LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. A6R1C . LIBRARY Class THE PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPER 3 Complete anD ^>taniarti simple and popular has yet to be supplied. We are not to the present time aware of any work we could put into the- hands of a person totally ignorant of poultry keeping, with the reasonable certainty that its instructions, if followed, would command success. Descriptions of breeds there are in plenty, some of them of great value ; but very little has been written respecting the practical details of even ordinary poultry management ; and with regard to two very important parts of the subject the breeding and rearing of poultry for exhi- bition, and artificial incubation absolutely nothing has yet been published in a connected form. To occupy this field is one object of the following pages ; which are the fruit of a thorough practical experience and knowledge of fowls, and will, we believe, be found a plain and sufficient guide to the merest tyro in any circumstances that are likely to occur to him ; whilst even experienced breeders, we hope, may also find hints which may be useful to them. Yet, whilst thus paying special attention to practical management, the different breeds have not been overlooked ; and viii PREFACE. of eveiy leading variety, at least, sufficient description has been given to answer every purpose of the fancier. Where we have permission to give them, the eminent names appended to the different chapters will be ample guarantee for the correctness of this portion of our work; but it is in every case to be under- stood that we do not rely alone upon our own careful study of the best specimens, but have the highest authority in each breed for every statement made respecting it. It is the more necessary to state this, because we have been compelled in a few cases to dissent from the well-known "Standard of Excellence " usually most reliable, and hitherto the generally recognised authority on this part of the subject. It only remains to thank those who have aided us, and placed their valuable experience and knowledge at the service of the public. Some of these are old friends : others are, or at least were, personal strangers. 'But in either case we feel plea- sure in recording that, in nearly every instance, any assistance requested has been accorded as frankly as it was asked, and has frequently led to after intercourse of a most pleasant kind ; and that to the cheerful and kindly aid of the most eminent breeders in the kingdom these pages owe much of whatever value they may have. Kingsdown, Bristol, January 31, 1867. SECTION I. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF DOMESTIC POULTRY, WITH A VIEW TO PROFIT. TO THE READER. THE pages of this Section are not intended simply to be read and commended ; but the directions given are such as are proper for the circumstances therein referred to, and are the price to be paid for health and eggs. For instance : when it is said that the roosting-house should be cleansed daily, it is meant that it should be done. When it is said that fowls in confinement should have daily fresh vegetable food, it is intended to convey that such food must be regularly given. And so on. Let the reader deal fairly by us and by his poultry. So will the latter deal fairly by him. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF J -' >iX GENEKAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. CHAPTER I. HOUSES AND RUNS; AND THE APPLIANCES NECESSARY TO KEEP- ING POULTRY WITH SUCCESS. FOWLS should not be kept unless proper and regular attention can be given to them ; and we would strongly urge that this needful attention should be personal. Our own experience has taught us that domestics are rarely to be relied upon in many matters essential both to economy and the well-being of the stock; and, if any objection be made on the score of dignity, we could not only point to high-born ladies who do not think it beneath them to attend to their own fowls, but can aver that even the most menial offices can be performed in any properly-constructed fowl-house without so much as soiling the fingers. If there be children in the family old enough to undertake such matters, they will be both pleased and benefited by attending to what will soon become their pets ; if not, the owner must either attend to them himself, or take such oversight as shall be effectual in securing not only proper care of his birds, but of his own meal and grain. If he be unable or unwilling to do at least as much as this, he had far better not engage in such an undertaking at all. The first essential requisite to success in poultry-keeping is a thoroughly good house for the birds to roost and lay in. This B 2 4: GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. does not necessarily imply a large one or a costly : we once znew a young man who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his own construction not more than three feet square, and a run of the same width, under twelve feet long. It means simply that the fowl-house must combine two absolute essentials be both perfectly weatherproof, and well ventilated. With regard to the first point, it is not only necessary to keep out the rain but also the wind a matter very seldom attended to as it ought to be, but which has great influence 011 the health and laying of the inmates. The cheapest material is wood, of which an inch thick will answer very well in any ordinary English climate; but if so built, the boards must either be tongued together, or all the cracks between them care- fully caulked by driving in string with a blunt chisel. Care should also be taken that the door fits well, admitting no air except under the bottom; and, in short, every precaution taken to prevent draught. The hole by which the fowls enter, even when its loose trap-door is closed, should admit enough air to supply the inmates, and the object is to have but this one source of supply, and to keep the fowls out of all direct draught from it. For the roof, tiles alone are not sufficient, and if employed at all, there should be either boarding or ceil- ing under them ; otherwise all the heat will escape through the numerous interstices, and in winter it will be impossible to keep the house warm. Planks alone make a good roofing. They may either be laid horizontally, one plank overlapping the other, and the whole well tarred two or three times first of all, and every autumn afterwards ; or perpendicularly, fitting close edge to edge, and tarred, then covered with large sheets of brown paper, which should receive two coats of tar more. This last makes a very smooth, weatherproof, and durable roofing, which throws off the water well. But, on the whole, we prefer board covered with patent felt, which should be 'tarred once a year. IMPORTANCE OF VENTILATION. 5 In the north of England, a house built of wood, unless arti- ficially warmed, requires some sort of lining. Matting is often used, and answers perfectly for warmth, but unfortunately makes a capital harbour for vermin. If employed at all, it should only be slightly affixed to the walls, and at frequent in- tervals be removed and well beaten. Felt is the best material, the strong smell of tar repelling most insects from taking up their residence therein. If a tight brick shed offers, it will, of course, be secured for the poultry habitation. But let all dilapidations be well repaired. Ventilation is scarcely ever provided for as it should be, and the want of it is a fruitful source of failure and disease. An ill-ventilated fowl-house must cause sickly inmates; and such will never repay the proprietor. This great desideratum must, however, as already observed, be secured without exposing the fowls to any direct draught; and for the ordinary detached fowl-houses, the best plan is to have an opening at the highest point of the roof, surmounted by a " lantern " of boards, put together in the well-known fashion of Venetian blinds. A south or south-east aspect is desirable, where it can be had ; and to have the house at the back either of a fire-place or a stable is a great advantage in winter ; but we have proved by long experience that both can be successfully dispensed with if only the two essentials are combined, of good ventilation with perfect shelter. "We do not approve of too large a house. For half-a-dozen fowls, a veiy good size is five feet square, and sloping from six ty> eight feet high. The nests may then be placed on the ground at the back, where any eggs can be readily seen; and one perch will roost all the birds. This perch, unless the breed kept is small, had better not be more than eighteen inches from the ground, and should be about four inches in diameter. A rough pole with the bark on answers V-est: the claws cling to it 6 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. nicely, and bark is not so hard as planed wood. By far the greater number of perches are much too high and small ; the one fault causing heavy fowls to lame themselves in flying down, and the other producing deformed breastbones in the chickens an occurrence disgraceful to any poultry-yard. The air at the top of any room or house is, moreover, much more impure than that nearer the floor. Many prefer a movable perch fixed on trestles. In large houses they are useful, but in a smaller they are needless. If the perch be placed at the height indicated, and a little in advance of the front edge of the nests, placed at the back, no hen-ladder will be required ; and the floor being left quite clear, will be cleaned with the greatest ease, while the fowls will feel no draught from the door. Besides the house for roosting and laying, a shed is neces- sary, to which the birds may resort in rainy weather. Should the house, indeed, be very large and have a good window, this is not absolutely needed ; otherwise it must be provided, and is better separate in any case. If this shed be fenced in with wire, so that the fowls may be strictly confined during wet weather, so much the better ; for next to bad air, wet is by far the most fruitful source, not only of barrenness, but of illness and death in the poultry-yard. If the space available be very limited say five or six feet by twelve or sixteen the whole should be roofed over; when the house will occupy one end of the space, and the rest will form a covered " run." But in this case the shed should be so arranged that sun-light may reach the birds during some part of the day. They not only enjoy it, but without it, although adult fowls may be kept for a time in tolerable health, they droop sooner or later, and it is almost im- possible to rear healthy chickens. Should the range be wider, a shed from six to twenty feet long and four to eight wide may be reared against the wall. Next the fowl-house will still, for obvious reasons, be the most CLEANLINESS. 7 convenient arrangement, and it is also best fenced in, as before recommended. The whole roof should be in one to look neat, and should project about a foot beyond the enclosed space, to throw the water well off. To save the roof drippings from splashing in, a gutter-shoot will of course be provided, and the wire should be boarded up a foot from the ground. All this being carried out properly, the covered "run" ought at all times to be perfectly dry. The best flooring for the fowl-house is concrete made with strong, fresh-slaked hydraulic lime and pounded "clinkers," put down hot, well trodden once a day for a week, and finally smoothed. The process is troublesome, but the result is a floor which is not only very clean in itself, but easily kept so. Trodden earth will also answer very well. The floor of the shed may be the same, but, on the whole, it is preferable there to leave the natural loose earth, which the fowls delight to scratch in. Cleanliness must be attended to. In the house it is easily secured by laying a board under the perch, which can be scraped clean every morning in a moment, and the air the fowls breathe thus kept perfectly pure. Or the droppings may be taken up daily with a small hoe and a housemaid's common dustpan, after which a handful of ashes or sand lightly sprinkled will make the house all it should be. There is another most excellent plan for preserving clean- liness in the roosting-house, for which we are indebted to Tlie Canada Farmer, and which is shown in Fig. 1. A broad shelf (a) is fixed at the back of the house, and the perch placed four or five inches above it, a foot from the wall. The nests are conveniently placed on the ground under- neath, and need no top, whilst they are perfectly protected from defilement and are also well shaded, to the great delighi of the hen. The shelf is scraped clean every morning with the greatest ease and comfort, on account of its convenient height, 8 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. and slightly sanded afterwards j whilst the floor of the house is never polluted at all by the roosting birds. The broad shelf has yet another recommendation in the perfect protection it affords from upward draughts of air. i. a Broad shelf, eighteen inches high. b Perch, four inches above. 9 Nests, open at top and in front. The covered " run " should be raked over two or three times a week, and dug over whenever it looks sodden or gives any offensive smell. Even this is not sufficient. Three or four times a year, two or three inches deep in fact, the whole pol- luted soil must be removed, and replaced by fresh earth, gravel, or ashes, as the case may be. Under the shed must be constantly kept a heap of dry dust or sifted ashes, for the fowls to roll in and cleanse them- selves in their own peculiar manner, which should be renewed as often as it becomes damp or foul from use. If chickens be a part of the intended plan, a separate com- POULTRY IN CONFINEMENT. 9 partment should be provided for the sitting hens ; but this will be further treated of in a subsequent chapter. Many "will wish to know what space is necessary. The " run " for the fowls should certainly be as large as can be afforded ; an extensive range is not only better for their health, but saves both trouble and food, as they will to a great extent forage for themselves. Very few, however, can command this ; and poultry may be kept almost anywhere by bearing in mind the one important point, that the smaller the space in which they are confined, the greater and more constant attention must be bestowed upon the cleanliness of their domain. They decline rapidly in health and produce if kept on foul ground. If daily attention be given to this matter, a covered shed ten or twelve feet long by six feet wide, may be made to suffice for half a dozen fowls without any open run at all. By employing a layer of dry earth as a deodoriser, which is turned over eveiy day and renewed once a week, the National Poultry Company have hitherto kept such a family in each pen of their large establish- ment at Bromley. These pens do not exceed the size men- tioned, yet the adult fowls at least are in the highest health and condition; and the company have, with birds thus confined, taken many prizes at first-class shows. Poultry-keeping is, therefore, within the reach of all. The great thing is purity, which must be secured, either by space, or in default of that, by care. Hardy fowls will sometimes thrive in spite of draughts, exposure, and scanty food ; but the strongest birds speedily succumb to bad management in this particular, which is perhaps the most frequent cause of failure. It should also be remarked that poultry thus confined will require a different diet to those kept more at liberty ; but this will be more fully explained in a succeeding chapter. If the run be on the limited scale described, diy earth is decidedly the best deodoriser. It is, however, seldom at the command of those who have little space to spare, and sifted 10 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. ashes an inch deep, spread over the floor of the whole shed, will answer very well. The ashes should be raked every other morning, and renewed at least every fortnight, or oftener if possible. Of course, the number of fowls must be limited . they should not exceed five or six, and unless a second shed of the same size can be allowed, the rearing of chickens should not be attempted. To those who can give up a portion of their garden, the following plan of a poultry-yard can be confidently recom- mended. It represents, with very slight modification, our own present accommodation ; and having tested it by experience, we are prepared to say that it is not only more convenient, more simple, and more cheaply erected than any plan on a similar scale we have seen, but, with the addition of a lawn on which the chickens may be cooped, is adapted to rearing in the highest perfection any single variety of either ordinary or "fancy" fowls. The space required in all is only twenty-five by thirty-five feet. If more can be afforded, give it, by all means; but we have found this, with very moderate care, amply sufficient, and we believe it will meet the requirements of a larger class of readers than any other we are acquainted with. The plan here given, it will be seen, comprises two distinct houses, sheds, and runs, with a separate compartment for sitting hens. The nests are placed on the ground at the back of the houses, and the perches, as before recommended, a foot in advance of them, and eighteen inches high. The holes by which the fowls enter open into the sheds, which are netted in, so that in wet weather they can be altogether confined. In dry weather the shed is opened to give them liberty. The fencing should be boarded up a foot high, not only to prevent rain splashing in, but to keep in when necessary young chickens, which would otherwise run out between the meshes. A walk in front of the sheds should be gravelled, and the ELEVATION A A Roosting and laying houses. B B Fenced-in covered runs. C C Shed and run for sitting hens. DD Grass runs. a a Nests. b b Perches. c c Holss for fowls to anter. 12 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. remainder of the open runs laid down in grass, which, if well rooted first, will bear the fowls upon it for several hours each day, but should be renewed in the spring by sowing when needed. The runs should be enclosed with wire netting, two inches mesh, which may be conveniently stretched on poles 1J inch square, driven two feet into the ground, and placed five feet apart. The height of the fence depends on the breed chosen. Cochins or Brahmas are easily retained within bounds by netting a yard high ; for moderate-sized fowls six feet will do; whilst to confine Game, Hamburghs, or Bantams, a fence of eight or nine feet will be found necessary. The netting should be simply stretched from post to post, without a rail at the top, as the inmates are then far less likely to attempt flying over. We do not like to see fowls with their wings cut. If their erratic propensities are troublesome, open one wing, and pluck out all the first or flight feathers, usually ten in number. This will effectually prevent the birds from flying, and as the primary quills are always tucked under the others when not in use, there is no external sign of the operation. The holes by which the fowls enter the houses should be furnished with trap doors, that they may be kept out at pleasure whilst either part is being cleaned. Each house must also have a small window. Having a shed at the side, ventilating lanterns will not be necessary, as the end will be attained by boring a few holes in the wall between the house and shedj towards the highest part of the roof. The compartment for the sitting hen may be walled in at the front or not ; for ourselves, we prefer it open. Her run may also be covered over or not, at pleasure. To have it in the middle, as here shown, we consider most convenient ; but in our own case this compartment is at the side, instead of between the two houses, which we built close together. This was rendered advisable on account of our shed having unavoidably a PLAN OF THE YARD. 15 due easterly exposure ; and by so arranging the premises that each inhabited house should have one adjoining, we ensured to both one comparatively warm side, and thus, in a measure, counteracted the evil. We give this little bit of personal experience in order that the reader may see the way in which varying considerations are to be weighed before a plan is finally determined on. Such a yard possesses many advantages. Two separate runs are almost necessary if the rearing of chickens forms part of the plan of proceeding. It is also in some respects convenient to keep two different breeds, as one may supply the deficiencies of the other; and many persons consider it advisable to separate the cocks and hens, except during the breeding season, believing that stronger chickens are obtained thereby. The need of the separate compartment for the sitting hens is further insisted on hereafter, but it has also other uses; being, when not so employed, often very convenient for the temporary reception of a pen of strange birds, for which there may be no other accommodation. Each run will accommodate from six to ten fowls, according to their size and habits. For those who purpose to engage in wholesale or prize poultry-breeding, more extensive designs will be given here- after; but enough has now been said to enable the intending poultry-keeper to select from the different plans here indicated the one best adapted to his particular situation, or, mayhap, to contrive a better one of his own. We have pointed out the essentials; and these being provided for, operations can be commenced, and it becomes necessary to determine upon the plan of proceeding. This, however, will be more fully treated of in the next chapter. 14 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP FOWLS. CHAPTER II. ON THE SYSTEM OP OPERATIONS, AND THE SELECTION OF STOCK WHEN poultry are kept as a branch of domestic economics, it will be obvious that the system to be pursued should vary according to the extent of accommodation which can be afforded, and to the object sought. Both these considerations should be well weighed before operations are commenced; and the plan then determined upon as best adapted to the circumstances should, as long as those circumstances remain the same, be consistently carried out and adhered to. It very frequently happens that a regular supply of eggs is the sole object in view, and that neither the time, trouble, nor space required to rear chickens with success can well be spared. If, for instance, a covered shed fenced in with wire, as described in the last chapter, with a small house at the end for roosting and laying in, be the sole accommodation for the fowls, to attempt rearing them would be folly ; * and yet they may be kept so as to yield a good return upon their cost and main- tenance. The proper plan in such a case will be to purchase in the spring a number of hens proportioned to the size of the run, and none exceeding a year or eighteen months old. A cock is useless ; as hens lay, if there be any difference, rather better without one, and where eggs only are wanted, his food is thrown away. All these birds, if in good health and condition, will either be already laying, or will commence almost imme- diately ; and if well housed, as in the last chapter, and properly fed, will ensure a constant supply of eggs until the autumnal moulting season. "Whenever a hen shows any desire to sit, the propensity must of course be checked not by the * It is not meant to be denied that chickens can be reared in such cir- cumstances, and that in good health and to a fair size. We have ourselves done so ; but it does not pay, and we do not intend to do it again. YOUNG BIRDS TO BE SELECTED. 15 barbarous expedient of half drowning the poor bird in cold water a process generally as ineffectual as it is cruel, but, having allowed it to sit on the nest for four or five days, by shutting it up in a dark place, with plenty of water, but rather scanty food. The best plan is to invert a small cask, of which the head has been removed, upon three bricks. A hole being bored near the top for ventilation, this will make a capital pen for a " broody " hen, the food and water being placed just under the rim. A few days of such confinement will take away all desire to sit from almost any hens but Cochins, which should not be kept, on that account, under the circumstances we are considering ; and in about a fortnight the fowl, if not older than we have recommended, will begin to lay again. To buy only young and healthy birds is very important. An experienced hand can tell an old fowl at a glance, but it is rather difficult to impart this knowledge to a beginner, for no one sign is infallible, at least to an uninitiated interpreter. In general, however, it may be said that the legs of a young hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles soft and fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless fattened for the table), rather light and graceful ; whilst an old one will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks, her comb and wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled out. But any of these indications may be deceptive, and the only advice we can give the reader is, to use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the "old look" He will soon do so, and need no further description. Directly these hens stop laying in the autumn, and before they have lost condition by moulting, they should, unless Hamburghs or Brahmas, be either killed or sold off, and re- placed by pullets hatched in March or April, which will have moulted early. These again, still supposing proper food and good housing, will all be producing eggs by November at furthest, and continue, more or less, till the February or March 16 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. following. They may then either be disposed of, and replaced as before, which we should ourselves prefer, as they are just in prime condition for the table ; or, as they will not stop laying very long, the best of them may be retained till the autumn, when they must be got rid of.* For if fowls be kept for eggs it is essential to success that every autumn the stock be replaced with pullets hatched early in the spring. By no other means can eggs at this season be relied upon, and the poultry-keeper must remember that it is the ivinter which determines whether he shall gain or lose by his stock in summer, if only kept moderately clean, hens will pay for themselves treated almost anyhow. The only exception to this rule is in the case of Cochins, Brahmas, or Hambiirghs, which will lay through the winter up to their second, or even third year. The stock to be selected, if a pure strain be chosen, are Hamburgh or Spanish ; either, in favourable circumstances, will give a plentiful supply of eggs, and give no trouble on the score of sitting propensities. The Spanish lays five or six very large eggs a week in spring and summer, but is not a hardy or free-laying breed for winter, and must have a warm aspect and perfect shelter from wind, if the supply is to be kept up. Hamburghs are tolerably hardy, and are capital winter layers j they also produce more eggs in a year than any other breed, laying almost every day except when moulting, and never wanting to sit ; but the eggs are rather small. More than four or five Hamburghs should not be put in a shed, and they must be kept scrupulously clean; with these conditions they will thrive, but few breeds suffer so much from filth or overcrowding. Brahmas may also be strongly recommended. As layers, they are in the very first class ; are very tame, and bear confinement well ; and the tendency to sit does not * That is, if the greatest amount of profit be the object sought. Tho question of " pets," and the pleasure to be derived from them, we are not considering. PUKE CREEDS BEST. 17 occur often enough to be troublesome, as in the case of Cochins. When there is a good wide range of any kind, nothing will be so profitable as a few Game hens, the black-breasted red variety being best The hens are as prolific as any breed whatever, and eat very little in proportion ; but they cannot be kept in close confinement on account of their fighting pro- pensities. For ourselves, we prefer pure breeds, or first crosses ; for after all is said on the superiority of mongrel fowls, where is the " barn-door " bird that will lay as many eggs as a Brahma or a Hamburgh ? Still, the cost of a good stock will stand in the way with many, and has to be taken into consideration ; and to those who cannot afford " fancy " poultry, it may there- fore be said once for all, that on the whole, equal success may be attained with ordinary or " barn-door " fowls. Care must be taken in the selection. They should be young, fair-sized, sprightly-looking birds, with plump, full breasts, rather short legs, and nice tight-looking plumage, after such a type as shown on page 171 j they ought also to be chosen from a country yard, where their parents have been well fed. If such be obtained, they will repay the purchaser, and are hand- somer and better every way than inferior birds of the " fancy " class. Of course, this remark does not apply to mere faults of colour. Fowls are often to be met with at a moderate price, which from some irregularity of feather are quite disqualified as show birds, but which possess in perfection all the other merits of the breed to which they belong. Let such be secured and prized by all means; but let it be also remembered and be- lieved, that nothing pays so wretchedly as to begin " poultry- fancying" with inferior stock, and that really fine fowls which never had a grandfather are any day preferable to " degenerate descendants from a line of kings." It has been already remarked that the Cochin breeds are c 18 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. excellent layers in winter, but that their invincible propensity to sit, which occurs every two months, or even less, is a fatal objection to their being kept by those who do not desire the care of young broods. If, however, the system adopted depend upon home-reared chickens to replenish the stock, one or two Cochin hens may be kept with great advantage, especially if the other fowls are Spanish or Hamburgh. The frequency of their desire to incubate now becomes a recommendation, as the owner can depend upon " a broody hen" at almost any season which may suit his views ; and if always parted with at the age of two years, they will not fail to maintain their deserved character as good winter layers. The number of such hens must depend upon circumstances. If it be only intended to replace from time to time the laying stock, or to hatch the eggs of non-sitting varieties, one or two Cochins will furnish more broods than will be required ; and when their services are no longer needed in this way, the desire to sit must be hindered as already described. In this case the eggs should be set in March or April, that the young pullets may begin to lay early. In proportion to the number of broods desired may the number of Cochins be increased ; and if a constant supply of chickens for the table be as it often is the main end in view, they may form a very considerable portion of the stock, and every hen may be set in turn. Their own eggs, of course, should not be given them if the chickens be for market, unless running with a Dorking, Houdan, or Crefvecceur cock, either of which crosses produces a gigantic table-fowl of very fair edible qualities. For home use, however, Cochins are not to be despised when killed anywhere under nine months old ; they carry an immense quantity of solid meat ; and if this be more in the leg than could be desired, it must be also remembered that the said leg, though certainly not equal to breast or wing, is more tender than that of most other breeds. On the whole, however, if a good stock can be afforded, CHOICE OP BREEDS. 19 and one or two broods of chickens yearly can be managed, we should, for domestic use, recommend Dark Brahmas. The light variety is also good, but the dark is the larger fowl, and looks best under confinement. If there be a double run, as described in Chapter I., the finest birds may be kept pure, and their eggs and progeny, when possible, sold at " fancy H prices ; whilst the hens which show faults of colour may be kept in the other run with a large coloured Dorking or CrSvecomr cock. From this cross table-fowls may be obtained which " look like young turkeys," and being hardy are easily reared. The flesh may not be quite equal to that of the game fowl in delicious flavour " the prince of all breeds " but it equals the Dorking, with greater size, and freedom from that very delicate constitution which often renders the latter an unprofitable fowl. Dorkings, notwithstanding, are not to be despised, and will do well if they have a fair-sized run, well gravelled, and free from wet, with a good dry shed to shelter in. If the supply of table poultry be a main point, no breed, except perhaps Houdans, will compare with this, the favourite fowl of the London market. When of good stock, they may be got up to an amazing size, and the quality of the meat is excellent. They are also most exemplary mothers, and in moderate weather produce a very fair quantity of eggs ; but are not very good winter layers, even when hatched early. In this respect they are excelled by the recently-introduced Houdans, which lay very freely, and are also most hardy fowls, whilst in size and quality of flesh they equal the Dorking, whose blood, though perhaps generations back, we believe them to share, as evidenced by the general form and the peculiar fifth toe. "We consider Houdans pre-eminently the breed for the farmer. They will ultimately be bred larger than even Dorkings, which they equal now; and their extreme hardiness, quick growth, and excellent laying, give us a fowl with nearly all the excellences and but little of the faults of the fine old English breed. c 2 20 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. On the whole, therefore, of the pure breeds, we should pronounce Houdans to be the farmer's, and Brahmas the family fowl, crossing the table-chickens from the latter with Dorking or not, according as there were one or two runs to keep them in. If a few eggs daily be the object, our own choice would be four or five spangled Hamburghs, provided there be a moderate run, or even a good-sized shed, and they be kept scrupulously clean and well sheltered from driving wind or rain. If the space be very limited, and economy be im- portant, we would select four or five red-faced Spanish, or, as they are now called, Minorcas ; they lay at least as well as their celebrated white-faced cousins, while they are far hardier in winter, and stand confinement very well ; their price, also, being often very little more than that of common hens. In de- fault of either of these, however, and if all be beyond the means of the speculator, we would undertake to show a satisfactory balance-sheet with any good, lively ordinary fowls. Let us, however, repeat again for nothing is so im- portant whatever be the breed selected, there must be every autumn a proportion, at least, regularly replaced by young birds hatched in the spring of the same year. This is the great secret of success, as far as system is concerned ; and if it be neglected, during winter an empty egg-basket will eat up all the summer's profits, and testify dismally to the improvidence of the owner. CHAPTER III. THE FEEDING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ADULT FOWLS. A JUDICIOUS system of feeding is very essential to the well- being of poultry, and has, of course, more direct influence upon- the profit or loss than any of the circumstances though equally important which we have hitherto enumerated. We- POULTRY USUALLY OVERFED. 21 shall, therefore, endeavour to give the subject a full, practical consideration. The object is to give the quantity "and quality of food which will produce the greatest amount of flesh and eggs ; and if it be attained, the domestic fowl is unquestionably the most profit- able of all live stock. But the problem is rather a nice one, for there is no "mistake on the right side" here. A. fat hen is not only subject to many diseases, but ceases to lay, or nearly so, and becomes a mere drag on the concern ; while a pampered male bird is lazy and useless at best, and very probably, when the proprietor most requires his services, may be attacked by apoplexy and drop down dead. That fowls cannot be remunerative if starved need scarcely be proved. Ex ntfiilo ni/iilJU ; and the almost daily production of an article so rich in nitrogen as an egg the very essence of animal nourishment muist demand an ample and regular supply of adequate food. \Ve say no more upon this point, knowing that the common mistake of nearly all amateur poultry-keepers is upon the other side that of over- feeding. The usual plan, where fowls are regularly fed at all, appears to be to give the birds at each meal as much barley or oats as they will eat ; and this being done, the owner prides himself upon his liberality, and insists that his at least are properly fed. Yet both in quantity and quality is he mistaken. Grain will do for the regular meals of fowls which live on a farm, or have any other extensive range where they can provide other food for themselves, have abundant exercise, and their digestive organs are kept in vigorous action. But poultry kept in con- finement on such a diet will not thrive. Their plumage, after a while, begins to fall off, their bowels become affected, and they lose greatly in condition ; and though in summer their eggs may possibly repay the food expended, it will be almost impossible to obtain any in winter, when they are most valuable. Even those who profess to correct such errors are not always 22 GENEBAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. safe guides. We have before us a work that stands high both in character and price, and is in many respects really valuable, in which, just after a caution against overfeeding, the editor gives five pounds of barley meal, ten pounds of potatoes, seven pounds of oats, three pounds of rice boiled, and three pounds of scalded bran, as a week's allowance for five hens and a cock " of the larger kinds " it is true. Now, at the lowest ordinary prices the cost of such a scale would amount to, at least, 4 4s. in the course of twelve months ; and taking eggs at the high average of a penny each all the year through, every one of the five hens must lay, at least, 200 eggs to repay the mere cost of their subsistence. When we say that 150 eggs per annum is as much as can be obtained from nine hens out of ten, it will be seen at once that poultry could not be made profitable did they consume so enormously; and, in point of fact, we had the curiosity to try this dietary upon six fowls " of the larger kinds," and found it rather more than double what was amply sufficient. The fact is, all fixed scales are delusive. Not only would Cochins or Crevecoeurs eat twice as much as many other sorts ; but different fowls of the same breed often have very different measures of capacity, and even the same hen will eat nearly twice as much while in active laying as when her egg-organs are unproductive. The one simple rule with adult fowls is, to give them as much as they will eat eagerly, and no more; directly they begin to feed with apparent indifference, or cease to run when the food is thrown at a little distance, the supply should be stopped. In a state of nature, they have to seek far and wide for the scanty morsels which form their subsistence ; and the Creator never intended that they, any more than human beings, should eat till they can literally eat no more. It follows, from this rule, that food should never be left on the ground. If such a slovenly practice be permitted, much of what IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT FEEDING. 23 is eaten will be wasted, and a great deal will never be eaten at all ; for fowls are dainty in their way, and unless at starvation point always refuse sour or sodden food. The number of meals per day best consistent with real economy will vary from two to three, according to the size of the run. If it be of moderate extent, so that they can, in any degree, forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, at least in summer, and should be given early in the morning, and the last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, these will be the principal meals ; but when the fowls are kept in con- finement, they will require, in addition, a scanty feed at mid-day. The first feeding should consist of soft food of some kind. The birds have passed a whole night since they were last fed ; and it is important, especially in cold weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible be got into the system, and not merely into the crop. But if grain be given, it has to be ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested ; and on a cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But for the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the best food which can be supplied ; it is digested slowly, and during the long cold nights affords support and warmth to the fowls. A great deal depends upon this system of feeding, which we are aware is opposed to the practice of many, who give grain for the breakfast, and meal, if at all, at night. We believe such a system to be usually adopted from indolence ; it is easier to throw down dry grain in a winter's morning than to properly prepare a feed of meal, which is accordingly given at night instead. Fowls so treated, however, are much more subject to roup and other diseases caused by inclement weather than those fed upon the system we recommend a system not only in accordance with theory and our own experience, but with that of the most successful breeders. Let the sceptical 24 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. reader make one simple experiment. Give the fowls a feed of meal, say at five o'clock in the evening ; at twelve visit the roosts, and feel the crops of the poor birds. All will be empty ; the gizzard has nothing to act upon, and the food speedily disappears, leaving with an empty stomach, to cope with the long cold hours before dawn, the most hungry and incessant feeder of all God's creatures ; but if the last feed has been grain, the crop will still be found partially full, and the birds will awake in the morning hearty, strengthened, and refreshed. With respect to the morning meal of pultaceous food, when only a few fowls are kept, to supply eggs for a moderate family, this may be provided almost for nothing by boiling daily the potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with enough bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff and dry paste. There will be more than sufficient of this if the fowls kept do not exceed one for each member of the household ; and as the peelings cost nothing, and the bran very little, one half the food is provided at a merely nominal expense, while no better could be given. A little salt should always be added, and in winter a slight seasoning of pepper will tend to keep the hens in good health and laying. This food may be mixed boiling hot over night, and covered with a cloth, or be put in the oven ; in either case it will remain warm till morning the condition in which it should always be given in cold weather. If a tolerable stock of poultry be kept, such a source of supply will be obviously inadequate ; and in purchasing the food there is much variety to choose from. Small or " pig " potatoes may be bought at a low price and similarly treated ; or barley-meal may be mixed with hot water ; or an equal mixture of meal and " sharps," or of Indian meal and bran ; either of these make a capital food. Or, if offered on reasonable terms, a cart-load of swede or other turnips, or mangel- wurtzel, may be purchased ; and when boiled and mashed with meal or ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS FOODS. 25 " sharps," we believe forms the very best soft food a fowl can have, especially for Dorkings ; but they cannot everywhere be obtained at a cheap rate, and the buyer must study the local market. A change of food, at times, will be beneficial, and in making it the poultry-keeper should be guided by the season. When the weather is warm, and the production of eggs abundant, the food should abound in nitrogenous or flesh- forming material, and not contain too much starch or oil, both of which, being carbonaceous, have warmth-giving and fattening properties; but when the cold weather approaches, and the eggs even of good winter layers are fewer than in summer, less of nitrogenous and more of carbonaceous food will be needed. The following table has been often copied since its first publica- tion in the " Poultry Diary ; " but its practical usefulness is so obvious that we make no apology for giving it here, with some modification to make the proportion of warmth-giving to flesh- forming ingredients more plain. Flesh-forming] "Warmth-giving Food. Food. Bone-making Food. Husk Water 100 Ibs. of Gluten, &c. Fat or Oil. Starch.&c. i Mineral Substance. Fibre. Oats 15 <; 47 2 20 10 Oatmeal 18 G C3 2 2 9 Middlings or ( fine Sharps ) 18 G 53 5 4 14 Wheat 12 3 70 2 1 12 Barley 11 2 GO 2 14 11 Indian Corn... 11 8 85 1 5 10 Rice 7 A trace. 80 A. trace 13 Beans & Peas 25 2 48 > 8 15 3Iilk 44 3 5 I 86* To show the practical use of this table, it may be observed that whilst "sharps" or "middlings," from its flesh-forming material, is one of the best summer ingredients, in winter it may be advantageous to change it for a portion of Indian meal. 26 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. It is, however, necessary to avoid giving too great a proportion of maize, either as meal or corn, or the effect will be a useless and prejudicial fattening from the large quantity of oil it contains ; it is best mixed with barley or bean-meal, and is then a most economical and useful food. Potatoes, also, from the large proportion of starch contained in them, are not good unmixed as a regular diet for poultry; but mixed with bran or meal will be found most conducive to condition and laying. In mixing soft food, there is one general .rule always to be observed : it must be mixed rather dry, so that it will break if thrown upon the ground. There should never be enough water to cause the food to glisten in the light, or to make a sticky porridgy mass, which clings round the beaks of the fowls and gives them infinite annoyance, besides often causing diarrhoea. If the weather be dry, and the birds are fed in a hard gravelled yard, the food is just as well, or better, thrown on the ground. If they are fed in the shed, however, it is best to use an oblong dish of zinc, or, preferably, earthenware, such as represented in Fig. 3. The trough or dish must, however, be protected, or the fowls will walk upon it, scratch earth into it, and waste a large portion ; and this is best prevented by hav- ing a loose curved cover made of tin and wire, as shown in Fig. 4, which, when placed on the ground over the dish, will effectually pre- vent the fowls having anything to do with the food except to eat it, Flg ' 4 ' which they are quite at liberty to do through the perpendicular wires, two and a-half inches apart. Many experienced poultry-keepers prefer to drive the wires into the ground, leaving them six inches high; the trough is tlion put behind them, and a board laid over, leaning ANIMAL FOOD NECESSABY. 27 on the top of the wires. The effect of such a plan is pre- cisely similar as regards the protection of the food, and its only disadvantage is, that the wires being always in the ground rather hinder the sweeping of the shed. For this reason we contrived the above cover, and consider it the best, as it is certainly the most convenient plan. If the fowls have a field to run in they will require no further feeding till their evening meal of grain. Taking it altogether, no grain is more useful or economical than barley, and in summer this may be occasionally changed with oats ; in winter, for the reasons already given, Indian corn may be given every second or third day with advantage. Buckwheat is, chemically, almost identical in composition with barley, but it certainly has a stimulating effect on the production of eggs, and it is a pity it cannot be more frequently obtained at a cheap rate. We never omit purchasing a sack of this grain when we can, and have a strong opinion that the enormous production of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent con- nected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by French poultry- keepers. Wheat is generally too dear to be employed, unless damaged, and if the damage be great it had better not be meddled with; but if only slightly injured, or if a good sample be offered of light " tail " wheat, as it is called, it is a most valuable food, both for chickens and fowls. " Sweepings " sometimes contain poisonous substances ; are invariably dearer, weight for weight, than sound grain ; and should never be seen in a poultry-yard. The mid-day meal of penned-up fowls should be only a scanty one, and may consist either of soft food or grain, as most convenient meal preferably in cold weather. The regular and substantial diet is now provided for, but will not alone keep the fowls in good health and laying. They are omnivorous in their natural state, and require some portion of animal food. On a wide range they will provide this for 28 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS themselves, and in such an establishment as figured at page 11, the scraps of the dinner-table will be quite sufficient ; but if the number kept be large, with only limited accommodation, it will be necessary to buy every week a few pennyworth of bullocks' liver, which may be boiled, chopped fine, and mixed in their food, the broth being used instead of water in mixing ; these little tit-bits will be eagerly picked out and enjoyed. A very little is all that is necessary, and need not be given more than three times a week. If fowls be much over-fed with this kind of food the quills of the feathers become more or less charged with blood, which the birds in time perceive, and almost in- variably peck at each other's plumage till they leave the skin quite bare. It is also necessary to give a caution against the use of greaves, so much recommended, for obvious reasons, by the vendors. When fowls are habitually fed upon this article their feathers speedily become disarranged and fall off, and when killed the flavour, to any ordinary palate, is disgusting. There is yet another most important article of diet, without which it is absolutely impossible to keep fowls in health. We a'efer to an ample and daily supply of green or fresh vegetable :ibod. It is not perhaps too much to say, that the omission of this is the proximate cause of nearly half the deaths where fowls are kept in confinement ; whilst with it, our other direc- tions having been observed, they may be kept in health for a long time in a pen only a few feet square. It was to provide this that we recommended the open yards, in page 11, to be laid down in grass the very best green food for poultry ; and a run of even an hour daily on such a grass plot, supposing the shed to be dry and clean, will keep them in vigorous health, and not be more than the grass will bear. But if a shed only be available, fresh vegetables must be thrown in daily. Any- thing will do. A good plan is to mince up cabbage-leaves or other refuse vegetables, and mix pretty freely with the soft food j or the whole leaves may be thrown down for the fowls FRESH WATER. * to devour; or a few turnips may be minced up daily, and scattered like grain, or simply cut in two and thrown into the run ; or if it can be got, a large sod of fresh-cut turf thrown to the fowls will be better than all. But something they must have every day, or nearly so, otherwise their bowels sooner or later become disordered, their feathers look dirty, and their combs lose that beautiful bright red colour which will always accompany really good health and condition, and testifies pleasantly to abundance of eggs. The water vessel must be filled fresh every day at least, and so arranged that the birds cannot scratch dirt into it, or make it foul. The ordinary poultry-fountain is too well known to need description, but a rather better form than is usually made is shown in Fig. 5. The advantages of such a construction are two : the top being open, and fitted with a cork, the state of the interior can be examined, and the vessel well sluiced through to remove the green slime which always collects by degrees, and is very preju- dicial to health ; and the trough being slightly raised from the ground, instead of upon it, the water is less easily fouled. But either form, if placed with the trough towards the wall, at a few inches distance from it, will- keep the water clean very well. Some experienced breeders prefer shallow pans ; but if these be adopted they must be either put behind rails, with a board over, or protected by a cover, in the same way as the feeding troughs already described. Fowls must never be left without water. During a frost, therefore, the fountain should be emptied every night, or there will be trouble next morning. Care must always be taken also that snow is not allowed to fall into the drinking vessel. The " Douglas* mixture," respecting which, we can speak with un- qualified approval, as a most valuable addition to the drink in cold weather of both fowls and chickens. It consists of half a pound of sulphate of iron and one ounce of sulphuric acid dis- solved in two gallons of water ; and is to be added in the proportion of a tea-spoonful to each pint of water in the fountain. Whilst the fowls are moulting, the above mixture, or a little sulphate of iron, should always be used ; it will assist them greatly through this, the most critical period of the whole year. A little hemp-seed should also be given every day at this season, at least to all fowls of value ; and with these aids, and a little pepper on their food, with perhaps a little extra meat, or even a little ale during the few weeks the process lasts, there will rarely be any lost. With hardy kinds and good shelter such precautions are scarcely necessary, but they cost little, and have their effect also on the early re- commencement of laying. In addition to their regular food it will be needful that the fowls have a supply of lime, in some shape or other, to form the shells of their eggs. Old mortar pounded is excellent ; so are oyster-shells well burnt in the fire and pulverised j of the latter they are very fond, and it is an excellent plan to keep * So called because published in the Field newspaper by Mr. John Douglas, then superintending the Wolseley Aviaries. VALUE OP POULTRY MANURE. 31 a "tree-saucer" full of it in their yard. If this matter has been neglected, and soft shell-less eggs have resulted, the quickest way of getting matters right again is to add a little lime to the drinking water. We shall conclude this chapter with a few further remarks respecting general management. With regard to the nests, they may be of any form, but are best upon the ground. A long box may be employed, divided by partitions into separate compartments ; or separate laying- boxes may be used, which is preferable, as more easily cleaned. Many like baskets, made flat on one side, and hung to a nail in the wall; these should be of wire, and then cannot harbour vermin the great plague of fowls. The straw should be broken .and beaten till it is quite soft, and changed as often as there is any foul or musty smell. If the nests are offensive the hens will often drop their eggs, quite perfect, upon the ground rather than resort to them. Cleanliness in the house and run has already been insisted upon, and is only again alluded to on account of the value of the manure. This, collected daily, should be put in any con- venient receptacle where it can be kept dry, and either used in the garden, if there is one, or sold. It pays best to use it where possible ; it should always be mixed with earth, being very strong, and is especially valuable for all plants of the cabbage kind ; it is also excellent for growing strawberries, or indeed almost anything if sufficiently diluted. If there be no possibility of so using it, it is worth at least seven shillings per cwt. to sell, and is greatly valued by all nurserymen and gardeners who know its value ; but there is sometimes difficulty in finding those who do, and getting a fair price. The lowest price we ever knew offered, however, was three shillings per cwt. At seven shillings (which we believe to be about a fair value, compared with that of guano, on account of the moisture contained) we consider the value of the manure equal to fully 32 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. one-fifth perhaps one-fourth would be nearer the mark of the total profit from the fowls. It is, therefore, an item too important to be neglected. Where a considerable number of fowls are killed annually the feathers also become of value, and should be preserved. They are very easily dressed at home. Strip the plumage from, the quills of the larger feathers, and mix with the small ones, putting the whole loosely in paper bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some other warm place, for a few days to dry. Then let the bags be baked three or four times, for half an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two days between each baking, and the process will be completed. Less trouble than this will do, and is often made to suffice ; but the feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may occasionally become offensive. Eggs should be collected regularly, if possible twice everj day j and if any chickens are to be reared from the home stock, the owner or attendant should learn to recognise the egg of each particular hen. There is no difficulty in this, even with a considerable number nearly every egg, to the accustomed eye, has a well-marked individual character ; and if there be any hens of value, it may save much disappointment in the character of the brood to know the parentage of those selected for hatching. Before concluding, it may be expected that something definite should be said respecting the actual profit of what may be called domestic poultry-keeping. It is extremely difficult to make any such statement, so much depends upon the price of food, upon the management, selection of stock, and value of eggs. But in general we have found the average cost of fowls, when properly fed, to be about Id. per week each for ordinary sorts, and not exceeding IJd. per week for the larger breeds ; when the cost is more we should suspect waste. A good ordinary hen ought to lay 120 eggs in a vear. and if good laying IMIOUTANCE OF SYSTEM. 33 breeds are selected, such as we have, named in Chapter II., there ought to be an average of fully 150, not reckoning the cock, whilst Game or Hamburghs will exceed 200 per annum. Of course, good management is supposed, and a regular renewal of young stock, as already insisted upon. For domestic purposes eggs ought to be valued at the price of new-laid, and from these data each can make his own calculation. The value of tho manure, when it can be sold or used, we consider is about 9d. to Is. per annum for each fowl. Finally, let the whole undertaking large or small be con- ducted as a real matter of business. If more than three or four hens are kept, buy the food wholesale, and in the best market ; let the grain be purchased a sack at a time potatoes by the cart-load or hundred- weight, and so on. Let a fair and strict account be kept of the whole concern. The scraps of the house may be thrown in, and the cost of the original stock, and of their habitations, may be kept separate, and reckoned as capital invested ; but let everything afterwards for which cash is paid be rigorously set down, and on the other side, with equal strictness, let every egg or chicken eaten or sold be also valued and recorded. This is of great importance. The young beginner may, perhaps, manage his laying-stock well, but suc- ceed badly with his chickens (though not, we hope, if he be a reader of this book), or vice versa ; and it is no small matter in poultry-keeping, as in any other mercantile concern, to be able to see from recorded facts ivhere has been the profit or where the loss. The discovery will lead to reflection ; and the waste, neglect, or other defective management being amended, the hitherto faulty department will also contribute its quota to the general weal. 34 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. CHAPTER IV. INCUBATION. MUCH disappointment in the hatching and rearing of young broods would be prevented were more care taken that the eggs selected for setting were of good quality not only likely to be fertile, but the produce of strong and hardy birds. This re- mark applies to common barn-door poultry quite as much as to the pure breeds. A friend recently complained to us, that out of a dozen eggs only four or five had hatched ; and on inquiry, we found that the sitting had been procured from an inn-yard, where, to our own knowledge, only one cock was running with about twenty hens, from which of course no better result could be expected. When the eggs have to be procured from else- where, therefore, whatever be the class of fowls required, it should first of all be ascertained that there is at least one cock to every six or eight hens, and that he be a strong and lively bird ; and next, that the fowls be not only of the kind desired, but that they are well fed and taken care of. From scraggy, half-starved birds it is impossible to rear a large brood, as the greater number even of those hatched will die in infancy. It only remains to ensure that the eggs be fresh, and a successful batching may be anticipated. With regard to this latter point, eggs have been known to hatch when two months old, or even more; but we would never ourselves set, from choice, any egg which had been laid more than a fortnight ; and after a month, or less, it is useless trouble. Fresh eggs, if all be well, hatch out in good time, and the chicks are strong and lively ; the stale ones always hatch last, being perhaps as much as two days later than new-laid, and the chickens are often too weak to break the shell. We have also invariably noticed, when compelled to take a portion of stale eggs to make up a sitting, that even when such eggs have SELECTION OF EGGS. 35 hatched, the subsequent deaths have principally occurred in this portion of the brood ; but that if none of the eggs were more than four or five days old, they not only hatched nearly every one, and within an hour or two of each other, but the losses in any ordinary season were very few. When the eggs are from the home stock, their quality should, of course, be above suspicion. It is scarcely necessary to say, that in order to ensure this, every egg before storing should have legibly written upon it in pencil the date on which it was laid. Eggs intended for setting are best kept in bran, the small end downward, and should never be exposed to concussion. Another very good plan is to have a large board pierced with a number of round holes in regular rows to receive the eggs. Hundreds of years ago it was thought that the sex of eggs could be distinguished by the shape the cocks being pro- duced from those of elongated shape, and hens from the short or round. Others have pretended to discern the future sex from the position of the air-bubble at the large end. We need scarcely say, that these and every other nostrum have, hundreds of times, been proved to be erroneous. There is not a breeder of prize poultry in England who would not gladly give twenty pounds for the coveted knowledge, and thenceforth breed no more cockerels than he really wanted ; but the secret has never been discovered yet, and it is even impossible to tell before the egg has been sat upon a short time whether it has been fecundated. We have, in a previous chapter, already mentioned that the sitting hens ought to have a separate shed and run provided for them, in order that the other hens may not occupy their nests during absence, or they themselves go back to the wrong ones, as they will often do if allowed to sit in the fowl-house. Even in a very small domestic establishment we strongly recommend that the small additional space requisite be devoted to this D 2 36 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. purpose, for all our experience has proved that, whatever suc- cess may be obtained otherwise by constant care and watchful- ness, it is never so great as when the sitter can be shut into a separate run, and be entirely unmolested. An extensive run is neither necessary nor desirable, as it only entices the birds to wander, whereas, in a limited space, they will go back to their nests as soon as their wants are satisfied. A shed five feet square, with a run the same width for ten feet out in front, is quite sufficient for three hens. If the hen must be set on the ordinary nest in the fowl- house, unless she can be watched every day to see that all goes right, it is best to take her off at a regular time every morning, and after seeing to her wants and due return, to shut her in so that she cannot be annoyed. She should be lifted by taking hold under the wings, gently raising them first to see that no eggs are enclosed. Very fair success may be attained by this method of management, which is obviously almost imperative in very large establishments, where numerous hens must be sitting at one time ; but where such large numbers do net allow of a special poultry attendant it is rather troublesome, and on an average there will be a chicken or two less than if the hens can be put quite apart, where they need neither be watched nor interfered with. Since we adopted this plan we have, from good eggs, always hatched at least nine out of twelve, and generally more; and have had no trouble nor anxiety till the broods were actually hatched, which is any- thing but the case on the other system. "With respect to the arrangement of the hatching run, it should, if possible, be in sight of the other fowls, as it will keep the sitter from becoming strange to her companions, and pre- vent an otherwise inevitable fight on her restoration, to the possible damage of the brood. We prefer ourselves, as stated in the first chapter, a shed five feet wide and five deep, open in front to a small gravel or grass run. Under the shed must be, v CHOICE OF THE HEN. 37 besides the nests, a good-sized shallow box of sand, dry earth or fine coal ashes, for the hen to cleanse herself in, which she specially needs at this time; and food and water must be always ready for her. With these precautions the hen may and should in nearly every case, with the exceptions presently mentioned, be left entirely to herself. There are, however, some birds which, if not removed, would starve upon theii nests sooner than leave them; and therefore if the hen has not been off for two or three days (we would test her for that time first), we should certainly remove the poor thing for her own preservation. To feed upon the nest is a cruel practice, which has crippled many a fowl for life, and cannot be too strongly condemned. Of all mothers we prefer Cochins or Brahmas. Their abundant "fluff" and feathering is of inestimable advantage to the young chicks, and their tame and gentle disposition makes them submit to any amount of handling or manage- ment with great docility. Cochins certainly appear clumsy with their feet, but we have never found more chickens actually trodden upon by them than with any other breed. 3Iany complain that they leave their chickens too soon, but we have not found it so ourselves. If they are kept cooped instead of being set at liberty they will brood their chickens for at least two months, even till they have laid a second batch of eggs and desire to sit again ; and by that time any brood is able to do without a mother's care. With regard to Brahmas as mothers, they have a peculiarity we never observed in any other fowl, and have never seen noticed in any work on poultry they actually appear to look behind tJieni when moving, lest they should tread upon their little ones. Dorkings, also, are exemplary mothers, and go with their chickens a long time, which recommends them strongly for very early broods. And lastly, a Game hen has qualities which often make her most valuable. She is not only exemplary in her care, and a super- 38 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. excellent forager for her young brood, but will defend them to the last gasp, and render a good account of the most deter- mined cat that ever existed; indeed, we would almost defy any single creature whatever, quadruped 'or otherwise, to steal a chick in daylight from a well-bred Game hen. But whatever be the hen chosen, she should be well feathered, moderately short-legged, and tolerably tame. Very high authority* has affirmed that only mature hens should be allowed to sit, and that pullets are not to be trusted ; but our own experience and that of very many large breeders does not confirm this. We have constantly set pullets, and never had any more reason to complain of them than of older birds. The nests may be arranged under the shed any way so that no one can see into them, with the one proviso that they be actually upon the ground. Chicks thus obtained always show more constitution than those hatched on a wooden bottom at a higher level. This holds good even at all times of the year. We are aware that eminent authorities who recommend ground- nests in summer, prefer a warm, wooden box in winter for the sake of the hen ; but she will rarely suffer. The heat of her body whilst sit- ting is so great that a cool situation seems grateful to her at least, a hen set on the ground rarely forsakes her nest, which is otherwise no uncommon case. We knew of a hen which, during the month of January, made her nest upon the top of a rock in one of the highest and most exposed situations in the Peak of Derbyshire, and brought a large brood of strong chickens into the yard. It is only neces- sary the birds should be protected from wind and rain, in order to avoid rheumatism ; and this is most effectually done by employing for the nest a tight wooden box, like Fig. 6, open at * Mrs. Fergusson Blair. IMPORTANCE OF MOISTURE. 39 the bottom, and also in front, with the exception of a strip three inches high to contain the straw. Let one of these boxes be placed in the back corner of the shed, touching the side, the front being turned to the back wall, and about nine inches from it; and the hen will be in the strictest privacy, will be both perfectly sheltered and kept cool, and will never mistake her own nest for the one which may be placed in the other corner. If a third must be made room for, let her nest be placed the same distance from the wall midway between the others, and like them, with the front of the nest to the back of the shed. There will then be still nearly a foot between each two nests for the birds to pass. A damp situation is best for the sitting shed, and will ensure good hatching in hot weather, when perhaps all the neighbours are complaining that their chicks are dead in the shells. Attempting to keep the nest and eggs dry has ruined many a brood. It is not so in nature ; every morning the hen leaves her nest, and has to seek her precarious meal through the long, wet grass, which drenches her as if she had been ducked in a pond. "With this saturated breast she returns, and the eggs are duly moistened. But if the nest be dry, the hen be kept dry, and the weather happen to be hot and dry also, the moisture within the egg itself becomes dried to the consistency of glue, and the poor little chick, being unable to move round within the shell, cannot fracture it, and perishes. Such a mis- hap will not happen if the ground under the nest be damp and cooL All that is necessary in such a case is to scrape a slight hollow in the bare earth, place the nest-box, already described, over it, and put in a moderate quantity of straw cut into two- inch lengths ; or, still better, some fresh- cut damp grass may be put in first, and the straw over. Shape the straw also into a very sligJit hollow, and the nest is made but care must be taken to well fill up the corners of the box, or the eggs may be rolled into them and get addled. Some prefer to put in first a 40 GENEKAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. fresh turf ; but if the nest be on the bare ground, as we recom- mend, this is useless. In any case, the straw should be cut into short lengths for a hatching nest, and the neglect of this pre- caution is the most frequent cause of breakage ; the hen, during lier twenty-four hours' stay, gets her claws entangled in the long straws, and on leaving for her daily meal is very likely to drag one or two with her, fracturing one or more eggs, or even jerking them quite out of the nest. Should such a mishap occur (and the nest should be examined every two or three days, when the hen is absent, to ascertain), the eggs musT be removed, and clean straw substituted, and every sound egg at all soiled by the broken one be washed with a sponge and warm water, gently but quickly drying after with a cloth. The hen, if very dirty, should also have her breast cleansed, and the whole replaced immediately, that the eggs may not be chilled. A moderate hatch may still be expected, though the number of chicks is always more or less reduced by an accident of this kind. If,, however, the cleansing be neglected for more than a couple of days after a breakage, or less at the latter period of incubation, probably not a single chick will be obtained ; whether from the pores of the shell being stopped by the viscid matter, or from the noxious smell of the putrefying egg, it is not very material to inquire. Every egg should also be marked quite round with ink or pencil, so that if any be subsequently laid in the nest they may be at once detected and removed. Hens will sometimes lay several eggs after beginning to sit. In ordinary winters the hen should be set as in summer, giving her, however, rather more straw. Only in severe frost should she be brought into the house ; and in that case, or in, summer if the ground be very dry, it will be necessary during the last half of the hatching period to sprinkle the eggs slightly with water every day while she is off. This is done best by TESTING THE EGGS. 41 dipping a small brush in tepid water ; and is always necessary to success, in dry weather at least, when a hen is set in a box at a distance from the ground, as is the case in large sitting houses. But, where it can be had, we much prefer the natural moisture of a damp soil : it never fails, and avoids going near the hen. "When the number of eggs set yearly is considerable, it is worth while to withdraw the unfertile ones at an early period. About the eighth day let the hen be removed by candle- light, and each egg be held between the eye and the light, in the manner repre- sented by Fig. 7. If the egg be fertile, it will appear opaque, or dark all over, ex- cept, perhaps, a small portion towards the top ; but if it be un- impregnated, it will be still translucent, the light passing through it almost as if new laid. After some experience the eggs can be distin- guished at an earlier period, and a practised hand can tell the unfertile eggs even at the fourth day. Should the number withdrawn be considerable, four batches set the same day may be given to three hens, or even two, and the remainder given fresh eggs ; and if not, the fertile eggs will get more heat, and the brood come out all the stronger. The sterile eggs are also worth saving, as they are quite good enough for cooking 42 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. purposes, and quite as fresh even for boiling as nine-tenths of the Irish eggs constantly used for that purpose. We do not, however, recommend this plan when the sitters are few and the eggs from the home stock, as in that case their quality should be known, and sterility very rare. It is a common mistake to set too many eggs. In summer, a large hen may have thirteen, or a Cochin fifteen of her own ; but in early spring eleven are quite enough. We have not only to consider how many chickens the hen can hatch, but how many she can cover when they are partly grown. If a hen be set in January, she should not have more than seven or eight eggs, or the poor little things, as soon as they begin to get large, will have no shelter, and soon die off. It is far better to hatch only six and rear five, or may be all, to health and vigour, than to hatch ten and only probably rear three puny little creatures, good for nothing but to make broth. In April and May broods, such a limitation is not needed ; but even then eleven or twelve chickens are quite as many as a large, well-feathered hen can properly nourish, and the eggs should only be one or two in excess of that number. A good hen will not remain more than half an hour away from her nest, unless she has been deprived of a dust-bath, and so become infested with lice, which sometimes causes hens thus neglected to forsake their eggs altogether. When a hen at the proper time shows no disposition to return, she should be quietly driven towards her nest ; if she be caught, and replaced by hand, she is often so frightened and excited as to break the eggs. A longer absence is not, however, necessarily fatal to the brood. We have had hens repeatedly absent more than an hour, which still hatched seven or eight chicks ; and on one occasion a hen sitting in the fowl-house returned to the wrong nest, and was absent from her own more than five hours. We of course considered all chances of hatching at an end ; but as the hen had been sitting a fortnight, concluded to let her finish. ASSISTING THE CHICKENS. 43 her time, and she hatched five chickens. We have heard of a few hatching even after nine hours' absence, and therefore would never, on account of such an occurrence, abandon valuable eggs without a trial. The chickens break the shell at the end of the twenty-first day, on an average ; but if the eggs are new-laid, it will often lessen the time by as much as five or six hours, while stale eggs are always more or less behind. We never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from the shell If the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken to preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever needed. To fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly j and we have always found that even where the poor little creature survived at the time, it never lived to maturity. Should the reader attempt such assistance, in cases where an egg has been long " chipped," and no further progress made, let the shell be cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside membrane ; if tJtat be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries, and glues the chick to the shell. Should this happen, or should both shell and membrane be perforated at first, introduce the point of a pair of scissors, and cut up the egg towards the large end, where there will be an empty space, remembering that if blood flow all hope is at an end. Then put the chick back under the ken; she will probably squeeze it to death, it is true, it is so very weak ; but it will never live if put by the fire, at least, we always found it so. Indeed, as we have said, we consider it quite useless to make the attempt at all. But with good eggs, a good hen, and good management, all will go right, and there will be in due time a goodly number of strong and healthy chickens, to the mutual delight of the hen and of her owner. And with the treatment of the young brood we will begin another chapter. ^n ^^ f OF THE ^ [ UNIVERSITY V OF 41 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. CHAPTER V. THE HEARING AND FATTENING OF CHICKENS. FOR nearly twenty- four hours after hatching, chickens require no- food at all ; and though we do not think it best to leave them quite so long as this without it, we should let them remain for at least twelve hours undisturbed. We say undisturbed, because it is a very common practice to take those first hatched away from the- hen, and put them in a basket by the fire till the whole brood is out. When the eggs have varied much in age, this course 'must be adopted ; for some chickens will be perhaps a whole day or more behind the others, and the hen, if she felt the little things moving beneath her, would not stay long enough to hatch the rest. But we have explained in the last chapter that this should not be, and that if the eggs are all fresh, the chicks will all appear within a few hours of each other. In that case they are much better left with their mother : the lieut of her body appears to strengthen and nourish them in a far better manner than any other warmth, and they are happy and contented, instead of moving restlessly about as they always do whilst away from her. Our own plan is to set the eggs in the evening, when the chicks will break the shell in the evening also, or perhaps the afternoon. Then at night let the state of the brood be once only examined, all egg-shells removed from the nest, and the hen, if she be tame enough to receive it, given food and water. Let her afterwards be so shut in that she cannot leave her nest, and all may be left safely till the moiiring. By that time the chicks will be strong and lively, quite ready for their first meal ; and unless some of the eggs are known to be very stale, any not hatched then are little likely to hatch at all. If this be so, the chicks may be removed and put in flannel by FIRST MEAL OF THE CHICKENS. 45 the fire, and another day patiently waited, to see if any more will appear. We should not do so, however, if a fair number h.-id hatched well; for they never thrive so well away from the hen, and it is scarcely worth while to injure the healthy portion of the brood for the sake of one or two which very probably may not live after all. The first meal should be given on tJie nest, and the best material for it is an equal mixture of hard-boiled yolk of egg and stale bread-crumbs, the latter slightly moistened with milk. Let the hen be allowed to partake of this also she needs it ; and then give her besides as much barley as she will eat, and offer her water, which she will drink greedily. To satisfy the hen at first saves much restlessness and trouble with her afterwards. There is a stupid practice adopted by many, of removing the little horny scale which appears on every chicken's beak, with the idea of enabling them to peck better, and then to put food or pepper-corns down their throats, and dip their bills in water to make them drink. It is a mistake to say that if this does no good it can do no harm : the little beaks are very soft and tender, and are often injured by such barbarous treatment. Leave them alone. If they do not eat or drink and chickens seldom drink the first day it only shows they do not wish to ; for to fill an empty stomach is the first and universal instinct of all living things. The brood having been fed, the next step will depend upon circumstances. If, as we recommend, the chickens were hatched the night before, or be well upon their legs, and the weather be fine, they may be at once moved out, and the hen cooped where her little ones can get the sun. If it be winter, or settled wet weather, the hen must, if possible, be kept on her nest this day also, and when removed be cooped in a dry shed or outhouse. The best arrangement, where there is convenience for it, is 46 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. that shown in .Fig. 8. A shed, six feet square, is reared against the wall, with a southern exposure, and the coop placed under it. This coop should be made on a plan very common in some parts of France, and consists of two compartments, separated by a partition of bars ; one compartment being closed Mg. 8. in front, the other fronted with bars like the partition. Each set of bars should have a sliding one to serve as a door, and the whole coop should be tight and sound. It is best to have no bottom, but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or two deep. Each half of the coop is about two feet six inches square, and may or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of glass. The advantage of such a coop and shed is, that except in very severe weather, no further shelter is required even at THE REAKIXG COOP. 47 night. During the day the hen is kept in the outer compart- ment, the chickens having liberty, and the food and water being placed outside ; whilst at night she is put in the inner portion of the coop, and a piece of canvas or sacking hung over the bars of the outer half. If the top be glazed, a little food and the water vessel may be placed in the outer compartment at night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early in the morning, being prevented by the canvas from going out into the cold air. It will be only needful to remove the coop every two days for a few minutes, to take away the tainted earth and replace it with fresh. There should, if possible, be a grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor of which should be covered with dry loose dust or earth. Under such a shed chickens will thrive well ; but if such cannot be obtained, sufficient shelter during ordinary breeding seasons may be obtained by the use of a well-made board coop, with a gabled roof covered with felt. This coop should be open in front only, and be two feet six inches or three feet square. At night let a thick canvas wrappering be hung over the front. The ordinary basket coop is only fit to be used in perfectly fine weather, when it is convenient to place on a lawn. Some straw, weighted by a stone, or other covering, should, however, be placed on the top, to give shelter from the mid-day sun. It is often necessary in considerable establishments to carry the hen and her brood for a considerable distance. For thi purpose the box shown in Fig. 9 will be found very convenient. It may be made in either one or two divisions, and the chickens will be thus managed with no trouble, as they cannot escape when put in at the top, whilst they are readily let out again by the door. Chickens should always, if possible, be cooped near grass. No single circumstance is so conducive to health, size, and vigour, supposing them to be decently well cared for, as even a 48 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. small grass run such as that provided in Fig. 2. Absolute clean- liness is also essential, even more than for grown fowls ; and the reason why difficulty is often experienced in rearing large numbers is, that the ground becomes so tainted with their excrements. The coop should, therefore, be either moved to a fresh place every day, or the dry earth under be carefully removed. A very good plan, and one we have found in a limited space to answer remarkably well, is to have a wooden gable-roofed coop made with a wooden bottom, and to cover this an inch deep with perfectly dry earth, or fine sifted ashes. The ashes are renewed every evening in five minutes, and form a nice warm bed for the chicks, clean and sweet, and much better than straw. Cats sometimes make sad inroads on the broods. If this nuisance be great, it is well to confine the coveted prey while young within a wire-covered ran. And the best way of form- ing such a run, is to stretch some inch-mesh wire-netting, two feet wide, upon a light wooden frame, so as to form two wire hurdles, two feet wide and about six feet long, with one three feet long. These are easily lashed together with string to form a run six feet by three (Fig. 10), and may be covered by a similar hurdle of two- inch mesh three feet wide. In such a FEEDING. 49 mn all animal depreciations may be defied ; and in any case we should recommend its use until the chicks are a fortnight old ; it saves a world of trouble and anxiety, and prevents the brood wandering and getting over-tired. By having an assortment of such hurdles, portable runs can be constructed in a few minutes of any extent required, and will be found of great Fig. 10. advantage until the broods are strong. The hen may also be given her liberty within the prescribed bounds. With regard to feeding, if the question be asked what is the best food for chickens, irrespective of price, the answer must decidedly be oatmeal After the first meal of bread-crumbs and egg no food is equal to it, if coarsely ground, and only moistened so much as to remain crumbly. The price of oatmeal is, how- ever, so high as to forbid its use in general, except for valuable broods ; but we should still advise it for the first week, in order to lay a good foundation. It may be moistened either with water or milk, but in the latter case only sufficient must be mixed for each feeding, as it will turn sour within an hour in the sun, and in that condition is very injurious to the chickens. For the first three or four days the yolk of an egg boiled hard should also be chopped up small, and daily given to each dozen chicks ; and when this is discontinued, a little cooked meat, minced fine, should be given once a day till about three 50 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. weeks old. The cost of this will be inappreciable, as a piece the size of a good walnut is sufficient for a whole brood, and the chickens will have more constitution and fledge better than if no animal food is supplied. Food must be given very often. For the first week every hour is not too much, though less will do; the next three weeks, every two hours ; from one to two months old, every three hours ; and after that, three times a day will be sufficient. To feed very often, giving just enough fresh food to be entirely eaten each time, is the one great secret of getting fine birds. If the meals are fewer, and food be left, it gets sour, the chicks do not like it, and will not take so much as they ought to have. After the first week the oatmeal can be changed for cheaper food. "We can well recommend any of the following, and it is best to change from one to another, say about every fortnight. An equal mixture of "sharps" and barley-meal, or "sharps" and buckwheat- meal, or of bran and Indian meal ; or of bran, oatmeal, and Indian meal. The last our own chickens like best of all, and as the cheap bran balances the oatmeal, it is not a dear food, and the chicks will grow upon it rapidly. Potatoes mashed with bran are also most excellent food. The above will form the staple food, but after a day or two some grain should be given in addition. Groats chopped up with a knife are excellent ; so is crushed wheat or bruised oats. Chickens seem to prefer grits to anything, but it is not equal to meal as a permanent diet. A little of either one or the other should, however, be given once or twice a day, and in particular should form the last meal at night, for the reasons given in page 23. Bread sopped in water is the worst possible food for chickens, causing weakness and general diarrhoea. "With railk it is better, but not equal to meal. Green food is even more necessary to chickens than to DIET IN COLD WEATHER. 51 adult fowls. Whilst very young it is best to cut some grass into veiy small morsels for them with a pair of scissors ; after- wards they will crop it for themselves if allowed. Should there be no grass plot available, cabbage or lettuce-leaves must be regularly given minced small at first) but thrown down whole as soon as the beaks of the chickens are strong enough to enable them to help themselves. In winter or very early spring the chickens must, in addi- tion to the above feeding, have more stimulating diet. Some under-done meat or egg should be continued regularly, and it is generally necessary to give also, once a day at least, some stale bread soaked in ale. They should also be fed about eight or nine o'clock, by candle-light, and early in the morning. In no other way can Dorkings or Spanish be successfully reared at this inclement season, though the hardier breeds will often get along very well with the ordinary feeding. Ale and meat, with liberal feeding otherwise, will rear chickens at the coldest seasons; and the extra cost is more than met by the extra prices then obtained in the market. But shelter they must have ; and those who have not at command a large outhouse or shed to keep them in while tender, should not attempt to raise winter or early spring chickens if they do, the result will only be disappointment and loss. The broods should only be let out on the open gravel or grass in bright, or at least clear, dry weather. At the age of four months the chickens, if of the larger breeds, should be grown enough for the table ; and if they have been well fed, and come of good stock, they will bo. For our- selves we say, let them be eaten as they are they will be quite fat enough ; and fattening is a very delicate process, success in which it takes some experience to acquire. For market, how- ever, a fatted fowl is more valuable ; and the birds should be penned up for a farther fortnight or three weeks, which ought to add at least two pounds to their weight. For a limited E 2 52 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. number of chickens it will be sufficient to provide a small number of simply constructed pens, such as are represented in Fig. 11. Each compartment should measure about nine by eighteen inches, by about eighteen inches high ; and the bottom should not consist of board, but be formed of bars two inches wide placed two inches apart, the top corners being rounded off. The partitions, top and back, are board, as the Fattening Pens. Fig. 11. birds should not see each other. These pens ought to be placed about two inches from the ground in a darkish, but not cold or draughty place, and a shallow tray be intro- duced underneath, filled with fresh dry earth every day, to catch the droppings. This is the best and least trouble- some method of keeping the birds clean and in good health. As fast as each occupant of a pen is withdrawn for execu- tion its pen should be whitewashed all over inside, and allowed to get perfectly dry before another is introduced. This will usually prevent much trouble from insect vermin : but if a bird appears restless from that cause, some powdered sulphur, rubbed well into the roots of the feathers, will give immediate relief. In front of each compartment should be a ledge three inches FATTENING. 53 wide, on which to place the food and water-tins. The latter must be replenished once, the former three times a day ; and after each meal the pens must be darkened for half the time until the next, by hanging a cloth over the front. This cloth is best tacked along at the top, when it can be conveniently hung over or folded back as required. The two hours' dark- ness ensures quiet and thorough digestion ; but it is not desirable, as most do, to keep the birds thus the whole time till the next meal, as the chickens will have a much better appetite on the plan we recommend. The best food for fattening is buckwheat-meal, when it can be obtained ; and it is to the use of this grain the French owe, in a great measure, the splendid fowls they send to market. If it cannot be procured, the best substitute is an equal mixture of Indian and barley-meal. Each bird should have as much as it will eat at one time, but no food left to become sour : a little barley may, however, be scattered on the ledge. The meal may be mixed with skim-milk if available. A little minced green food should be given daily, to keep the bowels in proper order. In three weeks the process ought to be completed. It must be borne in mind that fat only is added by thus penning a chicken ; the lean or flesh must be made before, and unless the chicken has attained the proper standard in this respect, it is useless even to attempt to fatten it. Hence the importance of high feeding from the very shell. The secret of rearing chickens profitably is, to get them ready for the table at the earliest possible period, and not to let them live a single day after. Every such day is a dead loss, for they cannot be kept fat ; once up to the mark, if not killed they get feverish and begin to waste away again. To make poultry profitable, even on a small scale, everything must go upon system ; and that system is, to kill the chickens the very day they are ready for it. If extra weight and fat is wanted, the birds may be 54 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. crammed during the last ten days of the fattening period, but not before. The meal is to be rolled up the thickness of a finger, and then cut into pellets an inch and a half long. Each morsel must be dipped in water before it is put into the bird's throat, when there will be no difficulty in swallowing. The quantity given can only be learnt by experience. For home use, however, nothing can equal a chicken never fattened at all, but just taken out of the yard. If well fed there will be plenty of good meat, and the fat of a fowl is to most persons no particular delicacy. In any case, however, let the chicken be fasted twelve hours before it is killed. There are various modes of killing all of them very effectual in practised hands. One is to give the bird a very sharp blow with a small but heavy stick behind the neck, about the second joint from the head, which will, if properly done, sever the spine and cause death very speedily. Another is to clasp the bird's head in the hand and swing the body round by it a process which also kills by parting the ver- tebrce. M. Soyer recommends that the joints be pulled apart, which can easily be effected by seizing the head in the right hand, placing the thumb just at the back of the skull, and giving a smarb jerk of the hand, the other, of course, holding the neck of the fowl. And lastly, there is the knife, which we consider, after all, the most merciful plan, as it causes no more pain than that occasioned by the momentary operation itself. We do not advocate cutting the throat ; but having first hung up the bird by the legs, thrust a long, narrow, and sharp- pointed knife, like a long penknife, which is made for the purpose, through the back part of the roof of the mouth up into the brain. Death will be almost instantaneous, which is too seldom the case when dislocation is employed. Fowls are easiest plucked at once, whilst still warm, and should be afterwards scalded by dipping them for just one instant in boiling water. This process will make any decent- 55 fowl look plump and nice, and poor ones, of course, ought not to be killed at all They should not be "drawn" until the day they are wanted, as they will keep much longer without. With respect to old fowls, in the market they are an abomination; but at home it is sometimes needful to use them. If so, let them be boiled. Unless very aged, they will then be tolerable eating ; but if roasted, will be beyond most persons' power of mastication. CHAPTER VL DISEASES OF POULTRY. IF fowls are kept clean, and well sheltered from wind and wet ; are not overfed, and have a due proportion of both soft and green food, with a never-failing supply of clean water, they will remain free from disease, unless infected by strangers. And when a fowl becomes ill, the best cure in nearly every case is to kill it before it is too bad to be eaten. Only in the case of valuable birds, which people are naturally unwilling to sacrifice, do we recommend much attempt at a cure, and even then only where the disease is so defined and evident that the treatment is sure. To prescribe for a fowl in the dark is one of the most hopeless speculations that can well be. As this work is intended to be strictly practical, it is only for such well-defined complaints we shall prescribe; and in doing so, it is only justice to acknowledge the great services rendered in this matter to the whole poultry world by Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier. That gentleman has long made the diseases of fowls his peculiar study, and has been above all others success- ful in the treatment of them ; and the greater part of this chapter is founded more or less directly upon his authority. Besides actual diseases, there are certain natural ailments, 56 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. as they may be called, to which all fowls may be subject, and which demand treatment. Bad Fledging. Chickens often droop and suffer much whilst their feathers are growing, especially in cold web weather; and the breeds which feather most rapidly suffer most. This is probably one reason why Cochins and Brahmas, which fledge late and slowly, are so hardy. As soon as a brood appears drooping whilst the feathers grow, if it has not been done before, begin at once giving them a little meat every day, and some bread sopped in ale. A little burnt oyster-shell, pounded very fine, and added to their food, is also beneficial. Keep them out of the wet, above all things, and they will generally come round. This crisis seldom lasts more than a week or ten days ; the chicks either die off, or recover their health and vigour. Leg Weakness. Highly-fed chickens which grow fast, bred from prize stock, are most subject to this ; which simply arises from outgrowing their strength, and must be met accordingly by animal food and tonics. Give meat or worms every day, and unless it be cold weather, dip the legs for a few minutes daily in cold water. The prescription will be, three or four grains of ammonio-citrate of iron for each chicken, given every day, dissolved in the water with which the meal is mixed. The above affection must not be confounded with cramp from cold and wet, which also makes the birds unable to walk, or even stand, but for which cold bathing would be most injurious. In this case, the only treatment is warmth, feeding meanwhile on meal mixed with ale, and always given warm. Under this regimen the bird will soon recover, unless the attack has been long unperceived and neglected. JBad Moulting. Old fowls sometimes suffer much at this season, especially if the precautions recommended in Chapter III. have been overlooked. These precautions contain the only effectual treatment. Give stimulating food, warm, every DISEASES. 57 morning, and well peppered, with meat and ale every day, and keep under cover in wet weather. Add also iron, in the form of " Douglas Mixture," to the drinking water ; and let some hemp-seed be given with the grain every evening. The birds, if not sunk too low, will then usually pull through. Fowls should not, however, be kept until old, except in the case of pets or valuable stock birds. For actual diseases, it is well in all large establishments to have a weather-tight and well-ventilated house kept as a hospital, in which healthy fowls should never be placed. Roup, in particular, is so contagious, that even a recovered bird should be kept by itself for a few days before being restored to ifs companions. Gapes is a fatal disease of chickens, and which we believe infectious ; it is, at all events, epidemic. Unless perhaps thus communicated by others, it never occurs except there has been foul water, exposure to wet, and want of nourishing food. The disease consists at least, so far as actual symptoms extend in a number of small worms which infest the windpipe, and cause the poor chicken to gasp for breath. If taken early, it will be sufficient to give every day a morsel of camphor the size of a grain of wheat, and to put camphor in the drinking water; or a little turpentine may be given daily in meal; taking care, of course, that the deficiencies in diet and shelter be amended. In fully-developed cases, the worms must be removed by introducing a loop of horsehair into the trachea, and turning it round during withdrawal ; the operation to be repeated several times, till all the worms appear to be extracted. A feather, stripped almost up to the top, may be used instead of the horsehair. The frequent occurrence of gapes is a disgrace to any poultry-yard. Apoplexy occurs from over-feeding, and can seldom be treated in time to be of service. If the fowl, however, although insensible, do not appear actually dead, the wing may 58 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. be lifted, and a large vein which will be seen underneath freely opened, after which hold the bird's head under a cold water tap for a few minutes. It is just possible it may recover; if so, feed sparingly on soft food only for a few days. In over- fed hens, this disease usually occurs during the exertion of laying ; if, therefore, a laying hen be found dead upon the nest, let the owner at once examine the remainder, and should they appear in too high condition, reduce their allowance of food accordingly. Loss of Feathers is almost always caused either by want of green food, or having no dust-bath. Let these wants therefore be properly supplied, removing the fowls, if possible, to a grass run. For local application, Mr. Tegetmeier recommends mer- curial ointment, but we ourselves prefer an unguent composed of sulphur and creosote. Nothing, however, will bring back the feathers before the next moult. Eoup is always caused by wet, or very cold winds. It begins with a common cold, and terminates in an offensive dis- charge from the nostrils and eyes, often hanging in froth about those organs. It is most highly contagious, the disease being, as we believe, communicated by the sickly fowl's beak con- taminating the drinking water ; therefore, let all fowls affected by it be at once put by themselves, and have a separate water- vessel. Keep them warm, and feed with meal only, mixed with hot ale instead of water ; add " Douglas Mixture " to the water, and give daily, in a bolus of the meal, half a grain of cayenne pepper, with half a grain of powdered allspice, or one of Baily's roup pills. Give also half a cabbage-leaf every day, and wash the head and eyes morning and evening with very diluted vinegar, or a five-grain solution of sulphate of zinc. Mr. Teget- meier' s treatment is, to feed on oatmeal mixed with ale, and green food unlimited ; washing the head with tepid water, and giving daily one grain sulphate of copper. We prefer the above. Roup runs its course rapidly, and in a week the bird DISEASES. 50 will either be almost well, or so nearly dead that it had better be killed at once. It is tlie disease of poultry, and to be dreaded accordingly ; fortunately, the symptoms are specific, and the treatment equally so. Pip is no disease, and demands no treatment, being only analagous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. Cure the roup, or bad digestion, or whatever else be the real evil, and the thickening of the tongue will disappear too. DiarrJwEa may be caused either by cold, wet weather, with inadequate shelter ; neglect in cleansing the house and run ; or from the reaction after constipation caused by too little green food. Feed on warm barley meal ; give some green food, but not very much ; and at first administer, four times a day, three drops of camphorated spirit on a pill of meal. This will usually effect a cure. If the evacuations become coloured with blood, the diarrhoea has passed into dysentery, and re- covery is almost hopeless. Mr. Tegetmeier's prescription is one grain each of opium and ipecacuanha, with five grains chalk ; but the camphorated spirit is a better remedy. Soft Eggs are generally caused by over-feeding the hens, and the remedy is then self-evident. It may, however, occur from want of lime^ which must of course be supplied, the best form being calcined and pounded oyster-shells. Occasionally it is occasioned by fright, from being driven about, but in that case will right itself in a day or two. If perfect eggs are habitually dropped on the ground, the proprietor should see whether the nests do not need purifying. This leads us to Insect Vermin, which can only be troublesome from gross neglect, either of the fowls or of their habitations. In the one case, the remedy is a dust-bath, mixed with powdered coke or sulphur ; in the other, an energetic lime- washing of the houses and sheds will get rid of the annoyance. It will be seen that by far the greater proportion of poultry diseases arise either from cold and wet, or neglect in preserving 60 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. cleanliness often both combined. It should be noted also, that the first general symptom of nearly all such diseases is diarrhoea, which we have observed usually manifests itself even in roup, before any discharge from the nostrils is perceptible. At this stage much evil may be warded off. Whenever a fowl hangs its wings, arid looks drooping, let it be seen at once whether it appears purged, and if so, give immediately, in a table-spoonful of warm water, a tea-spoonful of strong brandy saturated with camphor. Repeat this next morning, and in most cases the disease, whatever it is, will be checked ; care being of course taken to give the invalid warmth and good shelter, with ale in its food. If the evacuation continues, administer the stronger prescription given for diarrhoea. We could easily fill a long chapter with further prescrip- tions, but we believe that the above are all that can be usefully given. Special diseases, such as white comb in Cochins, and black-rot in Spanish, will be mentioned under the head of the breeds to which they more particularly belong. SECTION II THE BEEED1XG AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. SECTION II. ON a subject involving so many conditions for success, and dependent so much upon circumstances, as the breeding of poultry for exhibition, it will be easily understood that the opinion of even the best authorities on some points is by no means uniform. Many breeders, for instance, consider it almost a sin to try the effect of a cross; whilst others aver, with good reason, that crossing has done much towards the formation of some of our best breeds. All, however, are agreed with respect to the essentials of practical rearing, and the following pages embody the experience and knowledge of the most eminent breeders in the kingdom. What can be taught by perusal we believe will be found here contained ; and we trust this Section will be found of some real use in imparting information on matters concerning which nothing in any connected form has hitherto been written. * f UNI UN1VER' THE BEEEDIXG AND EXHIBITION OF PEIZE POULTEY. CHAPTER VII. YARDS AND ACCOMMODATION ADAPTED FOR BREEDING PRIZE POULTRY. WHETHER the breeding of poultry with a view to exhibition can be made profitable, or otherwise, is a much vexed question amongst amateurs. For ourselves, we believe that the answer must depend partly upon the means of the fancier ; still more upon the experience and knowledge he brings to bear upon the subject; and not a little upon the breed to which his fancy inclines him. "We are acquainted with breeders who never could make the produce of their yards quite meet the current expenses; and we also know at least half-a-dozen, of high standing at all the principal shows, whose yards yield them a clear profit varying from 20 to 200 per annum. It is, there- fore, most certainly possible to make even the "fancy" for poultry remunerative; and with the kind assistance of some of its most enthusiastic devotees we shall in this and the fol- lowing chapters endeavour to give such information on the sub- ject as can be thus communicated, and such directions as the long experience of many has proved likely to lead to success. But first of all it is necessary to consider the question of accommodation. The plan of a poultry-yard given at page 11, with the 64 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. addition of a lawn or separate grass-run, on which young- chickens may be cooped separately, is very well adapted for rearing most breeds upon a moderate scale. The two runs may be used to separate the sexes during autumn if preferred, or to keep the chickens apart from the old fowls ; whilst the run for the sitting hens will, after this design has been fulfilled, be very convenient for the reception of one or two single cocks, or any other casual purpose. To ensure success, the most exquisite cleanliness must be observed, and at the beginning of every year the grass in the runs should be carefully renewed, if necessary, by liberal sowing, of course keeping the fowls off it till thoroughly rooted again. At this season the confinement thus involved will not be injurious, provided green food be supplied in the sheds, in lieu of the grass to which the birds have been accustomed. With such precautions, at least forty or fifty chickens may be reared annually, and from such a num- ber there should be little difficulty, if the parents were selected with judgment, in matching two or three pens fit for exhibition. But more extensive accommodation will be necessary if very high and extensive repute in any particular breed be desired, with the capability which alone makes such reputation remunerative of being able to supply an extensive demand for eggs and stock. In that case provision has to be made for keeping not only separate strains, in order that the proprietor may be able to cross and breed from the produce of his own yards, but there will be a much larger number of cockerels than can be needed, and as they are much too valuable for the table, they also have to be accommodated apart from the other fowls, until disposed of. We shall, by the kind permission of the eminent breeders whose establishments are represented, give two plans, each excellently adapted to secure these objects, though of very different arrangement ; and which may easily be modified to meet any possible case. The first (Fig. 12) represents the poultry-yard of Mr. H. Fig. 12. CKOSS SECTION. i !' . B C | ! I B C 1 ^ GRASS. | g | j 1 ' A B c B c i i GRASS. i ' ;! B c a PLAN. 20 35, SCALE OF FEET. 66 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION. OP PEIZE POULTilY. Lane, the well-known fancier of Bristol, and will be found peculiarly adapted for the rearing of either Spanish or any other delicate breed ; protection from inclement weather, as well as convenience of access and superintendence, having been specially studied. In this design A is a covered passage which runs along the back of all, and by a door which opens into each allows of ready access to every house in any weather. One end of this passage may open into some part of the dwelling-house if desired. The passage should have a skylight at top, and must also be freely ventilated at the roof ; to secure this object by having it open at either end would cause draught, and destroy the peculiar excellence of the arrangement. The houses, B, for roosting and laying in are 7J feet by 4 feet, and the side facing the passage is only built or boarded up about 2 feet, the remainder being simply netted ; hence the birds have a free supply of the purest air at night, whilst quite protected from the external atmosphere ; and can be all inspected at roost without the least disturbance a conveni- ence of no small value. The nests should be reached from the passage by a trap-door, and there is then no necessity ever to enter the roosting-house at all except to clean it. A small trap-door as usual, which should be always closed at night, communicates between the house and the covered runs or yards, C, which are 7J feet by 9 feet. They are boarded or built up for 2 feet 6 inches, the remainder netted, except the partition between them and the houses, which is, of course, quite close. Both houses and runs must be covered with some deodoriser, and Mr. Lane prefers the powdery refuse from lime works, which costs about Id. per bushel, and which he puts down about 2 inches deep. It always keeps perfectly dry, and is a great preventive of vermin ; whilst if the drop- pings are taken up every morning, it will require renewal very rarely. In front of all is a grass run, which should VARIOUS PLANS FOR BREEDING YARDS. C7 extend as far as possible, and on which the fowls are let out in turn in fine weather. An additional story, E, may or may not be constructed over the roosting-house, and in case of emergency, by sprinkling the eggs, may be made to accommodate sitting hens ; but is not to be preferred for that purpose, for reasons given in Chapter IV. Every poultry-keeper, however, knows the great utility of such pens on various occasions which continually arise, and they will be found excellent accommodation for sick or injured fowls. In Mr. Lane's establishment hot- water pipes (a a) are laid along the back of the passage floor, by which the tempera- ture is at all seasons kept nearly uniform. This may or may not be adopted; and it will also be obvious that the whole arrangement is capable of enlargement to any desired extent. Our second plan is of totally different design, and repre- sents the yard of R. W. Boyle, Esq., of Bray, Co. Wicklow, Ireland. In this design A A are roosts and enclosed runs adapted for breeding pens; the roosts in the larger pair measuring 11 J feet by 6J feet, with a run extending 12 feet in front ; in the smaller, the houses and runs are only 8 feet wide. B B are houses and runs adapted to receive either a single cock or pair of hens, and C C are still smaller for the same purpose, the roosts in the latter measuring 3 feet by 4 feet, and the open runs 4 feet by 6 feet 9 inches. Either of the latter, besides their specific purpose, are excellently adapted for the accom- modation of a couple of sitting hens. D and E are large roosts or houses, which may be used to receive hens with their chickens, or for water-fowl. A grass plot, F, occupies the central portion of the yard, with a pond for the water-fowl. The parts lettered G are hard gravel. The entrance to the whole at H opens upon a large grass run, to which the fowls F 2 68 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. W c c c c c c c GRASS. SCALE OF FEET. B B 10 20 30 Fig. 13. 50 A A Roosts and Yards for Breeding Fowls. BB Roosts and Yards for single Cocks or two Hens. CC Ditto, ditto. DE Houses without Runs. F Grass Plot. GG Gravel WalliS. H Entrance to large Grass Run. W Watercock. are admitted in turn. At W is a water- cock for the general supply of the yard. All the roosts and runs in Mr. Boyle's yard are well covered ADVANTAGES Of A GRASS RUN. 69 with loose sund, which is raked clean every morning ; and the large grass run outside is furnished with a long shed for shelter, and a small house with nests for such hens as prefer to lay there. Prize poultry may be also reared most successfully, and with very little trouble or expense in accommodation, in a park or on a farm. All habitual frequenters of shows must have observed the remarkable constitution exhibited in Lady Holmesdale's poultry ; and we paid, by invitation, a visit to Linton Park, specially to learn the management which pro- duced such excellent results, and to enjoy a chat with Mr. J. Martin, the well-known superintendent of the Linton poultry- yard. We found the system most simple, and to all who have equal space at command, the least expensive that can possibly be. Stone houses with gravelled yards there certainly are, but these were unoccupied by a single one of the Dorkings for which the Viscountess has obtained so wide a reputation, and Mr. Martin keeps practically the whole of the stock at perfect liberty in the park. Portable wooden houses are employed, mounted on small wheels, and without a bottom, which are placed in sufficiently distant localities to avoid any danger of the birds mixing, and moved a little every two or three days. Open windows are also provided, so that the fowls always breathe the pure air of heaven, and certainly with much more freedom than most breeders would allow to such delicate varieties as Spanish and Dorking ; yet Mr. Martin finds both breeds become hardy under such treatment, and that many of the Spanish birds prefer to roost on the trees, even through the winter. The hens are set in single detached coops, roofed on top, and closed at back and sides, which are placed in any secluded spots amongst the trees. Under this management the chickens are reared with the greatest ease, the gloss on the plumage is exquisite, and its closeness approaches that of the game fowl ; whilst the birds, never too fat for the highest health, are surprisingly heavy in the scales. 70 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. A similar plan may be pursued on a farm ; a number of -wooden portable houses being provided, and placed in separate fields^ in which families may be kept. Such a system will be an actual benefit to the soil, and the only drawback is the facility it affords to the felonious abstraction of valuable eggs and stock. Still, even with this objection, we must pronounce such a natural method of rearing far the best where it can be adopted, which is, however, in very few instances ; for farmers are only seldom poultry-fanciers, and usually look upon even ordinary fowls as an unprofitable drain upon their purses, though it is certainly their own fault if it is so. The intending prize-winner must, of course, adapt the plan of his yard to his own circumstances and situation. We have now given ample materials to furnish a design of any possible character. The one necessity in this class of poultry-keeping is some facility for what may be called separation or selection, combined, of course, with a healthy run for the chickens whilst young, and the essentials mentioned in the first chapter. If these can be secured, any design, with care and attention, and good breeding stock, will ensure a fair measure of success. CHAPTER VIII. ON THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING, AND THE EFFECTS OF CROSSING. To obtain any marked success in Poultry Exhibition it is very necessary that the scientific theory of breeding for any specific object should be thoroughly understood at least, if anything like general eminence be expected; and still more so if the fancier desires by his own exertions to render any special service by the addition of new varieties, or the improvement of the old. Distinction in any one single breed is not so difficult IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. 71 to obtain ; but he is a poor poultry-breeder who is content to let his favourite variety remain exactly as he found it, without at least some attempt to improve it either in beauty or in economic value ; and any such attempt, to be successful, must be directed by an intelligent mind, which sees definitely before it the result to be attained. In knowledge and enterprise of this description we cannot but confess that English fanciers are behind their Continental brethren ; and the fact is the more to be regretted since the poultry "fancy" is far more universal in this country, and much more time and money spent in its pursuit Were breed- ing more scientifically studied, no one can say what results British enthusiasm and perseverance might not eventually pro- duce ; whilst as it is, from ignorance of the subject, we believe one breed at least (white-faced Spanish) to have been nearly mined. The elements of success are moreover so very few and simple, and a thorough knowledge of them so quickly acquired and so easily applied, that we shall devote a few pages to this part of the subject before entering upon the more practical portion of this section. The greatest misapprehension appears to exist amongst all but the most educated poultry-fanciers respecting the origin of different breeds. People seem to imagine that they have come down to us, or at least a number of them, in unbroken descent from far-back ages ; and this belief has given rise to innume- rable discussions concerning the purity or otherwise of different varieties, which might have been spared had the disputants comprehended the real nature of the case. We cannot do better here than give some able remarks which appeared some time since in The Field ; and which deserve to be well studied, for they contain the first principles of the whole science of breeding : " Such questions as the following are constantly asked, * Are the Brahmas a pure breed ? are black Hamburghs a pure 72 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. breed ? ' (fee., &c. Those queries obviously owe their origin to a confusion of the distinction that exists between different animals, and between different varieties of the same animal. Let us illustrate our meaning by an example. " A hare is a pure-bred animal, because it is totally distinct from all other animals, or, as naturalists say, it constitutes a distinct species. It does not breed with other animals, for the so-called leporines are only large rabbits ; and if it did, the off- spring would be a hybrid or mule, and almost certainly sterile or incapable of breeding. In the same manner the common wild rabbit is a pure breed. This animal possesses the capa- bility of being domesticated, and under the new circumstances in which it is placed, it varies in size, form, and colour from the original stock. By careful selection of these variations, and by breeding from those individuals which show most strongly the points or qualities desired, certain varieties, or as they are termed t breeds' of rabbits, are produced and per- petuated. Thus we have the lop-eared breed, the Angora breed-, the Chinchilla breed, &c. &c., characterised by alterations in the length of the ears, in the colour of the fur, in the size of the animals, and so on. It is obvious that, by care, more new varieties may be produced and perpetuated. Thus, by mating silver greys of different depths of colour, white animals with black extremities are often produced, and these have been perpetuated by mating them together. The breed so produced is known as the Himalayan variety, and, as it reproduces its like, is as pure and distinct a breed as any other that can be named. " But, in the strictest scientific sense of the word, no par- ticular variety of rabbit can be said to be a pure breed, as, like all the others, it is descended from the wild original. In the same manner we may deny applicability of the term pure breed to the varieties of any domesticated animal, even if, as in the? case of the dog or sheep, we do not know the original from which they descended. ORIGIN OF BREEDS. 73 "All that can be asserted of the so-called purest-bred, variety is that it has been reared for a number of years 01- generations without a cross with any other variety. But it should be remembered that eveiy variety has been reared by careful artificial selection, either from the original stock or from other varieties. "In the strict sense of the word, then, there is no such thing as an absolutely pure breed the term is only compara- tively true. We may term the Spanish fowl of pure breed, because it has existed a long period, and obviously could not be improved by crossing with any other known variety; in fact, its origin as a variety is not known. But many of our domesticated birds have a much more recent origin. Where were game bantams fifty years ago ? The variety did not exist. They have been made by two modes : breeding game to reduce the size, and then crossing the small game fowl so obtained with bantams. Yet game bantams, as at present shown, have quite as good a title to a pure breed as any other variety. In fact, eveiy variety may be called a pure breed that reproduces its own likeness true to form and colour. " The statement that Brahmas, Black Hamburghs, Dorkings, Tewfound- land should have common progenitors, about which no natu- ralist has the slightest doubt. The process is simple, and easily understood. Even in the wild state the original breed will show some amount of variation in colour, form, and size ; whilst in domestication the tendency to change, as every one knows, is very much increased. By breeding from birds which show any marked feature, stock is obtained of which a portion will possess that feature in an increased degree ; and by again selecting the best specimens, the special points sought may be developed to almost any degree required. A good example of such a process of development may be seen in the "white face" so conspicuous in the Spanish breed. White ears will be observed occasionally in all fowls ; even in such breeds as Cochins or Brahrnas, where white ear-lobes are considered almost fatal blemishes, they continually occur, and by selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from, they might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the charac- teristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly established, traces of the white face will now and then be found, and by a similar method is capable of development and fixture ; whilst EFFECTS OF SELECTION. 75 any colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained nncl established in the same way. The original amount of character required is very slight ; a single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that characteristic to a whole breed ; and the two laced pullets mentioned under the head of Brahmas in the next Section would be quite enough, in skilful hands, to lay the foundation of a new and beautiful variety. Any peculiarity of constitution, such as constant laying, or frequent incubation, may be developed and perpetuated in a similar manner, all that is necessary being care and time. That such has been the method employed in the formation of the more distinct races of our poultry, is proved by the fact that a continuance of the same careful selection is needful to perpetuate them in perfection. If the very best examples of a breed are selected as the starting point, and the produce is bred from indiscriminately for many generations, the distinctive points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and there is also a more or less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type, in size and even colour of the plumage. The purest black or white originally, rapidly becomes first marked with, and ulti- mately changed into the original red or brown, whilst the other features simultaneously disappear. If, however, the process of artificial selection be carried too far, and with reference only to one prominent point, any breed is almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been neglected, and this has been the case with the very breed already mentioned the white-faced Spanish. We know from old fanciers that this breed was formerly considered hardy, and even in winter rarely failed to afford a constant supply of its unequalled large white eggs. But of late years attention has been so exclusively directed to the "white face," that whilst this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never before known, the breed has become one of the most delicate 76 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. of all, and the laying qualities of at least many strains have greatly fallen off. It would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not for a valuable compensating principle, which admits of crossing. That principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection by a foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a strain it is desired to improve, and every other characteristic of the cross be, by selection, afterwards bred out again. Or one or more of these additional characteristics may be also retained, and thus a new variety be established, as many have been within the last few years. A thorough understanding of both the foregoing principles is so important, that we shall endeavour to illustrate each by examples. Without foundation by long-continued selection no strain can be depended on. For instance the Grey Dorking is a breed which assumes within certain limits almost any variety of colour, and occasionally, amongst others, that now known as- "silver-grey." By breeding from these birds, and selecting from the progeny only the silver-greys, that colour has been established, like any other might be, as a permanent variety, which breeds true to feather with very little variation. Now a pen of birds precisely similar in colour and appearance may, as at first, be produced from ordinary coloured Dorkings, and shown as silver-greys; and the most severe test may fail to dis- cover any apparent difference between them and the purest- bred pen in the same show. But breeding would show the distinction instantly : whilst one pen would breed true to itself, and produce silver-grey chickens, the accidental pen would chiefly produce ordinary Dorkings, with very few silver-greys amongst them ; and though in time, by continuing to select these, a pure strain would ultimately be established, for imme- diate purposes the pen, as silvers, would be worthless. We know this to have been the case, to the great disappointment RESULTS OF CROSSING. 77 of purchasers. Conversely, even well-established silver-grey Dorkings, if bred from indiscriminately, will, by degrees, lose their distinctive colour, and go back to the ordinary grey stock Irom which they first sprang. The coloured Dorking also exhibits very plainly the opera- tion of crossing. It is evidently the produce of a cross between the original white Dorking and the large coloured Surrey fowl, as is proved by the fact that whilst the white Dorking long established invariably bred the fifth toe as its distinguishing characteristic, the coloured variety was for many years most uncertain in that respect. Still the fifth toe was introduced, along with the shape and aptitude to fatten ; and by careful selection the colour and size of the Surrey fowl have been retained, whilst the tendency to only one toe behind, introduced by the cross, has been effectually eradicated, and the grey Dor- king now breeds in this particular as true as the white. The same fowl has been undeniably crossed with the Cochin in order to gain size, which has been retained to the great benefit of the breed, whilst all disposition to feather on the legs has been entirely bred out again. Game, again, has been repeatedly introduced into Dorking strains in order to gain constitution. In the same way, when a race of Game fowls has been reduced in size, strength, and ferocity, by long interbreeding through fear of injuring the strain, a cross of the large, strong, and ferocious Malay at once restores the defective points, whilst all evidences of it are removed in three or four generations. Perhaps, however, the most " artfully contrived " bird, and the best example of both principles combined, is to be found in the well-known laced Bantams of Sir John Sebright. This breed was founded by crossing the old Nankin Bantam with Polish fowls whose markings had a well-defined laced character. Lacing was thus imported into the Bantam breed, and by careful selection was developed and rendered perfect, whilst by 78 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. the same process the Polish crest was effectually banished. This much being already accomplished, as we are informed by his son,* a hen-tailed Bantam cock accidentally met with struck Sir John's fancy, and added that peculiarity to the strain, which has now been for many years firmly established y and breeds as true as any, though so extremely artificial in its- original " construction." The last example we shall mention is the breed known as Black Hamburghs, which has been " made" within the last few years. That it has been obtained by crossing the Hamburg with the Spanish is proved sometimes too plainly by the evident traces of" white face" still lingering even in prize specimens; but the evidence of the cross will soon by selection be entirely bred out, and the breed has already made good its claim to a distinct class at most shows. The advantages gained by the cross are great. The size of the bird has been increased, and we have the enormous egg-producing powers of the Hamburgh race with a larger egg, thus doing away with the weak point of that beautiful breed. But, it may be said, if these principles are correct, it would follow that the power of the breeder is almost unlimited. And practically it is so : there are within certain limits hardly any bounds to what may be effected by the scientific experi- mentalist. That so little has been done is mainly because the principles themselves have been so little understood, and most fanciers have been content to go on with the established varieties as they are, without any attempt to modify or improve them. There is another reason in the utter want of attention in this country to anything but colour of plumage and other " fancy" characteristics; and we cannot but think that our Poultry Shows have to some extent, by the character of the judging, hindered the improvement of many breeds. It will be readily * It is only right to say that for these facts respecting the Sebright Bantams -vre are indebted to " The Poultry Book." UTILITY TO BE STUDIED. 70 admitted in theory that a breed of fowls becomes more and more valuable as its capacity of producing eggs is increased, and the quantity and quality of its flesh are improved, with a small amount of bone and offal in proportion. But, if we except the Dorking, which certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this is totally lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and attention is fixed exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and other equally fancy " points." We cannot but deeply regret this. We have shown how readily beauty and utility might be both secured ; and we do earnestly hope that even these pages may have some effect in stirring up our poultry-fanciers to the improvement in real value, without by any means neglecting the beauty, of their favourite breeds. The French have taught us a lesson of some value in this respect. Within a comparatively recent period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four new varieties, which, although inferior in some points to others of older standing, are all eminently valuable as table-fowls ; and which in one particular are superior to any English variety, not even excepting the Dorking we mean the very small proportion of bone and offal. This is really useful and scientific breeding, brought to bear upon one definite object, and we do trust the result will prove suggestive with regard to others equally valuable. We should be afraid to say how much might be done if English breeders would bring their perseverance and experi- ence to bear in a similar direction. We have not, however, the slightest doubt that a breed of any desired colour might in a few years be produced, combining the Dorking quality of flesh with the prolificacy and hardihood of the Brahma, of which the cocks should weigh 201bs., and the hens 151bs. each. Mimy will question this : we simply say, that no one has yet attempted it, and that no one will doubt its possibility who knows the weights which hare been occasionally attained in 80 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. some of our largest breeds, and who has examined carefully into the effects already produced by judicious selection and crossing. But to obtain such a result, it must be systematically sought, and this will never be till the seeking is systematically encouraged by committees and judges. In what way this could best be done, it is scarcely our province to decide; we shall be only too satisfied if our remarks be in any degree the means of directing attention to the importance of the subject. We believe, however, that a special prize of some value, announced annually, for award to the best pen, either of any known or new breed, for economic purposes, would shortly produce fowls, well established as a variety, that would astonish many old poultry-fanciers. Agri- cultural Societies in particular might be expected in their exhibitions to show some interest in the improvement of poultry regarded as useful stock, and to them especially we commend the matter. CHAPTER IX. ON THE PRACTICAL SELECTION AND CARE OF BREEDING STOCK, AND THE REARING OF CHICKENS FOR EXHIBITION. WE have in the last chapter treated of the more theoretical principles which the breeder may employ in the accomplishment of any desired end; we have now to consider those practical points which the poultry-keeper must keep in mind if he desires to attain success in competition. It is quite certain that there is nothing so unprofitable as to commence "poultry-fancying" with inferior fowls ; and as there are always numbers of unscrupulous individuals who endeavour to impose upon the unwary, special caution is needed in the purchase of the original stock. If the reader be inexperienced, tie should, if it be possible, secure the assistance of some friend BEST AGE TO BREED FROM. 81 upon whose judgment lie can thoroughly rely ; failing this, he should endeavour, not only by studying the descriptions, but by frequenting good shows, and seeing and comparing the live birds themselves, to become acquainted with at least the main points of the breed to which his preference inclines. To buy of unknown advertisers is always a great risk, and it will generally be found more economical in the long run to apply, in the first place, to known and eminent exhibitors, whose character stands too high to admit the suspicion of any wilful deception. Such breeders, it is true, will generally demand high prices for really good stock ; but then the stock will be good, which is by far the most important point. Birds may also be purchased at shows ; but in this case, if it is intended to breed from a single pen, it should be ascertained whether or not the cock is related to his hens, and if so, he should be exchanged for one of another family. In any case, the greatest care should be taken that the birds chosen are of pure race ; it should be remembered that mere appearance is not always sufficient, as we have shown in the last chapter ; and it is therefore most desirable to know the pedigree also. At the very outset the question occurs, What is the best age to breed from ? and we have no hesitation in replying that, according to the testimony of nearly all the best authorities, it is better the ages of the cock and hens should vary. It seems also generally admitted that the strongest and best chickens are produced from a cockerel nearly a year old mated with hens twelve months older ; but, unfortunately, the chickens of such parents invariably have a large proportion of cocks, and most breeders therefore prefer a two-year-old cock with well-grown pullets not less than nine months in age. It must not, however, be supposed that either rule is imperative, or that good chickens are not to be expected from birds all hatched about the same time. In this case, however, it is advisable that all the fowls should be fully twelve months old; if younger, the 82 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. chickens are usually backward in fledging. Fowls are good for breeding up to the age of four years, but are of little value afterwards. To avoid any near relationship is most important; but many woi'ks have laid far too much stress upon the necessity of continually introducing what they call "fresh blood." It is certainly most destructive to breed from members of the same family, and to go on promiscuously interbreeding in one yard is still worse ; but if there be a number of separate runs, in which separate races can be reared, operations may be carried on for many successive years without a cross from any other yard. It is the more necessary to explain this, because when any strain has been brought to high excellence, the introduction of a bird from another is a very serious thing, and we have personally known, in more than one instance, to ruin the pro- duce of a whole year. The plan to be adopted is to note down most carefully the parentage of every brood, and to keep the chickens from one family together until they are required. The breeding-yards for next year are then to be made up from the best specimens, taking care not only that the cocks and hens are not related inter se, but that two runs at least are thus made up without any fraternal relationship between them. Unrelated chickens will thus be secured for next year also ; and so the system can be carried on. It is also a good plan, where it can be adopted, to put a promising young cockerel out to " walk " at a farm, or in some brother fancier's yard, and bring him back in a year or two, when the relationship between him and the pullets of the year will be too remote to be of very much consequence. If a bird is occasionally introduced from another strain and it certainly is advisable now and then, especially in the case of Dorkings we can only say that the extremest care be taken to ensure he is of good pedigree, as well as a SELECTION OF THE i-ARENTS. 83 perfect specimen in outward appearance of the breed to which he belongs. Long experience has ascertained that the male bird has most influence upon the colour of the progeny, and also upon the comb, and what may be called the " fancy points," of any breed generally ; whilst the form, size, and useful qualities are principally derived from the hen. Now it cannot be denied that it is desirable to secure absolutely perfect birds in all respects of both sexes if possible ; but alas ! every amateur knows too well the great scarcity of such, and the above fact therefore becomes of great importance in selecting a breeding- pen. For instance, a cock may have been hatched late in the year, and therefore be decidedly under the proper standard in point of size, and inferior for a show pen ; but if his colour, plumage, comb, and other points whatever they may be are perfect, and he be active and lively, he may make a first-class bird for breeding when mated with goo r l hens. A hen, again, if of large size and good shape, is not to be hastily condemned for a faulty feather or two, or even for a defective comb, if not too glaringly apparent though the last fault is a serious one in either sex. But a very bad coloured or faulty-combed cock, however excellent in point of size, or a very small or ill-shaped hen, however exquisite in regard to colour, will invariably produce chickens of a very indifferent order. It is also to be observed, with regard to the crosssing of a breed, that the cockerels in the progeny will more or less re- semble the father, whilst the pullets follow the mother. A knowledge of this fact will save much time in "breeding back" to the original strain, and much disappointment in the effect of the cross. For instance, if it be desired to increase size, a cross with a hen of foreign breed should be employed, and the same if it be sought to introduce a more prominent breast, or any other peculiarity of shape ; but if it is the plumage which is to be modified, it is the male bird who G 2 84 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. should be thrown in. In breeding the cross out again, or in retaining any new characteristic, so as to form a fresh variety, the same rule must be kept in mind. We believe that much disappointment and uncertainty in the results of crossing has been owing to a neglect or ignorance of this simple principle, and breeding from either sex in- differently. If this be done, the result will often be worthless, and in every case the time consumed will be much greater than is necessary ; but if scientifically conducted, we believe crossing would improve many of our older breeds in size, hardihood, and utility, without in any measure detracting from those qualities for which they are valued. The care and preservation in good condition of valuable fowls is an important point. With regard to mere health, nothing can be added to what has already been treated of in the preceding section. But it frequently happens that, on account of the high price, only a single pen of three first-class birds can be afforded ; and if such a family be penned up by itself, the frequent attentions of the cock will soon render the hens unfit for exhibition, whilst the birds may also mope, for want of more companionship. To avoid this, a couple more of ordinary hens should be added, taking care that the eggs be of a different colour, or otherwise easily distinguished from those of the breeding-pen itself. The plumage of the hens or pullets will then be preserved, without injuring the character of the progeny. We should, however, prefer mating the cock with four good hens of his own breed, a plan more really econo- mical, as the cost of the cock, in proportion to the number of eggs for sitting, is thereby reduced. The number of hens, if good size and vigour are desired, should not exceed four. Many breeders allow six ; but the finest fowls of the larger kinds are bred from the proportion we have stated. It is desirable also, as much as possible, to save the hens frorn FAILURES IX PRIZE EGGS. 85 the wear and tear of chickens, which often injure the plumage greatly. It will not answer to prevent them sitting altogether we have already remarked that such a procedure often causes them to suffer in moulting, which should not be risked. Neither do we altogether approve of the plan followed by many, of allowing them to hatch, and then giving the chickens to other hens. This may be done, if necessary, but a better system, where there is convenience for it, is to set a valuable hen upon duck eggs. The ducklings will not only resort to the hen to be brooded much less frequently than chickens, but will be far earlier independent of her care, and leave her in much better condition than if she had hatched her own eggs. With regard to hatching, it is desirable with the hardier breeds to get the eggs under the hen as soon after January as a sitter can be obtained, in order that the brood may have all the year to grow in, and be ready for the earlier shows- At this season, however, the limitation as to number, men- tioned in Chapter IV., must be strictly enforced, and no hen given more than seven or eight eggs, six chickens being as many as are desirable, in order that they may be well covered by the hen when partly grown, which is their most critical period as exhibition fowls. Spanish, Dorkings, or other deli- cate breeds, should not be hatched till April or May, unless unusually good shelter is at command. As eggs are often purchased for hatching, it is necessary to allude to the frequent disappointments experienced in this respect, and which are far too frequently attributed, in no measured terms, to fraud on the part of the seller. Now we certainly cannot deny that such fraud is only too common. We know of one case where the fact was put beyond a doubt by examination, proving that the eggs purchased from a well- known exhibitor were actually boiled ; but we honestly believe that the great majority of breeders would scorn such pro- 86 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. ceedings. It should be remembered, in the first place, that highly-bred birds are seldom so prolific as more ordinary stock, and are generally rather too fat for full health and vigour. Too many eggs the full dozen are likewise very often set, at seasons when the hen cannot give them heat enough ; so that all get chilled in turn, and disappointment ensues. Bad packing also causes its share of failures ; and, lastly, eggs are sometimes kept a week or fortnight after receipt before setting, which is always, but especially after a railway journey, most injurious. We can only recommend 1. That a hen be ready for the eg-\ ' ' GAME . 121 " The Brown-red breeds are most esteemed in the Midland Counties, and at the principal shows take most cups. They are also the favourite breed with sportsmen, and are best in shape of all ; but like all the dark-combed varieties, are not such good layers as those with bright red combs. " Black-breasted Reds are essentially red-blooded birds, tho plumage being generally a bright red, rather deeper on the body than in the hackle, lied eyes are absolutely essential to good birds, all others being inferior and infallibly denoting a cross. The cock's wings are bright red in the upper part, and rich red chestnut in the lower, with a steel blue bar across ; breast bluish black, with glossy reflections ; thighs the same ; tail greenish black, the feathers without much down at the roots. The comb and wattles of all Black-reds must be bright red, and the legs are usually willow colour in cup birds, though any leg will do if the birds are bright in colour, and have red eyes. The general colour of the hen is a rich red partridge-brown, with a red fawn-coloured breast, and reddish golden hackle with dark stripes ; the cock's hackle also is striped underneath, but clear above. Spurred hens are the best, but are not so frequent as in the preceding variety. " Silver Duck-wing Greys are purer in blood than the Yellow or Birchen Duck-wings, and are white-skinned when of pure breed. General colour of the cock, a silver grey ; hackle striped with black underneath, but clear above; back a clear silver grey ; breast either bluish black or clear mealy silver colour; wing crossed with a steel-blue bar, and the lower part of a creamy white ; tail greenish glossy black. Hen a silvery bluish grey, thickly frosted with silver ; breast a pale fawn-colour ; neck-hackle silvery white, striped with black. The comb and face in both sexes are bright red. The legs may be either white, blue, or willow ; but of course the whole pen must match, and white leg to silver feathering is certainly the most correct match. Willow is, however, most common in 122 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. the legs, but least pure in blood ; the white or blue-legged birds being the true-bred Silver Duck- wings. Eyes should be red in Willow and Blue-legged strains, and yellow in Yellow and White-legged strains in all the Duck- wing Game fowls. " The Yellow Duck-wings are similar to the above except in the straw-colour or birchen tinge, and the copper- coloured saddle. They have yellow skins, and willow or yellow legs. In this variety the cock's breast is always black, the hen's a pale fawn colour, whilst the silver hen often has a clear mealy or silver breast instead of fawn. " Red eyes and willow legs are the only correct colours for prize Duck- wings. Bright red eyes and white legs for prize Piles. " The colour called Piles consists, in the cock, of a bright red piled on a white ground, the hackle being red and white striped ; the back is chiefly red, and the breast mostly white, but often with red markings ; the tail should be white, but a few red feathers are not amiss ; black in the tail, as seen in the Worcestershire Piles, is, however, very objectionable. The hens are red-streaked or veined on a white ground, the breast redder than the cock, and the tail white, with a few red feathers occasionally. The reddest Piles are the best birds, and prize pens should be selected with bright red eyes and white legs. " Whites should have bright red eyes, and white legs are essential. " Black Game fowls should have black eyes and bluish black legs have won a few cups. "Dark Greys ought always to have black eyes and legs. The hens are very dark. " The original wild varieties of Game fowls are three : (1.) The Black-breasted Red, with fawn-breasted partridge hens ; (2.) Brown- breasted Reds, with dark legs, and dark brown (not black) hens; and (3.) Rsd-breasted Ginger Reds with yellow legs, and the hens a light partridge colour. These three colours GAME. 123 were probably reclaimed at a very early period, and are still found in India as wild birds. From them all tlie other colours were originally bred; the varieties hatching dark chickens from the brown or dark reds, and all others from the other two sorts. These varieties can be merely named, and are most conveniently classed thus, according to the colour of their chickens when hatched : LIGHT CHICKENS. 1. Whites. 2. Piles. 3. Blue Duns. 4. Eed Duns. STBIPED CHICKENS. 5. Black-breasted Beds. 6. Bed-breasted Ginger Beds. 7. Duck-wings. 8. Yellow Birchens. DARK CHICKENS* 10. Brown Beds. 11. Dark Greys. 12. Dark Birchens, 13. Black. 9. Mealy Greys. " There are also four other varieties not generally known, called Red Furnaces, Cuckoos, Spangles, and Polecats, making at least seventeen well-defined sorts of Game fowls ; but besides these, there are at least twenty-seven named sub- varieties, or forty-four in alL To describe these in detail would be useless, uud I shall only, therefore, add the following general remarks : " The best criterion of blood in all Game fowls is the colour of tJie eyes, a point which has been, strange to say, totally over- looked in every work on poultry hitherto published. Black eyes show dark blood, and the hens of such strains lay white eggs. Red eyes denote red blood, and lay pinkish eggs. Yelloio or daw eyes lay yellowish eggs. These last are inferior in spirit to the others. Brown and bay eyes result from crossing different breeds. " The only sorts of much use for fighting are those with black or red eyes, and the three varieties now usually employed are the Brown-breasted Reds, Dark Greys (which are strongest and hardiest of all), and Black-breasted Reds, with white legs and dark red eyes. The sorts which fight the quickest are, however, the Red Cheshire Piles, with bright red eyes and white legs, the Red-breasted Ginger Reds, with bright red eyes 124 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. and yellow legs, and Whites, with white legs and bright red eyes ; but they have not quite so much strength and power of endurance. The Black-breasted Reds with willow legs are generally too slow and soft for the pit, as are the Blacks also. " The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow legs, the hens being partridge colour ; and Red Cheshire Piles with white legs. The worst layers are the greys, Dark Greys and Dark Birchens being worst of all. With the exception of these, Game fowls lay remarkably well, and in favourable circumstances will, I believe, surpass any breed. My willow- legged Black-breasted Red hens have averaged from 211 to 284 eggs per annum. To reach this, however, they will require a good run, but if well attended to, are always good layers. It is worth remarking that yellow and blue-legged birds generally lay best in all poultry. " Game cock chickens should be shown undulbed ; but at their first Christmas they become 'stags,' and should then have their comb and wattles taken neatly and closely off with a very sharp pair of scissors. " Different varieties ought not to be crossed, but kept dis- tinct. In breeding, either for stock or exhibition, nothing is so necessary as to have a good proportion of cocks. There should foe one to every six hens at least ; and as in a large yard it is impossible, from their pugnacity, to keep more than one full- grown brood cock, there should be a good supply of fine young birds or 'stags' kept under him, and breeding with the hens, when all the eggs will be fecundated, and the chicks vigorous and healthy. This is the only way of breeding good stock from a large yard ; and it is of course preferable, when practicable, to keep each cock to his own limited family of hens. Pullets ought never to be bred from at all, and should be kept away from the cocks, using their eggs for household purposes. Good old birds will always breed strong chickens, and in this breed it scarcely matters how old they are so long as they remain strong and GAME. 125 healthy. The breeding pens should be selected with great care, not from the largest, but from the best-shaped and strongest birds. The more cock chicks in a brood the better, as it is always an evidence of strength and vigour in the strain ; and the pullets, though fewer, are finer and handsomer birds invariably. "Game eggs should not be hatched before the 21st of March, nor after the end of May. This breed is of warmer blood and stronger constitution than any other, and the chicks consequently hatch earlier, often breaking the shell at the end of the nineteenth day. As soon as they begin to fight, the cocks should be separated, and, if possible, put out to * walk ' at a farm ; the pullets will rarely injure themselves, and their quarrels are only amusing." To the foregoing remarks of Mr. Dickens the best descrip- tion of the breed ever yet published we shall only add a few sentences on the general qualities of Game fowls. Their merits are many and various. In elegance of shape, in hardihood, in bold and fearless spirit, what can equal them 1 But besides these recommendations, they rank, as already stated, in the very first class as layers, provided only they have a good run ; whilst for delicacy of flavour their flesh is confessedly beyond any comparison. They should never be fatted, being too im- patient to bear the process ; but if eaten just as taken off their runs are equal to the pheasant. They also eat little, and are therefore profitable fowls, whilst as mothers the hen is not to be equalled. She should not be given too many eggs, on account of her small size ; but she will hatch her full comple- ment, and when hatched will take good care of them, defending them against any foe to the last gasp. If there be cats in the neighbourhood commend us to a good Game hen. There are, however, a few drawbacks. The size of both birds and eggs is small, which of itself makes them of little value as a market fowl, and in confinement the Game hen will 12 G DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. by no means lay so well as Brahmas, Spanish, or Hamburgh living TOT Fig. 18. Plan of Hen-house. floor. Such perches never cause crooked breast-bones; the heaviest fowl can reach them, and there is never any dispute for the highest place, which is always the case when arranged en echelon or ladderwise. The nests, shown at N N, are arranged in five tiers against the front and back walls. They are formed very simply, by dividing long square troughs, open at the top, into compart- 228 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. ments, by means of partitions sliding in grooves. The bottoms of the troughs project, so as to form broad ledges, along which the hens can walk; and inclined ladders, shown at E, give ready access to each ledge, and, consequently, to any nest. The floor is formed of resinous pine wood, in order to repel vermin. Every crevice is stopped up, and the whole scraped clean and profusely sanded every morning whilst the birds are at their first meal. In addition to this, the whole is well fumigated and whitewashed twice a year. Air is admitted to each apartment by the pipe B, which rises through the middle of the floor, and which is brought from over the furnace in the kitchen, as shown at o in the plan of the ground-floor (Fig. 20). By this means the tem- perature in winter is kept warm. Another pipe through the ceiling carries off the products of respiration. In summer, ventilation is further promoted by keeping open the Venetian blinds, F, with which the house is furnished. A is the door opening upon the gallery. Fig. 19 shows the arrangement of the open runs, which occupy about an acre and a-half each, and are of a wedge- form, converging on the compartments of the fowl-house, and opening towards the further end, where they are bounded by a clear running brook. Each run is provided with a spacious shed, built on rising ground, and small clumps of trees and bushes are also grown, to afford shelter from the sun. Shallow pits, filled with fine sand, are also provided. Every three months a fourth of each run is sown with hay-seed, and lightly dug over, in order to renew the turf and bury all manure. A supply of worms is also in this way afforded to the fowls. The fences might, of course, be of any adequate kind, but are constructed at Belair in a very ingenious manner. A double row of poplar, elm, or apple-trees is planted, and suffered to grow for several years unmolested. Then each tree is nearly cut through with a bill-hook, and bent over, but POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. TJ leaving, of course, some of the wood and a broad strip of the bark. The effect of this treatment is to make the trees send out vigorous shoots in every direction, of which the largest are again cut and laid down as before ; and the whole being kept HATCHING-ROOM. 231 in bounds by a rude trellis, the effect in a few years is a dense living wall of foliage, which is absolutely impassable. At the side of the runs for the grown fowls is seen another large grass field, reserved for the young chickens. Against the back wall of this run a number of rude sheds are erected, each covering a coop, as represented in Fig. O, page 46. The arrangements of the ground- floor of the poultry-house are shown in plan by Fig. 20, and in perspective by Figs. 21, 24 and 25. Fig. 21. The Hatchins-mom. Xo. 1 on the plan, and Fig. 21 in perspective, represent the hatching-room, which is at one end of the building, and is very ingeniously contrived. The nests P are arranged on a double dresser, running round three sides of the room, and consist of wicker baskets of an oblong square form, made larger at the top than the bottom, in order better to accommodate the hen's head and tail. Each basket has a cover, and a small ring for affixing a label, to denote the date of hatching. A table with drawer, a thermometer, registry-book, with writing mate- 232 POULTRY OX THE LARGE SCALE. rials, and a small cupboard, complete the interior furniture of this room. On the opposite side of the room to the nests, and outside the wall, are two tiers of coops for feeding the hens. The con- struction of these feeding coops, which measure sixteen inches wide by eighteen long, is more clearly shown by Fig. 22, D being a side section, and E a front view. They open at the rear into the hatching-room by trap-doors, built in the wall, and in front, on ledges. The food and water are supplied in two earthen pans, to which the hens get access by thrusting their heads through Fig. 22. the bars. The partitions between the coops project beyond the bars, so that the hens cannot see each other whilst feeding. The management of the hatching-room is easily understood. Each hen is taken in turn from her basket, and put through the trap-door into a coop until all are occupied, the pans having been replenished previously with food and water. They are put back in the same order as they were taken out, the attendant never leaving the room, except to clean out the coops and re- plenish the feeding vessels, should there be more hens than the number of coops will contain at one time. Thus all is con- ducted without noise or disturbance. When hatched and strong, the hen and her brood are con- veyed to the rearing-field in the quietest manner, without even taking them out of the nest, by slipping the hatching-basket (as already noticed, of a taper shape), into an iron ring furnished with handles as shown in Fig. 23. THE KITLIIIIX. 233 Xo. 2 jon the plan is the kitchen, shown in perspective by Fig. 24. This contains a furnace, F, with two copper boilers for cooking the roots and vegetables, a dresser, T, and the necessary Fig. 24. The Kitchen. 234 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. shelves and utensils. In one corner is a staircase, E, leading to the cellar below, in which the potatoes and vegetables are stored. Pipes from over the furnace convey warm air to the hen-houses above, and to the hatching-room, when required. Fig. 25 and No. 3 on the plan show the arrangements of the store-room, which contains the stock of meal and grain, in bins carefully designed for its good preservation^ The corn-bins are Fig. 25. The Store-room. shown on a larger scale by Fig. 26, and are the invention of M. Audeod. The framework, F, is of wood, the sides of wire gauze, properly supported by additional wooden stays, T. Inside these is also a ventilating chimney, similarly constructed of wire gauze, on a wooden frame, which passes through both the lid and bottom of the bin, and maintains a draught of air through the centre of the mass, whose exterior is also ventilated through tho gauze sides. The bottom is formed of a double slope, slanting like a shallow trough from the sides, A B, to the middle line, c D, and the trough also sloping lengthways from back to front. At CORN BIN. 235 the lowest point is a shallow spout, D, to which access is afforded by a shutter; and it will be readily seen that the bin will empty itself to the very last grain. The Audeod corn-bin deserves to be adopted in all large poultry establishments. From the free ventilation provided, the Fig. 26. The Audeod Corn Bin. grain however long kept never becomes musty, but is pre- served in a sound state, and the bottom, or stalest portion, is always used first. The elevation on legs is also not only con- venient for delivering the corn into the receiving vessels, but secures it from the attacks of vermin. The bins at Belair contain nearly thirty bushels each, and 236 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. five of them, c C (Fig. 20), are ranged in a line at one end of the room, lozenge fashion, in order that air may have free access to them. At the other end, one each side of the door, are two large chests, B B, for meal and bran. These cannot of course be made of gauze, and are best of sheet-iron. They have, however, gauze covers, and are inclined at the bottom like the corn-bins, so that the least aerated portion is first used. The necessary measures and vessels complete the furniture of this room. No. 4 on the plan (Fig. 20) represents the egg-room, of which a view is unnecessary, as it is simply furnished round the walls with shelves, H, on which are placed the oblong square boxes in which the eggs are packed. Each box has marked upon it its date, which, with the date on which it leaves the establishment, is entered in a registry book. A separate corner is appropriated to eggs for hatching. A separate building is devoted to fattening purposes, fitted up all round the interior with tiers of cages, each large enough to contain one bird. The fowls are either crammed by hand, or by a machine which has been recently invented for that purpose, but of which we cannot approve. Such is the establishment at Belair confessedly one of the most complete and perfect of its kind in France, and which has been conducted for several years with the most eminent success. This being so, any critical remarks may appear invidious, but we must, nevertheless, make a few observations respecting modifi- cations which we think desirable. "We confess to not liking the arrangements for hatching. To set the hens in baskets on shelves may perhaps be inevitable in large establishments, but the birds should certainly have more room to stretch their legs when off the nest than is afforded by a pen a few inches square, and it is also needful they should have access to a dust-bath, or they are tormented by vermin to an intolerable degree. It would be better to give up more space to the hatching department, so as to give each pair of hens a, EGGS FOR HATCHING. 237 small yard, and set them on the ground. For instance, twenty pens, 10 feet by 3 feet, would each contain two nests at one end, would give room for exercise and ablution, and would accom- modate forty hens in a space of only 30 feet by 20. This would be amply sufficient to hatch 3,000 chickens per annum, and they will be of much stronger constitution than on the plan, ingenious us it is, which we have described. Neither do we consider an acre and a half of run the most really economical allowance for 330 fowls, whilst we should also recommend the keeping of them in flocks of lesser number. It is true that by the quarterly digging of the runs much evil is prevented ; but by keeping say 120 fowls on an acre this would be dispensed with, and the additional rent would be more than compensated by economy of food and saving of labour. Lastly, we consider it a very unadvisable plan to select the eggs for hatching from even the finest of those laid by the general stock. It is far better, from amongst the large mass of chickens reared annually, to select the very finest specimens, and reserve them in pens of, say, one cock to from four to six liens, for breeding alone. Many advantages will be thus secured. In the first place, all the eggs will for certain be of first class quality, and well fecundated. The cocks in the general runs may also be reduced to about one in twenty, or even dispensed with ; thus sending more to market, and saving their food. And lastly, a share of the honours of exhibition may be secured, and sums not to be despised realised by selling at high prices to amateurs. At the same time, these select yards must not be allowed to degenerate into mere pens for breeding " fancy fowls," as will be the case if not watched. They must be mainly regarded as the sources of supply to the general yards, and will then be found a valuable addition to the arrangements at Belair. For the scale of that establishment, say 1,200 laying hens, we do not think its arrangements can be further improved, save 238 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. that for the small detached shelters over the coops in the chicken nursery, it would be far better to substitute one long and spacious shed. We should ourselves also prefer the hen- houses on the ground-floor, in which case the kitchen, store- room, &c., might be placed behind ; but these are merely matters of opinion and detail. But on a larger scale some further modifications will be desirable, if only for the simple reason that the triangular shape of the runs will be very inconvenient if multiplied ; whilst, if rectangular, as they must be the width of the houses, they would be nearly as awkward from their length and nar- rowness. It is needful to mention this, as we have a strong con- viction that with less than 10,000 fowls there is not sufficient return to be worth the attention of the English capitalist. And whether there be an adequate market for the produce of such a number must in all cases be carefully ascertained before such an undertaking be engaged in. This much being taken for granted, we would make the following suggestions respecting the formation of a chicken farm. Of the 10,000 fowls we would reckon 400 as the breeding stock, and 9,600 as laying, or ordinary stock, divided into 80 flocks of 120 each. These flocks should each have an acre of run ; 15 acres more would be required for the chicken run or nursery ; 3 acres for the breeding yards, and the remainder for hatching runs and buildings, pigs, &c., &c. In all, 100 acres. The simplest and best arrangement would be to have the grass runs, say 80 feet by 550 feet, with a house or close shed 80 feet by 4 feet at one end, provided along its whole length with traps, for the fowls to enter. One long perch will then roost all the birds, and the nests will also be contained in a single row. In front of the house should be a shed extending about 20 feet, and floored with hard gravel or asphalt, under which the food will be thrown, and to which the birds can retreat. The runs should be side by side, and STEAM ENGINE. 239 two rows of houses arranged back to back, with a passage between, into which their doors open. This passage should have a sky-light roof, and the houses be only fronted into it with netting ; this part of the arrangement being like that of Mr. Lane's establishment, figured at page 65, only that each house is much longer. The nests should similarly be reached by trap-doors from the passage, which should be traversed by a railway-truck "to collect the eggs and manure. By such an arrangement, all the needful operations will be conducted with the least possible labour. The conditions of health, fecundity, and profit will not differ from those enunciated in the first section of this work. But in a large concern all operations will range themselves into five great divisions : the breeding-yards, the hatching-pens or rooms, the chicken-nursery or rearing runs, the ordinary stock-yard, and the fattening pens. These must be arranged in any way that will best secure economy of labour and effective supervision. As much machinery as possible should be employed in pre- paring the food, and to work these a small steam-engine will be found very economical, whilst it may be made auxiliary to- cooking purposes. Great care must be taken that the land is well drained, and, if possible, slightly sloping to the south. A light, dry soil is also very desirable, but good drainage will overcome great difficulties in this respect. The selection of breeds is of the very utmost importance. \Yith a good market for both eggs and fowls, we would recom- mend one- fourth Dark Brahmas, one-fourth Dorkings, one- fourth Houdans, and one-fourth a cross between the three, obtained by fiit mating the largest Brahma hens with a Dorking cock, and then breeding from the progeny with the largest Houdan cocks that can be procured. Of this cross we cannot speak too highly, as admirable chickens, thus bred, may 240 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. be sent to market at ten weeks old an earlier period than is possible with any other fowls we know. All the runs, except the Dorkings, will yield an abundance of eggs, and that breed will be most valuable for table fowls, and also as mothers. If another breed be desired, La FISche should be selected, for the sake of their fine large eggs, combined with good and heavy table qualities. Except in very favourable situations, Creves are too delicate to be remunerative. The profitable disposal of the manure should be especially studied, and for this reason we should strongly recommend some measure of farming operations to be carried on in combination. A number of pigs should likewise be kept, as they may be fattened on what the fowls refuse. Or ducks will also make capital " save-alls." We are reluctant to enter into figures, we have seen so many visionary and delusive statements j but we know that some data, however rough, will be expected. It is only as such that we offer the following ; and if our figures do not show three hundred per cent, as the probable profit, it is because they are based upon some attempt, however rough, at calculation from actual facts, not upon the sanguine theories of persons totally ignorant of fowls. We shall still suppose an establishment of 10,000 birds. For capital we would estimate 10,000 fowls, at 2s. each 1,000 Buildings, Fittings, Engine, Plant and Utensils, including 2 horses and carts ... ... ... ... ... 1,350 One month's food ... ... ... ... 150 Spare cash working capital ... 500 Say total capital 3,000 Our plan of commencing would be to purchase first simply 400 first-class breeding birds at an average of about 20s. each {some would be much more than this). The stock for the second ESTIMATE OF EXPENSE. 241 year would then cost less than 1,000, but there would belittle to spare for sales. Our estimate for the working of such an establishment is based upon the fact, that of all the breeds mentioned above except Dorkings, 150 eggs per annum may be obtained from each hen. Including them the average will be 140 all round, or with the cocks say 130. On the large scale, we are als> satisfied that the keep of a fowl will not exceed 3s. per annum, and from these facts we are justified in reckoning every fowl in the yard as representing a gross profit (including the manure) over and above her food, of 4s. per annum, leaving all other expenses to be deducted. A rough estimate may then stand thus RECEIPTS. i EXPENSES. Gross profit over food from 9,600 stock fowls, at 4s. per annum each 1,920 Rent 100 acres, at 40s. ... 200 Taxes 40 Interest on capital of 3,000 at 5 percent 150 Wages 2 men with their families 200 Horse keep 60 Fuel and attendance for en- gine 100 Gross balance of profit 1,170 1,920 I 1,920 In this estimate nothing is allowed for renewing the stock, because all the fowls, which should never be allowed to become old, can be sold when fatted for more than they actually cost as delivered from the breeding- yards. There will be other items of expense which cannot be sec down. Railway carriage is difiicult to estimate, and will affect profit ; there is also wear and tear to allow for. But on the other hand, the above balance-sheet represents the profit of the laying stock alone, and a gross profit of at least equal amount will be derived from the dead stock sent to market from the breeding-yards. Of this we give no details, as tlio Q 242 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. returns from chickens sold at ten to eighteen weeks old and they should not be older may be easily estimated. In the main, therefore, the above figures will be found sufficient ; and if they show a somewhat more moderate return than preceding writers have promised, they are at least likely to be realised, and certainly making the sole and all important stipula- tion of a market offer sound inducements to the enter- prising capitalist. It is, however, to the farmer that poultry-breeding on a large scale more especially commends itself; and it may be pursued most successfully on either of two quite distinct systems. A large number may be kept all through the year, and a portion of the farm say one-fourth permanently appropriated in regular rotation to their use, the fowls being removed to fresh ground every year. Or, on the other hand, a moderate breeding-stock only may be permanently retained, but a large number of chickens reared from them every season, which should be sent to the fields as soon as cropped, in travelling houses mounted on wheels. There they will speedily get fat at very little expense, and may be killed off for the market. The first plan is most suitable for large farmers with good business and administrative capacity; the last will be best adapted for smaller holdings. But either system will not only yield a handsome profit in itself, but greatly benefit the other produce ; both by manuring the ground, and by removing myriads of worms and insects very injurious to the growing crops. Indeed, considering the ravages yearly committed on every farm by these tiny pests, it is to us most astonishing that, instead of the bungling methods of extermination at present employed, the farmers of England do not have recourse to the philosophical and lucrative remedy which nature has provided. The choice of breeds will be generally as already mentioned, but will vary with circumstances. Dorkings should not be FAKSI POULTRY. 243 when eggs are the principal object ; nor Brahmas when dead poultry is the end in view. If only one breed is desired, Houdans will be best, with a few Brahma hens for hatching and crossing. It is on the farm poultry ought to be most profitable ; and, in such circumstances, we consider every well-chosen stock-fowl should represent a clear profit of five shillings per annum ; whilst we are quite sure chickens will yield a much heavier weight of meat for the same outlay than any other stock whatever. The time is fast approaching when this will be generally recognised ; and then, and not before, will poultry-breeding occupy its legitimate position in the general economy of agriculture. To contribute in some slight degree towards this result, has been one object of the preceding pages. LONDON: CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LULGATE HILL, E C.