 
 and 3 ~4i, 258, 286-7. 
 Governing bodies of, 264, 269, 
 
 270, 281. 
 
 Increase of, xxiii-xxiv. 
 Inspecting authorities, 175. 
 Liverpool, 248-9. 
 Numbers of students at, 265, 267, 
 
 268, 277 and 9 -8 and n 7 , 
 
 284, 287. 
 
 Oxford, see Oxford. 
 Reform of, xiv, xxiii. 
 Revenues, 235 and # 4 - 10 -6 and 
 
 n 1 , 238-9, 262, 284, 292. 
 Royal University of Ireland, 269. 
 Scotch, xxvii-xxviii, 125-6, 211- 
 
 2, 225, 274-88. 
 Tests, 235. 
 University : College, London, 
 
 246-8, 252 ; Colleges, 246-53. 
 Victoria, see Victoria. 
 Wales, 257-9. 
 Yorkshire, 248-9. 
 Unmanageable children, 24. 
 Uppingham Conference, 181 n s . 
 Urban District Councils, 33, 35, 
 
 171. 
 Ursuline Convent Training College, 
 
 Waterford, 209. 
 
 Vagrant children, 57, 115, 139. 
 Vaughan, Prof. Halford, quoted, 
 
 276 n 2 . 
 
 Vehicles, 36, 172. 
 Vested Schools, 88, 89, 100.
 
 INDEX 
 
 37 
 
 Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge Uni- 
 versity, 229, 232. 
 
 -President of Council, 13, 129, 155, 
 
 156. 
 
 Viceroy of Ireland, see Lord Lieu- 
 tenant. 
 
 Victoria, Queen, 4, 5, 6, 232. 
 Victoria University, 175, 180, 240, 
 
 248-9. 
 
 Voluntary contributions, 3, 6-7, 9, 
 12, 16, 18, 22, 23, 25, 28, 81, 
 88, 90, 94, 98, no, 122, 189, 
 270, 282, 291. 
 Voluntary Schools : 
 
 Act, 28. 
 
 Building grants to, 21. 
 
 Certification of, 25. 
 
 Contributions to, from the Admi- 
 ralty, 77. 
 
 Education Act, 1902, clauses re- 
 lating to, 34-5. 
 
 Fees, 21, 22, 36. 
 
 Grants to, 20. 
 
 Inspection of, 20. 
 
 Managers of, 35. 
 
 Poverty of, xv. 
 
 Rate aid of, xvi. 
 
 Religious teaching in, 22. 
 
 Scotland, in, xxvii, 126-7, J 33- 
 
 Statistics regarding, 290. 
 
 Wales : 
 
 Commissioners appointed for, II 
 
 and nn *- 8 . 
 Education: Act, 1902, applicable 
 
 to, 37 ; Revenue for, 257, 292. 
 Enthusiasm of, xiii, xxiv. 
 Half-timers in, 51. 
 Higher education in, 257-9. 
 Intermediate Education Act for, 
 
 188-90. 
 
 Population, statistics of, 289. 
 Religious teaching in, 22-3. 
 Secondary education in, 187-92 ; 
 
 endowed girls' schools, 148. 
 Welsh, teaching of, 39. 
 
 Walmer, 75, 76. 
 
 Walsh, Archbishop, quoted, 271-2. 
 
 War Office, see Army. 
 
 Waterford, 102. 
 
 Wellington, 146. 
 
 Wells, Bishop of, 41. 
 
 Wesleyans, 10, 28, 199. 
 
 Westminster Confession of Faith, 
 
 274. 
 School, 146-7. 
 
 Whately, Archbishop, 84, 91, 92, 
 95 ; Dublin University Com- 
 mission under, 262. 
 
 Whewell, Dr., 230. 
 
 Whiskey money, see Local Taxa- 
 tion. 
 
 Whitbread, Mr., 2. 
 
 Whitehall, 32. 
 
 Wigtownshire, 142. 
 
 William IV, 231. 
 
 Winchester, 145-7. 
 
 Women : 
 
 Education of, xxix and ', xxx. 
 Educational authorities, position 
 
 on, xvi, 33, 35, 168, 190. 
 Higher education of, 239, 241-2, 
 245,248,249,251,253; I., 265, 
 268-9, 271, 2 73; S., 226, 283, 
 287 ; Wales, 258. 
 Inspectors, as, 38. 
 Votes, entitled to, 19. 
 
 Workhouse Schools, 18, 63, 66, 
 117-8, 142. 
 
 Workshops, 48-9. 
 Regulation Act, 49. 
 
 Wyse, Sir Thomas, 4, 84 andw 3 ; 
 Select Committees on Schools 
 of Public Foundation, I., under, 
 95, 196, 268. 
 
 York, Archbishop of, 7. 
 Yorkshire College, Leeds, 249, 252. 
 
 University, 248-9. 
 Youthful Offenders Act, 54, 56, 59, 
 115-6, 141. 
 
 THE END
 
 OXFORD 
 
 PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 BY HORACE HART, M.A. 
 PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
 
 CLARENDON PRESS BOOKS 
 
 Greece, Italy, Egypt, etc 
 
 Clinton's Fasti Heilenid, from the LVIth to the CXXIIIrd Olympiad. 
 Third edition. 4to. 1 14s. 6d.net. From the CXXIVth Olympiad to the Death 
 of Augustus. Second edition. 4to. 1 h2s.net. Epitome. Hvo. (is. (id. net. 
 
 Clinton's Fasti Romani, from the death of Augustus to the death of 
 Heraclius. Two volumes. 4to. 2 2s. net. Epitome. 8vo. 7s. net. 
 
 Greswell's Fasti Temporis Catholici. 4 vois. 8vo. 2 ios. net. 
 
 Tables and Introduction to Tables. Hvo. 15s.net. OriginesKalendariaeltalicae. 
 4 vols. 8vo. 2 2s. net. OriginesKalendariaeHellenicae. 6 vols. 8vo. 4 4s. net. 
 
 A Manual of Greek Historical Inscriptions. By E. L. HICKS. 
 
 New edition, revised by G. F. HILL. 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. 
 Latin Historical Inscriptions, illustrating the history of the Earh 
 
 Empire. By G. M C N. RUSHFORTH. 8vo. 10s. net. 
 Sources for Greek History between the Persian and Peloponnesian 
 
 Wars. By G. F. HILL. 8vo. Reissue, revised. 10s. 6d. net. 
 Sources for Roman History, B.C. 133-70. By A. H. J. GREENIDGE 
 
 and A. M. CLAY. Crown 8vo. 5s. (id. net. 
 
 A Manual of Ancient History. ByG.RAwuNsox. 2nded. 8vo. i4s. 
 
 Hannibal's March through the Alps. By SPENSER WILKINSON. 
 
 8vo, illustrated. 7s. 6d. net. 
 A Junk)!' History of Rome. By M. A. HAMILTON. Crown 8vo,witb 
 
 illustrations and maps. 4s. Cd. 
 Finlay's History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans (B.c.146) 
 
 to A.D. 1864. A new edition, revised, and in part re- written, with many 
 
 additions, by the Author, and edited by H. F. TOZER. 7 vols. 8vo. 63s. net. 
 
 The History Of Sicily from the earliest times. By E. A. FREEMAN. 8vo. 
 
 Vols. I and II. The Native Nations : The Phoenician and Greek Settle- 
 ments to the beginning of Athenian Intervention. 2 2s. net. 
 
 Vol. III. The Athenian and Carthaginian Invasions. 1 4s. net. 
 
 Vol. IV. From the Tyranny of Dionysios to the Death of Agathokles. 
 Edited from posthumous MSS, by A. J. EVANS. 1 Is. net. 
 
 Italy and her Invaders (A.D. 376-814). With plates and maps. Eight 
 volumes. 8vo. By T. HODGKIN. Vols. I-IV in the second edition. 
 
 I-II. The Visisrothic, Hunnish, and Vandal Invasions, and the Herulian 
 
 Mutiny. 2 2s. 
 
 III-IV. The Ostrogothic Invasion. The Imperial Restoration. 1 16s. 
 V-VI. The Lombard Invasion, and the Lombard Kingdom. 1 16s. 
 VII-VIII. Prankish Invasions, and the Frankish Empire. 1 4s. 
 
 The Dynasty of TheodosiuS. By the same author. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 Aetolia. By W. J. WOODHOUSE. Illustrated. Royal 8vo. 1 Is. net. 
 
 The Islands of the Aegean. By H. F. TOZER. Crown 8vo. 8s. ed. 
 Dalmatia, the Quarnero, and Istria ; with Cettigue and Grado. 
 
 ByT.G.JACKsoN. Three volumes. With plates and illustrations. 8vo. 31s. 6d. net. 
 
 Cramer's Description of Asia Minor. TWO volumes. 8vo. iis. 
 Description of Ancient Greece. 3 vols. 8vo.ies.6d.
 
 The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia. By w. M. RAMSAY. 
 
 Royal 8vo. Vol. I, Part I. The Lycos Valley and South-Western Phrygia. 
 18s. net Vol. I, Part II. West and West Central Phrygia. 1 Is. net 
 
 Stories of the High Priests of Memphis, the Sethon of 
 
 Herodotus, and the Demotic Tales of Khamnas. By F. LL. GRIFFITH. With 
 Portfolio containing seven facsimiles. Royal 8vo. 2 7s. 6d. net 
 
 The Arab Conquest of Egypt. By A. J. BUTLER. 8vo. 16s. net. 
 
 Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, from contemporary 
 
 sources. By G. LE STRANGE. With eight plans. 8vo. 16s. net. 
 
 Scripta Minoa. By A. J. EVANS. Royal 4to. Vol. I. Hieroglyphic 
 
 and Primitive Linear Classes. With plates, figures, and many other illus- 
 trations. -2 2s. net. 
 
 Archaeology 
 
 Ancient Khotan. Detailed report of Archaeological explorations 
 in Chinese Turkestan carried out and described under the orders of II. M. 
 Indian Government by M. AUREL STEIN. Vol. I. Text, with descriptive list 
 of antiques, 72 illustrations in the text, and appendices. Vol. II. 119 collo- 
 type and other illustrations and a map. 2 vols. 4to. 5 5s. net 
 
 Catalogue Of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, including 
 the Cabinet of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. (Published for the Trustees of 
 the Indian Museum.) Royal 8vo, with numerous collotype plates. Vol. I, 
 by V. A. SMITH, 30s. net; or Part I (Early Foreign Dynasties and Guptas), 
 15s. net, Part II (Ancient Coins of Indian Types), 6s. net, Part III (Persian, 
 Mediaeval, South Indian, Miscellaneous), 10s. (id. net. Vol. II, by H. N. 
 WRIGHT (the first section cf Part II by Sir J. BOURDILLON), 30s. net (Sultdns 
 of Delhi, Contemporary Dynasties in India). Vol. Ill, by H. N. WRIGHT. 
 40s. net (Mughal Emperors). 
 
 Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt. By A. J. BUTLER. 2w. 8vo. sos. 
 A Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum. By J. L. MYRES and 
 
 MAX OHNEFALSCH-RICHTER. 8vo. With eight plates, 7s. 6d. net 
 
 A Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. By M. N. TOD and 
 
 A. J. B. WACE. 8vo. 10s. 6d. net 
 
 Catalogue of the Greek Vases in the Ashmolean 
 
 Museum. By P. GARDNER. Small folio, linen, with 26 plates. 3 3s. net 
 
 The Cults of the Greek States. By L. R. FARNELL. svo. 
 
 Five volumes, 207 plates. I-II, 32s. net; III-IV, 32s. net; V. 18s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily. By 
 
 T. E. PEET. Svo, illustrated. 16s. net 
 
 Classical Archaeology in Schools. By P. GARDNER and J. L. 
 MYRES. Svo. Second edition. Is. net 
 
 Introduction to Greek Sculpture. By L. E. UPCOTT. Cr.svo. 4s. ed. 
 
 Marmora Oxoniensia, inscriptiones Graecae ad Chandleri exempla 
 editae, cur. GUL. ROBERTS, 1791. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. 
 
 De Antiquis Marmoribus, Biasii Caryophm. 1828. 7s. ed. net 
 Fragmenta Herculanensia. (Oxford Fragments.) By w. SCOTT. 
 
 Royal Svo. 1 Is. Engravings from the Fragments. Folio. 10s. 6d., large 
 paper 1 Is. 
 
 Herculanensium Voluminum Partes n. 18-21. svo. ios.
 
 English History : Sources 
 
 Opera HistoHca, edited by C. PLUMMER. Two volumes. 
 Crown 8vo, leather back. 1 Is. net. 
 
 Asser's Life of Alfred, with the Annals of St. Neot, 
 
 edited by W. H. STEVENSON. Crown 8vo. 12s. net. 
 
 The Alfred Jewel, an historical essay. With illustrations and a map, 
 by J. EARLE. Small 4to, buckram. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel ; with supplementary 
 
 extracts from the others. A Revised Text, edited by C. PLUMMER and 
 J. EAHLE. Two volumes. Crown 8vo. Vol. I. Text, appendices, and 
 glossary. 10s.Gd.net. Vol.11. Introduction, notes, and index. 10s.6d.net. 
 
 The Saxon Chronicles (787-1001 A.D.). Crown 8vo, stiff covers. 3s. 
 
 Handbook to the Land-Charters. By J. EARLE. Crown 8vo. IGS. 
 
 The Crawford Collection of early Charters and Documents, now in 
 the Bodleian Library. Edited by A. S. NAPIER and W. H. STEVENSON. 
 Small 4to, cloth. 12s. net. 
 
 The Chronicle of John of Worcester, nis-ino. Edited by 
 
 J. R. H. WEAVER. Crown 4to. 7s. (id. net. 
 
 DialogUS de ScaCCario. Edited by A. HUCHES, C. G. CHIMP, and 
 C. JOHNSON, with introduction and notes. 8vo. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 PaSSlO Ct MiraCllla Beati OlaUl. Edited from the Twelfth-century 
 MS by F. METCALFE. Small 4to. (is. 
 
 The Song of LeweS. Edited from the MS, with introduction and 
 notes, by C. L. KINGSFORD. Extra fcap 8vo. 5s. 
 
 Chronicon Galfridi le Baker de Swynebroke, edited by Sir 
 
 E. MAUNDE THOMPSON, K.C.B. Small 4to, 18s. ; cloth, gilt top, 1 Is. 
 
 Life of the Black Prince. See p. 29. 
 
 The First Life Of Henry Y. Edited from the MS. by C. L. KINGS- 
 FORD. 8vo. [In the press.] 
 
 Chronicles of London. Edited, with introduction and notes, by 
 C. L. KINGSFORD. 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. 
 
 GaSCoigne's Theological Dictionary (' Liber Veritatura'): selected 
 passages, illustrating the condition of Church and State, 1403-1458. With 
 an introduction by J. E. THOROLD ROGERS. Small 4to. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Fortescue's Governance of England. A revised text, edited, 
 
 with introduction, etc, by C. PLUMMER. 8vo, leather back. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 StOW's Survey Of London. Edited by C. L. KINGSFORD. 8vo, 2 vols., 
 with a folding map of London in 1600 (by EMERY WALKER and H. W. CRIBK) 
 and other illustrations. 30s. net. 
 
 The Protests of the Lords, from 1624 to 1874 ; with introductions. 
 By J. E. THOROLD ROGERS. In three volumes. 8vo. 2 2s. 
 
 Historical Evidence. By H. B. GEORGE. Crown 8vo. 3s.
 
 The Clarendon Press Series of Charters, 
 Statutes, etc 
 
 From the earliest times to 1307. By Bishop STUBBS. 
 
 Select Charters and other illustrations of English Constitutional History. 
 Eighth edition. Crown 8vo. 8s. Gd. 
 
 From 1558 to 1625. By G. W. PROTHEHO. 
 
 Select Statutes and other Constitutional Documents of 
 the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Third edition. 
 
 Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 From 1625 to 1660. By S. R. GARDINER. 
 
 The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolu- 
 tion. Third edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Calendars, etc 
 Tudor and Stuart Proclamations, 1485-1714. Calendared 
 
 by ROBERT STEEI.E under the direction of the Earl of CRAWFORD, K.T. Royal 
 4to, two volumes. 5 5s. net. 
 
 Calendar Of Charters & Rolls in the Bodleian Library. 8vo. 31s. 6d. n. 
 
 Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers preserved in the 
 
 Bodleian Library. In three volumes. 1869-76. 
 
 Vol. I. From 1523 to January 1649. 8vo. 18s. net. Vol. II. From 1649 
 to 1654. 8vo. 16s.net. Vol. III. From 1655 to 1657. 8vo. 14s.net. 
 
 Hakluyt's Principal Navigations. (Seep. 12.) 
 
 Aubrey's ' Brief Lives,' set down between the Years 1669 and 1696. 
 Edited from the Author's MSS by A. CLARK. Two volumes. 8vo. 1 5s. 
 
 Whitelock's Memorials. (i625-i6eo.) 4vois. 8vo. i ios. 
 
 Ludlow's Memoirs. (1625-1672.) Ed. C. H. FIRTH. 2 vols. 8vo. 1 16s. 
 Luttrell's Diary. (1678-1714.) Six volumes. 8vo. 1 10s. net. 
 
 Burnet's History of James II. 8vo. 9s. 6d. 
 
 Life of Sir M. Hale, with Fell's Life of Dr. Hammond. Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. 
 Memoirs of James and William, Dukes of Hamilton. 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Bumet's History of My Own Time. A new edition, based on 
 
 that of M. J. ROUTH, by OSMUND AIRY. Two vols., each 12s. 6d. net. 
 Supplement, derived from Burnet's Memoirs, Autobiography, etc., all 
 hitherto unpublished. Edited by H. C. FOXCROFT, 1 902. 8vo. J 6s. net 
 
 The Whitefoord Papers. (1739-1810.) Ed.w.A.s.HEwms. 8vo. i2s.ed. 
 History of Oxford 
 
 A complete list of the Publications of the Oxford Historical Society 
 can be obtained from Mr. FROWDE. 
 
 Manuscript Materials relating to the Histoiy of Oxford ; 
 
 contained in the catalogues of the Oxford libraries. By F. MADAN. 8vo. 7s. Gd. 
 The Early Oxford Press. A Bibliography of Printing and Publishing 
 at Oxford, '1468 '-1640. By F. MADAN. 8vo. 18s. 
 
 Bibliography 
 Cotton's Typographical Gazetteer. First Series. 8vo. i?s. d.
 
 Bishop Stubbs's and Professor Freeman's Books 
 The Constitutional History of England, in its Origin and 
 
 Development By W. STUBBS. Library edition. Three volumes. Demy 
 8vo. 2 8s. Also in three volumes, crown 8vo, price 12s. each. 
 
 Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Mediaeval and Modern History 
 and kindred subjects, 1867-1884. By the same. Third edition, revised and 
 enlarged, 1900. Crown 8vo, half-roan. 8s. 6d. 
 
 History of the Norman Conquest of England ; its Causes 
 
 and Results. By E. A. FREEMAN. Vols. I, II and V (English edition) are 
 out of print. 
 
 Vols. Ill and IV. 1 Is. each. Vol. VI (Index). 10s. 6d. 
 
 A Short History of the Norman Conquest of England. 
 
 Third edition. By the same. Extra fcap 8vo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 The Reign Of William RuhlS and the Accession of Henry the 
 First. By the same. Two volumes. 8vo. 1 16s. 
 
 School Books 
 
 Companion tO English History (Middle Ages). Edited by F. P. 
 BARNARD. With 97 illustrations. Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. net. 
 
 School History Of England. By O. M. EDWARDS, R. S. RAIT, and 
 others. Second edition (1911), revised and reset, and brought up to the 
 death of Edward VII. With maps, plans, etc. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. ; also in 
 two volumes (Vol. I to 1603, Vol. II to 1910), each 2s. 
 
 Perspective History Chart. By E. A. G. LAMBORN. 8s. 6d. net 
 
 Oxford County Histories 
 
 Crown 8vo, with many illustrations, each Is. 6d. net. (Also in superior 
 bindings, 2s. 6d net.) 
 
 Berkshire, by E. A. G. LAMBORN. 
 Durham, by F. S. EDEN. 
 Essex, by W. H. WESTON. 
 Hampshire, by F. CLARKE. 
 Oxfordshire, by H. A. LIDDELL. 
 
 Others in preparation. 
 
 Leeds and its Neighbourhood. By A. c. PRICE. Cr. 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
 
 A History Of Southampton. By F. J. C. HEARNSHAW and F. CLARKE. 
 Crown 8vo. 2s. net. 
 
 Also, for junior pupils, illustrated, each Is. 
 
 Stories from the History of Berkshire. By E. A. G. 
 Stories from the History of Oxfordshire. By JOHN IRVING. 
 
 5
 
 Special Periods and Biographies 
 Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar. By 
 
 T. RICE HOLMES. 8vo. 21s. net. 
 
 Life and Times of Alfred the Great, being the Ford Lectures 
 
 for 1901. By C. PLUMMER. 8vo. 5s.net. 
 
 The Domesday Boroughs. By ADOLPHUS BALLARD. 8vo. 6s. 6d. net. 
 Villainage in England. Essays in English Mediaeval History. By 
 
 P. VlNOGRADOFF. 8VO. 16s. net. 
 
 English Society in the Eleventh Century. Essays m 
 
 English Mediaeval History. By P. VINOGRADOFF. 8vo. 16s. net. 
 
 Oxford Studies in Social and Legal History. Edited by 
 
 PAUL VINOGRADOFF. 8vo. Vol. I. English Monasteries on the Eve of the 
 Dissolution. By ALEXANDER SAVINE. Patronage under the Later Empire. 
 By F. DE ZULUETA. 12s. 6d. net. Vol. II. Types of Manorial Structure. By 
 F. M. STENTON. Customary Rents. By N. NEILSON. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Gild Merchant : a contribution to British municipal history. By 
 C. GROSS. Two volumes. 8vo, leather back, 1 4s. 
 
 Ireland under the Normans. By G. H. ORPEN. TWO vois., 8vo. 
 
 [In the press.] 
 
 The Welsh Wars Of Edward I ; a contribution to mediaeval 
 military history. By J. E. MORRIS. 8vo. 9s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Great Revolt of 1381. By C. OMAN. With two maps. 8vo. 
 
 8s. 6d. net. 
 
 Lancaster and York. (A.D. 1399-H85.) By Sir J. H. RAMSAY. Two 
 
 volumes. 8vo, with Index, 1 17s. 6d. Index separately, Is. 6d. 
 
 Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell. By R. B. MERRIMA*. 
 
 In two volumes. [Vol. I, Life and Letters, 1523-1535, etc. Vol. II, Letters, 
 1536-1540, notes, index, etc.] 8vo. 18s. net. 
 
 Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. A lecture by c. H. FIRTH. 
 
 8vo. Is. net. 
 
 A History of England, principally in the Seventeenth Century. By 
 L. VON RANKE. Translated under the superintendence of G. W. KITCHIN 
 and C. W. BOASE. Six volumes. 8vo. 3 3s. net. Index separately, Is. 
 
 Sir Walter Ralegh, a Biography, by W. STEERING. Post 8vo. 6s. net 
 
 Henry Birkhead and the foundation of the Oxford Chair of Poetry. 
 By J. W. MACKAIL. 8vo. Is. net. 
 
 Biographical Memoir of Dr. William Markham, Arch- 
 bishop of York, by Sir CLEMENTS MARKHAM, K.C.B. 8vo. 5s. net. 
 
 The Life and Works of John Arbuthnot. By G. A. AXTEEW. 
 
 8vo, cloth extra, with Portrait. 15s. net. 
 
 Life and Letters of Sir Henry Wotton. By L. PEARSALL 
 
 SMITH. 8vo. Two volumes. 25s. net. 
 
 Great Britain and Hanover. By A. w. WARD. Crown 8vo. 5s. 
 
 6
 
 Henry Fox, Lord Holland. By T. w. HIKKH. Twovois., 8vo. 
 
 [In the press.] 
 
 History of the Peninsular War. ByC. OMAV. TO be completed 
 
 in six volumes, 8vo, with many maps, plans, and portraits. 
 
 Already published : Vol. I. 1807-1809, to Corunna. Vol. II. 1809, to 
 Talavera. Vol. III. 1809-10, to Torres Vedras. Us. net each. 
 
 Anglo- Chinese Commerce and Diplomacy : mainly in the 
 
 nineteenth century. By A. J. SAIUJENT. 12s. (>d. net. 
 
 Frederick York Powell. A Life and a selection from his Letter* 
 and Occasional Writings. By OLIVER ELTON. Two volumes. Bvo. With 
 photogravure portraits, facsimiles, etc. 21s. net. 
 
 David Binning MonrO I a Short Memoir. By J. COOK WILSON. 
 
 8vo, stiff boards, with portrait. 2s. net. 
 F. W. Maitland. Two lectures by A. L. SMITH. 8vo. 2s. 6d. net. 
 
 European History 
 
 Historical Atlas of Modern Europe, from the Decline of u.* 
 
 Roman Empire. 90 maps, with letterpress to each .- the maps printed by 
 W. & A. K. JOHNSTON, Ltd., and the whole edited by R. L. POOLE. 
 
 In one volume, imperial 4to, half-persian, 5 15s. 6d. net ; or in selected 
 
 sets British Empire, etc, at various prices from 80s. to 35s. net each ; 
 
 or in single maps, Is. 6d. net each. Prospectus on application. 
 
 Genealogical Tables illustrative of Modern History. By H. B. 
 GEOUGE. Fourth (1904) edition. Oblong 4 to, boards. 7s. (id. 
 
 The Life and Times of James the First of Aragon. By 
 
 F. D. SWIFT. 8vo. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Documents of the Continental Reformation. Edited by 
 
 B. J. KIDD. [In the press. ; 
 
 A History of France. By G. W. KITCHIN. Cr. 8vo ; revised, Vol. I 
 (to 1433), by F. F. URUUHART; Vols. II (1624), III (1795), by A. HASSALL. 
 10s. 6d. each. 
 
 De Tocqueville's L'Ancien Regime et la Revolution. 
 
 Edited, with introductions and notes, by G. W. HEADLAM. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Speeches of the Statesmen and Orators of the French 
 
 Revolution. Ed. H. MORSE STEPHENS. Two vols. Crown 8vo. 1 Is. net. 
 
 Documents of the French Revolution, 1789-1791. By 
 
 L. G. WICKHAM LEGG. Crown 8vo. Two volumes. 12s. net. 
 
 Napoleonic Statesmanship : Germany. By H. A. L. FISHER. 
 
 8vo, with maps. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 m. Six lectures by H. A. L. FISHER. 8vo. 3s. 6d. net 
 ' MOSCOW Expedition, ed. H. B. GEORGE. Cr. 8vo (J maps. 5s. 
 
 The Oxford Text- books of European History. 
 
 Crown 8vo, with maps. Each is. fid. 
 
 The Renaissance & the Reformation. 1494-1610. ByE.M.TANNER. 
 
 The Fall Of the Old Order. 1763-1815. By I. L. PLUNKET. 
 
 From Metternich to Bismarck, isu-isis. By L. CECIL JANE.
 
 History and Geography of America 
 and the British Colonies 
 
 For other Geographical books, see page 59. 
 
 History of the New World called America. By E. J. PAYNE. 
 
 Vol.1. 8vo. 18s. Bk. I. The Discovery. Bk. II, Part I. Aboriginal America. 
 Vol. II. 8vo. 14s. Bk. II, Part II. Aboriginal America (concluded). 
 
 A History of Canada, 1763-1812. By Sir c. p. LUCAS, K.C.M.G. 
 
 8vo. With eight maps. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Canadian War of 1812. By Sir c. p. LUCAS, K.C.M.G. 8vo. 
 
 With eight maps. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Union Of South Africa. By the Hon. R. H. BRAND (1909). 
 8vo. 6s. net. 
 
 Historical Geography of the British Colonies. By Sir c. P. 
 
 LUCAS, K.C.M.G. Crown 8vo. 
 
 Introduction. New edition by H. E. EGERTON. 1903. (Origin and 
 growth of the Colonies.) With eight maps. 3s. 6d. In cheaper binding, 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. I. The Mediterranean and Eastern Colonies. 
 
 With 13 maps. Second edition, revised and brought up to date, by 
 R. E. STUUHS. 1906. 5s. 
 
 Vol. II. The West Indian Colonies. With twelve 
 
 maps. Second edition, revised and brought up to date, by C. ATCHLEY, 
 I.S.O. 1905. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. III. West Africa. Second Edition. Revised to the 
 
 end of 1899 by H. E. EGERTON. With five maps. 7s. 6d. 
 Vol. IV. South and East Africa. Historical and Geo- 
 graphical. With eleven maps. 9s. 6d. 
 
 Also Part I. Historical. 1898. 6s. 6d. Part II. 1903. Geographical. 
 3s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. V. Canada, Part I. 6s. Part II, by H. E. EGEHTON. 4s. 6d. 
 
 Part III (Geographical), and Part IV, Newfoundland, by J. D. 
 ROGERS. 4s. 6d. each. 
 
 Vol. VI. Australasia. By J. D. ROGERS. 1907. With 22 maps. 
 
 7s. 6d. Also Part I, Historical, 4s. 6d. Part II, Geographical, 3s. 6d. 
 
 History of the Dominion of Canada. By W. P. GRESWELL. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Geography of the Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland. By the same author. 
 
 With ten maps. 1891. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Geography of Africa South of the Zambesi. By the same author. With maps. 
 1892. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 The Study Of Colonial History. AlecturebyH.E.EGERTON. Svo.ls.n. 
 Historical Atlas. Europe and her Colonies. 27 maps. 35s.net. 
 
 Cornewall-Lewis's Essay on the Government of Depen- 
 dencies. Edited by Sir C. P. LUCAS, K.C.M.G. 8vo, quarter-bound, 14s. 
 
 Sierra Leone : a bibliography. By H. c. LUKACH. svo, with intro- 
 ductory essay and maps. 8s. 6d. net. 
 
 8
 
 Rulers of India 
 
 Edited by Sir W. W. HUNTER. Crown 8vo. 9a. 6d. net each. 
 (There is also a special Indian Edition.) 
 
 Bdbar. By S. LANE-POOLE. 
 
 Albuquerque. By H. MORSE STEPHENS. 
 
 Akbar. By Colonel MALLESON. 
 
 Aurangzib. By S. LANE-POOLE. 
 
 Dupleix. By Colonel MALLESON. 
 
 Lord Clive. By Colonel MALLESON. 
 
 Warren Hastings. By Captain L. J. TROTTER. 
 
 Madhava Rao Sindhia. By H. G. KEENE. 
 
 The Marquess Cornwallis. By W. S. SETON-KARH. 
 
 Haidar Ali and Tipii Sultan. By L. B. BOWHJNG. 
 
 The Marquess Wellesley. By W. H. HUTTON. 
 
 The Marquess of Hastings. By Major ROSS-OF-BLADENSBURG. 
 
 Mountstuart Elphinstone. By J. S. COTTON. 
 
 Sir Thomas Munro. By J. BRADSHAW. 
 
 Earl Amherst. By ANNE T. RITCHIE and R. EVANS. 
 
 Lord William Bentinck. By D. C. BOULGER. 
 
 The Earl of Auckland. By Captain L. J. TROTTER. 
 
 Viscount Hardinge. By his son, Viscount HARDINGE. 
 
 Ranjit Singh. By Sir L. GRIFFIN. 
 
 The Marquess of Dalhousie. By Sir W. W. HUNTER. 
 
 James Thomason. By Sir R. TEMPLE. 
 
 John Russell Colvin. By Sir A. COLVIN. 
 
 Sir Henry Lawrence. By Lieut.-General J. J. MLEOD INNES. 
 
 Clyde and Strathnairn. By Major-General Sir O. T. BURNE. 
 
 Earl Canning. By Sir H. S. CUNNINGHAM. 
 
 Lord Lawrence. By Sir C. AITCHISON. 
 
 The Earl of Mayo. By Sir W. W. HUNTER. 
 
 Asoka. By V. A. SMITH. Second edition, 1909. 3s. 6d. net. 
 
 Sketches Of Rulers Of India. Abridged from the Rulers of India 
 by G. D. OSWELL. Vol. I, The Mutiny and After ; Vol. II, The Company's 
 Governors ; Vol. Ill, The Governors-General ; Vol. IV. The Princes of India. 
 Crown 8vo. 2s. net each. Also in two vols., 7s. 6d. net ; separately, each 
 ts. net. 
 
 9
 
 The Imperial Gazetteer of India. New edition, isos. The 
 
 entire work in 26 vols., cloth 5 net, morocco back 6 6s. net. The 4 vols. 
 of ' The Indian Empire ' separately, cloth 6s. net each, morocco back 
 7s. 6d. net; Atlas, cloth 15s. net, morocco back 17s. 6d. net; the remaining 
 21 vols., cloth 4 4s. net, morocco back 5 5s. net. 
 
 Vol. I. Descriptive. 
 
 Vol. II. Historical. 
 
 VoL III. Economic. 
 
 Vol. IV. Administrative. 
 
 Vol. V-XXIV. Alphabetical Gazetteer. 
 
 Vol. XXV. Index. 
 
 Vol. XXVI. Atlas. 
 Each volume contains a map of India specially prepared for this Edition. 
 
 Reprints from the Imperial Gazetteer. 
 
 A sketch of the Flora of British India. By Sir JOSEPH HOOKER. 8vo. Paper 
 
 covers. Is. net. 
 The Indian Army. A sketch of its History and Organization. 8vo. Paper 
 
 covers. Is. net. 
 
 A Brief History of the Indian Peoples. By Sir w. w. HUNTER. 
 
 Revised up to 1903 by W. H. HUTTON. Eighty- ninth thousand. 3s. 6d. 
 
 The Government Of India, being a digest of the Statute Law relating 
 thereto ; with historical introduction and illustrative documents. By Sir 
 C. P. ILBEHT. Second edition, 1907, with a supplementary chapter (1910) 
 on the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (also separately, Is. net). 11s. 6d. net 
 
 The Early History of India from 600 u. c. to the Muhammadan Con- 
 quest, including the invasion of Alexander the Great. By V. A. SMITH. 8vo. 
 With maps, plans, and other illustrations. Second edition. 14s. net. 
 
 The Oxford Student's History of India. By v. A. SMITH. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Second Edition. With 7 maps and 11 other illustrations. 2s. 6d. 
 
 The English Factories in India: By W.FOSTER. Med.svo. (Published 
 
 under the patronage of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council.) 
 
 4 Vols., 1618-21, 1622-3, 1624-9, 1630-1633. 12s. 6d. 
 
 net each. 
 
 (The six previous volumes of Letters received by the East India Company 
 from its Servants in the East (1602-1617) may also be obtained, price 
 15s. each volume.) 
 
 Court Minutes of the East India Company. By E. B. 
 
 SAINSBURY. Introduction by W. FOSTER. Med. 8vo. 12s. 6d. net each. 
 
 Two Vols., 1635-39, 1640-43. 
 
 The Court Minutes previous to 1635 have been calendared in the Calendars 
 of State Papers, East Indies, published by the Public Record Office. 
 
 Wellesley's Despatches, Treaties, and other Papers relating to his 
 Government of India. Selection edited by S. J. OWEN. 8vo. 1 4s. 
 
 Wellington's Despatches, Treaties, and other Papers relating to 
 India. Selection edited by S. J. OWEN. 8vo. 1 4s. 
 
 Hastings and the Rohilla War. By Sir J. STRACHEY. 8vo. 10s. 6d,
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. (See p. w.) 
 
 Economic Atlas. By J. G. BARTHOLOMEW. Introduction by L. W. LYDK. 
 4to, with over 180 coloured maps. 3s. fid. net. 
 
 The Dawn of Modern Geography. By c. u. BEAZI.KY. in threr 
 
 volumes. 2 10s. net. Vol. 1 (to A.D. 900). Not sold separately. Vol. II 
 (A.D. 900-1260). 15s. net. Vol. III. 20s. net. 
 
 Regions Of the World. Geographical Memoirs under the genera) 
 editorship of H. J. MACKINDEK. Medium 8vo. 7s. 6d. net per volume. 
 
 Britain and the British Seas. Ed. 2. By H. J. MACKINDEX. 
 Central Europe. By JOHN PARTSCH. Nearer East. By 
 
 D. G. HOGARTH. North America. By I. RUSSELL. India. By 
 Sir THOMAS HOLDICH. The r til* East. By ARCHIBALD LITTLE. 
 
 r rentiers ! Romanes Lecture(l907) by Lord CURZONOFKEDLESTON. 8vo. 2s.n. 
 
 The Face Of the Earth. By EDUARD SUESS. See p. 92. 
 
 The Oxford Geographies 
 
 The Oxford Geographies. By A. J. HERBERTSON. Crown 8vo. 
 
 Vol. I. The Preliminary Geography. Ed. 2, 72 maps, is.ed. 
 
 Vol. II. The Junior Geography. Ed. 3, revised, ICG maps and 
 diagrams, 2s. With Physiographical Introduction, 3s. With Questions 
 (in preparation) and Statistical Appendix, 2s. fid. 
 
 Vol. in. The Senior Geography. Ed. 2, 117 maps and 
 
 diagrams, 2s. O'd. With Physiographical Introduction, 3s. Cd. With 
 Questions (by F. M. KIRK', and Statistical Appendix (by E. G. R. 
 TAYLOR), 3s. With both, ts. Quests, and Stat. App. separately, Is. 
 
 Physiographical Introduction to Vois. n and in. With e& 
 
 maps and diagrams. Is. fid. 
 
 The Elementary Geographies. By F. D. HERBERTS. With 
 
 maps and illustrations from photographs. Crown 8vo. I: Physiography. lOd. 
 II: In and About our Islands. Is. Ill: Europe. Is. IV: Asia. Is. 6d. 
 VII : The British Isles. Is. 9d. Others in preparation. 
 
 Practical Geography. By J. F. UNSTEAD. Crown 8vo. Part I, 
 27 maps, Part II, 21 maps, each Is. 6d. ; together 2s. 6d. 
 
 The Oxford Wall Maps 
 
 Drawn by B. V. DAHBISIIIRE. Edited by A. J. HERBERTSOX. 
 Price per map unmounted 7s. net, mounted on cloth to fold 8s. fid. net, mounted 
 on cloth and rollers (varnished or unvarnished) 10s. fid. net, except Asia, price 
 per map 10s. fid. net, 12s. fid. net, 1,5s. net. Also sold in sets. A detailed 
 prospectus may be obtained by application to Mr. Frowde. 
 
 Relations of Geography and History. By H. B. GEORGE. 
 
 With two maps. Crown 8vo. Fourth edition. 4s. 6d. 
 Geography for Schools, by A. HUGHES. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 School Economic Atlas. By J. G. BARTHOLOMEW. Introduction 
 by L. W. LYDE. 4to, with over 189 coloured maps. 2s. fid. net.
 
 Anthropology 
 
 Transactions of the Third (1908) International Congress 
 for the History of Religions. Royal 8vo. 2 vois. 25s. net. 
 
 Anthropological Essays presented to EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR in 
 
 honour of his seventy-fifth birthday. Imperial 8vo. 21s. net. 
 
 The Evolution of Culture, and other Essays, by the late 
 
 Lieut.-Gen. A. LANE-FOX PITT-RIVERS ; edited by J. L. MYRES, with an 
 Introduction by H. BALFOUR. 8vo, with 21 plates, 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 Anthropology and the Classics. Six lectures by A. EVANS, 
 A. LANG, G. G. A. MURRAY, F. B. JEVONS, J. L. MYRES, W. W. FOWLER. 
 Edited by R. R. MARETT. 8vo. Illustrated. 6s. net. 
 
 Folk-Memory. By WALTER JOHNSON. 8vo. Illustrated. 12s. 6d. net 
 
 Celtic Folklore : Welsh and Manx. By J. RHYS. 2 vois. 8vo. \ is. 
 Studies in the Arthurian Legend. By J. RHYS. 8vo. i2s. 6d. 
 
 Iceland and the Faroes. By N. ANNANDALE. With an appendix 
 on the Celtic Pony, by F. H. A. MARSHALL. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. net. 
 
 Dubois' Hindu Manners. Translated and edited by H. K. BEAU- 
 CHAMP. Third edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. net. On India Paper, 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Melanesians, studies in their Anthropology and Folk-Lore. By 
 R. H. CODHINGTON. 8vo. 16s. net. 
 
 The Masai, their Language and Folk-lore. By A. c. 
 
 With introduction by Sir CHARLES ELIOT. Hvo. Illustrated. 14s. net. 
 
 The Nandi, their Language and Folk-lore. By A. c. 
 
 With introduction by Sir CHARLES ELIOT. 8vo. Illustrated. 16s.net 
 
 The Suk, their Language and Folk-lore. By M. w. H. BEECH. 
 
 With introduction by Sir CHARLES ELIOT. Hvo. Illustrated. [In the press.] 
 
 The Ancient Races of the Thebaid : an anthropometncai study. 
 
 By ARTHUR THOMSON and D. RANDALL-MAC!VER. Imperial 4to, with 6 collo- 
 types, 6 lithographic charts, and many other illustrations. 42s. net. 
 
 The Earliest Inhabitants of Abydos. (A cranioiogical study.) 
 
 By D. RANDALL-MAC!VEH. Portfolio. 10s. 6d. net. 
 
 Bushman Paintings. Copied by M. H. TOVGUE, and printed in colour. 
 With a preface by H. BALFOUH. In a box, 3 3s. net. 
 
 12
 
 LAW 
 
 Jurisprudence 
 Bentham's Fragment on Government. Edited by F. c. 
 
 MONTAGUE. 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Bentham's Introduction to the Principles of Morals and 
 
 Legislation. Second edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
 Studies in History and Jurisprudence. By the Right Hon 
 
 JAMES BRYCE. 1901. Two volumes. 8vo. 1 5s. net 
 
 The Elements of Jurisprudence. By T. E. HOLLAND. Eleventh 
 
 edition. 1910. 8vo. 10s. (id. net. 
 
 Elements OI Law, considered with reference to Principles of General 
 Jurisprudence. By Sir W. MAKKBY, K.C.I. E. Sixth edition revised, 1905. 
 8vo. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Roman Law 
 Imperatoris lustiniani Institutionum Libri Quattuor ; 
 
 with introductions, commentary, and translation, by J. B. MOYLE. Two 
 volumes. 8vo. Vol. I (fourth edition, 1903), 16s. ; Vol. II, Translation 
 (fourth edition, 1906), 6s. 
 
 The Institutes Of Justinian, edited as a recension of the Institutes 
 of Gaius. By T. E. HOLLAND. Second edition. Extra fcap 8vo. 5s. 
 
 Select Titles from the Digest of Justinian. By T. E. HOLLAND 
 
 and C. L. SHADWELL. 8vo. 14s. 
 
 Also, sold in parts, in paper covers : Part I. Introductory Titles. 2s. 6d. 
 Part II. Family Law. Is. Part III. Property Law. 2s. 6d. Part IV. 
 Law of Obligations. No. 1. 3s. 6d. No. 2. 4s. 6d. 
 
 Gai Institutionum luris Civilis Commentarii Quattuor : 
 
 with a translation and commentary by the late E. POSTE. Fourth edition. 
 Revised and enlarged by E. A. WHITTI-CK, with an historical introduction 
 by A. H. J. GREENIDGE. 8vo. 16s. net. 
 
 Institutes Of Roman Law, by R. SOHM. Translated by J. C. 
 LEDLIE : with an introductory essay by E. GRUEBER. Third edition. 1907. 
 8vo. 16s. net. 
 
 Infamia ; its place in Roman Public and Private Law. By A. H. J. 
 
 GREEXIDGE. 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Legal Procedure in Cicero's Time. By A. H. J. GREENIDGE. 8vo. 
 
 25s. net. 
 
 The Roman Law of Damage to Property: being a commentary 
 
 on the title of the Digest ' Ad Legem Aquiliam' (ix. 2), with an introduction 
 to the study of the Corpus luris Civilis. By E. GRUEBER. 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Contract of Sale in the Civil Law. By J. B. MOYLE. 8vo. ios. 6d. 
 Trichotomy in Roman Law. By H. Goum-. 8vo. 4s. net. 
 
 The Principles of German Civil Law. By ERNEST J. SCHUSTER. 
 
 1907. 8vo. 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 13
 
 English Law 
 Principles of the English Law of Contract, and ot Agency in 
 
 its relation to Contract. By Sir W. R. ANSON. Twelfth edition, 1910, revised 
 by M. L. GWYER. 8vo. 10s. net. 
 
 Law and Custom of the Constitution. By Sir w. R. ANSON. 
 
 In two volumes. 8vo. 
 
 Vol. I. Parliament. Fourth edition. 1909. 12s. 6d. net. 
 Vol. II. The Crown. Third edition. Parti, 1907. 10s.6d.net. Part II, 
 1908. 8s. 6d. net. 
 
 Introduction to the History of the Law of Real Property. 
 
 By Sir K. E. DIGBY. Fifth edition. 8vo. 12s. Gd. 
 
 Legislative Methods and Forms. By sir c. P. IUIERT, K.C.S.I. 
 
 1901. 8vo. 16s. 
 
 Modern Land Law. By E. JENKS. 8vo. i5s. 
 
 Essay on Possession in the Common Law. By sir F. 
 
 POLLOCK and Sir R. S. WRIGHT. 8vo. 8s. 6d. 
 
 Outline of the Law of Property. By T. RALEIGH. 8vo. 7s. cd. 
 
 Law in Daily Life. By Run. VON JHERING. Translated with Notes 
 and Additions by H. GOUDY. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. net 
 
 Cases illustrating the Principles of the Law of Torts, 
 
 with table of all Cases cited. By F. R. Y. RADCLIFFE and J. C. MILES. 8vo. 
 1904. 12s. 6d. net, 
 
 The Management of Private Affairs. By JOSEPH KING, F. T. R. 
 
 BIGHAM, M. L. GWYER, EDWIN CANNAN, J. S. C. BRIDGE, A. M. LATTEH. 
 Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. net. 
 
 Calendar of Charters and Rolls, containing those preserved in the 
 
 Bodleian Library. 8vo. 1 11s. 6d. net 
 Handbook to the Land-Charters, and other Saxonic Documents. 
 
 By J. EARLE. Crown 8vo. 16s. 
 
 Fortescue's Difference between an Absolute and a Limited 
 
 Monarchy. Text revised and edited, with introduction, etc, by C. 
 PLUMMER. 8vo, leather back, 12s. 6d. net 
 Villainage in England. By P. VINOGHADOFF. 8vo. 16s. net. 
 
 Welsh Mediaeval Law : the Laws of Howel the Good. Text, 
 translation, etc, by A. W. WADE EVANS. Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. net. 
 
 Constitutional Documents 
 
 Select Charters and other Illustrations of English Constitutional History, 
 from the earliest times to Edward I. Arranged and edited by W. STUBBS. 
 Eighth edition. 1900. Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. 
 
 Select Statutes and other Constitutional Documents, 
 
 illustrative of the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Edited by G. W. 
 PHOTHERO. Third edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6'd. 
 
 Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, selected and 
 edited by S. R. GARDINER. Third edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 <4
 
 International Law 
 
 International Law. By W. E. HALL. Sixth edition by J. B. ATLAT. 
 
 1909. 8vo. 1 Is. net 
 
 Treatise on the Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction of the 
 
 British Crown. By W. E. HALL. 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 The European Concert in the Eastern Question, a collection 
 
 of treaties and other public acts. Edited, with introductions and notes, by 
 T. E. HOLLAND. 1885. 8vo. 12s. (id. 
 
 Studies in International Law. By T.E. HOLLAND. 1898. 8vo. los.ed. 
 
 The LaWS of War Oil Land. By T. E. HOLLAND. 1908. 8vo. 6s.net 
 
 Gentilis Alberici de lure Belli Libri Tres edidit T. E. 
 
 HOLLAND. 1877. Small quarto, half-morocco. 1 Is. 
 
 The Law Of Nations. By Sir T. Twiss. Part I. In time of peace. 
 New edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 Pacific Blockade. By A. E. HOGAN. 1908. 8vo. 6s. net. 
 
 Colonial and Indian Law 
 
 The Government of India, being a Digest of the Statute Law relating 
 thereto, with historical introduction and illustrative documents. By Sir C. P. 
 ILBEKT, K. C.S.I. Second edition, 1907, with a supplementary chapter (1910) 
 on the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (also separately, Is. net). 11s. 6d. net. 
 
 British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas. By the late 
 
 Sir H. JEVKYNS, K.C.B., with a preface by Sir C. P. ILBERT, and a portrait 
 of the author. 190-2. 8vo, leather back, 15s. net 
 
 Cornewall- Lewis's Essay on the Government of Depen- 
 dencies. Edited by Sir C. P. LUCAS, K.C.M.G. 8vo, leather back, 14s. 
 
 An Introduction to Hindu and Mahommedan Law foi 
 
 the use of students. 1906. By Sir W. MAHKBY, K.C.I.E. 6s.net. 
 
 Land-Revenue and Tenure in British India. By B. H. 
 
 BADEN-POWKLL, C.I.E. With map. Second edition, revised by T. W. 
 HOLDERNESS, C.S.I. (1907.) Crown 8vo. 5s. net. 
 
 Land-Systems of British India, being a manual of the Land- 
 Tenures, and of the systems of Land-Revenue administration. By the same. 
 Three volumes. 8vo, with map. 3 3s. 
 
 Anglo-Indian Codes, by WHITLEY STOKES. 8vo. 
 
 VoL I. Substantive Law. 1 10s. Vol. II. Adjective Law. 1 15s. 
 1st supplement, 2s. 6d. 2nd supplement, to 1891, 4s. 6'd. In one vol., 6s. fid. 
 
 The Indian Evidence Act, with notes by Sir W. MARKET, K.C.I.E. 
 8vo. 3s. 6d. net (published by Mr. Frowde). 
 
 Corps de Droit Ottoman : un Recueil des Codes, Lois, Reglements, 
 Ordonnances et Actcs les plus importants du Droit Interieur, et d'Etudes sur 
 le Droit Coutumier de TEmpire Ottoman. Par GEOKGE YOUNG. 1905. Seven 
 vols. 8vo. Cloth, 4 14s. 6d. net; paper covers, 4 4s. net. Parts I (Vols. 
 I-III) and II (Vols. IV-VII) can be obtained separately; price per part, 
 in cloth, 3 17s. 6d. net, in paper covers, 2 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 15
 
 Political Science and Economy 
 
 For Bryce's Studies and other books on general jurisprudence and political 
 science, see p. 61. 
 
 Industrial Organization in the 16th and 17th Centuries, 
 
 By G. UNWIN. 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 Relations of the Advanced and Backward Races of 
 
 Mankind, the Romanes Lecture for 1902. By J. BRYCE. 8vo. 2s. net. 
 
 Cornewall- Lewis's Remarks on the Use and Abuse 
 
 Of SOme Political Terms. New edition, with introduction by 
 
 T. RALEIGH. Crown 8vo, paper, 3s. 6d. ; cloth, 4s. 6d. 
 Adam Smith's Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms. 
 
 Edited with introduction and notes by E. CANNAN. 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. 
 Bluntschli's Theory of the State. Translated from the sixth 
 
 German edition. Third edition. 1901. Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. net. 
 Second Chambers. By J. A. R. MARRIOTT. 8vo. 5s. net. 
 English Political Institutions . By J. A. R. MARRIOTT. Cr. 8vo. 4s. 6d. 
 
 Biological Analogies in History : the Romanes Lecture for 1910. 
 By THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 8vo. 2s. net. 
 
 A Geometrical Political Economy. Being an elementary 
 Treatise on the method of explaining some Theories of Pure Economic 
 Science by diagrams. By H. CUNYNGHAME, C.B. Cr. 8vo. 2s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Elements of Railway Economics. By w. M. ACWOR. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Second impression. 2s. net. 
 Elementary Political Economy. By E. CANNAN. Third edition. 
 
 Extra fcap 8vo, Is. net. 
 Elementary Politics. By Sir T. RALEIGH. Sixth edition revised. Extra 
 
 fcap 8vo, stiff covers, Is. net. 
 
 The Study of Economic History. By L. L. PRICE, is. net. 
 Economic Documents 
 
 Ricardo's Letters tO MalthuS (1810-1823). Edited by J. BONAR, 
 
 8vo. 7s. ed. Letters to Trower and others (1811-1823). Edited 
 
 by J. BONAR and J. H. HOLLANDER. 8vo. vs. 6d. 
 
 Lloyd's Prices of Corn in Oxford, isss-isso. 8vo. is. 
 First Nine Years of the Bank of England. By J. E. THOROLD 
 
 ROGERS. 8vo. 8s. 6d. 
 
 History of Agriculture 
 The History of Agriculture and Prices in England, 
 
 A.D. 1259-1793. By J. E. THOROLD ROGERS. 8vo. Vols. I and II (1259-1400). 
 84s. net. Vols. Ill and IV (1401-1582). 32s. net. Vols. V and VI (1583-1702). 
 32s. net. Vol. VII. In two Parts (1702-1793). 32s. net. 
 
 History of English Agriculture. By w. H. R. CURTLER. 
 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Disappearance of the Small Landowner. By A. H. 
 
 JOHNSON. Crown 8vo. 5s. net. 
 
 16
 
 LA 
 
 631 
 8 
 
 . ~ 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 Santa Barbara College Library 
 Santa Barbara, California 
 
 Return to desk from which borrowed. 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 LD 21-20m-8,'52 
 (A2854s4)476
 
 A 001 374 553 4 
 
 if.