Historical Outlines of English Phonology and Middle English Grammar FOR COURSES IN CHAUCER, MIDDLE ENGLISH, AND THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BY SAMUEL MOORE University of Michigan Introduction: The Elements of Phonetics Part I Modern English Sounds. Part II The Language of Chaucer. Part III The History of English Sounds. Part IV Historical Development of Middle English Inflections. Part V Middle English Dialects. Appendix: Middle English Spelling. Price $1.50 GEORGE WAHR, Publisher Ann Arbor, Michigan ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR and REFERENCE GRAMMAR By SAMUEL MOORE University of Michigan and THOMAS A. KNOTT University of Chicago GEORGE WAHR ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN 1919 Copyright 1919 By SAMUEL MOORE MINTED AND 10UNO IT MANUFACTURING PUBLIME* BiSAIHA, WltCONtlN PREFACE The primary purpose of the authors of the Elements of Old English has been to produce an introductory book which will facilitate and expedite the teaching and study of Old English in such classes as their own, composed of graduate and advanced undergraduate students. To attain this object we have, in the Elementary Grammar, selected and arranged the essential paradigms, in the order of their relative importance, into twenty-four chapters designed as progressive lessons. In this part of the book the less frequent variant forms have been omitted. All the grammatical information necessary to enable a student to begin reading freely is contained in the first seven chapters. Each chapter includes a reading selection adapted to the advancing capacity of the student, and accompanied by notes explaining those forms which have not yet been presented systematically. In the chapters the primitive and prehistoric Old English sound changes have been explained more fully on a historical and phonetic basis than is usual in such a book as this, partly in order to clarify and rationalize the apparent irregularities of the inflections, and partly in order to acquaint elementary students with the methods and principles of the historical study of language and linguistic change. In the Reference Grammar is given a systematic and ordered treatment of Old English phonology and morphology which serves to bridge the gap between the Elementary Grammar and such standard grammars as those of Cosijn, Sievers, Wright, and Biilbring. It was originally intended to include a considerable body of texts wifli notes and glossary; but to do this at present would render the cost of the book prohibitive. The Elementary Grammar has been used in mimeographed editions at the Universities of Chicago, Michigan, and Wisconsin, at North- western University, and at other universities and colleges. It has been twice re-written, and is now issued with the changes suggested by experience and criticism. Further criticisms and corrections from instructors and students will be welcomed. The authors hope, not perhaps that their efforts will give wide popularity to the study of Old English, but at least that this book will render that study more purposeful, significant, and attractive. 2234749 TABLE OF CONTENTS ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR Chapters Pages Introduction The Old English Language 1 I Pronunciation 4 II Masculine a-Declension 17 III Neuter a-Declension; Verbal Endings 21 IV Feminine o-Declension; Verbal Endings 24 V n-Stems; beon 27 VI Third Personal Pronoun; Verbal Endings 30 VII Declension of Adjectives 33 VIII Change of a to ae and o; tJes 37 IX Breaking; ic and Jm 41 X Diphthongisation by Initial Palatals; hwa, hwaet 44 XI Strong Verbs: Classes I and II 47 XII Strong Verbs: Class III 50 XIII Strong Verbs: Classes IV and V 53 XIV Strong Verbs: Classes VI and VII 56 XV Gemination and Umlaut 60 XVI Syncopated Forms of Strong Verbs; Comparison 65 XVII Weak Verbs: Class 1 69 XVIII Weak Verbs: Class 1 75 XLX Strong Verbs with j Presents; Numerals 80 XX Weak Verbs: Classes II and III 84 XXI Anomalous Verbs; u-Declension 87 XXII Minor Noun Declensions 92 XXIII Preteritive-Present Verbs 95 XXIV Contract Verbs; Review of Sound Changes 100 REFERENCE GRAMMAR PHONOLOGY (201-273) Ill Indo-European Sounds in Germanic (201) 112 Vowels (201) 112 Consonants (205) 113 Grimm's Law (205) 113 Verner's Law, Grammatical Change (207) 115 Primitive Germanic Vowel Changes (211) 116 Germanic Vowels in West Germanic (217) 118 Germanic Consonants in West Germanic (220) 118 Gemination (221) 119 West Germanic Sounds in Old English (224) 119 Vowels and Diphthongs (224) 119 Consonants (235) 122 Prehistoric Old English Changes (241) 123 Early Consonant Changes (242) 123 Vowel Changes (248-260) 125 Breaking (248) 125 Diphthongisation by Initial Palatals (250) 126 i-, i-, j-Umlaut (251) 126 u-, o-, a-Umlaut (252) 128 Unaccented Vowels (253) 129 Syncopation (258) 130 Consonant Changes (261) 131 , b, s (261) 131 h (262) 131 Late Old English Changes (264) 132 Vowels and Diphthongs (265) 133 Consonants (273) 134 MORPHOLOGY (301-446) 135 Declensions (301-374) 135 Nouns (307-339) 137 Masculine a-Stems, stan, dae& (307) 137 Neuter a-Stems, lira, ban, (309) 138 ja-Stems (311) 139 wa-Stems (313) 140 Feminine 6-Stems, giefu, lar (315) 141 jo-Stems (317) 142 wo-Stems (319) 143 Stems in -ibo, strenglm (321) 143 Stems in -in, bncdu (322) 144 Stems in -ingo, -ungo, leornung (323) 144 i-Stems, wine, giest, cwen (324) 145 u-Stems, sunu, duru (328) 146 n-Stems, bunta, tunge, cage (331) 147 iz-, az-Stems, lamb (334) 148 r-Stems, fajder (335) 149 b-Stems, hlel> (336) 149 Root Consonant Stems, mann (337) 150 nd-Stems, freond, hettend (339) 151 Pronouns (340-350) 151 Personal, ic, bu, he (340-342) 151 Reflexive (343) 152 Possessive (344) 152 Demonstrative, se, bes (345) 153 Relative (347) 153 Interrogative hwa, hwaet (348) 154 Indefinite (349) 154 Adjectives (351-369) 156 Strong, sum, god (352) 156 Polysyllabic, manig, halig (355) 157 ja- f jo-Stems, midd, grene (356) 157 wa-, wo-Stems, gearu (358) 158 i-Stems (359) 158 u-Stems (360) 159 Participles (361) 159 Weak, goda (363) 159 Comparison of Adjectives (364) 160 Numerals (370) 162 Adverbs (375) 164 Conjugation (379-446) 166 Verbs (379-446) 166 Strong Verbs (384-422) 168 Class 1, bidan (385) 168 Class 2, beodan (388) 169 Class 3, bindan, delfan, ceorfan (392) 170 Class 4, beran (399) 172 Class 5, metan (402) 173 Class 6, dragan (407) 174 Class 7, hatan, beatan (410) 175 Strong Verbs Paradigms (417) 177 Personal Endings (418) 179 Contract Verbs, teon, etc. (419) 180 Syncopation (421) 181 Weak Verbs (423-438) 183 Class I, fremman, deman (424) 183 Without Middle Vowel, tellan (432) 187 Class II, bodian (434) 188 Ckss III, habban, libban (436) 190 Preteritive Present Verbs (439) 192 Anomalous Verbs (442) 194 GLOSSARY 199 vii INTRODUCTION THE OLD ENGLISH LANGUAGE Old English (OE), or Anglo-Saxon, as it is often called, is the name given to the English language before the year noo. The documents containing what we have left of the language extend from about 700 to about noo, but the great bulk of them represent the speech from 900 to 1050. The language was spoken in four dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish, and West-Saxon. Most of the manuscripts, in fact all those containing anything worth reading as literature, are in West- Saxon. We are therefore obliged to make that dialect the basis of our studies, altho in the main Modern Standard Eng- lish is descended from Mercian. Three important prose works in West-Saxon are in MSS pf about 900 Alfred's translation of St. Gregory's Cura Pastoralis and of Orosius's History of the World, and the Parker MS of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The language of this period is called Early West-Saxon (EWS). The works largely homilies of jElfric and Wulfstan are in contemporary MSS of about 1050, and the West-Saxon Gospels are of about the same date. The language of these is called Late West-Saxon (LWS). As the norm of our studies we take EWS, and consequently all the selections in the Ele- mentary Grammar are normalised to that dialect. The Alfredian translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, and of Boethius's De Consolatione Philo- sophiae are in a mixed dialect, and the poems in the Exeter Book, the Vercelli Book, the Beowulf MS, and the Cadmon MS are not in pure West-Saxon. 1 2 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR OLD ENGLISH AND ITS RELATED LANGUAGE The names of actual and hypothetical languages frequently referred to in works on OE and on Germanic Philology are as follows : Old Frisian (the closest of the Germanic languages to OE) was the language of the Frisians, who lived on the islands and the coast of the North Sea between the Rhine and the Ems. The earliest documents in their language (chiefly laws) date from about 1250 on. Old Saxon was the language spoken by the continental Saxons thruout nearly the whole of North Germany. The oldest extended document is a metrical paraphrase of a Har- mony of the Gospels, called the Heliand, dating from about 800. Old Dutch is known from a few fragments of a translation of the Psalms, of doubtful date, possibly before 1200. Old High German is known from about 750. It includes a considerable amount of material, chiefly religious, partly prose and partly poetry, down to about noo. It falls into two main groups of dialects: Frankish, which was spoken in the west and northwest; and Upper German, which included Alemanic (spoken in Switzerland) and Bavarian. Old Norse includes the dialects spoken in Denmark, Nor- way, Sweden, and Iceland up to the time of the Reformation. The earliest records of Old Norse are runic inscriptions dating from the third century. The most important literature is in Icelandic, which is known from a rich literature preserved in MSS dating from about 1200 on. Gothic is known from rather extensive fragments of a translation of the Bible made before 400 by Wulfilas, a Gothic bishop, for the East Goths along the Danube. All these languages are called Germanic. Gothic is called East Germanic; Old Norse is called North Germanic; and Old INTRODUCTION 3 High German, Old Dutch, Old Saxon, Old Frisian, and Old English are called West Germanic. The terms Germanic (Gmc) and West Germanic (WGmc) are used to designate not only groups of languages, but also the hypothetical reconstruction of the parent language of the group as it existed at a prehistoric period. Thus the term WGmc is applied to forms or sounds which we must presuppose at the period when we may presume that all the WGmc lan- guages were nearly or quite identical. The term Gmc is applied to forms or sounds of the period at which we may presume that all the Gmc languages were nearly identical. Likewise, the terms Primitive and Prehistoric OE are applied to hypothe- tically reconstructed stages of OE. Primitive OE is the term that we apply to the hypothetically reconstructed English language before, roughly, the year 500 A.D. Prehistoric OE is the term that we apply to the reconstructed language from about 500 to about 700. Thus, by comparing Gothic stain-s, Primitive Old Norse stain-a-R, Old Saxon sten, Old High German stein, and OE stan, we reconstruct a Primitive Gmc form *stain-a-z. 1 Like- wise, by comparing Gothic domjan, Old Saxon domian, and OE deman, we reconstruct a Primitive OE form *domjan. Indo-European (also called Indo-Germanic and sometimes Aryan) is a term applied to a group of languages which includes Sanskrit, Lithuanian, the Slavic languages, Latin, Greek, the Celtic languages, and the Germanic languages. The term is also applied to forms and sounds hypothetically reconstructed by a comparison of these various languages. 1 Hypothetical or prehistoric forms are preceded by an asterisk. CHAPTER I PRONUNCIATION ELEMENTS or PHONETICS 1. Speech- Sounds. The process of learning the pronuncia- tion of Old English is greatly facilitated by learning first some elementary facts about the nature of speech-sounds in general. Speech-sounds are produced by a stream of air expelled from the lungs, which is modified in various ways by the larynx, containing the vocal cords; the soft palate; the hard palate; the teeth; the lips; the tongue; and the nasal passage. The hard and soft palates form the roof of the mouth, the hard palate being in front and the soft palate behind. By the varied activity of these organs the various consonant and vowel sounds are produced. 2. Voiced and Voiceless Sounds. With reference to the activity of the vocal cords, sounds are either voiced or voiceless. All speech-sounds are produced by the expulsion of a stream of air from the lungs. In the production of a voiceless or breath sound, the stream of air from the lungs passes freely thru the larynx; the vocal cords are relaxed and wide open, so that they offer no impediment to the stream of air and therefore do not vibrate. But in the production of a voiced sound the vocal cords are drawn close together so that they are caused to vibrate by the stream of air which passes between them. This vibration can be felt by placing the first two fingers upon the larynx or "Adam's apple" while one is pronouncing a vowel or the consonant v. All vowel sounds are voiced, but con- 4 PRONUNCIATION 5 sonants may be either voiced or voiceless. It is voice that distinguishes g (as in get] from k, d from t, b from p, v from f, z from s (as in soon), and the sound of th in then from the sound of th in thin. 2 3. Stops and Spirants. With reference to the manner of their articulation, consonants are distinguished as stopped consonants (or explosives) and open consonants or spirants. In the production of stopped consonants the outgo of breath from the lungs is stopped at some point by the complete closing of the mouth passage. The increasing pressure of the breath then forces open the stoppage, causing an explosive sound. In the production of open consonants or spirants the mouth passage is not completely stopped, but the air from the lungs is made to pass thru a narrow opening with so much friction as to cause a buzzing or hissing noise. Stopped consonants are Modern English g (as in get), k, d, t, b, p; open consonants are z, s (as in soon), th (as in then), th (as in thin), v, f.* 4. The complete or partial closure required to produce stops or open consonants is made by means of the tongue or lips, and the quality of the various sounds is determined by the manner in which the closure is made. Modern English g (as in get) and k are produced by pressure of the tongue against the soft palate; y (as in yield) is made by an incomplete closure 2 By practice one may soon learn to distinguish voiced sounds from voice- less ones. A good exercise for practice is to pronounce alternately the sounds of s and f, f and v, and the two sounds of th, taking care to pronounce the consonant sound alone without the aid of a vowel. The sounds of t and d, p and b, etc., when pronounced without a vowel, will also be felt and heard to be very different in character. It will also be observed that voiced sounds, whether vowels or consonants, are capable of being uttered with variations of musical pitch, whereas voiceless sounds are not. Of the following sounds, distinguish those that are voiced from those that are voiceless: 1, m, n, i, ah. 1 Are r, sh, and y open consonants or stopped consonants? 6 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR between the tongue and the hard palate; d and t are made by pressure of the front of the tongue against the ridge above the upper teeth; z and s are made with an incomplete closure at the same point; b and p are produced by means of a closure of the two lips; v and f are produced by an incomplete closure between the lower lip and the upper front teeth; th (as in then) and th (as in thin) are produced by causing air to pass between the tip of the tongue and the backs or edges of the upper front teeth. 5. According to the place of their formation these consonants are therefore classified as back or velar consonants (g, k); front or palatal consonants (y as in yield); dental consonants (d, t, z, s, th as in then, th as in thin); and labial consonants (b, p, v, f). 6. Nasal and Oral Consonants. With reference to the activity of the nasal passage, consonants are classified as oral or nasal. All of the consonants mentioned in the preceding paragraph are oral consonants. The nasal consonants are m, n, and ng (as in thing). In the articulation of the oral consonants the passage from the throat to the nose is closed so that the stream of air emitted by the lungs can escape only thru the mouth. In the articulation of the nasal consonants, however, the passage from the throat to the nose is left open, so that air can escape freely thru the nose. At the same time the mouth passage is completely stopped, the closure being made for m, n, and ng precisely as for b, d, and g respectively. 4 7. Vowels. Vowel sounds are more open than open con- sonant sounds. In the formation of an open consonant a stream of air is made to pass thru an opening so narrow that 4 Vowels are normally oral sounds, but they become nasalised when they are pronounced with the passage from the throat to the nose open. The most familiar examples of nasalised vowels are those of Modern French. PRONUNCIATION 7 the passage of the air causes friction and therefore noise. In the formation of a vowel, however, the opening is so wide that the air in passing thru the mouth causes no friction at all. 8. Open and Close Vowels. But the vowel sounds are not all equally open in their formation. If one pronounces in order the vowel sounds of the words hat, hate, heat, he will observe that in pronouncing each of these successive sounds the tongue is closer to the roof of the mouth. When we pro- nounce the series, the tongue starts from a position considerably below the roof of the mouth and ends in a position quite close to the roof of the mouth. This can be felt, and it can also be seen by pronouncing the sounds before a mirror. The same thing can be observed in regard to the vowels of the words law, low, loot. As we pronounce this series of vowels, we can feel the tongue going higher in the mouth, and we can see it indirectly by watching the upward movement of the lower jaw as we pronounce the three sounds before a mirror. 9. This difference in openness or height is the basis of one of the most important classifications of vowel sounds. We distinguish at least three degrees in the height of vowel sounds. If the tongue is quite close to the roof of the mouth, we call the vowel a high vowel. If the tongue occupies a low position in the mouth, we call the vowel a low vowel. If the tongue is in a position about midway between its extreme high position and its extreme low position, we call the vowel a mid vowel. So the vowels of law and hat are low vowels; the vowels of low and hate are mid vowels; and the vowels of loot and heat are high vowels. 10. Back and Front Vowels. When we pronounce in suc- cession the two series of vowels heard in law, low, loot, and hat, hate, heat, we can perceive that the tongue lies differently as 8 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR we utter the two series. When we pronounce the vowels of law, low, loot, it is the back of the tongue that is closest to the roof of the mouth. When we pronounce the vowels of hat, hate, heat, it is the front of the tongue that is closest to the roof of the mouth. This can be felt, and it can also be seen by looking into the mouth as we pronounce the two series of sounds before a mirror. We therefore call the vowels of law, low, loot, back vowels, and the vowels of hat, hate, heat, front vowels. This is the second basis of the classification of vowel sounds. 11. Combining the two classifications of vowel sounds, we say that the vowel of hat is a low front vowel, that the vowel of hate is a mid front vowel, that the vowel of heat is a high front vowel, that the vowel of law is a low back vowel, that the vowel of low is a mid back vowel, and that the vowel of loot is a high back vowel. 6 12. Round and Unround Vowels. If one pronounces before a mirror the two series of vowel sounds heard in hat, hate, heat, and law, low, loot, he will see that the action of the lips in pro- nouncing the two series is not the same. In pronouncing the first series the corners of the mouth are drawn apart so as to make a wide opening. But in pronouncing the second series the corners of the mouth are drawn together so as to make a more or less rounded opening; in fact, one finds that he cannot pro- nounce this series of vowels with the corners of the mouth drawn apart. We therefore make a further distinction between round and unround vowels, and call the vowel of law a low back round vowel, the vowel of low a mid back round vowel, and the vowel of loot a high back round vowel. The vowels of hat, hate, heat, on the other hand, are unround vowels. 8 Some vowels, for example a in English Cuba, e in German gabe, e in French je, are neither front vowels nor back vowels. They occur chiefly in unstressed syllables and are generally termed mixed vowels. PRONUNCIATION 9 13. Generally speaking, back vowels tend to be round, and front vowels to be unround. But unround back vowels and round front vowels also occur. The vowel of Modern English far is a low back unround or a mid back unround vowel. Front round vowels may be illustrated by German ktihn and mussen, in which are heard the long and short varieties of the high front round vowel. The vowel of kuhn may be produced by pronouncing the vowel of heat with the lips rounded as if for pronouncing the vowel of loot. The vowel of mussen may be produced by pronouncing the vowel of hit with the lips rounded as if for pronouncing the vowel of pull. No front round vowels occur in Modern English, but the two sounds just described were frequent sounds in Old English. 14. Long and Short Vowels. The foregoing classification of vowel sounds has reference only to the quality of vowels. But vowels differ from each other not only in quality but also in quantity or length of duration. With regard to quantity vowels are distinguished as long and short. 6 In Modern English the long vowel of meet differs from the short vowel of met not only in quantity but also in quality, the former being a high front vowel and the latter a mid front vowel. Like- wise, the long vowel of loot differs from the short vowel of look both in quality and in quantity; both vowels are high back round vowels, but the latter is slightly lower or more open in its formation than the former. On the other hand, the long vowel of father differs from the short vowel of hot in length or duration alone. ' The student must guard against the phonetically incorrect use of the terms "long" and "short" as they are applied in modern English dictionaries. The vowel in mate is called "long a," and the vowel in mat is called "short a," but the^two vowels are not the long and short varieties of the same sound; they differ in quality as well as in length. 10 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 15. Diphthongs. A diphthong consists of two vowels pro- nounced in a single syllable. In Modern English we have diphthongs in the words foil, foul, and file. PRONUNCIATION OF OLD ENGLISH 16. Alphabet. The Old English alphabet had two letters, b and tJ, which are not contained in the modern English alpha- bet. The former is called "thorn," and the latter "crossed d" or "eth" (th as in then). In the manuscripts these two charac- ters are used indiscriminately for the voiced and voiceless sounds of Modern English th. The old English scribes did not use the letters j, q, v, and z; they used the letter k only rarely. 7 17. Vowels. The Old English vowels were pronounced approximately as follows: a like o in hot* habban a " a " father stan " a " hat ct ai " ai " airy dad e, ' ' e " met stelan, be.dd e " a " fate deman i " i " bit biton i " i " machine bitan 7 The character for w in the MSS is quite different from the modern English character, but in printed texts the modern w is substituted for it. Most of the characters in the OE alphabet were more or less different in shape from those of the modern English alphabet. 8 The "short o" of hot, not, etc., as pronounced unrounded in most parts of the United States, is really the short variety of the a in father. In eastern New England and England, however, the o of hot is rounded, and is about that of short o in Old English. f is a character used by some editors of OE texts to distinguish the e- sound which was the result of umlaut (see Chapter XV). The MSS have only one character, e. PRONUNCIATION 11 0, Q' au " audacious holpen, by ml 5 " note dom u u " pull full I 00 " doom tun y ii " German mussen fyllan y lib " kilhn tynan 18. With regard to their formation (see 10-13), u, u, o, Q, and o are back round vowels; a and a are back unround vowels. The other vowels are front vowels; y and y are front round vowels; i, i, e, e, e, , and Je are front unround vowels. 19. Diphthongs. The Old English diphthongs were pro- nounced approximately as follows: ea like a in hat plus a in Cuba healp ea " ai " airy plus a in Cuba beam eo " e " met plus o in poetic weorc eo " a " fate plus o in poetic beodan io 11 " i " bit plus o in poetic liornian io 11 " i " machine plus o in poetic liode ie 12 " i " bit plus a in Cuba ieldran Ie 12 " i " machine plus a in Cuba hieran These diphthongs were usually accented on the first element. 20. Consonants. Old English b, d, 1, m, n, p, t, w, and x were pronounced approximately as in Modern English. Double consonants, however, were really double, as in Modern English pen-knife, book-case, grab-bag, as distinguished from penny, bookish, and grabbing: winnan, bucca, webba. "o. is the character used by some editors of OE texts for the o which developed from a before nasals; o. does not occur in the MSS. 11 io and io occur chiefly in EWS; in LWS they are usually represented by eo and eo. 12 ie and ie occur chiefly in EWS; in LWS they are usually represented by y, i, and y, i. 12 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 21. r was strongly trilled with the tip of the tongue: ridan, faran, ;cr. 22. eg was probably pronounced like dg in Modern English bridge: brycg, licgan. 23. f, s, and J>, tJ represent respectively the sounds of f in father, s in soon, and th in thin: (a) Initially: f seder, sona, }>anc, 8ser. (b) Finally: staef, waes, swaejj, a"5. (c) Before voiceless consonants: eft, fast, haesp. (d) When doubled: Offa, msesse, si)>ban, oSfie. f, s, and j>, ft represent respectively the sounds of v in over, i in prize, and th in then: (a) Between vowels: ofer, risan, swi|>e, cwetJan. (b) Between vowels and voiced consonants: healfe, hacfde, busies, h&bnan, eor'Se. 13 24. Old English g represents two sounds, a front (or palatal) open consonant, and a back (or velar) open consonant. The front sound was that of y in Modern English yield. The back sound was that of g in North German sagen. This sound may be acquired in either of two ways: by pronouncing the vowel of Modern English loot without rounding of the lips and with the tongue so close to the roof of the mouth that a buzzing sound instead of a clear vowel is produced; or by relaxing the contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth while one pronounces the g of Modern English goose. 1 * In this book "f, s, and \>, tS at the beginning or end of elements of compound words were pronounced as if the elements of the compound were separate words: of-lfnann, a-sittan, gc-s.xt, ofi-la-dan, a-ferian. 14 If one is unable to acquire this sound he may substitute for it the stop 3 in Modern English goose. PRONUNCIATION 13 the front or palatal sound of is indicated by a dot over the letter. The back sound is left unmarked. 25. & has the front or palatal sound, that of y in Modern English yield: (a) Initially before e, 15 e, 15 i, i, ea, ea, eo, eo, io, 10, ie, ie: geworden, ge, gift, gisel, geaf, geaf on, georn, geotan, giefan, giet. (b) At the end of a word or syllable when preceded by a front vowel (ae, ae, e, e, i, or I): nucg, nueg, weg, sweg, halig, wig; saegde, bregdan. (c) Medially between front vowels: daeges, weges, stige. (d) When originally followed in Prehistoric OE by i, I, or j 16 : biegan, 26. In all other cases except those specified in the preceding paragraph g has the back sound: gatu, ges, gyrdan, god, god, guma, gufi, glidan, grinnan, dagas, dagum, fag. 27. Old English c also represented two sounds, a back (or velar) consonant and a front or palatal consonant. The back sound was that of k. The front sound was probably that of ch in Modern English chalk, teach. 17 In this book the front or palatal sound of c is indicated by a dot over the letter. The back sound is left unmarked. 15 Unless the e or e is the result of umlaut (see Chapter XV). 18 The character j, wherever it is employed in this book, has the value of j in Modern German Jahr, which is that of y in Modern English yield. It is therefore preferable to call the sound by the German name of the character, "yot," rather than by its English name, "jay." 17 Palatal c was at first a stop consonant, similar to the k in Modern English kid, but with the stoppage made considerably farther forward in the mouth. Later it developed in the WS dialect into the sound of ch as in church. It is probable that it had reached the ch stage before the year 900. 14 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 28. c has the front or palatal sound, that of ch in Modern English chalk: (a) Initially before e, 18 e 18 , i, I, ea, ea, eo, eo, io, 10, ie, ie: cild, cidan, cealc, ceapman, ceorl, ceosan, ciest, ciese (compare Modern English child, chide, chalk, chapman, churl, choose, chest, cheese). (b) Finally after i, i: ic, die, swelc (from *swalic). (c) When originally followed in Prehistoric OE by i, i, or j: secan, fiencun, cirice. 29. In all other cases except those specified in the preceding paragraph c has the sound of k: calan, cennan, com, cuman, cyning, ac, craft. 30. ng was pronounced as in Modern English finger, not as in ring: hunger, singan, fting. 19 31. sc probably had the sound of sh 20 in Modern English ship: scip, scinan, scrud, sceal, fisc (compare ship, shine, shroud, shall, fish).* 1 32. h represented two sounds: (a) Initially before vowels it was pronounced like h in Modern English hand: hand, hus. (b) Before consonants and after vowels it was pro- nounced like ch in German ich, macht: niht, sohte, seah, feoh, hni-fn. 18 Unless the e or e is the result of umlaut (see Chapter XV). 19 When it was followed in Prehistoric OE by i, I, or j, ng appears to have had the sound of ng as in singe; this sound of ng, however, is of very little importance in the later history of the language and is not marked in this book. 10 In the opinion of some scholars, however, the pronunciation was that of s followed by the k sound described above in note 17. M sc, however, had the sound of sk in a few late loan words and in a few words in which late metathesis (transposition of sounds) had occurred: sc5l (from Latin schola), ascian (from acsian >. PRONUNCIATION 15 33. To summarise briefly the preceding paragraphs, the Old English consonants were pronounced approximately as follows: c like ch in chalk c " c " call eg " dg " bridge f initially, finally, and before voiceless consonants . " f " father f between vowels, or between vowels and voiced conson- ants " v " over if " f " father & " y " yield g " g " German sagen h initially before vowels . . " h " hand h before consonants and after vowels " ch " German ich, macht ng " ng " finger r strongly trilled with the tip of the tongue s initially, finally, and before voiceless consonants . . " s ' soon s between vowels, or between vowels and voiced conson- ants " z " prize sc " sh " ship ss " s " soon J>, 8 initially, finally, and before voiceless consonants . . " th " thin J>, 8 between vowels, or between vowels and voiced conson- ants " th " then \>\>, " th " thin 16 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR The other consonants were pronounced approximately as in Modern English. ACCENTUATION 34. The following rules in regard to accentuation, tho they are not exhaustive, will suffice for the reading of Old English prose; the minor details of accentuation are best learned in connection with the study of poetical texts. 35. Simple words (i.e., those which are not compounds) are accented on the first syllable: faeder, saJgde, lufian, cwefiende, leornode, leornunga. 36. Compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are accented on the first syllable of the first element of the compound unless the first element is be-, ge, or for-: corn-hus, deafr-stede, to-weard, earfotJ-lice, be- bod; &e-feoht, for-bod. Compound verbs are accented on the- : first syllable of the second element of the compound: wifl-stondan, a-nsan, on-fon. 22 B As an alternative to the rules given in the text, the following may be serviceable: Rule: Accent the first syllable. Exceptions: (1) Accent the root syllable of all verbal compounds. (2) Accent the root syllable of all other compounds beginning with be-, e-, or for-. CHAPTER II MASCULINE E-DECLENSION 37. Cases. Old English has five cases, nominative, geni- tive, dative, accusative, and instrumental. The instrumental is the case which denotes agency, means, or instrument; it is also used after some prepositions. In the declension of nouns it does not differ in form from the dative, but there are different forms for the two cases in the masculine and neuter singular of the definite article and of the strong adjective. 38. Genders. Old English has three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, which, like those of Modern German, are not dependent on sex. For example, muS, mouth, is masculine, tunge, tongue, is feminine, and cage, eye, is neuter. 39. The masculine a-declension (also called the strong masculine declension) includes nearly all masculine nouns which end in a consonant or in -e. Typical examples are se stan, se daeg, se engel, and se ende, for the declension of which see 41 below. This declension includes "a-stems," "ja-stems," and "wa-stems." For a systematic treatment of these see the Reference Grammar (307-313). 40. The definite article, of which the masculine nominative form is se, has two uses; it is either a definite article or a demon- strative. For example, se stan means either the stone or that stone. When, as is usually the case, it modifies a noun, it agrees with that noun in gender, number, and case. It may 17 18 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR also, however, be used as a pronoun, and when so used it agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but has the case which is demanded by its construction in the sentence. For example, Ic seah ftone monn in 3am f elde ; se is god t>eow ; I saw the man in the field; he (or that man) is a good servant. 41. Paradigms of se stan, the stone; se d&, the day; se engel, the angel; and se ende, the end: Sing. Endings Nom. se stan d*g engel ende -e Gen. foes stanes dages engles endes -es -es Dat. &em ('Sam) stane daege engle ende -e -e Ace. ftone stan die engel ende -e Inst. 5y (Son, 8e) stane da-ge engle ende -e -e Plur. Nom., Ace. tSa stanas dagas englas endas -as -as Gen. Sara stana daga engla enda -a -a Dat., Inst. 3;im (5am) stanuni dagum englum endum -urn -um 42. The interchange of ae and a which appears in the paradigm of daegi is the result of the fact that in a very early stage of Prehistoric Old English the vowel a changed to se except when it occurred before a single consonant followed by a, o, or u. 23 It will be observed that the inflected forms of engel lack the vowel which appears in the second syllable of the unin- flected form; this variation is frequent, but not universal, in the declension of dissyllabic masculine nouns which end in a consonant. 43. Plurals in -e. A few nouns (chiefly names of tribes or peoples) form their Nom. Ace. Plur. in -e instead of -as. M Further details in regard to this sound change will be given in Chapter VIII. MASCULINE a- DECLENSION 19 For example, Dene, Danes, and Engle, (the) English, are declined as follows: Plur. Nom., Ace. Dene Engle Gen. Dena Engla Dat., Inst. Denum Englum These nouns are "i-stems"; for further details in regard to them see the Reference Grammar (324). 44. Verbs. The Old English verb has (in addition to the infinitive and participles) three moods, the indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative. It has two tenses, the present and the preterit (or past), and each tense has two numbers, singular and plural. READING 45. To baes se'Selinges hame waeron fela wera gegaderod. J)a eorlas haefdon ba mecas and b helmas bara Dena, ba, be hie on bjem campe ofercomon. Sum geong eorl haefde bone hafoc mid <5am (5e he fuglas gefeng. Swa 6ac waeron baer ba ierSlingas be on haerfeste of bam aecerum waestmas alaeddon, and ba fisceras be on batum fiscas gefengon. The notes to the reading selections are intended to explain all grammatical forms which the student has not yet learned, except those which are explained by cross references in the Glossary at the end of the book. hame, the more frequent dat. sing, of this word is ham. wron, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of wesan. fela, an indeclinable neuter, many, mttch, is followed by the genitive. gegaderod, past participle of gegaderian. h.-efdon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of habban. ba be, whom; the demonstrative se, either accompanied or not by the relative particle be, is used as a relative pronoun. hie, they, nom. plur. of the third personal pronoun, he. 20 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR of ercomon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of ofercuman. haefde, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of habban. Sam 3e, see note on ba be above. gefeng, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of gefon. al&ddon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of alajdan. be, the indeclinable relative particle, who, which, that. gef engon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of ^ef on. CHAPTER III NEUTER B-DECLENSION VERBAL ENDINGS 46. The neuter a- declension (also called the strong neuter declension) includes nearly all neuter nouns which end in a consonant or -e. This declension includes "a-stems," "ja-stems," and "wa-stcms." For a systematic treatment of these see the Reference Grammar (312, 314). 47. Paradigms of Saet word, the word; the star: Sing. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. Plur. Nom., Ace. fla lima tfoet lim foes limes tJaem (31m) lime foet lim tJy (Son, tfe) lime Gen. <5ara lima Dat., Inst. 3jem (flam) limum lim, the limb; <$aet ban, the bone; rice, //ze kingdom; and <$et tungol, Endings ban word rice tungol -e banes wordes rices tangles -es -e* bane worde rice tangle -e -e ban word rice tungol -e bane worde rice tangle -e -e bin word rica tungol, -a, -a tunglu bana worda rica tungla -a -a banum wordum ricum tunglum -am -um 48. Monosyllabic neuters have the ending -u in the Nom. Ace. Plur. when, as in lim, the stem of the word is a short syllable ; a syllable is short when it is contains a short vowel or short diphthong followed by a single consonant. Monosyllabic neuters are without ending in the Nom. Ace. Plur. when, as in ban or word, the stem is a long syllable; a syllable is long when 21 22 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR it contains a long vowel or long diphthong, or a short vowel or short diphthong followed by more than one consonant. Dissyllabic neuters ending in -e are declined like rice. Dissyllabic neuters ending in a consonant sometimes have and sometimes do not have the ending -u in the Nom. Ace. Plur. It will be observed that the inflected forms of tungol lack the vowel which appears in the second syllable of the uninflected form; this variation is frequent, but not universal, in the declension of dissyllabic neuter nouns which end in a consonant. 49. Weak Verbs. In Old English, as in all other Germanic languages, there are two conjugations of verbs, the strong and the weak. Weak verbs form their preterit by means of a suffix containing d or t followed by endings indicative of person and number. In some verbs the suffix is added directly to the stem, in other verbs a middle vowel, e or o, intervenes between the stem and the suffix. The ending may therefore be -ede, -de, -te, or -ode. The past participle of weak verbs is formed by the addition of d or t, usually preceded by the vowel e or o but sometimes added directly to the stem. The ending may therefore be -ed, -d, -t, or -od. 50. Principal Parts. The principal parts of a weak verb are: (1) the infinitive, (2) the preterit indicative first person singular, (3) the past participle. Following are the principal parts of fremman, make; nerian, save; deman, judge; hcdan, lead; secan, seek; lufian, love; habban, have: fremm-an frem-e-de frem-ed ncr-ian ncr-e-de ner-ed dem-an dem-de dcm-ed l.-cd-an ljcd-de Ued-ed sec-an soh-te soh-t luf-ian luf-o-de luf-od habb-an htef-de htef-d NEUTER a- DECLENSION; VERBAL ENDINGS 23 51. Personal Endings. The personal endings of the preterit indicative of weak verbs are as follows: Sing. 1 -e 2 -est Plur. 1, 2, 3 -on 3 -e The conjugation of the preterit indicative of fremman is there- fore as follows: Sing. 1 (ic) fremede, I made Plur. 1 (we) fremedon, we made 2 (tJu) fremedest, thou modest 2 (ge) fremedon, you made 3 (he) fremede, he made 3 (hie) fremedon, they made READING 52. Se hlaford, be on his earmum hringas haefde, djelde to his folce baet gold fram Sam horde, pset fyr baernde, ond ba sweord ond ba seax scinon baer hie hengon on bsem wealle baes huses. Se scop sang baet leoS, and ]?aer waes se sang ond }?aet giedd. d^elde, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of dielan. baernde, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of baernan. scinon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of scinan. hengon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of hon. sang, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of slngan. waes, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of wesan. CHAPTER IV FEMININE O-DECLENSION VERBAL ENDINGS 53. The feminine o-declension (also called the strong feminine declension) includes nearly all feminine nouns which end in a consonant or -u. This declension includes "6-stems," "jo-stems," and "w5-stems." For a systematic treatment of these see the Reference Grammar (317-319). 54. Paradigms of seo giefu, the gift; seo lar, the teaching; seo wund, the wound; and seo sawol, the soul: Sing. Endings Nom. seo giefu lar wund sawol -u, Gen. 3&re giefe hire wunde sawle -e Dat. o'irrc giefe lare wunde sawle -e Ace. fia giefe lare wunde sawle -e Inst. JV;rre giefe lare wunde sawle -e Plur. Nom., Ace. t$5 giefa, &!efe lira, -e wunda, -e sawla, -e -a, -e Gen. 'Sara gicfa. gicfcna lira wunda sawla -a, -ena Dat., Inst. 'fiicm ('Sam) gicfum larum wundum sawlum -um Some feminine nouns, e.g., tid, time, and dd, deed, have no ending in the Ace. Sing. These are "i- stems"; for further details in regard to them see the Reference Grammar (325). It will be observed that the inflected forms of sawol lack the vowel which appears in the second syllable of the uninflected form; this variation is frequent, but not universal, in the declension of dis- syllabic feminines ending in a consonant. 55. The case ending -u of the Nom. Sing, occurs only when, as in giefu, the stem is a short syllable (see 48). When, as in lar and wund, the stem is long, the Nom. Sing, is without ending. 24 FEMININE 0-DECLENSION; VERBAL ENDINGS 25 56. Strong Verbs. Strong verbs form their preterit, not by the addition of a suffix, but by means of a change in the vowel of the stem. This change is called ablaut (or gradation). Thus, the preterit indicative first person singular of singan is sang (song); the preterit plural is sungon. 57. Principal Parts. The principal parts of a strong verb are: (1) the infinitive, (2) the preterit indicative first person singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, (4) the past parti- ciple. Following are the principal parts of drifan, drive; beodan, command; singan, sing; beran, bear; sprecan, speak; faran, go; ltan, let; feallan, fall: drifan draf drifon drifen beodan bead budon boden singan sang (song) sungon sungen beran baer ba-ron boren sprecan spree sprecon sprecen faran for foron faren la-tan let leton hcten feallan feoll feollon feallen 58. Personal Endings. The personal endings of the preterit indicative of strong verbs are as follows: Sing. 1 2 -e Plur. 1, 2, 3 -on The conjugation of the preterit indicative of drifan and singan is as follows: Sing. 1 (ic) draf, 7 drove Plur. 1 (we) drifon, we drove 2 (flu) drife, thou drovest 2 (ge) drifon, you drove 3 (he) draf, he drove 3 (hie) drifon, they drove Sing. 1 (ic) sang (song), 7 sang Plur. 1 (we) sungon, we sang 2 (flu) sunge, thou sangest 2 (ge) sungon, you sang 3 (he) sang (song), he sang 3 (hie) sungon, they sang 26 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR It is important to observe that the second person singular is formed from the stem of the preterit plural, not from that of the preterit singular. READING 59. In Jjjere healle waes seo bliss and seo sselt5. Hie hsefdon naefre )?a ceare ne ]?a sorge. On )?aem bencum saeton \>& eorlas, ond se dream )?sere dryhte waes micel. Hira meda ond hira sjel<5a waeron monige. ))a hie haefdon fela giefena, )?a hie eodon to hira hamum. ceare, ace. sing, of cam. siuton, pret. ind. 3 person plural of sittan. hira, their, gen. plur. of the third personal pronoun, he. monige, nom. plur. of manig (monig). eodon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of gan. CHAPTER V n-STEMS beon 60. The n-stems (also called "weak nouns") include (1) all masculine nouns ending in -a; (2) all feminine nouns ending in -e; (3) two neuter nouns, cage, eye, and eare, ear, ending in -e. 61. Paradigms of hunta, hunter, (masculine); corSe, earth, (feminine); cage, eye, (neuter): Sing. Nom. hunta eortJe cage Gen. huntan eortSan eagan Dat. huntan eorSan eagan Ace. huntan eortSan cage Inst. huntan eor'San eagan Plur. Nom., Ace. huntan eorftan eagan Gen. huntena eortSena eagena Dat., Inst. huntum eorSum eagum Endings -a -e -e -an -an -an -an -an -an -an -an -e -an -an -an -an -an -an -ena -ena -ena -um -um -um 62. Complete paradigm of the definite article and demon- strative, se, seo, flaet: Neuter Masculine Sing. Nom. se Gen. foes Dat. &em, 3am Ace. fione Inst. Sy, t5on, tJe Saes tfcem, t$am Plur. Nom., Ace. Gen. Dat., Inst. 27 Feminine seo tJiere tJiere Sa Sajt tJare ?5y, ?5on, AU Genders '55 tiara 'Sam, 'Sam 28 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR (ic) beo (flu) bist (he) bib / am thou art he is (we) beo}> (ie) beo|> (hie) beo|> we are you are they are 63. The present indicative of beon, be, is conjugated as follows: Sing. 1 (ic) com 2 (ftu) cart 3 (he) is Plur. 1 (we) sindon (sind, sint) 2 (&e) sindon (sind, sint) 3 (hie) sindon (sind, sint) 64. The preterit indicative of wesan, be, is conjugated as follows: Sing. 1 (ic) waes / was 2 (tJu) wire thou wast 3 (he) wjes he was Plur. 1 (we) wabron we were 2 (e) wteron you were 3 (hie) wteron they were This "composite" verb comprises forms of three separate verbs. To one belong com, eart, is, sindon; to a second belong beo, bist, bi]>, beoj>; to a third belong the forms was, waere, \vieron. No one of these verbs is conjugated fully in any Germanic language, but forms of each are combined so as to comprise one fully conjugated verb. A distinction of meaning exists between the present indica- tive forms com, sindon, etc., and beo, etc. The former are used to express present time, but the latter are usually future in meaning. READING 65. J)a seo sunne aras, )?a comon J>a bodan J>aes cyninges, cweSende }>aet ]>, scipflotan, J>a Nor)?menn, cSmon. J)a guman n- STEMS; beon 29 to hira ecgum and hira garum fengon. Hie gewiton to )7sere hilde. J>ser hie fuhton ongean Jjjem fe'Sum Sara flotena. Seo byrne scan, tSaet sweord swong, seo ecg bat. J)r w&ron monige bealde daede on bam healfum. cweftende, pres. participle of cwetSan. Norjjmenn, nom. plur. of Nor^mann. monige, nom. plur. of monig (manig). fuhton, pret. indie. 3 person plur. of feobtan. CHAPTER VI THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN VERBAL ENDINGS 66. The personal pronoun of the third person, he, heo, hit, he, she, it, is declined as follows: Sing. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Masculine Feminine Neuter he heo hit his hiere, hire his him hiere, hire him hine hie, hi hit Plur. All Genders Nom., Ace. hie, hi Gen. hiera, hira, heora Dat. him, heom 67. Personal Endings of Present Indicative. The present indicative of strong verbs is conjugated by means of the follow- ing endings: Sing. 1 -e 2 -est Plur. 1, 2, 3 -afr 3 -ej> These endings are added to the present stem of the verb, which we obtain by dropping from the infinitive form the infinitive ending, -an. The conjugation of the present indicative of drifan and singan is therefore as follows: Sing. 1 (ic) drife 2 (8u) drifest 3 (he) drifej> Plur. 1 (we) drifab 2 (ge) drifab 3 (hie) drifab 30 (ic) singe (tJu) singest (he) singeb (we) singab (ge) singab (hie) singab THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN; VERBAL ENDINGS 31 These endings are also employed in the conjugation of weak verbs of the first class (see Chapter XVII). Weak verbs of the second class (see Chapter XX) have in the present indica- tive the following endings: Sing. 1 -ie 2 -ast Plur. 1, 2, 3 -ia|> 3 -a)> The conjugation of the present indicative of deman, judge, and lufian, love, weak verbs respectively of the first and second classes, is as follows: Sing. 1 (ic) deme (ic) hifie 2 (tJu) demest (tJu) lufast 3 (he) deme]> (he) lufajj Plur. 1 (we) demajj (we) lufiaj> 2 (ge) demaj> (ge) IufiaJ> 3 (hie) demaf> (hie) READING Mathew 13:24-30 68. Heofona rice is geworden ]?am menn gellc J?e seow god seed on his aecere. So)?llce ]>& ]?a menn slepon, }?a com his feonda sum and oferseow hit mid coccele on middum ]?am hwaete and ferde )?anon. So]?llce J?a seo wyrt weox ond J?one waestm brohte, )?a aetlewde se coccel hine. pa eodon Jjaes hlafordes ]?eowas ond cwsedon, "Hlaford, hu ne seowe }rii god ssed on Jjlnum aecere? Hwanon haefde he coccel?" })a cwae]? he, "paet dyde unhold monn." ])a cwaedon )?a J>eowas, "Wilt J?u we gaS and gaderia<5 hie?" J)a cwasS he, "Nese, J?e labs ge ]?one hwJete awurtwalien )?onne ge Jjone coccel gaderiaj?. LsetatS seg})er weaxan 08 riptlman; ond on ]?am riptlman ic secge J)am riperum, 'GaderiaJ? aerest Jjone coccel, ond bindaj? sceafmaelum to forbasrnenne; ond gaderia}? tSone hwaete into minumberne.' " is geworden gelic, is likened. menu, dat. sing, of mann; see 167. 32 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR hine, the personal pronoun used reflexively. seowe, pret. ind. 2 person sing, of sawan. )>inum, masc. dat. sing, of \>ln. wilt, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of willan. ga, imp. 2 person plur. of bindan. to forbaernenne, to burn up, gerund of forbiernan, used to express purpose* CHAPTER VII DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 69. In Old English, as in all other Germanic languages, there are two declensions of the adjective, the strong and the weak. 70. Paradigm of the strong declension of the short-stemmed adjective sum, some: Sing. Masculine Feminine Neuter Endings Norn. sum sumu sum -u Gen. sumes sumre sumes -es -re -es Dat. sumum sumre sumum -urn -re -um Ace. sumne sume sum -ne -e Inst. sume sumre sume -e -re -e Plur. Norn., Ace. sume suma, sume sumu -e -a, -e -u Gen. sumra sumra sumra -ra -ra -ra Dat., Inst. sumum sumum sumum -um -um -um 71. Paradigm of the strong declension of the long-stemmed adjective god, good: Sing. Masculine Feminine Neuter Endings Norn. god god god Gen. godes godre godes -es -re -es Dat. godum godre godum -um -re -um Ace. godne g5de god -ne -e Inst. gode godre gode -e -re -e Plur. Nom., Ace. gode goda, gode god, gode -e -a, -e , -e Gen. gddra godra godra -ra -ra -ra Dat., Inst. godum godum godum -um -um -um 33 34 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 72. It will be observed that most of the endings are the same as those of the masculine and neuter a- declension and feminine 5- declension nouns. The endings printed in italics, however, belong to the pronoun declension; thus, sum-um, Masc. Neut. Dat. Sing., ends in -m like &em and him; sum-ne, Masc. Ace. Sing., has the same ending as tSone and hine; sum-re, Fern. Gen. Dat. Sing., has the same ending as flier e and hiere; sum-e, Masc. Nom. Ace. Plur., ends in a vowel like tJa and hie, not in -as like s tanas; sum-ra, Gen. Plur., has the same ending as <5ara and hiera. 73. The declension of the short-stemmed adjectives and of the long-stemmed adjectives is identical except in two forms. In the Fern. Nom. Sing, and the Neut. Nom. Ace. Plur. the short-stemmed adjective has the ending -u. The long-stemmed adjective, on the other hand, has no ending in the Fern. Nom. Sing., and often has none in the Neut. Nom. Ace. Plur. This difference is precisely parallel to that between limu and word, giefu and lar; see 48 and 55. 74. Dissyllabic Adjectives. Adjectives ending in -e, like grene, green, are declined like sum except that they have the ending -e wherever sum is without ending (see Reference Grammar 356). The inflected forms of dissyllabic adjectives ending in a consonant frequently lack the vowel which appears in the second syllable of the uninflected form; e.g., halig; holy, Gen. Sing, halges. Dissyllabic adjectives ending in a consonant sometimes have and sometimes do not have the ending -u in the Fern. Nom. Sing, and Neut. Nom. Ace. Plur. 75. Weak Declension. Paradigm of the weak declension of the adjective god, good: Sing. Masculine Feminine Neuter Endings Nom. goda gode gode -a -e -e Gen. godan godan godan -an -an -an DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 35 Dat. Ace. Inst. godan godan godan -an -an -an godan godan gode -an -an -e godan godan godan -an -an -an Plur. All Genders Nom., Ace. godan -an Gen. godena, godra -ena, -ra Dat., Inst. godum -urn 76. It will be observed that the endings of the weak adjec- tive declension are identical with those of the weak noun declen- sion except in the Gen. Plur., where the ending -ra, borrowed by analogy from the strong declension, is an alternative to the weak ending -ena. 77. The strong declension of the adjective is used in prose except under conditions that require the use of the weak declen- sion. The weak declension is used: (1) when the adjective is preceded by the definite article se or the demonstrative tJes, this; (2) when it is preceded by a possessive pronoun; (3) when it modifies a noun used in direct address; (4) regularly in the comparative degree; (5) frequently in the superlative degree; (6) often in poetry where the strong declension would be used in prose. READING Luke 15:11-19 78. S6(51ice sum monn hsefde twegen suna. ])a cwaeS se gingra to his faeder, "Faeder, sele me minne dael mmre aehte J?e me to gebyre]?." pa daelde he him his sehta. Da aefter feawum dagum call his )ring gegaderode se gingra sunu ond ferde wraeclice on feorlen rice ond forspilde J?aer his sehta, libbende on his gaelsan. 36 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR Da he hie hacfde ealle amierrede, ba wear's micel hunger on bam rice and he weartS wsedla. pa ferde he and folgode anum burhsittendum menn baes rices; (5a sende he hine to his tune baet he heolde his swin. Da gewilnode he his wambe gefyllan of bam beancoddum be <5a swin aeton, and him mon ne sealde. ))a bebohte he hine ond cwaetS, "Eala, hu fela hyrlinga on mines faeder huse hlaf genohne habbat5, ond ic her on hungre forweorSe! Ic arise ond ic fare to mlnum faeder and ic secge him, 'Eala faeder, ic syngode on heofonas and beforan J>e; nu ic ne com wiertJe |?aet ic beo }nn sunu nemned; do me swa anne of Jrinum hyrlingum.' ' suna, ace. plur. of sunu. &ingra, comparative of eong. faeder, gen. and dat. sing, of faeder. selc, imp. 2 person sing, of sellan. me, dat. sing, of ic. gebyreb, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of gebyrian. libbende, pres. participle of libban. amierrede, past participle of amierran, inflected like a strong adjective. folgode, note that this verb is followed by the dat., not the ace. burhsittendum, adjective having the form of a present participle. menn, dat. sing, of mann (monn). heolde, pret. subj. 3 person sing, of healdan. sealde, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of sellan. bebohte, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of bebencan. habbafl, pres. ind. 3 person plur. of habban. beo, pres. subj. 1 person sing, of beon. do, imp. 2 person sing, of don. CHAPTER VIII CHANGE OF a TO ae AND o ; 79. For the adequate understanding of many phenomena in Old English, especially of apparent "irregularities" in the inflection of the strong verbs, it is necessary for the student to become acquainted with a number of sound changes which occurred in the Prehistoric periods of the language. Altho for the explanation of these sound changes it is necessary for us to reconstruct words and forms as they must have existed centuries before Old English was written down, we may do so with confidence on the basis of a comparison of Old English with Gothic, Old Norse, Old Saxon, and Old High German, which often preserved without change sounds that were modi- fied or lost in Old English. 24 80. Change of a to ae. One of the earliest Old English sound changes was that of a to ae. a remained a only when it was followed by w or a nasal, or when it occurred before a single consonant followed by a, o, or u. 25 Elsewhere a became x. Thus Prehistoric OE *dag (cf. Gothic dags, Old Norse dagr, Old Saxon dag, Old High German tag) became d. But *dagas remained dagas, because the a was followed by a single consonant plus a. Likewise *daga remained daga, and *dagum remained dagum. 24 See Introduction, Old English and its Related Languages. 25 a always became ae before single h, however, even if followed by a, o, or u. 37 38 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR Further examples are as follows: *sat became set *faran remained faran "fast " faest *nacod " nacod *acr " tecer *sadol sadol "craft " crajft *hradum " hradum *dages " daeges *hwatu hwatu "hwafier " hwsefler *clawe " clawe 81. Change of a to o. When a was followed by nasal (m or n) it did not become ae, but either remained a or was changed to o. 26 In the EWS MSS o is decidedly more common before nasals than a; in the LWS MSS a is almost universal. Thus Prehistoric OE *handu (cf . Gothic handus, Old Saxon hand, Old High German hant) became EWS hond, LWS hand; Prehistoric OE *mann (cf . Gothic manna, Old Saxon, Old High German man) became EWS monn, LWS mann. 82. Exercise. Convert the following Prehistoric Old Eng- lish forms into the forms that would occur in the language of the year 900: *t5anc, *fastum, *bat, *lamb, *after, *standan, *glad, *babu, *and, *cradol, *fader, *swamm, *calan, *lang, *camp, *sacu, *hafoc, *anda, *fabm. 83. The demonstrative J>es, J>eos, Jris, this, is declined as follows: Sing. Masculine Feminine Neuter Nom. |>es |>eos Jris Gen. frisses, ]rises Jrisse )risses, Jrises Dat. bissum, Jrisum \>\sse \>hsum, J>isum Ace. bisne J>as (ris Inst. b>' s |)isse b>s Plur. All Genders Nom., Ace. |>as Gen. Jnssa Dat., Inst. b> ssurn - bisum * o which developed out of a followed by a nasal is often printed as o. by editors of OE texts, but the character Q does not occur in the MSS. CHANGE OF a TO AND ; fles 39 READING Luke 15:20-32 84. Ond he aras ba ond com to his faeder. And ba glet ba he wses feorr his faeder, he hine geseah ond wearS mid mild- heortnesse as tyred and ongean hine am ond hine beclypte ond cyste hine. Da cwae<5 his sunu, "Faeder, ic syngode on heofon ond beforan Se; nu ic ne eom wierbe baet ic bin sunu beo genem- ned." Da cwaeb se faeder to his beowum, "BringatJ hraeSe bone selestan gegierelan and scry daft hine, ond sella<5 him hring on his hand and gescie to his fotum; ond bringa<5 an fastt stierc and ofslea<5, ond uton etan and gewistfullian; for J?am J?es mm sunu waes dead, ond he geedcwicode; he forwearft, ond he is gemett." Da ongunnon hie gewistlsecan. Softlice his ieldra sunu waes on aecere; ond he com, and J?a he bam huse genealiehte, he gehierde bone sweg ond baet werod. J)a clipode he anne beow ond ascode hine hwaet baet waere. Da cwaeft he, "J)m broftor com; and bin faeder ofsloh an faett cealf, for bam be he hine halne onfeng." Da bealg he hine ond nolde in gan. J)a eode his faeder ut ond ongann hine biddan. Da cwaeb he his faeder andswariende, 'Efne swa fela geara ic be beowode, ond ic nsefre bin bebod ne forgiemde; and ne sealdest bu me naefre an ticcen baet ic mid mmum freondum gewistfullode; ac siSSan bes bin sunu com be his spede mid miltestrum amierde. bu ofsloge him fgett cealf." Da cwaeb he, "Sunu, bu eart simle mid me, ond ealle mine bing sint bine; be gebyrede gewistfullian ond geblissian, for bam bes bin broftor waes dead, ond he geedcwicode; h6 forwearS, and he is gemett." feeder, dat. sing, of faeder. geseah, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of geseon. arn, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of irnan. bringaS, imp. 2 person plur. of bringan. 40 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR scrydaS, imp. 2 person plur. of scrydan. sella (5, imp. 2 person plur. of sellan. ofslea'S, imp. 2 person plur. of ofslcan. uton, let us, used with the infinitive. icldra, comparative of eald. wsere, pret. subj. 3 person singular of wesan. andswariende, pres. participle of andswarian (ondswarian). sealdest, pret. ind. 2 person sing, of sellan. gewistfullode, pret. subj. 1 person sing, of gewistfullian. ofsloge, pret. ind. 2 person sing, of ofslean. CHAPTER IX BREAKING; ic AND Jm 85. Breaking. At an early period of Prehistoric Old Eng- lish, but subsequent to the change of a to #, the vowels ae, e, and i, when followed by certain consonants or consonant com- binations, underwent a sound change called breaking which converted them into diphthongs. Before: r plus a consonant 1 plus a consonant h (1) x (from older a) became ea (2) e eo (3) i io 27 e, and i, however, were broken before 1 only when the consonant following 1 was h ; otherwise the e and i remained unchanged, as in helpan, cild. For example: (1) *wserj> became wearp (2) *werpan became weorpan *h*lp " hcalp *selh " seolh *f*ht " feaht *fehtan " feohtan *s*h " seah *eh " feoh *slaehan " *sleahan *sehan " *seohan (3) *wirpip became *wiorpip "filhip " *fiolhip *sihip " *siohip 2 17 The h which caused breaking was a back consonant; the r and 1 were not the ordinary r and 1 but were pronounced with the tip of the tongue turned upwards and backwards ("inverted" r and 1). The nature of these consonants was such that there developed between them and a preceding ae, e, or i an inter- mediate vowel or "glide" which in the ninth century was written a or o but which originally had the quality of u. 18 The vowel i also was broken to Io, later eo, before h; e.g., *tihan became *tiohan and *tih became tioh. Likewise broke to ea before h: *nh became neah. 41 42 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 86. Exercise. Convert the following Prehistoric Old Eng- lish forms into the forms that would occur in the language of the year 900: *herte, *gefaeh, *haelf, *elh, *staerf, *seh, "maehte, *aeld, *er'5e, *maelt, *elh, *waehsan, *fsellan, *aerm, *bergan, *aehta. 87. Personal Pronouns. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, ic and l>u, are declined in three num- bers, singular, dual, and plural. The dual number is used only when the pronoun refers specifically to two persons; wit, it mean we two, ye two; unc, inc mean us two, you two. 88. Declension of ic, /; |>u, thou: Sing. Dual Nom. ic Jm Nom. wit * Gen. min J>m Gen. uncer incer Dat. me )>e Dat. unc inc Ace. mec, me )>ec, \>c Ace. uncit, unc inch, inc Plur. Nom. we & Gen. fire cower Dat. us eow Ace. usic, us cowic, eow 89. Possessive Pronouns. The possessive pronouns min, mine; \nn, thine; sin, his, her, its, their; uncer, of us two; incer, of you two; ure, our; and eower, your, are declined like strong adjectives (see Chapter VII). The genitives of the third personal pronoun, his, hiere, and hiera, are also used to indicate possession, but are of course not declined as adjectives. READING Matthew 25:1-12 90. ponne bij? heofona rice gelic j?am tien faemnum J?e ?5a leohtfatu namon ond ferdon ongean )?one brydgumah ond Jja bryde. Hira fif w^eron dysige and fif gleawe. Ac J?a fif BREAKING; ic AND Jm 43 dysigan namon leohtfatu ond ne namon nanne ele mid him; <5a gleawan namon ele on hira fatum mid bam leohtfatum. Da se brydguma ielde, ba hnappodon hie ealle and slepon. Witodllce to middre nihte man hrlemde ond cwaeb, "Nu se brydguma cym<5; faraS him togeanes." J)a arisen ealle ba faemnan ond glengdon heora leohtfatu. Da cwsedon ba dysigan to bam wTsum, "Sellaj? us of eowerum ele, for )?am uru leohtfatu sint acwencte." Da ondswarodon )>a gleawan and cwaedon, "Nese, \>& laes J?e we and ge naebben genoh; ga); to ]?am cTependum, ond bycgaS eow ele." Witodllce }>a hie ferdon and woldon bycgan, ]?a com se brydguma, ond )?a Se gearwe wseron eodon in mid him to j?am giftum, ond seo duru waes belocen. Da aet niehstan comon ba oSre faemnan and cwsedon, "Dryhten, Dryhten, laet us in." Da andswarode he heom ond cwaeS, "Sob ic eow secge, ne cann ic eow." namon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of niman. cym?J, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of cuman. acwencte, inflected form of past participle of acwencan. naebben, pres. subj. 2 person plur. of habban, contracted with the negative particle ne. gab, imp. 2 person plur. of gan. 5tJre; oSer is always inflected according to the strong declension. Ixt, imp. 2 person sing, of Ixtan. cann, pres. ind. 1 person sing, of cunnan. CHAPTER X DlPHTHONGISATION BY INITIAL PALATALS; hw5, 91. Influence of Initial Palatal Consonants. At a period of Prehistoric Old English which was later than the period of breaking, the vowels ae, a, and e, when preceded by the initial palatals^, 29 & 30 , or sc, underwent a sound change which con- verted them mtb diphlhongs. (1) ae became ea (2) * " ea (3) e " ie (LWS i or y) For example: (1) *caef became ceaf (2) *cce became ceace *scl " sceal *scp " sceap (3) *gefan became giefan *sceran " scicran 92. Exercise. Convert the following Prehistoric Old Eng- lish forms into the forms that would occur in the language of the year 900: *caester, *gaefon, *sceld, *forgetan, *scaer, *gjeton, *gaet, *geldan, *scaeft, *gaerd, *scseron. See 27, 28. 3U See 24, 25. 31 Between the initial palatal consonant and the vowel there developed an intermediate vowel or "glide" which united with the vowel to form a diphthong. This diphthong was originally accented on its second element, but subsequently the accent was shifted from the second element to the first. Thus *$efan first bscame gicfan, with the accent on the second element of the diphthong; then, with the shifting of the accent, giefan became gi'cfan. 44 DIPHTHONGISATION BY INITIAL PALATALS; hwa, hwaet 45 93. Declension of hwa, hwaet. The interrogative and indefinite pronoun hwa (who? someone), hwaet (what? some- thing) has forms only for the masculine and neuter singular. It is declined like se, fiaet: Sing. Masculine Neuter Nom. hwa hwaet Gen. hwies hwaes Dat. hwiem, hwam hwiem, hwam Ace. hwone hwaet Inst. hwy, hwon hwy, hwon READING Luke 16:19-31 94. Sum welig mann waes, ond he waes gescrydd mid pur- puran ond mid twine and daeghwamllce rlcellce gewistfullode. Ond sum wabdla waes, on naman Lazarus, se laeg on his dura, swiSe forwundod. and wilnode J?aet he hine of his crumum gefylde \>e of his beode feollon; ond him nan monn ne sealde, ac hundas comon and his wunda liccodon. Da waes geworden )?aet se wsedla fort5ferde, ond hine englas bseron on Abrahames greadan; Jja wearS se weliga dead and waes on helle bebyrged. Da ahof he his eagan up, J?a he on )?am tintregum waes, ond geseah feorran Abraham, ond Laza- rum on his greadan. Da hrlemde he and cwaeS, "Eala faeder Abraham, gemiltsa me, ond send Lazarum ]?aet he dyppe his fingres li<5 on waetere ond mine tungan gecele; for )?am )?e ic com on Jrissum liege cwielmed." Da cwaetS Abraham, "Eala sunu, gej?enc |?aet )?u god onfenge on ))Inum life, ond gellce Lazarus onfeng yfel; nu is J?es gefre- fred, ond )?u eart cwielmed. And on eallum )?issum, betweox us ond eow is micel dwolma getrymed; )?a Se willaS heonon to eow faran ne magon, ne ]?anon faran hider." Da cwaeS he, "Facder, id bidde ]?e J?aet Su sende hine to mines faeder huse; ic haebbe flf gebro))ru; }>aet he cySe him 46 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR )>aet hie ne cumen on bissa tintrega stowe." ])a saegde Abraham him, "Hie habbaS Moysen and witegan; hie hlysten him." Da cwaetS he, "Nese, faeder Abraham, ac hie dot5 daedbote gif hwelc of deatSe to him faertS." Da cwae<5 he, "Gif hie ne gehlerab Moysen ond ba witegan, ne hie ne gellefatS bgah hwelc of dea<5e arise." dura, dat. sing, of dura, gefylde, pret. subj. 3 person sing, of gefyllan. wes gewordcn, happened; see geweorcSan. gemiltsa, imp. 2 person sing, of gemiltsian. send, imp. 2 person sing, of sendan. dyppe, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of dyppan. gecele, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of gecelan. ge})enc, imp. 2 person sing, of gej)encan. onfenge, pret. ind. 2 person sing, of onion, magon, pres. ind. 3 person plur. of raagan. sende, pres. subj. 2 person sing, of sendan. haebbe, pres. ind. 1 person sing, of habban. cyfle, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of cytSan. cumen, pres. subj. 3 person plur. of cuman. hlysten, pres. subj. 3 person plur. of hlystan. dot!, pies. ind. 3 person plur. of don. feerft, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of faran. arise, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of arisen. CHAPTER XI STRONG VERBS: CLASSES I AND II . 95. Strong Verbs. Strong verbs form their 'preterit and past participle by means of a change in the vowel of the stem. This change is called ablaut (or gradation) and these verbs are frequently called ablaut verbs. In Old English, as in the other old Germanic languages, there are seven classes of strong verbs (frequently called ablaut series), each class being char- acterised by a distinct series of ablaut changes. 96. Class I. The OE ablaut of Class I is: i (infinitive and present) a (preterit indicative 1 and 3 singular) i (preterit indicative plural) I (past participle) The principal parts (see 57) of representative verbs of this class are as follows: bidan, await bad bidon biden bitan, bite bat biton biten glidan, glide glad glldon gliden ridan, ride rad ridon riden risan, rise ras rison risen snitfan, cut snatS snidon sniden" writan, write wrat writon writen 32 The interchange between t! in the present and preterit singular and d in the preterit plural and past participle which occurs in this verb is called grammatical change according to Verner's law. In its origin it was a Primitive Gmc change, under certain conditions, of the voiceless spirants' (see 2, 3) th (as in thin), s (as in soon), and h (as in OE seah) into the corresponding voiced spirants th (as in then) z, and g (as in OE dagas). The correspondence between these voiceless and voiced sounds is obscured, however, in OE by the fact 47 48 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 97. Class II. The OE ablaut of Class II is: eo (u); ea; n; o. The principal parts of representative verbs are as follows: (a) beodan, command bead budon boden cleofan, cleave cleaf clufon clofen dreogan, endure dreag drugon drogen fleogan, ./Zy fleag flugon flogen (b) brucan, enjoy brcac brucon brocen bugan, bow beag bugon bogen (c) ceosan, choose ceas curon coren 33 frcosan, /reeze frcas fruron froren 33 98. The full conjugation of the strong verb, exemplified by bid an and beodan, is as follows: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 bide beode 2 bitst," bidest bietst," beodest 3 bitt, M bideb biett. M beodeb Plur. 1, 2, 3 bidab beodab Preterit Sing. 1 bid bead 2 bide bade 3 bad bead Plur. 1,2,3 bidon budon SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 bide beode Plur. 1, 2, 3 biden beoden Preterit Sing. 1,2,3 bide bude Plur. 1, 2, 3 biden buden that in West Germanic the voiced th and x were changed respectively to d and r. In OE, therefore, the actual interchange is between J> and d, s and r, h and g. In OE of the year 900 the b or 8 was a voiced sound when it occurred between vowels, as in sniban and risan; it was a voiceless sound when it was final, as in snatf and ras. M Observe the grammatical change in this verb, and see the preceding note. ** For an explanation of these syncopated forms (as they are called) see Chapter XVI. STRONG VERBS: CLASSES I AND II 49 IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 bid beod Plur. 2 bidal> beoda|> Infinitive bidan beodan Gerund to bidenne t5 beodenne Present Participle bidende beodende Past Participle biden boden 99. With regard to the conjugation of the strong verbs it should be observed: (1) That the present indicative, present subjunctive, impera- tive, infinitive, gerund, and present participle are formed from the present stem of the verb; (2) That the preterit indicative 2 singular, preterit indica- tive plural, and preterit subjunctive are formed from the preterit plural stem of the verb; (3) That the endings of the subjunctive, both present and preterit, are -e in the singular and -en in the plural. READING Luke 10:30-35 100. Sum mann ferde fram Hierusalem to Hiericho ond becom on ba seaman, ba hine bereafodon and tintregodon hine ond forleton hine samcwicne. pa gebyrede hit baet sum sacerd ferde on bam ilcan wege; and ba he baet geseah, he hine forbeag. Ond call swa se diacon, ba he waes wiS ba stowe ond baet geseah, he hine eac forbeag. Da ferde sum Samaritanisc monn wi(5 hine; ba he hine geseah, ba wear<5 he mid mildheort- nesse ofer hine astyred. pa genealaehte he ond wra5 his wunda ond on ageat ele and win ond hine on his nleten sette and gelaedde on his laecehus and hine lacnode; ond brohte 6?5rum daege twegen peningas and sealde bam laece ond bus cwaeS, "Beglem his; ond swa hwaet swa bQ mare to gedest, bonne ic cume, ic hit forgielde be." otirum dffijje, the next day. be&iem, imp. 2 person sing, of begieman, used with gen. of object. gedest, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of ^edon. CHAPTER XII STRONG VERBS: CLASS III 101. Strong verbs of Class III have stems ending in two consonants, of which the first is nearly always a liquid (1 or r) or a nasal (m or n). They fall into four subclasses: (1) Verbs with stems ending in a nasal plus a consonant: * bindan, bind band (bond) bundon bunden drincan, drink dranc (drone) druncon drunccn (2) Verbs with stems ending in 1 plus a consonant: helpan, help healp hulpon holpen meltan, melt mealt multon molten gieldan, yield geald guidon golden giellan, yell geall gullon gollen (3) Verbs with stems ending in r or h plus a consonant: weorpan, throw wearp wurpon worpen weorban, become wearp wurdon worden 35 ieohtan, fight feaht fuhton fohten (4) Verbs with stems ending in two consonants, of which neither is a liquid or nasal: bregdan, brandish bregd brugdon brogden 102. In Primitive Germanic all of these verbs had originally the same ablaut: e in the infinitive and present, a in the preterit singular, u in the preterit plural, and u in the past participle. The regularity of this ablaut was subsequently broken up, however, by sound changes, some of which took place in Ger- n Observe the grammatical change hi this verb, and compare note 32 above. 50 STRONG VERBS: CLASS III 51 manic itself and some in Old English. An understanding of these sound changes enables one to bring order out of the apparent irregularity of the Old English forms. bindan and drincan were Primitive Gmc *bendanan and *drencanan, but Primitive Gmc e followed by a nasal plus another consonant or by a double nasal became i. gieldan and giellan were Prehistoric OE *geldan and *gellan, but e was diphthongised to ie in Prehistoric OE because it was preceded by the initial palatal (see 91). weorpan, weor pan, and f eohtan were Prehistoric OE *werpan, *werl>an, and *fehtan, but e followed by r plus a con- sonant or by h was broken to eo (see 85), bond, drone, geald, geall, healp, mealt, wearp, wearp, feaht, and bra?gd were Prehistoric OE *band, *dranc, *gald, *gall, *halp, *malt, *warp, *warp, *faht, and *bragd. But (1) In *band and *dranc the original a became o before the nasal n, giving EWS bond, drone, LWS band, dranc (see 81). (2) In *gald, *gall, *halp, *malt, *warp, *warp, and *faht the original a became ae (see 80), which was then broken to ea (see 85). (3) In *bragd the original a became ae and then remained unchanged, no cause of breaking being present. bund en, d rune en, gollen, holpen, etc., were Primitive Gmc *bundanaz, "druncanaz, "gullanaz, *hulpanaz, etc. But when the following syllable con- tained the vowel a, Primitive Gmc u always changed to o, unless, as in *bun- danaz and *druncanaz, the u was followed by a nasal plus a consonant. The original u, therefore, remains in bunden and druncen, but has been changed to o in gollen, holpen, etc. 103. Exercise. Construct the principal parts of the follow- ing strong verbs: findan, swellan, sweltan, beorgan, hweorfan, stregdan. 52 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR READING Mark 12:1-9 104. Sum monn him plantode wlngeard and betynde hine ond dealf anne seat5 ond getimbrode anne stlepel ond gesette hine mid eortStilium and ferde on etyeodignesse. pa sende he to Jjam tilium his )?eow on tide )>aet he )>aes wlngeardes waestm onfenge. Da swungon hie J?one ond forleton hine Idelhendne. And eft he him sende oSerne J?eow, and hie Jjone on heafde gewundodon ond mid teonum geswencton. Ond eft he him sumne sende, ond hie Jjone ofslogon. ))a haefde he )?a giet anne leofostne sunu; )?a sende he set mehstan him )>one ond cwaet5, "Witodllce mmne sunu hie for- wandiat5." Da cwaedon ]?a tilian him betweonan, "Her is se ierfenuma; uton ofslean hine, }?onne bi(5 uru seo ierfeweardness." Hie J?a ofslogon hine and wurpon witSutan ]?one wlngeard. Hwaet de?J )?aes wmgeardes hlaford? He cymt) ond fordeo" |ja tilian and seletJ o)?rum Jjone wlngeard. onfenge, pret. subj. 3 person sing, of onfon. leofostne, masc. ace. sing, of leofost, superlative of leof. detJ, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of don. cym'5, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of cuman. sele'5, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of sellan. CHAPTER XIII STRONG VERBS: CLASSES IV AND V 105. Strong verbs of Class IV have stems ending in a single consonant, nearly always a liquid (1 or r) or a nasal. The Old English ablaut is: e, ae, ae, o. 38 Representative verbs are: beran, bear bar bitron boren cwelan, die cwa;l cwailon cwolen helan, conceal httl hiclon holen stelan, steal stael sbelon stolen teran, tear tier tieron toren In one verb: brecan, break braec brtecon brocen the stem ends in a consonant which is neither a liquid nora nasal. In one verb: scieran, shear scear scearon scoren the e of the infinitive, the ae of the preterit indicative 1 and 3 singular, and the ae of the preterit indicative plural have been dipthongised respectively to ie, ea, and ea by the initial palatal sc (see 91). 106. Two verbs of Class IV are irregular: cuman, come com (cwom) comon (cwomon) cumen niman, take nam (nom) noraon (namon) numen 107. Strong verbs of Class V have stems ending in a single consonant which is neither a liquid nor a nasal. The Old English ablaut is: e, ae, ae, e, which, it should be observed, is 84 Since the of the preterit singular came from earlier a, the original ablaut of Class IV was the same in the present and preterit singular as that of Class III; see 102. 53 54 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR the same as that of Class IV except in the past participle. Representative verbs are: metan, measure ItliCt nueton meten sprecan, speak spree spnecon sprecen tredan, tread trsed tnedon treden ewe (Jan, say cwaep cw&don cweden 37 In two verbs: giefan, give geaf geafon giefen gietan, get gcat geaton gieten the e of the infinitive and past participle, the x of the preterit indicative 1 and 3 singular, and the *e of the preterit indicative plural have been diphthongised respectively to ie, ea, and ea by the initial palatal (see 91). READING Matthew 18:23-34 108. For }>am is heofona rice anllc bam cyninge be his beowas geradegode. Ond ba he baet gerad sette, him waes an broht se him sceolde tlen Jrusend punda. And J>a he naefde hwanon he hit agulde, hine het his hlaford gesellan, ond his wlf ond his cild ond eall }>aet he ahte. pa astreahte se J)eow hine and cwaeS, "Hlaford, gehafa gej?yld on me, and ic hit \>e eall agielde." J)a gemiltsode se hlaford him ond forgeaf him )>one gylt. ))a se J?eowa ut code, he gemette his efen)?eowan se him sceolde an hund peninga; ond he nam hine J?a and for}?rysmode hine ond cwae?5, "Agief )?aet )>u me scealt." And ]?, astreahte his efen)?eowa hine ond baed hine ond )?us cwaet5, "Gejjyldiga, ond ic hit J?e eall agiefe." He ?5a nolde; ac ferde ond wearp hine on cweartern, oS tSset he him eall ageafe. * 7 Observe the grammatical change in this verb, and compare note 32 above. STRONG VERBS: CLASSES IV AND V 55 Da gesawon his efenbeowas baet, Sa wurdon hie swi<5e geunrotsode ond comon and saegdon hira hlaforde ealle Ipa, daede. Da clipode his hlaford hine and cwae]? to him, "Eala J?u lybra beowa, ealne Jnnne gylt id Se forgeaf, for ]?am J?e Su me baede; hu ne gebyrede J?e gemiltsian ))inum efenSeowan, swa swa ic ]?e gemiltsode?" Da waes se hlaford ierre, ond sealde hine ]?am wltnerum, oS j?aet he call agulde. Swa de}? mm se heofonllca Fseder gif ge of eowerum heortum eowerum broSrum ne forgiefaj?. naefde, contraction of ne haefde. gehafa, imp. 2 person sing, of gehabban. gemiltsode, note that this verb is followed by the dat, not the ace. scealt, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of sculan. gebyldiga, imp. 2 person sing, of gebyldigian. nolde, contraction of ne wolde. ^ gesawon, pret. ind. 3 person plur. of geseon. CHAPTER XIV STRONG VERBS: CLASSES VI AND VII 109. Strong Verbs: Class VI. The Old English ablaut of strong verbs of Class VI is: a, 5, 6, a. Representative verbs of this class are: faran, go for f oron f aren 38 galan, sing gol golon galen standan stdd stodon standen (stondan), stand (stonden) 110. Strong Verbs: Class VII. The seventh class of strong verbs, frequently called the reduplicating verbs, is different in character from the other classes. The preterit is formed by means of ablaut or vowel change, but the ablaut has no such uniformity as we have found in Classes I, II, and VI. Nor are the variations of the kind that exist in Classes III, IV, and V. In those classes the uniformity of the original ablaut has been somewhat obscured by the influence of nasals and initial palatals and by breaking, but when these sound changes are understood the original uniformity of the ablaut is still recognis- able. No such uniformity of ablaut can be made out in Class VII. The present and past participle of these verbs have as their stem vowel a (or o) followed by a nasal, a, ae, e, ea, ea, or 6, and the preterit has either e or eo. They are most con- veniently classified according to their preterit. 88 In the past participle of these verbs we sometimes find as the stem vowel, but more often a. The forms with are phonetically the regular forms (see 80 and 401, 408, with footnotes) ; the forms with a are due to the analogy of the infinitive and other present forms of the verb which regularly had a as their stem vowel. 56 STRONG VERBS: CLASSES VI AND VII 57 111. Verbs with e in Preterit. Representative verbs with e in the preterit are: hatan, call bet heton haten 39 Ixtan, let let leton la-ten redan, counsel red redon rieden shepan, sleep slep slepon shcpen 112. Verbs with eo in Preterit. Representative verbs with eo in the preterit are: gangan (gongan), go geong geongon gangen (gongen) cnawan, know cneow cneowon cnawen sawan, sow seow seowon sawen feallan,/a// feoll feollon feallen healdan, hold heold heoldon healden beatan, beat beot beoton beaten heawan, hew heow beowon beawen , flow fleow fleowon flowen 113. It is important to observe that in the verbs of Class VII (as in those of Class VI) the vowel of the preterit plural is the same as that of the preterit singular, and that (as in Classes V and VI) the vowel of the past participle is the same as that of the infinitive. 114. In many grammars all of these verbs are called "redup- licating verbs" because in Gothic the verbs of this class have preterits which prefix to the root a reduplicating syllable, con- sisting of the initial consonant plus the sound of e (spelled in Gothic ai): slepan, sai-slep; letan, lai-lot. 40 In all the other 89 To this verb belong the only traces hi Old English of the original Ger- manic passive voice; hatte (is called or was called) corresponds to the Gothic present indicative third person singular passive haitada. The plural of hatte is hatton. 40 Reduplication was an important method of tense formation hi the older Indo-European languages. In Greek and Sanskrit the perfect was almost always a reduplicating tense. In Latin many verbs retain reduplication in their perfect. Thus Latin dare, canere, and cadere have as their perfects dedi, cecini, and cecidi. 58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR Germanic languages except Gothic, however, this reduplicating preterit has almost completely disappeared, leaving only a few traces; e.g., in Old English, chiefly in poetry, occur occasionally: heht, preterit singular of hatan, beside regular het reord, " " " r&dan, " " red leolc, " " " lacan " " lee The usual preterit of these so-called reduplicating verbs in Old English (as in Old Norse, Old Saxon, and Old High Ger- man) is an ablaut tense form. READING Appollonius of Tyre 115. The preceding part of this story tells how Apollonius, the Prince of Tyre, leaves his own land because of the enmity of Antiochus, king of Antioch, and takes refuge in Tarsus. When he leaves Tarsus to seek another place of refuge, his ship is wrecked and Apollonius is the only man whose life is saved. He is carried naked to land, where he meets a fisherman who gives him some clothing. Going to the neighboring city of Pentapolis, he makes the acquaintance of King Arcestrates at the bath and impresses the king so favorably that Arces- trates afterwards sends a messenger to invite him to his banquet. It is at this point that our selection begins. Da Apollonius baet gehierde, he bam gehlersumode and code fort) mid bam menn, oS baet he becom to <5aes cyninges healle. Da code se mann in beforan to Sam cyninge and cwaeS, "Se forlidena monn is cumen, be Su aefter sendest, ac he ne maeg for scame in gan buton scrude." Da het se cyning hine sona gescrydan mid weorSfullum scrude ond het hine in gan to Ssem gereorde. Da code Apollonius in and gesa't baer him getaht waes ongean Sone cyning. Daer wear'5 Sa seo begnung in geboren ond aefter ])&m cynelic gebeorscipe; ond Apollonius nan Sing ne aet, <5eah Se ealle oSre menn seton and bllSe waeron. Ac he beheold baet gold ond bact seolfor ond Sa deorwierSan reaf ond ba beodas and <5a. cynelican begnunga. Da <5a he bis eall mid sarnesse beheold, Sa saet sum eald ond sum aefestig STRONG VERBS: CLASSES VI AND VII 59 ealdormann be J?am cyninge. Mid \>y J>e he geseah )?aet Apol- lonius swa sarlice saet ond eall )nng beheold ond nan Sing ne set, <5a cwae<5 he to '5am cyninge, "Bu goda cyning, efne )?es monn, J?e )?u swa wel wi'S gedest, he is swlSe aefestful for Smum gode." Da cwa^S se cyning, "pe mis^yncS; sotJllce J?es geonga mann ne aefesta'o' on nanum Singum Se he her gesiehS, ac he cySS Jjaet he haefS fela forloren." getaht, past part, of get;ecan. t, pret. ind. 3 person sing, of etan, Class V; note the irregularity of the ablaut. misj>yncl>, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of misjjyncan. gesieht$, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of geseon. J, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of cy"San. CHAPTER XV GEMINATION AND UMLAUT 116. In order that the student may have an adequate understanding of the inflection of the first class of weak verbs it is necessary that he shall become acquainted with two sound changes known as gemination and i-umlaut. The first of these sound changes, gemination, was not an Old English sound change, but took place during the period when Old English had not yet become distinguished from the other languages of the West Germanic group. 41 That is, it was a West Germanic sound change. The second of them, i-umlaut, took place in Old English itself, at a period later than the change of a to a, breaking, and diphthongisation by initial palatals. 117. Gemination. In the West Germanic period, a^ single consonant^j(excer>t r) preceded by a short vowel was geminated (or doubled) by a following j. Thus: Gmc *satjan (cf. Gothic satjan) became WGmc *sattjan (cf. Old Saxon settlan). Gmc "bitJjan 42 (cf. Gothic bidjan) became WGmc *biddjan (cf. Old Saxon biddian). Gmc *lagjan (cf. Gothic lagjan) became WGmc *laggjan (cf. Old Saxon leggian). 41 See Introduction, Old English and its Related Languages. 42 The character fi represents the sound of th as in then; this Gmc sound became d in West Germanic. 60 GEMINATION AND UMLAUT 61 118. Exercise. Give the West Germanic forms of the following Germanic words: 1. *hlahjan 7. *domjan 13. *dunjan 2. *skapjan 8. *bandjan 14. *cwaljan 3. *framjan 9. *brugjum 15. *latjan 4. *ligjan 10. *tunjan 16. *gramjan 5. *skaf>jan 11. *farjan 17. *swarjan 6. *saljan 12. *stapjan 18. *trumjan 119. i-Umlaut. One of the most important sound changes that took place in Old English was i-umlaut. Umlaut in general is a change produced in a vowel sound by some other sound which follows it; i-umlaut was a change produced in a vowel or diphthong by an i, I, or j in the following syllable. The changes which took place in Old English as the result of i-umlaut are shown, with illustrations, in the following table: a (o) before nasals became e 43 as in menn from Prehistoric OE *manni a became ;e, as in Juelan from Prehistoric OE *haljan. ae became e, 44 as in ege from Prehistoric OE *gi. e 45 became i as in sittan from Primitive Gmc *setjanan. o 4 * became e as in dehter from Prehistoric OE *dohtri. 43 As to the interchange between a and o see 81. In the earliest texts we find ae as the umlaut of a (o) before nasals; in the later texts the umlaut is e. 44 Before two consonants, however, as in faestan from Prehistoric OE *faestjan, ae usually remained unchanged. Before geminated consonants the umlaut of x is e. 46 The change of e to i was not a part of the OE umlaut but a Primitive < jGmc change which preceded that by several centuries. It appears in the! I early stage of all Gmc languages. 46 The apparent umlaut of o to y in such words as gylden beside gold is really an umlaut of u to y. A long tune before the period of i-umlaut these words were *gul; the e of *werpip, however, was umlauted to i in Primitive Gmc itself (see note 45 above), so that the Pre- historic OE forms were *werpan and *wirpip. The e of *werpan was broken to eo in OE and the i of *wirpip was broken to io (see 85), giving weorpan and *wiorpip. Then in the period of OE umlaut *wiorpip became *wierpip, later wierpp. 48 The apparent umlaut of eo to ie which appears, e.g., in cliefp, pres. ind. 3 sing, of cleofan, is really an umlaut of io to ie. In Primitive Gmc cleofan was *cleufanan and cliefp was *cleufip. But the diphthong eu was umlauted to iu in Primitive Gmc whenever it was followed in the next syllable by i, i, or j, so that *cleufip became *cliufip. In OE these diphthongs developed respectively into eo and io, so that the Prehistoric OE forms were *cleofan and *cliofip. Then in the period of OE umlaut *cliofip became *cliefip, later cliefp. GEMINATION AND UMLAUT 63 121. Exercise. Convert the following Prehistoric Old English forms into the forms that would occur in the language of the year 900, being careful to observe that after causing umlaut (1) Medial j disappeared after all consonants except single r preceded by a short vowel or short diphthong; when retained it is written i. (2) Final i disappeared after a long syllable (cf. 48), but was retained after a short syllable. (3) Unstressed i, whether final or interior, became e unless it was followed by a palatal consonant. 1. *nserjan 12. *wealmi ov-fc*-^ 23. *bandjan 2. *morgin 13. *wullin 24. *dali 3. *larjan 14. *socjan 25. *liohtjan 4. *hwearfjan 15. *fusjan 26. *flasci 5. *boci 16. *huldi 2*~/^ 27. *wurmi \A 6. *fiorrjan 17. *staedi c-^juj^ 28. *cuj?jan 7. *sandjan 18. *ealdista 29. *sleahti 8. *rarjan 19. *saettjan 30. *hugi 9. "ladjan 20. *heti 1 31. *haerjan 10. *brudi 21. *eacjan utCt*/ w 32. *frammjan 11. *slasgi 22. *softi 122. When we consider these changes in the light of the explanation given in Chapter I of the manner in which the various vowel sounds are produced (see 7-13), we see that the changes that result from umlaut are not arbitrary changes, but proceed upon a common principle. The vowels i and i are high front vowels, produced with the front of the tongue close to the roof of the mouth, and j is a consonantal variety of the same sound. Now the changes produced by i-umlaut all result in assimilating the umlauted vowel or diphthong more closely to the high front vowels i, I. The back vowels a, o, 6, u, u become the corresponding front vowels a, e, e, y, 64 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR and yV'* The front vowels assimilate more closely to the i position by being pronounced with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, ae being raised to e and e being raised to i. READING Appolonius of Tyre 123. Da beseah Arcestrates se cyning blltSe andwlitan to Apollonio ond cwaetS, "Du geonga monn, beo blitSe mid us and gehyht on God baet bu mote self to tSam selranbecuman." Mid by fte se cyning bas word gecwae<5, t5a faeringa baer code in <5aes cyninges geong dohtor ond cyste hire f aeder ond t5a ymbsittendan. J)a heo becom to Apollonio, ba gewende heo ongean to hire faeder and cwaetS, "Du gdda cyning ond mm se leofosta f aeder, hwaet is )?es geonga mann ]>e ongean tSe on swa weorSlIcum setle sitt mid sarllcum ondwlitan? Nat ic hwaet he besorgat5." Da cwaet5 se cyning, "Leofe dohtor, }>es geonga monn is forliden, ond he gecwemde me manna betst on tSaem plegan; for Sam ic hine gelatJode to ?5isum urum gebeorscipe. Nat ic hwaet he is ng hwanon he is; ac gif tSu wille witan hwaet he sle, asca hine, for (5am ]>e gedafenaS J>aet }>u wite. beo, imp. 2 person sing, of beon. gehyht, imp. 2 person sing, of gehytan. sitt, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of sittan. nit, contraction of ne wit. wille, pres. subj. 2 person sing, of willan. sle, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of beon. asca, imp. 2 person sing, of ascian. wite, pres. subj. 2 person sing, of witan. 49 The round vowels o and 6 were unrounded, but u and u retained their rounding, being changed from back round to front round vowels; see 12, 13, and also 251 with footnotes 36 and 37. CHAPTER XVI SYNCOPATED PRESENT FORMS or STRONG VERBS COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 124. It was stated in a preceding chapter (see 67) that the present indicative second and third persons singular of strong verbs are formed by adding to the present stem of the verb the endings -est and -e\>. Thus the second and third persons singular of cuman and brecan would be cumest, cume}> and brecest, brecej*. These forms occur to a limited extent in the West-Saxon dialect and are the prevailing forms in the Anglian dialect. The prevailing forms in the West-Saxon dialect, however, are not cumest, cumeb and brecest, brecefr, but cymst, cymj> and bricst, bricfr. That is, the vowel of the stem is umlauted in the second and third persons singular of the present indicative, and the vowel of the ending is syncopated. 60 These forms of the verb have umlaut because the endings in Prehistoric Old English were *-is and *-i]>. 125. In verbs whose stems end in d, J>, or s, assimilation takes place when the vowel of the ending -est is syncopated. Thus, d followed by st becomes tst, as in bitst from bidan ; J> followed by st becomes tst or st as in snitst from snlftan, cwist from ewe flan ; 8 followed by st becomes st as in ciest from ceosan. 40 Syncopation (or syncope) is the loss of a vowel between two consonants. The unsyncopated forms of the Pres. Ind. 2 and 3 Sing, are usually without umlaut, and the syncopated forms nearly always have umlaut, but it must not be supposed that the syncopation was the cause of the umlaut. The forms without umlaut were later formations made on the analogy of the plural and the first person singular, which had no umlaut. 65 66 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR In verbs whose stems end in d, t, J>, or s, assimilation takes place when the vowel of the ending -e\> is syncopated. Thus, d followed by J> becomes tt (or t) as in bitt (bit) from bidan ; t followed by J> becomes tt (or t) as in writt (writ) from writan ; J> followed by J> becomes J>J> (or J>) as in cwij>l> (cwij>) from cwetfan; s followed by J> becomes st as in ciest from ceosan. Double consonants are simplified when the ending that follows them is syncopated, as in fielj> from feallan. 126. Exercise. Construct the West-Saxon forms of the present indicative second and third persons singular of the following strong verbs: etan, brucan, drincan, helpan, weor- pan, 61 beran, weorSan, 61 gongan, beodan, 62 cnawan, healdan, flowan, rlsan, ceosan, 62 sprecan. 127. Comparison of Adjectives. The comparative degree of adjectives is formed in Old English by adding to the stem -ra; 63 the superlative is formed by adding -ost. For example: glted, glad gbedra, gladder gladost, gladdest heard, hard heardra heardost leof, dear leofra leofost rice, powerful ricra ricost The comparative is always declined weak; the superlative may be declined either weak or strong; see 77. 128. Some adjectives, which had in Prehistoric Old English the comparative and superlative endings *-ira and *-ist, have umlaut in the comparative and superlative; these adjectives M See note 47 above. M See note 48 above. M -ra for the masculine nominative singular, -re for the feminine and neuter nominative singular. SYNCOPATED PRESENT FORMS OF STRONG VERBS 67 have the ending -est in the superlative. Those adjectives which are without umlaut had the endings -ora and -ost in Prehistoric Old English. Examples of adjectives that have umlaut in the comparative and superlative are: eald, old ieldra ieldest lang (long), long lengra longest strang (strong), strong strengra strongest With -st in the superlative: heah, high hiehra, hierra hiehst For further details in regard to the comparison of adjectives see the Reference Grammar (364-366). 129. Comparison of Adverbs. Adverbs that admit of comparison usually end in e and form their comparative and superlative by adding to the stem -or and -ost. For example: georne, eagerly geornor geornost leoflice, lovingly Icoflicor leoflicost For further details in regard to the comparison and formation of adverbs see the Reference Grammar (378). READING Apollonius of Tyre 130. Da code J?aet maegden to Apollonio ond mid forwan- diendre sprsece cwae<5, "Deah t5u stille sie and unrot, J?eah ic Jnne aeSelborennesse on <5e geseo. Nu J?onne, gif ?5e to hefig ne J?ynce, sege me Jnnne noman, ond ]>ln gelimp arece me." Da cwaeS Apollonius, "Gif <5u for neode ascast sefter mmum naman, ic secge ]?e, ic hine forleas on sse; gif ?5u wilt mine aeSelborennesse witan, wite Su J?aet ic hie forlet on Tharsum." Daet maegden cwasb", "Sege me gewislicor, J?aet ic hit masge understandan." Apollonius J?a soSlIce hire areahte call his gelimp ond set J?aere spraece ende him feollon tearas of Saem eagum. Mid J?y ]?e se cyning J?ast geseah, he bewende hine 68 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR Sa t5 Caere dohtor ond cwae<5, "Leofe dohtor, bu gesyngodest; mid by be ba woldest witan his naman and his gelimp, ba hafast nu geedmwod his ealde sar. Ac ic bidde )?e J>aet |>u giefe him swa hwaet swa Su wille." forwandiendre, pres. participle of forwandian. sie, pres. subj. 2 person sing, of beon. Jjynce, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of J>yncan. se&e, imp. 2 person sing, of secgan. arece, imp. 2 person sing, of areccan. wite, imp. 2 person sing, of witan. nuege, pres. subj. 1 person sing, of magan hafast, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of habban CHAPTER XVII WEAK VERBS: CLASS I 131. Weak Verbs (see 49, 50). There are three classes of weak verbs in Old English. In verbs of Class I the infinitive ends in -an (but -ian when the stem of the verb ends in single r preceded by a short vowel or short diphthong); the preterit indicative first person singular ends in -ede, -de, or -te; the past participle ends in -ed, -d, or -t. 132. Most weak verbs are derived from nouns, from adjec- tives, or from strong verbs. The relation of weak verbs to the nouns, adjectives, and strong verbs from which they are derived may be illustrated by some examples of weak verbs of Class I. (1) From nouns are derived: deman, judge, from Gmc *dom-jan (cf . OE dom, judgment) cemban, comb, from Gmc *kamb-jan (cf. OE camb, comb) wemman, defile, from Gmc *wamm-jan (cf. OE wamm, stain) ferian, carry, from Gmc *far-jan (cf. OE faer, journey). (2) From adjectives are derived: giernan, desire, from Gmc *gern-jan (cf. OE georn, desirous) scierpan, sharpen, from Gmc *skarp-jan (cf. OE scearp, sharp) trymman, strengthen, from Gmc *tnun-jan (cf. OE trum, strong) tyHan,fill, from Gmc *full-jan (cf. OE tail, full). (3) From strong verbs are derived: wendan, turn, from Gmc *wand-jan (cf . OE wand, pret. of windan, wind) drencan, cause to drink, from Gmc *drank-jan (cf. OE dranc, pret. of drincan, drink). feran, go, from Gmc *or-jan (cf. OE for, pret. of faran, go) settan, set, from Gmc *sat-jan (cf . OE st, pret. of sittan, sit) 69 70 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR It will be observed that the stems of some of these verbs (deman, cemban, wemman, giernan, scierpan, fyllan, wendan, drencan, and feran) were already long in Germanic. The stems of others (ferian, trymman, and settan) were originally short in Germanic. But the stems of trymman and settan were long in Primitive OE because the final consonants m and t were geminated or doubled (see 117) before the j which followed them, Germanic *trum-jan and *sat-jan becoming West Ger- manic *trumm-jan and *satt-jan, which later developed into Old English trymman and settan (see 119-121). The originally short stem of ferian, however, remained short in Old English because the consonant r was not subject to gemination. 133. It has been said that the weak verbs of Class I have as the ending of the preterit indicative first person singular either -ede or -de, -te. In order to determine whether the ending of a verb is -ede on the one hand or -de, -te on the other, we must know whether the stem of the verb was ori- ginally short or originally long. The verbs whose stems were originally short may be recognised from the fact that their stems in Old English contain a short vowel or short diphthong followed by a geminated consonant or r. The verbs whose stems were originally long may be recognised from the fact that their stems in Old English contain either (1) a long vowel or long diphthong or (2) a short vowel or short diphthong followed by two consonants or a double consonant that is not the result of gemination. 64 64 Whether or not a double consonant is a geminated consonant can be ascertained only from a knowledge of the etymology of the word in which it occurs, for there were double consonants before the period of gemination. For example, we know that the II of fyllan is not a geminated consonant because it appears also in the adjective full, and we know that the mm of trymman is a geminated consonant because the corresponding adjective, trum, has only a WEAK VERBS: CLASS I 71 134. Verbs with originally short stems form their preterit indicative first person singular by means of the ending -ede, and their past participle by means of the ending -ed. The principal parts of representative verbs are as follows: fremman, make fremede fremed trymman, strengthen trymede trymed nerian, save nerede nered ferian, carry ferede fered 135. Verbs with originally long stems form their preterit indicative first person singular by means of the ending -de or -te; that is, the middle vowel e is syncopated in these verbs. They form their past participle by means of the ending -ed. When the stem of the verb ends in a voiced consonant (see 2), the ending is -de; but when the stem ends in a voiceless con- sonant, the ending is -te. Representative verbs are: deman, judge demde demed diilan, share d&lde dueled cemban, comb cembde cembed aernan, gallop aernde aerned cepan, keep cepte ceped scierpan, sharpen scierpte scierped adwiescan, quench adwa-scte adw&sced iy\\&n,fill fylde 56 fylled 136. But verbs whose stems end in d or t always syncopate the middle vowel of the preterit ending, no matter whether the stem was originally long or originally short, so that the ending becomes -de or -te. The vowel of the ending of the past single m. But most of the OE double consonants are geminated consonants. In practice, therefore, we may assume that a double consonant is a geminated consonant unless we know that it did not result from gemination. 66 Note that in verbs like fyllan (see preceding note) the double consonant is simplified in the preterit. 72 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR participle may also be syncopated, so that it becomes -dd or -tt instead of -ed. Representative verbs are: hreddan, save hredde hreded, hredd 56 settan, set sette seted, sett Ledan, lead hcdde liuded, l&dd metan, meet mette meted, mett Verbs whose stems end in d or t preceded by another consonant have only a single d or t in the preterit and in the syncopated form of the past participle. Examples are: wendan, turn wende wended, wend f aestan, make fast faeste f aested, faest 137. Exercise. Form the principal parts of the following weak verbs of Class I: hselan, herian, fedan, wenan, sendan, betan, swencan, hlynnan, temman, erian, glengan. 67 138. The full conjugation of weak verbs of Class I, exempli- fied by fremman, nerian, and deman, is as follows: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 fremme nerie deme fremest nerest demest, demst fremej) nerej> demejj, dem|) fremma]) neria]? dernaj) fremede nerede demde frcmedest neredest demdest fremede nerede demde fremedon neredon demdon Preterit Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 fremme nerie deme Plur. 1, 2, 3 fremmen nerien demen Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 fremede nerede demde Plur. 1, 2, 3 fremeden nereden demden These past participles in -dd, -tt were also written with a single d or t; see 240. 67 The double consonants in hlynnan and temman are geminated con- sonants; see notej>4. WEAK VERBS: CLASS I 73 IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 freme nere dem Plur. 2 fremmaj) neria)> demaj) Infinitive fremman nerian deman Gerund to fremmenne to nerienne to demenne Present Participle fremmende neriende demende Past Participle fremed nered domed 139. For the indicative endings employed in this conjuga- tion see 51 and 67. The subjunctive endings are the same as those of the strong verb: -e in the singular and -en in the plural. Verbs with originally long stems (e.g., deman) have no ending in the imperative singular; verbs with originally short stems (e.g., fremman and nerian) have the ending -e. 140. With regard to the inflection of weak verbs of Class I, the following points should be noted: (1) That in the present indicative, present subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, gerund, and present participle, (a) Verbs like nerian prefix i to the endings except in the present indicative second and third singular and the imperative singular; (b) Verbs like fremman have a geminated consonant following the radical vowel except in the present indicative second and third singular and the impera- tive singular; (2) That in the preterit indicative, preterit subjunctive, and past participle, (a) Verbs like nerian do not prefix i to the endings; (b) Verbs like fremman do not have a geminated con- sonant following the radical vowel. READING Apollonius of Tyre 141. Da Sa J?set maegden gehlerde Jjset hire waes aliefed from hire feeder }?aet heo aer hire self gedon wolde, t5a cwae<5 heo 74 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR to Apollonio, "Apolloni, soSlIce bu eart ure. Forlset bine murcnunge, ond nu ic mines faeder leafe haebbe, ic gedo <5e weligne." Apollonius hire baes bancode, and se cyning blis- sode on his dohtor welwillendnesse ond hire to cwaeS, "Leofe dohtor, hat feccan bine hearpan, and gecieg <5e to bine friend, ond afeorsa fram bam geongan his sarnesse." Da code heo ut' ond het feccan hire hearpan, and sona swa heo hearpian ongann, heo mid wynsumum songe gemengde }>ere hearpan sweg. Da ongunnon ealle ]?a menn hie herian on hire sweg- craefte, ond Apollonius ana swlgode. Da cwast5 se cyning, "Apolloni, nu Su dest yfele, for Sasm )?e ealle menn heriacS mine dohtor on hire swegcraefte, and )?u ana hie swlgiende taelst." Apollonius cwaec5, "Eala Su goda cyning, gif t5u me geliefst, ic secge ))aet ic ongiete ]?33t soollce ]?m dohtor gefeoll on sweg- crasft, ac heo nasfS hine na wel geleornod. Ac hat me nu sellan )?a hearpan; J?onne wast Jju )?3st Jni giet nast." Arces- trates se cyning cwaeS, "Apolloni, ic oncnawe soSlice \>&t })$. eart on eallum J?ingum wel gelsered." haebbe, pres. ind. 1 person sing, of habban. gedo, pres. ind. 1 person sing, of gedon. bancode, used with genitive of the object. dohtor, gen. sing, of dohtor. friend, ace. plur. of frcond. afeorsa, imp. 2 person sing, of afeorsian. dest, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of d5n. swlgiende, pres. participle of swigian. najftS, contraction of ne and haeft$, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of habban. wast, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of witan. nast, contraction of ne and wast, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of witan. CHAPTER XVIII WEAK VERBS: CLASS I 142. The peculiarities of inflection which were noted in paragraph 140, tho they might seem to be merely arbitrary, are the result of regular sound changes. The Germanic forms from which were derived the Old English forms of the present indicative of fremman, nerian, and deman were: Sing. 1 *framjo *nazjo *domjo 2 *framis *nazis *domis 3 *framij> *nazij> *domi|> Plur. 3 *framjanl> *nazjanj> *domjanf> The infinitive forms were *framjan, *nazjan, and *domjan, and the j which we see in the infinitive, the first person singular, and the plural extended also thruout the present subjunctive, the imperative plural, and the present participle. 143. The Prehistoric Old English forms of the present indicative of these verbs, before the period of i-umlaut, were: Sing. 1 *frammju *naerju 58 *domju 69 2 *framis *naeris *d5mis' 3 *framil> *naeri| *d5mi|> Plur. 3 *frammjaj> *naerjaj> *domjaj? 58 For the change of z to r see note 32 above. 69 In WS the old ending -u was replaced by the subjunctive ending -e. 40 The ending -is, which occurs only in the oldest texts, developed regularly into -es, but the usual OE ending is -est. The t of this ending was acquired from the J> of ]>u. When Jra followed its verb it often coalesced with it, so that denies Jm became demestu; then from demestu was derived, by a false word division, the form demest as that of the present indicative 2 sing. The ending -est of the preterit indicative 2 sing, had a similar origin. 75 76 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR The infinitives were *frammjan, *naerjan, and *d5mjan. It will be observed that in *frammjan the final consonant of the stem has been geminated wherever it was followed by j. This gemination, as we learned in Chapter XV, took place in West Germanic. Gemination did not take place in the second and third persons singular, because no j followed the m; nor did it take place, for the same reason, in the imperative singular, which in Prehistoric Old English was *frami. But in all the other forms of the present tenses the m was followed by j and was therefore geminated. In accordance, however, with the law stated in 117, gemination did not take place in verbs like deman whose stems were originally long. Nor did it take place in verbs like nerian with originally short stems ending in r. It took place, however, in all verbs like fremman whose stems were originally short and ended in a consonant other than r. 144. In Prehistoric Old English the preterit indicative forms of fremman, nerian, and deman were: Sing. 1 *framide 2 *framides 3 *framide Plur. 3 *framidun *naeride *merides *naeride *naeridun *domide *domides *domide *domidun The past participles were *framid, *naerid, and *domid. From these forms the later Old English forms were derived. The Middle vowel i became e after causing umlaut, and then was syncopated if the stem was long, but was retained if the stem was short. Since the preterit forms contained no j, no gemina- tion took place and the original length of the stem remained unchanged. It is for this reason that we are obliged to consider the original length of the stem (see 134, 135) in order to know whether the preterit ending of a verb is -de (-te) on the one hand or -ede on the other. WEAK VERBS: CLASS I 77 145. Since every form of the weak verbs of Class I thus far discussed contained in the syllable following the stem either an i or a j, it is obvious that the vowel of the stem would be umlauted thruout the whole conjugation; *frammjan therefore became *fremmjan, *naerjan became nerjan, and *domjan became *demjan, in accordance with the sound change explained in Chapter XV. After causing umlaut, j disappeared except in verbs like nerian with originally short stems ending in r; in those verbs it was retained, usually being written i. 61 146. Verbs without a Middle Vowel. There are some weak verbs of Class I, however, which have umlaut only in the present forms and not in the preterit and past participle; examples are: tellan, count tealde teald cweccan, shake cweahte cweaht secan, seek sohte soht The lack of umlaut in the preterit and past participle is explained by the fact that the preterit and past participle of these verbs lacked the middle vowel i which caused umlaut in the preterit and past participle of most verbs of Class I. The principal parts in Prehistoric Old English were: "telljan *telde *t#ld *cwaeccjan *cwaehte *cwaeht *socjan *sohte *soht In the infinitive and present forms the vowel of the stem was umlauted as in other weak verbs of Class I. In the preterit and past participle, however, no cause of umlaut was present, and the vowel of the stem remained unmodified unless, as in *taelde and *cwaehte, the vowel was followed by a consonant or consonant combination which caused breaking (see 85). 61 It is also written g, ge, ig, and ige, as in nergan, nergean, nerigan, nerigean; the sound is always that of j. 78 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR We may therefore divide these verbs into two classes, those which have and those which do not have a broken vowel in the preterit and past participle. The more important verbs are: (1) cweccan, shake cweahte 82 cweaht streccan, stretch streahte* 2 streaht beccan, cover beahte 82 beaht cwellan, kill cwealde cweald sellan, give sealde seald tellan, count tealde teald (2) bycgan,iwy bohte boht secan, seek sohte sdht trecan, teach tahte 62 taht wyrcan, 83 work worhte worht brengan (bringan), bring brohle broht* 4 bencan, think bohte boht byncan, seem buhte buht READING Apollonius of Tyre 147. Da het se cyning sellan Apollonie J?a hearpan. Apol- lonius ba ut code and hine scrydde ond sette anne cynehelm uppan his heafod ond nam ]?a hearpan on his hond and in code and swa stod )?aet se cyning and ealle ]?a ymbsittendan wendon }?aet he naere Apollonius ac )?aet he wiere Apollines, Sara hsSenra god. Da wear?5 stilness ond swlge geworden innan Ssere 42 In these verbs the umlauted vowel of the infinitive and present was often introduced by analogy into the preterit and past participle, giving cwehte, strehte, behte, ta-hte and cweht, streht, bcht, tscht. 83 eg is the regular OE gemmation of g; for the relation between y and o see note 46 above. 84 The apparent irregularities of this verb and of the two which follow it were the result of regular sound changes, some of which took place in Primitive Germanic, (See 231.) The form bringan, which is more frequent than brengan, belongs to an old strong verb like bindan. WEAK VERBS: CLASS I 79 healle, and Apollonius his hearpenaegel genam, ond he }?a hearpestrengas mid craefte astyrian ongonn ond ]?aere hearpan sweg mid wynsumum songe gemengde. Ond se cyning self ond ealle }>e Ipabr andwearde waeron micelre stefne clipodon and hine heredon. JEiter Jrissum forlet Apollonius J?a hearpan ond plegode ond fela faegerra )>inga })r forSteah J)e )?am folce ungecnawen waes ond ungewunelic, and heom eallum Dearie licode aelc J?ara J?inga Se he forSteah. So(51ice mid \>y ]>e )?aes cyninges dohtor geseah J?aet Apollonius on eallum godum crseftum swa wel waes getogen, ]?a gefeoll hire mod on his lufe. Da aefter j?aes beorscipes geendunge cw32(5 J)85t masgden to Sam cyninge, "Leofa faeder, )?u liefdest me lytle aer )?aet ic mSste giefan Apollonio swa hwaet swa ic wolde of )7lnum goldhorde." Arcestrates se cyning cwaeS to hire, "Gief him swa hwaet swa Su wille." CHAPTER XIX STRONG VERBS WITH J-PRESENTS; NUMERALS 148. Certain strong verbs of Classes V and VI are not conjugated in the present like other strong verbs, but like fremman; that is, (1) the final consonant of the stem is gemi- nated (see 117 and 143) except in the second and third indica- tive singular and the imperative singular, and (2) the vowel of the stem is umlauted (see 119) thruout. Thus, biddan, of Class V, is conjugated in the present indicative, present sub- junctive, and imperative as follows: Present Indicative Sing. 1 bidde 2 bitst, bidest 3 bitt, bide|> Plur. 1,2, 3 biddaj> Present Subjunctive Sing. 1, 2, 3 bidde Plur. 1, 2, 3 bidden Present Imperative Sing. 2 bide Plur. 2 biddab 149. The most important of these verbs are: Class V. biddan, from Primitive Germanic *bet5janan M Kcgan," from Primitive Germanic "legjanan sittan, from Primitive Germanic *setjanan M The original e of the infinitive and present of this verb and the two that follow it was umlauted to i in Primitive Germanic; see note 45 above. M eg is the regular OE gemination of Germanic g. 80 STRONG VERBS WITH J- PRESENTS; NUMERALS 81 Class VI. hebban," from Primitive Germanic *habjanan M hliehhan," from Primitive Germanic *hlahjanan scieppan, 70 from Primitive Germanic *skapjanan scebban, 71 from Primitive Germanic *skapjanan steppan, from Primitive Germanic *stapjanan One verb of Class VI is conjugated in the present like nerian: swerian, 72 from Primitive Germanic *swarjanan. One verb of Class VII is conjugated in the present like deman: wepan, from Primitive Germanic *wopjanan. 150. Except in the other strong verbs of parts are as follows: present these verbs are their respective classes. conjugated like The principal Class V. Class VI. Class VII. biddan, ask licgan, lie sittan, sit hebban, heave hliehhan, laugh scieppan, create scebban, injure steppan, step swerian, swear wepan, weep baed biedon beden 73 Leg L-egon le&en saet steton seten hof hofon hafen 71 hloh hlogon 76 scop scopon sceapen 78 scod scodon 77 stop stopon stapen swor sworon swaren, sworen weop weopon wopen 7 bb is the regular OE gemination of Germanic b; see note 68 below. 68 The character b represents a sound somewhat like Modern English v. 89 In this verb the original a of the infinitive and present, having changed to in Prehistoric OE, was first broken to ea before hh (see 85) and then umlauted to ie. 70 In this verb the original a was first changed to a; in Prehistoric OE, was then diphthongised to ea by the initial sc (see 91), and was then umlauted to ie. 71 This form is irregular; we should have sciebban from *skabjanan, just as we have scieppan from *skapjanan. 7J For the preservation of j see 145. 73 Note the absence of umlaut in the past participle of these verbs. 74 Note the absence of umlaut in the past participle of these verbs. 75 Observe the grammatical change in this verb, and compare note 32 above. 74 This form is from Prehistoric OE *scpen, the a? being diphthongised to ea by the initial sc (see 91). 7T Observe the grammatical change in this verb, and compare note 32 above. 82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 151. Numerals. The ordinal numerals (e.g., forma, first, frridda, third] are declined like weak adjectives. 78 Of the cardinal numbers, only the first three are regularly declined. (1) an, one, is declined like a strong adjective, but has either anne or nne in the masculine accusative singular and either ane or ane in the masculine and neuter instrumental singular. (2) The declension of twe&en, two, is as follows: Plur. Masculine Feminine Neuter Nom., Ace. twcgen twa tu, twa Gen. twega, twegra twega, twegra twega, twegra Dat., Inst. twtcm, twam twiem, twam twicm, twam (3) The declension of ftrie, three, is as follows: Plur. Masculine Feminine Neuter Nom., Ace. tJrie tfreo Sreo Gen. Srcora 3reora 'Sreora Dat., Inst. Srim <5rim flrim The other cardinal numbers are generally not inflected. They are chiefly used either as indeclinable adjectives or as nouns governing the genitive; for example, on fif da gum, in five days; tfritig daga, thirty days. For further information in regard to the numerals see the Reference Grammar (370-374.) READING Apollonius of Tyre 152. Heo (5a swlSe bllSe ut code and cwae<5, "Lareow Apol- loni, ic giefe J?e be mines faeder leafe twa hund punda goldes ond feower hund punda gewihte seolfres ond )x>ne msestan dsel deorweortSes reafes ond twentig Seowra monna." And 78 Except otJer, second. STRONG VERBS WITH j-PRESENTS; NUMERALS 83 heo ba bus cwaeS to Saem beowum mannum, "Bera<5 J?as bing mid eow be ic behet Apollonio, mmum lareowe, ond lecga<5 innan bure beforan minum freondum." J)is wearS ba bus gedon aefter baere cwene hasse, ond ealle ba menn hire giefa heredon Se hie gesawon. Da soSlice geendode se gebeorscipe, ond ]?. menn ealle arisen and gretton J>one cyning ond t$a cwene ond baedon hie gesunde beon and ham gewendon. Eac swelce Apollonius cwaeS, "Bu goda cyning ond earmra gemiltsiend ond )?u cwen lare lufiend, beon ge gesunde." He beseah eac to Sam )?eowum monnum J?e )?aet maegden him for- giefen hasfde ond him cwaet) to, "NimaS J?as }?ing mid eow )?e me seo cwen forgeaf , and gan we secan ure giesthus J?aet we magon us gerestan." Da ondred J?aet maegden ]?aet heo naefre eft Apollonium ne gesawe swa hraetSe swa heo wolde ond code ]?a to hire faeder and cwae<5, "Du goda cyning, licaS Se wel J>aet Apollonius, J?e J?urh us todaeg gegodod is, J?us heonon fare, ond cumen yfele menn ond bereafien hine?" Se cyning cwaeS, "Wel jni cwaede. Hat him findan hwaer he hine maege weorS- llcost gerestan." ^ewihte, instrumental, gedon, past participle of gedon. gan, pres. subj. 1 person plural of gan. gan . . . secan; secan is a complementary infinitive after a verb of motion, to be translated usually by the present participle: go ... seeking. magon, pres. ind. 1 person plur. of magan. gesawe, pret. subj. 3 person sing, of geseon. bereafien, pres. subj. 3 person plur. of bereafian. maege, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of magan. CHAPTER XX WEAK VERBS: CLASSES II AND III 153. Weak Verbs: Class II. The weak verbs of Class II are easily recognised. They have -ian 79 in the infinitive, -ode in the preterit indicative first person singular, and -od in the past participle; the principal parts are as follows: lufian, love lufode lufod 154. The full conjugation of weak verbs of Class II, exem- plified by lufian, is as follows: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 lufie 2 lufast 3 lufa|> Plur. 1, 2, 3 lufiafr Preterit Sing. 1 lufode 2 lufodest 3 lufode Plur. 1, 2, 3 lufodon SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 lufie Plur. 1, 2, 3 lufien Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 lufode Plur. 1, 2, 3 lufoden 79 This ending is also written -igan and -igean, but the sound is always that of -ian. The endings -ian, etc., of 2 weak verbs are to be distinguished from the -ian, etc., of 1 weak verbs. In lufian the ending -ian is two syllables; in nerian it is only one. The i which appears in the infinitive and other forms of the 2 weak verbs did not cause umlaut because it was not i but oj at the time at which umlaut began to operate. This 6j then became ej and sub- sequently i. See 434, 435. 84 WEAK VERBS: CLASSES II AND HI 85 IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 Plur. 2 Infinitive Gerund Present Participle Past Participle lufa lufiaj) lufian to lufienne lufiende lufod 155. Weak Verbs: Class III. The third class of weak verbs was originally as definite in its characteristics as the other two classes. In Old English, however, only a very small number of verbs belong to this class, and these retain only in part the original features of the conjugation. See 436. The principal parts of the chief Old English verbs of Class III are: habban, have hacfde haefd hycgan, think hogde hogod libban, live lifde lifd secgan, say saegde siegd 156. The early West-Saxon forms of habban and libban were as follows: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 Preterit Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 luebbe Hbbe luef st, haf ast liofast luef b, hafab liofajj haebbab, habbab libbab luefde lifde hsefdest lifdest hefde lifde haefdon lifdon SUBJUNCTIVE luebbe Hbbe luebben Hbben haefde lifde haefden lifden 86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 hafa liofa Plur. 2 habbaj) libbap Infinitive habban libban Gerund t5 habbenne to libbenne Present Participle haebbende libbende, lifiende Past Partiple haefd lifd READING Apollonius of Tyre 157. Da dyde baet maegden swa hire beboden waes, ond Apollonius onfeng J?aere wununge Se him getaht waes ond <5aer in code Code bonciende <5e him ne forwiernde cynellces weor<5- scipes and frofres. Ac baet maegden haefde unstille niht mid bsere lufe onaeled bara worda and sanga be heo gehlerde aet Apollonie, ond na leng heo ne gebad Sonne hit daeg waes, ac code sona swa hit leoht waes and gesaet beforan hire faeder bedde. Da cwaetS se cyning, "Leofe dohtor, for hwy eart Su bus jjerwacol?" Daet maegden cwaet5, "Me aweahton ]?a gecneord- nessa }>e ic giestrandaeg gehlerde. Nu bidde ic t5e for tSam baet HU befaeste me urum cuman Apollonie to lare." Da wearS se cyning Dearie geblissod ond het feccan Apollonium ond him to cwaetS, "Min dohtor giernS baet heo mote leornian aet t5e <5a gesaeligan lare t5e bu canst, and gif (5u wilt bisum bingum gehiersum beon, ic swerie Se burh mines rices maegenu baet swa hwaet swa <5u on sae forlure ic Se baet on lande gestaSelie." Da '5a Apollonius baet gehlerde, he onfeng bam maegdene to lare ond hire tahte swa wel swa he self geleornode. onfeng, forwiernde, note that these verbs take the dat. and gen. respec- tively, instead of the accusative. mote, pres. subj. 3 person sing, of motan. canst, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of cunnan. CHAPTER XXI ANOMALOUS VERBS; U-DECLENSION 158. The conjugation of beon, be, is as follows: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 2 3 eom eart is beo bist Plur. 1, 2, 3 sindon, sind, sint beob SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 sle Plur. 1, 2, 3 sien IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 Plur. 2 Infinitive Gerund Present Participle beo beon beo beob beon to beonne beonde The preterit forms are supplied by the strong verb wesan, be: INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Preterit Sing. 1 waes Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 wiere 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 wsere 8 " waes wieron Plur. 1, 2, 3 waeren 81 80 Observe the grammatical change in this verb, and compare note 32 above. 81 wesan is also used in the present indicative, present subjunctive, impera- tive, and present participle; when so used it is conjugated like a strong verb of Class V. 87 88 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 159. The conjugation of don, do, is as follows: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 Preterit Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 do dest deb dob dyde dydest dyde dydon SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 do Plur. 1, 2, 3 don Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 dyde Plur. 1, 2, 3 dyden IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 Plur. 2 Infinitive Gerund Present Participle Past Participle do dob don to ddnne donde don 160. The forms that serve as the preterit indicative and subjunctive of gan, go, are from a root which is different from that of the infinitive and present forms. The conjugation is as follows: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 Preterit Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1, 2, 3 ga gst gieb gab code eodest code eodon SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 ga Plur. 1, 2, 3 gan Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 code Plur. 1, 2, 3 eoden IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 Plur. 2 Infinitive Gerund Present Participle Past Participle ga gab gan to ganne (gangende) 82 gan ^gande, the present participle of gan, does not occur in West-Saxon, and its place is supplied by the present participle of gangan, a strong verb of Class VII. ANOMALOUS VERBS; U-DECLENSION 89 161. The conjugation of \villan, will, is as follows: INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1 wille Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 wille 2 wilt 3 wile Plur. 1, 2, 3 willaj) Plur. 1, 2, 3 willen Preterit Sing. 1 wolde Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 wolde 2 woldest 3 wolde Plur. 1, 2, 3 woldon Plur. 1, 2, 3 wolden Infinitive willan Gerund to willenne Present Participle willende 162. Contraction. The various forms of willan often undergo contraction with the preceding negative ne, not; ne wile, for example, contracts to nile (also nyle or nele); ne wolde contracts to nolde. Contraction with ne is likewise undergone by those forms of beon which begin with a vowel, by the various forms of wesan, and by the various forms of habban; ne is, for example, contracts to nis, ne waes to naes, and ne habba}? to nabbaj>. 163. u-DecIension. The u-declension is that according to which are declined all masculine and a few feminine nouns which end in -u. 83 83 All of these nouns have short stems, the final u having been lost in nouns with long stems, just as it was lost in the Nom.-Acc. Plur. of long-stemmed nouns of the neuter a-declension and in the Nom. Sing, of long-stemmed nouns of the feminine o-declension (see 48, 55). Long-stemmed nouns of the u- declension for the most part went over to the masculine a-and feminine 5- declensions, but a few nouns retain forms belonging to the u-declension. For example, feld, field, (masculine) has the endings of either the u-declension or the masculine a-declension: Sing. Nom. feld Plur. Nom., Ace. felda, feldas Gen. felda, feldes Gen. felda 90 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 164. Paradigms of sunu, son, (masculine), and duru, door, (feminine) : Sing. Plur. Norn. sunu duru Nom., Ace. suna dura Gen. suna dura Gen. suna dura Dat. suna dura Dat., Inst. sunum durum Ace. sunu duru Inst. suna dura READING Apollonius of Tyre 165. Hit gelamp (5a aefte'r Jnssum binnan feawum tldum baet Arcestrates se cyning heold Apollonius bond on honda and eodon swa ut on Ssere ceastre strsete. ])a aet mehstan comon (5a longe er gierndon baes cyninges dohtor. Hie <5a ealle brie togaedere anre stefne gretton Sone cyning. Da smearcode se cyning and him to beseah and Jms cwasS, "Hwaet is ]?aet, )?aet ge me anre stefne gretton?" Da andswarode heora an and cwseS, "We bSdon gefyrn )?inre dohtor, ^ond ]?u us oftrsedllce mid elcunge geswenctest. For Sam we comon hider todseg )?us togaedere. We sindon ]?me ceastergewaran of seSelum gebyr- dum geborene; nu bidde we \>t J?aet )?u geceose |?e anne of us )?rim, hwelcne }>u wille J?e to a'Sume habban." Da cwaeS se cyning, "Nsebbe ge na godne tlman aredodne; mm dohtor is nu swFSe bisig ymbe hire leornunge. Ac, ]?e lass }?e ic eow a leng slacie, awrlta'5 eowere noman on gewrite ond hire mor- gengiefe. J)onne asende ic Jm gewritu minre dohtor ]?3et heo Dat. felda, felde Dat., Inst. feldum Ace. feld Inst. felda, felde Of the long-stemmed feminines which retain forms belonging to the u-declen- sion, hand is the most important example. ANOMALOUS VERBS; U-DECLENSION 91 self geceose hwelcne eower heo wille." Da dydon Sa cnihtas swa, ond se cyning nam <5a gewritu and geinseglode hie mid his hringe and sealde Apollonio Jms cweSende, "Nim nu, lareow Apolloni, swa hit ]?e ne mislicie, ond bring bmum Ijering- maegdene." Da nam Apollonius Ipa, gewritu and code to cynellcan healle. comon . . . gan; gan is a complementary infinitive after a verb of motion : came . . . walking. dohtor, gen. and dat. sing, of dohtor. bidde, we, naebbe ge; when the plural pronoun subjects we or ge imme- diately follow the verb, the ending -e is often used instead of the regular plural endings -aj> or -on.- eower; the MS has eowerne. CHAPTER XXII MINOR NOUN DECLENSIONS 166. man- Declension. The man- declension is that accord- ing to which are declined a small but important group of masculine and feminine nouns most of which are monosyllables ending in a consonant. The distinctive feature of this declen- sion is that the dative singular and nominative plural are with- out endings but have umlaut of the vowel of the stem; the umlaut is the result of the fact that the Germanic endings in the dative singular and nominative plural were *-i and *-iz. 167. Paradigms of mann (monn), man, and fot, foot, (mas- culine); and hoc, book, and burg, city, (feminine): Sing. Nom. mann fot hoc burg Gen. mannes fotes bee, boce byrg, byrig Dat. menu fet bee byrg, byrig Ace. mann fot hoc burg Inst. mcnn fet bee byrg, byrig Plur. Nom., Ace. menn fet bee byrg, byrig Gen. manna fdta boca burga Dat., Inst. mannum f5tum bocum burgum Other nouns belonging to this declension are toj>, tooth, plural tej>, (masculine), and gos, goose, plural ges, (feminine). 168. nd- Declension. The nd- declension is that according to which are declined present participles used as nouns; they are of the masculine gender and always end in -nd. This declension is similar in its characteristics to the man-declension. 92 MINOR NOUN DECLENSIONS 93 169. Paradigms of freond, friend, and hettend, enemy: Sing. Nom. freond hettend Gen. freondes hettendes Dat. friend hcttende Ace. freond hettend Inst. friend hettende Plur. Nona., Ace. friend hettend Gen. freonda hettendra 84 Dat., Inst. freondum hettendum 170. r- Declension. The r- declension is that according to which are declined the nouns of relationship ending in -r: f aider, father, brdflor, brother, (masculine); and mo dor, mother, dohtor, daughter, sweostor, sister, (feminine). 171. Paradigms of faeder, bro'Sor, and sweostor: Sing. Nom. faeder brotJor sweostor Gen. faeder broSor sweostor Dat. faeder bretSer sweostor Ace. ficdcr bro'Sor sweostor Inst. fceder brcSer sweostor Plur. Nom., Ace. fa'dcras bro'Sor sweostor Gen. ficdera hrofiru sweostra Dat., Inst. fiederum brd'Srum sweostrum 172. A few neuter nouns, chiefly lamb (lomb), lamb, cealf, calf, g, egg, and (sometimes) cild, child, have preceding the endings in the plural an r which does not appear in the singular. 173. Paradigm of lamb: Sing. Nom. lamb Plur. Nom., Ace. lambru Gen. lambes Gen. lambra Dat. lambe Dat., Inst. lambrum Ace. lamb Inst. lambe 84 The ending -ra of the genitive plural is from the adjective decension. 94 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR READING Apollonius of Tyre 174. Mid )?am )>e J?aet maegden geseah Apollonium, ]?a cwaetS heo, "Lareow, hwy gsest t5u ana?" Apollonius cwae<5, "Hljef- dige, . . . nim <5as gewritu <5e )rin faeder )?e sende ond raed." Baet maegden nam ond raedde J?ara J?reora cnihta naman, ac heo ne funde na )?one noman j?seron ]?e heo wolde. Da heo )?a gewritu oferraedd haefde, Sa beseah heo to Apollonio and cwsetS, "Lareow, ne ofJjyncS hit Se gif ic Jms wer geceose?" Apol- lonius cwae<5, "Na, ac ic blissie swiSor Sa2t J?u meaht Surh t)a lare )?e j?u aet me underfenge ]?e self on gewrite gecySan hwelcne heora ]?u wille. Mm willa is )?aet jni Se wer geceose ]?ser Su self wille." past maegden cwaeS, ''Eala lareow, gif Su me lufodest, j?u hit besorgodest." ^Efter ]?issum wordum heo mid modes anraednesse awrat oSer gewrit ond J?aet geinseglode and sealde Apollonio. Apollonius hit )?a ut baer on Sa straste ond sealde J?arn cyninge. Daet gewrit waes )?us gewriten: "pu goda cyning and mm se leofosta faeder, nu ]?In mildheortnes me leafe sealde )?aet ic self moste ceosan hwelcne wer ic wolde, ic secge Se to soSe, ]?one forlidenah monn ic wille. And gif <5u wundrie )?aet swa scamfaest fsemne swa unforwandiendllce (5a.s word awrat, |>onne wite ]?u J?aet ic haebbe )?urh weax aboden, t5e nane scame ne conn, }>aet ic self (5e for scame secgan ne mihte." hlaefdige, . . . ; the words that follow hlsefdige in the MS (naes git yfel wif) are unintelligible. funde, a weak preterit of findan. meaht, pres. ind. 2 person sing, of magan. wite, imp. 2 sing, of witan. conn, pres. ind. 3 person sing, of cunnan. CHAPTER XXIII PRETERITIVE-PRESENT VERBS t/. 175. The preteritive-present verbs, or strong- weak verbs, which are a feature of all the Germanic languages, are so called because their present indicative and subjunctive forms were originally the preterit indicative and subjunctive of strong verbs. These old preterits acquired a present meaning, the old presents were lost, and new weak preterits were formed on the basis of the stem of the present (originally preterit) indica- tive plural. Upon the basis of the present indicative plural stem were also made new forms for the imperative, infinitive, gerund, and present participle. For example, man (mon) and munon were originally the preterit indicative 1 and 3 singular and preterit indicative plural of a strong verb meaning remem- ber; their meaning changed from preterit to present; and a new weak preterit indicative 1 and 3 singular munde was formed from the stem of munon. The principal parts of these verbs are: (1) the infinitive, (2) the present indicative third person singular, (3) the present indicative plural, and (4) the preterit indicative third person singular. The verbs, with their princi- pal parts, are as follows: agan, possess cunnan, know, be able dugan, avail durran, dare magan, be able mseg magon meant e, mihte motan, be permitted munan, remember (ge)nugan, suffice 95 ah agon ante cann, conn cunnon - cu'Se deag dugon dohte dearr durron dorste maeg magon meahte, mot moton moste man, mon munon, muna]> munde neah nugon nohte 96 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR sculan, be under obligation sceal sculon scoldc, sceolde o~urfan, need 'Scarf tSurfon 'Sorfte unnan, grant tarn, onn unnon utJe witan, &0w wat* 5 witon wisse, wiste 16 176. The most important of these verbs are agan, cunnan, magan, motan, sculan, and witan. The first of these has become the Modern English verb own; cunnan, magan, motan, and sculan survive (with more or less change of meaning) in Modern English can, may, must, and shall; witan survives in (archaic) Modern English wot. 177. With regard to the conjugation of the preteritive- present verbs the following points should be noted: (1) The present indicative is conjugated like the preterit indicative of strong verbs, except that the second person singular is formed from the singular, not the plural, stem, and that it has the old ending -t (or -st) instead of -e. (2) The preterit indicative has the endings of the preterit indicative of weak verbs. (3) The subjunctive has the regular endings, -e in the singular and -en in the plural, but the present subjunc- tive frequently has umlaut of the vowel of the stem. (4) The past participle has the strong ending -en. ** Negative forms (contracted with ne) are nat, nyton, niste, etc. 19 In this list the verbs are given, for convenience of reference, in alpha- betical order, but they are usually classified according to the class of strong verbs to which they originally belonged; this classification is as follows: Class I witan, agan II dugan III cunnan, durran, tJurfan, unnan IV munan, sculan V magan, nugan VI motan PRETERITIVE-PRESENT VERBS 97 178. Synopsis of the conjugation of the preteritive-present verbs: 87 Pres. Ind. Sing. 1 ah cann, deag dearr conn 2 ahst canst dearst 3 ah cann, deag dearr conn Plur. 1, 2, 3 agon cunnon dugon durron Pret. Ind. Sing. 3 ante cufie dohte dorste Pres. Subj. Sing. age cunne duge, dyge durre, dyrre Infinitive agan cunnan dugan durran Present Participle dugende Past Participle agen, tegen cunnen Pres. Ind. Sing. 1 mae& mot man, mon 2 meant most manst, monst 3 mag mot man, mon neah Plur. 1, 2, 3 magon moton munon, muna)> nugon Pres. Ind. Sing. 3 meahte, mihte moste munde nohte Pres. Subj. Sing. maege mote mune, myne nuge Infinitive magan motan munan nugan Present Participle munende Past Participle - munen Pres. Ind. Sing. 1 sceal <5earf ann, onn wat 2 scealt ffearft wast 3 sceal Searf ann, onn wat Plur. 1, 2, 3 sculon (5urfon unnon witon Pret. Ind. Sing. 3 scolde, sceolde tSorfte uSe wisse, wiste 87 A blank space in the synopsis indicates that the form belonging in this space does not occur. The infinitives durran, motan, and nugan do not occur, but their forms can be inferred with tolerable certainty and are convenient for purposes of reference. 98 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR Pres. Subj. Sing. scule, scyle tJurfe, unne wite (Jyrfe Infinitive sculan 'Surfan unnan witan Present Participle 'Searfende witende Past Participle unnen when The imperative forms that occur are: age ; mun (mune, myne), muna}?; unne; wite, witafr. READING Apollonius of Tyre 179, Da Sa se cyning haefde J?set gewrit oferrsedd, J?a niste he hwelcne forlidenne heo nemde, beseah Sa to Ssem J^rim cnihtum ond cwaeS, "Hwelc eower is forliden?" Da cwseS heora an, se hatte Ardalius, "Ic com forliden." Se oSer him andwyrde and cwseS, "Swlga Su! Adi }>e fornime, )?aet Jm ne beo hal ne gesund! Mid me )?u boccreeft leornodest, ond t>u naefre buton ]?ere ceastre geate from me ne come. Hwzer gefore '5u forlidennesse?" Mid t)y ]?e se cyning ne meahte findan hwelc heora forliden waere, he beseah to Apollonio and cwseS, "Nim Su, Apolloni, )?is gewrit ond rsbd hit. EaSe maeg geweorSan J?aet Jni wite J>ast ic nat, t>u Se J?ser ondweard wsere." Da nam Apollonius )?aet gewrit and- rsedde, and sona swa he ongeat }?aet he gelufod wees from Sam maegdene his ondwlita call areodode. Da se cyning Jjset geseah, ]?a nam he Apollonies hand ond hine hwon fram )?am cnihtum gewende and cwaeS, "Wast J?u )?one forlidenan monn?" Apollonius cwaeS, "Du goda cyning, gif J?m willa biS, ic hine wat." Da geseah se cyning ]?et Apollonius mid rosan rude waes call oferbrjeded, ]?a ongeat he |?one cwide and )?us cweeS to him, "Blissa, blissa, Apolloni, for (5aem J7e mm dohtor gewilnaS J?aes Se mm willa is. Ne ma)g soSlIce on )?ylllcum )?ingum nan ]?ing geweorSan buton Codes willan." Arcestrates beseah to Sam )?rim cnihtum and cwaeS, "SoS is ]?3et ic eow aer saegde, J?3et ge ne comon on gedafen- PRETERITIVE-PRESENT VERBS 99 licre tide mmre dohtor to biddenne ; ac Jjonne heo maeg hi f ram hire lare geSmettigian, J>onne sende ic eow word." Da gewendon hie ham mid tyisse ondsware. hatte, was named; this form and the corresponding plural hatton are the only traces in Old English of the Germanic passive voice. CHAPTER XXIV CONTRACT VERBS REVIEW or SOUND CHANGES 180. About the beginning of the historical period of Old English and after the period of i-umlaut, intervocalic h was lost and the two vowels (or diphthong and vowel) thus brought together contracted into a single long vowel or long diphthong. As a result of these changes, irregularities arose in those strong verbs whose stems ended in -h. The principal parts of the most important of these verbs (which are known as Contract Verbs) are as follows: Class I tfeon, thrive wreon, cover Class II fleon, flee teon, draw Class III icolan, reach Class V f eon, rejoice seon, see from Prehistoric OE *tSihan " " " *wrihan *fleohan *teohan wrah flcah teah tJigon 88 wrigon 88 flugon 88 tugon 88 ftigen wrigen flogen togen *felhan" fealh fulgon 88 fdlen *ehan *sehan feah scah fiegon 88 siiwon 88 Observe the grammatical change in this verb, and compare note 32 above. 88 *felhan became *feolhan by breaking of e before Ih; h was then lost, and eo was lengthened to eo. The loss of h between 1 or r and a vowel, with lengthen- ing of the preceding vowel or diphthong, occurred regularly in Prehistoric OE; for example, seolh, seal, has as its genitive singular seoles, and mearh, horse, has as its genitive singular meares. 100 CONTRACT VERBS; REVIEW OF SOUND CHANGES 101 Class VI slean, strike tJwean, wash Class VII fon, seize hon, hang *slffihan slog slogon 90 slagen *tJwaehan tJwog tfwogon 90 flwagen *fohan 9 '- feng fengon 90 fangen fongen *hohan 95 heng hengon 90 hangen hongen 181. Because of the resemblance in the infinitive between the contract verbs of Class I and those of Class II, tJeon and wreon of Class I often formed their preterit and past participle after the analogy of fleon and teon of Class II; the principal parts of Scon, thrive, and wreon, cover, according to Class II are: fteon fieah <5ugon tJogen 93 wreon wreah wrugon wrogen 182. The irregularities of the contract verbs are confined to the present forms; thruout the rest of the conjugation they are inflected like other strong verbs of their respective classes. 90 Observe the grammatical change in this verb. 91 This form developed regularly out of Primitive Germanic *fanhanan; the n which was lost in the radical syllable of the infinitive and present is pre- served in the preterit and past participle. 92 This form developed regularly out of Primitive Germanic *hanhanan; the n which was lost in the radical syllable of the infinitive and present is preserved in the preterit and past participle. 83 3eon was Primitive Germanic ""Senhanan, a strong verb of Class III, which developed regularly into Prehistoric OE * flieh}> sieh{> sliehb fc-hj, Plur. 1, 2, 3 t5eoj> fleoj> scoj> sleaj> foj SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. Sing. 1, 2, 3 3co fleo SCO slea 5 Plur. I, 2, 3 'Scon fleon scon slean fon IMPERATIVE Pres. Sing. 2 fteoh fleoh seoh sleah fob Plur. 2 ScoJ) fleo]> seoj> sleaj) f ojj Infinitive fieon fleon seon slean fon Gerund to 'Sconne to fleonne to sconne to slcanne to f onne Pres. Participle tJeonde fleonde sconde sleande foncle 183. The irregularities that we observe in the inflection of these verbs are the result of the regular operation of sound changes that we have already studied in preceding chapters. The operation of these sound changes may be shown by tracing the development of the infinitive and present indicative first, second, and third singular of each of the representative verbs whose inflection was given in the preceding paragraph. (1) The infinitive Seon is from Prehistoric OE ""Sihan. The I was broken to io before h (see note 28 above), resulting in *t$iohan ; then, after the loss of intervocalic h, the diphthong 10 absorbed the vowel of the following syllable, giving the form ffion, later Seon. The present indicative first singular tJeo is from Pre- historic OE ""Sibil. The i was broken to Io before h, resulting in ""Slohu; then, after the loss of intervocalic h, the diphthong 10 absorbed the vowel of the following syllable, giving the form , 94 which by i-umlaut became *fliehis and *fliehij> and then, by syncopation, fliehs(t) and fliehjj. (3) The infinitive seon and the present indicative first singular seo are from Prehistoric OE *sehan and *sehu ; the breaking of e to eo before h resulted in *seohan and *seohu, which after the loss of intervocalic h contracted into seon and seo, the short eo being lengthened by its absorption of the vowel of the following syllable. The present indicative second and third singular siehst and sieh}> are from Prehistoric OE *sihis and *sihij> (from Primitive Germanic *sehis and *sehi|>, see note 45 above). The i was broken to io, resulting in *siohis and *siohi|>, which were first umlauted to *siehis and *siehij? and then, before the loss of inter- vocalic h, syncopated to siehs(t) and siehb- (4) The infinitive and present indicative first singular slean and slea are from Prehistoric OE *slaehan (from older *slahan) and *slaehu (from older *slahu). The *For the interchange between eo and io in Prehistoric OE see note 48 above. 104 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR ae was broken to ea, resulting in *sleahan and *sleahu, which after loss of intervocalic h contracted into slean and slea, the short ea being lengthened by its absorp- tion of the vowel of the following syllable. The present indicative second and third singular sliehst and sliehj? are from Prehistoric OE *slaehis and *slaehij> (from older *slahis and *slahij>). The x was broken to ea, resulting in *sleahis and *sleahi|>, which were first umlauted to *sliehis and *sliehi|> and then, before the loss of intervocalic h, syncopated to sliehs(t) and sliehj). (5) The infinitive and present indicative singular fon and fo are from Prehistoric OE *fohan and *fohu, which, after loss of intervocalic h, contracted into fon and fo. The present indicative second and third singular fehst and fehj> are from Prehistoric OE *fohis and *f5hi|>, which were first umlauted to *fehis and *fehij> and then, before the loss of intervocalic h, syncopated to fehs(t) and fehj>. 184. Chronology of Sound Changes. The sound changes which have been dealt with in this and the preceding chapters occurred in the following chronological order: Primitive Germanic Period: Umlaut of e to i (note 45) and of eu to hi (note 48). Change of e to i before a double nasal or a riasal plus another consonant (102). West Germanic Period: Gemination (117, 118). Old English Period: Change of a to ae or o (80-82). Breaking (85, 86). Diphthongisation by initial palatals (91, 92). i-Umlaut (119-122). CONTRACT VERBS; REVIEW OF SOUND CHANGES 105 Loss of i and u after long syllables (48, 55, 121). Syncopation (124, 135, 144) and loss of medial j (121). Change of unstressed i to e (121). Loss of intervocalic h (180- 183). 185. 96 Convert the following Primitive Germanic forms into the OE forms that would occur in the language of the year 900: *werpij> *satjan(an) *teuhan(an) *legjan(an) *lagjan(an)' *sehij? *farjan(an) K*XM<^. *tunjan(an) *setjan(an) *gernjan(an) *fleutan(an) *framjan(an) *felhi}> tA^j? *teuhij? *stapjan(an) *domjan(an) t *bendan(an) *fleutij? *fulljan(an) Convert the following Prehistoric OE forms into the forms that would occur in the language of the year 900: *faht *eacjantit c '''- / ^ *domide *halp \i *c3bce *geton ofioJ*+\ *fliohij? *mahte *larjan *langira *sihi}> *gar 'gellan *slahan *manni *fehtan ijan *sceran *domiJ7 *ahta *hugi *gall' 7 *socjan ^/tcLw *sceld ^f^haljan ,_ *falh *bragd 97 * These exercises may be used as material for a review of OE phonology. In working out the forms the student should observe carefully the chronology of the changes and should refer when necessary to the appropriate places in the book for information as to the precise conditions under which the changes took place. M The letters in parentheses represent a syllable that was lost, in all proba- bility, before the end of the Germanic period. 17 The g hi this word was a back g in the earliest stage of Prehistoric OE. But after the vowel a changed to ae. the g was palatalised, that is fronted, and became |. 106 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR *hohi}) *scarpjan *selh *slahij> *talde *bergan *sah *felhan *gfon *wahsan *)>wahu *band *scaep *werpan *brudi *gakl 7 *fallan *falli)j *hwarfjan *caster 8 *frami)j *agi *geldan *J?aht *framide *boci *h6han *fleohan *gard w *narid *sehan *bandjan *J)Ihan *gaf' 7 *huldi *wr5ohu *morgin *wirbi}> *starf *aldista *sculdig *slagi *cumil> "tacjan *sehu *feh *caf *gefan *walmi *scal *aldira *JnhiJ> READING Apollonius of Tyre 186. And Arcestrates se cyning heold for<5 on Apollonius hond ond hine Isedde ham mid him, na swelce he cuma waere ac swelce he his aftum ware. Da aet nlehstan forlet se cyning Apollonius hand ond code ana into Sasm bure J?aer his dohtor inne waes, and )ms cwaeft, "Leofe dohtor, hwone hafast Jm tSe gecoren to gemaeccan?" Daet maegden ba feoll to hire faeder fotum ond cwae'5, "Du arfaesta faeder, gehler Jrinre dohtor willan. Ic lufie J>one forlidenan mann ?5e waes J?urh ungelimp beswicen. Ac \>y laes ]>e )?e tweonie J)aere spraece, Apollonium ic wille, mlnne lareow, ond gif J?u me him ne selest, Jm forlaetst Sine dohtor." Se cyning Sa sotSlIce ne meahte araefnan his dohtor tearas, ac arserde hie up and hire to cwaeS, "Leofe dohtor, ne 98 The c in this word was a back c in the earliest stage of Prehistoric OE. But after the vowel a changed to , the c was palatalised, that is fronted, and became c. The c was at first a stop consonant similar to the k of kid but with the stoppage made considerably farther forward in the mouth. Later, how- ever, this sound changed to that of ch in church. We cannot be certain as to the exact date at which this further change took place but it had occurred before 900. CONTRACT VERBS; REVIEW OF SOUND CHANGES 107 ondraed bu <5e aeniges Binges. J)u hafast gecoren bone wer J?e me wel llca<5." He code Sa ut and beseah to Apollonio ond cwaeS, "Lareow Apolloni, ic smeade mmre dohtor modes willan; <5a areahte heo me mid wope betweox 6(5re spraece has bing bus cwettende, 'J)u geswore Apollonio, gif he wolde gehiersumian mmum willan on lare, baet bu woldest him geinnian swa hwaet swa seo sae him aetbraegd. Nu for Sam be he gehiersum waes blnre haese and mmum willan, ic for sefter him.' ' He code; the word He is not in the MS. At this point there is a great gap in the Old English version of the story of Apollonius; after the gap the story is resumed at a point not far from the end. In the Latin from which the Old English version was translated the rest of the story is as follows. After his marriage to the king's daughter Apollonius receives a message that Antiochus is dead and that the kingdom of Antioch is reserved for him. He, therefore, sets out with his wife for Antioch; during the voyage, however, she gives birth to a daughter and apparently dies. She is cast overboard in a chest and drifts to Ephesus, where she is found and resus- citated. She is then adopted as a daughter by the man who found her and becomes a priestess of Diana. Apollonius leaves his daughter, named Tharsia, at Tarsus with a friend Stranguillio and his wife to be educated. Stranguillio's wife, however, becomes jealous of her foster-daughter after a time and bribes a steward to kill her. But Tharsia is rescued from the steward by pirates, is taken to Mitylene and sold as a slave, and finally, after some distressing exper- iences, finds a protector hi Athenagora, the prince of the city. When, after fourteen years, Apollonius returns to visit his daughter, he is told by Stranguillio and his wife that she is dead. Broken-hearted, he leaves Tarsus and is driven by a storm to Mitylene. There he finds Tharsia and after her marriage to Athenagora sets out with her and his son-in-law for his own land. Being warned, however, in a dream to go to Ephesus, he goes there and is rejoined to his wife. After visiting Antioch and Tyre, Apollonius goes to Tarsus and punishes Stranguillio and his wife for their treachery. After that he lives in prosperity and happiness to an advanced age. REFERENCE GRAMMAR PHONOLOGY INDO-EUROPEAN, GERMANIC, WEST-GERMANIC, AND OLD ENGLISH SOUNDS Prefatory Note. A brief survey of IE and Gmc sounds is prefixed to the more extensive treatment of WGmc and OE sounds, in order that serious students may more easily familiar- ize themselves with the phonological processes that preceded Prim OE. Undergraduate classes in OE may omit or merely read the earlier parts of the Phonology. Abbreviations. The following terms frequently used in the Reference Grammar are referred to by means of the abbreviations in the accompanying parentheses: 1. Indo-European (IE), the hypothetically reconstructed parent language of Germanic, Latin, Greek, Sanscrit, etc. 2. Primitive Germanic (Prim Gmc), the hypothetically reconstructed parent language of the Germanic languages in its earliest period. 3. Germanic (Gmc), the same as the latter, at a period just before the separation of Gothic, Norse, and West Germanic. 4. West Germanic (WGmc), the hypothetically recon- structed parent language of Old High German, Old Saxon, Old Dutch, Old Frisian, and Old English. 5. Primitive Old English (Prim OE), the hypothetically reconstructed English language before, roughly, the year 500 A.D. 6. Prehistoric Old English (Prehist OE), the hypothetically reconstructed Old English language from about 500 to about 700, the latter being the date of the earliest MSS of OE. Ill 112 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Other abbreviations are: Sansc, Sanscrit Lat, Latin Gr, Greek Goth, Gothic NGmc, North Germanic ON, Old Norse OHG, Old High German Mod HG, Modern High German OS, Old Saxon OFris, Old Frisian OE, Old English * Mid E, Middle English Mod E, Modern English WS, West Saxon EWS, Early West Saxon LWS, Late West Saxon INDO-EUROPEAN VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS, AND CONSONANTS IN GERMANIC 201. Indo-European Vowels and Diphthongs. Indo-European had the following vowels and diphthongs: Short Vowels: a, e, i, o, u, a. 1 Long vowels: a, e, I, o, u. Diphthongs: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou. Long Diphthong: ei. 2 202. IE Short Vowels in Prim Gmc. (IE) (Prim Gmc) a remained a : Lat ager, Goth akrs, OE iccer, field. e " e : Lat fero, OS, OHG, OE beran, bear. \ " i : Lat piscis, Goth fisks, OE fisc, fish. o became a : Lat octo, Goth ahtau, OS, OHG ahto, eight. u remained u : Gr thura, OS duri, OE duru, door. 9 became a : IE *p3tgr, Goth fadar, OS fader, OE f icder, father. 1 A sound like a in Cuba. This sound is called "schwa." * There were other long diphthongs in IE, but this is the only one of impor- tance in Gmc. INDO-EUROPEAN SOUNDS IN GERMANIC 113 203. IE Long Vowels in Prim Gmc. (IE) (Prim Gmc) 1. a became 6 : Lat mater, OS modar, OE modor, mother. 2. e " a : Lat edi, Goth fr-et, ON at, OS at, OHG az, he ate. 3 3. i remained i : Lat su-inus (adj.), belonging to a pig; Goth sweins 4 ; OS, OHG, OE swin, swine, pig. 4. 6 remained 6 : Gr (Doric), p6s, Goth fotu, OE lot, foot. 5. u u : Lat sus: OHG, OE su, sow, pig. 204. IE Diphthongs in Prim Gmc. (IE) (Prim Gmc) 1. ai remained ai : Lat aes, Goth aiz, brass. 2. ei became I : Gr steicho, I go; Goth steigan, OS, OHG, OE stigan, go. 3. 01 became ai, thus falling together with original ai; Gr o7de; Goth wait, knows. 4. ail remained au : Lat auris, Goth auso, ear. 5. eu eii : Gr geuo, / give a taste of; Goth kiusan, 5 choose. 6. ou became au, thus falling together with original au: IE *roudhos ; Goth raups, red. 7. ei e 6 : IE *k6ita, OS, OE het, / commanded. IE CONSONANTS IN GMC 205. Grimm's Law. IE p, t, k ; bh, dh, gh ; b, d, g changed to certain corres- ponding Gmc consonants. 8 Gmc , a long low front vowel, became e in Goth, but became a in NGmc and WGmc. 4 In Goth ei spells i. 6 Gmc eu became Goth iu. 6 Gmc e (IE ei) is distinguished in NGmc and WGmc from Gmc & (IE e). but in Goth both e and are spelled alike (e). 114 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 1. p became f : Lat piscis, OE ftsc,fish; Lat pecus, OE feoh, cattle, money. 2. t became p 7 : Lat tu, OE pu, thou; Lat tres, OE preo, three. 3. k became h 8 : Lat cor (Gen. cordis), OE heorte, heart; Lat centum, OE hund, hundred. 4. bh became b 9 : Sansc nabhas, Gr nephele, cloud, OE nifol, dark. 5. dh became tJ 10 (>OE d): Sansc rudhiras, Goth raudai (Dat. Sing.), ON rauflr, OE read, red. 6. gh became g": IE *ghostis, Lat hostis, Goth gasts, OE giest, stranger, guest. 7. b became p: Lithuanian dubus, OE deop, deep; Old Bulgarian slabu, slack, OE shepan, sleep. 8. d became t : Lat decem, OE tien, ten. 9. g became k : Lat genu, OE cneo, knee; Lat ager, OE aecer, field. 206. The Law Operated in Three Stages : 1. IE voiceless stops (p, t, k) became the corresponding voiceless spirants (f, p, h). 7 |> is used here (as generally in works on phonetics) to signify the voice- less spirant, as in ModE thin. * Originally in Gmc this was a voiceless spirant, sounded like ModHG ch, as in ich, Nacht. * A bilabial voiced spirant somewhat like ModE v, which, however, is a labio-dental voiced spirant. (In Goth pronounced b, but spelled b.) 10 A linguo-dental voiced spirant like ModE th in then. (In Goth pro- nounced 9, but spelled d.) u A voiced spirant like 5 in North ModHG sagen, say. (In Goth pro- nounced , but spelled g.) INDO-EUROPEAN SOUNDS IN GERMANIC 115 2. IE voiced stops (b, d, g) became the corresponding voiceless stops (p, t, k). 3. IE voiced aspirated stops (bh, dh, gh) 12 became the corresponding voiced spirants (b, tJ, 5). Grimm's Law, as originally stated, included the further change of the Gmc consonants into the Old High German consonants. As now understood, this OHG consonant shift was an independent phenomenon. Not included in Grimm's Law are a number of late developments of Gmc consonants in the separate Gmc languages. 207. Verner's Law. One group of apparent exceptions to Grimm's Law deserves special treatment. IE p, t, k, s, in the middle and at the end of words did not always develop into what we should expect, namely Prim Gmc f, p, h, s^ Instead, we find Prim Gmc b, tJ, s, z, which developed into OE voiced f (i.e., v), d, g, 13 r. The theory which accounts for these apparent irregularities is known as Verner's Law. The irregularities themselves are due to peculiarities of the IE and Prim Gmc accent. 208. Accent in Indo-European and in Germanic. The Gmc accent was a fixed accent: that is, no matter what the inflectional form of the word, the primary accent was on the root syllable throughout. In IE, on the contrary, some words had the accent on the root syllable (e.g., Gr logos, word), some on the suffix or termination, (Gr hodos, road), and some had a variable accent, i.e., in some inflected forms it was on the root syllable, in some it was.on the suffix or termina- tion (Gr Nom. Sing, nfix, night, Gen. Sing, nuktos). This "shifting" or "variable" accent was a characteristic also of the most primitive Gmc until a period subsequent to the change of 12 That is, voiced stops followed by h. 11 OE back or velar g was identical in pronunciation with Gmc 5. 116 REFERENCE GRAMMAR IE p, t, k, to I, J>, h. In later Gmc, however, the accent shifted to the root syllable, where it remained in OE. 209. (a) Prim Gmc initial f, J>, h, s remained f, J>, h, s. (b) Prim Gmc f, J>, h, s immediately preceded by the accent remained f, J> h, s. Thus in Prim Gmc *fiska-, *]>inna-, "horna-, *sat, and in *hlefo, *werj>5, *fehu, *was, f, J>, h, s remained unchanged. 210. (c) Everywhere else, however, became b ; \> became 8 ; h became x; s became z; (OE f, d, g, r). Thus, in the 3d plural preterit indicative of strong verbs: (Prim Gmc) (Later Prim Gmc; (Gmc) (OE) *wurjmn> *wurtJun> *wur'5un wurdon *fluhun> *flusun> *flujun flugon *wasun> *waezun> *waezun waron PRIM GMC VOWEL CHANGES 211. Prim Gmc e became Gmc i under the following cir- cumstances: 1. e+nasal+consonant became i: Lat ventus, Goth winds, OS, OE wind, wind. 2. e followed by i, I, or j in next syllable, became i: Lat medius, Goth midjis, ON mitJr, OS middi, OE midd, middle. 212. Prim Gmc i followed by a, 5, or e in the next syllable, became Gmc e : Lat vir (IE *wiros), Goth wair, 14 OS, OHG, OE wer, 16 man. 213. Prim Gmc u became Gmc o when followed by a, e, or 6 in the next syllable, unless prevented by an intervening nasal 14 Goth ai spells e. In Goth every e became i except when followed by r, h, or bw. l$ The Prim Gmc (orm *wiraz became *weraz, from which came wer. GERMANIC SOUNDS 117 combination, or by an intervening i, I, or j. Prim Gmc *gul'5an became OS, OHG, OE gold, gold (cf. OE gylden, golden, *sattjan> *saettjan> *settian> settan 19 *lesjan> *lassjan> *laeggjan> *leggian> lecgan *habjan 20 > *habbjan> *hsebbjan> *hebbian > hebban *hazjan> *harjan> *haerjan> herian 21 WGMC SOUNDS 222. WGmc had the following vowels and diphthongs: Short vowels: a, e, i, o, u. Long vowels: a, e, i, 5, u. Diphthongs: ai, au, eo, iu. 223. WGmc had the following consonants: j, w, semi-vowels f, J?, h, s, voiceless spirants r, 1, liquids b, d, g, voiced stops m, n, o, 22 nasals b, 35, voiced spirants p, t, k, voiceless stops WGMC VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS IN OE 224. WGmc a. WGmc a became OE a? 23 when followed by h ; in all closed syllables; in open syllables unless followed by a, u, or 5; it did 18 Cf. Goth satjan, OS settian, OHG sezzan. zo In *habjan, the b was a voiced bilabial spirant, somewhat like ModE v (which, however, is a labio-dental). The result of gemmating this bilabial voiced spirant was -bb-, as in hebban. n -I- of herian represents the sound j, i.e., ModE y, B rj represents the ng in sing. M In the Mercian and Kentish dialects, under the same conditions, WGmc became e: deg, hefde. A similar change occurred in OFris: dei, heved. 120 REFERENCE GRAMMAR not change when followed by a nasal, or by w. 24 daeg, day; lucfde, had; aecer, field; slean (<*sleahan<*slaehan<*slahan). 225. WGmc a-f Nasal. WGmc a followed by a nasal did not become ae, but either remained a or was changed to o. 25 In the earliest OE MSS this sound is always spelled a; in EWS MSS (850-900) o is decidedly more frequent than a; in the LWS MSS a is almost universal: mann, monn, man; cann, conn, can. 226. WGmc e+m. WGmc e followed by m became OE i: 26 OHG neman, OE niman, take. 227. WGmc o. WGmc o in some words appears as OE u, 27 especially be- tween a labial consonant and 1: full, full; wulle, wool; wulf, wolf; fugol, bird. For the most part, however, WGmc o appears as OE o: folgian, follow; bolt, bolt; folc, folk. 228. WGmc o+ Nasal. WGmc o followed by a nasal became OE u : 28 OHG donar, OE bunor, thunder; OHG honag, OE liunig, honey. 24 WGmc a remained a in dagas, dagum; sadol, saddle; hand, hand; awel, awl. Sometimes WGmc a plus double consonant plus a, o, u remained a: lappa, skirt; mattuc, mattock. K This change occurred also in OFris: moo. 'This change occurred also in OS: niman. In OFris it did not occur. 27 This change occurred also in OFris and OS: OFris, OS full, full. 18 This change occurred also in OFris and OS: OHG coman, OFris kuma, OS kuman, OE cuman, come.- OLD ENGLISH SOUNDS 121 229. WGmc a. WGmc a became OE a, but remained a when followed by w, p, g, or k+back vowel: 29 OS latan, OHG lazzan, OE latan, permit. 230. WGmc a + Nasal. WGmc a followed by a nasal became OE o : 30 OHG manod, OE monab, month; OHG namun, OE nomon, they took; OHG quamun, OE comon, they came. Gmc a, as in Goth }>ahta (ohte from WGmc *J)ahta Gmc *JjanhtJe), see 230. 30 This change occurs also in OFris: nomen, they took. 31 This change occurs also in OFris and to a great extent in OS : Goth an]>ar, OFris, OS, OE 6j>er, other. 122 REFERENCE GRAMMAR became OE ie; otherwise the two sounds in OE would have fallen together into x. 233. WGmc au. WGmc au became OE ea : Goth hlaupan, OHG hlouffan, OE hleapan, run. 234. WGmc eo, iu. WGmc eo (see 214, 219) remained OE eo: OS liof, OE leof, dear; OHG deota, OE }>eod, people. WGmc iu became OE io: 32 OS liudi, OE liode, people. In EWS these two sounds, eo and io, were frequently levelled under eo, altho Io also appears frequently for either. In LWS, eo is practically universal for both sounds. WGMC CONSONANTS IN OE 235. WGmc r, 1, m, n, g (liquids and nasals); p, t, k (voice- less stops); b, d (voiced stops); (voiced spirant), remained unchanged in Prim OE; b (voiced spirant, see note 9 above) became voiced f, that is ModE v. 236. WGmc n or m, when preceded by a vowel and fol- lowed by f, p, or s, disappeared in OFris, OE, and partly in OS; the vowel preceding f, s, or p was lengthened. Cf. 231. 237. Final OE b became voiceless f; wif, woman; final g was frequently unvoiced, becoming h: stah, went (cf. stigan, stigon). 238. WGmc j. Initial j- remained unchanged, but was spelled g, ge, gi, or i: OHG jar, OE gear, year; OS, OHG Jung, OE geong, giong, iung, young. 32 When iu was followed by i, i, or j, it usually umlauted to ie: Prehist OE *biudij> became OE biett, he commands. OLD ENGLISH SOUNDS 123 Medial -j- remained between vowels, but was spelled g, ge: ciegan, ciegean, call. Medial -j- remained after a short syllable ending in -r, but was spelled, i, g, ig, ge, or ige: herian, hergan, herigan, hergean, herigean, praise. Medial -j- after a long syllable ending in a consonant became i, and was lost before the year 700: OS settian, OE I settan, set. Final -j remained after long vowels or diphthongs, but was spelled g: hieg, hedge. 239. WGmc w. Initial and medial w-, -w- remained: wenan, expect; blowan, bloom; beadwe, of a battle. Final -w after a vowel coalesced into a diphthong: WGmc *trew>OE treo, tree. SIMPLIFICATION or DOUBLE CONSONANTS 240. (a) Final double consonants were very frequently written single: mann, man, man; feorr, feor, far. (b) Medially, a double consonant adjacent to another con- sonant was simplified: Prehist OE *wendide>*wendde> wende, turned; *f ullide > *f yllde > f ylde, filled. PREHISTORIC OE CHANGES 241. A number of important sound changes, both vowel and consonant, occurred within the OE period, but earlier than the date of our oldest documents. 242. OE palatalization of s ()> k, gg, kk. Initial % (g) and k (c) were palatalized (or fronted) in Pre- historic OE by a following palatal vowel or diphthong. The palatalization was caused by: i, I, e, a e, ae, 33 or . io, eo, ea. M The short vowels i, e, and se at a later period "broke" to io, eo, and ea, if followed by certain consonants. Cf . 247. 124 REFERENCE GRAMMAR Palatalized s (|) fell together in sound with j- (in gear from WGmc *jar). Palatalized k (c) remained a front stop consonant in some dialects, but in WS underwent the further change to c (Mod E ch in church}. Illustrations: giellan, geaf, geafon, georn, geard, geotan. cirice, cinn, cidan, ceaster, ceorl, ciest, ceosan. 243. Prehist OE j, gg, k, kk, ok, and gg were palatalized in WS by a following i, i, or j : X became g: WGmc *bursi (Dat. Sing.) became OE byrg (often spelled byrig) city; WGmc *baujjan became OE biegan, bend. k became c (ModE ch) : WGmc "bisokjan became OE besecan, beseech; WGmc boci (Dat. Sing.) became OE bee, book. kk became cc (ModE ch) : WGmc *wikkjon became OE wicce, witch. SS became eg (ModE dg as in bridge); WGmc "hrujsjaz became OE hrycg, ridge. gk became nc (ModE nch): WGmc *bankjd became OE benc, bench. gg became ng (ModE nge as in singe}: WGmc *sangjan became OE sengan, singe. 244. Prehist OE final k (c) was palatalized by a preceding i or I : ic, /; die, ditch. 245. Prehist OE j (g) at the end of a word or syllable was palatalized by a preceding , a, e, e, i, or i : daeg, day, weg, way, stig (Imper. Sing.), go; halig, holy. BREAKING 125 246. Prehist OE j (g) was palatalized between palatal vowels: daeges; weges. 247. WGmc sk. WGmc sk was spelled sc in OE, but in WS developed into the sound of ModE sh as in shoe; OE scoh, shoe; scinan, shine; scunian, shun; scrud, garment. In both EWS and LWS the palatal character of this sound was frequently indicated in the spelling by the insertion of an e when the following vowel was velar: sceolon, shall; sceop, created; sceama, shame; fisceas, fish. It is possible, however, that this e represents an intermediate vowel or glide that developed between the palatal sc and the back vowel that followed. 248. Breaking. OE ae, e, i (front vowels) developed into diphthongs, or "broke," in a prehistoric period when followed by 1+consonant, r+consonant, or h. (See Chapter IX.) The diphthongs at first consisted of ae, e, or i+the glide sound u: icu, eu, iu. Later aeu became ea, eu became eo, 34 iu became io. 34 These diphthongs were short, and are to be distinguished from the OE long diphthongs ea, eo, io, which developed from the WGmc diphthongs au, eo, iu. e, i broke before 1+ consonant _only when the combinatioji was Ih; e also broke between s and Ic or If, e.g., aseolcan, become sluggish; seolf, self. a broke before 1+consonant only in Kent and eastern Wessex. In those dialects in which breaking did not occur, M In EWS MSS eo and io are frequently levelled to eo. In LWS eo is practically universal. 126 REFERENCE GRAMMAR the ae became a before 1+ consonant. Both ea and a occur in EWS: feallan, fallan, fall. LWS has only ea. Illustrations : 1. ae became ea: *faellan> feallan, fall; *aerm>earm, arm; *f aeht > f eaht, fought; *slaehan>*sleahan>slean, strike. 2. e became eo: *selh > seolh, seal; *werj>>weorj>, worth; *fehtan>feohtan, fight; *eh>feoh, cattle; *fehes (Gen. Sing.) >*feohes>feos. 3. i became io: *wirlrij> 36 (3d Sing. Pres.)>*wiorl>il>> *wierj>ib>wierj, becomes; *sihij>>*siohil>>siehl>, sees. 249. The OE long front vowels x, i were broken to ea, Io (eo), before h : 1. ae became ea: *nJeh>neah, near. 2. i became io, eo: *liht>lioht, leoht, light (adj.); *betwih> betweoh, between; *tihan>*tiohan>tion, teon, blame. 250. Diphthongisation by Initial Palatals. The initial palatals g, c, sc (see 242) caused a following e to diphthongise to ie, ae to ea, x to ea. (See Chapter X.) Illustrations: 1. e became ie (LWS i or y) : *g|efan> giefan, give; *sceran> scieran, shear. 2. ae became ea: *gaef>geaf, gave; *caester>ceaster, city; *scael>sceal, shall. 3. ae became ea: *ga?fon>geafon, gave; *gier>gear, year; *csece>ceace, cheek; *scaeron>scearon, sheared. 251. i-, i-, j- Umlaut. Every vowel and diphthong in Prehist OE (except ie, e, i, and i) was raised or fronted if an i, I, or j occurred in the f ollow- 15 i of *wirj>i|> came from e (Prim Gmc *werfril>) ; the change of Prim Gmc e to i was Gmc; see 211, 2; io became ie as the result of OE umlaut; see 251. I-UMLAUT 127 ing syllable. This change is commonly called "i-umlaut," sometimes "mutation." It was caused by the raising and fronting influence of the high front sound i, i, or j ; that is, a low or a back vowel was approximated to the position of a following high front i, i, or j. Illustrations : ae became e: *saettjan>settan, set; *aei>ee, fear. se+cons. group usually remained ae; *faestjan>faestan, make fast. a became e: *manni>maBnn>menn, men; *sandjan> sendan, send. a became a?: *hali>hael, health; *haljan>haMan, heal. o became oe>e: 36 *dohtri>*doehtri>dehter (Dat. Sing.), daughter. 5 became oe>e: 36 domjan>ddeman>deman, judge. u became y: 37 *ulljan>fyllan, fill. u became y: 37 *tunjan>tynan, enclose. io became ie (LWS i or y) : 38 *wiorpij>>wierpj>, becomes. 10 became ie (LWS i or y) : 39 *geHodjan> gejriedan, unite. ea became ie: *feallij>>fiell>, falls. ea became Ie: *hearjan>hieran, hear. 88 The back rounded vowels o, 5 were fronted to oe, oe (like ModHG b, o) as shown by the spelling oe in the earliest documents, as well as in the later docu- ments of some dialects. By 900 the sounds had been completely unrounded in WS to e, e. 37 The back rounded vowels u, u were fronted and became lip-rounded palatal vowels y, y (like ModHG u, u). In some dialects y, y were unrounded in the OE period to i, i. In the Southern dialect y, y remained rounded even in the MidE period. 38 In the non-WS dialects, and even to some extent in WS, io followed by r+consonant was not umlauted by a following i, i, or j : Angl., Kent., WS. iorre, angry; hiorde, shepherd; beside usual WS ierre, hierde. 89 In the non-WS dialects, and even to some extent in WS, io was not umlauted by a following i, i, or j: stioran, steer; liode, people (i-stem). 128 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 252. u-, O", a-Umlaut. About 700, the OE vowels a?, e, and i were, under some cir- cumstances (and in some districts), diphthongised to ea, eo, and io by u, o, or a in the following syllable. 40 This umlaut is similar to Breaking, in that the same vowels were affected, they developed into the same diphthongs, and the influence causing the development of the "glide" was a following back sound in this case a vowel. u-, o-, a-Umlaut is only partly present in pure WS. The umlaut of a appears only in Mercian and in Kentish (except in WS ealu. The influence of the u, o, or a operated freely thru an inter- vening liquid or labial (1, r, f, p); was somewhat restricted by an intervening dental (t, d, J>, s) or nasal; and was much restricted by an intervening velar (c, g). The umlaut was usually prevented by an intervening double consonant or by two consonants: swimman, swim; drincan, drink. WS illustrations: 1. a; became ea *aelu > ealu, ale. 41 2. e became eo (io): *herot > heorot, hart; *hefon>heofon, heaven. 3. i became io (eo) : *silufr > siolf or, silver; *sifun>siofun, seven. 40 Inasmuch as the vowel ae does not occur in WS when the vowel of the following syllable is u, o, or a, this umlaut could not take place in the WS dia- lect. At the time when the u-, o-, a- umlaut was operating, however, the Mer- cian dialect (and probably the Kentish dialect) had as before back as well as front vowels; we therefore have Mercian heafoc, featu, etc., as compared with WS hafoc, fatu, etc. In ealo, the single WS example of this umlaut of , the vowel ae was probably introduced into the nominative form alo from the dative singular *asleje, in which e was phonetically regular. 41 See preceding note. UNACCENTED VOWELS 129 UNACCENTED VOWELS 253. A peculiarity of the Gmc languages, already noted in the discussion of Verner's Law (see 208), is the fixed accent on the radical syllable. This accent being a strong stress accent, its presence on one syllable of a word resulted in the loss of accent on adjacent and near-by syllables of the word, altho often a secondary accent was retained, especially in the second element of compound words, such as bordweall, wis- faest. In general, however, the lack of accent on suffixes and inflectional endings resulted, in Gmc and in OE, in the weaken- ing or disappearance of vowels, and even of final consonants in unaccented syllables. 254. The history of IE and Gmc consonants and vowels in medial and final unaccented syllables is too lengthy and complicated for profitable discussion in an elementary book about OE. Two unaccented vowels, however, in the final position are of sufficient importance to compel attention. They are -I, and -6. 255. Gmc final -i preserved its original sound in OE long enough to umlaut a preceding vowel. About 700 it dis- appeared if preceded by a long syllable; if preceded by a short syllable, it became -e: thus in the i-stem nouns: *gasti> *gaesti > *geasti > *giesti > giest ; *wini > wine. 256. WGmc final -o became OE -u, thus falling together with original final -u, which occurs in the u-stems. About 700, final -u disappeared after a long radical syllable, but remained after a short radical syllable: WGmc *gefo>OE giefu; WGmc *lairo>Prehist OE *laru>OE lar; WGmc *feldu>OE feld; WGmc *handu>OE hand; sunu, duru, with short radical syllables, retain original -u. 130 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 257. When followed by a consonant in a final syllable, WGmc unaccented -5- often became a: Second weak verbs, 2d and 3d Sing. Pres. Indie., bodast, bodab, s, inOE. Initial and final Prim OE f, J>, and s remained voiceless in OE: fif, five; torn, thorn; wearj), became; sendan, send; waes, was. Medial f and s next to voiceless consonants remained voice- less: haeft, captive; faest, firm. Medial f, K and s between voiced sounds became voiced spirants, v, an, boil; nosu, nose. 262. WGmc h in OE. WGmc initial h was a simple breath, as in ModE horn. WGmc medial or final h was a voiceless spirant like ModHG ch in macht, makes, ich, /. Initial h in OE remained a simple breath, as in ModE: horn, horn. Medial -h- remained a voiceless spirant before a voiceless consonant: sohte, he sought. Final -h remained a spirant: gebah, he prospered. hs became ks (x) : weahsan, weaxan, grow. 132 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 263. Loss of Intervocalic h. 1. Intervocalic h disappeared about 700. The accented vowel or diphthong which originally preceded h absorbed the vowel which followed. a+vowel became a: *tahe became ta, toe. 5+ vowel became 5 : *fohu became fo, I seize; *fohan became fon, seize; *fohe became fo, I seize (subjunc.). ea+ vowel became ea: *heahes became heas, high (Gen. Sing.) eo+vowel became eo: *fleohan became fleon, flee. Io-f vowel became 10: *tiohan became tlon (teon), blame. A short diphthong was lengthened by the absorption of a following vowel: ea+ vowel became ea: *sleahan became slean, strike. eo+vowel became eo: *feohes became feos, property (Gen. Sing.). io+ vowel became io: *twioha became twio (tweo), doubt. ie+vowel became Ie: *iehe became ie, river (Dat. Sing.). Apparent exceptions to this change are 2d sing. pres. fehst, siehst (<*fohis, *siohis); 3d sing. feh|>, siehj>(<*fohij>, *siohi|>). The preservation of the originally intervocalic h is due here to the syncopation of the following vowel i, which took place before the disappearance of intervocalic h. 2. h between a liquid and a vowel also disappeared about 700. A short preceding diphthong is usually lengthened: ea became ea: *mearhes became meares, of a horse; *Wealhas became Wealas, foreigners. eo became eo : *feorhes became f cores, of a life; *seolhes became seoles, of a seal. LATE CHANGES IN VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 264. During the historic period of OE a number of changes took place in vowels and diphthongs. LATE VOWEL CHANGES 133 265. In EWS, ie or ie, no matter of what origin, and with- out regard to the adjacent sounds, frequently became i or i, beside which appears also ie or Ie. EWS giefan, gifan, give; nieht, niht, night; scieppend, scippend, creator; hierde, hirde, shepherd; wielm, wilm, welling; hleran, hiran, hear; gleman, giman, care for; fiend, find, foes; prie, pri, three. After w, however, ie frequently appears in EWS as y; e.g., wiertfe, wyrtJe; wierpp, wyrpp. In LWS, ie or ie usually appears as y or y, but sometimes, especially when followed by c, &, h, or s, as i or I. LWS yfan, wylm, hyran, gyman, fynd, pry. LWS hlihhan, laugh; niht, night; lig, flame; fryst, freezes; (EWS hliehhan, nieht, lieg, friest). 266. y or y which came from u or u by i-umlaut became LWS i or I thru the influence of a following palatal; hige, mind; bicgan, buy; pincan, seem; bricp 42 (brucan), enjoys, (EWS hye, bycgan, pyncan, brycp). 267. io and eo, the diphthongs resulting from Breaking, became, as early as 900, ie, i, or y before hs and ht : Gmc *sehs, EWS seox> WS siex, six, six; Gmc *reht, Prehist OE *reoht> WS riht, ryht, right; Gmc *cneht, Prehist OE *cneoht>WS cnieht, cniht, boy. In LWS the diphthong eo usually became u when it was preceded by w and followed by r plus a consonant: EWS weortJan, LWS wur'San, become; EWS sweord, LWS swurd, sword. 42 In bric]> (EWS brycj>) the c was palatalised, that is fronted, in Prehist OE, but probably did not undergo the further change to c. The change to c was hindered by the J) which followed the c after syncopation had taken place. See 242. 134 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 268. ea, the diphthong resulting from Breaking, often became EWS e before h: meahte, mehte, might; eahta, ehta, eight; feaht, feht, fought; seah, seh, saw. 269. ea, of whatever origin, sometimes became EWS e when preceded by c, g, or sc: ccaster, cester, city; forgeaf, forge!, forgave; sceal, seel, shall. 270. ea sometimes became EWS e when preceded by c, g, or sc: gear, ger, year; ongean, ongen, against; ceas, ces, chose; sceajr, seek sheath. 271. ea often became LWS e when followed by hj>, hs, or hg: *eag]>yrel, eh])yrel, window; heahsta, hehsta, highest; neahgebur, nehgebur, neighbor. 272. ea often became LWS e when followed by h, g, c: teah, teh, drew; ]>eah, |>eh, though; heah, heh, high; neah, neh, near; cage, ege, eye; eac, ec, also. 273. LWS gd, gn. In LWS, g between a short vowel and a voiced dental was frequently lost; the preceding vowel was lengthened: frignan became frlnan, ask; bregdan became bredan, move. MORPHOLOGY DECLENSIONS 301. The Old English declensions were historically the same as those of Latin, Greek, Sanscrit, Gothic, Old Norse, Old Saxon, and Old High German. 302. The Gmc noun in a prehistoric period was inflected by adding to a stem various endings which indicated case and number. A stem seems originally to have consisted of an element called a "base"or "root," to which usually was added a suffix consisting of a vowel (IE e, o, a, i, u), or of a consonant (r), w w or of a vowel plus a consonant (en, on, es, os, et, ot, etc.); some words in the IE languages had stems consisting of a base ending in a consonant to which the case endings were attached without an intervening suffix. The classification of nouns in school grammars of Latin does not conform to the scientific classification. The Lat "first" declension consists of IE a-stems; the "second" declen- sion of IE o-stems; the "third" of consonant-stems and i-stems; the "fourth" of u-stems. 303. The vowel stems can be clearly distinguished in Gothic, where, in the Ace. Plu., the case ending -ns (or -s) is added to the stem. It must be remembered that IE o became Gmc a, and IE a became Gmc o. 1. IE o, Gmc a-decl. Goth Ace. Plu. daga-ns, days. 2. IE a, Gmc o-decl. Goth Ace. Plu. gibo-s, gifts. 3. IE and Gmc i-decl. Goth Ace. Plu. gasti-ns, guests. 4. IE and Gmc u-decl. Goth Ace. Plu. sunu-ns, sons. 135 136 REFERENCE GRAMMAR CASE ENDINGS 304. IE had eight cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, Ablative, Instrumental, Locative. These cases were distinguished by case endings which were added to the stem. The IE case endings were so affected, however, by Gmc and OE sound changes that in OE the fact that the noun originally consisted of base, suffix, and case ending is usually much obscured. In some forms, e.g., OE Nom. Sing. dae& ( (monaj)-). DECLENSION NOUNS 137 2. Those consisting of a radical syllable ending in a consonant, to which were added the primitive case endings. The consonant stems of this second class end in any con- sonant (mann, f5t, hoc). 3. In addition to these, certain derivative consonant stems existed in OE which were originally present active participles which became nouns of the agent, as feond, hater, enemy. The stem of these nouns ends in -nd. Nouns MASCULINE AND NEUTER H-DECLENSION 307. The a-declension 1 consists of masculines and neuters. It includes a-stems, ja-stems, and wa-stems. MASCULINE a-SxEMS Monosyllables: stan, stone; daeg, day; mearh, horse; eoh, horse. Singular N. A. stan daeg mearh eoh G. stanes dteges meares cos D. I. stane daege meare eo Plural N. A. stanas dagas mearas G. stana daga meara D. I. stanum dagum mearum In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of stan was *stainaz. For the change from a to in the Sing, of deg, see 224. For the disappearance of h in the oblique cases of mearh, eoh, see 263. 1 The Gmc a-declension corresponds to the Lat and Gr "second" declen- sion (Lat servus, servos; Gr logos); it is sometimes called the "o-declension," according to the IE terminology. 138 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 308. Dissyllables: cyning, king; engel, angel; heofon, heaven; fugol, bird. N. A. cyning G. cyninges D. I. cyninge Singular engel heofon fugol engles heofones fugles engle heofone fugle Plural N. A. cyningas englas heofenas fuglas G. cyninga engla heofena fugla D. I. cyningum englum heofenum fuglum If the first syllable is long and if the second syllable is short, as in engel, as a general rule the vowel which appears in the second syllable of the Nom. Sing, does not appear in the in- flected forms. If both syllables are short, the vowel which appears in the second syllable of the Nom. Sing, sometimes appears and sometime does not appear in the inflected forms. NEUTER a-SxEMS 309. Monosyllables: lim, limb; faet, vessel; ban, bone; word, word; feoh, property. Singular N. A. lim faet ban word feoh G. limes faetes banes wordes feos D.I. lime faete bane worde feo Plural N. A. limu fatu ban word G. lima fata bana worda D.I. limum fatum banum wordum In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of lim was *limam. In monosyllables the ending -u of the Nom.-Acc. Plu. disappeared after a long syllable (see 256). For feos, feo, see 263. DECLENSION NOUNS 139 310. Dissyllables: tungol, star; waeter, water; tacen, sign; heafod, head. Singular N. A. tungol waeter tacen heafod G. tungles waeteres tacnes heafdes D. I. tungle waetere tacne heafde Plural N. A. tungol (-glu) waeter(-u) tacen(-u) heaf(o)du G. tungla \victera tacna heafda D. I. tunglum wtcterum tacnuni heafdum If the first syllable is long, and the second short, as in tungol, the vowel which appears in the second syllable of the Nom. Sing, generally does not appear in the inflected forms. MASCULINE AND NEUTER ja-SiEMS 311. Masculines: secg, man; here, army; ende, end. Singular N. A. secg here ende G. secges her(i)es endes D. I. secge her(i)ge ende Plural N. A. secg(e)as her(i)gas endas G. secg(e)a her(i)ga enda D. I. secg(e)um her (ij gum endum 312. Neuters: cynn, kin; rice, kingdom; westen, waste. Singular N. A. cyn(n) rice westen G. cynnes rices westennes D. I. cynne rice westenne Plural N. A. cyn(n) ricu westennu G. cynna rica westenna D. I. cynnum ricum westennum 140 REFERENCE GRAMMAR In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of secg and cynn were *sajjaz and *kunjam. The j umlauted the vowel of the preceding syllable, and geminated the final consonant (except r) if the vowel of the preceding syllable was short (see 251, 238, 221). The j dis- appeared except after r, as in Herges (see 238). In the Nom. Sing., secg and cynn, which exhibit no ending, had originally short radical syllables; while ende and rice, which exhibit the ending -e, had originally long radical syl- lables. In the Nom.-Acc. Neut. Plu., cynn, with no ending, had an originally short radical syllable; while ricu, with -u, had an originally long radical syllable. wa- STEMS 313. Masculines: bearu, grove; l>eow, servant. Singular N. A. bearu, -o |>eo(w) G. bearwes j>eowes D. I. bearwe J>eowe Plural N. A. bearwas freowas G. bearwa Jjeowa D. I. bearwum freowum In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of bearu and J>eow were *barwaz and *J>ewaz. When the ending -az was lost, -w became vocalized to -u, often written -o. The -u remained after a short syllable as in bearu. When the radical syllable ended in a short vowel, the -u combined with the vowel to form a diphthong. Thus Prim OE *]>ew>*J>eu> J>eo. The -w of fceow is by analogy with the oblique cases. In the oblique cases the original e of J>eow became eo thru the influence of the w that followed; this eo, which was originally short, was fre- DECLENSION NOUNS 141 quently lengthened to eo thru the influence of the nominative form J)eo(w). 314. Neuters: bealu, evil; cneo, knee. Singular N. A. bealu, -o cneo(w) G. bealwes cneowes D. I. bealwe cneowe Plural N. A. bealu, -o cneo(w), -wu G. bealwa cneowa D. I. bealwum cneowum In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of bealu was *balwam. FEMININE O-DECLENSION 315. The 6-declension 2 consists of feminine nouns only. It includes o-stems, jo-stems, and wo-stems. FEMININE o- STEMS giefu, gift; lar, wisdom. Singular Plural N. giefu lar giefa, -e lara, -e G. giefe la re giefa, -ena lara, -na, -en a D. I. giefe lare giefum larum A. giefe lare giefa, -e lara, -e In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of &iefu was *ebo. The Nom. Sing, ending -u was retained after a short syl- lable, but was lost after a long syllable (see 256). The ending -ena, -na of the Gen. Plu., which occurs in some words of this class beside the regular Gen. Plu. ending -a, is 8 The Gmc o-declension corresponds to the Lat and Gr "first" declension (Lat mensa-); it is sometimes called the "a-declension," according to the IE terminology. 142 REFERENCE GRAMMAR after the analogy of the n-stems. It occurs chiefly in words with short stems. 316. Dissyllables: firen, crime; sawol, soul. Singular Plural N. firen sawol N. A. firena, -e sawla, -e G. firene sawle firena sawla D. I. firene sawle firenum sawlum A. firene sawle In the Nom. Sing, no endings occur. If the radical syllable is long, as in sawol, the vowel of the second syllable of the Nom. Sing, generally does not appear in the inflected forms. FEMININE jo- STEMS 317. Monosyllables: synn, sin; gierd, rod. Singular Plural N. syn(n) gierd N. A. synna, -e gierda, -e G. synne gierde G. synna gierda D.I. synne gierde D.I. synnum gierdum A. synne gierde In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of synn was *sunjo. The j umlauted the radical vowel, and geminated the final consonant of a short radical syllable (see 251, 221). In Prehist OE *synnu the Nom. Sing, ending -u was then lost after the long syllable, as also in *gierdu, originally long (see 256). 318. Polysyllables: byrj>en, burden. Singular Plural N. byrfren byrj>enna, -e G. byrj>enne byrfrenna D. I. byrj>enne byrbennum A. byrjjenne byrfrenna, -e The j geminated the preceding consonant (see 221). DECLENSION NOUNS 143 FEMININE WO-STEMS 319. beadu, battle; mied, meadow; clea, claw. Singular N. beadu mad clea(w) G. beadwe madwe clawe D. I. beadwe mJedwe clawe A. beadwe madwe clawe Plural N. A. beadwa, -e mabdwa, -e clea G. beadwa mjcdwa clawa D. I. beadwum madwum cleam In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of beadu was *batJwo. In the Nom. Sing. *-wo became -wu, and w disappeared, because followed by the rounded vowel -u. Nom. Sing, -u was lost after a long syllable, as in mad (see 256). In the Nom. Sing, clea(w), *clawu>*clau>clea (see 233). The (w) is by analogy from the oblique cases. OTHER FEMININE NOUNS 320. Old English had also three groups of feminine nouns, of different history from the 6-stems, but usually showing in OE the same endings as the regular 6-stems. These nouns may, therefore, be considered here. FEMININE STEMS IN -ifco 321. Prim Gmc formed from adjectives a number of abstract nouns in -ij>5, e.g., *stranibo, OE streng))u, -o, strength. Singular Plural N. streng]?u, -o, strengl> strengl>a, -e, -u, -o G. strengfce, -u, -o streng^a D. I. strengj>e, -u, -o strengjmm A. strengj?e, -u, -o strengjja, -e, -u, -o 144 REFERENCE GRAMMAR In Prehist OE the radical vowel was umlauted and the medial vowel syncopated (see 251 ; 260, 4). In the Nom. Sing., the -u sometimes appears, sometimes not. The -u of the Nom. Sing, was often levelled into the oblique cases. FEMININE STEMS IN -in 322. Prim Gmc also formed abstract nouns from adjectives by means of the suffix -in. Cf. Goth braidei, Gen. Sing. braideins; ModHG Breite, breadth. In Prehist OE the -i of the stem was shortened to -i; i umlauted the radical vowel. But very early the nouns with this stem were remodelled after the analogy of the 5-stems, the suffix -in giving way to Nom. Sing, -u, -o, G.D.A: -e. Later the -u, -o of the Nom. was levelled into the other cases of the Sing. 4) bradu, breadth Singular Plural N. briedu, -o N. A. brseda, -e; -u, -p G. D. I. A. brde, -u, -o G. bneda D. I. bnedum FEMININE STEMS IN -ing-o, -ung-o 323. Prim Gmc formed abstract nouns in -ingo, -ungo, -ango, chiefly from second weak verbs. In OE the ending -ung has been generalized, so that -ing is of comparatively infrequent occurrence; -ang occurs rarely, if ever, in OE. leornung, learning Singular Plural N. leornung N. leornunga, -e G. leornunga, -e G. leornunga D. I. leornunga, -e D. I. leornungum A. leornunga, -e A. leornunga, -e DECLENSION NOUNS .145 i-STEMS 324. The i-declension includes masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns. In OE the great majority of original i-stems appear with the endings of a- or 6-stems throughout. Masculines: wine, friend; giest, stranger^ guest. Singular Plural N. A. wine giest wine, -as giestas G. wines giestes wina giesta D. I. wine giest e winum giestum In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of wine and giest were *winiz and *astiz. The -i of the stem umlauted the radical vowel (*jastiz>*|aesti>*geasti>*giest). Final -i was lost after p, long radical syllable, but remained after a short radical syllable (see 255). The endings -es of the Gen. Sing., -as of the Nom.-Acc. Plu., -a of the Gen. Plu., and -um of the Dat. Plu. are ana- logicrl endings from the masculine a-stems. A fo.. ^plurals, especially the names of tribes of peoples, retain the old ending -e of the Nom.-Acc. Plu: Dene, Danes; Engle, (the) English; Mierce, the Mercians; Northymbre, the Northumbrians; Seaxe, the Saxons. So also ielde, men; wine, friends; ielfe, elves; and liode, leode, peoples. A few words like Dene and wine sometimes retain the old Gen. Plu. Denigea and winigea. 325. Long Stemmed Feminines: cwen, queen. Singular Plural N. cwen cwene G. cwene cwena D. I. cwene cwenum A. cwen, (-e) cwene In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of cwen was *kwniz. 146 REFERENCE GRAMMAR The Ace. Sing, with no ending is a distinguishing mark of these nouns; the Ace. Sing, of Fern. 5-stems ends in -e. The short feminine i-stems went over to the 5-stems in Prehist OE, so that only the umlaut of the radical vowel discloses their original declension. 326. Neuters: spere, spear. Singular Plural N. A. spere speru, -o G. speres spera D. I. spere sperum The Gen. Sing, and all the cases of the plural are analogical formations after the neuter a-stems. 327. Long Stemmed Neuters : fliesc, flesh. Singular Plural N. A. fhesc fhcsc G. flicsces fliusca D. I. flaisce fl&scum Like fl;csc are declined a few long-stemmed neuters. Since the radical syllable is long, no endings occur in the Nom.-Acc. Sing, and Plu. u- STEMS 328. This declension includes masculines, feminines, and neuters. The great majority of these nouns appear, however, with the endings of the a- or 6-stems. Masculines : sunu, son; f eld, field. Singular Plural N. A. sunu, -o, -a feld suna felda, -as G. suna felda, feldes suna felda D. I. suna felda, -e sunum feldum DECLENSION NOUNS 147 In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of sunu was *sunuz. Only a small number of short-stemmed masculine u-stems are found in OE. Only sunu and wudu are fully declined. In long stems, like feld, the -u of the Nom.-Acc. Sing, has disappeared. 329. Feminines: Only a few feminine u-stems remain in literary OE: duru, door; hand (bond), hand; flor, floor; cweorn, mill. Singular Plural N. A. duru cweorn dura, -u cweorna G. dura cweorna dura cweorna D. I. dura, -u cweorna durum cweornum In Prim Gmc the Nom. Sing, of duru was *duruz. The long stems have lost the -u in the Nom-Acc. Sing (see 256). 330. Neuters: The neuter u-stems have all but dis- appeared in literary OE. The only trace is WS fela, ieola, much, indeclinable. CONSONANT STEMS ORIGINAL CONSONANT STEMS n-STEMS 331. The n-stems correspond to Latin nouns like homo, hominis; nomen, nominis. The n, which in OE looks like a case ending, belonged originally to the suffix which was added to the base of the word to form the stem (see 302, 306). The relation between the n and the case ending, however, is still ap- parent in the OE Gen. Plu. Masculines: hunta, hunter; frea, lord. Singular Plural N. hunta frea huntan frean G. huntan frean huntena freana D. I. huntan frean huntum frea(u)m A. huntan frean huntan frean 148 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 332. Feminine s : tunge, tongue. Singular Plural N. tunge tungan G. tungan tungena D. I. tungan tungum A. tungan tungan 333. Neuters: Only two words in OE are invariably declined according to this declension: cage, eye; eare, ear. wange, cheek, is sometimes inflected as a neuter n-stem. Singular Plural N. A. cage eagan G. eagan eagena D. I. eagan eagum NEUTER iz-, az- STEMS 334. The neuter iz-, az-stems 3 correspond to the Latin neuters like genus, generis. lamb (lomb), lamb. Singular Plural N. A. lamb lambru G. lambes lambra D. I. lambe lambrum Like lamb (lomb) are declined cealf, calf; x&, egg; and occasionally cild, child. In OE these words show the characteristic -r- ( 336. In OE only four nouns belonging to this declension are found: Masculines, haele, haele]?, man; monab, month; feminine, maege}>, maiden; neuter, ealu, ale. Singular N. A. haele, haele J> monab maeg(ej|> ealu G. hajlebes mdnabes nueg(e)}> ea\o\> D. I. haele^e monajje maegfe)l> ealoj? Plural N. A. haelel> rnona]) maeg(e)I> G. hjclejni mon(ejba macg(e)ba ealeba D. I. haele bum monfejbum maeg(e)bum 150 REFERENCE GRAMMAR The -J> is not phonetically regular in the Nom. Sing., but was levelled from the cases where it was regular. The old Nom. Sing, is preserved in haele and ealu. The Gen. Sing, ending -es of haelebes and monabes is from the a-stems. These two words also have Nom. Plu. in -as, haelej>as and monebas. ROOT CONSONANT STEMS 337. In this class the primitive case endings were attached directly to the final consonant of the root or base. The class includes masculines, feminines, and one neuter. Examples are: masculines, mann, man; fot, foot; feminines, b5c, book; burg, city. Singular N. A. mann fot boc burg G. mannes fotes boce, bee byrig D. I. menn let bee byrg, byrig Plural N. A. menn fet bee byrg, byrig G. manna fdta boca burga D. I. mannum fotum bocum burgum Other nouns belonging to this declension are to|>, tooth; Nom. Plu. teb, masc.; and gos, goose, Nom. Plu. ges, fem. In Prim Gmc the Dat. Sing, ended in -i (*foti), the Nom. Plu. in -iz. The -i and -iz were lost after umlauting the radical vowel (see 255). The umlauted forms of the Gen. Sing, in feminines, are historically regular; those of the Ace. Plu. in masculines and feminines are analogical after the Nom. Plu. 338. Neuter: The only neuter of this class is the word scrud, garment. Singular Plural N. A. scrud scrud G. scrudes scruda D. I. scryd scrudum DECLENSION PRONOUNS 151 The only trace of the original inflection in this word is the Dat.-Inst. Sing, scryd. Otherwise it is declined like a neuter a-stem. DERIVATIVE CONSONANT STEMS nd- STEMS 339. The -nd declension consists of original present partici- ples used as nouns : freond, friend; hettend, enemy. Singular N. A. freond N. A. hettend G. freondes G. hettendes D. I. friend, freonde D. I. hettende Plural N. A. friend, freond, freondas G. freonda D. I. freondum hettend, hettende, hettendas hettendra hettendum Prim Gmc Dat. Sing. *frijondi>Prehist OE*friondi > friend. Prim Gmc Nom. Plu. *frijondiz>Prehist OE *friondi > friend. The ending -e of the Nom. Plu. hettende is from the adjec- tive (pronominal) declension, as is also the ending -ra of the Gen. Plu. hettendra. Pronouns PERSONAL PRONOUNS 340. First Person. Singular Dual Plural N. ic wit we G. min uncer user, ure D. me unc us A. mec, me uncit, unc usic, us 152 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 341. Second Person. Singular Dual N. ]>u git G. \>ln incer D. be inc A. J>ec, Jje incit, inc Plural & eower, iower eow, iow eowic, eow, iow 342. Third Person. Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter N. he heo, hie G. his hiere, hire, hyre D. him hiere, hire, hyre A. hine hie, hi, hy hit his him hit Plural All Genders N. hie, hi, hy ; heo, hio G. hiera, hira, hyra ; heora, D. him; heom A. hie, hi, hy; heo, hio hiora REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 343. Old English did not have an independent reflexive pronoun. The corresponding forms of the personal pronouns were used for the reflexive pronoun. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 344. Possessive pronouns are declined as strong adjectives. They are: min, mine; Jrin, thin*; sin, his, her, etc.; uncer, of us two; incer, of you two; fire, fiser, our; eower, iower, your. In addition, the genitives of the third personal pronoun are used to indicate possession. DECLENSION PRONOUNS 153 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 345. The Demonstrative se, seo (sio), J>aet, that. Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter All genders N. se seo, sio baet Jja G. J>s bare J>aes Jjara, D. bairn, bam }nere {'aim, J)am bicni, A. J>one, bane, bane \>a Jjaet I>a I. ]>y, bon, \>e by, bon, J>e 346. The Demonstrative bes, beos (Hos) HS, Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter N. bes beos, bios Ha G. Jris(s)es bisse, Jns(se)re |>is(s)es D. bis(s)um J)isse, bis(se)re bisfs)um A. bisne bas bis I. bys bisse, bis(se)re bys Plural All Genders N. J>as G. bissa, J^eossa, bissera D. bis(s)um, bys(s)um, |>eos(s)um A. bas RELATIVE PRONOUNS 347. No relative pronoun existed in IE or Gmc. The relative clause construction was a late independent develop- ment in the separate languages. I. In OE the word be was used as a relative pronoun. It is found (a) by itself, e.g., se stan be, the stone that (the builders rejected}; 154 REFERENCE GRAMMAR (b) in combination with the various forms of se, seo, baet, e.g., Augustinum bone be hi gecoren haefdon, Augustine, whom they had chosen; (c) occasionally in combination with a form of the personal pronoun, e.g., Faeder ure, bu be eart on heofenum, Our Father, who art in heaven. II. The demonstrative se, seo, baet may be used as a relative pronoun, e.g., ba feng Nero to rice, se forlet Britena, then came Nero to the throne, who lost Britain. III. swylc, such, is sometimes used as a relative pronoun, e.g., he sece swylcne hlaford, swylcne he wile, let him seek such a lord as he may choose. IV. swa, so, as, is sometimes used as a relative, e.g., swylcra yrmba, swa bu unc aer scrife, of such miseries as thou before assigned to us. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 348. The simple interrogative pronoun has two genders, there being no independent form for the feminine. It is declined only in the singular. Masculine Neuter N. hwa hwaet G. hwaes hwaes D. hwjuni, hwam Invar in, hwam A. hwone, hwane, hwaene hwaet I. hwi, hwy, hwon hwi, hwy, hwon INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 349. OE has a variety of words used as indefinite pronouns. Interrogative pronouns are often used as indefinite pronouns: hwa (who?}, someone, anyone; hwaet (what?}, something, any- thing; hwelc, hwilc (which?}, someone; hwaeber (who of two?}, DECLENSION ADJECTIVES 155 someone. These pronouns are given a more general meaning by being used with swa . . . swa, e.g., swa hwa swa, whoever. 350. Other indefinite pronouns are made from hwa, hwaet, hwelc, hwaej>er by composition: (1) With the indeclinable hwugu, hugu: hwaet(h)wugu, something, hwelc (h)wugu, anyone. (2) With the prefix ge- : gehwa, everyone, ehwelc, everyone, |ehwaej>er, each of two. (3) With the prefix a- : ahwa, anyone, ahwaet, anything, ahwajfrer, awfrer, au}?er, ajjer, 6w|>er, either, each. (4) With the prefix naer, neither. (5) With the prefix ^er, any one. (6) With a-, 6-, or na-, no+wiht: awiht, ieuht, auht, aht, anything. owiht, owuht, oht, anything. nawiht, nowiht, naht, noht, nothing. (7) With the verb nat ("I know not") prefixed to hwa, hwelc: nathwa, nathwelc, anyone whatever (literally, 7 know not who, which). (8) Indefinite pronouns are made also from numerals: nan (< ne+an), no one; 6|>er, another, other. These, together with the indefinite swelc, swilc, such a one; sum, some one, are declined like strong adjectives. (9) The substantive man(n), one, they, people, men, is also used as an indefinite pronoun. Adjectives 351. For an explanation of the use of the strong and the weak adjective declensions, see Chapter VII, 77. 156 REFERENCE GRAMMAR STRONG DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES a-, O-STEMS 352. Short- stemmed adjective: sum, some. Singular 353. Masculine Feminine Neuter N. sum sumu sum G. sumes sumre sumes D. sumum sumre sumum A. sumne sume sum I. sume sumre sume Plural N. A. sume sumu, -e sumu, -e G. sumra sumra sumra D.I. sumum sumum sumum Long- stemmed adjective: god, good. Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter N. god god god G. godes godre godes D. godum godre godum A. godne gode god I. gode godre gode Plural N. A. gode goda, gode god, gode G. godra godra godra D.I. godum godum godum The ending -e of the Nom.-Acc. Plu. Neut. is after the analogy of the masculines and feminines. The Nom. Sing. Fern, and the Nom.-Acc. Plu. Neut. of god lost the final -u because of the long radical syllable. Forms like hwate, Nom. Plu. of hwaet, have a (instead of ae) by analogy with such plural forms as hwatu, hwata, hwatum. DECLENSION ADJECTIVES 157 354. Adjectives in -h: heah, high, Because of the disappearance of intervocalic h in OE, many forms of heah show contraction (see 263). Such are Nom. Sing. Fern, hea (<*heahu); Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. heas; Dat. Sing. Masc. and Neut. hea(u)m; Nom.-Acc. Plu. hea. Forms like Gen.-Dat. Sing. Fem. hea(r)re, Gen. Plu. hea(r)ra, Ace. Sing. Masc. hea(n)ne, frequently have -rr-, -nn-, by assimilation of -hr-, -hn-. 355. Polysyllabic Adjectives. Polysyllabic adjectives are to be divided into two classes: (1) those with short radical syllables, like manig, many, open, open, coren, chosen; (2) those with long radical syllables, like halig, holy, lytel, little, holpen, helped. (1) Those with short radical syllables retain the vowel of the second syllable throughout. The endings of the strong declension are the same as those of long monosyllabic adjectives like god, good. (2) Those with long radical syllables when declined strong usually do not retain the vowel of the second syllable if the endings begin with a vowel. Thus the strong Masc. Sing, of halig is declined Nom. halig, Gen. halges, Dat. halgum, Ace. haligne, Inst. halge. When declined weak, the vowel of the second syllable rarely appears. Thus the weak Masc. Sing, is declined, Nom. halga, Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. halgan (see 258, 260). The endings of the strong declension are the same as those of short monosyllabic adjectives like sum, some. Analogy: Forms like haliges, haligum, halite, haligan, are due to the analogy of forms like halig, haligne, which kept the vowel of the second syllable. ja-, JO-STEMS 356. In adjectives with stems originally ending in -ja, -jo, the -j- umlauted the radical vowel. When the radical syllable 158 REFERENCE GRAMMAR was originally short, as in midd, middle, nytt, useful, the final consonant had already been geminated in WGmc. Adjectives with originally short stems are declined like the a-, o-stem adjectives, e.g., god; adjectives with originally long radical syllables are declined like grene, green. 357. grene, green Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter N. grene grenu, -o grene G. grenes grenre grenes D. grenum grenre grenum A. grenne grene grene I. grene grenre grene Plural N. A. grene grena, -e grenu, -o G. grenra grenra grenra D.I. grenum grenum grenum 358. wa-, wo-stems: gearu, ready. Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter N. gearu, -o gearu, -o gearu, -o G. earwes gearore gearwes D. gearwum gearore gearwum A. gearone gearwe gearu, -o I. gearwe gearore gearwe Plural N. A. ^earwe gearwa, -e gearu, -o G. gearora gearora gearora D.I. gearwum gearwum gearwum i- STEMS 359. The i-stem adjectives, which were few in number, in OE take the same endings as the ja-, jo-stem adjectives like DECLENSION ADJECTIVES 159 grcne. Thus are declined bryce, brittle; gemyne, mindful; swice, deceitful; blij)e, joyful; clne, clean; swete, sweet, etc. U-SXEMS 360. Only slight traces of u-stem adjectives are found in OE. cwic, alive, and wlaec, tepid, occasionally have the Nom. Sing. Masc. cwucu, wlacu; and cwic sometimes has the Ace. Sing. Masc. cucune. As a rule, however, these adjectives are declined throughout like a-, o-stems. DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES 361. Present Participle. The present participle may be declined strong or weak. When declined strong, it is declined like a long-stemmed ja-, jo-stem. When used predicatively, the present participle is usually uninflected; giefende is used as masculine, feminine, or neuter, singular or plural. 362. Past Participle. The past participle is declined strong or weak in accordance with the same rules and with the same endings as an ordinary adjective. WEAK DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 363. goda, good. Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders N. goda gode gode N.A. godan G.D.I, godan godan godan G. godena, godra A. godan godan gode D.I. godum 160 REFERENCE GRAMMAR COMPARISON or ADJECTIVES 364. The suffix which forms the comparative degree of the adjective appears in OE as -ra. Prim Gmc used two suffixes, -iz- and -oz-, to which were added the case endings of the weak adjective. In WGmc, -iza became -ira, and -oza became -ora ; in Prehist OE -i- of -ira umlauted the vowel of the radical syllable. Most adjectives in Gmc and Prehist OE ended in -oza (-ora), but after the period of umlaut had passed, -ra ( < *-ira < *-iza) completely supplanted -ora. This is the reason for the prevailing lack of umlaut in OE adjectives on the one hand, and the regular ending -ra on the other. earm, poor earmra; leof, dear leof ra ; glad, glad glaedra ; gearu, ready gearora (-o-< vocalized -w-) ; neah, near neahra, nearra (-rr- from assimilation of -hr-). 365. Only a few adjectives in OE have umlaut of the radical syllable. brad, broad bnedra, beside bradra; eald, old ieldra; f eorr, far fierra ; geong, young gingra ; great, great grietra ; heah, high hiehra, hierra, beside heahra; lang, long lengra; sceort, short scyrtra. The comparative forms in OE were declined weak. THE SUPERLATIVE 366. The two suffixes which formed the superlative degree of the adjective appear in OE as -est and -ost. In Prim Gmc these suffixes were -ist and -ost. The ending -ost is the most frequent in literary OE. The adjectives which had the Prim Gmc ending -ist were comparatively few in number; they show umlaut of the radical vowel. Examples : (a) Superlative in -ost(a) ; earmost(a), leofost(a), glae- dost(a). DECLENSION ADJECTIVES 161 (b) Superlative in -est(a) ; ieldest(a), fierrest(a), gingest(a). The superlative forms in OE were frequently declined weak. IRREGULAR COMPARISON 367. In the case of some adjectives, the comparative and superlative are formed from a different root than that of the positive. god, good bet(e)ra, bettra bet(e)st(a); selra, sella. lytel, little l&ssa last(a). micel, great mara mest(a). yfel, evil wiersa wierrest(a), wierst(a). 368. In a few cases comparative and superlative adjectives were formed on the basis of prepositions and adverbs. In such cases the positive degree does not exist as an adjective. (feorr), far fierra fierrest(a) ; (neah), near near(r)a niehst(a) ; (ier), earlier ajrresta; (fore), before furfcra fyrest(a), the first. 369. forma, first (cf. fore, before}; hindema, hindmost (cf. hindan, behind); meduma, average (cf. midd, middle of), and other similar words, were originally superlatives formed with the suffix -umo. Many of these words have acquired thru analogy the ending -est, so that the superlative ending appears to be -mest. The comparative, when it occurs, usually ends in -erra. Most of the adjectives in this group are like those of the preceding group in that they are formed on the basis of prep- ositions and adverbs, and that no positive degree exists. (aefter), after afterra aeftemest(a) (east), eastward easterra eastmest(a) (fore), before forma, fyrmesta (hindan), behind hindema 162 REFERENCE GRAMMAR (inne), within (bet), late (midd), middle (nioj>an), below (norj>), northwards (sij)), late (suj>), southwards (ufan), above (ute), without innerra laetra norj^erra, nyrj>ra si bra suj>erra, sy];erra uferra, yferra uterra, yterra (west), westward westerra NUMERALS 370. The cardinal and ordinal follows: Cardinals 1. an 2. twegen, tu, twa 3. |>rie, J?rio, )?reo 4. flower, feower 5. fif 6. siex, six 7. siofon, seofon 8. eahta 9. nigon 10. tien, tyn 11. endlefan, -leofan, -lufan 12. twelf 13. t>reotiene, -tene, -tyne 14. feowertiene 15. fiftiene innemest(a) hutemesta meduma, medema, mid- mesta ni(o)J>eme8t(a) nor)>mesta si^emesta sunniest (a) ufemest(a), yfemest(a) ut(e)mest(a), yt(e)- mest(a) westmesta numbers in OE are as Ordinals forma, forme sta, fyrmest, fyrst, ;erest o|?er, aef terra J'ridda feower^a, feorjja fifta siexta seofojja, seofe)>a eahto^a, -e^a, -eo|?a nigo)>a, -ejja, -eo^a teo]>a endlefta, ellcfta twelfta J>reoteo|>a feowerteoj^a fifteo^a DECLENSION NUMERALS 163 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 30. 40. 50. 60. 70. 80. 90. 100. 110. 120. 200. 1000. siextiene seofontiene eahtatiene nigontiene twentig an ond twentij* feowertij* fiftig siextig (hund)seofontig (hund)eahtatig (hund)nigontig hundteontig, hund, hundred hundendlefantig, hundaelleftig hundtwelftig twa (tu) hund busend siexteoba seofonteoba eahtateoba nigonteoba twentigoba, -tigba, -tiga an ond twentigoba britigoba feowertigoba fiftigoba siextigoba (hund) seof ontigo J> a (hund)eahtigoba (hund)nigontigoba hundteontigoba hundendleftigoba hundtwelftigoba DECLENSION OF NUMERALS 371. an, one, which is sometimes a numeral and sometimes an adjective, is declined with the endings of the strong declen- sion of the adjective; the Ace. Sing. Masc., however, occurs in two forms, anne, and ienne (<*anina), the latter occurring more frequently. The Masc.-Neut. Inst. Sing, is iene or ane. Plural forms are used in the sense of only, and in the phrase anra gehwylc, each one. ana, declined weak, means alone. 372. twegen, two, is declined as follows: Masculine Feminine Neuter N.A. twegen twa tu, twa G. twega, twegra twega, twegra twega, twegra 164 REFERENCE GRAMMAR D.I. twium, twam twiem, twam tw#m, twam Like twe&en is declined bcgen, both; Fern, ba, Neut. bu, G. begra, D. b;em, bam. The forms of the N.-A. are used almost interchange- ably in all genders. Thus twa is feminine, but is sometimes used as a neuter, sometimes also as a masculine. With two nouns of different gender, the neuter form is usually employed. 373. Jme, three, is declined as follows: Masculine Feminine Neuter N.A. Jme, \>ri J>reo J>reo G. frreora J>reora }>reora D.I. }>rim |>rlm Jmm The other cardinal numbers are generally not inflected. They are chiefly used either as indeclinable adjectives or as nouns governing the genitive; for example, on fif dagum, in five days; J>riti daga, thirty days. 374. The ordinals, except 6|>er, are declined like weak adjectives, oj>er is declined as a strong adjective. Adverbs 375. Most adverbs in OE are formed from adjectives, or are case forms of adjectives or nouns used adverbially. 1. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives by the ending -e: heard, hard hearde, boldly. If the adjective ends in -e, the adverb is identical with the adjective; bli]?e, joyful blibe, joyfully. 2. Many adjectives were formed from nouns by the addition of the suffix -lie. Thus the noun freond, friend, was the basis of the adjective freond-lic, friendly. From such adjectives ADVERBS 165 were formed adverbs by the addition of the regular adverbial ending -e; thus freond-lic-e, in a friendly manner. The whole ending -lic-e then came to be felt to be an adverbial ending, and was freely attached to adjectives also; thus, eornost, earnest, was made into an adverb eornostlice. 3. Adverbs are formed from adjectives and other words by means of the suffixes -unga, -inga; eallunga, entirely, from call, all; holinga, slanderously, from holian, to slander. 4. The case forms of adjectives and nouns are frequently used adverbially. a. Ace. Sing.: call, altogether, completely; lytel, lyt, little; genog, enough; fyrn, gefyrn, formerly; full, fully; ealneg, always (<*ealne weg) ; and compounds of -weard, originally an adjective: upweard, upward; norp(e)weard, northward; and nij>erweard, downward. b. Gen. Sing.: daeges, daily, by day; or^ances, heedlessly; selfwilles, voluntarily. This -es then came to be felt to be an adverbial ending, and was added to feminines, as in niedes, needs, of neces- sity; nihtes, nightly, by night. The Gen. Sing, used adverbially was also combined with prepositions as in to-afenes, till even- ing; to-gifes, freely, gratis; to-middes, amidst, among. c. Gen. Plu. : geara, of yore. d. Dat.-Inst. Sing.: facne, very; sare, sorely; dae^-hwam, daily; micle, much. e. Dat.-Inst. Plu., especially in forms with -rmelum: geardagum, in days of yore, formerly; hwil-tidum, at times; prymmum, powerfully; drop-m&lum, drop by drop; stund- nuelum, now and then; stycce-mselum, here and there, piece- meal; miclum, very; lytlum, little. 166 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 376. The chief adverbs of place are the following: Rest Motion towards Motion from feorr(an), far feorr feorran foran, before fore foran her, here hider heonan hindan, behind hinder hindan hwier, where hwider hwanon inne, innan, within in(n) innan neah, near near nean mo pan, beneath niper niopan par, there pider )>anan, ponan uppe, up, above up(p) uppan ute, utan, outside fit utan 377. The suffix -an was added to other adverbs to signify motion from: sup, southwards, supan, from the south; eastan, norpan, westan, are thus formed. COMPARISON or ADVERBS 378. The comparative of adverbs ends in -or; swipe, exceedingly, swipor; georne, eagerly, eornor. The superlative ends in -ost, e.g., swipost, geornost. A few OE adverbs show traces of the comparative in -iz. These are monosyllables and can be recognised as comparatives only by the umlaut. Examples are: leng, longer; seft, softer; bet (<*batiz), better. These adverbs form the superlative in -(e)st: lengest, betst. XT (<*airiz), earlier, serest, earliest, though it has no positive, belongs to this group. Verbs 379. OE, like the other Gmc languages, has two kinds of verbs, strong and weak. CONJUGATION 167 The strong verbs form the preterit tense and the past par- ticiple by means of a change of the radical vowel (ablaut), e.g., Pres. Inf. findan, Pret. Sing, land, Pret. Plu. fundon, Past Participle, funden. The weak verbs form their preterit by means of a suffix containing d or t. The intensive and perfective prefix e- sometimes seems to be used as a past participial prefix. But e- is prefixed to so many verbs in the present and preterit, and is so frequently lacking in the past participle, that it cannot be regarded as a fixed past participial prefix. 380. The OE verb has (in addition to the infinitive and participles) three moods, the indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative. It has two tenses, the present and the preterit (or past), and each tense has two numbers, singular and plural. 381. To some extent new perfect compound tenses appear in OE ; they are formed by a combination of the past participle of intransitive verbs with wesan, of transitive verbs with habban: Du me forlsered haefst, Thou hast seduced me. Norbhymbre ond Eastengle hiefdon .^Ifrede cyninge abas geseald, The Northumbrians and East-Angles had given oaths to King Alfred. Da waes forft cumen geoc after gyrne, Then was come forth comfort after grief. 382. The OE verb has no special form for the passive voice. For this voice are used compound forms made by combining the past participle with beon, wesan, or weorban. Beon tJa oferhydegan ealle gescende, May the proud be confounded. }nes geares w&run ofshcgene nigon eorlas, That year were slain nine earls. 168 REFERENCE GRAMMAR J>aes geares wurdon nigon folcgefeoht gefohten, That year nine battles were fought. 383. The principal parts of a strong verb are the Infinitive, the Preterit Indicative 1 Singular, the Preterit Indicative Plural, and the Past Participle. The principal parts of a weak verb are the Infinitive, the Preterit Indicative 1 Singular and the Past Participle. STRONG VERBS 384. In OE, as in the other Gmc languages, there are seven classes of strong verbs (frequently called "ablaut series"), each of the first six classes being marked by a distinctive series of vowel changes. CLASS I 385. The OE ablaut of Class I was: I; a;i;i. The Prim Gmc ablaut was : I ; ai ; i ; i. Representative verbs are : bidan, await bad bidon biden bitan, bite bat biton biten drifan, drive draf drifon drifen gewitan, go ewat gewiton gewiten ridan, ride rail ridon riden risan, rise ras rison risen 4 stigan, go stab stigon stigen scinan, shine scan scinon scinen 386. Verbs showing grammatical change (see 208-210): sni'San, cut sna'8, snidon, sniden. liftan, go la"5, lidon, liden. scriftan, go scraS, scridon, scriden. 4 risan lacks grammatical change in the Pret. Plu. and Past Part. The s has been levelled from the first two forms into the last two. CONJUGATION STRONG VERBS 169 387. Contract Verbs: teon (<*tihan), censure J>eon (<*pihan), thrive wreon (<*wrihan), cover tah, tigon, tigen 5 }>ah, )>igon, pigen. 5 wrah, wrigon, wrigen. 5 CLASS II 388. The OE ablaut of Class II was: eo (u); ea; u; o. The Prim Gmc ablaut was: eu (u) ; aii; u; u. Representative verbs are: beodan, command bead budon boden ceowan, chew ceaw cuwon cowen creopan, creep creap crupon cropen dreogan, endure dreag drugon drogen geotan, pour gcat guton goten sceotan, shoot sceat scuton scoten 389. Verbs with u in the present: 8 brucan, enjoy breac brucon brocen bugan, bow beag bugon bogen lucan, lock leac lucon locen lutan, bow leat luton loten scufan, shove sceaf scufon scofen 390. Verbs with Grammatical Change: ceosan, choose ceas curon coren freosan, freeze freas fruron froren seo'San, boil sea's sudon soden dreosan, fall dreas druron droren leosan, lose leas luron loren 8 These verbs also form their principal parts according to Class II : teon, tcah, tugon, togen; Jcon, J>cah, )>ugon, bogen; wreon, wreah, wrugon, wrogen. I>eon also has some parts formed according to Class III: Pret. Plur. Jmngon, Past Part. Jwngen; see note 93, Chapter XXIV. 6 Verbs with u belong to a class called "aorist presents." 170 REFERENCE GRAMMAR 391. Contract Verbs: teon (<*teohan), draw fleon ( teah fleah CLASS III tugon flugon togen flogen 392. The Prim Gmc ablaut of Class III was: e; a; u; u. Strong verbs of Class III have a radical syllable ending in two_ _consonants, of which the first is nearly always a nasal (m, n) or a liquid (1, r) ; they fall into four sub-classes: 393. (1) Verbs with radical syllable ending in nasal plus consonant: bindan, bind band (bond) bundon bunden drincan, drink dranc (drone) druncon druncen gelimpan, happen gelamp gelumpon gelumpen (g clomp) irnan, run arn (orn) urnon urnen 7 onginnan, begin ongann ongunnon ongunnen (ongonn) singan, sing sang (song) sungon sungen swimman, swim swamm swummon swummen (swomm) winnan, strive wann (wonn) wunnon wunnen 394. (2) Verbs with radical syllable ending in 1 plus con- sonant: delfan, dig dealf dulfon dolfen gieldan, yield geuld guidon golden giellan, yell geall gullon gollen 7 In Gmc this verb was *rinnan, *rann, *runnun, *runnanaz. In Prehist OE occurred metathesis (transposition) of the r, resulting in OE irnan, arn, urnon, urnen. CONJUGATION STRONG VERBS 171 gielpan, boast gealp helpan, help healp meltan, melt mealt melcan, milk mealc swelgan, swell swealg gulpon hulpon multon mulcon swulgon golpen holpen molten molcen swolgen 395. Contract Verb: feolan (<*felhan), fealh pierce fulgon (fjelon 8 ) folen 9 396. (3) Verbs with radical syllable ending consonant : in r or h plus ceorfan, carve cearf f eohtan, fight f eaht hweorfan, turn hwearf weorpan, cast wearp curfon fuhton hwurfon wurpon corfen fohten hworfen worpen 397. With Grammatical Change: weortJan, become wearS wurdon worden 398. (4) Other Verbs: bregdan, move braegd swiftly berstan, 10 burst baerst 10 frignan, inquire, frasgn ascertain brugdon burston frugnon brogden borsten frugnen 8 Pret. Plu. felon is due to analogy with fourth ablaut series forms like st&lon. 9 Past Part, folen, instead of *olgen, is due to an early levelling of h from Pres. and Pret. Sing. *folhen then became folen. 10 In Gmc this verb was *brestan, *brast, *brustun, *brustanaz; *brast became OE braest; after the period of Breaking, occurred metathesis of r, resulting hi OE berstan, baerst, etc. 172 REFERENCE GRAMMAR murnan, 11 mourn mearn murnon spurnan, 11 spearn spurnon spornen tread down CLASS IV 399. The Prim Gmc ablaut of Class IV was: e; a; a; u. Strong verbs of Class IV have stems ending in a single consonant, nearly always a liquid (1, r) or a nasal. Representative verbs are: beran, bear bier bieron boren scieran, shear scear scearon scoren stelan, steal st;cl station stolen 400. One verb originally belonged to Class V: brecan, break braec bnecon brocen 401. Two verbs had a radical syllable ending in a nasal: niman, 12 seize, take nam nomon numen (ndm) (namon) cuman, 13 come com comon cumen (cwom) (cwomon) (cymen) 11 murnan and spurnan are "aorist present" verbs. 12 The i of niman is due to the OE change of WGmc e to i if followed by m (see 226). The 5 of nomon is due to the development of WGmc a to 5 if fol- lowed by a nasal (see 230); nom has 5 by analogy with nomon. The WGmc Past Part *nomanz became OE numen (see 228). 13 cuman appeared in Gmc as "cweman and as "cwuman, the latter form being an "aorist present." In WGmc w disappeared if preceded by a con- sonant and followed by u or o. Gmc *cwuman therefore became OE cuman. Pret. Plu. comon (<*cwomon) has 5 from WGmc a (see 226). com has 6 by analogy with comon. The Past Part, cumen was from WGmc *komanz (see 228). The Past Part, cymen developed from a form *cuminz (an alterna- tive Gmc and WGmc Past Part, ending *-inz existed beside *-anz). CONJUGATION STRONG VERBS 173 CLASS V 402. The Prim Gmc ablaut It should be observed that this is except in the past participle. Strong verbs of Class V have sonant which is neither a liquid verbs are: metan, measure giefan, give gietan, get specan, speak of Class V was: e; a; x; e. the same as that of Class IV stems ending in a .single con- nor a nasal. Representative mict geaf geat SpiCC spraec swaef tried sprecan, speak swefan, sleep tredan, tread wegan, carry 403. Two verbs with irregular Pret. Sing.: etan, cat xi biet(t), beodeb birb, berel> Plu. 1, 2, 3 bidafr beodaj) beraj> Preterit Sing. 1 bad bead baer 2 bide bude bsere 3 bad bead baer Plu. 1, 2, 3 bidon budon bieror SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 bide beode bere Plu. 1, 2, 3 biden beoden beren Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 bide bude biere Plu. 1, 2, 3 biden buden barren IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 bid hood ber Plu. 1 bidan beodan beran 2 bidah beoda]> beraj) Infinitive bidan beodan beran Gerund to bidenne, to beodenne, to berenne, -anne -anne -anne Pres. Part, bidende beodende berende Past Part, biden boden boren CONJUGATION STRONG VERBS 179 PERSONAL ENDINGS OF STRONG (AND OF FIRST WEAK) VERBS Present Indicative 418. 1st Sing, was Gmc -o. This became OE -u, which sometimes appears in the earliest MSS. After 800 the usual ending is -e, probably from the Subjunc. 1st Sing. 2d Sing, was Gmc -is. The -i- produced umlaut of the radical vowel, after which the vowel of the ending weakened, and the ending became -es. The -t of -es-t came from the frequent juncture with the postpositive subject -Jm, giving *-esl>u> *-estu> -est. In strong verbs (and long-stemmed first weak verbs) the -e- is usually syncopated in EWS, giving the ending -st (see 259. 1). 3d Sing, was Gmc -i|>. After producing umlaut the ending became -ej>. In strong verbs (and long-stemmed first weak verbs) the -e- is usually syncopated in EWS, giving -J> (see 259. 1). The Plu. ending was originally the Gmc 3d Plu. -an|>, which became OE -aj>. This ending was extended by analogy to the 1st and 2nd Plu. Plu. Indie, forms such as bide, beode, here, etc., occur when the subject is the 1st or 2d personal pronoun we, &e, wit, &it, if the pronoun follows the verb: bide we, beode &e. Present Subjunctive In the Sing, the Prim Gmc endings all became OE -e. In the Plu., the regularly developed ending of the 3d person, -en, was extended to the 1st and 2d persons. Preterit Indicative The 1st and 3d Sing. IE endings were lost in Prim Gmc. The 2d Sing, forms bide, bude, bare, etc., may be from the Subjunc. 180 REFERENCE GRAMMAR Gmc 3d Plu. -un became OE -on. As in the Pres. Indie., the ending of the 3d person was extended by analogy to the 1st and 2d persons plural. Forms like Pres. Plu. Indie, bide we, etc., occur in the Pret. also, but rarely: bide we, bude we, bjere we. Imperative The 1st Plu. -an is of obscure origin. The form is used as a hortative. It is usually supplanted by the Subjunc. -en. Gerund The Gerund was originally the Dat. of the Infin., Gmc *-anjai, which became OE -enne. The ending -anne has -a- by analogy with the Infin. -an. CONJUGATION or CONTRACT VERBS 419. The contract verbs, exemplified by teon, draw, seon, see, slean, strike, and fon, seize, are conjugated in the Pres. Indie., Subjunc., and Imper. as follows: INDICATIVE Pres. Sing. 1 too sco slea fo 2 tiehst siehst sliehst fchst 3 tiehj) si eh |? sliehj) feh}> Plu. 1, 2, 3 teofc seofr sleaj> fo|> SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. Sing. 1, 2, 3 teo seo slea 5 Plu. 1, 2, 3 teon seon slean fon CONJUGATION STRONG VERBS 181 IMPERATIVE Pres. Sing. 2 teoh seoh sleah foh Plu. 1 teon seon slean fon 2 teoj) seob sleaj? fob Infinitive teon seon slean fon Gerund to teonne to seonne to sleanne to forme For explanations of these forms, see Chapter XXIV. 420. The forms of the Pres. Indie. 2d and 3d Sing, of other contract verbs are as follows: Class I: l>eon: jnehst, Jnehl>; wreon: wriehst, wrieh|>. Class II: fleon: fliehst, fliehj>. Class III: feolan: fielhst, fielhj?. Class V: feon: fiehst, fiehl>. Class VI: J>wean: J>wiehst, J>wiehJ). Class VII: hon: hehst, hehj). SYNCOPATION AND ASSIMILATION IN STRONG VERBS 421. In the 1st and 2d Sing. Pres. Indie, of strong verbs the vowel of the endings -est, -e|>, is often syncopated, and a final d, t, J), or g of the radical syllable is assimilated, the resulting combination often being further simplified. Before syncopation took place, umlaut of the radical vowel, whenever it was capable of umlaut, had already occurred. But as the result of analogy, syncopated forms without umlaut and unsyncopated forms, both with and without umlaut, were developed. In WS the syncopated forms with umlaut are the prevailing ones. Verb 2d Sing. 3d Sing. bidan (I) await bitst, bidest bit(t), bide}) stigan (I) go stihst, stigest stih)>, stige}> beodan (II) command bfetst, beodest biet(t), beode}) ceosan (II) choose ciest, ceosest ciest, ceoseh 182 REFERENCE GRAMMAR bindan (III) bind helpan (III) help weorpan (III) become weorpan (III) cast beran (IV) bear cuman (IV) come etan (V) eat cwepan (V) say biddan (V) ask faran (VI) go standan (VI) stand hatan (VII) command healdan (VII) hold feallan (VII) fall teon (I) blame teon (II) draw seon (V) see slean (VI) strike fon (VII) seize bintst, bindest hilpst, helpest wierst, weorpest wierpst, weorpest birst, berest cymst, cumest itst, etest cwist, ewe pest bitst, bidest ficrst, fairest stentst, standest hietst, hatest hieltst, healdest fielst, feallest tiehst tiehst siehst sliehst fehst bint, bindep hilpp, belpej) wierp, weorpep wierpp, weorpep birp, berep cymp, cumep it(t), etep cwip, cwepep bit(t), bidep fterp, faerep stent, standep hait(t), hatep hielt, healdej) fielp, feallep tiehp tiehp siehp sliehp fehp 422. In the Syncopated forms: 1. A double consonant at the end of the radical syllable is simplified: feallan, fielst, fielp. 2. d before st becomes t : bidan, bitst. 3. d before p becomes t, p becomes t, and tt is simplified: bidan, bit. 4. t before p assimilates p to t, and tt is simplified: etan, it. 5. g before st or p becomes h: stigan, stihst, stihp. 6. p before st usually disappears, but may become t, or may be restored: cwepan, cwist; snipan, snitst, snipst. 7. p before p is simplified: cwepan, cwip. 8. s before st is simplified: ceosan, ciest (2d). 9. s before p gives st: ceosan, ciest (3d). CONJUGATION WEAK VERBS WEAK VERBS 183 423. Three classes of weak verbs are to be distinguished inOE. 1. Weak verbs of the first class had a prehistoric suffix con- taining -j- or -i-. Cf. Chapter XVIII. 2. Weak verbs of the second class had a prehistoric suffix containing -oj- or -6-. 3. Weak verbs of the third class had a prehistoric suffix containing -ai-. FIRST WEAK VERBS 424. Typical first weak verbs are conjugated as follows: fremman, make; deman, judge; nerian, save. INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 fremme dome nerie 2 fremest demst, demest nerest 3 fremej> deml>, demej) nerej> Plu. 1, 2, 3 freinmaj) demab neriaf) Preterit Sing. 1, 3 fremede demde nerede 2 fremedest demdest neredest Plu. 1, 2, 3 fremedon demdon neredon SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. fremme deme nerie Plu. fremmen demen nerien Preterit Sing. fremede demde nerede Plu. fremeden demden nereden 184 REFERENCE GRAMMAR IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 freme d cm nere Plu. 1 fremman deman nerian 2 fremmaj) deniaj) ncriaj) Infin. fremman deman nerian Gerund to fremmenne, to demenne, to nerienne, -annc -annc -anne Pres. Part. fremmende demende neriende Past. Part. fremed denied nered 425. First weak verbs had in Prim Gmc a prehistoric suffix which occurred sometimes in the form j, sometimes in the form i. In the Gmc forms from which the OE forms were derived j occurred in the Pres. Indie. 1st Sing., the Pres. Indie. Plu., the Pres. Subjunc. Sing, and Plu., the Imper. Plu., the Infin., Ger., and Pres. Part.; i occurred in the Pres. Indie. 2d and 3d Sing., the Pret. Indie, and Subjunc., the Imper. Sing., and the Past Part. Both j and i umlauted the vowel of the radical syllable. Wherever j occurred the final consonant (except r) of an originally short radical syllable was geminated. i, however, tho causing umlaut, did not cause gemination. For a detailed presentation, see Chapters XVII, XVIII. 426. A distinction is to be made between verbs with an originally short radical syllable like fremman, nerian ( gives tt, and tt is simplified: hedan, last (3d). 4. J> after t is assimilated to t, and tt is simplified: metan, mSt (3d). 5. s(s) before st is simplified: cyssan, cyst (2d). 6. s before \> gives st: cyssan, cyst (3d). 7. st before st gives st: fsestan, faest (2d). But in all verbs with long radical syllables we find frequently the endings -est, -el?, levelled by analogy from verbs with originally short radical syllables. Verbs like hyngran, hunger, timbran, build, efnan, level, seglan, sail, which have a radical syllable ending in a voiced consonant plus a liquid or nasal, do not exhibit syncopation. 430. II. In the preterit, syncopation of the vowel -e- (encan, think Kvncan, seem brengan, bringan, bring tealde sealde cwealde . stealde bohte cweahte, cwehte reahte streahte, strehte rahte, raehte tahte, tichte sohte worhte J)olite Jnihte brohte teald seald cweald steald boht cweaht, cweht reaht, reht streaht, streht raht, riuht taht, t;cht soht worht j>oht Jmht broht 433. Conjugation of tellan, count, secan, seek, bycgan, buy, J>encan, think, in present indicative: Sing. 1 telle sece bycge J>ence 2 telest secst, secest bygest J>encst, Jiencest 3 telej) seek secej) bygefr J>encJ>, bencejj Plu. 1, 2, 3 tellajj secaj) bycgal> henca}) SECOND WEAK VERBS 434. Second weak verbs in Gmc had a stem ending in -6-, as appears from Goth salbon, OHG sal bo n, anoint. In OFris, OS, and OE, however, the ending -jan (-jo, -janl>, etc.) is added to the stem *salbo-, giving Prehist OE *salbojan ; this, by umlaut of the 5, became *sealfejan>*sealfejan>*sealfijan>sealfian. CONJUGATION WEAK VERBS 189 435. The conjugation of bodiun, proclaim, together with the Prehist OE forms, follows: INDICATIVE Present Prehist OE OE Sing. 1 *bodoju bodie 2 *bodos bodas(t) 3 *bodoj> bodaj) Plu. 1, 2, 3 *bod5janj> bodiaj) Preterit Sing. 1 *bodode bodode 2 *bododes bododest 3 *bodode bodode Plu. 1, 2, 3 *bododun bododon, bodedon 22 SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. 1, 2, 3 *bodoje bodie Plu. 1, 2, 3 *bodojen bodien Preterit Sing. 1, 2, 3 *bodode bodode Plu. 1, 2, 3 *bododen bododen IMPERATIVE Sing. 2 *bodo boda Plu. 1 *bodojan bodian 2 *bodojanj> bodiaj) Infin. *bodojan bodian Gerund to *bod5jannje to bodienne Pres. Part. *bodojandi bodiende Past. Part. *bodod bodod 22 The middle vowel -o- often became e when the vowel of the next syllable was a, o, or u; it remained o, however, when the vowel of the next syllable was e. This explains the variation that we find between bodode and bodedon; and between heofones, Gen. Sing., and heofenas, Nom. Plur. 190 REFERENCE GRAMMAR THIRD WEAK VERBS 436. Third weak verbs in Gmc had a stem ending in -ai-, as appears in Goth 2d and 3d Sing. Pres. Indie, habais; habaij), have; Pret. habaida, had; OHG haben (<*habain). In OFris, OS, and OE the verbs originally belonging to the third class have been so widely and thoroughly influenced by analogy with the first and second classes that practically no traces of the Gmc conjugation remain. (1) Some verbs, like faestan, make firm, (cf. OHG fasten), have completely "gone over" to the first weak verbs. (2) Some verbs, like tilian, strive (cf. OHG zilen), have completely "gone over" to the second weak verbs. (3) Some verbs, like fylgean, folgian, follow, exhibit, in one set of forms, umlaut and the endings of the first weak verbs, as in fylgean, and, in another complete set of forms, no umlaut and the endings of the second weak verbs, as in folgian. (4) A few verbs, habban, have; libban, live; secgan, say; h vegan, think; and contract verbs like }>reagan, rebuke; freogan, free, are usually so conjugated in WS as to deserve to be regarded as still a separate conjugation. 437. The principal parts of frreagan, rebuke, and freogan, free, are: freagan j>reaile J>read freogan freode freod The present indicative forms are: j^reage, Breast, l>rea|>, Plu. breagaj>; freoge, frcost, freoj>, Plu. freogaj). 438. Conjugation of habban, have, libban, live, secgan, say: INDICATIVE Present Sing. 1 haebbe Hbbe, lif ge secge 2 haefst, bafast liofast saegst, sagast 3 ha-fj), hafaj) liofal> SiegK sagaj? Plu. 1, 2, 3 habba]?, ha:bbal> libba)?, lif a J> secga}) CONJUGATION WEAK VERBS 191 Preterit Sing. 1, 3 haefde Hide saegde 2 hardest lifdest saegdest Flu. 1, 2, 3 haefdon lifdon saegdon SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. luebbe libbe, lif ge secge Plu. haebben libben, lif gen secgen Preterit Sing. haefde Hfde sasgde Plu. haefden lif den saegden IMPERATIVE Present Sing. 2 hafa liofa saga, saege Plu. 2 habbah HbbaK lifgab secgaj) INFINITIVE habban libban, lif gan secgan PRESENT PARTICIPLE haebbende libbende, lif gende secgende PAST PARTICIPLE lucfd lifd saegd Forms with gemination (haebbe, libbe, secge, etc.) show that they derive from Gmc -j- forms, *habjai, *llbjai, *sa5Jai. 192 REFERENCE GRAMMAR Forms with -a- in the ending (hafaj), hafa, etc.) show that they derive from prehistoric -6- forms. Forms like haefde, hsefd, etc., are like such first weak forms as tealde, teald, which lack a middle vowel in the preterit and past participle. PRETERITIVE-PRESENT VERBS 439. The Preteritive-Present Verbs were originally strong verbs. The original strong preterits, however, have the mean- ing of the present tense in OE and other Gmc languages, while a new weak preterit has been formed to signify past time. For details see 175-177. 440. Since these verbs not only originally belonged to various classes of strong verbs, but still show the class to which they belong, they may be grouped as follows: Pret. 3 Sing. (New Weak Pret.) ahte wisse, wiste dohte uj>e cuj>e Jjorfte dorste sceolde munde meahte, mihte nohte moste Origi- Verb Pres. 3 Sing. Pres. Plu. nal (Old Str. (Old Str. Series Pret.) Pret.) I. agan, possess ah agon I. whan, know wat witon II. dugan, avail deag dugon III. unnan, grant ami, onn unnon III. cunnan, know, cann, conn cunnon be able III. Jmrfan, need l>eurf hurfon III. durran, dare dearr durron IV. sculan, be obliged sceal sculon IV. munan, remember man, mon munon V. magan, be able rmcg magon V. (ge)nugan, suf- neah nugon fice VI. motan, be per- mot moton mitted CONJUGATION PRETERITIVE-PRESENT VERBS 441. Conjugation of witan, cunnan, sculan, magan: INDICATIVE Present 193 Sing. 1 2 3 wat wast wat cann, conn canst, const cann, conn sceal scealt sceal maeg meaht maeg Plu. witon cunnon sculon magan Preterit Sing. 1 wisse, wiste cu^e sceolde meahte, mihte 2 cutest sceoldest meahtest, mihtest 3 wisse, wiste cu^e sceolde meahte, mihte Plu. wisson, wiston cubon sceoldon meahton, mihton SUBJUNCTIVE Present Sing. Plu. wite witen cunne cunnen scyle, scule scylen, sculen maege, muge maegen, mugen Preterit Sing. wisse, wiste cube sceolde meahte, mihte Plu. wissen, wisten cuben sceolden meahten, mihten 194 REFERENCE GRAMMAR IMPERATIVE Sing. wite Plu. witaj) Infm. whan cunnan sculan magan Gerund to witenne, to cunnenne, -anne -anne Pres. Part, witende cunnende magende Past Part, when cunnen, cu}> ANOMALOUS VERBS 442. The four "anomalous" verbs are thus termed because no one of them can be classified with any of the other groups of verbs. They are beon (wesan), be; don, do; gin, go; willan, will. beon, is, wesan 443. beon, is, wesan, were originally three independent verbs, with the IE roots *bheu, *es/os, *wes/wos, various forms of which became joined in Gmc to make a complete "composite" conjugation. INDICATIVE Singular Plural 1 eom;beo 1,2,3 sindon, sind, sint; beoj>; wesaj> 2 eart; bist 3 is; bi}> Preterit 1 waes 1, 2, 3 wron 2 ware 3 waes CONJUGATION ANOMALOUS VERBS 195 SUBJUNCTIVE Present 1,2,3 8ie;beo sien; beon Preterit 1, 2, 3 wscre wieren IMPERATIVE 2 beo; wes beoj>; wesab Infin. beon, wesan Pres. Part, beonde, wesende Gerund to beonne com, eart, is, belong to the IE base *es/os, which appears in Lat forms such as es-se, es, est. s-ind(on), etc., belong to the IE base *es/os, which appears in Lat forms such as s-unt. beo, etc., belong to the IE base *bheu, which appears in Lat forms such as fui. In the present indicative, com, eart, is, sindon are used to signify present time, beo, bist, bi|>, beoj) are used usually to signify future time. don 444. don, do: INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. Pret. 1, 2, 3 do dyde 1, 2, 3 don dyden Pres. Pret. Sing. 1 do dyde, djcde 2 dest dydest 3 deb dyde, dicde Plu. dob dydon, diedon 196 REFERENCE GRAMMAR IMPERATIVE Sing. 2 do Plu. 2 do|> Infm. don Pres. Part, donde Gerund to donne Past Part, don gan 445. gan, go. INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. Pret. Pres. Pret. Sing. 1 ga code 1,2,3 ga code 2 g#st eodest 3 gjej) code Plu. gab eodon gan codei IMPERATIVE Sing. 2 ga Plu. 2 gat Infm. gan Gerund to ganne Past Part, gan willan 446. willan, wish, will. INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. Pret. Pres. Pret. Sing. 1 wille wolde 1, 2, 3 wille wolde 2 wilt woldest 3 wile, wille wolde Plu. willajj woldon willen wolden Infin. willan Pres. Part, willende Gerund to willenne, -anne GLOSSARY The order of words is alphabetical; at and are placed between ad and af, J> and tS between t and u. Words containing a which interchanges with o (before nasals) are given with the a form. Strong verbs are distinguished by an arable numeral denoting the class to which they belong. Weak verbs are distinguished by W., followed by a Roman numeral indicative of their class. Preteritive-present verbs are marked PP, anomalous verbs A. The ab- breviations m., f., and n. stand for masculine, feminine, and neuter. a, adv., ever, always abeodan, ahead, abudon, aboden, 2, announce, offer, command ac, conj., but acwencan, W.I, quench adl, f., disease aecer, m., field, acre aefestfull, adj., envious aefestig, adj., envious sefestian, W.II, be envious letter, prep., after ssgber, adj., either, each aiht, f., property lc, adj., each eenig, adj., any air, adv., conj., formerly, before asrwacol, adj., early awake terest, adv., first set, prep., at, from; act niehstan, in the next place, thereupon jet, ton, see etan eteowian, W.II, show, appear jetiewan, W.I, show, appear a:tbregdan, aetbraegd, aetbrugdon, act- brogden, 3, take away <5ele, adj., noble feftelborenness, f., nobility of birth aet$eling, m., nobleman, king's son afeorsian, W.II, remove agan, ah, agon, ahte, PP., own agean, prep., against, towards ageotan, age at, aguton, agoten, 2, pour agieldan, ageald, aguldon, agolden, 3, pay, yield ahebban, ahof, ahofon, ahafen, 6, raise, lift up ahte, see agan aUedan, W.I, lead, bring aliefan, W.I, allow, grant amierran, W.I, destroy in, num. and indef. art., one; a, an; ana (weak form), alone and, conj., and andswarian, W.II, answer and s war u, f ., answer andweard, adj., opposite, present andwlita, m., face andwyrdan, W.I, answer anlic, adj., like anraldness, f., constancy araefnan, W.I, endure arasran, W.I., raise 197 198 REFERENCE GRAMMAR iris, see arisan areahte, see areccan areccan, areahte, areaht, W.I, tell aredian, W.II, prepare, find areodian, W.II, redden, blush arfajst, adj., merciful, kind, gracious arisan, aras, arisen, arisen, 1, arise arisen, see arisan am, see irnan ascian, W.II, ask asendan, W.I, send astreahte, see astreccan astreccan, astreahte, astreaht, W.I, stretch; prostrate oneself astyrian, W.I, stir, move, agitate attorn, m., son-in-law aweahte, see aweccan aweccan, aweahte, aweaht, W.I, awake a writ an, awrat, awriton, a writ en, 1, write awurtwalian, W.II, root up ixian, W.II, ask B bed, see biddan biernan, W.I, burn bteron, see beran bam, dat. plur., both bat, m., boat bat, see bitan be, prep., concerning, by, according to, beald, adj., bold bealg, see belgan beancodd, m., bean-pod bebeodan, behead, bebudon, bebo- den, 2, o/er, entrust, command, announce bebod, n., command .-, beboden, see bebeodan bebyrgan, W.I, bury bcclyppan, W.I, embrace becuman, becom, becomon, becumen, 4, become, come, happen, fall among bedd, n., bed befaestan, W.I, establish, entrust, apply behatan, behet, behcton, behaten, 7, promise; threaten belgan, bealg, bulgon, bolgen, 3, swell, become angry belocen, see belucan belucan, beleac, belucon, belocen, 2, lock benc, f., bench beod, m., table beon, wics, wseron, A, be bcorscipe, m., feast beran, baer, bicron, boren, 4, bear bereafian, W.II, rob bern, n., barn bescon, beseah, besawon, besewen, 5, see, look at, look up besorglan, W.II, be sorry for beswican, beswac, beswicon, be- swicen, 1, deceive, overcome betst, adv., best betweonum, prep., between betweox, prep., between betynan, W.I, enclose bebencan, bebohte, beboht, W.I, con- sider, bethink bebohte, see bebencan bewendan, W.I, turn biddan, baed, b;cdon, beden, 5, pray, ask, entreat bl spell, n., parable, example bindan, band, bundon, bunden, 3, bind binnan, prep., within GLOSSARY 199 bisig, adj., busy bit an, bat, biton, bit en, 1, bite bliss, f., joy, bliss blissian, W.II, rejoice blibe, adj., joyful, merry boccneft, m., book-learning boda, m., messenger bringan, brohte, broht, W.I, bring brobor, m., brother bryd, f., bride brydguma, m., bridegroom bur, n., chamber burhsittende, adj., city-dwelling buton, prep., without, except, outside of bycgan, bohte, boht, W.I, buy byrne, f ., coat of mail C camp, m., battle caru, f., care, trouble cealf, n., calf ce aster, f., city ceastergewaran, plur., citizens ceosan, ceas, curon, coren, 2, choose ciepan, W.I, sell, buy ciepend, m., merchant cild, n., child clipian, W.II, call cniht, m., young man, boy coccel, m., tares c5m, comon, see cuman craeft, m., skiU, power, strength, accom- plishment cruma, m., crumb cuma, m., stranger, guest cuman, com, comon, cumen, 4, come cunnan, cann, cunnon, cutSe, PP., be able, know how, know cwjcdon, cwaeb, see cwetfan cweartern, n., prison cwen, f., woman, queen cweftan, cwaeb, cwtedon, cweden, 5, say, speak cwide, m., saying, statement cwielman, W.I, kill, torment cynehelm, m., crown cynelic, adj., royal cyning, m., king cyssan, W.I, kiss cyban, W.I, make known D dted, f., deed ddbot, f., penance, reparation daeg, m., day dajghwamlice, adv., daily del, m., share, part dfelan, W.I, divide, give out dead, adj., dead deaS, m., death delfan, dealf, dulfon, dolfen, 3, dig deorweorb, adj., valuable, precious deorwierbe, adj., valuable, precious diacon, m., deacon debtor, f., daughter don, dyde, don, do, make dream, m., joy, noise of rejoicing dryht, f ., band of retainers dryhten, m., lord duru, f., door dwolma, m., empty space, chaos dyde, see don dyppan, W.I, dip dysig, adj., foolish E eac, adv., also cage, n., eye eala, oh!, alas eald, adj., old ealdormann, m., chief, nobleman, magistrate (the ealdormann of each 200 REFERENCE GRAMMAR shire was its chief judicial officer and the leader of its military forces; the scirgerefa or sheriff was merely his deputy) call, adj., all call swa, adv., even so, just as earm, m., arm earm, adj., poor eatJe, adv., easily ecg, f., edge, sword efenbeowa, m., fellow-servant efne, behold! eft, adv., again, back elcung, f., delay ele, m., oil elbeodigness, f., life in a foreign country ende, m., end engel, m., angel code, eodon, see gan com, first person pres. ind. of been eorl, m., chief, nobleman, magistrate (much the same as ealdormann) eorStilia, m., farmer, husbandman etan, xt, ;cton, eten, 5, eat faeder, m., father faeger, adj., beautiful fsemne, f., maiden faeringa, adv., suddenly fact, n., vessel tett, adj., /a* faran, for, foron, faren, 6, go feallan, feoll, feollon, feallen, 7, fall feawe, plur. adj., few feccan, fette, fett, W.I, fetch, bring fela, indecl. n., much, many f eng, fengon, see fon feohtan, feaht, fuhton, fohten, 3, fight feond, m., enemy feorlen, adj., distant, remote feorr, adj., far feorr, prep., far from feorran, adv., from afar feower, num., four feran, W.I, go fe"Sa, m., troop fif, num., five findan, fand (funde), fundon, funden, 3, find finger, m., finger fisc, m., fish fiscere, m., fisherman flota, m., sailor folc, n., people, tribe, folk folgian, W.II, follow, serve, join one- self to fon, feng, fengon, fangen, 7, seize, take, catch for, prep., for for \>xm, therefore, because for J>ajm J>e, because forbaernan, W.I, burn up forbugan, forbeag, forbugon, for- bogen, 2, turn away from, avoid fordon, A., destroy forgiefan, forgeaf, forgeafon, for- gief en, 5, give, forgive forgieldan, forgeald, for guidon, for- golden, 3, repay forgieman, W.I, neglect, despise forla-tan, forlet, forleton, forhuten, 7, leave, abandon, lose, release forleosan, forleas, forltiron, forloren, 2, lose, destroy GLOSSARY 201 forlet, forleton, see forlietan forliden, adj., shipwrecked forlidenness, f., shipwreck forniman, fornam, fornomon, for- numen, 4, seize, destroy forspillan, W.I, waste, destroy forb, adv., forth, out, on forbferan, W.I, die forbrysmian, W.II, strangle, choke forbteah, see f orbteon forbteon, forbteah, forbtugon, forb- togen, 2, bring forth, produce, exhibit forwandian, W.II, hesitate, reverence forwear'S, see forweortfan forweorftan, forwearb, forwurdon, forworden, 3, perish forwiernan, W.I, restrain, refuse fot, m., foot {ram, prep., from, by freond, m., friend frofor, m., consolation, help, joy fugol, m., bird fuhton, see feohtan fyr, n., fire G gaderian, W.II, gather g&lsa, m., wantonness, pride gin, code, gan, A., go gar, m., spear geajmettigian, W.II, be at leisure geaf , see giefan gear, n., year gearu, adj., ready geat, n., gate gebeorscipe, m., feast geberan, geba-r, gebicron, geboren, 4, bear gebidan, gebad, gebidon, gebiden, 1, wait, get by waiting, experience geblissian, W.II, rejoice gebrobru, m. plur., brothers gebyrd, f., birth gebyrian, .W.I, happen, be fitting, per- tain gecelan, W.I, cool geceosan, geceas, gecuron, gecoren, 2, choose geciegan, W.I, call gecneordness, f., accomplishment gecweman, W.I, please gecyban, W.I, make known gedaf enian, W.II, be fitting gedafenlic, adj., suitable, appropriate gedon, gedyde, gedon, A., do, ac- complish, cause, make geedcwician, W.II, revive geedniwian, W.II, renew, restore geendian, W.II, end geendung, f., end gefaran, gefor, geforon, gefaren, 6, go, get by going, experience gefeallan, gefcoll, gefeollon, ge- f eallen, 7, fall, happen gefon, gefeng, gefengon, gefangen, 7, take, seize, catch gefrefran, W.I, console, comfort gefyUan,W.I,^ gefyrn, adv., formerly gegaderian, W.II, gather gegodian, W.II, enrich, endow gegierela, m., garment gehabban, W.III, have gehieran, W.I, hear gehlersum, adj., obedient gehiersumian, W.II, obey gehyhtan, W.I, hope, trust 202 REFERENCE GRAMMAR geinnian, W.II, supply geinseglian, W.II, seal gehedan, W.I, lead, bring geheran, W.I, teach, educate gela'Sian, W.II, invite geleornian, W.II, learn gelic, adj., like gclice, adv., similarly geliefan, W.II, believe gelimp, n., happening, event, fortune gelimpan, gelamp, gelumpon, gelumpen, 3, happen gelufian, W.II, love gcmaecca, m., mate, husband gemengan, W.I, mix, combine gemetan, W.I, meet, find gemihsian, W.II, pity, show mercy ge mi It si end, m., pi tier genealjccan, geneahehte, geneahtht, W.I, approach geniman, genam, genomon, genu- nien, 4, take gcnoh, adj., enough, abundant geong, adj., young gerad, n., account, audit geradegian, W.II, call to an account gereord, n., food, feast gerestan, W.I, rest gesjtlig, adj., happy, blessed geszet, see gesittan gcsawon, see geseon gescrydan, W.I, clothe gescy, n., pair of shoes geseah, see geseon gesellan, gesealde, geseald, W.I, give, give up, sell geseon, geseah, gesawon, gesewen, 5, see gj gesettan, W.I, set, provide, establish gesittan, gesaet, gesteton, geseten, 5, sit, take a seat gesta'Selian, W.II, establish gesund, adj., unharmed, healthy geswencan, W.I., afflict geswcrian, geswor, gesworon, ges- waren, 6, swear gesyngian, W.II, sin get&can, getahte, getaht, W.I, teach, show geteon, geteah, getugon, getogen, 2, draw, train, educate getimbrian, W.II, build getrymman, W.I, prepare, strengthen gepencan, gepohte, gepoht, W.I, think gepyld, f ., patience gcpyldigian, W.II, be patient geunrotsian, W.II, be sad, make sad gewendan, W.I, turn geweorSan, gewearp, gewurdon, ge- worden, 3, become, be made, happen gewihte, n., weight gewilnian, W.II, desire gewisslice, adv., certainly gewistf ullian, W.II, feast gewisthecan, W.I, feast gewitan, gewat, gewiton, gewiten, 1, depart, go geworden, see geweortJan gewrit, n., writing, letter gewritan, gewrat, gewriton, gewriten, 1, write gewundian, W.II, wound giedd, n., song, speech, tale, saying giefan, geaf , geafon, gief en, 5, give giefu, f., gift, grace giernan, W.I, desire giesthus,?n., guesthouse, inn GLOSSARY 203 giet, adv., yet, still giestrandaeg, adv., yesterday gif, conj., if gifta, f. plur., marriage, wedding gingra, adj., comp. of geong gleaw, adj., wise glengan, W.I, trim, adorn God, m., God god, adj., good g5d, n., good, benefit, property gold, n., gold goldhord, m., n., treasury greada, m., bosom gretan, W.I, greet guma, m., man, warrior gylt, m., guilt, debt habhait, haefde, haefd, W.III, have haefde, hafdon, see habban hielend, m., savior haerfest, m., autumn, harvest lues, f., command haiben, adj., heathen hafoc, m., hawk hal, adj., whole, sound ham, m., home, dwelling hand, f., hand hatan, het, heton, haten, 7, command, name hatte, passive of hatan, be named he, heo, hit, pron., he, she, it heafod, n., head healdan, heold, heoldon, heal den, 7, hold healf, f., side, half heall, f., hall hcarpe, f., harp hearpenaegel, m., plectrum hearpestreng, m., harpstring hearpian, W.II, play the harp hefig, adj., heavy hell, f., hell helm, m., helmet heofon, m., heaven heofonlic, adj., heavenly heold, see healdan heonon, adv., hence heorte, f., heart her, adv., here herian, W.I, praise het, see hatan hlder, adv., hither hie, nom. ace. plur. of he, heo, hit hild, f., battle, war hliefdige, f., lady hlaf, m., loaf, bread hlaford, m., lord, master hlystan, W.I, listen, hear hnappian, W.II, sleep, nap hdn, heng, hengon, hangen, 7, hang hotd, m., n., hoard, treasure hrae?5e, adv., quickly hrieman, W.I, cry out bring, m., ring hu, adv., how hund, m., dog hund, n., hundred hungor, m., hunger bus, n., house hwa, hwaet, inter, and indef. pron., who, which, what; someone, some- thing hwr, adv., conj., where hwaet, see hwa hwiete, m., wheat hwanon, adv., whence hwelc, inter, and indef. pron., which, what kind of; someone hwon, adv., somewhat, a little 204 REFERENCE GRAMMAR hwy, inst. of hwaet, why hyrling, m., hireling, hired servant I ic, pron., 7 idelhende, adj., empty-handed ieldan, W.I, delay ieldra, adj., comp. of eald ierfcnuma, m., heir ierfeweardness, f., inheritance ierre, adj., angry ier 'Sling, m., farmer, plowman ilc, adj., same in, adv. and prep., in, into innan, adv. and prep., within inne, adv., within into, prep., into irnan, am, urnon, urnen, 3, run L lacnian, W.II, treat with medicine hece, m., physician liccehus, n., hospital hi-dan, W.I, lead, bring Iteg, see licgan la-ringimegden, n., (girl) pupil lies, adv., less; be lies be, lest la- tan, let, let on, lit ten, 7, let, permit, leave, abandon, cause to land, n., land lange, adv., long lar, f., wisdom, instruction, learning lareow, m., teacher, master leaf, f., permission lecgan, laegde, hegd, W.I, lay leng, adv., comp. of lange leof, adj., dear leoht, adj., light leohtfaet, n., lamp leornian, W.II, learn leornung, f., learning leotJ, n., song, poem libban, lifde, lifd, W.III, live liccian, W.II, lick licgan, laeg, hegon, legen, 5, lie lician, W.II, please liefan, W.I, allow, permit lieg, m., n., flame, fire lif, n., life lio", n., joint, limb lufian, W.II, love lufu, f., love lytel, adj., little lybre, adj., base, wkked M maBg, see magan maegden, n., maiden maegen, n., strength magan, maeg, magon, meahte (mihte), PP., be able man, indef. pron., one, they m a nig, adj., many mann, m., man mar a, adj., more mist, adj., most meahte, see magan mece, m., sword mod, f., reward, meed micel, adj., much, great, large mid, prep., with, accompanying, by means of; mid by be, when, because midd, adj., middle of mildheortness, f., mercy, pity miltestre, f., harlot, prostitute min, poss. adj., my, mine mislician, W.II, displease misbyncan, misbuhte, misbuht, W.I, appear incorrectly mod, n., mind, heart, courage, pride morgengiefu, f., gift from husband to wife on morning after wedding GLOSSARY 205 motan, mot, moton, moste, PP., be permitted murcnung, f., grief, complaint N na, adv., no, not, never nabban, contraction of ne habban nJefre, adv., never nJere, contraction of ne ware nara, namon, see niman nama, m., name nan, adj., pron., no, none, no one nat, contraction of ne wat ne, adv., not ne, conj,, adv., nor neah, adv., adj., near nemnan, W.I, name neod, f., desire, zeal, earnestness nese, adv., no niehst, adj., superlative of neah; *et niehstan, in the next place, there- upon nieten, n., animal niht, f., night niman, nam, nomon, numen, 4, take niste, contraction of ne wiste nolde, contraction of ne wolde Norbmann, m., Northman nu, adv., conj., now, now that O of, prep., from, away from, out of, concerning, of ofer, prep., over, above, concerning oferbrsedan, W.I, cover ofercuman, ofercom, of ercomon, of er- cumen, 4, overcome oferrsedan, W.I, read thru ofersawan, oferseow, oferseowon, ofer saw en, 7, sow over, oversow oferseow, see ofersawan ofslean, ofsloh, ofslogon, ofslagen, 6, kill oftriedlice, Sidv., frequently ofbyncan, of buhte, ofbuht, W.I, seem amiss, displease on, prep., adv., on, in, into, among onaMan, W.I, kindle, ignite, inflame oncnawan, oncneow, oncneowon, on- cnawen, 7, recognise, perceive, know ondril-dan, ondred, ondredon, on- d rid en, 7, fear onfeng, see onfon onfon, onfeng, onfengon, onfangen, 7, take, receive ongann, see onginnan ongean, prep., opposite, in front of, against, towards ongietan, ongeat, ongeaton, ongieten, 5, perceive, understand onginnan, ongann, ongunnon, on- gunnen, 3, begin ongunnon, see onginnan 08, prep., conj., up to, as far as, till, until ober, adj., second, next, other pening, m., penny (silver coin about the size of American dime) plantian, W.II, plant plega, m., quick movement, game, play plegian, W.II, play pund, n., pound (weight or money) purpure, f., purple robe R r&dan, W.I, read real, n., booty, wealth, dress 206 REFERENCE GRAMMAR reahte, see reccan reccan, reahte, reaht, W.I, explain, tell, count rice, n., kingdom, country ricelice, adv., sumptuously riper e, m., reaper riptima, m., time of reaping, harvest rose, f ., rose rudu, f., redness, blush sacerd, m., priest sic, f., m., sea sxd, n., seed segde, saegdon, see secgan sail}), f., happiness, good fortune saet, sieton, see sittan samcwic, adj., half-alive sang, m., song sar, n., pain, wound, grief sarlic, adj., painful sarlic e, adv., painfully, with grief sar ness, f., pain, grief sawan, seow, seowon, sawen, 7, sow seamiest, adj., modest scamu, f., shame, modesty scan, see scinan scatfa, m., criminal, thief sceafmaMum, adv., sheaf by sheaf sceolde, see sculan scinan, scan, scinon, scinen, 1, shine scipflota, m., sailor, pirate scop, m., scop, gleeman, poet scrud, n., dress, garment scrydan, W.I, dress sculan, sceal, sculon, scolde (sceolde), PP., be under obligation, owe, be about to se, seo, pat, demon, pron. and def. art., that, the sealde, see sellan seat$, m., pit, cistern, winevat seax, n., knife, short sword secan, sohte, soht, W.I, seek, visit, goto secgan, saegde, sajgd, W.III, say self, adj., self, same sellan, sealde, seald, W.I, give selest, superl. adj., best selr a, comp. adj., better sendan, W.I, send seolfor, n., silver seow, see sawan setl, n., seat settan, W.I, set simle, adv., always singan, sang, sungon, sungen, 3, sing sittan, stet, sieton, seten, 5, sit siJ>J>an, adv., conj., afterwards; after, since slacian, W.II, delay, put off she pan, slop, slepon, shi'pen, 7, sleep slepon, see shepan smeade, see smeagan smeagan, smeade, smead, W.III, investigate, inquire into smcarcian, W.II, smile sona, adv., immediately; s5na swa, as soon as sorg, f., sorrow sop, n., truth soplice, adv., truly, verily sped, f., success, opportunity, abun- dance, wealth spriec, f., speech standan, stdd, stodon, standen, 6, stand stefn, f., voice stiepel, m., tower GLOSSARY 207 stierc, m., calf stille, adj., at rest, silent stilness, f., quiet stow, f., place strict, f., road, street sum, adj., pron., some; someone, a certain one sunne, f., sun sunn, m., son swa, adv., so, as; swa hwfet swa, whatever swang, see swingan sweg, m., noise, sound, music swegcreft, m., musical skill, music swelce, adv., conj., likewise; as if sweord, n., sword swerian, sw5r, sworon, swaren, 6, swear swige, f., silence swigian, W.II, be silent swin, n., swine, pig swingan, swang, swungon, swungen, 3, beat, strike switSe, adv., exceedingly, very syngian, W.II, sin tcan, tahte, taht, W.I, teach, show ttelan, W.I, blame, censure tear, m., tear teon, teah, tugon, togen, 2, draw, pull teona, m., injury ticcen, n., kid tid, f., time, season, hour, day, occasion tlen, num., ten tilia, m., farmer, farm laborer tuna, m., time, occasion tintreg, n., torment tintregian, W.II, torture, torment to, prep., to, at to, adv., too todeg, adv., today togaedere, adv., together togeanes, prep., towards tun, m., enclosure, estate, farm tunge, f., tongue t we gen, twa, tu, num., two twentig, num., twenty tweonian, W.II, doubt twin, n., linen I \>H, adv., conj., then, when J>r, adv., conj., there, where fyxion, adv., thereon, therein ]>set, conj., that J>anclan, W.II, thank )>anon, adv., thence |>e, rel. pron., who, whom, which, that fceah, adv., conj., tho, altho; however, nevertheless Dearie, adv., severely, exceedingly )>egnung, f., service, retinue, meal, first course |>eow, m., servant ]>eow, adj., not free, serving |>eowa, m., servant l>eowian, W.II, sent \>es, )>eos, \>is, demon, pron., this J)in, poss. adj., thy, thine Jnng, n., thing; plur., business, affairs, property J>onne, adv., conj., then, when jjonne, conj., than \>ne, \>reo, num., three \>u, pron., thou Jjurh, prep., thru, by \>us, adv., thus Jmsend, num., thousand 208 REFERENCE GRAMMAR pylllc, adj., such pyncan, puhte, puht, W.I, seem, appear U undcrfon, underfeng, underfengon, underfangen, 7, receive nnderstandan, understod, understo- don, understanden, 6, understand unforwandiendlice, adv., without bash- fulness ungecnawen, adj., unknown nngelimp, n., misfortune ungewunelic, adj., unaccustomed unhold, adj., faithless, hostile unrot, adj., sad unstille, adj., restless up, upp, adv., up uppan, prep., on, upon fire, poss. adj., our, ours fit, adv., out uton, let us (with infinitive) W w;edla, m., poor man waestm, m., growth, increase, fruit, crop water, n., water wat, see whan wamb, ., belly, stomach we, nom. plur. of ic weall, m., wall wearp, see weorpan wear's, see weortSan weax, n., wax weaxan, weox, weoxon, weaxen, 7, grow, increase weg, m., way wel, adv., well welig, adj., wealthy welwlllendness, f., benevolence wenan, W.I, expect, hope, believe, think weorpan, wearp, wurpon, worpen, 3, cast, throw weortfan, wearp, wurdon, worden, 3, become, be made, happen weorpfull, adj., worthy, honorable weortJlic, adj., honorable weorfilice, adv., honorably weorpscipe, m., dignity, honor weox, see weaxan wer, m., man werod, n., multitude, troop, army wesan, waes, w&ron, 5, be, exist wierpe, adj., worthy, honorable wif, n., woman, wife wig, n., war, battle willa, m., will, wish willan, wolde, A, will, wish wilnian, W.II, desire, wish win, n., wine wingeard, m., vineyard wis, adj., wise witan, wat, witon, wisse (wiste), PP., know witega, m., prophet, wise man witnere, m., torturer witodlice, adv., truly, verily, certainly witS, prep., against, opposite, alongside of, by wiSfitan, adv., prep., outside wolde, woldon, see willan wop, m., weeping word, n., word wreclice, adv., in exile, abroad written, wrap, wripon, wripen, 1, twist, bind, wrap wund, f., wound wundrian, W.II, wonder GLOSSARY winning, f., dwelling Y wurdon, see weorSan yfel, adj., evil wynsum, adj., pleasing, pleasant yfel, n., evil wyrt, f., vegetable, plant, root yfele, adv., ill, badly ymbe, prep., about, concerning ymbsittend, m., neighbor r *>} . 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